Indigenous languages of the Americas - Wikipedia Indigenous languages of the Americas From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search "Amerindian language" redirects here. For the proposed language family, see Amerind languages. Languages spoken by people indigenous to the Americas Yucatec Maya writing in the Dresden Codex, ca. 11–12th century, Chichen Itza Indigenous languages of the Americas are spoken by indigenous peoples from Alaska, Nunavut, and Greenland to the southern tip of South America, encompassing the land masses that constitute the Americas. These indigenous languages consist of dozens of distinct language families, as well as many language isolates and unclassified languages. Many proposals to group these into higher-level families have been made, such as Joseph Greenberg's Amerind hypothesis.[1] This scheme is rejected by nearly all specialists, due to the fact that some of the languages differ too significantly to draw any connections between them.[2] According to UNESCO, most of the indigenous American languages are critically endangered, and many are already extinct.[3] The most widely spoken indigenous language is Southern Quechua, with about 6 to 7 million speakers, primarily in South America. In the United States, 372,000 people speak an indigenous language at home.[4] Contents 1 Background 2 Origins 3 Numbers of speakers 4 Language families and unclassified languages 4.1 Northern America 4.2 Central America and Mexico 4.3 South America and the Caribbean 5 Language stock proposals 6 Linguistic areas 7 Unattested languages 8 Pidgins and mixed languages 9 Writing systems 10 See also 11 Notes 12 Bibliography 12.1 North America 12.2 South America 13 External links Background[edit] This section needs additional citations for verification. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Further information: Indigenous peoples of the Americas Thousands of languages were spoken by various peoples in North and South America prior to their first contact with Europeans.[dubious – discuss] These encounters occurred between the beginning of the 11th century (with the Nordic settlement of Greenland and failed efforts in Newfoundland and Labrador) and the end of the 15th century (the voyages of Christopher Columbus). Several indigenous cultures of the Americas had also developed their own writing systems,[5] the best known being the Maya script.[6] The indigenous languages of the Americas had widely varying demographics, from the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guarani, and Nahuatl, which had millions of active speakers, to many languages with only several hundred speakers. After pre-Columbian times, several indigenous creole languages developed in the Americas, based on European, indigenous and African languages. The European colonizers and their successor states had widely varying attitudes towards Native American languages. In Brazil, friars learned and promoted the Tupi language.[7] In many Latin American colonies, Spanish missionaries often learned local languages and culture in order to preach to the natives in their own tongue and relate the Christian message to their indigenous religions. In the British American colonies, John Eliot of the Massachusetts Bay Colony translated the Bible into the Massachusett language, also called Wampanoag, or Natick (1661–1663); he published the first Bible printed in North America, the Eliot Indian Bible. The Europeans also suppressed use of indigenous American languages, establishing their own languages for official communications, destroying texts in other languages, and insisting that indigenous people learn European languages in schools. As a result, indigenous American languages suffered from cultural suppression and loss of speakers. By the 18th and 19th centuries, Spanish, English, Portuguese, French, and Dutch, brought to the Americas by European settlers and administrators, had become the official or national languages of modern nation-states of the Americas. Many indigenous languages have become critically endangered, but others are vigorous and part of daily life for millions of people. Several indigenous languages have been given official status in the countries where they occur, such as Guaraní in Paraguay. In other cases official status is limited to certain regions where the languages are most spoken. Although sometimes enshrined in constitutions as official, the languages may be used infrequently in de facto official use. Examples are Quechua in Peru and Aymara in Bolivia, where in practice, Spanish is dominant in all formal contexts. In North America and the Arctic region, Greenland in 2009 adopted Kalaallisut[8] as its sole official language. In the United States, the Navajo language is the most spoken Native American language, with more than 200,000 speakers in the Southwestern United States. The US Marine Corps recruited Navajo men, who were established as code talkers during World War II. Origins[edit] See also: Settlement of the Americas In American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America (1997), Lyle Campbell lists several hypotheses for the historical origins of Amerindian languages.[9] A single, one-language migration (not widely accepted) A few linguistically distinct migrations (favored by Edward Sapir) Multiple migrations Multilingual migrations (single migration with multiple languages) The influx of already diversified but related languages from the Old World Extinction of Old World linguistic relatives (while the New World ones survived) Migration along the Pacific coast instead of by the Bering Strait Roger Blench (2008) has advocated the theory of multiple migrations along the Pacific coast of peoples from northeastern Asia, who already spoke diverse languages. These proliferated in the New World.[10] Numbers of speakers[edit] Bullet points represent minority language status List of Widely Spoken and Officially Recognized Languages Language Number of speakers Official Recognition Source Southern Quechua 6,080,000  Bolivia (Official Language)  Peru (Official Language)  Jujuy, Argentina  Chile [11] Guaraní 4,850,000  Paraguay (Official Language)  Bolivia  Corrientes, Argentina  Brazil (Official Language in Tacuru,  Mato Grosso do Sul)  Mercosur [12] Kʼicheʼ 2,330,000  Guatemala  Mexico [13] Nahuatl 1,688,261  Mexico [14] Aymara 1,677,100  Bolivia  Peru  Chile [15][16] Kichwa 1,200,000  Ecuador Colombia ( Cauca, Nariño, Putumayo) [17] Ancash Quechua 918,000  Peru [18] Yucatec Maya 851,316  Mexico  Belize [19] Qʼeqchiʼ 800,000  Guatemala  Belize  Mexico [20] Tzeltal 524,823  Mexico [21] Mixtec 500,934  Mexico [22] Mam 478,000  Guatemala  Mexico Tzotzil 460,374  Mexico [23] Zapotec 450,431  Mexico [24] Kaqchikel 450,000  Guatemala  Mexico [25] Wayuunaiki 320,000  La Guajira,  Colombia Otomi 304,985  Mexico [26] Totonaco 261,946  Mexico [27] Mapuche 258,620 Cautín Province, La Araucanía,  Chile (Galvarino, Padre Las Casas) [28] Ch'ol 241,073  Mexico [29] Mazateco 233,022  Mexico [30] Garífuna 190,000  Guatemala  Belize  North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region,  Nicaragua  Honduras (Atlántida, Colón, Gracias a Dios) [31] Miskito 180,000  North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region,  Nicaragua  Honduras (Gracias a Dios) Huasteco 169,364  Mexico [32] Navajo 169,359  Navajo Nation, United States [33] Yaru Quechua 150,000  Peru [34] Mazahua 146,398  Mexico [35] Purepecha/Tarasco 136,864  Mexico [36] Chinanteco 135,033  Mexico [37] Ixil 135,000  Guatemala  Mexico Mixe 129,852  Mexico [38] Tlapaneco 127,780  Mexico [39] Cree 96,260  Northwest Territories, Canada  Alberta  Manitoba  Ontario  Quebec  Saskatchewan [40] Poqomchiʼ 92,000  Guatemala Ojibwe 90,000  Canada  United States [41] Jakaltek 90,000  Guatemala  Mexico Tz’utujil 99,300  Guatemala Achí 85,552  Guatemala Tarahumara 85,018  Mexico Qʼanjobʼal 81,000  Guatemala  Mexico Chuj 61,630  Guatemala  Mexico Kuna 61,000 Chocó,  Colombia Antioquia,  Colombia Paez 60,000  Colombia ( Cauca, Huila,  Valle del Cauca) Amuzgo 55,588  Mexico Tojolabʼal 51,733  Mexico Kalaallisut 49,826 §(estimated as per persons born in Greenland)  Greenland, Denmark [42] Tikuna 47,000  Amazonas,  Brazil, Amazonas,  Colombia (Leticia, Puerto Nariño) [43] Chatino 45,000  Mexico Huichol 44,800  Mexico Mayo 39,600  Mexico Inuktitut 39,475  Nunavut, Canada  Northwest Territories, Canada Nunavik,  Quebec Nunatsiavut,  Newfoundland and Labrador Inuvialuit Settlement Region,  Yukon [44] Chontal Maya 37,072  Mexico Wichi 36,135  Chaco, Argentina Tepehuán 36,000  Mexico Soteapanec 35,050  Mexico Shuar 35,000  Ecuador [45] Blackfoot 34,394  Alberta,  Canada,  Montana,  United States [46] Sikuani 34,000  Colombia ( Meta, Vichada, Arauca, Guainía, Guaviare) Kom 31,580  Chaco, Argentina Poqomam 30,000  Guatemala Ch'orti' 30,000  Guatemala Kaiwá 26,500  Mato Grosso do Sul,  Brazil [43] Sioux 25,000  South Dakota, United States [47] Oʼodham 23,313 Tohono Oʼodham Nation, United States Salt River Pima–Maricopa Indian Community, United States  Mexico Kaigang 22,000  Brazil [43] Guambiano 21,000  Cauca,  Colombia Cora 20,100  Mexico Yanomamö 20,000  Brazil  Venezuela [43] Nheengatu 19,000 São Gabriel da Cachoeira,  Amazonas,  Brazil Colombia  Venezuela [48] Yup'ik (Central Alaskan) & Siberian) 18,626  Alaska, United States Huave 17,900  Mexico [49] Yaqui 17,546  Mexico Piaroa 17,000 Vichada,  Colombia Sakapultek 15,000  Guatemala Western Apache 14,012 San Carlos Apache Nation, United States Fort Apache Indian Reservation, United States Xavante 13,300  Mato Grosso,  Brazil [43] Keresan 13,073  New Mexico, United States Cuicatec 13,000  Mexico Awa Pit 13,000 Nariño,  Colombia Cherokee 12,320 Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians,  North Carolina, United States Cherokee Nation of  Oklahoma, United States Karu 12,000 Guaviare,  Colombia São Gabriel da Cachoeira,  Amazonas,  Brazil (Baníwa language) Awakatek 11,607  Guatemala  Mexico Chipewyan 11,325  Northwest Territories, Canada [50] Pame 11,000  Mexico Wounaan 10,800  Colombia ( Chocó,  Cauca,  Valle del Cauca) Choctaw 10,368 Choctaw Nation of  Oklahoma, United States [51] Moxo 10,000  Bolivia Kogi 9,900  Magdalena,  Colombia Zuni 9,620  New Mexico, United States [52] Guajajara 9,500  Maranhão,  Brazil [43] Sumo 9,000  North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region,  Nicaragua Mopan 9,000–12,000  Guatemala  Belize [53] Tepehua 8,900  Mexico Mawé 8,900  Pará,  Amazonas,  Brazil [43] Terena 8,200  Mato Grosso do Sul,  Brazil [43] Sipakapense 8,000  Guatemala Ika 8,000  Cesar,  Colombia  Magdalena,  Colombia Tukano 7,100 São Gabriel da Cachoeira,  Amazonas,  Brazil Vaupés,  Colombia [46] Minica Huitoto 6,800 Amazonas,  Colombia Hopi 6,780  Arizona, United States [54] Piapoco 6,400  Colombia (Guainía, Vichada, Meta) Cubeo 6,300 Vaupés,  Colombia Kayapo 6,200  Pará,  Mato Grosso ,  Brazil [46] Yukpa 6,000  Cesar,  Colombia Chiquitano 5,900  Bolivia Mato Grosso,  Brazil Guarayu 5,900  Bolivia Macushi 5,800  Roraima,  Amazonas,  Brazil  Venezuela  Guyana [46] Chimané 5,300  Bolivia Tewa 5,123  New Mexico, United States Timbira 5,100  Maranhão,  Tocantins,  Pará,  Brazil [55] Muscogee 5,072 Creek Nation,  Oklahoma, United States [56] Chontal of Oaxaca 5,039  Mexico [57] Tektitek 5,000  Guatemala Barí 5,000  Cesar,  Colombia Norte de Santander,  Colombia Sanumá 5,000  Brazil Venezuela [58] Camsá 4,000 Putumayo,  Colombia Kulina 3,900  Amazonas,  Brazil Peru [58] Crow 3,862  Montana,  United States Mohawk 3,875  Ontario,  Quebec,  Canada  New York,  United States [59][60] Kashinawa 3,588  Brazil,  Peru Munduruku 3,563  Pará,  Amazonas,  Brazil [58] Tunebo/Uwa 3,550 Boyacá,  Colombia Ayoreo 3,160  Bolivia Desano 3,160 Amazonas,  Colombia Wapishana 3,154  Roraima,  Brazil (Official language in Bomfim, Roraima)  Guyana [61][58] Yaminawa 3,129  Bolivia Moquoit 3,000  Chaco, Argentina Inupiat 3,000  Alaska, United States  Northwest Territories, Canada Puinave 3,000 Guainía,  Colombia Cuiba 2,900  Colombia ( Casanare, Vichada, Arauca) Tupi-Mondé 2,886  Rondônia,  Brazil [58] Yuracaré 2,700  Bolivia Wanano 2,600 Vaupés,  Colombia Shoshoni 2,512  United States Bora 2,400 Amazonas,  Colombia Cofán 2,400  Colombia ( Nariño, Putumayo) Kanamari 2,298  Amazonas,  Brazil [58] Fox (Mesquakie-Sauk-Kickapoo) 2,288  Sac and Fox Nation, United States  Mexico Waiwai 2,217  Brazil,  Guyana Karajá 2,137  Brazil [58] Huarijio 2,136  Mexico Slavey 2,120  Northwest Territories, Canada Chichimeca 2,100  Mexico Koreguaje 2,100 Caquetá,  Colombia Xerente 2,051  Tocantins,  Brazil [58] Uspanteko 2,000  Guatemala Fulniô 1,871  Pernambuco,  Brazil [58] Pakaásnovos (wari) 1,854  Rondônia,  Brazil [58] Wiwa 1,850  Cesar,  Colombia Weenhayek 1,810  Bolivia Matlatzinca 1,800  Mexico Tacana 1,800  Bolivia Tłı̨chǫ Yatıì 1,735  Northwest Territories, Canada Cavineña 1,700  Bolivia Jupda 1,700 Amazonas,  Colombia Zacatepec Mixtec 1,500  Mexico Seneca 1,453 Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation,  Ontario, Canada [62] Movima 1,400  Bolivia Tlingit 1,360  Alaska, United States Inuinnaqtun 1,310  Nunavut, Canada  Northwest Territories, Canada Kiowa 1,274  Oklahoma,  United States Ka'apor 1,241  Maranhão,  Brazil [58] Aleut 1,236  Alaska, United States Gwichʼin 1,217  Alaska, United States  Northwest Territories, Canada Inuvialuktun 1,150  Nunavut, Canada  Northwest Territories, Canada Arapaho 1 087  United States Macuna 1,032 Vaupés,  Colombia Guayabero 1,000  Colombia ( Meta, Guaviare) Comanche 963  United States Chocho 810  Mexico Maricopa/Piipaash 800 Salt River Pima–Maricopa Indian Community,  Arizona, United States Rama 740  North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region,  Nicaragua Seri 729  Mexico [63] Ese Ejja 700  Bolivia Nukak 700 Guaviare,  Colombia Pima Bajo 650  Mexico Cayuvava 650  Bolivia Chácobo-Pakawara 600  Bolivia Lacandon 600  Mexico Oneida 574 Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation,  Ontario, Canada Oneida Nation of the Thames,  Ontario, Canada [64][65][66] Cocopah 515  Mexico [67] Sirionó 500  Bolivia Siona 500 Putumayo,  Colombia Havasupai–Hualapai 445 Havasupai Indian Reservation,  Arizona, United States [68] Kumeyaay 427 (525 including Ipai and Tiipai languages)  Mexico Sycuan Band of the Kumeyaay Nation,  California, United States (Ballot Recognition) [69][70] Tembé 420  Maranhão,  Brazil [58] Yurok 414  California,  United States Alutiiq/Sugpiaq 400  Alaska, United States Tatuyo 400 Vaupés,  Colombia Andoque 370 Caquetá,  Colombia Guajá 365  Maranhão,  Brazil Chimila 350  Magdalena,  Colombia Koyukon 300  Alaska, United States Hitnü 300 Arauca,  Colombia Mikasuki 290  Georgia (U.S. state),  Florida,  United States [71] Quechan 290 Imperial County,  California, United States (Ballot Recognition) Yuma County,  Arizona, United States (Ballot Recognition) [72] Cabiyari 270 Mirití-Paraná, Amazonas,  Colombia Reyesano 250  Bolivia Achagua 250 Meta,  Colombia Kakwa 250 Vaupés,  Colombia Yavapai 245  Arizona,  United States [73] Siriano 220 Vaupés,  Colombia Mojave 200  Arizona,  United States [74] Paipai 200  Mexico [75] Toromono 200  Bolivia Ixcatec 190  Mexico Ocaina 190 Amazonas,  Colombia Haida 168  Alaska, United States Council of the Haida Nation, Canada Muinane 150 Amazonas,  Colombia Deg Xinag 127  Alaska, United States Warázu 125  Bolivia Araona 110  Bolivia Upper Tanana 100  Alaska, United States Itene 90  Bolivia Ahtna 80  Alaska, United States Tsimshian 70  Alaska, United States Tanacross 65  Alaska, United States Cayuga 61 Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation,  Ontario, Canada Cattaraugus Reservation,  New York, United States [76] Denaʼina 50  Alaska, United States Onondaga 50 Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation,  Ontario, Canada [77] Bauré 40  Bolivia Upper Kuskokwim 40  Alaska, United States Tanana 30  Alaska, United States Ayapaneco 24  Mexico [78] Leco 20  Bolivia Xincan 16  Guatemala Hän 12  Alaska, United States Holikachuk 12  Alaska, United States Carijona 6  Colombia ( Amazonas, Guaviare) Itonama 5  Bolivia Kiliwa 4  Mexico Tuscarora 3 Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation,  Ontario, Canada Tuscarora Reservation,  New York, United States [79] Nonuya 2 Amazonas,  Colombia Cochimí 0  Mexico (Extinct, but retains recognition) Kallawaya 0  Bolivia (Extinct, but retains recognition) Eyak 0  Alaska, United States (Extinct, but retains recognition) Language families and unclassified languages[edit] Further information: Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas Notes: Extinct languages or families are indicated by: †. The number of family members is indicated in parentheses (for example, Arauan (9) means the Arauan family consists of nine languages). For convenience, the following list of language families is divided into three sections based on political boundaries of countries. These sections correspond roughly with the geographic regions (North, Central, and South America) but are not equivalent. This division cannot fully delineate indigenous culture areas. Northern America[edit] Pre-contact: distribution of North American language families, including northern Mexico Bilingual stop sign in English and the Cherokee syllabary, Tahlequah, Oklahoma There are approximately 296 spoken (or formerly spoken) indigenous languages north of Mexico, 269 of which are grouped into 29 families (the remaining 27 languages are either isolates or unclassified).[citation needed] The Na-Dené, Algic, and Uto-Aztecan families are the largest in terms of number of languages. Uto-Aztecan has the most speakers (1.95 million) if the languages in Mexico are considered (mostly due to 1.5 million speakers of Nahuatl); Na-Dené comes in second with approximately 200,000 speakers (nearly 180,000 of these are speakers of Navajo), and Algic in third with about 180,000 speakers (mainly Cree and Ojibwe). Na-Dené and Algic have the widest geographic distributions: Algic currently spans from northeastern Canada across much of the continent down to northeastern Mexico (due to later migrations of the Kickapoo) with two outliers in California (Yurok and Wiyot); Na-Dené spans from Alaska and western Canada through Washington, Oregon, and California to the U.S. Southwest and northern Mexico (with one outlier in the Plains). Several families consist of only 2 or 3 languages. Demonstrating genetic relationships has proved difficult due to the great linguistic diversity present in North America. Two large (super-) family proposals, Penutian and Hokan, look particularly promising. However, even after decades of research, a large number of families remain. North America is notable for its linguistic diversity, especially in California. This area has 18 language families comprising 74 languages (compared to four families in Europe: Indo-European, Uralic, Turkic, and Afroasiatic and one isolate, Basque).[80] Another area of considerable diversity appears to have been the Southeastern Woodlands[citation needed]; however, many of these languages became extinct from European contact and as a result they are, for the most part, absent from the historical record.[citation needed] This diversity has influenced the development of linguistic theories and practice in the US. Due to the diversity of languages in North America, it is difficult to make generalizations for the region. Most North American languages have a relatively small number of vowels (i.e. three to five vowels). Languages of the western half of North America often have relatively large consonant inventories. The languages of the Pacific Northwest are notable for their complex phonotactics (for example, some languages have words that lack vowels entirely).[81] The languages of the Plateau area have relatively rare pharyngeals and epiglottals (they are otherwise restricted to Afroasiatic languages and the languages of the Caucasus). Ejective consonants are also common in western North America, although they are rare elsewhere (except, again, for the Caucasus region, parts of Africa, and the Mayan family). Head-marking is found in many languages of North America (as well as in Central and South America), but outside of the Americas it is rare. Many languages throughout North America are polysynthetic (Eskimo–Aleut languages are extreme examples), although this is not characteristic of all North American languages (contrary to what was believed by 19th-century linguists). Several families have unique traits, such as the inverse number marking of the Tanoan languages, the lexical affixes of the Wakashan, Salishan and Chimakuan languages, and the unusual verb structure of Na-Dené. The classification below is a composite of Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), and Mithun (1999). See also: List of unclassified languages of North America Adai † Algic (30) Alsea (2) † Atakapa † Beothuk † Caddoan (5) Cayuse † Chimakuan (2) † Chimariko † Chinookan (3) † Chitimacha † Chumashan (6) † Coahuilteco † Comecrudan (United States & Mexico) (3) † Coosan (2) † Cotoname † Eskimo–Aleut (7) Esselen † Haida Iroquoian (11) Kalapuyan (3) † Karankawa † Karuk Keresan (2) Kutenai Maiduan (4) Muskogean (9) Na-Dené (United States, Canada & Mexico) (39) Natchez † Palaihnihan (2) Plateau Penutian (4) (also known as Shahapwailutan) Pomoan (7) Salinan † Salishan (23) Shastan (4) † Siouan (19) Siuslaw † Solano † Takelma † Tanoan (7) Timucua † Tonkawa † Tsimshianic (2) Tunica † Utian (15) (also known as Miwok–Costanoan) Uto-Aztecan (33) Wakashan (7) Wappo † Washo Wintuan (4) Yana † Yokutsan (3) Yuchi Yuki † Yuman–Cochimí (11) Zuni Central America and Mexico[edit] The indigenous languages of Mexico that have more than 100,000 speakers The Mayan languages The Chibchan languages In Central America the Mayan languages are among those used today. Mayan languages are spoken by at least 6 million indigenous Maya, primarily in Guatemala, Mexico, Belize and Honduras. In 1996, Guatemala formally recognized 21 Mayan languages by name, and Mexico recognizes eight more. The Mayan language family is one of the best documented and most studied in the Americas. Modern Mayan languages descend from Proto-Mayan, a language thought to have been spoken at least 4,000 years ago; it has been partially reconstructed using the comparative method. See also: Mesoamerican languages Alagüilac (Guatemala) † Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22) Coahuilteco † Comecrudan (Texas & Mexico) (3) † Cotoname † Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero) † Epi-Olmec (Mexico: language of undeciphered inscriptions) † Guaicurian (8) † Huave Jicaquean (2) Lencan (2) † Maratino (northeastern Mexico) † Mayan (31) Misumalpan (5) Mixe–Zoquean (19) Naolan (Mexico: Tamaulipas) † Oto-Manguean (27) Pericú † Purépecha Quinigua (northeast Mexico) † Seri Solano † Tequistlatecan (3) Totonacan (2) Uto-Aztecan (United States & Mexico) (33) Xincan (5) † Yuman (United States & Mexico) (11) South America and the Caribbean[edit] Main article: Indigenous languages of South America Some of the greater families of South America: dark spots are language isolates or quasi-isolate, grey spots unclassified languages or languages with doubtful classification. (Note that Quechua, the family with most speakers, is not displayed.) A Urarina shaman, 1988 Although both North and Central America are very diverse areas, South America has a linguistic diversity rivalled by only a few other places in the world with approximately 350 languages still spoken and an estimated 1,500 languages at first European contact.[citation needed] The situation of language documentation and classification into genetic families is not as advanced as in North America (which is relatively well studied in many areas). Kaufman (1994: 46) gives the following appraisal: Since the mid 1950s, the amount of published material on SA [South America] has been gradually growing, but even so, the number of researchers is far smaller than the growing number of linguistic communities whose speech should be documented. Given the current employment opportunities, it is not likely that the number of specialists in SA Indian languages will increase fast enough to document most of the surviving SA languages before they go out of use, as most of them unavoidably will. More work languishes in personal files than is published, but this is a standard problem. It is fair to say that SA and New Guinea are linguistically the poorest documented parts of the world. However, in the early 1960s fairly systematic efforts were launched in Papua New Guinea, and that area – much smaller than SA, to be sure – is in general much better documented than any part of indigenous SA of comparable size. As a result, many relationships between languages and language families have not been determined and some of those relationships that have been proposed are on somewhat shaky ground. The list of language families, isolates, and unclassified languages below is a rather conservative one based on Campbell (1997). Many of the proposed (and often speculative) groupings of families can be seen in Campbell (1997), Gordon (2005), Kaufman (1990, 1994), Key (1979), Loukotka (1968), and in the Language stock proposals section below. See also: List of unclassified languages of South America Aguano † Aikaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (also known as Aikanã, Tubarão) Andaquí (also known as Andaqui, Andakí) † Andoque (Colombia, Peru) (also known as Andoke) Andoquero † Arauan (9) Arawakan (South America & Caribbean) (64) (also known as Maipurean) Arutani Aymaran (3) Baenan (Brazil: Bahia) (also known as Baenán, Baenã) † Barbacoan (8) Betoi (Colombia) (also known as Betoy, Jirara) † Bororoan Botocudoan (3) (also known as Aimoré) Cahuapanan (2) (also known as Jebero, Kawapánan) Camsá (Colombia) (also known as Sibundoy, Coche) Candoshi (also known as Maina, Kandoshi) Canichana (Bolivia) (also known as Canesi, Kanichana) Carabayo Cariban (29) (also known as Caribe, Carib) Catacaoan (also known as Katakáoan) † Cayubaba (Bolivia) Chapacuran (9) (also known as Chapacura-Wanham, Txapakúran) Charruan (also known as Charrúan) † Chibchan (Central America & South America) (22) Chimuan (3) † Chipaya–Uru (also known as Uru–Chipaya) Chiquitano Choco (10) (also known as Chocoan) Chon (2) (also known as Patagonian) Chono † Coeruna (Brazil) † Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador) Cueva † Culle (Peru) (also known as Culli, Linga, Kulyi) † Cunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina) (also known as Atacama, Atakama, Atacameño, Lipe, Kunsa) † Esmeraldeño (also known as Esmeralda, Takame) † Fulnió Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão) † Gorgotoqui (Bolivia) † Guaicuruan (7) (also known as Guaykuruan, Waikurúan) Guajiboan (4) (also known as Wahívoan) Guamo (Venezuela) (also known as Wamo) † Guató Harakmbut (2) (also known as Tuyoneri) Hibito–Cholon † Himarimã Hodï (Venezuela) (also known as Jotí, Hoti, Waruwaru) Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco) † Huaorani (Ecuador, Peru) (also known as Auca, Huaorani, Wao, Auka, Sabela, Waorani, Waodani) Huarpe (also known as Warpe) † Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso) Itonama (Bolivia) (also known as Saramo, Machoto) Jabutian Je (13) (also known as Gê, Jêan, Gêan, Ye) Jeikó † Jirajaran (3) (also known as Hiraháran, Jirajarano, Jirajarana) † Jivaroan (2) (also known as Hívaro) Jukude (Maku of Auari) Kaimbe Kaliana (also known as Caliana, Cariana, Sapé, Chirichano) Kamakanan † Kapixaná (Brazil: Rondônia) (also known as Kanoé, Kapishaná) Karajá Karirí (Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará) † Katembrí † Katukinan (3) (also known as Catuquinan) Kawésqar (Chile) (Kaweskar, Alacaluf, Qawasqar, Halawalip, Aksaná, Hekaine) Kwaza (Koayá) (Brazil: Rondônia) Leco (Lapalapa, Leko) Lule (Argentina) (also known as Tonocoté) Malibú (also known as Malibu) Mapudungun (Chile, Argentina) (also known as Araucanian, Mapuche, Huilliche) Mascoyan (5) (also known as Maskóian, Mascoian) Matacoan (4) (also known as Mataguayan) Matanawí † Maxakalían (3) (also known as Mashakalían) Mocana (Colombia: Tubará) † Mosetenan (also known as Mosetén) Movima (Bolivia) Munichi (Peru) (also known as Muniche) Muran (4) Mutú (also known as Loco) Nadahup (5) Nambiquaran (5) Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco) † Nonuya (Peru, Colombia) Ofayé Old Catío–Nutabe (Colombia) † Omurano (Peru) (also known as Mayna, Mumurana, Numurana, Maina, Rimachu, Roamaina, Umurano) † Otí (Brazil: São Paulo) † Otomakoan (2) † Paez (also known as Nasa Yuwe) Palta † Pankararú (Brazil: Pernambuco) † Pano–Tacanan (33) Panzaleo (Ecuador) (also known as Latacunga, Quito, Pansaleo) † Patagon † (Peru) Peba–Yaguan (2) (also known as Yaguan, Yáwan, Peban) Pijao† Pre-Arawakan languages of the Greater Antilles (Guanahatabey, Macorix, Ciguayo) † (Cuba, Hispaniola) Puelche (Chile) (also known as Guenaken, Gennaken, Pampa, Pehuenche, Ranquelche) † Puinave (also known as Makú) Puquina (Bolivia) † Purian (2) † Quechuan (46) Rikbaktsá Saliban (2) (also known as Sálivan) Sechura (Atalan, Sec) † Tabancale † (Peru) Tairona (Colombia) † Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte) † Taruma † Taushiro (Peru) (also known as Pinchi, Pinche) Tequiraca (Peru) (also known as Tekiraka, Avishiri) † Teushen † (Patagonia, Argentina) Ticuna (Colombia, Peru, Brazil) (also known as Magta, Tikuna, Tucuna, Tukna, Tukuna) Timotean (2) † Tiniguan (2) (also known as Tiníwan, Pamiguan) † Trumai (Brazil: Xingu, Mato Grosso) Tucanoan (15) Tupian (70, including Guaraní) Tuxá (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco) † Urarina (also known as Shimacu, Itukale, Shimaku) Vilela Wakona † Warao (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela) (also known as Guarao) Witotoan (6) (also known as Huitotoan, Bora–Witótoan) Xokó (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco) (also known as Shokó) † Xukurú (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba) † Yaghan (Chile) (also known as Yámana) Yanomaman (4) Yaruro (also known as Jaruro) Yuracare (Bolivia) Yuri (Colombia, Brazil) (also known as Carabayo, Jurí) † Yurumanguí (Colombia) (also known as Yurimangui, Yurimangi) † Zamucoan (2) Zaparoan (5) (also known as Záparo) Language stock proposals[edit] Main article: Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas Hypothetical language-family proposals of American languages are often cited as uncontroversial in popular writing. However, many of these proposals have not been fully demonstrated, or even demonstrated at all. Some proposals are viewed by specialists in a favorable light, believing that genetic relationships are very likely to be established in the future (for example, the Penutian stock). Other proposals are more controversial with many linguists believing that some genetic relationships of a proposal may be demonstrated but much of it undemonstrated (for example, Hokan–Siouan, which, incidentally, Edward Sapir called his "wastepaper basket stock").[82] Still other proposals are almost unanimously rejected by specialists (for example, Amerind). Below is a (partial) list of some such proposals: Algonquian–Wakashan   (also known as Almosan) Almosan–Keresiouan   (Almosan + Keresiouan) Amerind   (all languages excepting Eskimo–Aleut & Na-Dené) Algonkian–Gulf   (Algic + Beothuk + Gulf) (macro-)Arawakan Arutani–Sape (Ahuaque–Kalianan) Aztec–Tanoan   (Uto-Aztecan + Tanoan) Chibchan–Paezan Chikitano–Boróroan Chimu–Chipaya Coahuiltecan   (Coahuilteco + Cotoname + Comecrudan + Karankawa + Tonkawa) Cunza–Kapixanan Dené–Caucasian Dené–Yeniseian Esmerelda–Yaruroan Ge–Pano–Carib Guamo–Chapacuran Gulf   (Muskogean + Natchez + Tunica) Macro-Kulyi–Cholónan Hokan   (Karok + Chimariko + Shastan + Palaihnihan + Yana + Pomoan + Washo + Esselen + Yuman + Salinan + Chumashan + Seri + Tequistlatecan) Hokan–Siouan   (Hokan + Keresiouan + Subtiaba–Tlappanec + Coahuiltecan + Yukian + Tunican + Natchez + Muskogean + Timucua) Je–Tupi–Carib Jivaroan–Cahuapanan Kalianan Kandoshi–Omurano–Taushiro (Macro-)Katembri–Taruma Kaweskar language area Keresiouan   (Macro-Siouan + Keresan + Yuchi) Lule–Vilelan Macro-Andean Macro-Carib Macro-Chibchan Macro-Gê   (also known as Macro-Jê) Macro-Jibaro Macro-Lekoan Macro-Mayan Macro-Otomákoan Macro-Paesan Macro-Panoan Macro-Puinavean Macro-Siouan   (Siouan + Iroquoian + Caddoan) Macro-Tucanoan Macro-Tupí–Karibe Macro-Waikurúan Macro-Warpean   (Muran + Matanawi + Huarpe) Mataco–Guaicuru Mosan   (Salishan + Wakashan + Chimakuan) Mosetén–Chonan Mura–Matanawian Sapir's Na-Dené including Haida   (Haida + Tlingit + Eyak + Athabaskan) Nostratic–Amerind Paezan (Andaqui + Paez + Panzaleo) Paezan–Barbacoan Penutian   (many languages of California and sometimes languages in Mexico) California Penutian   (Wintuan + Maiduan + Yokutsan + Utian) Oregon Penutian   (Takelma + Coosan + Siuslaw + Alsean) Mexican Penutian   (Mixe–Zoque + Huave) Puinave–Maku Quechumaran Saparo–Yawan   (also known as Zaparo–Yaguan) Sechura–Catacao (also known as Sechura–Tallan) Takelman   (Takelma + Kalapuyan) Tequiraca–Canichana Ticuna–Yuri (Yuri–Ticunan) Totozoque   (Totonacan + Mixe–Zoque) Tunican   (Tunica + Atakapa + Chitimacha) Yok–Utian Yuki–Wappo Good discussions of past proposals can be found in Campbell (1997) and Campbell & Mithun (1979). Amerindian linguist Lyle Campbell also assigned different percentage values of probability and confidence for various proposals of macro-families and language relationships, depending on his views of the proposals' strengths.[83] For example, the Germanic language family would receive probability and confidence percentage values of +100% and 100%, respectively. However, if Turkish and Quechua were compared, the probability value might be −95%, while the confidence value might be 95%.[clarification needed] 0% probability or confidence would mean complete uncertainty. Language Family Probability Confidence Algonkian–Gulf −50% 50% Almosan (and beyond) −75% 50% Atakapa–Chitimacha −50% 60% Aztec–Tanoan 0% 50% Coahuiltecan −85% 80% Eskimo–Aleut, Chukotan[84] −25% 20% Guaicurian–Hokan 0% 10% Gulf −25% 40% Hokan–Subtiaba −90% 75% Jicaque–Hokan −30% 25% Jicaque–Subtiaba −60% 80% Jicaque–Tequistlatecan +65% 50% Keresan and Uto-Aztecan 0% 60% Keresan and Zuni −40% 40% Macro-Mayan[85] +30% 25% Macro-Siouan[86] −20% 75% Maya–Chipaya −80% 95% Maya–Chipaya–Yunga −90% 95% Mexican Penutian −40% 60% Misumalpan–Chibchan +20% 50% Mosan −60% 65% Na-Dene 0% 25% Natchez–Muskogean +40% 20% Nostratic–Amerind −90% 75% Otomanguean–Huave +25% 25% Purépecha–Quechua −90% 80% Quechua as Hokan −85% 80% Quechumaran +50% 50% Sahaptian–Klamath–(Molala) +75% 50% Sahaptian–Klamath–Tsimshian +10% 10% Takelman[87] +80% 60% Tlapanec–Subtiaba as Otomanguean +95% 90% Tlingit–Eyak–Athabaskan +75% 40% Tunican 0% 20% Wakashan and Chimakuan 0% 25% Yukian–Gulf −85% 70% Yukian–Siouan −60% 75% Zuni–Penutian −80% 50% Linguistic areas[edit] Main article: Linguistic areas of the Americas Unattested languages[edit] Several languages are only known by mention in historical documents or from only a few names or words. It cannot be determined that these languages actually existed or that the few recorded words are actually of known or unknown languages. Some may simply be from a historian's errors. Others are of known people with no linguistic record (sometimes due to lost records). A short list is below. Ais Akokisa Aranama Ausaima Avoyel Bayagoula Bidai Cacán (Diaguita–Calchaquí) Calusa - Mayaimi - Tequesta Cusabo Eyeish Grigra Guale Houma Koroa Mayaca (possibly related to Ais) Mobila Okelousa Opelousa Pascagoula Pensacola - Chatot (Muscogean languages, possibly related to Choctaw) Pijao language Pisabo [possibly the same language as Matsés] Quinipissa Taensa Tiou Yamacraw Yamasee Yazoo Loukotka (1968) reports the names of hundreds of South American languages which do not have any linguistic documentation. Pidgins and mixed languages[edit] Various miscellaneous languages such as pidgins, mixed languages, trade languages, and sign languages are given below in alphabetical order. American Indian Pidgin English Algonquian-Basque pidgin (also known as Micmac-Basque Pidgin, Souriquois; spoken by the Basques, Micmacs, and Montagnais in eastern Canada) Broken Oghibbeway (also known as Broken Ojibwa) Broken Slavey Bungee (also known as Bungi, Bungie, Bungay, or the Red River Dialect) Callahuaya (also known as Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya, Collahuaya, Pohena, Kolyawaya Jargon) Carib Pidgin (also known as Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Ndjuka-Trio) Carib Pidgin–Arawak Mixed Language Catalangu Chinook Jargon Delaware Jargon (also known as Pidgin Delaware) Eskimo Trade Jargon (also known as Herschel Island Eskimo Pidgin, Ship's Jargon) Greenlandic Pidgin (West Greenlandic Pidgin) Guajiro-Spanish Güegüence-Nicarao Haida Jargon Inuktitut-English Pidgin (Quebec) Jargonized Powhatan Keresan Sign Language Labrador Eskimo Pidgin (also known as Labrador Inuit Pidgin) Lingua Franca Apalachee Lingua Franca Creek Lingua Geral Amazônica (also known as Nheengatú, Lingua Boa, Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte) Lingua Geral do Sul (also known as Lingua Geral Paulista, Tupí Austral) Loucheux Jargon (also known as Jargon Loucheux) Media Lengua Mednyj Aleut (also known as Copper Island Aleut, Medniy Aleut, CIA) Michif (also known as French Cree, Métis, Metchif, Mitchif, Métchif) Mobilian Jargon (also known as Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Chocaw Trade Language, Yamá) Montagnais Pidgin Basque (also known as Pidgin Basque-Montagnais) Nootka Jargon (spoken during the 18th-19th centuries; later replaced by Chinook Jargon) Ocaneechi (also known as Occaneechee; spoken in Virginia and the Carolinas in early colonial times) Pidgin Massachusett Plains Indian Sign Language Writing systems[edit] While most indigenous languages have adopted the Latin script as the written form of their languages, a few languages have their own unique writing systems after encountering the Latin script (often through missionaries) that are still in use. All pre-Columbian indigenous writing systems are no longer used. Indigenous Writing Systems of the Americas Writing System Type Language(s) Region(s) Date in usage Status Inventor Quipu N/A (string) Aymara, Quechua, Puquina Andean civilizations (Western South America) 3rd millennium BCE – 17th century Extinct Olmec Hieroglyphs Logogram Mixe–Zoque languages Isthmus of Tehuantepec 1500 BCE – 400 BCE Extinct Zapotec writing unknown Zapotec languages Oaxaca 500 BCE – 700 CE Extinct Epi-Olmec/Isthmian Script Logogram Zoque languages Isthmus of Tehuantepec 500 BCE – 500 CE Extinct Abaj Takalik and Kaminaljuyú scripts unknown unknown Mixe–Zoquean language Southern Guatemala Extinct Maya Script Logogram Mayan languages Maya civilization: Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico, Guatemala, & Belize 3rd century BCE – 16th century CE Extinct Mixtec Script Logogram Mixtecan languages Oaxaca, Puebla, Guerrero 13th century – 16th century CE Extinct Aztec Script Semasiogram Nahuatl Central Mexico 14th century – 16th century CE Extinct Komqwejwi'kasikl (Miꞌkmaw Hieroglyphs) Logogram Mi'kmaq Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, & New Brunswick 17th–19th century Extinct Cherokee Syllabary Syllabary Cherokee Cherokee Nation, United States 1820s–present Active Sequoyah ᏍᏏᏉᏯ Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics Abugida Algonquian languages (Cree, Naskapi, Ojibwe/Chippewa, & Blackfoot (Siksika)) Eskimo–Aleut languages (Inuktitut & Inuinnaqtun) Athabaskan languages (Dane-zaa, Slavey, Chipewyan (Denesuline)/Sayisi, Carrier (Dakelh), & Sekani) Canada 1840s–present Active James Evans ᒉᐃᒻᔅ ᐁᕙᓐᔅ Yugtun Script Syllabary Central Alaskan Yup'ik Alaska 1900–present Endangered Uyaquq Afaka Syllabary Syllabary Ndyuka Suriname, French Guiana 1910–present Endangered Afáka Atumisi See also[edit] Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal Amerind languages Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas Classification of indigenous languages of the Americas Haplogroup Q-M242 (Y-DNA) Indigenous peoples of the Americas Language families and languages Languages of Peru List of endangered languages in Canada List of endangered languages in Mexico List of endangered languages in the United States List of endangered languages with mobile apps List of indigenous languages of South America List of indigenous languages in Argentina Mesoamerican languages Native American Languages Act of 1990 Notes[edit] ^ Greenberg, Joseph (1987). Language in the Americas. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1315-3. ^ Campbell, Lyle (2000). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534983-2., page 253 ^ Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (15th ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com) ^ "Census Shows Native Languages Count". Language Magazine. Retrieved 2020-08-16. ^ Premm, Hanns J.; Riese, Berthold (1983). Coulmas, Florian; Ehlich, Konrad (eds.). Autochthonous American writing systems: The Aztec and Mayan examples. Writing in Focus. Trends in Linguistics: Studies and Monographs. 24. Berlin: Mouton Publishers. pp. 167–169. ISBN 978-90-279-3359-1. Retrieved 15 March 2019. ^ Wichmann, Soren (2006). "Mayan Historical Linguistics and Epigraphy: A New Synthesis". Annual Review of Anthropology. 35: 279–294. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123257. ^ Shapiro, Judith (1987). "From Tupã to the Land without Evil: The Christianization of Tupi-Guarani Cosmology". American Ethnologist. 1 (14): 126–139. doi:10.1525/ae.1987.14.1.02a00080. ^ "Lov om Grønlands Selvstyre Kapitel 7 Sprog" [Law of Greenland Self-Determination Chapter 7 Language] (PDF). www.stm.dk. Retrieved 2020-06-11. ^ Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian languages: the historical linguistics of Native America. Ch. 3 The Origin of American Indian Languages, pp. 90–106. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1. ^ Blench, Roger. (2008) Accounting for the Diversity of Amerindian Languages: Modelling the Settlement of the New World. 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Retrieved 2020-06-11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "IBGE - Indigenous languages census" (PDF). ^ "Mohawk". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-06-09. ^ Canada, Government of Canada, Statistics. "Aboriginal Mother Tongue (90), Single and Multiple Mother Tongue Responses (3), Aboriginal Identity (9), Registered or Treaty Indian Status (3) and Age (12) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces and Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2016 Census - 25% Sample Data". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2018-06-09. ^ "Idiomas indígenas Macuxi e Wapixana são oficializados em município de Roraima – Amazônia.org" (in Portuguese). Retrieved 2020-10-26. ^ Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) ^ "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11. ^ Canada, Government of Canada, Statistics. "Aboriginal Mother Tongue (90), Single and Multiple Mother Tongue Responses (3), Aboriginal Identity (9), Registered or Treaty Indian Status (3) and Age (12) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces and Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2016 Census - 25% Sample Data". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2018-06-09. ^ "UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger". www.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-06-09. ^ "UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger". www.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-06-09. ^ Cocopah at Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016) ^ Havasupai‑Walapai‑Yavapai at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) ^ INALI (2012) México: Lenguas indígenas nacionales ^ "Kumiai". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-04-14. ^ Ethnologue (21st ed., 2018) ^ Quechan at Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016) ^ Yavapai at Ethnologue (19th ed., 2016) ^ Mojave language at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) ^ INALI (2012) México: Lenguas indígenas nacionales ^ "Language Highlight Tables, 2016 Census - Aboriginal mother tongue, Aboriginal language spoken most often at home and Other Aboriginal language(s) spoken regularly at home for the population excluding institutional residents of Canada, provinces and territories, 2016 Census – 100% Data". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Government of Canada. Retrieved 2017-11-23. ^ Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) ^ "Estadística básica de la población hablante de lenguas indígenas nacionales 2015" (PDF). site.inali.gob.mx. Retrieved 2020-06-11. ^ "UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger". www.unesco.org. Retrieved 2018-05-20. ^ If the Caucasus is considered to be a part of Europe, Northwest Caucasian and Northeast Caucasian would be included resulting in five language families within Europe. Other language families, such as the Turkic, Mongolic, Afroasiatic families have entered Europe in later migrations. ^ Nater 1984, pg. 5 ^ Ruhlen, Merritt. (1991 [1987]). A Guide to the World's Languages Volume 1: Classification, p.216. Edward Arnold. Paperback: ISBN 0-340-56186-6. ^ Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian languages: the historical linguistics of Native America. Ch. 8 Distant Genetic Relationships, pp. 260–329. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1. ^ American-Arctic–Paleosiberian Phylum, Luoravetlan – and beyond ^ Macro-Mayan includes Mayan, Totonacan, Mixe–Zoquean, and sometimes Huave. ^ Siouan–Iroquoian–Caddoan–[Yuchi] ^ Alternatively Takelma–Kalapuyan Bibliography[edit] Bright, William. (1984). The classification of North American and Meso-American Indian languages. In W. Bright (Ed.), American Indian linguistics and literature (pp. 3–29). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Bright, William (Ed.). (1984). American Indian linguistics and literature. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-009846-6. Brinton, Daniel G. (1891). The American race. New York: D. C. Hodges. Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1. Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press. North America[edit] Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology). Boas, Franz. (1922). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology). Boas, Franz. (1929). Classification of American Indian languages. Language, 5, 1–7. Boas, Franz. (1933). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin. Bright, William. (1973). North American Indian language contact. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 1, pp. 713–726). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9. Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institution). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6. Goddard, Ives. (2005). The indigenous languages of the southeast. Anthropological Linguistics, 47 (1), 1–60. Mithun, Marianne. (1990). Studies of North American Indian Languages. Annual Review of Anthropology, 19(1): 309–330. Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X. Nater, Hank F. (1984). The Bella Coola Language. Mercury Series; Canadian Ethnology Service (No. 92). Ottawa: National Museums of Canada. Powell, John W. (1891). Indian linguistic families of America north of Mexico. Seventh annual report, Bureau of American Ethnology (pp. 1–142). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. (Reprinted in P. Holder (Ed.), 1966, Introduction to Handbook of American Indian languages by Franz Boas and Indian linguistic families of America, north of Mexico, by J. W. Powell, Lincoln: University of Nebraska). Powell, John W. (1915). Linguistic families of American Indians north of Mexico by J. W. Powell, revised by members of the staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology. (Map). Bureau of American Ethnology miscellaneous publication (No. 11). Baltimore: Hoen. Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1973). Linguistics in North America (parts 1 & 2). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted as Sebeok 1976). Sebeok, Thomas A. (Ed.). (1976). Native languages of the Americas. New York: Plenum. Sherzer, Joel. (1973). Areal linguistics in North America. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (part 2, pp. 749–795). Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 10). The Hauge: Mouton. (Reprinted in Sebeok 1976). Sherzer, Joel. (1976). An areal-typological study of American Indian languages north of Mexico. Amsterdam: North-Holland. Sletcher, Michael, 'North American Indians', in Will Kaufman and Heidi Macpherson, eds., Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, (2 vols., Oxford, 2005). Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published). Vaas, Rüdiger: 'Die Sprachen der Ureinwohner'. In: Stoll, Günter, Vaas, Rüdiger: Spurensuche im Indianerland. Hirzel. Stuttgart 2001, chapter 7. Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1965). Classification of American Indian languages. Languages of the world, Native American fasc. 2, sec. 1.6). Anthropological Linguistics, 7 (7): 121–150. Zepeda, Ofelia; Hill, Jane H. (1991). The condition of Native American Languages in the United States. In R. H. Robins & E. M. Uhlenbeck (Eds.), Endangered languages (pp. 135–155). Oxford: Berg. South America[edit] Adelaar, Willem F. H.; & Muysken, Pieter C. (2004). The languages of the Andes. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press. Fabre, Alain. (1998). "Manual de las lenguas indígenas sudamericanas, I-II". München: Lincom Europa. Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70414-3. Kaufman, Terrence. (1994). The native languages of South America. In C. Mosley & R. E. Asher (Eds.), Atlas of the world's languages (pp. 46–76). London: Routledge. Key, Mary R. (1979). The grouping of South American languages. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. Loukotka, Čestmír. (1968). Classification of South American Indian languages. Los Angeles: Latin American Studies Center, University of California. Mason, J. Alden. (1950). The languages of South America. In J. Steward (Ed.), Handbook of South American Indians (Vol. 6, pp. 157–317). Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 143). Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. Migliazza, Ernest C.; & Campbell, Lyle. (1988). Panorama general de las lenguas indígenas en América. Historia general de América (Vol. 10). Caracas: Instituto Panamericano de Geografía e Historia. Rodrigues, Aryon. (1986). Linguas brasileiras: Para o conhecimento das linguas indígenas. São Paulo: Edições Loyola. Rowe, John H. (1954). Linguistics classification problems in South America. In M. B. Emeneau (Ed.), Papers from the symposium on American Indian linguistics (pp. 10–26). University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 10). Berkeley: University of California Press. Sapir, Edward. (1929). Central and North American languages. In The encyclopædia britannica: A new survey of universal knowledge (14 ed.) (Vol. 5, pp. 138–141). London: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company, Ltd. Voegelin, Carl F.; & Voegelin, Florence M. (1977). Classification and index of the world's languages. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-00155-7. Debian North American Indigenous Languages Project External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Indigenous languages of the Americas. Catálogo de línguas indígenas sul-americanas Diccionario etnolingüístico y guía bibliográfica de los pueblos indígenas sudamericanos Towards a general typology of South American indigenous languages. A bibliographical database South American Languages Society to Advance Indigenous Vernaculars of the United States (SAIVUS) Indigenous Peoples Languages: Articles, News, Videos Documentation Center of the Linguistic Minorities of Panama The Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America Indigenous Language Institute The Society for the Study of the Indigenous Languages of the Americas (SSILA) Southern Oregon Digital Archives First Nations Tribal Collection (collection of ethnographic, linguistic, & historical material) Center for the Study of the Native Languages of the Plains and Southwest Project for the Documentation of the Languages of Mesoamerica Programa de Formación en Educación Intercultural Bilingüe para los Países Andinos Native American Language Center (University of California at Davis) Native Languages of the Americas International Journal of American Linguistics Our Languages (Saskatchewan Indian Cultural Centre) Swadesh Lists of Brazilian Native Languages Alaska Native Language Center v t e Indigenous peoples of the Americas Pre-history Paleo-Indians Pre-Columbian era Classification Archaeology Genetics Solutrean hypothesis Mythology/Religion Mythologies‎ List of deities Native American religion Great Spirit Medicine man Mesoamerican cosmovision religion mythology European colonization European colonization Population history Columbian exchange Modern groups by country North America Belize Canada Costa Rica Dominica El Salvador Greenland Guatemala Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Trinidad and Tobago United States South America Argentina Bolivia Brazil Chile Colombia Ecuador Guyana Paraguay Peru Suriname Uruguay Venezuela Related topics Native American ancestry Indigenous American studies Indigenous languages Indigenous movements Indigenous peoples of the North American Southwest Indigenous art Artists Writers Category Portal v t e Indigenous language families and isolates of North America Language families and isolates Eskimo–Aleut Haida Yuki–Wappo Chumashan Adai Beothuk Cayuse Kutenai Timucua Waikuri Pericú Na-Dene Tlingit Eyak Athabaskan Algic Wiyot Yurok Algonquian Mosan ? Salishan Wakashan Chimakuan Macro-Siouan ? Siouan Caddoan Iroquoian Yuchi Penutian ? Chinookan Wintuan Maiduan Yok-Utian Yokuts Utian Tsimshianic Plateau ? Klamath Molala Sahaptian Coast Oregon ? Alsean Coosan Siuslaw Takelma–Kalapuyan ? Takelma Kalapuyan Hokan ? Shastan Palaihnihan Pomoan Yuman Tequistlatecan Chimariko Esselen Jicaquean Karuk Salinan Seri Washo Yana Pueblo linguistic area Tanoan Keres Zuni Coahuiltecan linguistic area Aranama Karankawa Maratino Naolan Quinigua Solano Tonkawa Pakawan ? Coahuilteco Cotoname Comecrudo Garza Mamulique Gulf ? Muskogean Natchez Tunica Atakapa Chitimacha Mesoamerican linguistic area Chibchan Jicaquean Lencan Mayan Misumalpan Oto-Manguean Tequistlatecan Totozoquean Totonacan Mixe–Zoque Uto-Aztecan Xincan Cuitlatec Huave Purépecha Alagüilac ? Caribbean linguistic area Arawakan Cariban Pre-Arawakan Guanahatabey Macorix Ciguayo Proposed groupings Amerind Algonquian–Wakashan Aztec–Tanoan Macro-Mayan Macro-Chibchan Tolatecan Waroid Lists Classification Extinct languages Unclassified languages Linguistic areas v t e Indigenous language families and isolates of South America (based on Campbell 2012 classification) Language families Arawakan Cariban Chapacuran Chibchan Pano–Takanan Tukanoan Tupían Andoque–Urequena Arawan Barbacoan Cahuapanan Chipaya–Uru Chocoan Cholonan Guajiboan Jirajaran Jivaroan Lule–Vilelan Nadahup Nambikwaran Qawasqaran Paezan Sechura–Catacaoan Timotean Tiniguan Yanomaman Zamucoan Macro-Jê Jê Jabutían Kamakanan Karajá Krenákan Maxakalían Jaikó Ofayé Rikbaktsa Chiquitano Bororoan ? Karirian ? Purían ? Guató ? Arutani–Sape ? Awaké Kaliana Jukude ? Bora–Witoto ? Boran Witotoan Chimuan ? Cañar–Puruhá Mochica Esmeralda–Yaruroan ? Esmeralda Yaruro Duho ? Sáliban Tikuna–Yuri Jotí Macro-Otomákoan ? Otomacoan Harákmbut–Katukinan Trumai ? Macro-Warpean ? Huarpean Muran Matanauí Mataco–Guaicuru ? Matacoan Guaicuruan Guachí ? Payaguá ? Charruan ? Mascoyan ? Mosetén–Chon ? Mosetenan Chonan Quechumaran ? Quechuan Aymaran Saparo–Yawan ? Zaparoan Yaguan Tequiraca–Canichana ? Tequiraca Canichana Language isolates Betoi Chono Irantxe Mapudungu Otí Taruma Warao Yagan Yurumangui Northeast Brazil Gamela Baenan Katembri Natú Pankararú Tarairiú Tuxá Wamoé Xokó Xukurú Yaté Rondônia Aikanã Kanoê Kwazá Bolivian Amazon Cayuvava Itonama Movima Yuracaré Peruvian Amazon Candoshi Omurano Munichi Sabela Taushiro Urarina Andes Andaquí Camsá Cofán Culle Puquina Atacameño Others (uncertain classification) Guamo Leko Mure Puinave Proposed groupings Duho Macro-Andean Macro-Arawakan Macro-Chibchan Macro-Jê Macro-Jibaro Macro-Otomákoan Macro-Paesan Macro-Panoan Macro-Puinavean Macro-Warpean Arutani–Sape Bora–Witoto Esmeralda–Yaruroan Hibito–Cholon Je–Tupi–Carib Katembri–Taruma Mataco–Guaicuru Moseten–Chonan Quechumaran Saparo–Yawan Tequiraca–Canichana Wamo–Chapakura Amerind Lists Languages Extinct languages Marañón River basin Unclassified languages Classification Linguistic areas Authority control BNF: cb11932101k (data) GND: 4127160-9 LCCN: sh85065047 NDL: 00564189 SUDOC: 027234789 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas&oldid=1003183343" Categories: Indigenous languages of the Americas Indigenous peoples of the Americas Proposed language families Hidden categories: CS1 Portuguese-language sources (pt) Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Articles needing additional references from January 2017 All articles needing additional references All accuracy disputes Articles with disputed statements from January 2017 All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from July 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from December 2012 Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from January 2015 Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NDL identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés Asturianu Avañe'ẽ Aymar aru Български Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Español Esperanto فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Interlingua Íslenska Italiano עברית Kernowek Кыргызча Latviešu Lietuvių Limburgs Lingua Franca Nova Magyar Македонски Malagasy Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Piemontèis Polski Português Română Runa Simi Русский Scots Slovenčina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt 吴语 Žemaitėška 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 27 January 2021, at 20:15 (UTC). 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