A m e r i c a n E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h J o u r n a l Fall 1992, Vol. 29, No. 3, PP. 4 5 5 - 4 7 0 Liberal Democracy, Equal Educational Opportunity, and the Challenge of Multiculturalism K e n n e t h R. H o w e University o f Colorado a t B o u l d e r L i b e r a l p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y i n g e n e r a l , a s w e l l a s l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y in p a r t i c u l a r , h a s b e e n l a r g e l y s i l e n t o n the c h a l l e n g e p o s e d b y m u l t i c u l - t u r a l i s m . This l a c u n a r e s u l t s f r o m the t e n d e n c y to c o n f l a t e " c u l t u r a l " a n d " p o l i t i c a l " c o m m u n i t i e s a n d to c o n c e i v e o f e q u a l i t y e x c l u s i v e l y in t e r m s o f the latter. The r e s u l t is t h a t e q u a l i t y o f e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y is p o t e n t i a l l y r e n d e r e d a s h a m f o r c u l t u r a l m i n o r i t i e s i n s o f a r a s t h e y a r e r e q u i r e d to c o n f r o n t e d u c a t i o n a l i d e a l s a n d p r a c t i c e s t h a t a r e ' ' c u l t u r a l l y e n c u m b e r e d " in a w a y t h a t reflects o n l y the v a l u e s a n d i n t e r e s t s o f the d o m i n a n t social g r o u p . This a r t i c l e a r g u e s t h a t ' ' p r o g r e s s i v e " liberal e d u - c a t i o n a l t h e o r y c a n s a t i s f a c t o r i l y r e s p o n d to the c h a l l e n g e p o s e d b y m u l - t i c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n w h e n c o n c e p t s s u c h a s " f r e e d o m " a n d " o p p o r t u n i - t y " a r e p r o p e r l y a n a l y z e d a n d w h e n the d e m a n d to p r o m o t e s e l f - r e s p e c t a m o n g c i t i z e n s is t a k e n s e r i o u s l y . KENNETH HOWE is a n a s s o c i a t e p r o f e s s o r i n t h e S c h o o l o f E d u c a t i o n at t h e U n i - v e r s i t y o f C o l o r a d o , B o u l d e r 8 0 3 0 9 - 0 2 4 9 . H e s p e c i a l i z e s i n p h i l o s o p h y o f e d u c a t i o n . This work may be downloaded only. It may not be copied or used for any purpose other than scholarship. If you wish to make copies or use it for a non-scholarly purpose, please contact AERA directly. H o w e I n 1954, t h e l a n d m a r k B r o w n v. t h e B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n d e c i s i o n t h r u s t t h e c o n c e p t o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y c e n t e r stage, a n d it h a s re- t a i n e d a c e n t r a l r o l e i n e d u c a t i o n a l p o l i c y a n d r e s e a r c h e v e r s i n c e . D e s p i t e its p r o m i n e n c e , h o w e v e r - - o r b e c a u s e o f i t - - t h e c o n c e p t has b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e e l u s i v e , m o r e a n d m o r e " a w i t c h e s ' b r e w o f e q u i v o c a t i o n a n d v a g u e n e s s . "'1 C o n t r o v e r s i e s h a v e u n f o l d e d r e g a r d i n g b o t h t h e g e n e r a l m e a n i n g o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y a n d its m e a n i n g i n t h e c o n t e x t o f s p e c i f i c p o l i c i e s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s e t w o l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s h a v e r a r e l y b e e n j o i n e d . At t h e g e n e r a l level, t h e d e b a t e has b e e n l a r g e l y p h i l o s o p h i c a l a n d has f o c u s e d o n i s s u e s s u c h as h o w c o m p e t i n g t h e o r i e s o f j u s t i c e e n t a i l c o m p e t i n g c o n - c e p t i o n s o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y ; w h e t h e r t h e c r i t e r i o n o f e q u a l - i t y s h o u l d b e e q u a l i t y o f a c c e s s o r e q u a l i t y o f results; a n d w h e t h e r t h e c o n - flicts t h a t p u t a t i v e l y e x i s t b e t w e e n t h e p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l i t y a n d p r i n c i p l e s s u c h as m e r i t a n d f a m i l y a u t o n o m y c a n b e r e s o l v e d . 2 A l t h o u g h t h e s e d e - b a t e s are u s e f u l for a r t i c u l a t i n g a n d e s t a b l i s h i n g g e n e r a l ideals, t h e g u i d a n c e t h e y c a n p r o v i d e w i t h r e s p e c t to s p e c i f i c p o l i c i e s is q u i t e l i m i t e d . At t h e s p e c i f i c level, t h e p r o b l e m is j u s t t h e r e v e r s e . D e b a t e s s u r r o u n d - i n g d e s e g r e g a t i o n , t r a c k i n g , b i l i n g u a l e d u c a t i o n , e d u c a t i o n o f t h e h a n d i - c a p p e d , a n d g e n d e r e q u i t y , for i n s t a n c e , t y p i c a l l y fail t o e x h i b i t c a r e f u l at- t e n t i o n t o t h e m o r e f u n d a m e n t a l p o l i t i c a l a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s a n d p r i n c i p l e s that i m p l i c i t l y u n d e r l i e t h e m . I n s t e a d , " e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p - p o r t u n i t y " is e m p l o y e d as if its m e a n i n g w e r e w h o l l y t r a n s p a r e n t , a n d t h e d e b a t e s p r o c e e d a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y i n t e r m s o f t h e legal r e a s o n i n g o f B r o w n a n d v a r i o u s a p p l i c a b l e f e d e r a l laws. 3 I gratefully acknowledge the support of the National Academy of Education Spencer Foundation Fellowship Program in the preparation of this manuscript. 1 also thank Katharine Dougherty, Dan Liston, and Ernie House for their helpful comments. An abbreviated version of this paper was presented at the American Educational Research Association annual meeting in Chicago in April, 1991. tParaphrase of J.R Lucas, in Michael Levin, "Equality of Opportunity," The Philosophical Q u a r t e r l y 31, no. 123 (1981): 110-125. 2Regarding conflicts among liberal principles, see especially James Fishkin, Justice, Equal Opportunity, a n d the F a m i l y (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983). Regarding the controversy about access versus results as the criterion for equality of educational op- portunity, see, for example, James Coleman, "The Concept of Equality of Educational Op- portunity," H a r v a r d E d u c a t i o n a l Review 38, no. 1 (1968); 7-22; Nicholas Burbules and Ann Sherman, "Equal Educational Opportunity: Ideal or Ideology," Proceedings o f the Philosophy o f E d u c a t i o n Society (1979): 105-114; Nicholas Burbules, Brian Lord, and Ann Sherman, "Equity, Equal Opportunity, and Education," E d u c a t i o n a l Evaluation a n d Policy Analysis, 4, no. 2 (1982); 169 187; Christopher Jencks, "Whom Must We Treat Equally for Educa- tional Opportunity to Be Equal?" Ethics 98, no. 3 (1988): 518-533; and my "In Defense of Outcomes-Based Conceptions of Equal Educational Opportunity," E d u c a t i o n a l Theory 39, no. 4 (1989): 317-336. 3These include Titles IV, VI, VII, and IX of the 1964 Civil Rights Act; the Bilingual Education Act of 1968; Sec. 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act; the 1974 Equal Educational Opportunities Act; and the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975. 4 5 6 E q u a l E d u c a t i o n a l O p p o r t u n i t y a n d M u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m M y p r i m a r y t a s k i n t h i s a r t i c l e w i l l b e t o j o i n t h e s e t w o l e v e l s o f a n a l y s i s w i t h a n e y e t o w a r d p r o v i d i n g a p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y g r o u n d e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y as it a p p l i e s t o m u l t i c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n . I n m y v i e w , b e c a u s e t h e c o n c e p t o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r - t u n i t y h a s " m a n y f a c e s , " its p r e c i s e m e a n i n g a n d i m p l i c a t i o n s d e p e n d o n t h e p o l i c y q u e s t i o n at h a n d . A c c o r d i n g l y , v a r i o u s i s s u e s t h a t r a i s e q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g e q u a l i t y o f e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y a r e b e s t e x a m i n e d o n e at a t i m e b y r e n d e r i n g a g e n e r a l p h i l o s o p h i c a l f r a m e w o r k s e n s i t i v e t o e t h i c a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d e m p i r i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t a r e p e c u l i a r t o s u c h i s s u e s . 4 E m p l o y i n g t h i s m e t h o d , I w i l l p r o c e e d b y first p r o v i d i n g a g e n e r a l p h i l o - s o p h i c a l c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n o p p o r t u n i t y a n d t h e n s k e t c h i n g o u t t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r " f a c e " it a s s u m e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o m u l t i c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n . A G e n e r a l C h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f E q u a l E d u c a t i o n a l O p p o r t u n i t y Q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e a i m s o f s c h o o l i n g a n d n a t u r e o f t h e c u r r i c u l u m c a n o n l y b e a n s w e r e d f r o m w i t h i n a p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y t h a t a d u m b r a t e s t h e m o r e g e n e r a l s o c i o p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n s o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n . I w i l l s e t a s i d e b r o a d e r q u e s t i o n s o f p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y a n d p r e s u p p o s e a l i b e r a l d e m o c r a t i c t h e o r y 5 - t h e k i n d o f p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y i n w h i c h t h e p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p - p o r t u n i t y f i n d s its h o m e . M y t a s k in t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h i s a r t i c l e w i l l b e t o s h o w h o w t h e l i b e r a l d e m o c r a t i c t r a d i t i o n i n g e n e r a l a n d t h e p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y i n p a r t i c u l a r a r e r o b u s t e n o u g h t o a c c o m - m o d a t e t h e p e c u l i a r c h a l l e n g e p o s e d b y m u l t i c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n . T h e p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y s e r v e s t o j u s t i f y d e - m a n d i n g o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n s o m e t h i n g s h o r t o f f u l l e q u a l i t y : it d e m a n d s o n l y e q u a l i t y o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s , w h i c h it is t h e n t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f s c h o o l c h i l d r e n o r t h e i r p a r e n t s t o a c t o n . I n t h i s w a y , t h e c o n c e p t o f f r e e d o m is b u i l t i n t o t h e c o n c e p t o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y . As O n o r a O ' N e i l r e m a r k s , " T h e c o n c e p t o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y c a n n o t b e r i d o f its l i b e r t a r i a n b i r t h m a r k , e v e n a f t e r r a d i c a l s u r g e r y . ''6 A t l e a s t s i n c e C o l e m a n ' s r e f l e c t i o n s , 7 a c o n t r o v e r s y h a s e x i s t e d r e g a r d - i n g w h e t h e r t h e c r i t e r i o n o f e q u a l i t y o f e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y s h o u l d b e 4This method approximates "reflective equilibrium," which draws on John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), and also Rawls's "Kan- tian Constructivism in Moral Theory," Journal of Philosophy 77, no. 9 (1980): 515-572. Amy Gutmann acknowledges the influence of Rawls on the method of analysis she employs in Democratic Education (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1987). Sin this context, by "liberal" I mean a general tradition in political theory. Within this tradition, there are liberals and conservatives in the more popular sense that would distinguish, for example, Ted Kennedy from William F. Buckley. 6Onora O'Neill, "Opportunities, Equalities, and Education," Theory and Decision 7, no. 4 (1976): 275-295. I, for one, have attempted to perform such surgery. See my "In Defense of Outcomes-Based Conceptions of Equal Educational Opportunity." :Coleman, "The Concept of Equality of Educational Opportunity." 4 5 7 H o w e e q u a l i t y o f a c c e s s o r e q u a l i t y o f r e s u l t s ; a n d b o t h c r i t e r i a h a v e p r o v e n p r o b - l e m a t i c . A l t h o u g h g u a r a n t e e i n g e q u a l i t y o f a c c e s s is a n a d v a n c e o v e r s u c h p r a c t i c e s as d e j u r e s e g r e g a t i o n , it c a n b e q u i t e h o l l o w i f it m e r e l y a m o u n t s t o r e m o v i n g f o r m a l b a r r i e r s t o t h e c h o i c e s s t u d e n t s a n d t h e i r p a r e n t s m i g h t m a k e , as d e f a c t o s e g r e g a t i o n a p t l y i l l u s t r a t e s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , g u a r a n t e e - i n g e q u a l i t y o f r e s u l t s s e e m s t o d e m a n d t o o m u c h , b o t h in t e r m s o f t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f s c h o o l s a n d in t e r m s o f h o w it t h r e a t e n s t o b l o c k t h e f r e e d o m t h a t s t u d e n t s a n d t h e i r p a r e n t s m i g h t o t h e r w i s e w i s h t o e x e r c i s e . T h i s w a y o f f r a m i n g t h e p r o b l e m s e e m s t o l e a v e o p e n t w o w a y s o f r e s p o n d i n g : a b a n d o n i n g f r e e d o m a n d c h o i c e , o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e y a r e i d e o l o g i c a l s h a m s t h a t m e r e l y s e r v e t o j u s t i f y v a s t i n e q u a l i t y , o r a b a n d o n - i n g c q u a l i t y o f r e s u l t s , o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t f r e e d o m is a c h e r i s h e d v a l u e t h a t o u g h t n o t t o b e s a c r i f i c e d a n d t h a t r e s u l t s c a n n o t b e e q u a l i z e d in a n y c a s e . T h e r e is a t h i r d r e s p o n s e , h o w e v e r , t h a t m e r i t s c a r e f u l e x a m i n a t i o n : a b a n d o n i n g t h e q u e s t f o r t i d y s o l u t i o n s t o c l a s h e s a m o n g f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n - c i p l e s , o n t h e g r o u n d s t h a t u n c e r t a i n t y , t e n t a t i v e n e s s , a n d t e n s i o n s a m o n g p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s a r e p e r m a n e n t f e a t u r e s o f t h e p r o j e c t o f d e m o c r a c y . I w i l l b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e a n d d e f e n d t h i s t h i r d a p p r o a c h , w h i c h , b o r r o w i n g f r o m W a l z c r , I s h a l l c a l l " i n t e r p r e t i v e . ''~ T h e i n t e r p r e t i v e a p p r o a c h h a s t w o m e t h o d o l o g i c a l f e a t u r e s t h a t e x i s t in t e n s i o n . F i r s t , s o c i a l c r i t i c i s m is c o n s t r u e d as i m m a n e n t , w h i c h is t o s a y it m u s t g a i n a f o o t h o l d i n t h e v o c a b u l a r y a n d a c c e p t e d p r i n c i p l e s o f a g i v e n p o l i t i c a l c o m m u n i t y if it is t o h a v e a n y t h i n g t o s a y t o t h e m e m b e r s o f s u c h a c o m m u n i t y a n d t o h a v e a n y c h a n c e o f c o n s t r u c t i v e l y i n f l u e n c i n g t h e m . I n t h i s v e i n , W a l z e r e n c o u r a g e s s o c i a l c r i t i c s " t o i n t e r p r e t t o o n e ' s f e l l o w c i t i z e n s t h e w o r l d o f m e a n i n g s t h a t w e s h a r e " a n d w a r n s a g a i n s t a b s t r a c t p h i l o s o p h i z i n g : Justice and equality can c o n c e i v a b l y be w o r k e d out as p h i l o s o p h i c a l artifacts, but a just or an egalitarian society cannot be. If such a society isn't alrcady h e r e - - h i d d e n , as it were, in our concepts and categories - - w e will n e v e r k n o w it c o n c r e t e l y o r realize it in f a c t . 9 G i v e n t h e p r o m i n e n c e o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y in t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n a b o u t a j u s t s y s t e m o f e d u c a t i o n , t h e i m m a n e n t f e a t u r e o f t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e a p p r o a c h a r g u e s a g a i n s t a b a n d o n i n g it is as m e r e i d e o - l o g i c a l s h a m o r as h o p e l e s s l y m u d d l e d . R a t h e r , t h e a i m s h o u l d b c t o d e v i s e p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y d e f e n s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t h a t h a v e s o m e c h a n c e o f w i n - n i n g b r o a d a c c e p t a n c e . W o r k i n g i n t h e o t h e r d i r e c t i o n , h o w e v e r , is t h e s e c o n d f e a t u r e o f t h e i n t e r p r e t i v e a p p r o a c h : c o n c e p t u a l r e v i s i o n i s m . T h i s f e a t u r e r e q u i r e s t h a t ~Michael Walzer, Interpretatiotl and Social Criticism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, t987). ';Michael Walzer, Spheres of Justice: A Defense of Pluralism and Equality (New York: Basic Books, 1983), xiv. 4 5 8 Equal Educational Opportunity a n d Multiculturalism political a r g u m e n t b e p r o g r e s s i v e a n d d y n a m i c , a n d n o t m e r e l y a lexico- g r a p h i c a l o r historical a c c o u n t o f w h a t political p r i n c i p l e s m e a n o r h a v e m e a n t . I n s t e a d , political a r g u m e n t m u s t i n v e s t i g a t e s h a r e d p r i n c i p l e s a n d their i m p l i c a t i o n s , p o i n t t o conflicts a n d i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s , a n d r e s p o n d to c h a n g i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d k n o w l e d g e . This feature o f the i n t e r p r e t i v e ap- p r o a c h a r g u e s in f a v o r o f r e v i s i n g t h e c o n c e p t o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r - t u n i t y as n e c e s s a r y s o that it b e s t a c c o m m o d a t e s c o m p e t i n g p r i n c i p l e s a n d t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s - - t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f e q u a l i t y a n d f r e e d o m in p a r t i c u l a r - - in light o f c u r r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e a p p r o a c h just d e s c r i b e d has b e e n a d o p t e d in o n e s h a p e o r a n o t h e r b y v a r i o u s t h i n k e r s , m o s t n o t a b l y G u t m a n n . 1° In particular, G u t m a n n b e g i n s w i t h the a s s u m p t i o n that e q u a l i t y o f e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y is a s e r v i c e a b l e p r i n c i p l e , t h e n e n t e r t a i n s a n d rejects s e v e r a l c o n c e p t i o n s , a n d finally r e a c h e s t h e s o m e w h a t c o u n t e r i n t u i t i v e c o n c l u s i o n that e q u a l i t y o f e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y r e q u i r e s equalizing c e r t a i n e d u c a t i o n a l results ( n a m e l y , t h o s e that g o i n t o t h e " d e m o c r a t i c threshold").11 It will b e suffi- c i e n t f o r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s to set t h e intricacies o f s u c h a r g u m e n t s aside a n d to n o t e t h r e e p i v o t a l issues that a n y a d e q u a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f equali- ty o f e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y m u s t a c c o m m o d a t e . 1. Freedom a n d opportunities worth wanting. T h e c o n c e p t o f free- d o m has d i f f e r e n t senses. T h e w e a k e s t s e n s e r e q u i r e s o n l y v o l u n t a r i n e s s a n d i n t e n t - - a kind o f f r e e d o m p o s s e s s e d e v e n b y y o u n g children. A s t r o n g e r s e n s e r e q u i r e s t h e s e f e a t u r e s plus t h e ability to i d e n t i f y a n d w e i g h alter- n a t i v e s a n d t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d to c h o o s e t h e o n e j u d g e d b e s t f r o m a m o n g t h e m - - a k i n d o f f r e e d o m a t t r i b u t e d t o n o r m a l adults. 12 It s h o u l d require n o a r g u m e n t to establish that these senses o f f r e e d o m are n o t equally w o r t h w a n t i n g . T h e first s e n s e is s i m p l y t o o w e a k ; in o r d e r t o b e free in e v e n a m i n i m a l s e n s e o f b e i n g in c o n t r o l o f o n e ' s life, the s e c o n d s e n s e is r e q u i r e d . A n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n o f f r e e d o m sufficiently w o r t h w a n t i n g , t h e n , is t h e ability t o d e l i b e r a t e e f f e c t i v e l y , b u t this is clearly n o t a sufficient c o n d i - tion. For, to m a k e u s e o f t h e ability to d e l i b e r a t e effectively, a n i n d i v i d u a l m G u t m a n n , D e m o c r a t i c E d u c a t i o n . ~ G u t m a n n denies that s h e r e q u i r e s i n p u t s o r o u t c o m e s to be equalized. I think s h e is s i m p l y m i s t a k e n a b o u t this. For a l t h o u g h s h e clearly denies that a l l educational o u t c o m e s m u s t he equalized, in the e n d she n o n e t h e l e s s h o l d s that s o m e m u s t be, namely, t h o s e that are r e q u i r e d b y the " d e m o c r a t i c t h r e s h o l d . " t2A still s t r o n g e r kind r e q u i r e s the features o f the first t w o kinds p l u s the ability to reflect a b o u t o n e ' s basic value c o m m i t m e n t s and w a y o f l i f e - - a kind o f f r e e d o m a t t r i b u t e d to especially reflective adults. As it t u r n s out, the s e c o n d level is all that s c h o o l s s h o u l d be required (or permitted) to foster, because the third level entails having q u e s t i o n e d o n e ' s m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l c o m m i t m e n t s (e.g., o n e ' s religious c o m m i t m e n t s ) to qualify as free. A l t h o u g h this is w h a t p h i l o s o p h i c a l t y p e s strive for, it is i n a p p r o p r i a t e to d e m a n d this o f the p o p u l a - tion in general. See, for example, Stephen Macedo, L i b e r a l V i r t u e s (New York: O x f o r d Univer- sity Press, 1990). 4 5 9 H o w e m u s t also have the o p p o r t u n i t y to exercise it. The o p p o r t u n i t y to exercise it, in turn, requires (1) that information necessary for deliberation is available a n d (2) that social c o n d i t i o n s d o n o t i m p o s e a b u r d e n for acting o n the results o f deliberation that is d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e to the b u r d e n o f o t h e r deliberators. As an illustration o f condition (1), consider Dennett's distinction between " b a r e " a n d "real" o p p o r t u n i t i e s . ~3 He gives the e x a m p l e o f a g r o u p o f prisoners w h o have their p r i s o n d o o r s u n l o c k e d b y the prison guards while t h e y are asleep a n d l o c k e d again b e f o r e t h e y awaken. A c c o r d i n g to Den- nett, b e c a u s e the prisoners d o n o t have the i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y n e e d to deliberate, t h e y have o n l y a " b a r e " o p p o r t u n i t y to escape. As an illustra- tion o f c o n d i t i o n (2), imagine a family that displays its disapproval o f U.S. military i n v o l v e m e n t in the Persian Gulf and receives threats to its safety a n d p r o p e r t y as a result. Here, a l t h o u g h the requisite i n f o r m a t i o n for deliberation is available, acting o n the results o f deliberation entails a b u r d e n that is d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e to the b u r d e n o f those w h o wish to express their s u p p o r t for military i n v o l v e m e n t . T h e principle o f f r e e d o m o f e x p r e s s i o n in this case is blunted, and t h e r e f o r e resembles o n l y a " b a r e " o p p o r t u n i t y . T h e p o i n t is that neither the prisoners n o r the dissenting family e n j o y kinds o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s w o r t h wanting, a n d similar examples are easy to find in e d u c a t i o n . For example, imagine a ninth-grade s t u d e n t w h o is being " c o u n s e l e d " into a vocational track and w h o , along with his or her parents, lacks k n o w l e d g e a b o u t the c o n s e q u e n c e s o f such a decision. Also imagine that the family's cultural m a k e u p leads it to be intimidated b y a n d deferen- tial to school authorities. First, the k n o w l e d g e required for effective delibera- tion is missing. S e c o n d , the family is p r e s s u r e d b y social c o n d i t i o n s that are implicitly hostile to m a k i n g a different decision. In general, s o m e t h i n g m o r e is r e q u i r e d in the n a m e o f equalizing educational o p p o r t u n i t y than equalizing these kinds o f " b a r e " opportunities. 2. E q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y a s enabling. Education is, n o doubt, valuable in its o w n right, but it also is e n a b l i n g in the sense that it serves ( h o w e v e r imperfectly) as the g a t e w a y for obtaining o t h e r societal g o o d s , such as desirable e m p l o y m e n t , a d e q u a t e i n c o m e , and political p o w e r . For this reason, equal e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y is related to equal o p p o r t u n i t y m o r e generally b e c a u s e it serves as an i m p o r t a n t link in w h a t might be t e r m e d an o p p o r t u n i t y chain. Accordingly, the strength o f the educational link d e t e r m i n e s the overall strength o f the o p p o r t u n i t y chain in the sense that the array o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s o p e n to an individual is (again, imperfectly) d e t e r m i n e d b y the quality o f his o r her education. T h e o p p o r t u n i t y chain is c o m p l i c a t e d b y the fact that e d u c a t i o n a l op- p o r t u n i t y itself has this same chain-like character. That is, taking advantage *3Daniel Dennett, E l b o w R o o m : The Varieties o f Free Will Worth W a n t i n g (Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1984). 4 6 0 Equal Educational Opportunity a n d Multiculturalism o f early educational o p p o r t u n i t i e s is related to h a v i n g later ones. For ex- ample, c h i l d r e n w h o fail to learn to read early o n h a v e their curricular op- tions progressively n a r r o w e d as t h e y p r o c e e d t h r o u g h the K - 1 2 curriculum, as c o m p a r e d to their counterparts w h o d o learn to read. Consequently, their e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s will be likewise n a r r o w e d s u c h that t h e y will be incapable o f e n j o y i n g equality o f educational o p p o r t u n i t y a n d equality o f o p p o r t u n i t y m o r e generally as t h e y a p p r o a c h a d u l t h o o d . Several lessons m a y be d r a w n f r o m this observation, First, w h a t at o n e p o i n t in time serves as an e d u c a t i o n a l e n d (like reading) later serves as a m e a n s to o t h e r e n d s (like reading t e x t b o o k s for content). Thus, certain educational ends (or results) must be a c c o m p l i s h e d in o r d e r for certain o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s to exist. S e c o n d , a n d as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f this, the c o n c e p t o f equal educational o p p o r t u n i t y needs to be c o n c e i v e d in terms o f educational careers rather than specific e p i s o d e s w i t h i n such careers, lest educational o p p o r t u n i t i e s b e c o m e m e r e l y " b a r e " a n d n o t w o r t h wanting. W o r k i n g o u t the details o f this claim outstrips the aims o f this article. 14 By w a y o f a brief illustration, h o w e v e r , c o n s i d e r h o w far a free adult literacy p r o g r a m goes t o w a r d equalizing e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y . T h e a r g u m e n t that s u c h p r o g r a m s p r o m o t e equality o f educational o p p o r t u n i t y gains its force b y isolating particular c h o i c e s f r o m the b r o a d e r social s c h e m e that d e t e r m i n e s the s c o p e a n d kinds o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s that individuals possess, a n d b y glossing o v e r the fact that adults w h o are free to u n d e r t a k e o r pass u p literacy p r o g r a m s suffer f r o m a restricted range o f opportunities. It seems quite reasonable to suggest that the n e e d for adult literacy p r o g r a m s signals a failure o f earlier e d u c a t i o n , a failure to p r o d u c e earlier results r e q u i r e d to e x p a n d the s c o p e o f adult o p p o r t u n i t y - - e d u c a t i o n a l a n d otherwise. It also seems quite reasonable to suggest that to be p u t in the p o s i t i o n o f be- ing an adult h a v i n g the c h o i c e o f w h e t h e r to b e c o m e literate h a r d l y seems a c h o i c e w o r t h wanting. ( C o m p a r e a c o m p e n s a t o r y p r o g r a m like h a v i n g the c h o i c e o f w h e t h e r to receive free medical t r e a t m e n t for w o r k - r e l a t e d lung disease.) 3. Equal educational opportunity a n d children. Children raise a v e r y special p r o b l e m w i t h respect to the c o n c e p t o f equal e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r - tunity: Because children (especially y o u n g ones) lack the capacity for effec- tive deliberation, this capacity m u s t be instilled in t h e m b e f o r e q u e s t i o n s regarding the o t h e r t w o requisites for f r e e d o m a n d o p p o r t u n i t y w o r t h w a n t i n g - - a d e q u a t e information a n d social s u p p o r t - - e v e n arise. Up to a cer- tain age, then, children c a n n o t possess f r e e d o m a n d opportunities genuinely w o r t h wanting. Thus, it is u p to s o m e o n e e l s e - - s c h o o l s , parents, o r b o t h - - to act o n c h i l d r e n ' s b e h a l f to ensure that t h e y o n e d a y are able to possess 14I am currently developing a more elaborate analysis and defense of this point in a paper tentatively entitled "Equal Educational Opportunity as Educational Opportunities Worth Wanting." 461 H o w e t h e s e t h i n g s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , p a t e r n a l i s t i c i n t e r f e r e n c e i n c h i l d r e n ' s f r e e d o m (in t h e w e a k s e n s e ) is j u s t i f i e d i n t h e n a m e o f p r e p a r i n g t h e m to e n j o y f r e e d o m (in t h e s t r o n g s e n s e ) later o n i n life. I n v o k i n g p a t e r n a l i s t i c i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t h e n a m e o f c h i l d r e n ' s b e s t e d u c a - t i o n a l i n t e r e s t s raises a n u m b e r o f p o t e n t i a l (as w e l l as real) c o n f l i c t s - - b e t w e e n s c h o o l s a n d c h i l d r e n , p a r e n t s a n d c h i l d r e n , p a r e n t s a n d p a r e n t s , s c h o o l s a n d p a r e n t s , a n d so f o r t h - - i n s o f a r as w h a t e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i - ties are i n d e e d w o r t h w a n t i n g o f t e n c a n b e ( a n d is) i n d i s p u t e . T h i s is a large a n d c o m p l e x issue, a n d m u c h o f it lies b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f this arti- cle. I n m y s u b s e q u e n t d i s c u s s i o n , I will l i m i t m y s e l f to t h e c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n s c h o o l s a n d c u l t u r e , l a r g e l y i g n o r i n g t h e o t h e r k i n d s o f c o n f l i c t s t h a t c a n arise. I n s u m m a r y , w h e n a p p l i e d t o c h i l d r e n , ~5 a d e f e n s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y is r e q u i r e d to take i n t o a c c o u n t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s t h a t (1) e d u c a t i o n s h o u l d b e e n a b l i n g , (2) t h e c o n - c e p t o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y is b e s t a p p l i e d to e d u c a t i o n a l c a r e e r s r a t h e r t h a n i s o l a t e d i n c i d e n t s , a n d (3) c h i l d r e n are n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o e x e r - cise f r e e d o m a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s ( w o r t h w a n t i n g ) u n t i l t h e y g a i n t h e capaci- ty to d e l i b e r a t e e f f e c t i v e l y . E q u a l E d u c a t i o n a l O p p o r t u n i t y a n d M u l t i c u l t u r a l E d u c a t i o n Will K y m l i c k a has o b s e r v e d t h a t l i b e r a l d e m o c r a t i c t h e o r y is s u r p r i s i n g l y s i l e n t o n issues o f m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m . 16 He a t t r i b u t e s this s i l e n c e to a t e n d e n - c y a m o n g l i b e r a l t h e o r i s t s to i g n o r e " c u l t u r a l " c o m m u n i t i e s i n f a v o r o f t h e " p o l i t i c a l " c o m m u n i t y a n d to c o n c e i v e o f e q u a l i t y e x c l u s i v e l y i n t e r m s o f t h e latter. T h e u p s h o t is t h a t e q u a l i t y is p o t e n t i a l l y r e n d e r e d a s h a m for c u l t u r a l m i n o r i t i e s . For, a c c o r d i n g to K y m l i c k a , It only makes sense to invite people to participate in politics (or for people to accept that invitation) if they will be treated as equals . . . . And that is incompatible with defining people in terms of roles they did n o t shape or endorse. ~7 K y m l i c k a c o n t e n d s t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e failure to g r a p p l e w i t h m u l t i c u l - t u r a l i s m is a s i g n i f i c a n t l a c u n a i n l i b e r a l t h e o r y , it is n o t a fatal flaw. I n his ~sI include the conditional because some thinkers believe that children's lack of autonomy and the associated authority to represent their own interests requires a different moral perspective and vocabulary. Onora O'Neill, "Children's Rights and Children's Lives," E t h i c s 98 (1988): 445-463, for example, is willing to (proposes to) forgo rights language in the case of children. A similar move could be made with respect to equal educational op portunity, namely, it could be iudged as having no defensible application to children. For a response, see my "In Defense of Outcomes-Based Conceptions of Equal Education Opportunity." I~"Will Kymlicka, L i b e r a l i s m , C o m m u n i t y , a n d C u l t u r e (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989). *rlbid., 89. 4 6 2 Equal Educational Opportunity a n d Multiculturalism v i e w , r e s p e c t f o r c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y is i m p l i c i t in liberal t h e o r i s t s ' (particular- ly J o h n R a w l s ' s 18) c o m m i t m e n t t o s e l f - r e s p e c t as a " p r i m a r y g o o d " t h a t m u s t b e p r o t e c t e d b y liberal d e m o c r a t i c r e g i m e s . It is s i m p l y i n c u m b e n t u p o n liberal d e m o c r a t s t o w o r k o u t this i m p l i c i t c o m m i t m e n t . Liberal e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r y , like liberal p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y m o r e g e n e r a l l y , h a s also b e e n l a r g e l y silent o n t h e p r o b l e m o f m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m - - a n d f o r a c l o s e l y r e l a t e d r e a s o n . Liberal e d u c a t i o n a l t h e o r i s t s h a v e l a r g e l y c o n f i n e d t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h a t k i n d o f i n d i v i d u a l is s u i t a b l e t o t a k e his o r h e r p l a c e as a c i t i z e n in a liberal d e m o c r a t i c political c o m m u n i t y , a n d t h e a n s w e r has b e e n w h a t I shall r e f e r t o as t h e liberal educational ideal. This ideal m a y b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e g o a l o f e n g e n d e r i n g in s t u d e n t s a c a p a c i t y f o r t h e k i n d o f e f f e c t i v e d e l i b e r a t i o n d e s c r i b e d earlier as w e l l as a c o m m i t m e n t t o liberal p r i n c i p l e s s u c h as n o n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , n o n r e p r e s - s i o n , a n d t o l e r a n c e , m R e a c h i n g this g o a l results in a d u l t c i t i z e n s w h o c a n e v a l u a t e a n d c h o s e t h e i r o w n life p l a n s a n d e f f e c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e in d e m o - c r a t i c politics. T h e liberal e d u c a t i o n a l ideal is i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y b e c a u s e it s u p p l i e s t h e a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s - t i o n o f w h a t e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s are i n d e e d w o r t h w a n t i n g a n d t h u s w h a t e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s ( o r results 2°) a r e t o b e e q u a l i z e d a m o n g s c h o o l c h i l d r e n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e liberal ideal is culturally encumbered, w h i c h is t o s a y t h a t it rules c e r t a i n g o a l s f o r e d u c a t i o n in, s u c h as e f f e c t i v e d e l i b e r a t i o n , a n d c e r t a i n o t h e r s out, s u c h as i n d o c t r i n a t i n g c h i l d r e n w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r r e l i g i o u s faith. I n t h e c o n t e x t o f m u l t i c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n , t h e liberal e d u c a t i o n a l ideal t h u s faces m e a s u r i n g u p t o a c h a l l e n g e t h a t m a y b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d in t e r m s o f a slightly m o d i f i e d v e r s i o n o f K y m l i c k a ' s earlier o b s e r v a t i o n : It only makes sense to invite people to participate in schooling (or for people to accept that invitation) if they will be treated as equals. And that is incompatible with defining people in terms o f roles they did n o t shape or endorse. T h i s c h a l l e n g e t o t h e liberal e d u c a t i o n a l ideal h a s b o t h p o l i t i c a l a n d e m p i r i c a l d i m e n s i o n s . T h e political d i m e n s i o n is that n o t all g r o u p s e n d o r s e this ideal as a c e n t r a l a i m o f e d u c a t i o n . T h e A m i s h , t o t a k e a w e l l - w o r n ex- a m p l e , r e j e c t t h e liberal e d u c a t i o n a l ideal in f a v o r o f e d u c a t i n g their c h i l d r e n f o r w o r k , p i e t y , a n d a s t r o n g s e n s e o f c o m m u n i t y . Christian f u n d a m e n t a l i s t s r e j e c t t h e liberal e d u c a t i o n a l ideal as e x e m p l i f y i n g " s e c u l a r h u m a n i s m . " T o t a k e a less e x t r e m e e x a m p l e , political c o n s e r v a t i v e s s e e k t o p l a c e t r a d i t i o n a l lURawls, A Theory o f Justice. ~gGutmann, Democratic Education. 2°See note 2. 4 6 3 H o w e values a n d associated political a n d e c o n o m i c practices b e y o n d criticism in such a w a y as to c i r c u m s c r i b e significantly the liberal educational ideal. T h e empirical d i m e n s i o n o f the challenge is that p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d social barriers exist to educational o p p o r t u n i t i e s e v e n w h e n explicitly ar- ticulated political ones d o not. Minorities are often stigmatized in ways that can d e s t r o y self-respect a n d m o t i v a t i o n o r result in " d i s i d e n t i f y i n g " with schooling. 21 Related to the latter, so-called "caste-like" minorities exhibit " o p p o s i t i o n a l cultures" that r e n d e r t h e m ill-equipped to, i n d e e d resistant to, take advantage o f the present o p p o r t u n i t y structure, 22 e v e n w h e n they d o n o t explicitly reject the liberal educational ideal. Some n o d o u b t think these kinds o f p r o b l e m s are fatal for the liberal e d u c a t i o n a l ideal, as well as for the allied principle o f equal educational op- p o r t u n i t y . A l t h o u g h the p r o b l e m s are i n d e e d s e r i o u s - - a n d are p r o b l e m s that have received t o o little a t t e n t i o n - - t h e liberal educational ideal a n d the principle o f equal educational o p p o r t u n i t y are, if suitably interpreted, capable o f a c c o m m o d a t i n g these p r o b l e m s . S h o w i n g h o w will be m y task in the r e m a i n d e r o f this article. I will begin by, first, distinguishing conser- vative a n d progressive positions w i t h i n the liberal tradition, next, refining the liberal educational ideal, and, finally, examining equality o f educational o p p o r t u n i t y w i t h respect to three kinds o f cultural minorities. E.D. Hirsch 23 is a g o o d representative o f a c o n s e r v a t i v e in the liberal d e m o c r a t i c tradition vis-a-vis multicultural education. He makes free use o f the principles a n d r h e t o r i c o f the liberal d e m o c r a t i c tradition, c o n t e n d - ing that it is o n l y b y acquiring cultural literacy that the " d i s a d v a n t a g e d (pri- marily African Americans a n d Hispanics) can participate in d e m o c r a c y a n d e n j o y equality o f o p p o r t u n i t y . Hirsch's s o l u t i o n to multiculturalism is thus to eliminate it b y using public education to p r o m o t e a u n i f o r m cultural liter- acy. A c c o r d i n g to Hirsch, this n o t o n l y benefits the disadvantaged, but it is also r e q u i r e d to p r e s e r v e d e m o c r a c y . Hirsch is w r o n g o n b o t h c o u n t s because his p r o p o s a l is b o t h naive and a betrayal o f the liberal democratic tradition. It is naive to think that it w o u l d benefit p e o p l e to strip t h e m o f their identities a n d that t h e y w o u l d so easily a b a n d o n s o m e t h i n g so i m p o r t a n t to them; it is a betrayal o f the liberal d e m o c r a t i c tradition to think that s o m e t h i n g so i m p o r t a n t to p e o p l e ' s iden- tities s h o u l d be eliminated rather than a c c o m m o d a t e d . C o n t r a Hirsch, there is n o t h i n g in the liberal d e m o c r a t i c tradition that c o m p e l s it to strip individuals o f their cultural heritage in service o f the e~Claude M. Steele, "Race and the Schooling of Black Americans," Atlantic Monthly 269, No. 4 (1992): 68-78. -'-'John Ogbu and Maria Matute-Bianchi, "Understanding Sociocultural Factors: Knowledge, Identity, and School Adjustment," in Beyond Language: Social a n d Cultural Factors in Schooling Language Minority Students (Los Angeles: Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University, 1986), 73-142. 2~E.D. Hirsch, Cultural Literacy (New York: Vintage Books, 1988). 4 6 4 E q u a l E d u c a t i o n a l O p p o r t u n i t y a n d M u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c c o m m u n i t y . T h i n k e r s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n h a v e l o n g a p - p r e c i a t e d t h e s o c i o s t r u c t u r a l n a t u r e o f l i b e r a l c o n c e p t s s u c h as f r e e d o m a n d o p p o r t u n i t y . F o r i n s t a n c e , D e w e y o b s e r v e s r e g a r d i n g f r e e d o m , All c o n d u c t is interaction b e t w e e n e l e m e n t s o f h u m a n nature and the e n v i r o n m e n t , natural a n d s o c i a l . . , f r e e d o m is f o u n d in the in- t e r a c t i o n w h i c h maintains an e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h h u m a n desire and c h o i c e c o u n t for s o m e t h i n g . . . . 24 R e g a r d i n g o p p o r t u n i t e s , D e w e y o b s e r v e s , The resistance a n d the c o o p e r a t i o n of o t h e r s is the central fact in the furtherance o r failure o f o u r schemes. C o n n e c t i o n s w i t h our fellows furnish b o t h the o p p o r t u n i t i e s for action and the instrumen- talities b y w h i c h w e take a d v a n t a g e o f o p p o r t u n i t y . 25 B y i n c o r p o r a t i n g s o c i o c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s i n t o t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f f r e e d o m a n d o p p o r t u n i t y , t h i n k e r s l i k e D e w e y , p r o g r e s s i v e s in t h e l i b e r a l d e m o c r a t i c t r a d i t i o n i n g e n e r a l , h o l d a v i e w t h a t is p o t e n t i a l l y m u c h m o r e r e s p o n s i v e t o c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s t h a n a c o n s e r v a t i v e v i e w s u c h as H i r s c h ' s . H o w e v e r , b y e n d o r s i n g t h e p r o m o t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r a l l y e n c u m b e r e d l i b e r a l e d u c a - t i o n a l i d e a l t h r o u g h p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e c i t i z e n s s u i t e d f o r a l i b e r a l d e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c c o m m u n i t y , p r o g r e s s i v e s i n t h e l i b e r a l d e m o c r a t i c t r a d i t i o n a p p e a r i n t h e e n d t o b e s u b j e c t t o t h e s a m e c r i t i c i s m t h a t m a y b e l e v e l e d a g a i n s t c o n s e r v a t i v e s : t h e y d i s m i s s c u l t u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s i n f a v o r o f t h e p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c c o m m u n i t y a n d , in t h e p r o - c e s s , p r o m o t e a k i n d o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n i n w h i c h c u l t u r a l m i n o r i t i e s a r e r e q u i r e d t o g i v e u p t h e i r c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t i e s i f t h e y a r e t o s u c c e e d . T h e r e is n o t i d y , c o m p l e t e l y u n p r o b l e m a t i c r e s p o n s e t o t h i s o b j e c t i o n . H o w e v e r , it h a s m o r e o r l e s s f o r c e d e p e n d i n g o n (1) h o w f u l l y s p e c i f i e d , h o w c u l t u r a l l y e n c u m b e r e d , t h e l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n a l i d e a l is, a n d (2) w h a t c u l t u r a l m i n o r i t i e s a r e at i s s u e . T h e l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n a l i d e a l s h o u l d b e m o d e r a t e l y s p e c i f i e d - - s p e c i f i e d j u s t e n o u g h s o t h a t its r e a l i z a t i o n e n a b l e s p e o p l e s t o c o n t r o l t h e i r o w n lives, a n d n o m o r e . W h e n s p e c i f i e d t o t h i s d e g r e e , it m a y , a g a i n , b e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h t h e c a p a c i t y f o r e f f e c t i v e d e l i b e r a t i o n i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a c o m m i t - m e n t t o p r i n c i p l e s s u c h as n o n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , n o n r e p r e s s i o n , a n d t o l e r a n c e . B y c o n t r a s t t o t h i s c o n c e p t i o n , H i r s c h ' s c o n c e p t i o n is t o o s p e c i f i c i n a c o n - s e r v a t i v e d i r e c t i o n b e c a u s e it t o o h e a v i l y i n c o r p o r a t e s a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e . C a n t h i s m o d e r a t e c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e l i b e r a l e d u c a t i o n a l i d e a l - - t h i s c o n - c e p t i o n o f w h a t e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y w o r t h w a n t i n g 2'John Dewey, Human Nature and Conduct (New York: Random House, 1930), 10. 2Slbid., 317. 4 6 5 H o w e to be equalized a m o n g s c h o o l c h i l d r e n - - p r o m o t e a n d be c o n s i s t e n t with equality o f educational o p p o r t u n i t y vis-a-vis cultural minorities? T o a n s w e r this question, I will consider, in turn, three kinds o f cultural minorities 26 identified b y O g b u a n d Matute-Bianchi: a u t o n o m o u s , immigrant, a n d caste- like. 27 An e x a m p l e o f an a u t o n o m o u s m i n o r i t y is the Amish. As n o t e d before, the Amish reject the liberal educational ideal as a threat to their w a y o f life. In response, the Amish are simply p e r m i t t e d to establish their o w n , largely u n r e g u l a t e d s y s t e m o f formal education. As a practical matter, t h e y are t o o small in n u m b e r to p o s e a significant threat to a liberal d e m o c r a t i c society. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y are separatists w h o n e i t h e r appeal to t h e state t o p r o t e c t c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s ' welfare n o r a t t e m p t to influence public education. Regarding equality o f educational o p p o r t u n i t y , permitting the Amish to establish their o w n s c h o o l s is t a n t a m o u n t to allowing t h e m to d e t e r m i n e their o w n view o f educational o p p o r t u n i t i e s w o r t h w a n t i n g in d e f e r e n c e to their cultural (particularly religious) sensibilities a n d to a b a n d o n i n g the quest for equality o f o p p o r t u n i t y . Amish children are p r o v i d e d an equal educational o p p o r t u n i t y o n l y in the a t t e n u a t e d sense that t h e y are p r o v i d e d with the o p p o r t u n i t y to at- t e n d public schools, w h i c h their parents turn d o w n o n their behalf. O n the o t h e r hand, the liberal educational ideal is n o t a threat insofar as the Amish d o n o t have to give up their cultural c o m m u n i t y and identity to b e c o m e a part o f the p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c c o m m u n i t y , for t h e y simply d o n o t participate significantly in the latter. Thus, as a result o f o b s e r v i n g the principle o f equality at o n e level, namely, equal respect for cultural identi- ty, Amish children forgo equality at a n o t h e r level, namely, equality o f educa- tional o p p o r t u n i t y . An e x a m p l e o f an immigrant m i n o r i t y is the American Chinese. Ac- c o r d i n g to O b g u a n d Matute-Bianchi, g r o u p s like the American Chinese, w h o enter the U.S. voluntarily, exhibit an "alternation m o d e l o f b e h a v i o r , " w h e r e b y t h e y neither are assimilated into n o r reject the mainstream U.S. culture reflected in the public schools. 28 Instead, they m o v e back and forth b e t w e e n cultures as circumstances dictate. Given this response, g r o u p s such as the American Chinese also seem to have n o t h i n g to fear f r o m thc liberal educational ideal. I n d e e d , in o n e i m p o r t a n t situation in w h i c h t h e y were e x c l u d e d f r o m e n j o y i n g the fruits o f U.S. public e d u c a t i o n , t h e y a d v a n c e d ~'"Throughout 1 will be s p e a k i n g in t e r m s o f a g g r e g a t e t e n d e n c i e s . I d o not m e a n to sug g e s t ( n o r d o t h e a u t h o r s I cite) t h a t i m p o r t a n t d i f f . ' f e n c e s d o n o t e x i s t w i t h i n the c a t e g o r i e s o f m i n o r i t i e s 1 h a v e c h o s e n . I n d e e d , e d u c a t o r s s h o u l d in g e n e r a l a v o i d a s s u m i n g that in- d i v i d u a l s can be d e s c r i b e d as t h u s a n d so s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e y fall i n t o o n e o r a n o t h e r g e n e r a l c u l t u r a l c a t e g o r y . 2-Ogbu a n d M a t u t e - B i a n c h i , ~ ' U n d e r s t a n d i n g S o c i o c u l t u r a l F a c t o r s . " -'~Ibid. 4 6 6 E q u a l E d u c a t i o n a l O p p o r t u n i t y a n d M u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m their claims for equality o f educational o p p o r t u n i t y in the U.S. legal s y s t e m in the celebrated L a u v. N i c h o l s 29 case. Caste-like minorities include g r o u p s like African Americans a n d Mex- ican Americans. Unlike a u t o n o m o u s minorities such as the Amish, t h e y par- ticipate significantly in (and are s u b j u g a t e d by) the d o m i n a n t political- e c o n o m i c c o m m u n i t y ; unlike immigrant minorities s u c h as the A m e r i c a n Chinese, t h e y b e c a m e a part o f the political-economic c o m m u n i t y involun- tarily. Because o f their peculiar circumstances, rather t h e n a d o p t i n g the separatist strategy o f the Amish o r the alternation strategy o f the A m e r i c a n Chinese, caste-like minorities have a d o p t e d an o p p o s i t i o n a l strategy to p r e s e r v e their cultural identity. 3° Such a strategy typically entails p o o r s c h o o l p e r f o r m a n c e because w h a t is i n v o l v e d in d o i n g well in s c h o o l re- quires a c c e p t i n g the values o f the d o m i n a n t culture to w h i c h casteqike minorities are in o p p o s i t i o n . O f the three kinds o f minorities c o n s i d e r e d , caste-like minorities p o s e the greatest p r o b l e m s for the principle o f equal e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y . Unlike the Amish, t h e y a t t e n d public s c h o o l s a n d d o n o t e s c h e w the de- m a n d for equality o f educational o p p o r t u n i t y ; unlike the American Chinese, t h e y fare p o o r l y there a n d are unwilling or unable to a d o p t the p r e d o m i - nant n o r m s . T h e crucial q u e s t i o n for the p r e s e n t discussion is w h e t h e r this state o f affairs is the inevitable o u t c o m e o f e n d o r s i n g the liberal educational ideal as a central aim o f e d u c a t i o n a n d e n d o r s i n g the principle o f equal e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y as the sine q u a n o n o f a just educational system. T h e r e are g o o d reasons to believe that the a n s w e r to these q u e s t i o n s s h o u l d be " n o . " Caste-like minorities seem to be reacting m o r e against false p r o m i s e s a n d h a v i n g their identities d e f i n e d for t h e m than against the prin- ciple o f equality o f educational o p p o r t u n i t y and the liberal educational ideal. I n d e e d , t h e y have e m p l o y e d the c o n c e p t o f equality o f educational o p p o r - t u n i t y as a basic principle in the c o u r s e o f p u r s u i n g their grievances w i t h i n the U.S. legal system, B r o w n b e i n g the m o s t c e l e b r a t e d example. Further- m o r e , o p p o s i t i o n a l b e h a v i o r is m o s t likely w r o u g h t b y despair a n d frustra- tion a n d is p r o b a b l y as m u c h a reaction against b e i n g relegated to a l o w l y p o s i t i o n in the class structure as to p r e s e r v i n g cultural identity; it is n o t a deliberate strategy a n d is o f t e n self-defeating. 31 It results f r o m the p e r c e p - tion (often accurate) that unless o n e is a m e m b e r o f the d o m i n a n t culture, d o i n g well in s c h o o l will n o t result in the benefits that are p r o m i s e d , a n d f r o m the p e r c e p t i o n (again, o f t e n accurate) that o n e m u s t allow o n e ' s b e h a v i o r a n d identity to be d e f i n e d in terms o f the d o m i n a n t culture (e.g., b y " a c t i n g w h i t e " ) in o r d e r to d o well. ZgLau v. N i c h o l s 414 U.S. 563 (1974). ~°Paul Willis, L e a r n i n g to L a b o r (New York: C o l u m b i a University Press, 1977), argues for the s a m e k i n d of oppositional culture w i t h respect to w o r k i n g class b o y s in England. 3'Consider Willis's " l a d s " in L e a r n i n g to Labor. 4 6 7 Howe A l t h o u g h w e have a clear obligation to respect the cultural identities o f a u t o n o m o u s a n d immigrant m i n o r i t i e s - - a n d c o u l d d o m u c h better in this r e g a r d - - t h e obligation is especially d e m a n d i n g for caste-like minorities b e c a u s e o f the peculiar w a y t h e y b e c a m e a part o f and the peculiar roles t h e y o c c u p y w i t h i n the p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c c o m m u n i t y . F u r t h e r m o r e , because o f their peculiar history a n d position within the political-economic c o m m u n i t y , caste-like minorities are the m o s t o f t e n criticized b y certain quarters for failing to take advantage o f the opportunities that are o f f e r e d to them. ~2 But requiring p e o p l e to sacrifice their identities in o r d e r to suc- c e e d is n o t a kind o f o p p o r t u n i t y w o r t h wanting; n o r is w o r k i n g h a r d a n d d o i n g well p u r s u i n g the false p r o m i s e that e d u c a t i o n is enabling. The con- clusion that I reach f r o m the a b o v e o b s e r v a t i o n s is that the principle o f equal educational o p p o r t u n i t y is being b e t r a y e d vis-a-vis caste-like minorities, n o t that it is bankrupt. C o n c l u s i o n I set o u t in this article to s h o w that the liberal tradition with its central em- phasis o n equality is r o b u s t e n o u g h to a c c o m m o d a t e the challenge p o s e d b y multicultural e d u c a t i o n . Given that the principle o f equal educational o p p o r t u n i t y is i n d e e d n o t b a n k r u p t , but is being betrayed, I will c o n c l u d e b y offering a few brief suggestions regarding h o w it might be better realized. In general, institutional and c l a s s r o o m practices n e e d to i n c o r p o r a t e a m u c h greater a p p r e c i a t i o n o f the n e e d for g e n u i n e participation a n d self- definition. At the institutional level, the participation o f parents o f cultural m i n o r i t y students s h o u l d be enlisted a n d s h o u l d be s u p p o r t e d w h e n it oc- curs. At the c l a s s r o o m level, t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s such as c o o p e r a t i v e learn- ing strategies s h o u l d b e c o m e c o m m o n p l a c e , a n d teachers s h o u l d d e v e l o p a m u c h greater sensitivity to cultural (including linguistic) differences a n d h o w to deal with them. These are quite familiar suggestions a n d I shall leave their further specification to empirical investigations. 33 What needs to be e m p h a s i z e d here is that, although the classroom a n d institutional practices I suggest are quite familiar, m y u n d e r l y i n g justifica- tion for a d v o c a t i n g t h e m p r o b a b l y is n o t (and w o u l d likely influence the w a y in w h i c h t h e y are carried out). Specifically, I have in m i n d e m p l o y i n g these practices so as to truly negotiate the curriculum. For example, I d o n o t a d v o c a t e c o o p e r a t i v e learning as b u t a n o t h e r educational t e c h n o l o g y for achieving the same old educational objectives. Instead, cooperative learn- ing s h o u l d be p r a c t i c e d so as to e x e m p l i f y a n d p r o v i d e practice in d e m o - cratic give-and-take. A n d I d o n o t a d v o c a t e parental participation so that s c h o o l s m a y garner s u p p o r t at h o m e for carrying o u t their o w n p r e s e n t ~2Patrick McQuillan, D i s n e y L a n d in the J u n g l e : The M y t h o f E d u c a t i o n a l O p p o r t u n i - ty in a n U r b a n A m e r i c a n H i g h School (forthcoming doctoral dissertation, Brown University). ~See, for example, B e y o n d L a n g u a g e . 4 6 8 Equal Educational Opportunity a n d Multiculturalism agenda. Although the precise f o r m such participation s h o u l d take is an o p e n question, t w o things are clear. First, s t u d e n t s w h o s e p a r e n t s d o n o t partici- pate s h o u l d n o t be penalized, for there are a variety o f reasons that might a c c o u n t for parental non-participation, a n d c h i l d r e n s h o u l d n o t be held responsible for their parent's behavior in a n y case. Second, schools o f c h o i c e b a s e d o n m a r k e t principles are a v e r y b a d idea. Again, c h i l d r e n s h o u l d n o t be held hostage By their p a r e n t s ' j u d g m e n t a n d behavior. In addition, the market t o o heavily favors those w h o possess the c a p i t a l - - e c o n o m i c as well as c u l t u r a l - - a n d it d o d g e s the d e m o c r a t i c p r o c e s s o f deliberation a n d ne- gotiation about w h a t kind o f individuals a n d society public education s h o u l d foster b y supplanting it with " v o t i n g with o n e ' s feet" o n the basis o f unex- a m i n e d a n d self-serving " p r e f e r e n c e s . ''34 I balk at c h o i c e a n d separatist s c h e m e s in general b e c a u s e I believe it w o u l d be vastly b e t t e r to create a public s c h o o l s y s t e m in w h i c h s u c h s c h e m e s w e r e n o t necessary. H o w e v e r , I c o n c e d e that certain n o n - m a r k e t based s c h e m e s might be justified if w a r r a n t e d b y circumstances. In par- ticular, w h e r e g r o u p s are h a r m e d b y participation in culturally h e t e r o g e n o u s s c h o o l s that are d o m i n a t e d b y mainstream culture, it might be acceptable for t h e m to separate themselves voluntarily so as to p r o t e c t their cultural identities a n d to p r e s e r v e a sense o f p u r p o s e , b e l o n g i n g , a n d self-respect. For example, schools exclusively for black males might be justified o n these g r o u n d s . (Note that such s c h o o l s are n o t simply the flip side o f the practice o f de j u r e segregation that was struck d o w n in B r o w n insofar as the latter was j u d g e d harmful b e c a u s e it segregated blacks involuntarily a n d implied racial inferiority.) T h e principle o f equal e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y can o n l y be realized for cultural minorities b y r e n d e r i n g educational o p p o r t u n i t i e s w o r t h want- ing, a n d r e n d e r i n g educational o p p o r t u n i t i e s w o r t h w a n t i n g requires that minorities n o t be required to give up their identities in o r d e r to e n j o y them. For minorities w h o can live w i t h the liberal e d u c a t i o n a l i d e a l - - a n d I think m o s t c a n - - s o m e "cultural e l b o w r o o m ''35 must be p r o v i d e d w i t h i n the area it circumscribes. T o reiterate m y earlier paraphrase o f Kymlicka: It only makes sense to invite people to participate in schooling (or for people to accept that invitation) if they will be treated as equals. And that is incompatible with defining people in terms of roles they did not shape or endorse. R e n d e r i n g educational o p p o r t u n i t i e s w o r t h w a n t i n g also requires en- suring that success in s c h o o l is truly enabling. That the d e v e l o p m e n t o f 341 h a v e in m i n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e a r g u m e n t s b y J o h n C h u b b a n d T e r r y M o e , Politics, Markets, a n d America's Schools ( W a s h i n g t o n , D.C.: B r o o k i n g s Institution, 1990). T h e r e s p o n s e is o n e o f t h e s e v e r a l p r o v i d e d b y G u t m a n n in D e m o c r a t i c Education. 3SThe c o n c e p t o f " e l b o w r o o m " is b o r r o w e d f r o m D e n n e t t ' s b o o k b y t h a t n a m e . 4 6 9 t t o w e o p p o s i t i o n a l cultures a n d t h e failure o f e d u c a t i o n t o b e e n a b l i n g is deter- m i n e d b y the p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c o r d e r o u t s i d e o f s c h o o l i n g is cause f o r ex- t r e m e p e s s i m i s m , p e s s i m i s m that is e x a c e r b a t e d b y t h e f r e q u e n t o b s e r v a - t i o n that s c h o o l i n g s i m p l y reflects a n d r e p r o d u c e s t h e p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c o r d e r . A n y p r o p o s a l s f o r e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m that i g n o r e these o b s e r v a t i o n s are d o o m e d to e i t h e r s i m p l y fail o r f u r t h e r e n s c o n c e t h e status q u o . O n the o t h e r h a n d , calling a t t e n t i o n to the influence o f b r o a d political- e c o n o m i c i n f l u e n c e s is a t w o - e d g e d s w o r d . T o o o f t e n , p o i n t i n g t o s u c h influences serves to justify d o i n g nothing, o n the g r o u n d s that b r o a d political- e c o n o m i c i n f l u e n c e s are b e y o n d the p o w e r a n d p u r v i e w o f e d u c a t o r s q u a e d u c a t o r s a n d that s c h o o l s s h o u l d stay o u t o f politics, But, s c h o o l s are in- h e r e n t l y political, if o n l y b y default, a n d e d u c a t o r s c a n a n d s h o u l d take t h e political lead in r e s h a p i n g p u b l i c s c h o o l i n g s o that it b e c o m e s an im- p o r t a n t l o c u s for p r o g r e s s i v e social c h a n g e that f u n c t i o n s to p r e p a r e a l l c h i l d r e n to p a r t i c i p a t e in w h a t G u t m a n n calls " c o n s c i o u s social r e p r o d u c - tion. ''-~C' Public s c h o o l i n g c a n b e r e s h a p e d in this w a y , h o w e v e r , o n l y if e d u c a t o r s p r o m o t e w h a t the p r i n c i p l e o f e q u a l e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y re- q u i r e s by, first, c o n s t r u i n g it in a w a y that is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h p h i l o s o p h i c a l - ly d e f e n s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f the c o n c e p t s o f f r e e d o m a n d o p p o r t u n i t y and, s e c o n d , a c c o m m o d a t i n g w h a t t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y social s c i e n c e has r e v e a l e d r e g a r d i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e s that s h a p e o p p o r t u n i t y structures. Received August 12, 1991 Revision received January 1, 1992 Accepted March 11, 1992 ~'Gutmann, Democratic Education. 4 7 0