Plains Indian Sign Language - Wikipedia Plains Indian Sign Language From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Once the lingua franca across North America Plains Native American Sign Language Plains Sign Talk Hand Talk First Nation Sign Language[1] Langues des signes des Indiens des Plaines (in the Canadian province of Québec) Lenguaje de signos Indio de las Llanuras (in Mexico) Native to Canada, Mexico, USA Region Central Canada and United States including the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains region; northern Mexico Ethnicity Various North American Indigenous Peoples Native speakers Unknown (no date)[2] 75 users total (no date)[3] Language family Isolate, formerly a trade pidgin Dialects Navajo Sign Language Blackfoot Sign Language Cree Sign Language Ojibwa Sign Language Writing system none Official status Official language in none Recognised minority language in Recognised as official in courts, education and legislative assembly of Ontario.[1] Language codes ISO 639-3 psd Glottolog plai1235 ELP Plains Indian Sign Language[4]   The attested historical range of Plains Sign Talk among other sign languages in the US and Canada (excl. ASL and LSQ). Play media Extracts of the films taken during the 1930 Conference on PISL conservation, showing signers from various tribes.[5] A 1900 newspaper illustration claiming to showcase several of the signs of Plains Indian Sign Language. Plains Indian Sign Language (PISL), also known as Plains Sign Talk,[6] Plains Sign Language and First Nation Sign Language,[1] is a trade language, formerly trade pidgin, that was once the lingua franca across what is now central Canada, the central and western United States and northern Mexico, used among the various Plains Nations.[7] It was also used for story-telling, oratory, various ceremonies, and by deaf people for ordinary daily use.[8] It is falsely believed to be a manually coded language or languages; however, there is not substantive evidence establishing a connection between any spoken language and Plains Sign Talk. The name 'Plains Sign Talk' is preferred in Canada, with 'Indian' being considered pejorative by many who are Indigenous. Hence, publications and reports on the language vary in naming conventions according to origin. As a result of several factors, including the massive depopulation and the Americanization of Indigenous North Americans, the number of Plains Sign Talk speakers declined from European arrival onward. In 1885, it was estimated that there were over 110,000 "sign-talking Indians", including Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Sioux, Kiowa and Arapaho.[9] By the 1960s, there remained a "very small percentage of this number".[9] There are few Plains Sign Talk speakers today in the 21st century.[10] Contents 1 Geography 2 Phonology 2.1 Handshape 2.2 Location 2.3 Orientation 2.4 Movement 3 History 4 Writing 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Geography[edit] Sign language use has been documented across speakers of at least 37 spoken languages in twelve families,[11] spread across an area of over 2.6 million square kilometres (1 million square miles).[8][12] In recent history, it was highly developed among the Crow, Cheyenne, Arapaho and Kiowa, among others, and remains strong among the Crow, Cheyenne and Arapaho. Signing may have started in the south, perhaps in northern Mexico or Texas, and only spread into the plains in recent times, though this suspicion may be an artifact of European observation. Plains Sign Talk spread to the Sauk, Fox, Potawatomi, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Caddo after their removal to Oklahoma. Via the Crow, it replaced the divergent Plateau Sign Language[citation needed] among the eastern nations that used it, the Coeur d'Alene, Sanpoil, Okanagan, Thompson, Lakes, Shuswap, and Coleville in British Columbia, with western nations shifting instead to Chinook Jargon. Navajo Sign Language Native to United States Ethnicity Navajo Native speakers unknown (1992)[13] (deaf and hearing members) Language family Plains Sign Talk Navajo Sign Language Language codes ISO 639-3 None (mis) Glottolog None ELP Plains Indian Sign Language[4] Blackfoot Sign Language Langue des Signes Blackfoot (in the Canadian province of Québec) Native to Canada, United States Ethnicity Blackfoot Native speakers unknown (2015)[14] (deaf and hearing members) Language family Plains Sign Talk Blackfoot Sign Language Language codes ISO 639-3 None (mis) Glottolog None ELP Plains Indian Sign Language[4] Cree Sign Language Langue des Signes Crie (in the Canadian province of Québec) Native to Canada, United States Ethnicity Cree Native speakers unknown (2015) (deaf and hearing members) Language family Plains Sign Talk Cree Sign Language Language codes ISO 639-3 None (mis) Glottolog None ELP Plains Indian Sign Language[4] Ojibwa Sign Language Langue des Signes Ojibwa (in the Canadian province of Quebec) Native to Canada, United States Ethnicity Ojibwe Native speakers unknown (2015) (deaf and hearing members) Language family Plains Sign Talk Ojibwa Sign Language Language codes ISO 639-3 None (mis) Glottolog None ELP Plains Indian Sign Language[4] The various nations with attested use, divided by language family, are: Piman: Pima, Papago, and continuing into northern Mexico isolates of the Texas coast: Coahuilteco, Tonkawa, Karankawa, Atakapa Yuman: Maricopa Numic: Paiute, Ute, Comanche, Shoshone Tanoan: Kiowa, Taos Zuni Pueblo Caddoan: Wichita, Pawnee, Arikara Athabaskan: Apache (Mescalero, Lipan, Jicarilla, and Kiowa Apache), Navajo, Sarcee, Beaver Algonquian: Blackfoot, Gros Ventre, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Cree, Ojibwa Kutenai Siouan: Mandan, Crow, Hidatsa, Omaha, Osage, Assinibion, Ponca, Oto, Sioux (Teton, Yankton, Yanktonai, Santee) Sahaptian: Nez Perce, Sahaptin, Umatilla, Palus Cayuse Salish: Kalispel, Coeur d'Alene, Flathead, Spokane, Sanpoil (shifted from the distinct Plateau Sign Language) A distinct form is also reported from the Wyandot of Ohio.[citation needed] It is known that Navajo has a comparably sizeable population of individuals who can speak the Navajo dialect of Plains Sign Talk. There is also an unrelated sign language, Navajo Family Sign, in a clan of Navajos that has several deaf members.[13][15] There exists a variety of Plains Sign Talk within the Blackfoot Confederacy. Little is known about the language beyond that it is used by Deaf community members, as well as by the community at large, to pass on "oral" traditions and stories.[14] Phonology[edit] There are four basic parameters of Plains Sign Talk: the location of the hand, its movement, shape, and orientation:[16] Location—this involves the spatial placement of a sign.[17] Signs may change meaning when placed in a different location, for example, in front of the face as opposed to in front of the torso.[18] Movement—this involves, as implied, the way the hands move when forming the sign.[17] For example, in Plains Sign Talk, the signs AFTERNOON and MID-DAY form minimal pairs as they are both formed exactly the same, the only difference being that MID-DAY is stationary and AFTERNOON moves from above the head to the side in an arching motion.[12][19] Handshape—as implied, each sign takes on a certain shape in the hand, called a handshape. The handshapes of signs are a very key parameter. For example, the signs YES and I-KNOW are the same in all parameters except for the handshape; in YES the hand makes the Plains Sign Talk J shape, and in I-KNOW the hand takes the L shape.[12] Orientation—this refers to the orientation of the palm.[17] This is clearly seen in the Plains Sign Talk words ABOVE and ADD. Both involve having the left hand act as a base from which the right hand rises, and both have the same location, movement, and handshapes; however, in ABOVE, the non-dominant hand is palm down, and in ADD the non-dominant hand is palm up.[19] There may be other parameters, such as facial features. However, these function like suprasegmentals, and the four parameters listed above are the crucial ones.[17] Although the parameters of sign are listed separately below, in actuality they co-occur with the other parameters to make a single sign.[17] It is not clear how many of the differences were distinctive (phonemic). Handshape[edit] The Bureau of American Ethnology published a glossary of Plains Sign Talk words that illustrates the handshapes involved.[20] They assigned them alphabetic letters.[why?] Fist, thumb in front of fingers (A or B) Fist, thumb at side of fingers (C) Fingers clenched, thumb touching middle of index finger (D) Fingers hooked, thumb touching back tip of index finger (E) Fingers hooked, thumb at side of fingers (F) Fingers hooked, thumb touching tips of fingers (G) Fingers slightly bent, thumb at side tip of index finger (H) Fist, except index finger forming hook with thumb holding tip of index finger (I) Fist, except index finger fully extended (J, K, or M) Fist, except index finger and thumb extended, thumb bends at last joint to form 90 degree angle with index finger (L) Fist except index and middle fingers fully extended (N) Thumb, index, and middle finger pointing upward and separated, ring finger and pinky curved horizontally (O) All fingers and thumb pointing upward and separated, palm cupped (P and Q) All fingers and thumb fully extended and separated (R) All fingers and thumb fully extended and held together (S and T) Fingers gathered to a point, palm cupped, with thumb in the middle (U) Fingers slightly bent, thumb at side of index finger (V) All fingers and thumb extended, relaxed (Y) Location[edit] Plains Sign Talk uses the following locations. The various neutral spaces are the most common places for signs to occur.[18] Left side of torso Right side of torso Neutral space (centered in front of torso) Upper neutral space Lower neutral space Left neutral space Right neutral space Mouth Nose Chin front Below chin Cheek Eye Below nose (above mouth) Forehead Head top (attached to top of head) Head side (attached to head above ear) Head back (attached to back of head) Side of head right (space to the right side of head) Side of head left (space to the left side of head) Side of head front right (space in front of head on the right) Side of head front left (space in front of head on the left) Above head Ear (attached to head at ear) Beside ear (space beside ear) Wrist Palm front Palm back Left side of hand Right side of hand Below hand Above hand Fingers Before face (space in front of face) Chest Chest right Chest left Elbow Forearm Shoulder Feet Orientation[edit] These are the directions towards which the palm can face.[18] Up Down Non-dominant side Dominant side Toward signer Away from signer Movement[edit] The movements below are found in Plains Sign Talk. They may be repeated in certain situations.[18] Stationary (no movement) Downward Upward Forward Backward Toward dominant side toward non-dominant side Upward arch Downward arch Backward arch Forward arch Toward dominant side arch Toward non-dominant side arch Diagonal up and right Diagonal up and left Diagonal down and right Diagonal down and left Rotating Vertical circle Horizontal circle History[edit] Plains Sign Talk's antecedents, if any, are unknown, due to lack of written records. But, the earliest records of contact between Europeans and Indigenous peoples of the Gulf Coast region in what is now Texas and northern Mexico note a fully formed sign language already in use by the time of the Europeans' arrival there.[21] These records include the accounts of Cabeza de Vaca in 1527 and Coronado in 1541. William Philo Clark, who served in the United States Army on the northern plains during the Indian Wars, was the author of The Indian Sign Language, first published in 1885. The Indian Sign Language with Brief Explanatory Notes of the Gestures Taught Deaf-Mutes in Our Institutions and a Description of Some of the Peculiar Laws, Customs, Myths, Superstitions, Ways of Living, Codes of Peace and War Signs is a comprehensive lexicon of signs, with accompanying insights into indigenous cultures and histories. It remains in print. Writing[edit] As most Native American languages lacked an indigenous alphabetic tradition, and as Plains Indian Sign Language was widely understood among different tribes, a written, graphic transcription of these signs is known to have functioned as a medium of communication between Native Americans on and off reservations during the period of American colonization, removal, and forced schooling in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[22] The letter of a Kiowa student, Belo Cozad, in 1890 sent to Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania from his parents on a reservation in Oklahoma made use of such signs and becomes one of the only known indigenous written transcriptions of the Kiowa language.[citation needed] See also[edit] Plateau Sign Language References[edit] ^ a b c Province of Ontario (2007). "Bill 213: An Act to recognize sign language as an official language in Ontario". ^ Plains Native American Sign Language at Ethnologue (17th ed., 2013) ^ Plains Indian Sign Language at Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016) ^ a b c d e Endangered Languages Project data for Plains Indian Sign Language. ^ https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=bfT2a5SGDFA ^ Darin Flynn. "Canadian Languages". University of Calgary. Retrieved August 8, 2015. ^ "Native American Hand Talkers Fight to Keep Sign Language Alive". www.voanews.com. Retrieved 2019-03-19. ^ a b McKay-Cody, Melanie Raylene (1998), "Plains Indian Sign Language: A comparative study of alternative and primary signers", in Carroll, Cathryn (ed.), Deaf Studies V: Toward 2000--Unity and Diversity, Washington DC: Gallaudet University Press, ISBN 1893891097 ^ a b Tomkins, William. Indian sign language. [Republication of "Universal Indian Sign Language of the Plains Indians of North America" 5th ed. 1931]. New York : Dover Publications 1969. (p. 7) ^ "Plains Indian Sign Language". ethnologue.com. ^ Davis, Jeffrey. 2006. "A historical linguistic account of sign language among North American Indian groups." In Multilingualism and Sign Languages: From the Great Plains to Australia; Sociolinguistics of the Deaf community, C. Lucas (ed.), Vol. 12, pp. 3–35. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press ^ a b c Davis, Jeffrey E. (2010), Hand talk: Sign language among American Indian nations, Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-69030-0 ^ a b Supalla, Samuel J. (1992). The Book of Name Signs. p. 22. ^ a b "Language". Blackfoot Crossing Historical Park. Retrieved October 5, 2015. ^ Davis, Jeffrey; Supalla, Samuel (1995). "A Sociolinguistic Description of Sign Language Use in a Navajo Family". In Ceil, Lucas (ed.). Sociolinguistics in Deaf Communities. Gallaudet University Press. pp. 77–106. ISBN 978-1-563-68036-6. ^ Bergmann et al,2007, pp. 79-86 ^ a b c d e Bergmann et al,2007 ^ a b c d Cody, 1970 ^ a b Tomkins,1969 ^ Bureau of American ethnology,1881 ^ Wurtzburg, Susan, and Campbell, Lyle. "North American Indian Sign Language: Evidence for its Existence before European Contact," International Journal of American Linguistics, Vol. 61, No. 2 (Apr., 1995), pp. 153-167. ^ "Who put Native American sign language in the US mail? - OUPblog". oup.com. 9 May 2018. Bergmann, Anouschka; Kathleen Currie Hall; Sharon Miriam Ross. "Language Files". USA. Ohio State University, 2007. Bureau of American ethnology. "Annual report of the Bureau of American ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian institution". Washington, DC. Government printing office, 1881. Cody, Iron Eyes. "Indian Talk". CA. Naturegraph Publishers, Inc, 1970. Davis, Jeffrey E. "Hand Talk". USA. Cambridge University Press, 2010. Tomkins, William. "Indian Sign Language". Toronto, Ontario. Dover Publications, Inc, 1969 Further reading[edit] Newell, Leonard E. (1981). A stratificational description of Plains Indian Sign Language. Forum Linguisticum 5: 189-212. "Sign Language Among North American Indians Compared With That Among Other Peoples And Deaf-Mutes," First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879-1880, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881, pages 263-552 Clark, William Philo. 1885. The Indian Sign Language External links[edit] "PISL" "Indian" Sign Language Dictionary "Letter Signs in Plains Indian Sign Language, Image in Harper's Magazine (March 1880)" v t e Languages of Canada Official languages English French Indigenous languages Algonquian Abenaki Algonquin Blackfoot Cree Innu Malecite-Passamaquoddy Miꞌkmaq Munsee Naskapi Ojibwe Ottawa Potawatomi Athabaskan Babine-Witsuwitʼen Carrier Chilcotin Chipewyan Dogrib Gwichʼin Hän Kaska Nicola Sekani Slavey Tagish Tahltan Tsuutʼina Tutchone Inuit Inuinnaqtun Inuktitut Inupiaq Inuvialuktun Iroquoian Cayuga Mohawk Oneida Onondaga Seneca Tuscarora Wyandot Salishan Bella Coola Comox Halkomelem Lillooet Okanagan Saanich Sechelt Shuswap Squamish Thompson Wakashan Ditidaht Haisla Heiltsuk-Oowekyala Kwakʼwala Nuu-chah-nulth other Beothuk Haida Kutenai Tlingit Coast Tsimshian Pidgins, creoles and mixed Algonquian–Basque pidgin Broken Slavey Bungee Chiac Chinook Jargon Labrador Inuit Pidgin French Michif Immigrant languages English French Mandarin Cantonese Punjabi Spanish Tagalog (Filipino) Arabic German Italian Canadian Gaelic Hutterite German Irish language in Newfoundland Pennsylvania German Plautdietsch Ukrainian Sign languages American Sign Language Quebec Sign Language Inuk Sign Language Plains Indian Sign Language Maritime Sign Language v t e Languages of the United States Languages in italics are extinct. 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Tickanwa•tic Tháumgá Tsuu T'ina Umatilla Wazhazhe Wichita Wíyut'a / Wíblut'e Wyandot Plateau A'aninin Kalispel ʾa·qanⱡiⱡⱡitnam Nesilextcl'n Secwepemcékst Sqeliz Providencia– Cayman Sign Provisle Old Cayman (Guyanese) Japanese Sign Japanese Korean Taiwanese Chinese Sign Chinese Shanghai Shanghai Hong Kong Macau Isolates Afghan Al-Sayyid Bedouin Albanian Amami Oshima Armenian Armenian Women's Azerbaijani Belizean Bhutanese Bökyi lagda Bribri Brunca Bura Chatino Cuban Diné Family Dogon Ecuadorian Eritrean Enga Ghandruk Ghardaia Guatemalan Guinea-Bissau Henniker Hoailona ʻŌlelo Inuit Atgangmuurniq Ussersuataarneq Jhankot Jumla Ka'apor Kajana Kafr Qasim Kata Kolok Kenyan Somali Keresign Kisindo Konchri Sain Lyons Macedonian Maltese Magannar Hannu Mardin Mauritian M'bour Miyakubo Mossi Mozambican Mumu kasa Nicaraguan Old Costa Rican Ottoman Pasa kidd Penang Persian Peruvian Rennellese Rwandan Sandy River Salvadoran Spanish Tebul Trinidad and Tobago Turkish Ugandan Venezuelan West African Adasl Burasl Mofu-Gudur Nanabinsl Yoruban Zambian Other groupings Ethiopian languages Laotian languages Sri Lankan languages Sudanese languages Tanzanian languages (7+)[b] International Sign By region[a] Sign languages by region Africa Algeria Algerian Ghardaia Cameroon Maroua Ghana Adamorobe Nanabin Ivory Coast Bouakako (LaSiBo) Kenya Kenyan Mali Tebul Bamako (LaSiMa) Nigeria Bura Magannar Hannu Senegal Mbour Somalia & Djibouti Somali South Africa South African Tanzania Tanzanian Uganda Ugandan Zambia Zambian Asia Bengal Bengali Cambodia Cambodian China Chinese Hong Kong HKSL India Alipur Bengali Indo-Pakistani Naga Indonesia Indonesian Kata Kolok (Benkala, Balinese) Iran Persian Iraq Iraqi Kurdish Israel Al-Sayyid Bedouin Ghardaia Israeli Kafr Qasem Japan Amami Oshima Japanese Miyakubo Korea Korean Laos Laotian Malaysia Malaysian Penang Selangor Mongolia Mongolian Nepal Ghandruk Jhankot Jumla Nepalese Philippines Philippine Saudi Arabia Saudi Singapore Singapore Sri Lanka Sri Lankan Taiwan Taiwanese Tajikistan Russian Tibet Bökyi lagda Thailand Bangkok Chiangmai Thai Ban Khor (Pasa kidd) Vietnam Vietnamese Europe Armenia Armenian Austria Austrian Azerbaijan Azerbaijani Belgium Flemish French Belgian United Kingdom British Croatia Croatian Denmark Danish Teknmál Estonia Estonian Finland Finnish France Ghardaia French Lyons Germany German Greece Greek Hungary Hungarian Iceland Icelandic Ireland Irish Italy Italian Kosovo Kosovar Lithuania Lithuanian Moldova Russian Netherlands Dutch North Macedonia Macedonian Northern Ireland Northern Ireland Norway Norwegian Poland Polish Portugal Portuguese Russia Russian Slovenia Slovenian Spain Catalan Spanish Valencian Sweden Swedish Switzerland Swiss Turkey Central Taurus Mardin Turkish Ukraine Ukrainian North and Central America Plains Sign Talk Belize Belizean Canada American Protactile Blackfoot Cree Ojibwa MSL Quebec Atgangmuurniq Plateau Cayman Old Cayman Costa Rica Bribri Brunca Old Costa Rican New Costa Rican Cuba Cuban Greenland Ussersuataarneq Guatemala Guatemalan Mayan Haiti Haitian Honduras Honduran Mexico Chatino Mayan Mexican Nicaragua Nicaraguan Panama Chiriqui Panamanian El Salvador Salvadoran Old Salvadoran United States American Black American Protactile Blackfeet Cree Cheyenne Ojibwa Keresign Martha's Vineyard Navajo Navajo Family Sandy River Valley Henniker Oceania Australia Auslan Australian-Irish Eltye eltyarrenke Far North Queensland Indigenous Iltyeme iltyeme Rdaka rdaka Manjiljarra Warlmanpa Warramunga Mudburra Ngada Umpila Far North Queensland Western Desert Western Torres Strait Islander Yir Yoront Yolŋu Hawaii (USA) Haoilona ʻŌlelo New Zealand NZSL Samoa and American Samoa Samoan South America Argentina Argentine Bolivia Bolivian Brazil Libras Ka'apor Chile Chilean Colombia Colombian Provisle Ecuador Ecuadorian Paraguay Paraguayan Peru Peruvian Sivia Uruguay Uruguayan Venezuela Venezuelan International International Sign Makaton Monastic Signalong ASL Grammar Idioms Literature Profanity Name signs Extinct languages Chilmark Diyari Jaralde Kalkutungu Henniker Sign Language Martha's Vineyard Old French Old Kent Plateau Sign Language Pitha Pitha Sandy River Valley Sign Language Warluwara Linguistics Grammar (ASL) Bimodal bilingualism Cherology Handshape / Location / Orientation / Movement / Expression Mouthing Sign names Fingerspelling American British (two-handed) Catalan Chilean French Hungarian Irish Japanese Korean Polish Russian Serbo-Croatian Spanish Ukrainian Writing ASL-phabet Hamburg Notation System Stokoe notation SignWriting si5s ASLwrite () Language contact Contact sign Indian Signing System Initialized sign Manually coded English Manually coded language in South Africa Manually Coded Malay Mouthing Paget Gorman Sign System Signed Dutch Signed French Signed German Signed Italian Signed Japanese Signed Polish Signed Spanish Signing Exact English Tecknad svenska Bilingual–bicultural education Manually coded language Media Films (list) Television shows (list) Persons Jabbar Baghtcheban Jeanette Berglind Pär Aron Borg Thomas Braidwood Laurent Clerc Abbé de l'Épée Roger Fouts Valerie Sutton Thomas Gallaudet Abbe Sicard William Stokoe Pierre Pélissier Organisations Association of Visual Language Interpreters of Canada International Center on Deafness and the Arts Mimics and Gesture Theatre World Association of Sign Language Interpreters Miscellaneous Baby sign language CHCI chimpanzee center (Washoe, Loulis) Open Outcry Legal recognition U.S. Army hand and arm signals Monastic sign languages Tactile signing Tic-tac (betting) ^a Sign-language names reflect the region of origin. Natural sign languages are not related to the spoken language used in the same region. For example, French Sign Language originated in France, but is not related to French. Conversely, ASL and BSL both originated in English-speaking countries but are not related to each other; ASL however is related to French Sign Language. ^b Denotes the number (if known) of languages within the family. No further information is given on these languages. Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Plains_Indian_Sign_Language&oldid=998616592" Categories: Non-deaf sign languages North America Native-based pidgins and creoles Interlinguistics Sign languages of the United States Languages of Canada Languages of Mexico Indigenous languages of New Mexico Indigenous languages of California Hidden categories: Language articles citing Ethnologue 17 Language articles citing Ethnologue 19 Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles containing French-language text Articles containing Spanish-language text Language articles with 'no date' set All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from June 2016 Languages without Glottolog code Languages with neither ISO nor Glottolog code Language articles without reference field Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020 Articles containing video clips Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages አማርኛ Беларуская Čeština Esperanto Français Frysk Galego Hrvatski Piemontèis Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 January 2021, at 06:24 (UTC). 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