Increase Mather - Wikipedia Increase Mather From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Puritan minister, academic, activist The Reverend Increase Mather Mather in 1688, when he was in London. Portrait by John van der Spriett. Born June 21, 1639 Dorchester, Massachusetts Bay Colony, British America Died August 23, 1723 (aged 84) Boston, Province of Massachusetts Bay, British America Education Harvard College Trinity College Dublin Occupation Minister and author Spouse(s) Maria Cotton Ann Cotton Children Cotton Mather Signature Part of a series on Calvinism John Calvin Background Christianity Reformation Protestantism Theology Theology of John Calvin Covenant theology Baptism Lord's Supper Regulative principle Predestination Scholasticism Documents Institutes of the Christian Religion Geneva Bible Confessions Three Forms of Unity Westminster Standards Systematic theology Metrical psalter Theologians Huldrych Zwingli Martin Bucer Peter Martyr Vermigli Heinrich Bullinger John Calvin John Knox Theodore Beza Francis Turretin Jonathan Edwards Friedrich Schleiermacher Charles Hodge Herman Bavinck Karl Barth Churches Continental Reformed Presbyterian South Korea United States Congregational Reformed Baptist Anglican Movements Afrikaners Huguenots Pilgrims Puritans Neo-Calvinism New Calvinism Inter-denominational organizations World Communion of Reformed Churches World Reformed Fellowship International Conference of Reformed Churches North American Presbyterian and Reformed Council  Calvinism portal v t e Increase Mather (June 21, 1639 Old Style[1]  – August 23, 1723 Old Style) was an American Puritan clergyman in the Massachusetts Bay Colony and president of Harvard College for twenty years (1681–1701).[2] He was influential in the administration of the colony during a time that coincided with the notorious Salem witch trials. Contents 1 Biography 1.1 Early life 1.1.1 Education 1.2 Establishing himself in Massachusetts 1.2.1 Harvard College 1.3 Involvement in politics 1.4 Early influence and involvement in the Salem witch trials 1.5 Later life and death 2 Beliefs 3 In popular culture 4 Portraiture 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Biography[edit] Early life[edit] Mather was born in Dorchester, Massachusetts Bay Colony,[3] on June 21, 1639, to the Rev. Richard Mather and Kathrine Holt Mather,[4] following their participation in the Great Migration from England due to their nonconformity to the Church of England.[5] The stated reason for his first name was "...the never-to-be-forgotten increase, of every sort, wherewith God favoured the country about the time of his nativity."[6] The name "Increase" is a literal translation of the Hebrew "Yosëf" (Joseph).[7] He was the youngest of six[8] brothers, the others being Samuel, Nathaniel, Eleazar, Joseph, and Timothy.[8] The first three of these also became ministers.[9] Education[edit] In 1651, Mather was admitted to Harvard College, where he roomed with and studied under Robert Massey. When he graduated in 1656, aged 17, with a Bachelor of Arts,[4] he began to train for the ministry, and gave his first sermon on his 18th birthday.[6] He quickly left Massachusetts and went to Ireland, where he studied at Trinity College, Dublin for a Master of Arts. During his time at Trinity College he was licensed as a Commonwealth Minister by Oliver Cromwell[10] to the joint charge of St Tida's Church (Ballyscullion), and St Swithan's Church (Magherafelt).[11] He graduated in 1658, and worked as a chaplain attached to a garrison in the Channel Islands from 1659 to 1661 with a short stint at a church in Gloucester in 1660.[12] After Cromwell's death in 1658, Mather felt less secure in his post in the Channel Islands due to Charles II's return to the throne.[13] He resigned the position in 1660 and sailed for Boston in 1661.[13] Harvard later awarded Mather the first honorary degree in the New World; he became a Doctor of Sacred Theology in 1692.[4] The house built in 1677 by Increase Mather near the north corner of Hanover and North Bennet Streets, Boston, pictured here in 1898, survived into the 20th century. Establishing himself in Massachusetts[edit] In 1661, with the advent of the English Restoration and resurgence of Anglicanism, Increase returned to Massachusetts, where he married Maria Cotton. She was his step-sister by virtue of his father's marriage to Sarah Hankredge, widow of John Cotton and mother of Maria.[6] She gave birth to Cotton Mather in 1663. In 1676, he published A Brief History of the War with the Indians in New-England,[14] a contemporary account of King Philip's War. He was ordained as minister of the North Church.[15] He held this post until he died.[3] Harvard College[edit] In his autobiography, Increase Mather writes that he was President of Harvard, from 1681 until 1701,[16] but due to charter and organizational changes, his official title varied. On June 11, 1685, he was made Acting President and on July 23, 1686, he was appointed Rector. On June 27, 1692, he finished writing the new college charter and became president.[4] On September 5, 1692, while the Salem trials were still ongoing, Increase Mather was awarded a doctorate of divinity, the first doctorate issued at Harvard, and the last for 79 years.[17] He was rarely present on campus or in the town, especially during his term of Rector as he was out of the Colony for all but two years of his term in that office. Despite his absences he did make some changes: re-implementation of Greek and Hebrew instruction, replacement of classical Roman authors with Biblical and Christian authors in ethics classes, enactment of requirements that students attend classes regularly, live and eat on campus, and that seniors not haze other students.[4] Involvement in politics[edit] While politics and Puritan religion were closely related during Increase's lifetime, his first direct involvement with politics occurred as a result of James II of England's manipulation of the New England governments. In 1686, James revoked the Charter of Massachusetts in the process of creating the Dominion of New England.[3] The Dominion was headed by Edmund Andros, who not only disliked puritanism and was haughty,[4] but ruled as a near-absolute dictator: Town meetings were outlawed, leaving the Dominion without consent of the governed, marriage was removed from the clergy, and the Old South Church was temporarily appropriated for Anglican services.[18] The 1687 Declaration of Indulgence, prohibiting discrimination against Catholics, saw staunch opposition from the Puritan establishment. When Mather successfully roused opposition to revocation of the charter, he was nearly framed for treason. He traveled to London (eluding spies out to catch him) to petition the King. While engaged in petitioning he published pieces to build popular support for his positions, such as A Narrative of the Miseries of New-England, By Reason of an Arbitrary Government Erected there Under Sir Edmund Andros (1688) and A Brief Relation for the Confirmation of Charter Privileges (1691).[6] He attempted to restore the old charter[3] and obtain a royal charter for Harvard; however, he abandoned that course and changed his petitions, favoring a new charter not lacking any of the rights previously granted. Following the Glorious Revolution and subsequent overthrow of Andros, a new charter was granted to the colony.[4] The 1692 charter was a major departure from its predecessor, granting sweeping home rule, establishing an elective legislature, enfranchising all freeholders (previously only men admitted to a congregation could vote), and uniting the Massachusetts Bay Colony and Plymouth Colony.[4] Following Andros' deposition and arrest,[18] he had William Phips appointed as Royal Governor and they returned to Massachusetts, arriving on May 14, 1692.[19] Following his return, the administration of Harvard grew increasingly insistent that he reside nearer to the institution. Not wanting to leave his Second Church, he did not do so, and eventually resigned the Presidency.[4] Early influence and involvement in the Salem witch trials[edit] In 1681, the same year he became president of Harvard (and when his son Cotton Mather was only eighteen years old), Increase Mather began work on a manuscript that was to be a collection of "illustrious providences" and he solicited contributions from the other Puritan ministers.[20] This work demonstrated a belated interest in witchcraft relative to the European continent, where witch trials had gone into a steep decline after reaching "peak intensity during the century 1570-1670" but this reflected a similar belated interest among a certain milieu in London around the same time.[21] Increase Mather's book "Remarkable Providences" was published in 1684 and forwards a doctrinal belief in the real power of witchcraft. One of the more curious aspects of the book is that while it cites numerous Reformation theologians (Luther, Beza, Melancthon) and many well-known writers on witchcraft including Dominican inquisitor Heinrich Kramer (author of the notorious witch-hunting manual Malleus Maleficarum),[22] it does not cite Jean Calvin. In November 1692, he published Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits which defended the judges and trials, but also expressed words of caution, perhaps due to public pressure. In the postscript, included with the initial first edition of the book, he mentions his own attendance at the trial of George Burroughs and his agreement with the capital judgment against him. George Burroughs had been a fellow minister who seems to have substituted at the pulpit for Increase Mather on at least one occasion.[23] Like his work from 1684, this 1692 work also cites Malleus Maleficarum.[24] Notwithstanding this, his reputation was not improved afterwards or for posterity due to his association with the trials as well as his subsequent refusal, for whatever reasons, to denounce them.[19] He was also briefly mentioned in a thorough treatment of his son Cotton by Robert Calef in his comprehensive book of the Salem Trials and their aftermath, More Wonders of the Invisible World[25] (referred to as More Wonders of the Spiritual World by the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition).[6] Increase Mather was said to have burned Calef's book in Harvard Yard. Later life and death[edit] The Mather tomb in Copp's Hill Cemetery In 1715, following the death of his wife Maria the previous year, he married Ann Cotton, widow of his nephew John.[26] Mather owned a slave named Spaniard.[27] On September 27, 1722, he fainted and was thereafter bedridden. In August 1723 he suffered bladder failure and died three weeks later on August 23, 1723, in Boston, aged 84. He was buried in Copp's Hill Burying Ground.[28] Before his death, he took lodging at the retreat of Mineral Spring Pond to recover from his illness and drink from the famous healing waters of the springs from Spring Pond.[29] Beliefs[edit] Throughout his life Mather was a staunch Puritan, opposing anything openly contradictory to, mutually exclusive with, or potentially "distracting" from, his religious beliefs. He supported suppression of intoxication, unnecessary effort on Sundays and ostentatious clothing. He was initially opposed to the Half-Way Covenant but later supported it. He firmly believed in the direct appearance of God's disfavor in everyday life, e.g. the weather, political situations, attacks by Native Americans, fires and floods, etc.[6][19] He was strenuous in attempting to keep people to his idea of morality,[4] making strong use of jeremiads to try to prevent indifference and especially to try to get government officials to enforce public morality. During his tenure at Harvard he regularly stamped out any relaxation of Puritan strictness, such as latitudinarianism, which had flourished during his overseas absence.[4] Following his acceptance of the Covenant, Solomon Stoddard and others attempted to further liberalize Puritanism by baptism of children who had nonmember parents[4] and admittance of all but the openly immoral to services. To try to stop this, Mather had a synod called to outlaw similar measures. A declaration was adopted, but never made binding.[6] In popular culture[edit] Increase Mather is played by Stephen Lang in the 2014 TV series Salem.[30][31] Portraiture[edit] A portrait of Increase Mather hangs in the Middle Common Room of Mansfield College, Oxford.[32] See also[edit] Salem witch trials Cotton Mather John Ratcliff References[edit] ^ Autobiography of Increase Mather, AAS Proceedings, 1961. ^ Autobiography of Increase Mather, AAS Proceedings, 1961, p 351. "From my first being chosen president of the College (1681) to my resigning my Relation to that society (1701) was full 20 years." ^ a b c d "Mather, Increase. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05". Bartleby.com. Archived from the original on 2007-12-03. Retrieved 2006-10-12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Mather, Increase, 1639–1723. Papers of Increase Mather: an inventory". Harvard University. Archived from the original on 2006-09-02. Retrieved 2006-10-12. ^ "Dorchester Atheneum: Richard Mather". Dorchester Atheneum. August 17, 2003. Archived from the original on 2006-09-06. Retrieved 2006-10-12. ^ a b c d e f g Webster, Richard (1911). "Mather, Increase" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. |access-date= requires |url= (help) ^ "Genesis 30 / Hebrew - English Bible / Mechon-Mamre". www.mechon-mamre.org. Retrieved 2020-01-04. ^ a b The Twentieth Century Biographical Dictionary of Notable Americans. VII. Boston: The Biographical Society. 1904. — The relevant excerpt can be seen here ^ Webster, Richard (1911). "Mather, Richard" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. |access-date= requires |url= (help) ^ Davis, Graeme (2017-10-03). Colonial Horrors: Sleepy Hollow and Beyond. Pegasus Books. ISBN 9781681775906. ^ Miller, Kerby A.; Schrier, Arnold; Boling, Bruce D.; Doyle, David N. (2003-03-27). Irish Immigrants in the Land of Canaan: Letters and Memoirs from Colonial and Revolutionary America, 1675-1815. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195348224. ^ Middlekauff, Robert (1999-06-29). The Mathers: Three Generations of Puritan Intellectuals, 1596–1728. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520219304. ^ a b Goldman, Samuel (2018-02-20). God's Country: Christian Zionism in America. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812250039. ^ Profile, digitalcommons.unl.edu; accessed December 24, 2014. ^ (the original Old North meetinghouse, not to be confused with the Anglican/Episcopal Old North Church). ^ Mather, Increase. Hall, M. G. (ed.). The Autobiography of Increase Mather (PDF). American Antiquarian Society, Oct. 1961. ^ Benjamin Pierce, A History of Harvard University, 1833 p. 64 ^ a b "Interactive State House". Governors of Massachusetts. Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Retrieved 2006-12-14. ^ a b c "Biography of Increase Mather". Archived from the original on 2006-11-07. Retrieved 2006-10-12. ^ Remarkable Providences, p. xxxii ^ Weyer, Johann (1998). Kohl, Benjamin J.; Midelfort, H.C. Erik (eds.). On Witchcraft. Translated by Shea, John. Pegasus Press. p. xvi. ISBN 9781889818023. ^ On Witchcraft, p. 140. ^ Diary of Increase Mather 1675-6. Samuel A Green, Cambridge, 1900. p 8. See entry for April,1675. ^ Bound together with his son's work from late 1692, in London edition and reprinted in 1862: Wonders of the Invisible World p. 270 ^ "More wonders of the invisible world". University of Virginia. Retrieved 2006-12-09. ^ "Increase Mather", britannica.com; accessed March 3, 2018. ^ Natanson, Hannah (22 February 2017). "Mather House Exhibit Scrutinizes Slaveholding Namesake's Past". The Harvard Crimson. The Harvard Crimson, Inc. Retrieved 6 May 2019. ^ "MHS Increase Mather Papers, 1659–1721 Guide to the Microfilm Edition". Massachusetts Historical Society. 2006-10-21. ^ The Register of the Lynn Historical Society, Volumes 15–16 By Lynn Historical Society, page 105 ^ Sokol, Tony (May 20, 2015). "Stephen Lang Interview: Salem's Most Feared Witch-Hunter Speaks". Den of Geek. Retrieved 2018-03-04. ^ Goldman, Eric (May 30, 2014). "Salem Exclusive Clip: Stephen Lang Makes His Debut as a Formidable Witch Hunter". IGN. Retrieved 2018-03-04. ^ "Increase Mather". Retrieved May 30, 2016. Further reading[edit] Baker, Emerson W. A Storm of Witchcraft: The Salem Trials and the American Experience (2014) Michael G. Hall. The Last American Puritan: The Life of Increase Mather. Wesleyan, 1992. Thomas James Holmes. Increase Mather: a Bibliography of his Works. Cleveland, 1931. Mason I. Lowance. Increase Mather. New York, 1974. Robert Middlekauff. The Mathers: Three Generations of Puritan Intellectuals, 1596–1728. New York, 1971. Kenneth B. Murdock. Increase Mather: The Foremost American Puritan. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1925. Increase Mather's Catechismus Logicus: "A Translation and an Analysis of the Role of a Ramist Catechism at Harvard", co-authored with Thomas Knoles, Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 109 (1999): 145–181[1] Mather, Frederic Gregory (1900). "Mather, Richard" . Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Increase Mather. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Increase Mather Works by Increase Mather at Project Gutenberg Works by Increase Mather at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by or about Increase Mather at Internet Archive Works by Increase Mather at Google Books Academic offices Preceded by John Rogers President of Harvard College 1685–1686, acting 1686–1692, Rector 1692–1701 Succeeded by Samuel Willard, acting Religious titles Preceded by John Mayo Old North Church 1673–1723 Succeeded by Cotton Mather v t e Salem witch trials (1692–93) Timeline People Cultural depictions Magistrates and court officials Jonathan Corwin Bartholomew Gedney John Hathorne Joseph Herrick George Herrick John Richards Nathanial (or Nathaniel) Saltonstall Samuel Sewall William Stoughton Waitstill Winthrop Town physician William Griggs Clergy Thomas Barnard George Burroughs (convicted of witchcraft and hanged) Francis Dane John Hale John Higginson Deodat Lawson Cotton Mather Increase Mather William Milbourne Nicholas Noyes Samuel Parris Edward Payson Samuel Phillips Samuel Willard Politicians, writers, and public figures Thomas Danforth James Russell William Phips Thomas Brattle Robert Calef Thomas Maule Accusers Benjamin Abbot Ebenezer Babson William Barker Sr. Thomas Barnard James Best Jr. James Best Sr. Elizabeth Booth John Bly Sr. and Rebecca Bly Thomas Boreman Thomas Chandler Nathaniel Coit Mary Daniel John DeRich Joseph Draper John Emerson Ralph Farnum Sr. Hannah Foster Joseph Fowler Mary Fuller Mary Herrick John Howe Elizabeth Hubbard Joseph Hutchinson John Indian Nathaniel Ingersoll Thomas and Mary Jacobs Henry Kinney Margaret Wilkins Knight Mercy Lewis Abigail Martin Jr. Jeremiah Neale Sarah Nurse Betty Parris Edward Payson Samuel and Ruth Perley (or Pearly) Samuel Pickworth John and Lydia Porter Thomas Preston Ann Putnam Jr. Ann Putnam Sr. Edward Putnam Hannah Putnam John Putnam Jr. John Putnam Sr. Jonathan (or Johnathan) Putnam Nathaniel Putnam Thomas Putnam Nicholas Rist Margaret Rule Susannah Sheldon Mercy Short Martha Sprague Timothy Swan or Swann Christian Trask Peter Tufts Moses Tyler Jonathan Walcott Mary Walcott Richard Walker Mary Warren Joseph Whipple Bray Wilkins John Wilkins Samuel Wilkins Abigail Williams Daniel Wycom or Wicom or Wycombe Frances Wycom or Wycome or Wycombe Accused but survived Arthur Abbot Nehemiah Abbot Jr. John Alden Abigail Barker Katerina Biss Edward Bishop Edward Bishop III Mary Black Anne Bradstreet Dudley Bradstreet John Bradstreet Mary Bridges Sr. Sarah Bridges Sarah Buckley John Busse (or Buss) Andrew Carrier Richard Carrier Sarah Carrier Thomas Carrier Jr. Bethiah Carter Jr. Bethiah Carter Sr. Rachel Clinton Sarah Cloyce Elizabeth Colson Mary Colson Francis Dane Phoebe Day Elizabeth Dicer Rebecca Dike Ann Dolliver Mehitable Downing Mary Dyer Daniel and Lydia Eames Rebecca Blake Eames Esther Elwell Martha Emerson Joseph Emons Thomas Farrar Sr. Abigail Faulkner Jr. Abigail Faulkner Sr. Dorothy Faulkner Elizabeth Fosdick Eunice Frye Dorothy Good Mary Green Sarah Noyes Hale (wife of John Hale) Elizabeth Hutchinson Hart Margaret Hawkes Sarah Hawkes Jr. Dorcas Hoar Deliverance Hobbs William Hobbs Elizabeth Johnson Sr. Stephen Johnson Rebecca Jacobs Jane Lilly (or Lillie) Mary Marston Sarah Morey Sarah Murrell Robert and Sarah Pease Joan Penney (or Penny) Sarah Phelps Lady Mary Phips Mary Post Susannah Post Margaret Prince Elizabeth Proctor Sarah Proctor William Proctor Sarah Davis Rice Sarah Rist Sarah Root Susanna Rootes Abigail Rowe Mary Rowe Elizabeth Scargen Ann Sears Abigail Somes Sarah Clapp Swift Mary Harrington Taylor Margaret Thacher Job Tookey Margaret Toothaker Mary Toothaker Hannah Tyler Mary Lovett Tyler Hezekiah Usher II Rachel Vinson Mary Whittredge (or Witheridge) Sarah Wilson Jr. Sarah Wilson Sr. Edward Wooland Confessed and/or accused others Mary Barker William Barker Jr. William Barker Sr. Sarah Bibber Mary Bridges Jr. Sarah Churchwell Deliverance Dane Rebecca Eames Abigail Hobbs Margaret Jacobs Mary Lacey Jr. Mary Lacey Sr. Joanna Tyler Martha Tyler Mercy Wardwell Sarah Wardwell Mary Warren Candy Tituba Executed by hanging Bridget Bishop George Burroughs Martha Carrier Martha Corey Mary Eastey Sarah Good Elizabeth Howe George Jacobs Sr. Susannah Martin Rebecca Nurse Alice Parker Mary Ayer Parker John Proctor Ann Pudeator Wilmot Redd Margaret Scott Samuel Wardwell Sarah Wildes John Willard Pressed to death Giles Corey Born in prison Mercy, infant child of Sarah Good John Proctor III Died in prison John Durrant Lydia Dustin Ann Foster Mercy, infant child of Sarah Good Sarah Osborne Infant child of Elizabeth Scargen Roger Toothaker Escaped or otherwise fled John Alden Daniel Andrew Mary Bradbury Elizabeth Cary Phillip and Mary English Edward Farrington Mary Green George Jacobs Jr. Ephraim Stevens v t e Presidents of Harvard University Eaton† (1637–1639) Dunster (1640–1654) Chauncy (1654–1672) Hoar (1672–1675) Oakes (1675–1681) Rogers (1682–1684) Mather* (1685–1701) S. Willard* (1701–1707) Leverett (1708–1724) Wadsworth (1725–1737) Holyoke (1737–1769) Winthrop* (1769) Locke* (1770–1773) Winthrop* (1773) Langdon (1774–1780) J. Willard (1781–1804) Pearson* (1804–1806) Webber (1806–1810) Kirkland (1810–1828) Quincy (1829–1845) Everett (1846–1849) Sparks (1849–1853) Walker (1853–1860) Felton (1860–1862) Hill (1862–1868) Eliot (1869–1909) Lowell (1909–1933) Conant (1933–1953) Pusey (1953–1971) Bok (1971–1991) Rudenstine (1991–2001) Summers (2001–2006) Bok* (2006–2007) Faust (2007–2018) Bacow (2018– ) † – Eaton was known as the Schoolmaster; * indicates acting president Authority control BNF: cb12182865j (data) GND: 119062992 ISNI: 0000 0000 8384 5842 LCCN: n50044161 NKC: ola2013782846 NLI: 000410636 NTA: 068609094 PLWABN: 9810669743405606 SNAC: w6hq4jq8 SUDOC: 030409241 Trove: 915558 VIAF: 56653545 WorldCat Identities: lccn-n50044161 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Increase_Mather&oldid=999543398" Categories: 1639 births 1723 deaths People from North End, Boston People from colonial Boston People from Dorchester, Massachusetts 17th-century Christian clergy 18th-century Christian clergy American Congregationalist ministers American people of English descent American religious writers American sermon writers American Calvinist and Reformed theologians Harvard College alumni History of religion in the United States Massachusetts colonial-era clergy 17th-century New England Puritan ministers 18th-century New England Puritan ministers People of the Salem witch trials Presidents of Harvard University 17th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians 18th-century Calvinist and Reformed theologians Burials in Boston Mather family American slave owners Hidden categories: CS1 errors: access-date without URL Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Biography with signature Articles with hCards Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from Appleton's Cyclopedia Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles with Project Gutenberg links Articles with LibriVox links Articles with Internet Archive links Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SNAC-ID identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Languages العربية Deutsch Français Frysk 한국어 Italiano Қазақша Latina مصرى Norsk bokmål Svenska Edit links This page was last edited on 10 January 2021, at 18:45 (UTC). 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