The Liberator (newspaper) - Wikipedia The Liberator (newspaper) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia   (Redirected from The Liberator (anti-slavery newspaper)) Jump to navigation Jump to search Weekly abolitionist newspaper, printed and published in Boston (1831-1865) This article is about the abolitionist newspaper. For other uses, see Liberator (disambiguation). The Liberator Liberator v.1, No.1, 1831 Type Weekly newspaper Publisher William Lloyd Garrison and Isaac Knapp Founded January 1, 1831 (January 1, 1831) Ceased publication December 29, 1865 (December 29, 1865) City Boston Country United States OCLC number 1728160 Media of the United States List of newspapers The Liberator (1831–1865) was a weekly abolitionist newspaper, printed and published in Boston by William Lloyd Garrison and, through 1839, by Isaac Knapp. Religious rather than political, it appealed to the moral conscience of its readers, urging them to demand immediate freeing of the slaves ("immediatism"). It also promoted women's rights, an issue that split the American abolitionist movement. Despite its modest circulation of 3,000, it had prominent and influential readers, including Frederick Douglass and Beriah Green. It frequently printed or reprinted letters, reports, sermons, and news stories relating to American slavery, becoming a sort of community bulletin board for the new abolitionist movement that Garrison helped foster. Contents 1 History 2 Women's rights advocacy 3 Inspiration among abolitionists 4 Resistance 5 Contents online 5.1 Garrison's articles 6 See also 7 References 8 Bibliography History[edit] An issue of The Liberator depicting African Americans next to a lynching tree. Garrison co-published weekly issues of The Liberator from Boston continuously for 35 years, from January 1, 1831, to the final issue of December 29, 1865.[1] Although its circulation was only about 3,000, and three-quarters of subscribers (in 1834) were African Americans,[2] the newspaper earned nationwide notoriety for its uncompromising advocacy of "immediate and complete emancipation of all slaves" in the United States. Garrison set the tone for the paper in his famous open letter "To the Public" in the first issue: Fundraising appeal of William Garrison, 1834. ... Assenting to the "self-evident truth" maintained in the American Declaration of Independence, "that all men are created equal, and endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights—among which are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness," I shall strenuously contend for the immediate enfranchisement of our slave population. In Park-street Church, on the Fourth of July, 1829, in an address on slavery, I unreflectingly assented to the popular but pernicious doctrine of gradual abolition. I seize this opportunity to make a full and unequivocal recantation, and thus publicly to ask pardon of my God, of my country, and of my brethren the poor slaves, for having uttered a sentiment so full of timidity, injustice and absurdity. A similar recantation, from my pen, was published in the Genius of Universal Emancipation at Baltimore, in September, 1829. My conscience is now satisfied.[3] I am aware, that many object to the severity of my language; but is there not cause for severity? I will be as harsh as truth, and as uncompromising as justice. On this subject, I do not wish to think, or speak, or write, with moderation. No! no! Tell a man whose house is on fire, to give a moderate alarm; tell him to moderately rescue his wife from the hand of the ravisher; tell the mother to gradually extricate her babe from the fire into which it has fallen;—but urge me not to use moderation in a cause like the present. I am in earnest—I will not equivocate—I will not excuse—I will not retreat a single inch—AND I WILL BE HEARD.  ... Rather than looking to politics to create change, Garrison utilized nonviolent means, such as moral suasion, as his message throughout the newspaper.[4][5] Garrison felt that slavery was a moral issue and used his way of writing to appeal to the morality of his readers as an attempt to influence them into changing their morally questionable ways. For example, "No Union with Slave-Holders" was a slogan utilized for weeks at a time throughout the newspaper's publication, advocating that the North should leave the Union.[5] Garrison celebrates 13th amendment William Lloyd Garrison. The Liberator continued for three decades from its founding through the end of the American Civil War. It had black columnists and reporters.[6] Garrison ended the newspaper's run with a valedictory column at the end of 1865, when the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery throughout the United States. It was succeeded by The Nation.[7] Women's rights advocacy[edit] The Liberator also became an avowed women's rights newspaper when the prospectus for its 1838 issue declared that as the paper's objective was "to redeem woman as well as man from a servile to an equal condition," it would support "the rights of woman to their utmost extent."[8] In January and February 1838, the Liberator published Sarah Grimké's "Letters on the Province of Woman", and later that year published them as a book, using the reprint to call attention to another of Garrison and Knapp's projects, the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society.[9] During the following decades, the Liberator promoted women's rights by publishing editorials, petitions, convention calls and proceedings, speeches, legislative action, and other material advocating women's suffrage, equal property rights, and women's educational and professional equality. The Liberator's printers, Isaac Knapp, James Brown Yerrinton (1800–1866) and James Manning Winchell Yerrinton (1825–1893), and Robert Folger Wallcut (1797–1884), printed many of the women's rights tracts of the 1850s. Inspiration among abolitionists[edit] 1850 Liberator masthead, designed by Hammatt Billings The Liberator inspired abolitionist Angelina Grimké to publicly join the abolitionist movement. She sent a letter to William Lloyd Garrison recalling her experiences as a member of an upper class, white, slaveholding family. Angelina Grimké's letter to William Lloyd Garrison was soon after published in The Liberator.[10] Frederick Douglass was inspired by The Liberator. As he commented upon in his first issue of The North Star, Frederick Douglass felt that it was necessary for African-Americans, such as himself, to speak out about their own experiences with injustice. He claimed that those that experienced injustice were the ones that must demand justice.[11] Soon after, Douglass began writing his own abolitionist newspaper, The North Star.[12] Resistance[edit] The Liberator faced harsh resistance from several state legislatures and local groups: for example, North Carolina indicted Garrison for felonious acts, and the Vigilance Association of Columbia, South Carolina, offered a reward of $1,500 (equivalent to $38,415 in 2019) to those who identified distributors of the paper.[citation needed] Garrison also faced resistance, even to the point of violence. In 1835, a Boston mob formed with support from local newspapers in resistance to the announcement that George Thompson would speak at the first anniversary meeting of the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society. The mob, unable to find Thompson, redirected their aggression towards Garrison who was in the society's meeting hall. Eventually escalation of the situation led to destruction of the society's antislavery sign, and even calls to lynch Garrison, around whose neck a piece of rope made into a noose was put (to frighten him). Garrison eventually managed a narrow escape; the mayor put him in the city jail for his protection.[13] Contents online[edit] The Liberator full online archives at Fair Use Repository, including archives of full-page scans of all issues from 1831–1865 (Vols. I–XXXV). The Liberator Complete Archives at the Digital Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Original copy owned by Garrison and served as the copy of reference at The Liberator Offices[14]. Internet Archive: Liberator v.28, no.30, 1858 Liberator v.31, no.1, no.15, no.16, no.27, 1861 Liberator v.32, no.1, no.27, 1862 The Liberator Files searchable (basic search only) collection maintained by Horace Seldon, which says on its home page that it contains "only a tiny portion of what appeared in the 1,803 editions of the paper". Garrison's articles[edit] Garrison wrote much of the content. He wrote while typesetting; that is to say, most was not written out on paper first. The following are examples of articles and editorials written by him: To the Public, Garrison's introductory column, January 1, 1831. Truisms, January 8, 1831. Walker's Appeal, January 8, 1831. The Insurrection, Garrison's reaction to the news of Nat Turner's slave rebellion in Virginia, September 3, 1831. The Great Crisis!, December 29, 1832, one of Garrison's first explicit condemnations of the Constitution and the Union. Declaration of Sentiments, adopted by the Boston Peace Convention September 18, 1838, reprinted in The Liberator, September 28, 1838. Abolition at the Ballot Box, June 28, 1839. The American Union, January 10, 1845. American Colorphobia, June 11, 1847. On the Dissolution of the Union, June 15, 1855. The Tragedy at Harper's Ferry, Garrison's first public comments on John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, October 28, 1859. John Brown and the Principle of Nonresistance, a speech given at a meeting in the Tremont Temple, Boston, on December 2, 1859, the day that John Brown was hanged, printed December 16, 1859. The War—Its Cause and Cure, May 3, 1861. Valedictory: The Final Number of The Liberator, Garrison's closing column, December 29, 1865. See also[edit] Abolitionist publications North Star, an anti-slavery newspaper owned and run by Frederick Douglass. Women's suffrage publications List of newspapers in Massachusetts References[edit] ^ Boston Directory, 1831, Garrison & Knapp, editors and proprietors Liberator, 10 Merchants Hall, Congress Street ^ Ripley, C. Peter (1991). The Black Abolitionist Papers: Vol. III: The United States, 1830–1846, p. 9. UNC Press. ISBN 0-8078-1926-3. ^ "The Liberator". Library of Congress. Retrieved March 3, 2020. ^ "The Liberator | American newspaper". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-05-22. ^ a b "Book Review: All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery, by Henry Mayer". The Independent Institute. Retrieved 2017-05-22. ^ Hayden, Robert C. (1992). African-Americans in Boston: More than 350 Years. Trustees of the Boston Public Library. p. 112. ISBN 0-89073-083-0. ^ The Anti-Slavery Reporter, August 1, 1865, p. 187. ^ Liberator, December 15, 1837. ^ Grimké, Sarah (1838). Letters on the equality of the sexes, and the condition of woman : addressed to Mary S. Parker, President of the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society. Boston: Isaac Knapp. ^ https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/slavery-and-anti-slavery/essays/angelina-and-sarah-grimke-abolitionist-sisters ^ "The North Star | American newspaper". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-05-15. ^ "Abolitionist Movement | HistoryNet". www.historynet.com. Retrieved 2017-05-15. ^ Mayer, Henry (1998). All on fire : William Lloyd Garrison and the abolition of slavery (1st ed.). St. Martin's Press. pp. 200–205. ISBN 0-312-18740-8. ^ "The Liberator (Boston, Mass. : 1831-1865) - Digital Commonwealth". www.digitalcommonwealth.org. Retrieved 2020-11-28. Bibliography[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to The Liberator (anti-slavery newspaper). Streitmatter, Rodger (2001). Voices of Revolution. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 21–35. ISBN 0-231-12249-7. Seldon, Horace. "The Liberator Files". Horace Seldon's collection and summary., non-searchable pdfs of every issue. "The Liberator". LibriVox (public domain audiobooks). Works by or about The Liberator at Internet Archive "The Liberator". Newspapers.com., (searchable; subscription required) "=Angelina and Sarah Grimke: Abolitionist Sisters". v t e Underground Railroad People John Brown Owen Brown Levi Coffin Richard Dillingham Frederick Douglass Calvin Fairbank Thomas Garrett Frances Harper Laura Smith Haviland David Hudson Daniel Hughes Peg Leg Joe William Cooper Nell Harriet Forten Purvis Robert Purvis John Rankin Hetty Reckless Gerrit Smith William Still Calvin Stowe Charles Turner Torrey Harriet Tubman Delia Webster Places List of Underground Railroad sites houses churches Levi Coffin House Bialystoker Synagogue Bilger's Rocks Wilson Bruce Evans House Cyrus Gates Farmstead Sites in Indiana Allen Chapel Town Clock Church Kelton House F. Julius LeMoyne House Liberty Farm John Rankin House Gerrit Smith Estate John Freeman Walls Historic Site Events Pearl incident (1848) Christiana Riot (1851) Jerry Rescue (1851) Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852 book) Joshua Glover rescue (1854) Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp (1856 book) Oberlin–Wellington Rescue (1858) Thirteenth Amendment (1865) Topics Abolitionism in the United States Abolitionism opponents of slavery African-American opponents publications Fugitive slaves Fugitive slave laws 1850 Quilts Reverse Underground Railroad Signals lawn jockey Slave catcher Songs of the Underground Railroad The Underground Railroad Records (1872 book) Related National Underground Railroad Freedom Center Harriet Tubman Memorial (Boston) Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Historical Park Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad State Park visitor center Niagara Falls Underground Railroad Heritage Center The Railroad to Freedom: A Story of the Civil War (1932 book) A Woman Called Moses (1978 miniseries) Roots of Resistance (1989 documentary) The Quest for Freedom (1992 film) Freedom: The Underground Railroad (2013 board game) The North Star (2016 film) Underground (2016 TV series) Harriet (2019 film) See also: Slavery in the United States and Slavery in Canada v t e Slave narratives Slave Narrative Collection Individuals by continent of enslavement Africa Robert Adams (c. 1790–?) Francis Bok (b. 1979) James Leander Cathcart (1767–1843) Ólafur Egilsson (1564–1639) Hark Olufs (1708–1754) Mende Nazer (b. 1982) Thomas Pellow (1705–?) Joseph Pitts (1663 – c. 1735) Guðríður Símonardóttir (1598–1682) Petro Kilekwa (late 19th c.) Europe Lovisa von Burghausen (1698–1733) Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745 Nigeria – 31 March 1797 Eng) Ukawsaw Gronniosaw (c. 1705 Bornu – 1775 Eng) Jean Marteilhe (1684-1777) Roustam Raza (1783–1845) Brigitta Scherzenfeldt (1684–1736) North America: Canada Marie-Joseph Angélique (c. 1710 Portugal – 1734 Montreal) John R. Jewitt (1783 England – 1821 United States) North America: Caribbean Juan Francisco Manzano (1797–1854, Cuba) Esteban Montejo (1860–1965, Cuba) Mary Prince Venerable Pierre Toussaint (1766 Saint-Dominque – June 30, 1853 NY) Marcos Xiorro (c. 1819 – ???, Puerto Rico) North America: United States Sam Aleckson Jordan Anderson William J. Anderson Jared Maurice Arter Solomon Bayley Polly Berry Henry Bibb Leonard Black James Bradley (1834) Henry "Box" Brown John Brown William Wells Brown Peter Bruner (1845 KY – 1938 OH) Ellen and William Craft Hannah Crafts Lucinda Davis Noah Davis Lucy Delaney Ayuba Suleiman Diallo Frederick Douglass Kate Drumgoold Jordan Winston Early (1814 – after 1894) Sarah Jane Woodson Early Peter Fossett (1815 Monticello–1901} David George Moses Grandy William Green (19th century MD) William Grimes Josiah Henson Fountain Hughes (1848/1854 VA – 1957) John Andrew Jackson Harriet Ann Jacobs John Jea Thomas James (minister) Paul Jennings (1799–1874) Elizabeth Keckley Boston King Lunsford Lane J. Vance Lewis Jermain Wesley Loguen Solomon Northup John Parker (1827 VA – 1900) William Parker James Robert Moses Roper Omar ibn Said William Henry Singleton Venture Smith Austin Steward (1793 VA – 1860) Venerable Pierre Toussaint (1766 Saint-Dominque – 1853 NY) Harriet Tubman Wallace Turnage Bethany Veney Booker T. Washington Wallace Willis (19th century Indian Territory) Harriet E. Wilson Zamba Zembola (b. c. 1780 Congo) South America Osifekunde (c. 1795 Nigeria – ? Brazil) Mahommah Gardo Baquaqua (1845–1847, Brazil) Miguel de Buría (? Puerto Rico – 1555 Venezuela) Non-fiction books The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789) The Narrative of Robert Adams (1816) American Slavery as It Is (1839) Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (1845) The Life of Josiah Henson (1849) Twelve Years a Slave (1853) My Bondage and My Freedom (1855) Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (1861) The Underground Railroad Records (1872) Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (1881) Up from Slavery (1901) Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States (1936–38) The Peculiar Institution (1956) The Slave Community (1972) Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo" (2018) Fiction/novels Oroonoko (1688) Sab (1841) Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852) The Heroic Slave (1852) Clotel (1853) Dred: A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp (1856) The Bondwoman's Narrative (c. 1853 – c. 1861) Our Nig (1859) Jubilee (1966) The Confessions of Nat Turner (1967) Roots: The Saga of an American Family (1976) Underground to Canada (1977) Kindred (1979) Dessa Rose (1986) Beloved (1987) Middle Passage (1990) Queen: The Story of an American Family (1993) Hang a Thousand Trees with Ribbons (1996) Ama: A Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade (2001) Walk Through Darkness (2002) The Known World (2003) Unburnable (2006) Copper Sun (2006) The Book of Negroes (2007) The Underground Railroad (2016) Young adult books Amos Fortune, Free Man (1951) I, Juan de Pareja (1965) Essay To a Southern Slaveholder (1848) A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (1853) Plays The Escape; or, A Leap for Freedom (1858) The Octoroon (1859) Related African-American literature Atlantic slave trade Caribbean literature Films featuring slavery Songs of the Underground Railroad Book of Negroes (1783) Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book (1847) Slave Songs of the United States (1867) Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery (2002) The Hemingses of Monticello (2008) Documentaries Unchained Memories (2003) Frederick Douglass and the White Negro (2008) v t e Suffrage Basic topics Universal suffrage Women Black Youth Resident foreigners Expatriates in country of origin Voting age Demeny voting Suffragette Compulsory voting Disfranchisement Women's liberation movement By country Australia 1902 Commonwealth Franchise Act aboriginal women Canada Chile Colombia Ecuador Hong Kong India Japan Kuwait Liechtenstein Mexico New Zealand Spain (Civil War, Francoist) Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom women Cayman Islands Scotland Wales laws 1832 1918 1928 United States women Native Americans felons foreigners District of Columbia Puerto Rico states amendments 15th 19th 23rd 24th 26th 1965 Voting Rights Act Events International Woman Suffrage Alliance conferences 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th Hong Kong 1 July marches 2014 Hong Kong protests 2019–20 Hong Kong protests UK WSPU march (1906) Mud March (1907) Women's Sunday (1908) Black Friday (1910) Battle of Downing Street (1910) Women's Coronation Procession (1911) Great Pilgrimage (1913) Open Christmas Letter (1914) US Seneca Falls Convention (1848) Declaration of Sentiments (1848) Rochester Convention (1848) Ohio Women's Convention (1850) National Women's Rights Convention (1850–1869) Trial of Susan B. Anthony (1872–1873) Suffrage Hikes (1912–1914) Woman Suffrage Procession (1913) Suffrage Special (1916) Silent Sentinels (1917–1919) Night of Terror Prison Special 1920 United States presidential election "Give Us the Ballot" (1957) Selma to Montgomery marches (1965) Related Age of candidacy National Voting Rights Museum (US) Umbrella Movement Women (memorials) List of suffragists and suffragettes Timeline of women's suffrage US in majority-Muslim countries Historiography of the Suffragettes Women's suffrage organizations and publications Women's rights activists Leser v. Garnett Belmont–Paul Monument Emmeline Pankhurst statue Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst Memorial Suffragette Memorial Portrait Monument Women's Rights Pioneers Monument Forward statue Kate Sheppard National Memorial Millicent Fawcett statue Great Petition (2008 sculpture) Centenary of Women's Suffrage Commemorative Fountain Eagle House Pankhurst Centre Paulsdale Suffragette Handkerchief Holloway brooch Hunger Strike Medal Justice Bell Suffrage jewellery Women's Rights National Historical Park International Women's Day Susan B. Anthony Day Women's Equality Day Popular culture "The Women's Marseillaise" "The March of the Women" (1910 song) The Mother of Us All (1947 opera) "Sister Suffragette" (1964 song) Suffrage plays Women's suffrage in film Votes for Women (1912 film) Shoulder to Shoulder (1974 series) Not for Ourselves Alone (1999 documentary) Iron Jawed Angels (2004 film) Selma (2014 film) Suffragette (2015 film) Sylvia (2018 musical) Susan B. Anthony dollar New Zealand ten-dollar note 2020 US ten-dollar bill v t e African-American press Newspapers Active Northeast Bay State Banner Buffalo Criterion New Pittsburgh Courier The New York Age New York Amsterdam News Our Time Press The Philadelphia Tribune The Washington Afro-American The Washington Informer South African-American News and Issues Atlanta Daily World Atlanta Inquirer Atlanta Voice Baltimore Afro-American Baltimore Times Birmingham Times Black Chronicle The Burning Spear Newspaper Carolina Peacemaker The Carolinian The Charleston Chronicle The Charlotte Post The Christian Recorder The Dallas Weekly Florida Sentinel Bulletin The Florida Star Houston Defender Houston Forward Times Jackson Advocate Jacksonville Free Press The Louisiana Weekly Louisville Defender The Miami Times New Journal and Guide The New Orleans Tribune Oklahoma Eagle The Orlando Times Richmond Free Press Roanoke Tribune Savannah Tribune Tennessee Tribune The Triangle Tribune Tri-State Defender The Village Beat Winston-Salem Chronicle Midwest The Call Call and Post The Chicago Crusader The Chicago Defender The Cincinnati Herald The Columbus Post Fort Wayne Ink Spot Gary Crusader Indianapolis Recorder Michigan Chronicle The Michigan FrontPage Minnesota Spokesman-Recorder Omaha Star The St. Louis American St. Louis Argus St. Louis Sentinel West Arizona Informant Black Lens News The Facts Los Angeles Sentinel Oakland Post Portland Observer Richmond Post The Sacramento Observer San Francisco Bay View Seattle Medium The Skanner Sun-Reporter National The Final Call Defunct The Advocate Arkansas State Press Athens Blade Atlanta Independent The Black Dispatch The Black Panther Boston Guardian The Broad Ax California Eagle The Carolina Times Charlottesville-Albemarle Tribune Chicago Bee The Chicago Conservator The Circuit The City Sun The Cleveland Gazette The Colored American (New York City) The Colored American (Washington, D.C.) Daily Negro Times Dallas Express Detroit Tribune The Equator Frederick Douglass' Paper Freedom Freedom's Journal Frost Illustrated Gary American Harambee Indianapolis Freeman Indianapolis Leader Ink newspaper Iowa Bystander Jackson Eagle Eye Louisianian Louisville Leader The McDowell Times Memphis Free Speech Memphis Post Metro Herald (Virginia) The Michigan Citizen The Mississippi Enterprise Mojo Muhammad Speaks Nashville Globe The Negro Star Negro World New National Era The North Star Pacific Appeal The Philadelphia Independent Pittsburgh Courier Portland New Age The Progressive Era The Reflector Richmond Planet The Rights of All The Seattle Republican The Shining Star Southwestern Christian Advocate The Washington Bee The Washington Sun Western Appeal The Winter Park Advocate The Woman's Era Magazines Black Enterprise Black Issues Book Review BLK Clutch The Colored American Magazine The Crisis Ebony Emerge Essence The Fader Fire!! theGrio The Horizon Jet King Negro Digest Our Women and Children Right On! The Root Sister 2 Sister Tint Transition Magazine Visions Metro Weekly Organizations National Association of Black Journalists National Association of Black Journalists Hall of Fame National Newspaper Publishers Association Corporations Perry Publishing and Broadcasting Real Times Related Abolitionist publications The Anti-Slavery Bugle Genius of Universal Emancipation The Liberator The National Era Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Liberator_(newspaper)&oldid=998960187" Categories: African-American newspapers Abolitionist newspapers published in the United States Defunct newspapers published in Massachusetts Newspapers published in Boston 19th century in Boston African-American history in Boston History of the United States (1789–1849) United States documents Publications established in 1831 Publications disestablished in 1866 1831 establishments in Massachusetts 1866 disestablishments in Massachusetts Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from March 2019 Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Internet Archive links AC with 0 elements Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Azərbaycanca Deutsch فارسی Français Italiano Türkçe Edit links This page was last edited on 7 January 2021, at 20:50 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement