Non vltra, or, A letter to a learned Cartesian settling the rule of truth, and first principles, upon their deepest grounds / by J.S. Sergeant, John, 1622-1707. 1698 Approx. 177 KB of XML-encoded text transcribed from 72 1-bit group-IV TIFF page images. Text Creation Partnership, Ann Arbor, MI ; Oxford (UK) : 2004-08 (EEBO-TCP Phase 1). A59238 Wing S2585 ESTC R33865 13585716 ocm 13585716 100531 This keyboarded and encoded edition of the work described above is co-owned by the institutions providing financial support to the Early English Books Online Text Creation Partnership. This Phase I text is available for reuse, according to the terms of Creative Commons 0 1.0 Universal . The text can be copied, modified, distributed and performed, even for commercial purposes, all without asking permission. Early English books online. (EEBO-TCP ; phase 1, no. A59238) Transcribed from: (Early English Books Online ; image set 100531) Images scanned from microfilm: (Early English books, 1641-1700 ; 1048:2) Non vltra, or, A letter to a learned Cartesian settling the rule of truth, and first principles, upon their deepest grounds / by J.S. Sergeant, John, 1622-1707. [16], 3-125 p. Printed for A. Roper ..., London : MDCXCVIII [1698] Attributed to John Sergeant by Wing and NUC pre-1956 imprints. Reproduction of original in the Union Theological Seminary Library, New York. Created by converting TCP files to TEI P5 using tcp2tei.xsl, TEI @ Oxford. Re-processed by University of Nebraska-Lincoln and Northwestern, with changes to facilitate morpho-syntactic tagging. Gap elements of known extent have been transformed into placeholder characters or elements to simplify the filling in of gaps by user contributors. 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To the Much Honoured Sir EDWARD SOUTHCOT , Knight and Baronet . SIR , 'T IS so Unusual a Complement , to make a Person of your Quality a Judge in a Philosophical Controversie , that it will be Admir'd at by those who do not know you ▪ and , I fear , scarce Accepted by your self . Such Studies do so seldom colour with the Profession of a Gentleman , that He must be much rais'd above the Common , who can merit the Esteem of being fit for such an Umpirage . To be held , not only a Lover of Learning , but a Discerner too in that Highest Sort of Knowledge , is such a Starry Embellishment to a Noble Extraction , and sets such a Deep Stamp of Honour upon it , that it gives a Double Tincture of Excellency to such Illustrious Persons , and ranks them in the First File of Heroes . In the Time of Augustus , when the Roman Learning was in its Zenith , such Famous Worthies might have been easily met with ; but they are so Rare now-a-days , that they seem Uncouth , and look like Monsters : And such , indeed , they are , in Scaliger's Phrase ; that is , Monsters of Perfection . Great Men do generally , now , so undervalue Learning , and 't is so despicably-Little in their Eye , as if they took a View of it at the Wrong End of the Prospective . The Noble Sir Kenelm Digby , the Honourable Mr. Boyle , and some few others , have rescu'd the Universality of their Peers from this Imputation : But , now that they have left us , such Personages are so very thin-sown , that , for any thing we see , there are but Few left , besides your self , who give us any Prospect of keeping alive a Succession of Men , endow'd with that Renowned Character . Yet , Ignorance and Folly are such Ignoble Blemishes , that KNOWLEDGE , in Common , does still uphold it self , with the Generality of Mankind , in a Fair Esteem : But , this Thing , call'd [ PHILOSOPHY , ] looks like such a Bug-bear to most of our Modern Great Ones , that the very Name and Sound of it puts them in a Marvellous Fright ; whence , 't is no wonder Men do not love , or esteem Amiable , what they fear , and look upon as Hideous . Whereas , indeed , the Study of Philosophy is no more but the Improvement of our Reason , ( by which we are Men , ) in Reading , and ( to a fair Degree ) Understanding the Book of the World ; or , in Knowing those Things , with which , whether we will or no , we must Converse , and be Concern'd daily . Certainly , their Palate is much out of Taste , who cannot relish a Benefit so Natural to our Soul ; but think it below the Station of a Gentleman , to regard it . I could wish such Men would please to reflect upon what kind of Objects their Thoughts and Affections are employ'd , while they neglect This. I believe it would shame their Choice , if they duly consider'd what Empty Toys they pursu'd , and preferr'd before this Solid and Substantial Good. PHILOSOPHY , truly such , and rightly understood , is far from being such a Frightful Thing as their Imagination paints it ; being only Plain , Natural Reason , Polish'd , Better'd and Elevated by Art and Reflexion : So that they who check at the Knowledge of Philosophy , ought , with much better Reason , find fault with the Teaching Persons of Quality to Sing , Dance or Play on the Lute : Unless they think it very Prudent , and Expedient , to give our Voice , Feet and Fingers the best Advantages we can , to perform their Actions artificially , and exactly ; but , that 't is a very Needless Folly to perfect the Knowing Power of our Soul ; and wondrous Wise , to let it still doze on sluggishly , in its Home-spun Native Rudeness , and lie wholly Uncultivated . Nay , such Gentlemen would be much offended their Houses should not be clean Swept , and Garnish'd ; yet , they are not , in the least , concern'd , that Cobwebs should hang in the Windows of their Intellect , and Dusty Ignorance dim and blear the Sight of the Noble Inhabitant . But , where is this Philosophy all this while ? Or , Is there , indeed , any such Thing in Nature ? Whatever Glorious Attributes some have given it , they all Agree in this , that it is the Knowledge of Truth : If so , then , as Truth can be but One , so it should follow , that ●either can there be more than One ●●ilosophy which is the True One and , that all others are but 〈◊〉 Pretended ; and , consequently , in reality , Fabulous , and Erroneous . Where , then , shall we certainly find this One , or only-True Philosophy ? Multitudes of Sects did , of old , set up to drive the Trade and Profession of Philosophizing : But , they all Broke , and shut up Shop , having but a very few Chance-Customers ; except that Great Man , ( whom St. Hierome calls , Ingenii Humani Finis , ) ARISTOTLE . He , I say , alone , has got Quiet Possession of the Schools , for a long time ; and , ha● now strengthen'd his Title , by an Immemorial Prescription : Nor did any Pretender of Note put in his Claim against him , till , in our Days , the admirably-Ingenious CARTESIUS declared himself his Competitor . Till then , Aristotle being drawn into different Senses , by his Many-minded Commentators amongst the Modern School-men , those Men who were of Sharp Wits , and hated jurare in verba — were in danger to turn Scepticks ; and began to think that Truth was either flown to Heaven in Astraea's Coach ; or , ( as some Antients thought , ) was in puteo defossa ; or else , if she were above-ground , that she was sequester'd in some Terrestrial Paradise ; so that none could get Knowledge of her Habitation , or come at her . In this juncture , to rescue the Flower of Mankind from falling into perfect Scepticism , and to encourage them still to hope for Truth in Philosophy , there arose , very opportunely , those Great Men , Thomas Albius , Sir Kenelm Digby , and Cartesius ; who were , all of them , in a manner Contemporary : All of them promis'd Science , which kept up those Men's drooping Spirits from Despair of Truth . The former Two of these , in many of their main Principles , declar'd themselves Aristotelians ; as also did those who follow'd their Philosophy : Whereas , Cartesius ravell'd all the Schemes hitherto woven by others , moulded all the World in a New Frame ; and set up for his Single Self , without any Copartner . By which you see , Sir , that your Task , which seem'd at first so Vast , and Endless , is reduc'd , and confin'd to this One Enquiry ; viz. to determin ( in your own Thoughts at least , whether you think fit to pronounce Sentence , or no ) which Party , viz. these Followers of Aristotle , or of Cartesius , are True Philosophers . On which side soever the Lot falls , it follows of course , that , since they contradict one another , the Other , let them Talk and Write as long as they will , are , in reality , None . Still you will complain , that even This is beyond the Extent of your Narrow Province , and exceeds the Purlew of your Reading , and Thinking too . But I dare assure you , Sir , that this present Debate is of that nature , that it requires no more to Decide it , than a Fair Stock of Clear and Penetrative Natural Reason ; in which your Discerning Genius ( besides what Acquisition may have added to it ) is well known to be Abounding , and no way Deficient . To perform this , there needs no Sedulous and Tedious Turning over all the Books writ by both Parties , or Scanning the Force of their Arguments . Providence would be wanting to Mankind , were there no other Way than this left us , to know where Truth is to be found : Nor would Man's Life be long enough for such an Endless Task . I know not what Untoward Ways Men , who love much Talk , have fram'd to themselves , and introduced into the World : But , certainly , the GOD of Truth , who envies not to Mankind his Best Natural Perfection , Exact Knowledge , or True Science , has furnish'd us with a more Compendious , and more Sure Method , if we will but follow it : Which is , to examin which Party , what Book , what Discourse has Right PRINCIPLES ; and , which not . If two Mathematicians follow their Principles , and yet differ in their Conclusions , we may be sure the Pretended Principles of one of them are no Principles at all : And the same , for the same reason , holds in all other Sciences . But , how shall we know who has True , or Right Principles ? Most easily , by Examining the FIRST PRINCIPLES either Side pretends to . For , if the First Principles may be Fallacious , and , consequently , None ; then the Second Principles , which depend on the First , can be none neither ; and , so , they will be unavoidably convinc'd to have no Kind of Principles at all . Nor is it possible for any Man to be Ignorant , whether the First Principles , or First Truths , which are to be the RULE of knowing all other Truths , be truly such ; because These must be Self-evident , most Firmly Grounded , Unmistakable , and necessarily Assented to , by All Mankind ; as is demonstrated in the Following Treatise ; and , indeed , is Evident by Common Reason . Again , If either Side would pass upon us Gratuitous , or Unprov'd Supposisitions , for Principles ; or decline the Way of Connexion of our Simple Apprehensions , in which all Truth formally consists ; and , without which , all Discourses must be necessarily Incoherent : Lastly , If the RULE of Knowing Truth which One Party assigns , be such , that even Learned Men may be Mistaken , and Deceiv'd , while they think they follow it ; in all these Cases , I say , 't is Incontestably Evident , that that Party are no Philsophers : nor can know any thing at all , if Nature be not Kinder to them , than their own Unprincipl'd Doctrine . You see , Sir , by this time , that a Gentleman , endow'd with a far less Perfection of Understanding than your self is Master of , may , by these Tests , determin , who are True Philosophers , who not : As also , how all Controversies in Philosophy may be easily Decided ; how all Occasions of Wrangling about particular Tenets , may be avoided ; and , lastly , how the Fiercest Opposers , if they really seek after Truth , may be Reconcil'd , and Satisfy'd . 'T is the Business of this following Paper , to let you into the Certain Knowledge , what Kind of Propositions are the First Principles , and the Rule of Knowing all Truth whatever . The First Step we take into our Inmost Thoughts , we meet with and discover these Primary Truths : whose Self-Evidence is the Earliest Light that dawns to our Soul , as soon as over her Power of Knowing awakens into Action . 'T is a Subject , tho' most Necessary , and of the highest Influence , yet neglected by Writers hitherto . Two or three have , indeed , spoken of it ; but , none I know of , has handl'd it professedly , and at large . Tho' it be Dry , and requires Chawing ere it becomes Nutritive ; yet , I dare presume , it is Solid , and not at all Windy . Even , Seeds , when first planted , are Dry ; which , yet , hinders them not from yielding a Large Increase afterwards : The First Principles are the Seeds of all Truths ; which , by how much their Roots are laid Deeper , so much Higher they Rear and Extend their Branches . The Present I offer you , is Small ; but the Little it contains , ( as far as concerns this Subject , ) is wrought entirely out of Natural and Reflected Reason , without being beholding at all to the Dishonourable Task of Transcribing ; as some Pieces , I could name , are . I dare undertake , that the Reasons produc'd here , are so firmly Grounded , that they can fear no Opposition but Drollery , the last Effort of Nonplust Reason . You will not expect Fine Language , in a Matter that cannot bear it . Self-Evidence is so brightly Luminous , that nothing can make it more Glossy : Nor is all the Eloquence in the World able to do these First Truths any Service at all : All Attempts to burnish or varnish them , do , instead of doing this , dawb and hide them ; as Painting does a Perfect Beauty . The Sum is ; The whole Controversie , now agitated , is this ; Whether of these two Philosophies abovesaid is built on more Evident Principles ; or , has a more Self-evident , and Unmistakable RULE of Knowing ; And , your Steady , and Equally-poiz'd Iudgment , is requested to hold the Scales . What the Trifle I here send you , wants in Worth , is , I am sure , abundantly supply'd by the sincere Respects , which are , at the same time , presented you by , Much Honoured SIR , Your ever Devoted , and Very Humble Servant . I. S. Honoured SIR , 1. I Give you many Thanks for your kind Visit. Had you known how welcome it was , I am confident you would have accepted my kind Invitation , and have gratify'd my Request that you would repeat it often . But your exceeding Modesty and Civility , did , it seems , fear that might be a Trouble , which , I do heartily assure you , was esteem'd by me as a high Favour . Of which I thought I could give you no better Testimony , than by letting you see that I am not willing that small Scantling of your Conversation you then allow'd me , should be lost . Wherefore , I thought it not amiss to give you a Rehearsal of it , as far as my Memory reaches at such a Distance ; and withal , my Sentiments of the several Particulars then touch'd upon ; what my First Thoughts of them were then , and my Second Thoughts since : Not debarring myself the Liberty of adding some farther Reflexions that occurr'd to me , while I was writing this Paper ; because the Treating of many Things confusedly , ere any one was concluded , made the Tenour of our Conference Uneven , and Shatter'd ▪ For , in Discoursing of Principles , a Slow Pace is the Surest ; and , when Wit is too Nimble , it hazards to lame Reason and Iudgment , to keep pace with it . 2. I must confess , Dear Sir , That when I heard you discourse , you did it so ingeniously in the Cartesian Way of Wit , which consists in Explicating and Doubting , and seems to exclude Proving , that I did not see how the Great Cartesius himself could have defended his Doctrine better : For , he could not have Doubted more scrupulously than you did ; nor , I think , have Explicated himself more ingeniously . You guarded his Doctrine so warily , that it was scarce possible to attack it . Tho' , that I may not flatter you , I cannot say you did this by the Evidence of any Proposition you Advanc'd , but by your Ready Exceptions against any thing that Art or Nature could oppose ; at least , taking them as manag'd by one no better skill'd than I am . Your Cause seem'd to me , as if it had been secur'd in some Castle ; made Impregnable , not by means of the Ordinary Methods of Fortification , us'd in Lawful War ; but , ( which is against the Old Laws of Arms , ) by a kind of Enchantment . Your Bulwarks , Entrenchments and Redoubts lay so cunningly hid in your Way of Ideas , that they were altogether Invisible ; so that the most quick-sighted Engineer living could not discern them , or take any sure Aim at them : Much less such a Dull Eye as mine ; who , tho' I bend my Sight as strongly and steadily as I am able , yet I cannot , for my Heart , see what kind of Things those Spiritual Ideas are . And , which leaves me in a helpless Condition as to that Particular , such very Ingenious Cartesians as Mr. Le Grand , who , having por'd so long upon them , should be best acquainted with them , and therefore best qualified to inform me what they are , gives me no Account of them ; unless we can think there may be such Things as are made up of Contradictions , and altogether Chimerical . As you may see in the 2d Examen of my Ideae Cartesianae Expensae , §§ . 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30. 3. Now , Sir , This looks like a kind of Rosycrucianism in Philosophy , to build all your Doctrine on Ideas , and yet keep the Secret among your selves , and conceal from us what those same Ideas are . Indeed , our Doctrine , which makes our Notions , Conceptions , or Simple Apprehensions , to be the very Things objectively in our Understanding , seems very Abstruse to those who guide themselves by Fancy , and not by Connexion of Terms ; in regard it depends on the Manner of Operating proper to Spiritual Natures ; which is above our Common Speculation concerning Natural Subjects , and is only reachable by those who are well vers'd in Metaphysicks : Yet , notwithstanding , I tell you plainly ( Preliminary 2d . ) what these Notions are : I explicate them fully , so that none can doubt what I mean by them : Nay , more ; I bring there many ( at least pretended ) Demonstrations , to prove they must be such ; none of which Mr. Le Grand ( if he do , indeed , differ from me in that Point ) has thought fit to solve . This being so , you would very much oblige me , if you would help me to the sight of any Cartesian Author , who has so clearly and candidly given us his Thoughts concerning your Ideas ; who has fully explain'd their Nature , defin'd them , and attempted to demonstrate they must be such . Which if it be not done , all other Sorts of Philosophers in the World have reason to complain that they are very hardly dealt with . For your Method calls into Doubt , in a manner , all the Ways of Knowing held by Mankind , till Cartesius's Time : And you would have us renounce all our former Judgments , and accept nothing for Certain , but what appears to us by your Way of IDEAS ; and yet you will not give us a Clear and Distinct Knowledge , what your Ideas are , nor demonstrate them to be such as you would have us believe them to be : Without which , perhaps there are no such Things as those Ideas of yours ; nor , consequently , is your Way of Philosophy , building all our Science upon such Ideas , any Way at all . But , to return to our Conference . 4. Foreseeing I should not be able to give Satisfaction to your Acute Wit , without beginning from the very Bottom-Ground of all Truth , ( to do which my own Genius also inclin'd me , ) I alledg'd , That it was manifest we could neither speak True nor False , without Affirming , or Denying , ( which we use to call Formal Truth ; ) and therefore , that Truth was no where to be found , but in such Speeches as were Affirmative , or Negative : Which kind of Speeches Logicians call Propositions . Also , That all Truth , if Affirmatively express'd , consists in the Connexion of the two main Parts of a Proposition ; which Logicians call , its Terms , or Extremes ; and that , for the same reason , if those Terms were Unconnected , the Proposition was False . I flatter'd my self , you would become Convinc'd thus far ; the Ground I built on being Unavoidable , my Deductions thence Immediate , and the Consequence Clear and Undeniable . But you were too hard for me in your Doubting Way : For , you gave some small Stop to my Proceeding , by your Dis-like of the Word [ Proposition ] as savouring of the Way of the Schools . This a little surpriz'd me : For , I conceiv'd , that since Words were only intended to signifie our Meanings , there could be no Reason why the Word should dislike any , so it was declar'd what was meant by it ; which , the Common Usage of it by Philosophers , for so many Centuries , had , I thought , sufficiently manifested , and warranted . This gave me Occasion to explain my self ; and to declare , that I meant no more by the Word [ Proposition , ] but A Speech that Affirms , or Denies . I added , That therefore , such Speeches , if Affirmative , ( and the same , mutatis mutandis , is to be said of Negative ones , ) must consist of something that is Affirm'd , something of which , is Affirm'd , and some Word which Affirms or expresses the Affirmation . Which three Parts of a Proposition , Logicians agree to call Predicate , Subject , and Copula . These plainest . First Rudiments I was forcd to begin with ; not out of any Apprehension you did not know them ; but , out of my Desire you would admit the Words , after such an Explanation of them ; fearing , otherwise , I should want Language to discourse with you , in a Subject of this nature . 5. What follow'd immediately , I do not certainly remember ; but I think it was , That you excepted against that whole Artificial Way of Discoursing ; and made account there was a more Compendious Method , or Shorter Cut to Science : Which , I conceive , was , by Contemplating your Ideas ; by which you hop'd to arrive at Truth , by the Clear and Distinct Appearance of it to your Mind . To defend our Method , I alledg'd , That it was the Way of Nature , tho' perfected by Art ; as all our other Natural Faculties and Operations are . That all Art , if it be Solid , and not Fantastick , is nothing but a Deeper Inspection into Plain , Honest Nature , made by the Reflexion of our Mind . That such Mental Speeches and Propositions , and each Part of them , ( as was shewn lately , ) were in the Understandings of all Mankind , when they do conceive , or intend to speak any Truth , or Falshood . That all the Discourses about a Syllogism , made by True Logick , ( which is nothing but Exact Reflexion upon what passes in every Man's Mind , naturally , ) is nothing but the Dissecting an Evident or Conclusive Discourse , made by our Natural Faculty of Reasoning , into all its Parts ; the Placing those Parts best , in order to Clearness ; and the Shewing those Nerves and Wires , ( the First Principles of our Understanding , ) which are , as it were , th● Main Springs of our Reason , an● give Strength and Vigour to such a Discourse . And the same may be said of a Proposition , both as to its P●●●s , and the Connexion or Identity of its two Terms , ( the Subject , and Pr●●icate , ) in which consists its Truth : A●● which , I hope , I have shewn very par●●cularly , in the Second and Third Books of my METHOD to SCIENCE . Moreover , Because I saw , your Prejudice against our Way was taken from the Insignificant Iargon of some of our School-men , I take leave to add , that , let others talk as superficially of those Matters as they please , and disparage the true Way of Art , by mis-managing it , and making it look Phantastick ; yet I am not conscious to my self , that I have any thing in my Method , but what is entirely built on the Nature of the Thing in hand ; I mean , Notions , Propositions , and Rational Discourses , found in the Minds of all Mankind : Which Way of Building on the Nature of the Subject of which we are speaking , is the only Ground that can give Solidity to any Discourse : At least , I am sure , that , if I have any Argument there , which has any other Fountion , I shall renounce it , as swerving from my Method , and my Intention : And I do candidly here declare , that I am oblig'd , either to bring a more Solid Proof for that Point , or I ought not to expect it should be well receiv'd by any Man of Learning . Which being so , I have that good Opinion of your Equity , that you will not therefore discard a Way which is thus willing to approve it self to be Solid , and to subsist by Arguments built on the Firm Ground of the Nature of the Thing , because some slight Understanders of it have us'd it triflingly . Nor would you think it reasonable , that the Cartesian Hypothesis should be quite rejected , upon no other Reason , but because you think some late Writers have not done it the Right they ought . 6. In order to your Clear and Distinct Perception , which you therefore judg'd to be the Rule or Test of all Truth , because we cannot but Assent to that , as True , which we Clearly and Distinctly see to be so , I make these Preliminary Remarks . 1. That this is the main Hinge of all the Cartesian Hypothesis , which persuades them to place the Ground of Truth within their own Minds , and its Productions ; and not in the Things themselves . 2. That this is the most Ingenious and Plausible Conception , which the Great Wit of Cartesius ever advanc'd ; and therefore it most deserves Clearing : Which is , indeed , one main Reason why I strain'd Courtesie a little , in publishing this Paper . 3. That the Plausibility of it lies chiefly in this , That every Man must grant the Truth of that Proposition , as it lies : For , Who can deny , but that what I see to be True , is True ? This being full as Evident , as that I cannot see what is not . This , then , is a plain Truth , and might deserve the Name of a Subordinate Rule ; were it Certain , or prov'd first , that we could not possibly be Mistaken in thinking we have a Clear and Distinct Perception of a Thing , when we have it not . Mr. Le Grand confesses , this may happen when the Will is Byass'd , or Men are Unskilful ; ( and how frequent is that ? ) And we shall give many Instances afterwards , how we are deceiv'd in many other Occasions . 4. That this Clear and Distinct Perception , the Cartesians so much speak of , and value themselves upon , tho' the Expression be New , is no more in reality , but Perfect Evidence of an Object : For , the seeing any Object Clearly , is the seeing it Evidently ; nor can we see It evidently , if that Object , or It , be Confounded with others , and not seen to be Distinct from them . Wherefore , this Phrase , of Clear and Distinct Perception is a meer Amuzement ; and , being New , makes the Readers apt to conceit that it is a lately-found-out Discovery of some unheard of Thing , or some New Method , of which all former Philosophers were hitherto ignorant ; whereas , 't is the self-same with Perfect Evidence of some Particular Object ; which all the Learned Part of Mankind have ever us'd , before Cartesius was born ; nay , have allow'd , and held also , That no Man could refrain from Assenting that the Thing , or Mental Proposition , is True , when with Perfect Evidence It is seen to be so . Wherefore , this last Point will not , I hope , break Squares between the Cartesians and me ; for , thus far we agree in our Meanings ; however , I except against the Novelty of the Expression , which would seem to intimate something Extraordinary in the Method you pretend to have first found out , and introduced ; and which , by your Carriage , you seem to appropriate to your selves , as singularly yours . 5. These Things being so , it follows , that the First Rule of our Knowledge of all Truths whatever must be Common to all Knowing Natures in the World : It must also be the most Evident that can be , or Self-evident ; so that none can disagree , dissent , or be Deceiv'd in it , but must See and Assent to it , in despite of any Weakness of the Understanding , or any Byass or Obliquity of the Will ; as we shall see hereafter our Rule is , and must be . And the Reason is , because this Rule being that , by means of which , a Creature made for Knowledge is capable of knowing any thing ; it follows , that , if it lay in any Man's power to be Ignorant of this Rule , or to dissent from it , or be deceiv'd in it , it would be in his power , not meerly to pervert , but utterly to destroy and unmake the Nature given him by God ; and , of Cognoscitive or Capable of Knowledge , make it Uncognoscitive or Incapable of Knowing any thing ; which , the Natures of Things being fix'd by God's Wisdom , to be what they are , 't is as impossible for any Man to do , as it is for him to put off his own Individuality , and not be the same Person he is . 7. These Notes premis'd , I come closer to examine your Rule of Truth . You say , If you Clearly and Distinctly see that a Thing is True , you do thence certainly know it to be so . I allow the Conditional Proposition ; for , 't is Impossible to see that which is not to be seen ; or ●o know that to be True , which is not-True . The only Question , then , is , Whether this be a Rule of Truth ; Mr. Le Grand very rationally granting , p. 92. there goes more to constitute a Rule of Truth , than to be True ? In order to the Clearing of which , I ask : Was it True before you saw Clearly and Distinctly it was True ? Or , Did it become True by your seeing it ( as you phrase it ) Clearly and Distinctly to be True ? If it were True before you thus saw it to be True ; then , 't is unavoidable , there was Another Rule , or Reason , for that Truth which anteceded your Seeing it to be such ; and therefore , your Clear and Distinct Perception could not be the Rule of Knowing that Truth , being Subsequent to it . And , if you say , it became True by your Seeing it Clearly and Distinctly , then it was not True before ; and then , you saw that to be True , which was not True ; that is , you saw it to be otherwise , than , in Effect and Reality , it was . And , consequently , that pretended Sight or Perception is so far from being A Rule of Truth , that it is a palpable Errour and Mistake ; and therefore , all the Judgments issuing from it must be False . Which , instead of Constituting it A Rule of Truth , would make it , indeed , A Rule of Falshood . 8. To make this yet plainer , please to reflect , that this Clear and Distinct Perception is such an Act of your Understanding ; and that all Acts have their being such , from the Object of those Acts. For , the Faculty or Power of Understanding was , of it self , Indifferent and Indetermin'd to All and Every Particular Act : And , since nothing that is Indetermin'd , nor any Act in Common , can Be ; it follows , that the Being , and being such , of each Act , depends formally on the Object , and is such in particular , as that Object , which informs the Power , is . Wherefore , when you see a Thing to be True , that which you saw thus Clearly and Distinctly True , must have been thus True before you saw it to be so . Whence , we ask , What was that which made the Object you perceiv'd-to-be-true , to be True ? Or , What was the Rule of Truth to that Object that was True , ere you saw it to be such ? Must not the Object be such , ere you can know it to be such ? Or Clearly and Distinctly Perceptible to be such , before you can Clearly and Distinctly Perceive it to be such ? If not , then you must say , you can know what is not to be known , or Clearly and Distinctly perceive what is not Clearly and Distinctly to be perceiv'd : Which is a perfect Contradiction . 9. For Instance ; Since Truth is no where to be found , but in such Speeches as Affirm , or Deny , that is , in Propositions ; let us put some Proposition which you thus Clearly and Distinctly perceive to be True , and therefore ( as was lately demonstrated ) must have been True before you saw it to be so . Does it not clearly follow , that , Either that Truth must have been made Evident by Another , and that again by Another , and so in infinitum ; ( by which means , nothing at all could ever be seen to be True ; ) or else there must have been some First kind of Truths , whose Noon-day Evidence imparts Evidence to others , and is it self Visible , or ( if you please ) Clearly and Distinctly Perceptible to all Mankind ; and forces them , at first sight , to Assent to its Verity ? Now , if some such First kind of Truths can be found , which , by their Absolute Self-Evidence , do , as Objects of our Understanding Power , necessarily determin the Understandings of all Mankind , to Assent ; and do withall influence All our other Truths , and our Knowledge of them ; then ( our Act of Perception being clearly Excluded from being the Rule of Truth ) these First Truths have all the Requisites that can be imagin'd for a Ratio cognoscendi Veritatem , or a Rule of Truth ; since they self-evidently manifest to us their own Truth ; and by it , give us Light to know all others . Let us pursue then the Quest of these First Truths . Our Discourse , because it concerns and antecedes all other Knowledges , and all particular Truths , must necessarily be fetch'd from the Deepest Grounds , and therefore ▪ must needs be very Speculative . But , I know I speak to him whose Piercing Wit will easily comprehend it . Only , I beseech you , so far to bend your Byass , which you must needs have contracted by your Long and Steady Meditating on your Way of Ideas , till you reduce any Obliquity that may have prepossess'd your good Judgment , to a Rectitude , or Indifferency ; and then I cannot doubt , but I may do you some Service , even , perhaps , against your Will : For , Evidence , if Clear , and well penetrated , does oft-times force Assent , whether the Will repugns , or no. 10. The Ideas , or Essences , of each Piece of the World's Fabrick were in the Mind of the Divine Architect , ere they were made . Again ; Since he did not make them by the Hand of some Bungling Journey-man , who might , perhaps , deviate from his Pattern , or Model ; but immediately , by his own Infinite Wisdom and Power ; it cannot be doubted , but that each Part of the Creation was fram'd exactly according to the Archetypes of those Unchangeable Ideas ; and therefore , was perfectly Establish'd in its respective Essence , or Nature , as those Original Ideas were ; that is , they were fix'd to be what they are , by an Inerrable Hand ; in which consists that which we call their Metaphysical Verity . Wherefore , since all Truth , Originally , Primarily and most Fundamentally consists in this Metaphysical Verity of Things , it being the Immediate Effect of the Divine Wisdom ; it follows , that the First Formal Truths that can be in our Minds , ( which , consequently , are the Rules , or Principles , to all others , ) must be those which speak , express , or Affirm this Metaphysical Verity , or , that the Things are what they are . Which kind of Self-evident Propositions , can therefore , be no other than those we call Identical . This is most Evident , and Incontestable : For , since this Metaphysical Verity , which ( next to the Divine Maker of all Things , from whom it immediately proceeded ) is the Ground and Cause of all Truth , does consist in this , That Things are Fix'd in their Essences , or are what they are ; 't is Impossible to speak this Truth , or make it a Formal Truth , by affirming , or Denying , ( that is , by putting it into a Proposition ; ) but by Affirming , that they are what they are ; which is most evidently an Identical Proposition . 11. Hitherto , then , it is undiscernable , how it can , with any Shew of Reason , be deny'd , that the Self-Evidence that so visibly shines in Identical Propositions , bids fair towards their being the First Rule of Knowing all Truths ; or , which is the same , the First Principle to all other Knowledges . For , 1. There cannot be any so great Clearness , or Evidence , as is Self-Evidence ; nor so Close Connexion of the Terms in any Proposition , or Speech , that expresses Truth , as is Perfect Identity , or Self-Connexion ; consisting in this , That the Thing , or Mode of Thing spoken of , is what it is , or , is its self . 2. 'T is Impossible any thing else can be so Solid , or so Firmly Establish'd ; being immediately built on the Unchangeable Metaphysical Verity it self ; or rather , being It , spoken , and express'd : Which Verity ( as was shewn ) is imprinted in the Essences of every Created Thing , by the Immediate Hand of Essential Truth . Whence it is so nearly ally'd to that Infinite Truth it self , that it is remov'd but one Degree from it . 3. By reason of this Connatural and Immediate Descent from that Brightest and most Glorious Luminary of all Knowledge , the Father of Lights , who is Candor Aeternae Lucis , and Infinitely Intelligible ; it forces the Assent of all Mankind to its Verity . Insomuch , that no Disease can so pervert a Rational Being , which has the least Use of Reason , as to deny it , or doubt of it ; nor suspend their Judgment concerning it : Nor can the highest Passion of the most Profligate Wretch living , hurry his Understanding into the Admittance of such a Folly. No Scepticalness can call the Truth and Certainty of it into Question . No Whimsical Speculation can inveigle any Man into a Conceit , that it can be False . No Opposition can make head against it ; since , whatever can be alledg'd to overthrow it , must needs appear to be less Evident than It ; and , therefore , Unable to shock it . No subtil Distinction can impair its Truth ; or pretend it is True in One Respect , but not in Another ; since it is Impossible to distinguish the Copula [ is ; ] the Notion of Existence being so perfectly Simple , and most Formal , or Indivisible , that it can admit of no Distinction into Divers Formalities ; according to One of which , it may be True ; according to Another , False . Nor can it prejudice any such Proposition , to Distinguish its Subject , or Predicate ; since whatever Distinction can fall here upon the Subject , must fall upon the Predicate too ; both of them being the self-same Notion . By which means , the Identicalness and Self-evidence of the Proposition will be still the same after the Distinction is given , as it was before . So that 't is Impossible to imagin , that any thing can be propos'd , which can , in any Regard , or in any Degree , vye with Identical Propositions ; either in being so Solidly Grounded , or so perfectly Clear , Undeniable , Unmistakable , and plac'd above the reach of any possible Attack . Nor did Cartesius himself , amongst all the Evident Things he call'd into Doubt , in the least Question the Evidence and Truth of such Propositions , formally express'd : Nor could he have done it , without utterly Destroying , at the same time , the Certainty of all he could have said ; nay , even of his own First Principle too ; as will be seen hereafter . From all which Considerations , ( any One of which might suffice , ) I may Safely and Evidently conclude , that , in point of Evidence of its Truth , and Stability of its Grounds , nothing can be any way comparable to the Light which strikes the Eye of our Understanding , by its steady Rays emitted from these Self-evident , or Identical Propositions : Which goes very far to the Entitling These , and These only , to be the Rule of Knowing all Truths , or the First Principles to all Science , in whatever particular Subject ; not excepting even Metaphysicks it self . 12. Notwithstanding all that has been so fully evinc'd hitherto , I have , as yet , done but half my Business ; or rather , the better half is still left behind . For , a First Rule , or First Principle , requires Another Quality , peculiar to it self , to compleat its Notion , besides its being thus Solidly Grounded , and thus Supreamly Evident ; which is , That All other Truths , or Knowledges , must be Rul'd , or Principl'd by It : It must have an Universal Influence over all other Knowledges , and impart its Light to them . The former Qualities will , I believe , be granted to Identical Propositions , by every Attentive Considerer , who knows what belongs to Logick , or Reason reflecting on it self ; and is , withall , but meanly vers'd in Metaphysicks . This later Qualification will be deny'd by many , perhaps by most ; nay , will be fancy'd , and abetted by very Few . For , every one's Genius does not lead him to speculate so deep ; and there are scarce any who have propos'd this highest and nicest Point , much less handl'd it at large ; tho' divers have given the Grounds whence it must follow . The Reason of this General Dis-like of Identical Propositions , is , because they have such a Dry Meen , and Contemptible Aspect ; so unlikely to give us the least kind of Instruction , or Light , to know any thing but their own Insignificant Selves , that nothing seems more Ridiculous , than for any Man , who is to teach others , even to propose such Insipid Sayings as a Means , much less as a Rule , to gain the Knowledge of any Truth whatever ; nor is it Discernable how we can come to know any thing , or work out ▪ any new Knowledges , by making use of such Blunt Tools . I think I have said the worst against them , that the keenest Adversary can alledge . It remains , then , to shew how I can clear them of this Disgraceful Character ; or make out that they have such a General Influence over all other Truths , as is pretended . 13. I demand , then , of my Opposers , whether it be not Fundamentally necessary in all Discourses about whatever Truth , to attend still , and keep an Eye directed to the Nature of the Thing or Subject about which we are Discoursing , and to take special Care we do not deviate from it ? I do not think any Scholar living , attending to his Natural Thoughts , or Common Sense , will deny this . For , if any Discourse makes the Thing be otherwise than it is , it must necessarily be False ; and expose the Author of it to speak manifest Contradictions . Now , I do no more but this , while I make Self-evident or Identical Propositions to be the First Rules , or First Principles of all other Knowledges : All I do , is , to keep a heedful Eye to the Nature of the Thing , and its Metaphysical Verity . Only , because it is manifest to every Reflecter , that all our Discourses are made up of Propositions ; nor can a Rule or Principle be express'd , but by such Forms of Speech ; nor is the Comparative , or ( as I may say ) the Compositive Nature of our Soul satisfy'd , till it has brought the Object it would Discourse about , into some Formal Truth , ( her only Perfection in this State , ) which is express'd by a Proposition : Hence , we become forc'd to put the Nature of the Thing , or its Metaphysical Verity , into such a Frame of Speaking ; so to fit it for Discourse : which 't is Impossible to do , but that Speech , or Proposition , whether we will or no , must be an Identical one . 14. As for their seeming so Ridiculous , and Dry , this happens because of their most perfect Simplicity , having as little Composition in them as is possible ; or rather , none at all , but what is in the Form of Expression ; I doubt not but your Acute Judgment is well aware , that the first Stamina , in what kind soever , are , and must be , the most Simple ; and , therefore , such , that , should Nature stop her Course there , and proceed no farther , they would be the most Insipid , and Useless Things in Nature . And yet , from such Simple Beginnings , or ( to use Virgil's Expression ) tenues orsus , all the most Perfect Productions in Whole Nature have their Rise : Nor could any Work of hers ever arrive at Maturity , or attain to that Admirable Frame it afterwards grows up to , unless it had had at first such a Simple and Shapeless Origin . The same happens in the First Stamina of all our Succeeding Knowledges : They are so Simple , and have such an Odd , Bald and Unfledg'd Appearance , that we know not what to make of them , when we regard them only in themselves ; or , what Use they are of in the Acquisition of Science ; yet , without such Simple Beginnings , fore-laid in our Knowing Power , no Distinct Knowledge at all could be had of any other Thing ; as will most Clearly appear shortly . 15. We may observe , that , generally , we are not so Sensible of Goods , as of Harms ; because the Former , thro' the Generous Bounty of GOD's Good Providence , are of so many kinds , surrounding us on all sides , that they are Common , and Quotidian ; whereas , the Later are Seldom , and ( as it were ) Casual : Whence , These are Remarkable , and apt to strike our Apprehensions smartly , and f●rce us to take notice of them ; which Those , being Ordinary , and Customary , do not . To breed then a due Reflexion , what Good those First Truths now spoken of , laid up in our Minds , do us , we will consider what Universal Mischiefs their proper Opposites , [ Contradictions , ] would do to all our Knowledge ; and what a Malignant Influence they would have , not only to pervert all our Actual Knowledge , but to destroy our very Power of knowing any thing . Let us suppose then , that those two Propositions , [ What is , is not ; ] and [ A Thing is not what it is , ] which are the proper Contradictories to those Chief Identicals , [ What is , is ; ] and , [ A Thing is what it is ; ] to be , both of them , True : Would it be possible , in that Case , to speak a Word of Truth ; or , to Discourse at all ; but , instead of speaking consequently , to talk a Hotch-potch of Incoherent Nonsense ? For , we cannot Affirm any thing to be True , but by means of the Copula [ is , ] in whose Connecting or Identifying Sense , all Truth most Formally consists : Wherefore , if that Word , or the Notion it signifies , were Chimerical , and might be the same with [ is not , ] then , since there can be no Middle between them , all we affirm might be False . And , since the Subject we speak of , must either be some Thing , or some Mode of Thing ; all that we speak of that Thing would go to wrack , and be False , in case the Subject of our Discourse , or Speech , were not Distinguish'd from all other Things or Modes ; that is , if it were not it self only , but Another , all the while . Since then , the Contradictories to these two Identicals now spoken of , have such an Universal Influence , that they constantly set up Errour , and destroy Truth ; 't is manifest , that Identical Propositions ( their Contradictory Opposites ) do , for the same reason , of their own nature , tend to abet Truth ' and destroy Errour ; and therefore they are deservedly entitled to be the Rule of Truth ; the Influence they have over all Truths being full as Universal , as Contradictions , their Opposites , have , to induce Errour . 16. But nothing can more victoriously confute , or more unanswerably convince an Adversary , than to shew that he must be forc'd , for his own Interest , to admit the Truth of that Tenet which he opposes . Ask , then , a Cartesian , how he knows any Particular Truths ; or ( which is the same ) how he knows that such Predicates , or Attributes , do belong to such a Subject ? He will answer , Because he finds those Predicates in the Idea he has of such a Thing , or such a Nature . Very good , replies the other : But , how shall we know that the Idea you have of that Thing is not Chimerical , and involves in it many other Things , as well as That ? Which , if it does , your Discourse , applying it to That Thing only , must needs be Incoherent , and False . Your only Answer , in this Case , can be This , That each Idea you have is Distinct from all other Ideas , and has its Metaphysical Verity and Unity peculiar to it self , or ( which is the same ) is its self only ; which is an Identical Proposition , and speaks , or expresses the Metaphysical Verity of each Idea you have . Now , say I , hence appears evidently , that this Truth , viz. [ Every Idea is it self only , or no other ; ] which is an Identical Proposition , is the very First Truth you can have ; and , that on it depends , Fundamentally , your whole Doctrine by way of Ideas : For , if this be False , 't is most Evident that your Ideas can give you no Distinct Knowledge of any Thing , or Mode of Thing ; that is , they could enable you to know Nothing at all . 17. You will say , perhaps , it is not Needful to put , lay or propose so expresly those Identicals , they being so very Clear , of themselves , to all Mankind . I reply , 1. That this comes over to me , as to what relates to their Clearness , and Self-Evidence , and abets my Position . 2. That , certainly , That is most needful , on which , as was now shewn , all depends . You must , then , have those Identicals in your Mind , at least Understood , and Presuppos'd , tho' you express them not . 3. You must be forc'd to express them if you come to discourse rigorously , and reduce your Thesis to the First , and Self-evident Truths ; without doing which , ( especially , if you hap to encounter with a Sceptick , ) nothing can be finally Decided , or Concluded . 4. The Point is , That 't is most Needful to express them , nay , Unavoidable , when the Question , [ Which is the First Truth that can be , which gives Light to all others , ] is in Agitation ; as is our Case at present : You must be forc'd to confess , that the Truth of these Identicals is Antecedent to all the following Knowledges you can have by your Ideas ; that , thence , you can know Nothing , unless this be Presuppos'd , and Foreknown ; and that , therefore , it influences all your Future and Dependent Knowledges , after its Fashion ; and gives and secures to them all the Strength , Distinction and Evidence they have . Whence is clearly inferr'd , that the Self-evident Light which appears in such First Truths , ought to be made , by the Cartesians themselves , the Rule of Knowing whatever other Truths they can pretend to know by their Ideas ; that is , the very First Rule of all others ; that is , the Only one : For , none can be , in Proper Speech , a Rule , unless it be the First ; all others being regulated by that which is the First : So that It , and only It , is the Rule ; all the rest , Ruled . And , certainly , it will appear Evident to all Mankind , that what is most Self-evident , as all Identicals are , were there nothing else , should be the Rule of Knowing all other Truths which are not so Evident as They. Be pleas'd , Sir , to reflect upon that Proposition , by which you notifie , or express to us your Rule of Knowing , viz. [ That which I clearly and distinctly see to be True , is True. ] Consider , how many Words are in this Proposition ; and that each Word has its Proper , or Peculiar Idea , each of which Ideas must be Distinct from all other Ideas , that is , each of them must be the same with its self only , ( which make so many Identical Propositions ; ) or else , none of those Ideas can be possibly able to do you any Service . So that , 't is manifest , your Rule of Knowing depends on the Self-evident Light suppos'd to be in ours . Whence 't is Concluded , that yours is not the First Ratio Cognoscendi , the First Rule , or First Truth ; but , Ruled by ours , Grounded on ours , and Subsequent , in the Order of Knowing , to ours . 18. I do not expect , that such high Speculations will please every Body : But , I hope , it will plead my Pardon , that I could not avoid it . In so Nice a Point , as is the Settling the First Rule of all Knowledge ; or , what is the very First , Self-evident , and most Firmly-Grounded Truth ; no Speculation , resolving all Dependent Truths into that which is Absolutely-Independent , ( as the Rule of all Truth must be ) can be too Accurate , or laid too Deep . 'T is not , then , any Humour of mine , or a kind of Trial of Skill , which mov'd me to this very Abstracted , and Metaphysical Way of Discoursing ▪ but , it was the very Nature of the present Subject , that forc'd me upon it . 19. Nor was it any Care of over-reaching your Acuteness , nor the Desire of Opposing the Rule of Knowing Truth introduc'd by the Great Cartesius , which put me upon this Unusual piece of Doctrine . I had , above twenty Years ago , upon some Hints given me by that Second Aristotle , the profoundly-Learned Albius , apply'd my Speculative Thoughts to dig very deep into this Subject , to find out the Immoveable Center of all Truth ; and I had begun to write a very Speculative Treatise , shewing how to reduce every Truth into an Identical Proposition ; and every Errour , to a Contradiction ; which , I saw , lay hid at the Bottom of every Truth , and Falshood . This , I say , was an Old Design of mine , before I thought of Opposing any , or of being Oppos'd by any . I foresaw also , while I was writing my Method , that ( it being more easie to be Witty , than to be Solid ) Identical Propositions would be look'd upon by very Ingenious Men , who were not thorow-Speculators , as Sapless , Useless , and Insignificant . Wherefore , I did there take some Occasions , which lay in the Track of my Thoughts , while I was settling the Grounds to True Science , to clear those First Truths from such Unworthy Misapprehensions . To this End , I demonstrated there , B. 3. Less . 1. § . 3. That all the Force of Consequence , in which consists our Rationality , can only be built upon such Propositions . I shew , B. 2. L. 2. in what their Self-evidence consists : What is the First of them , and their several Sorts and Degrees . I set my self to Demonstrate , by many Arguments , from § . 11. to the End of that Lesson , that all First Principles must be Identical Propositions ; and ( § . 19. ) that plain Reason teaches us it must be so : Which evinced , it follows , that whoever denies these to be Useful , must , with the same Breath , affirm , that all First Principles are Useless , and good for nothing ; which is a strange Position . Nay , since there is an Order in Truths , and therefore all Second Principles have their Force from the First , it follows , that we can have no Use of Second Principles , if the First be Useless ; and so , we must talk ramblingly , and at random , all our Lives , without any Principles at all . I manifest the same , ( L. 3. ) by Instances , fetch'd from the Mathematicks , and other Sciences ; and shew what Use is to be made of them ; which is not to make them either of the Premisses in a Syllogism ; but to avail our selves of them in a higher nature . I shew ( B. 2. L. 2. § . 18. ) that even plain , Uncultivated Nature makes the Vulgar recurr to them , as their First Principles , when they would express that which is decisive of the Dispute , and Undeniable . I prove , that all Middle Terms which are Proper , are built upon the same Ground with them . I endeavour ( B. 3. L. 3. §§ . 16 , 17 , 18. ) to evince clearly , that All Truths have , at the bottom , Identical Propositions , and are Reducible to them ; and I attempt to shew , ( Less . 4. ) the Way how to reduce Inferiour Truths to those Highest ones . All which , if I have fully prov'd , especially , that All First Principles are Identical Propositions , which bears all along with it , and is concluded there by divers Demonstrations , on which I dare venture my whole Cause , that they are impossible to be solv'd ; then , I may safely presume , I have evinc'd , that the Intelligibility and Light of Identical Propositions is most Self-evident ; the Ground on which they are built , most Solid ; and the Usefulness or Influence of them upon all other Truths , most Universal : And , therefore , that they are every way qualify'd to be the First and Only Rule of Knowing all Truths whatever . 20. To comprehend better the Evidence of this Discourse , let us imagine a Man devested of the Knowledge of Identical Propositions ; and then let us consider whether he could know any thing at all , or what he is good for . To instance in one of them ; Let us suppose him Ignorant that A Thing is what it is ; or a Cartesian , that Each Idea is it self , and no other ; and Common Sense will tell every one , that such a Man could know nothing , nor make any Judgment or Discourse concerning any Thing , or Idea either ; since that Thing , or Idea , he would Judge , or Discourse of , is , perhaps , all the while , for ought he knows , Another . Whoever would see farther the Use of Identical Propositions brought to Practice , may please to observe how they are serviceable in many places of my three Treatises here mention'd : Not by proposing them first , and then Deducing and Arguing from them , as some may mistake ; but by Reducing the Truth of my Discourses up to those Standards of all Truth ; and by shewing these to be engag'd in the Patronage and Support of my Thesis ; by which means , they smartly clinch the Force and Evidence of my Arguments , by bearing up to them , and relying on them . 21. It was a well-aim'd Reach of Speculation in Mr. Locke , [ Essay concerning Humane Understanding , B. 2. Ch. 32. § . 2. ] where he says , that the Metaphysical Verity of Things contains in them a Tacit Proposition : Which I would understand , not to be meant of that Verity , as it is in the Thing it self ; but as it is in our Understanding , where only Propositions are , or can be . For , since this Metaphysical Verity is not a Natural Notion , imprinted directly by our Senses , it can only be known by Reflexion . The Mind , then , careful to be well assur'd of the Subject of which it is to Judge , or Discourse , ( without which Pre-assurance , it could do neither , ) reviews it heedfully , and steadily ; and then says of it , within it self ; [ 'T is this , and no other . ] Which is an Identical Proposition , in Substance ; tho' , for a Reason we shall give shortly , we put it afterwards into an Expression more formally Identical . Why the Soul does this , springs hence ; because , being naturally made to see Truth ; and no Truth ( in the First and Proper Signification of that Word ) being possible to be had , without Affirming , or Denying ; hence 't is Natural , and Necessary , that , when it comes to review the Object , in order to see its Truth or Falshood , it should put it into the Frame of an Identical Proposition ; only which kind of Speeches are capable to Affirm , or Deny . And this is that I mean , when I use to say , ( as I do frequently , ) that the Nature of the Soul is Comparative , or Relative : For , when a Proposition is molded in the Mind , the Predicate of it is Compar'd or Related to the Subject , in order to see their Agreement , or Disagreement ; without which , nothing can be known to be , in proper Speech , True , or False : In which Position , Mr. Locke perfectly agrees with me . Now , setting aside Extrinsecal Denominations , which are not at all found in the Thing , but meerly tack'd to it by our Consideration ; this Comparing is , either of the Mode , to the Thing ; and , seeing , in general , how it affects it , as is seen in the two last Predicables of Porphyrius ; which , because Modes are not Distinct Things , and yet differ vastly from the Formal Notion of the Thing it self , of which they are Modes , can only be Connected with it Materially ; or , as Belonging to the Thing , as their Subject : Or else , the Mind compares the Thing to what 's Formal , or Essential to it . And this , either in the Whole , as is found in our Identical Propositions ; for which reason , I am forc'd to make a Sixth Predicable , in which the Whole is predicated , entirely and formally , of the Whole : Or else , in Part ; when some Part of the Essence or Nature of the Whole Thing is Predicated , or Compar'd to it diversly ; as is seen in Porphyrius's Three First Predicables , call'd Genus , Species , and Difference ; which do , all of them , in part , belong to the Essence . These Notes borrow'd from Logick , and premis'd , 't is here farther to be Noted , that all those Comparisons , or Relations the Soul makes in whatever Proposition , is done by that Relation , call'd Identity ; as is manifest from the Copula [ Est. ] Wherefore , to review what we said lately ; the Predicates belonging to the two last Predicables of Porphyrius , are Referr'd only according to Material Identity ; or , only as found to belong to the same Thing , and not as Essential to it . The three former are related , or Compar'd , as Identify'd Formally to the Thing ; yet , still so , as but several Parts of its Essence . The 6th is , when the Whole Thing is Compar'd , Related to , or Identify'd with the Whole Thing ; and this Entirely , or according to all that is in the Thing . And , this Way of Comparing or Relating the Whole Thing to its Self , is that Relation of Identity , which is the most Essential , most Formal , and most Expresly such , of all other ; and , is only found in those Propositions we call First Principles . Which Propositions being , for the Reasons given , most Fully and Properly such , we do therefore , 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 〈◊〉 , call Identical . 22. Whence may be seen , that the Virtue of Identical Propositions threads , or runs thorow all those Propositions that are Essential ; and , collaterally , those also whose Predicates are immediately and necessarily Connected with the Essence . For , since the Parts are found in the Whole , and all Identification in part , is a Part of the Identification of the Whole Thing with its self ; it follows , that Propositions , or Truths , in which the Predicate is but Part of the Whole , are , in Reality , but Parts of our Identicals . Nor is this all ; but the Force of every Consequence too is Grounded on them , in which consists all our Rationality ; as was shewn above . Whence Mr. Locke , in his Essay , B. 4. Ch. 2. § . 7. shews , very Judiciously , that every Step we take in true Demonstrations , is made by Intuitive , or Self-evident Knowledges . 23. Whence , 't is Evident , that even your Rule will force you , tho' contrary to your Intention , to come over to us ; and , will oblige you to guide your selves by Connexion of Terms , ( which is our Way , ) however you strive to avoid it . You say , that when you Clearly and Distinctly see a Proposition to be True , it must be so : And we say , you can never see a Proposition to be True , but when you see its two Extremes , ( or , the Subject and Predicate , ) Connected . You will alledge , you see it in your Idea : But , ( as is shewn above , ) there are three Parts in a Proposition , which have , each of them , a Distinct Idea ; in regard , the self-same Idea which is of the Subject , cannot be the Idea of the Predicate ; for , this would throw you upon Identical Propositions , which is our Rule : And , the Idea of the Copula is , most evidently , quite Different from the other Two ; being , precisely , That which Affirms , or Denies ; which neither of the other does . This being so , I beseech you to reflect , that Truth ( which is the Thing in question ) cannot consist in these Ideas , singly consider'd ; for , taken thus , they are , all of them , Simple Apprehensions ▪ which can neither be True , nor False . It remains , then , that you must confess , Truth can be only in those Ideas , put together , or Connected ; nor , can they be Connected , but by that which only is apt to Connect or Identifie them ; viz. by the Copula [ Est ; ] for , these three Parts cannot be fram'd into one Speech , by any other manner , but by putting the Word [ Est ] between them . Wherefore , 't is Evident , that you cannot pretend to see clearly and distinctly , that any Proposition is True , ( which is your Rule to know Truth , ) but by seeing its said Terms Connected , or Identify'd . I see not how you can , even in your Way of Ideas , deny this Clear Discourse : And , if you grant it , we are thus far Friends . Only , we add , that , to make such Connexions the RULE to all others , you must allow them to be Self-Connexions , or Identical ; which is our Position . So that , which way soever you wriggle , to avoid our Rule , the Light of Common Reason , or Natural Logick , will force you into it , whether you will or no. 24. As for the Dryness of Identical Propositions , which goes not down with some Men of Fancy , I have this to add ; that That which is objected to them , as Scandalous , and Opprobrious , is , in reality , a Great Commendation to them . For , this Conceit of their Dryness springs from their seeming too Obvious . Whereas , were not the very First Principles , and the Rule of Knowing all Truths , thus most Plain , Easie and Obvious , but needed the least Reflexion , or Consideration , they would be utterly unfit to be what they ought to be ; First Principles , and Self-evident . Nothing pleases the Palate of such Gentlemen , which is not New , or such as they knew not before . Not Reflecting , in the mean time , that nothing is New , but Conclusions lately Deduced ; and that all First Principles must be as Old as Nature , or Mankind it self : Nor could they be the Rule of Truth , which must oblige all Mankind to see their Evidence , and Assent to their Verity , were they otherwise . 25. How pretty a Delusive Faculty is this Fancy of ours ! and , how apt , if we be not aware , to decoy us , every Step , into Errour , by Customary Appearances ; which , by striking often upon it , would fool our Reason ! Our own Thoughts , and those of others , do , in all our Conversations , use to come to us , clad in Words : Whence it happens , that 't is very hard , liquidly and clearly to strip the Sense from those Words ; and to consider It , and nothing but It. If a Man says , [ Every Thing is Distinct from all other Things , ] none is apt to smile at him , or impute it as Ridiculous , or Foolish : But , if he says , [ A Thing is its self , ] Witty Men can scarce contain their Iest at such an Idle Proposition : And yet they are , most evidently , the self-same in Sense ; for , that which is Distinct from all others , must either be its Self , or Nothing ; and , the taking away all Distinction , does , almost in Terms , at least , most formally , and necessarily , put Identity . Let us take another Instance : If one says , [ A Whole is more than a Part , ] it appears to such Men , wondrous Wise ; and , none blames him , in the least , that says it , or lays it for a Principle . But , if he says , and puts for a Principle , [ What 's more than a Part , is more than a Part , ] it is good Luck if they do not think he deserves Midas's Ears . Yet , both of these Propositions are the self-same , and both of them equally , and most perfectly Identical in Sense ; and only differ in the Manner of Expression . Which I thus shew : A Whole consists of its Parts ; and , since every Thing is that of which it consists , A Whole is its Parts . But , the Word [ Parts , ] being Plural , signifies more than One Part ; Wherefore , [ A Whole is more than a Part , ] is the same as to say , [ What 's more than a Part , is more than a Part ; ] which is as perfectly Identical , as can be imagin'd . Nay , more ; If we regard it well , we shall find , that the former Proposition had not been known , Speculatively , to be Self-evident , nor could have been made out to be such , but because it is the same with this later , whose Terms are most formally Identical ; to which , the other is easily reduc'd . 26. It will be ask'd , why we could not let the Sense alone in its former Dress , ( which became it much better than this other , ) since it was Self-evident enough before ? I answer ; Because the Self-evidence better appears , when it is also brought to Terms most perfectly Identical ; as any one may discern , who compares the two Propositions now mention'd : And , hence also the Sceptical Dissenter , or Denier , is most forcibly , and unavoidably thrown upon a Direct and Open Contraction ; for , to Deny those Identicals , which are such , not only in the Sense , but in the manner of Expression too , is , to avow a Contradiction propos'd bare-fac'd , and in the plainest Terms ; which could not have appear'd so clearly from the Terms of the former Proposition . Lastly , A Brabbling Pyrrhonian might have drawn the Words , [ who le , ] and [ Part , ] into some sinister Construction ; and have wrangl'd and quibbled about them , by putting upon them divers Senses ; which he is quite debarr'd of , when the Terms are thus Identical : For , when the Words of both the Terms are the very self-same , whatever Sense he gives the Words of the Subject , must be allow'd to the Words of the Predicate too ; so that he will be put quite past his Shifts , and the Proposition will still remain equally Identical as it was before , maugre all his Cavils , and Evasions . 27. By this time I have , as I conceive , good reason to presume enough has been alledg'd by us , to prove that our Rule of Truth is , in every Regard , qualify'd for such an Employ . We will therefore , if you please , now turn the Tables , and examine what your Rule can pretend to ; or , what it it has in it , which can entitle it to be such a Rule ; or , in any respect , counter-ballance what has been produc'd for ours . To do which , we will consider it , both as to the Act of your Clear and Distinct Perception , the Immediate Object of that Act ; and , at the same time , as to the Stability which each of these may be conceiv'd to have from its Ground . We will begin with the Object , that determines your Faculty of Understanding to this or that Particular Act. If I rightly conceive the Cartesian Doctrine , the Immediate Objects of your Clear and Distinct Perception , are your Ideas , in which appears this Truth which , you say , you Clearly and Distinctly see . Now , these Ideas of yours are , confessedly , Effects produc'd by a Second Cause , the Mind it self ; and not the Immediate Work of the First Cause , on which ( as has been sh●wn ) our Rule is built : Which gives ours an Infinite Advantage , above yours , as to the Stability of its Ground : Ours having , for its Solid Foundation , the Ideas in the Divine Understanding ; whence are unquestionably Deriv'd , and by which are Establish'd , the Essences of Things , on which ours is Immediately Grounded : Whereas , your Ideas are held by your selves , to be the Creatures , or Productions of your own Mind ; which ( were it granted it could produce any such Ideas ) is a Defective Agent of its own Nature ; and , therefore , its Productions so Uncertain , that it seems a most strange piece of Doctrine , to build all the Certain Truth and Knowledge Mankind can possibly have on such an Unsteady Foundation . How many Thousands , even of a fair Pitch of Understanding , have mistaken Lively Fancies , for Evident Knowledge ? Must , therefore , all Truth be built on a Mistakable Principle ? Nay , more ; such Men , judging thus , by Mistake , the Thing was Evident , taking them as possess'd with such a Mistake , cannot but Assent to it , as True , tho' it be never so False : Must we therefore consecrate this Erroneous Ground of theirs , into a Rule of Truth ? Oh , but it belongs to God's Goodness , to take care , that , since we cannot but Assent upon such a Clear and Distinct Appearance , we should not be forced upon Errour . Why so ? If you will needs leave the Things his Wisdom has made , take your own Way , and over-conceit the Infallibility of your own Faculty , in judging you Clearly and Distinctly know a Thing , when you do but fancy it ; is God's Providence answerable to support every over-weening Rashness of ours ? Doubtless , his Goodness is never wanting to such a considerable Species , as is Mankind , in N 〈…〉 to their Knowledge , for which th●●● Nature was made : But , if there 〈◊〉 Another Way , more Solidly Ground●● and Evident than yours ; nay , aga●●●● which ( as has been prov'd ) ther● can lie no Exception , and Men will not take it ; his Providence is acquitt●d , and , 't is just to let them delude themselves . At least , it will be said , that this Clear and Distinct Perception is a Rule of Truth to us , tho' not to Truth , consider'd in it self . But , if what we assent to upon that Imaginary Ground , may still be false , for any thing that Ground can assure us , how can it be a Rule of Truth to any ? To return to our Ideas ; The main Point is , that it is so far from Evident that there can be any such Ideas Elicited , or Produced , by our Minds , that there are many pretended Demonstrations against it ; as may be seen in Ideae Cartesianae Expensae , Exam. 2. from § 31. to § . 49. Nay , there are very many others in my Second Preliminary , proving there can need none ; the Thing it self being objectively in our Understanding . To none of which Demonstrations , I do expect any Full and Solid Answer ; but only , perhaps , some slight Touches . I add , that the Ideists themselves cannot agree amongst themselves , what kind of Things these Spiritual Ideas should be . Mr. Locke makes them to be Similitudes ; Which Mr. Le Grand denies ; and , is so at variance with himself , that he puts them to be many several sorts of Things , and those Inconsistent with one another ; and so makes them to be Chimeras . This Inconsonancy of those Writers with one another , and with their own selves , makes it very Dubious that there are any such Things as these Ideas , at all ; at least , 't is Evident , that they who ground all their Doctrine upon them , do not know what they are ; and , therefore , they build all their Hypothesis on they know not what . And , if this be so , then the Immediate Object of their Clear and Distinct Perception is , perhaps , a Non-Entity ; or , at least , such an Entity , as no Man living ( nor themselves neither ) knows what to make of it . 28. Again ; This Object , which you Clearly and Distinctly see to be True , must be some Mental Proposition ; for , nothing can be Formally True , but some Speech that Affirms , or Denies . Now , say we , 't is most incontestable , that the First Proposition we can make of a Thing , is , to affirm its Metaphysical Verity ; or , to say , 'T is this , ( or its self , ) and no other : For , the Subject being the Basis of all our Thoughts , we must fix it certainly , Clearly and Distinctly , ere we can , with Certainty , say any thing else of it . This Proposition , then , say we , is such , that our Understanding no sooner opens its Eye , to take a View of it , but it must assent to it , because of the Self-evident Identification of its Terms ; whose Self-Evidence we do therefore make our Rule . It remains then , that you shew us some Truth , or Proposition , which is before this , ( which we think to be the First , ) and which both makes it self thus Visible ; and also , by its Self-evident Light , gives Clearness and Intelligibility to all other Truths ; and , lastly , which is so Firmly Grounded , that it may be a Solid First Principle , and not an Aery and Phantastick Conceit . You must then , ( we say , ) produce , and shew us some other Proposition than that you have brought hitherto , which tells us your Clear and Distinct Perception is your Rule ; for , this , you see , is already , by many Unanswerable Arguments , thrown out of doors , and shewn Unfit to be a Rule . And , till you do this , you ought not to be offended , if we tell you friendly , and plainly , that you have no Rule of Truth at all . 29. Thus much for the Immediate Object of your Clear and Distinct Perception . As for the Act it self , I beseech you , Sir , consider on what a Sandy Foundation you would build all Truth . What signifies yours , or mine , or any Man's Iudgment , that he Clearly and Distinctly sees a Truth ; or , that he must Assent , or may not Assent to it ? What signifie these , I say , to the Truth of the Thing ? Must Truth be built on Men's Iudgments , or their Manner of Conceiving ? What 's True , is Infallibly such ; and this , by virtue of its Grounds . Is our Iudgment , or Manner of Conceiving , such a Certain Ground , or Infallible ? How many Instances is the World full of , to prove those Perceptions of ours , tho' judg'd by us most Evident , to be Fallacious ? A Passionate Man , highly Injur'd , and bent upon Revenge , judges it most Evident that he ought to take his Private Satisfaction : And , you can do no more , but verily Iudge you have this Clear and Distinct Perception , that such or such a Proposition is True. I am to presume , that those Cartesians who stigmatiz'd me with the Ignominious Note of being Impious against God , &c. judg'd they did Clearly see , I was thus wicked ; for , otherwise , they left their own beloved Rule , to blacken me ; which is too high a Malice for any Man to charge them with : And yet , no Man living , as far as my self , or my Friends , can discern , did think so , but themselves ; for , 't is hard to conceive , that , if others had thought so , none of them should have that Zeal for God's Honour , as to object it , or reprehend me for it : Nor am I to doubt but they thought they clearly and distinctly saw , that when I said , Annihilation was Impossible , I did , by that Doctrine , set upon God himself : And , yet , tho' the Learned Albius maintain'd the same , in his Metaphysicks , 50 Years before , no Friend ever admonish'd him , that by saying so , he had fallen into a Wicked Errour : Nor any of his Opposers , who were very Learned Men , tho' they gather'd many Propositions out of his Books , which seem'd to sound ill , did ever object This ; whereas , had they judg'd it Impious , they would not have spar'd him , but have laid load upon him for it . But , it seem'd , they all wanted this Gift of Clear and Distinct Perception , which is peculiar to the Cartesians . To come to other Instances ; How frequently are People mistaken , in thinking they have a Clear and Distinct Perception , or Perfect Evidence ! Prejudice , Faction and Education work this ill Effect , and make Men absolutely judge they see most Evidently , they are in the right . People far gone in the Spleen , or a deep Melancholy , do Assent , and Judge , perhaps , more Firmly than you do , that they see Clearly twenty Ridiculous Fooleries to be True. High-flown Enthusiasts judge the same . Pious Women , and Prudent in other Things , if much given to Introversion , judge , they see clearly and distinctly ( nay , far more lively than we do ) many strange Things in their Imaginary Visions and Revelations ; insomuch , that they would pawn their very Souls for their Truth ; which , yet , are oft known , by their Effects , to be meer Illusions of Fancy . From all which Errours and Inconveniences , our Rule is Free : For , who can , out of Humour , Precipitancy , Fancy , Disease , or any other Casualty whatever , be deceiv'd , in Judging , that Identical Propositions are True ? This , then , unanswerably concludes ours to be the Genuin Rule of Truth ; in regard , this must be such as all Men must be forc'd to Assent to , unanimously Agree in it , nor can ever hap to be Deceiv'd in it by any Chance whatever : Since , otherwise , the whole Nature of those Men would be Depraved , and good for nothing , as having no Rule by which to know any Truth whatever . Nay , it must be such as may be produc'd openly , by the Asserters of any Truth ; that , by alledging It , they may be able to convince others , that what they maintain is a Real Truth , and not some Phantastick Conceit of their own ; without which , their Clear and Distinct Perception is Invisible , and so can satisfie no Man ; nor clear themselves from being Self-conceited ; but , to argue like Phanaticks , who pretend they discern Things by an Inward Light , which none can see but themselves , nor they themselves make it visible to others . Of which , more hereafter . 30. I beg of you , once more , ( the Point being of great Importance , ) that this Question , concerning your Rule , may be rightly stated , and understood . None doubts , but that , if we clearly know a Thing to be True , it is True ; otherwise , it would follow , that we may know what is not ; or , ( which is the same , ) may know that which is not to be known . The only Question , then , is , Whether we may not be Mistaken in Iudging we know it , when , indeed , we do not know it , but only fancy it : Which is a Thing so Common amongst all Mankind , that not very many escape this Fault of Overweening . Wherefore , ere you can pretend that this Rule of yours is Useful , and a Certain Means to know Truth , you should first prescribe us some Self-evident Rule , how we may know assuredly , that our Iudgment that we do Clearly and Distinctly know a Thing , is not a Mistake : For , otherwise , we are often apt to think we do most certainly know a Thing , when we have only a Lively Apprehension , or Fancy of it . Besides which , this Rule must have Force upon all Mankind , that we may easily make it out to others , that we do indeed and really know , and not meerly presume we know , when , perhaps , we do not : Otherwise , it will neither give others , nor our selves , any Certainty that what we imagin we know , is True. This is the true Difficulty ; and against this , I do not discern any effectual Provision made by you ; nor how you can make any , without having recourse to the Self-evident Connexion of the Terms in an Identical Proposition . This Self-evident Connexion we can produce openly , to every Man's Eye ; whereas , you cannot produce your pretended Clear and Distinct Perception to any Man : And , it being , when thus produced by us , impossible not to be seen and acknowledg'd by any Man , who has any Use of his Intellectual Faculty , 't is able to give perfect Satisfaction to our selves , and to others also , that we neither are , nor can be Mistaken in our Judgment , that we do really and indeed Know it ; and , not only Deem it . You see , Sir , where the Difficulty pinches . That can never be a Certain Rule to me , or to any Man , which I can never be sure I make use of : Now , 't is evident by what is said here , I cannot be assur'd I do clearly and distinctly know , unless my Judgment that I do so be secur'd from Mistake : For , if I be mistaken in that Judgment , and do not clearly and distinctly know , your Rule affects not me at all ; nor am I a jot the better for it , or nearer the Knowing any Truth by it : But , which is yet worse ; 't is Evident from this Discourse , that there needs another Rule of Knowing , Antecedent to yours , to guide my Iudgment that I do clearly and distinctly know , and do not mistake , or rashly presume I know ; as we experience , the Generality of Mankind does . Which evidently concludes , that the Proposition by which you express your pretended Rule of Knowing , may , indeed , be a Truth , ( in case you do really know , ) but can never be a Rule of Truth to you , me , or any Man : For , this must be First known , or Self-known , to all Mankind ; or otherwise , it needs another Antecedent Rule , to make it Useful ; and , so it is Ruled , and no Rule . Here it is , then , that the Point sticks ; and , here 't is like to stick , for any thing I can imagin , in behalf of the Cartesians . 31. I am apt to apprehend , that your Acute Wit will object , that some few of those Instances I alledg'd formerly , of Men who verily judg'd they clearly and distinctly knew such and such Things to be True , and yet were mistaken in thus Judging , do fall short of Concluding ; I mean , those that concern'd People in Diseases ; which you may , with some reason , think , are known to be plain Deviations from Nature , by an easie Criterion ; viz. by the Standard of Mankind , who have the right Use of their Reason . Which I shall not contest with you ; nor had I brought such as these , but that I see your Writers bring the same against the Certainty of our Senses ; as , that Icterical People see all Things Yellow , and such like ; which are solv'd by the same Criterion . But , what are these to many others which I there alledg'd ; and could press farther , were it sutable to the Brevity I had intended . To force that Objection home , what shall we think of Speculative Men , and Great Philosophers ; nay , of many Great Mathematicians , who thought they had most certainly Squar'd the Circle ? They are held to be Men in their perfect Wits ; nay , they are held to be Candid too ; and , moreover , Learned ; and , which is more , both Sides offer Demonstrations for their Tenet ; and have , oft-times , great Multitudes that follow them , and embrace their Doctrine . Can it be deny'd , but that such very Learned , Acute and Ingenious Men do verily Judge that they clearly and distinctly see their Doctrine to be True ? And yet , we are certain that , since they contradict one another , one Side must needs be in an Errour in that Judgment . We will bring it yet nearer home , and lay it even at our own Doors . 32. I do not doubt , but your self ( for , I cannot suspect your Candour ) does verily judge that you clearly and distinctly perceive , or ( which is the same ) have Perfect Evidence , that your Way of Ideas is the True Way to Science : And I , on the other side , am as fully persuaded , as that I live , that I do clearly and distinctly see , it is so far from being the Way to Science , that it is perfectly Groundless , and leads to Innumerable Errours . That you are thus persuaded , seems very Evident to you ; for which , I am very willing to take your Word . And , that I am thus fully persuaded I do Clearly and Distinctly see the Contrary , besides my faithful Asseveration , I believe Indifferent Men will think I have given sufficient Testimony , by bringing so many pretended Demonstrations against your Way ; and hazarding my Credit , by vouching them to be Conclusive ; which , therefore , are so many Sure Gages for my Sincerity , when I declare this to be my Sentiment . Add , that these Demonstrations are not like Flashes of Wit , coin'd by my own Brain ; for , then , perhaps , I might , for some by-end of Applause , or some such Foolery , have falsly pretended they were my true Thoughts : But , they are all built upon the Nature of the Thing , or Subject in hand ; which being Establish'd to be what it is , 't is beyond the Wit or Power of Man , to make , marr , alter , or deface it ; and , should I go about to disguize or mis-represent it , 't is easie for any Adversary to shew , I speak Contradictions , and expose me to open Shame for my Confident Ignorance : For , what is against the Nature of the Thing , makes that Thing to be what it is not ; which is a plain Contradiction . This , then , being so manifest , that I may convince you by your own Method , Why ought not you , by your Way of Doubting of every thing that has any Shew or Possibility of Falshood , or any Uncertainty , to lay aside , and renounce your Rule of Truth , as Uncertain and Fallacious ; since we do both of us follow it to our power ; and , yet , since we contradict one another so Diametrically , one of us is , notwithstanding , in a vast Errour ! Here is Matter of Fact , then , against the Usefulness of your Rule ; and that too , as Certain , and Evident , as that one ( or both of us ) is not the worst sort of Hypocrites ; that is , belies himself , and his own Thoughts : Whereas , I believe , no Man that knows either of us , had ever such a bad Opinion of us . I could press this Topick much farther ; but I had rather leave it to your Sincere and Deliberate Consideration . 33. The Rule by which we are to know Truth , ought therefore , ( as was said , ) in such a manner oblige all Mankind to Assent , that it should be apt , of it self , to compose all Differences in Opinion , by Applying , and Bearing up to it : Whereas , yours can compose none at all ; but , contrariwise , engages Learned Men in an Endless Wrangle . We both grant , That if we see a Thing clearly to be True , it is True ; since Common Sense tells every Man , that none can see what is not to be seen : Nor is there any such Mystery , or Mastership , in advancing this obvious Position ; or , for magnifying Cartesius so highly , for inventing it ; since , I think , no Man living ever deny'd it . The Question is , Which of us has this True Evidence , which you call Clear and Distinct Perception ? You will say , you have it , and I want it : I shall reply , that I have it , and you want it . You will blame some Defect in my Understanding , or some untoward Byass or Propension of my Will , both which , according to Mr. Le Grand , ( p. 93. ) can make one deceiv'd in thinking that he evidently perceives : And I , on the other side , think I may , with equal Justice , blame yours : And , so , we may come to lay the Fault , either on the Weakness of one another's Understanding , or the Depravedness of his Will ; which naturally leads Men to pelt one another with Rash Iudgments , and hard Words : But , since we can , neither of us , see one another's Thoughts , or discover to others , how Clear they are , which is your Way ; both sides will still remain as far from Conviction , and the Point from Decision , as at first , for any thing your Rule helps either of us . And , if we set aside Propositions and Discourses , and the shewing that their Terms are Undeniably Connected , and therefore , Themselves certainly True ; ( which is not yo●● Way ; ) how , I beseech you , shall Men ever come to a Final Conclusion by dint of Reason , without being put to it to avail themselves by Ill Words , and Passion ; which ( I fear , by proceeding upon your Rule ; for , you pretend not to have produced any Connexion of Terms ) has been such a Stickler , of late , to uphold the Cartesian Cause ? 34. This seem'd to me so Odd a Procedure , that I begg'd the Favour of you , to acquaint me , how , or by what Means , you would make others know you had , indeed , this Clear and Distinct Perception ; or , how you could prove you had it , but by making use of Propositions and Discourses ; the Force of which consists only in Affirming , Denying , or Inferring ; that is , in the Connexion , or Inconnexion of the Terms . As I remember , your Answer was , by Explicating to them clearly the Point , and desiring them to Meditate upon it : Which Way you seem'd to magnifie very much . I could have alledg'd , that you could not have propos'd , or us'd , even this Way , without making use of Propositions , and Discourses : But , letting you proceed , I barr'd Explications , if they were brought ( as it here seem'd ) to evacuate any Need of Proof : For , Explicating , as contradistinguish'd to Proving , amounts to no more but a kind of Rhetorical Persuasive , made up of Similitudes , Parallels , Allusions , and such little sorts of light , Witty Fancies , which may serve , and are made use of , in a manner , equally , to abet Errour , as well as Truth . Indeed , if the Terms of the Question be Dubious , Explications are needful , and very requisite ; lest , otherwise , we level our Argument at a wrong Thesis : But , if the Point in question be rightly understood by both Parties , it must either be Prov'd , if it be not Self-evident and needs no Proof ; or , it must remain for ever Uncertain , and Undecided . I should be glad to know whether , or no , you would go about to convince such a Man by Grounds and Principles ? If you say , you would , and that you think you can do this : then you wrong your Cause exceedingly , by waving the Mention of such Strong Supports as Principles and Grounds ; and Recurring to , and Relying on such Unsteady , Feeble Reeds as Explications . If you say , you cannot evince your Thesis by Principles ; then all your Explications , tho' never so Witty , are , confessedly , Unprincipl'd , and Groundless . If you pretend , your Explications do involve Proofs in them ; 't is clearly for the Interest of your Cause , to make use of the Argumentative part of such Discourses , and leave out the Explicative : For , 't is certain , that the Argument , if a good one , subsists upon some Solid Principle ; whereas , an Explication may be without any at all . It will therefore , to any considering Man , be a strong Prejudice against the Cartesians , and make Men apt to think they have no Grounds or Principles at all , that they do not much pretend to them , much less build their Discourses on them , or reduce them to them ; but seem to abdicate them , while they place their chief Support in Explications . In a Word ; Let the Position be first Prov'd to be True , or all Explications are Frivolous : For , to what purpose is it to stand Explicating a Falshood ? The nature of all Explications , is , to give us the Sense of the Thesis propos'd ; but , let it be first Prov'd , and Seen that it bears good Sense ; for , 't is a very sleevless Task , to stand Explicating Nonsense . 35. On this Occasion , it were not amiss to note here a certain manner of Writing , very frequent amongst some Modern Philosophers ; which is apt to lead the Generality of Learners into very great Errours . We do , all of us , naturally affect Knowledge ; and therefore , we love to read Authors that are Clear , or write clearly ; as being very Knowable , or Intelligible . But , now , Clearness is of Two sorts : The one makes Clear the Thoughts of the Writer ; The Other makes Clear the Truth of the Point he writes of . The One expresses clearly his own Meaning , when he says thus : The Other manifests clearly , that he says True when he says thus . The Former is perform'd by means of Rhetorick , and Witty Expressions : The Other can only be done by Solid Principles , and by True Logick . But , it too often happens , that those Readers who have not a Strong Bent to see Truth , and , with a steady Aim , pursue it , and It only , are so well appay'd with the Clear Expression of an Author , in delivering his own Mind ; which cannot but be very Pretty , and Taking , being , generally , neatly clad ; that they are , at unawares , Decoy'd to think the Thing it self is Clear , when 't is only the Sentiment of the Author which is render'd so Evident ; especially , if there be also some slight Shew of Coherence ; which seldom wants , if the Writer be a Man of Parts . And , yet , perhaps , all this while , were that Discourse strip'd of its Superficial Gayity , and sounded to the bottom , nothing will be found to support its Truth ; but it will appear Plain Bald Nonsense en cuerpo . On the other side , it lights so , that Discourses that are Solid , and built all along on Evident Principles , ( only which can clear the Truth of the Point , ) do want the other sort of Clearness , which consists in Explicating , to recommend them to the Liking of the Reader . And this happens for Two Reasons : One , because Principles do consist of Few Words , or Notions ; and those too , such as are General , or Universal ones ; which do not admit such varying the Phrase , or Smooth Explications , to make them more Knowable ; their Clearness consisting only in the greater Simplicity of those General Terms , and their Close Connexion . The Second Reason is , that those Writers who endeavour to look deep into the Foundation and Principles on which Truth is Grounded , and are not satisfy'd with Skimming over Questions superficially , do not care to avail themselves by Explications , and the Way of Smooth Expressions ; but quite dis-regard them , and judge them only Luke-warm Words in their present Circumstances ; because they neither conduce to the Attainment of Science , nor to Settle and Clear the Truth of the Thesis ; which such Men see can only be done by the Strict and Evident Connexion of their Notions . To apply this Discourse ; I intreat you , Sir , to consider whether the Former Sort of Clearness be not that which the Cartesians affect ; the Second , that which we take , and pursue . I shall hope , that whoever peruses my METHOD to SCIENCE , with an Attentive and Indifferent Eye , will easily observe , that I first put my Thesis , and then endeavour to establish it by rigorous Proofs , drawn from the Nature of the Thing or Subject treated of in those respective Places : And that the Cartesians do not use to take any such Method , but place their Hopes of recommending their Tenets to the Reader 's Approbation , in their Explications . Which makes it so difficult for a Logician to find where their Arguments lie hid , or where they press ; of which , with just Reason , I so often complain . 36. Thus much concerning your Method of Proving by Explicating ; or rather , of substituting Explications in the place of Proofs . As for the other part of your Method , which is , your putting Learners to Meditate long and seriously , upon what you have propos'd to them , I lik'd that as ill as I did that of Explicating : And , my Reason is , because , unless Men take Principles along with them , to guide their Thoughts right , and keep an Attentive Eye to them , while they thus Meditate ; 't is to be fear'd , their long Meditating will , by its frequent Dints , so imprint and fix what you have told them , in their Brain ; and , at length , make it sink so deep into their Minds , that , whether it be Right or Wrong , it will stick there , as daily Experience shews us ; Custom , a Second Nature , having a very powerful Ascendent over the Understanding , to imbue us with False Impressions , by the oft-reiterated Thinking upon any Point that is Disputable ; especially , Ingenious Explications ( as was shewn lately ) too often serving for Reasons , to those who are not well vers'd in True Logick . 37. But , the main Objection I make , is , That this Method of yours quite overthrows the Rule of Truth , which you intended to establish by it . For , this Rule being that , upon which all all our Knowledge of Truth depends , must be so very Clear of it self , above any thing we can add to its Highest Evidence , that it cannot possibly need any Explication , nor Meditation neither . Nor , consequently , can any stronger Argument be brought , to Demonstrate that this Rule of yours is not the Right one , than 't is to confess or pretend that it stands in need of , or , even , can admit Assistance , or Light , either from the one , or the other . For , if it can need any Explication , it follows , that it must be something Obscure : And , if it can need Poring and Meditating upon it , ere it be admitted , or can be known , then 't is far from being most Self-evident : Both which utterly destroy the Nature of such a Rule . For , since we must know all other Truths by It , its Evidence must be the First Thing to be known ; and therefore , the Knowledge of its Truth must antecede the Knowlege of all other Truths whatsoever , and be Clearer than They. Which being so manifest , I wonder what Thoughts or Considerations our Explicating or Meditating can suggest , that can do this First Rule of Truth any Service , or give it any Advantage ; since , all others being more Obscure than It , they may , indeed , ( could they affect it , ) impart to it their own greater Obscurity , and make it less Clear and Intelligible than it was ; but , can never make it Clearer , as having no greater , but far less Clearness themselves . Lastly , As this pretended Necessity of Explicating , and Meditating , quite degrades yours from being the Genuin , First , and , consequently , the Right Rule of Knowing Truth ; so it abets ours , and gives it a Clear Title to be such a Rule , since the Self-evidence of those First Truths , express'd by Identical Propositions , ( which is our Rule , ) is such , as is both Impossible to be Explicated , and Impossible to need Meditating , to clear it to us ; but , at the first Instant we open the Eye of our Mind , it discovers it self fully to all Mankind , to be most True ; and , withall , begets , forces and fixes us in a Full and Firm Assent to its Verity . 38. Perhaps it will be alledg'd , notwithstanding what I have said above , That this Clear and Distinct Perception is not pretended to be a Rule of Truth in it self , so that it establishes Truth Fundamentally ; but of Truth to us , or , ( as the Schools phrase it , ) quoad nos ; that is , a Rule whereby we may know what 's Truth , what not : And , it seems , that it cannot be deny'd to be such a Rule , in regard 't is Evident that we must Assent , or hold a Thing True , when we see clearly and distinctly it is so ; nor ought we to Assent , or hold it to be True , unless we do clearly and distinctly see it to be so . I answer , That this Pretence is already fore-stalled , in divers places of my former Discourse ; where it was shewn , by many Instances , that , even in the Opinions Learned Men held , this Guiding our Thoughts and Judgments by what appears to us a Clear and Distinct Perception , is Uncertain , and Fallacious . Whence , in the Thesis constituting this to be your Rule , there is tacitly involv'd a False Supposition ; v●z . That that Perception , on which we solely rely , is Unmistakable by us : For , if we may mistake it to be really a Perception thus qualify'd , when it is not , then our Assent may be Erroneous ; and , how can an Erroneous Judgment , in any Sense , be True to us , or make us know a Thing to be True ? If I am to draw a straight Line , and the Rule by which I guide my self be sometimes Straight , and sometimes Crooked , how is it a RULE to me , in that Action , or Draught ? 2. In constituting this Perception to be your Rule , you begin at the wrong End : For , seeing this Perception is an Act , and that the Object specifies every Act , and makes it such as it is ; the Object , or Thing , must be True in it self ; and , by being in it self True , it thence makes our Judgment ( when we rightly conceive it ) to be True also . This Distinction , then , in our present Case , is altogether Frivolous ; and the alledging it , Preposterous . 3. To Perceive , is an Act of the Understanding , and the same as To Know ; and , to Perceive Clearly and Distinctly , is the same as to know perfectly . Whence follows , that to say , [ I know that to be True , which I clearly and distinctly Perceive to be so , ] is the very self-same Sense , as to say , [ What I know to be True , I know to be True ; ] or , [ I know what I know : ] Which is a good Confident Saying ; and , moreover , True too . But , nothing can be more ridiculous , than to make Knowing the Rule of Knowing , or a Rule to make a Thing True to us . To say , [ A Thing is , because it is ; ] or , [ I know it , because I Know it ; ] is more like a Woman's Reason , when she is Fix'd , and Wilful ; than a Rational Man's , or a Philosopher's . 39. The Ingenious Mr. Le Grand seems to go more charily to work , by putting his Rule of Truth , ( Dissert . pag. 86 ) in these Terms , [ Illud omne Verum est quod clarè & distinctè percipitur . ] He does not say , [ quod percipitur esse Verum ; ] but barely , [ quod percipitur . ] Which Words do not tell us , whether he speaks of our Perception by the First Operation of our Understanding , simply Apprehending a Thing ; or of the Second , which is express'd by a Proposition . But , this still falls into the same : For , if he means the Former , then , since Simple Apprehensions have neither Truth nor Falsity in them , being no more but , barely , what 's meant , or signify'd , by the Words ; it cannot follow , that what I clearly and distinctly thus perceive , is therefore True : For , I simply apprehend , and this clearly and distinctly too , the Meaning of these Words , [ A Triangle has four Corners ; ] yet t is far from being True , being a plain Contradiction . He must mean then , that I am to perceive the Sense or Meaning of those Words to be Connected , which is done by putting them into a Proposition ; and then his Rule must run thus , [ Whatever Simple Apprehensions I see clearly and distinctly to be Connected in a Proposition , that Proposition is True : ] Which is that very Rule which we advance , and the Cartesians would avoid . Only , we say , That to make this a Rule , we must see the Parts of it Self-connected , or Self-evident ; for , all other Connexions are made , by the Terms being Connected by means of a Third ; which is the same as to be Deduced , or Prov'd . But , these Connexions being , all of them , Conclusions , they cannot pretend to be Rules , or Principles , since they must depend on such Rules , as shew those Conclusions must follow . Again , If he means , ( as he must , if he means any thing , ) that his Rule is , That we must see those Simple Apprehensions , which we call the Terms , Connected in a Proposition ; then we must see , or clearly perceive , that that Proposition is True : And then , his Principle must run thus ; [ Whatever Proposition I clearly and distinctly perceive to be True , is known by me to be True : ] Wherefore , since to perceive thus , is , to know ; and that , as appears by Cartesius's Words , there cited , he speaks of what 's Verum mihi , as the Effect of his Principle ; that is , of what I know to be True ; join these two together , and this Principle , or Rule , does manifestly amount to this ; [ That which I know to be True , I know to be True ; ] which is a most prodigious Rule of Knowledge ; and yet , this is most evidently the Sense of it , in case to Perceive means , to know ; and Verum mihi means that which I know to be True : which , I think , is Undeniable by any Man of Common Sense . And , I wonder how the Great Wit of Cartesius could imagin that any thing could be True to Him , unless he first saw it to be True in it self , which it has from its Grounds ; unless he makes account , that a Thing may be True to him , which , in it self , is False : Which makes those two Truths fall out , and contradict one another , which I ever took to be very good Friends . This makes me wish that the Ingenious Mr. Le Grand , who tells us here , p. 92. that there goes more to a Rule , than to a Truth , had told us , in what a Truth , and in what the Nature of a Rule consists ; which we plainly deliver , by affirming that a Truth consists in the Connexion of the main Parts ( or Terms ) of any Thesis ; and a Rule in the Self-Connexion of them , by Formal Identity ; whence , such Rules become Self-evident to all Mankind , and able to impart their Light to all other Truths whatever . But , this shews the Genius of the Cartesian Writers : They take what 's uppermost , and descant very prettily and gentilely upon it ; which , being Obvious , and Facil , does mightily please the Fancy of the Readers : But , they go not to the Bottom of any Question . They rake the Surface of the most Difficult Points ; but they never dig deep into it , to find out the Ground and Foundation on which Truth is built . And , I hope , the Reasons I have alledg'd , both here , and elsewhere , will satisfie my Readers , that it is not the ridiculous Motive of Pique , or Humour , which makes me give this Character of their Way of Writing ; but , meerly , the Duty I owe to Truth , which obliges me to do it . Thus , worthy Sir , I have us'd the best Reason I was Master of , in examining exactly , and understanding rightly , your Rule of Truth ; and I have endeavour'd to stop all the Startingholes , by which the Cartesians may think to evade the Force of my Arguments . Which done , I presume I may take my leave of this Point , and apply my Discourse to what follow'd next at our Interview . 40. My Design , at the beginning of our Conference , was to convince you , that Truth consisted in the Connexion of the Terms , in those Speeches we call'd Propositions ; which evinc'd , I made account I could easily prove , that the very First Truths , which were to give Light to all others , or be the Rule of Truth , were such Propositions as were Self-connected , and therefore Self-evident . How your over-acute way of Doubting defeated my Intentions , and stop'd my Progress , is seen above . Sorry to have been put out of that Direct Road , which I saw was the only Right one , and without settling which , all our Discourse would be Unconnected Talk to no purpose , I was casting about how to get into it again . But a Learned and Judicious Friend of ours , who was present , suggested , that [ Cogito ergo sum ] was pretended by you to be a First Principle ; and , he prest earnestly it might be thorowly examin'd , that we might see whether it had in it the nature of a First Principle , or no. I was something troubled to relinquish the Method I had prefix'd to my self ; without which , I saw , the Nature of a First Principle could not be settled , nor shewn : However , I yielded to his Request . I allow'd then , that [ Cogito ergo sum ] was a True and Evident Consequence , as are a thousand such others , viz. Dabito ergo sum ; Scribo , ambulo , dormio ; nay , Somnio ergo sum , &c. ) which is what , with Unattentive Considerers , give it all its Credit , and makes them look upon us , as Unreasonable Men , who , as they apprehend , do question this Consequence , or call it into Doubt . But they are quite mistaken ; there is no Body that doubts it is an Evident Consequence ; but , there is a very wide Difference between a Consequence and a Principle ; or rather , if it be a Consequence , tho' never so good , it can never be a First Principle , because , the Premisses , which induced that Consequence , were before it ; and that Truth , on which all force of Consequence is grounded , , ( as was noted above , ) is before either of them . What we affirm then is , that it is not a First Principle , nor could be so to Cartesius , when he propos'd , and made use of it as such : And I addrest my self , to show it had not in it , the nature of such a Principle , nor could , with Reason , be pretended such by Cartesius himself . 41. To prove this , I alledg'd , that it is an Inseparable Property , or rather , Essential to First Principles , that they must manifest themselves , to be such by their own most perfect Self-Evidence ; whereas Cartesius was forc'd to use very many prolix Antecedent Discourses , to prove all else to be Dubitable ; and , because they were so , he went on , Enquiring farther , till he could find something that could not be Doubted ; which , he conceiv'd , was [ Cogito ergo sum , ] from which he came to Conclude , that this was the First Principle . Whence I alledg'd , that therefore , those Antecedent Discourses of his , which prov'd all else to be Doubtful , were the Reasons or Arguments whence he drew his Conclusion , that this was the First Principle . Now , I think this as Plain Reason as plain can be , that No Man can evince a thing to be the First in any kind whatever , but , because , there is nothing before it in that kind . And , from this consideration , I prove my Allegation clearly ; because , had not those many and large Antecedent Discourses , to prove all else to be Doubtful , been True ; his Conclusion , viz. that [ This is the First Principle , ] could not have follow'd , or been True neither . For , in case the Senses had not been thus Fallacious as still to deceive us , perhaps , Science might have been had from the Things without us affecting those Senses ; nor had there been any need to recur to the Operations of our own Mind , to seek for the Ground of all Truth there , because , we might have had it from the Things in Nature . This being so , how many Propositions did he use all along , to prove that our Senses might all decieve us ; that we know not certainly whether we sleep or wake ; that Mathematical Demonstrations might be all Erroneous , &c. All which Antecedent Propositions , by the plain Rules of Logick , ought to be more Evident , and more Certain , than the Conclusion he gather'd , or inferr'd thence , viz. that Therefore This , and only This , being Indubitable , and Certainly Known , is the First Principle . Add , that this being Plain Sense , his own Discourse overthrows the Establishment of his First Principle . For , since he had not this First Principle of his till he had found it , nor did he find it , till he found all else to be Doubtful ; it will be ask'd How , and in virtue of What First Principle he became , while he was in quest of it , more Certain , that all other things were Doubtful , than he was of the Conclusion he inferr'd thence , viz. that [ Cogito , ergo sum ] being impossible to be Doubted of , was his First Principle . Wherefore , if he guided himself by no Indubitable , or First Principle all along , in those Antecedent Discourses , which were in reality his Premisses ; that Conclusion of his , cannot in any Logick follow , nor be Certainly True , nor ought to be Embrac'd ; especially , by such a Philosopher as he was , who professes Doubting of ever thing , till he came at his First Principle , that can be in the least Dubitable . 42. In Reply to this Discourse of mine , which is grounded on the Supposition , that Cartesius guided himself by Reason , in settling his First Principle ; and on the plainest Rules of Logick that the Premisses must be Clearer than the Conclusion ; the former of which , I suppose you will grant , the latter is obvious to Common Sense ; you brought an Ingenious Explication , by way of Similitude , or Parallel ; which , I see , are to supply the place of Arguments , and Answers too , in the Cartesian way . It was this . Suppose I see a Man making great Holes in the Ground , or throwing aside Rubbish ; and that I ask him what he is doing ? He tells me , he has an Intention to Build , and to lay Foundations for that End , and is making Way for it . Now this Action of his looks like an idle business , if we consider it alone ; but , if we regard his farther Intention of Building , it is a Wise and Necessary Preparative . And yet this Antecedent Action , of preparing to lay a Foundation , does not give strength to the Building , which is an Action quite different from it ; but the Building depends on the Foundation it self , and on nothing else . And , therefore , it follows , by way of Parallel , that the Antecedent Discourses of Cartesius , need not be Connected with that First Principle , as Premisses , to inferr it must be such ; since they serv'd only to remove the Rubbish , or the Pretended Knowledge of Things by means of the Senses , which encumber'd the Mind with Prepossessions ; and , so to make way to lay that First Foundation of Science . I think I have done your Parallel all the Right you can expect : Wherefore , I come now to examine what Force it bears , and what Strength such a way of Discoursing has in it ; which , I the rather do , that I may inform those Readers , who take such kind of Similitudes for Reasons , how easily , and how frequently they are deluded , by such Unsteady , Inconclusive , and Illogical Methods . 43 First then , 't is so certainly known , that Similitudes do not use quadrare per omnia , or , ( as they say , ) run on four Feet , that it is grown Proverbial ; which lays a great prejudice upon that Way in common . 2. Similitudes drawn from Material Things , to Immaterial , are particularly liable to this Defect . They may , indeed , oft times , serve to illustrate some Truth , as fit Metaphors to sute with our Fancy ; but then they presuppose the Truth , which they are to illustrate , to be known some other Way . Whence , unless this be done first , all they can do is to explicate we know not what , which destroys the nature of an Explication ; for , Explications are not intended to put the Truth of the Point , but suppose it . 3. All the Actions of our Soul are , or ought to be Rational ; and have a Dependence on one another , by the way of Reason gathering Subsequent Truths from those which preceded . Now , I think , 't is impossible to be contested by any Man who has read Cartesius's Meditations , but that his Discourses which anteceded his finding out this First Principle of his , are reducible to this Enthymem ; [ For these and these Reasons , there can no Certainty be had , as to Speculative Knowledges , by any Information had from Outward Objects affecting the Senses ; therefore , it ought to be sought for in some Interiour Act of our Mind , which is most Comprehensive and Peculiar to it , ] which he concieved was Cogitation ; and thence he laid this First Principle : [ Cogito ergo sum ] Which being so , it follows necessarily , that the Laying this for his First Principle , depended on the Goodness of the Reasons he had , why our Senses were not to be trusted , nor could give us our First Notions ; whence , by reflecting on their Metaphysical Verity , we might have those Self-evident , and First Truths , of ours . This , I say , was evidently the Tenour of his Discourse ; because , did not those Reasons of his , against the Sufficiency of our Senses to give us this Information , conclude ; but that , notwithstanding all those Reasons could prove , the Senses might still imprint on our Mind those First Notions , his Consequent would not have follow'd : Nor , could he have had any Ground for recurring to the Interiour Act of Cogitation , for his First Principle , in regard it had been given to his Hand by means of the Senses , as was now declar'd . 4. It being then evident , that the Substance of those antecedent Discourses was summ'd up in the Enthymem now mention'd , 't is manifest , that this Explication of yours falters in the main Particular , in which it ought to sute , and resemble . For , in case those Impressions on our Mind could have been made by means of the Senses , as aforesaid ; then those Impressions , or Notions , being the Immediate Foundation , on which is built all our Knowledge , could not be call'd , or resembl'd to Rubbish ; nor compar'd to a Hole , to lay the Foundation ; for , the Holes were already made in those Inlets , our Senses ; which were Pervious to the Effluviums affecting the Seat of Knowledge ; and thence , the Soul. So that your Similitude is , in effect , the Begging the whole Question ; and can have no Force at all , but by our Granting it ; which , I see plainly , we shall never have Reason to do . Rather , unless this Petitio Principii ( which is tacitly involv'd in this Parallel ) be yielded by us , or prov'd by you , it makes against your selves . For , by Denying all such certain Information from the Senses , you will be found , not to remove the Rubbish , in order to lay the Foundation ; but , to stop up the Way to the laying any ; and , to damm up all the Holes , by which the Materials could come into our Minds , where only such a Foundation could have been laid . At least , you see , your Explication amounts to nothing ; and , that your Similitude is lame in all its Legs , and has not one Sure Foot to stand on . Which will , I hope , sufficiently inform others , that this Way of Explicating , so mightily affected by Cartesius , and his Followers , is utterly Insignificant . I shall hope too , that this Paper will light into the hands of some Readers , who are so Intelligent , as to discern , that this Explicative Way is taken up , to avoid the Way of Rigorous Proof ; which is so Unfriendly to a Doctrine that wants Principles . 44. Whence I should give this Advice to all Aristotelians , that whenever the Cartesians would obtrude upon them their Ingenious Explications , they would demand of them smartly , by what Grounds they know , or will prove to others , that what they explicate , is True ; without doing which in the first place , no Explication ought to be admitted . It may serve for a kind of Currying Favour with weaker Understandings ; but it can never improve any Intelligent Man in Solid Knowledge , nor make him one Jot the Wiser . 45. After this , we came to argue that other Objection of mine , That First Principles , of all others , must be most Clearly and Distinctly Known ; because they ought to be , of all others , most Knowable ; there being no others before them , by means of which they might come to be better Known . Now , Cartesius himself expresly confesses , that , when he had found this First Principle , he did not yet sufficiently understand what [ Ego , ] the Subject in that Principle , meant : Whence I inferr'd , that therefore , [ Cogito ergo sum , ] could not be to him a First Principle . This is enforc'd , because the Subject is the Principal , and most Substantial Part in every Proposition : And , since , in ordinary Things , when we do not well know what we talk of , plain S●nse tells us , 't is a Folly to talk at all ; much more is it Disallowable in Philosophical Matters , where Exact Truth is aim'd at ; and most of all in First Principles , which must be most Self-evident . You seem'd to think an Obscure Knowledge of the Subject was sufficient . But , how an Obscure Knowledge can be either Clear , or Distinct ; much less , superlatively such : Or , how a Proposition , whose Principal Part is neither Clear , nor Distinct , should , notwithstanding , it self , ( as here it must , ) be most Clear and Distinct , is , I believe , past any Man's Comprehension . 46. However , I let your smooth Explication slide , without pressing my Discourse too forcibly : For , it had been something Rude , at so Civil a Visit in my own Chamber , to push Things forward too rigorously ; or , to seem to affect the Victory of a Confutation . But our Friend urg'd me to bring some one Argument , that might decisively conclude the Point . It came into my Mind , ( waving what I had objected elsewhere , ) to alledge against it , that A First Principle must be some One Determinate Proposition ; whereas it was Evident that this Principle of yours had in it Two , and those very Different ones . For , [ Cogito ] is a Speech that Affirms , which Logicians call a Proposition ; and involves in it all the Three Parts that compleat such a Speech , being clearly the same as [ Ego sum Cogitans ; ] as [ Sum , ] for the same Reason , implies , [ Ego sum Existens ; ] which is evidently a Proposition too , and Distinct from the other . Your Answer was , That , notwithstanding the manner of Expression , they made , or amounted to but One Proposition ; and signify'd no more but [ Ego sum re Cogitans . ] But I reply'd , That this was the First Proposition ; and hence I a●k , What becomes of the Later , [ Ego sum Existens , ] since the Predicate [ Existens , ] is a quite different Notion from the Predicate [ Res Cogitans . ] Add , that to prove himself Existent , was the sole Scope Cartesius aim'd at in laying this Principle ; as appears by his Words immediately following ; viz. [ Nondum tamen satis intelligo quisnam sim Ego ille qui jam necessario sum . ] He does not pretend to have evinc'd that he was Res Cogitans , but only necessarily Existent . To enforce this the more , I alledg'd , that the Illative Particle [ Ergo ] did shew plainly , that there were Two Propositions ; of which , the One was an Antecedent ; the Other , a Consequent . But you would not allow that [ Ergo , ] in that place , had an Illative Signification ; nor , as far as I could discern , any at all ; for , I am sure , if it has any , it can have no Other . I remember , you bestirr'd your Wit as dexterously as any Man could in such a Cause , to bring off Cartesius ; but 't is beyond the Power of Wit , or Art , to do it , unless the most pregnant and significant Words which Rational Creatures can use , must , for his sake , lose their Signification . Which is such an Injury to the rest of Mankind , who would be at a strange Loss to discourse or understand one another , were this admitted , that it will never be allow'd by other Philosophers , who are Dis-interessed , and have not that Passionate Concern for Cartesius , as some others seem to have . I remember , Mr. Le Grand tells us , he has spoke to some Exceptions made against this Principle formerly , and , perhaps , this may be one of them . But , as I could not light on that Book of his , so I clearly see , this Particular is so manifest , that 't is impossible for any Man , in such a Case as this , to answer to the purpose . 47. And thus ended our Discourse ; In which , if you had any Disadvantage , it proceeded hence , that you would needs undertake to defend Cartesius's Logick : Whereas , nothing is more Evident , than that , in the far greatest part of his Meditations , ( not to speak of some other pieces of his , ) he regarded no Rules of Logick at all ; but meerly follow'd the Current of his own Ingenious Thoughts , in gliding smoothly and gentilely , from one Thing , to another , as his First Design led him , and in putting his Conceptions Clearly ; I mean , according to the First sort of Clearness , mention'd above , § . 35. The Summ is this ; Without Propositions , we cannot speak ; and , without Illative Particles , we cannot make use of our Rationality ; both which , notwithstanding , you do not seem very willingly and heartily to admit . Had I been of your Party , I should have advis'd you to have flatly deny'd all Syllogisms , Inferences , Antecedents , Consequents ; and , in a Word , all Logick , and all kind of Connexion , and then it had been impossible for any Man to Attack you , or bring any Argument against you ; I add , nor you any for your selves . 48. The Generality of Mankind ( I wish I might not say , of Philosophers too ) being much govern'd by Fancy , I am to expect , such a High Speculation as is the foregoing Discourse , will scarce find a Civil Entertainment amongst such Gentlemen . However , I hope it will not displease them , if , on this Occasion , I ask them some few pertinent Questions ; leaving the Resolving them to themselves . 1. Whether there be not such Propositions ; as those I call Identical ? 2. Whether Mathematicians , and some others , who treat of Philosophy in a Mathematical Method , have not propos'd such before me , and made use of them ? 3. Whether such Propositions are not the most-firmly-Grounded , and the First of all others ? 4. Whether they are not Self-evident , and force the Assent of all Mankind ? 5. Whether we can be Deceiv'd in Iudging them Self-evident ; as we may , and often are , in Judging that we Clearly and Distinctly know a thing to be True ? 6. Whether they have not an Universal Influence , in their Way , over all Truths , especially all Deduced Truths ; since 't is Demonstrable , that all the Force of Consequence is Grounded on them ? 7. Whether , all these Qualifications being shewn to be found in the Self-evident Knowableness of Identical Propositions , this Clearest Light , or Intelligibility , which so necessarily appears in them , ought not , with just Right , entitle Them to be held the RULE by which to know all other Truths ? Lastly , Whether this Self-evident Connexion of the Terms of a Proposition , found in them , which is Producible openly , be not a Clear Means to shew to others , that we do not mistake when we judge them Self evident , and True ; since all Mankind that sees them Produc'd , must think the same of them we do ? And , whether , on the other side , it can possibly be shewn to others , that our selves do Clearly and Distinctly know a Thing to be True , without producing finally some Proposition that is Unmistakable and Self-evident to Every Man ? When they have duly weigh'd each of these Particulars , and the Proofs brought for them , I appeal from their Fancy , to their Reason , whether I have not done a Just and Necessary Duty to Philosophy , in endeavouring to settle the Rule of Truth upon so Solid and Evident a Basis ; and , whether I could have been less Speculative in such a High Subject , as requires a Deep Inspection into the very Center of all Truth whatever , even to the Resolving it Finally and Connaturally , into Essential Truth it self ? If these Considerations do not acquit me upon either Account , I cannot but think my self Unjustly Condemn'd ; and , I hope , the whole Court of Philosophers , who are Impartial , and Sincere , will judge the same . 49. To clear me from Singularity in this Uncommon Method of Philosophizing , I could farther alledge , that Mr. Locke , in his Essay , B. 4. ch . 1. § . 4. gives us this Doctrine ; that The First Act of the Mind , is , to perceive its own Ideas ; and , that One of them is not Another ; that is , that each of them is its self only ; which is an Identical Proposition . — That this is so Absolutely Necessary , that , without it , there could be no Knowledge , no Reasoning , — no Distinct Thoughts at all . Which sufficiently expresses it to be the First Truth , or RULE of TRUTH , which influences all other Truths ; since , without it , nothing at all could be known . — That a Man infallibly knows that the Ideas of White , and Round , are the very Ideas they are . — That this is the First Agreement , or Disagreement , ( that is , the First Truth , ) the Mind perceives in its Ideas . — That Men of Art have , for ready Application in all Cases , reduc'd this into those General Rules , [ What is , is , ] &c. In all which , ( as he does in divers other main Speculative Points , ) he so perfectly agrees with me , that , tho' I did not proceed on my own Grounds , I need no more but these of his , to draw such Immediate Consequences thence , as would establish and abet my Thesis . Indeed , it did not lie in the Way of that very Learned Man's Speculation , to reflect on the Universal Influence Identical Propositions have over all Truths , and all Knowledges , whatever ; and therefore , his Dis-like of them afterwards , ( chap. 8. ) can be thought to relate only to their apprehended Uselesness : Tho' , even there , ( § . 2. ) he acknowledges an Excellent Use of them too ; where he says , that [ What is , is , ] may serve sometimes , ( he might have said , Always when it needed , ) to shew a Man the Absurdity he is Guilty of , when , by Circumlocution , or Ambiguous Terms , he would , in particular Instances , deny the same Thing of it self ; because no body will so openly bid Defiance to Common Sense , as to affirm Visible and Direct Contradictions , in plain Words . To which Reflexion of his , if this Learned Gentleman pleases to add , That whoever discourses False on any Subject , does , at the same time , make that Subject not to be what it is , or ( if the Question be of some Mode ) as it is ; his Penetrative Judgment cannot but discern , that Identical Propositions are Equally Useful in all Questions , all Disputes , nay , all Discourses whatsoever , if the Way of Reducing Inferiour Truths to Them , were but well improv'd , and cultivated . 50. I much value your good Opinion ; and , I perceiv'd , I was in danger of losing it , by a hint you gave me , with a Dis-relishing Air , that I call'd Cartesius a Fanatick ; which you thought very harsh . In Answer , I deny the Charge . 'T is one Thing to say , that , when Cartesius was laying his Method to Science , by denying his Senses , and devesting himself of all his former Knowledges , which ( as my Author expresses it ) was no less than to Unman himself , he fell , for some few Days , into a Spice of Enthusiasm ; nay , was brim-full of it ; and fancy'd he had Visions and Revelations ; so that he seem'd Crack-brain'd , or to have drunk a Cup too much ; which are the very Words a Cartesian , who wrote his Life , has given us , ( p. 34 , 35 , 36. ) And , 't is another Thing to say , he was habitually a Fanatick , or Enthusiast , all his Life , and in every Action he did , or Book he writ ; the Former of which can neither be deny'd with Truth , nor the Later objected with any Degree of Modesty : Nor does it sute with the high Character I have given of him , in the Preface to my Method , and the Encomiums I have , upon Occasion , bestowed on divers of his Books . I beseech you , Sir , be so Just , as to stare my Case right . I was writing a METHOD to SCIENCE , and two other Methods , ( if , indeed , they do not fall into the same , ) which look'd very Extravagant , did lie cross my Way ; which , unless I remov'd , my whole Design had been spoil'd , and of no Effect . I mean , that of Malbranche , which makes all Humane Science come by Divine Revelation : And , that of Cartesius , that we must deny all our Knowledge of Natural Truths , had by our Senses . The settling this Later Method , had , confessedly , lost Cartesius his Wits , for some time ; and therefore , I had good reason to fear , that the following the same Method might do a greater Mischief to others , who had not such Strong Brains as that Great Man had ; of which too , there do not want Instances . The former Method , advanced by Malbranche , I saw evidently , brought a kind of Fanaticism into Philosophy . For , I believe , no Man doubts , but that the Genius of Fanaticks is , to over-leap all Humane Means , and to pretend that their Light of Knowledge comes to them immediately from GOD. My Fault , then , only consisted in this , that I was such a Friend to Truth , and to Mankind , as to endeavour ( to my Power ) to avert such Mischiefs from young Students , by fore-warning them of what had prejudic'd others , and therefore might highly prejudice them ; and , to confute those Ways to Science , that so directly thwarted mine , which , my best Judgment told me , was the True one . Now , this being a Task so Unavoidable to one in my Circumstances ; and the Confuting such strange Methods being , with good Reason , judg'd by me to be so Beneficial to others , it cannot , without Rashness , be thought , I did this out of a Desire of Opposing other Learned Men ; but , purely out of Duty to my Reader , and a just Regard to my self . Yet , for pursuing this Laudable and ( in my Case ) Necessary Intention , I am persecuted with the highest Malice , by two over-zealous Cartesians ; who , to uphold these Aukward and Pernicious Methods , make no Scruple to break in upon the most Sacred Methods of Christianity ; tho' I have done no more but cite the Words of their own Authors . Besides , every Candid Reader will , hence , easily discern , that it is not out of Pique against their Persons ; but , purely , out of my Dis-like of their Unprincipl'd and Dangerous Methods , that I have oppos'd them at all . Nor have I any Personal Reflexions upon their Morality : Nor do I charge them with Impiety , but of Folly ; which every Antagonist in Philosophical Debates is forc'd to object to his Adversary . 51. But , am I the only Man , of our Moderns here in England , who have thought it the Interest of Philosophy , and of Truth , to oppose Malbranche and Cartesius ? Mr. Iohn Keyll , of Oxford ; a Person of Great Wit , and Greater Hopes , being ( as I am informed ) scarce arriv'd yet at the Summer of his Age , has lately put forth An Examination of Dr. Burnet's Theory of the Earth ; where , after he had , in his Introduction , discover'd the Fopperies of divers of the Antient Philosophers ; and of three of our Moderns , Spinoza , Dr. More , and Mr. Hobbs , not much less Ridiculous than the former ; he lays open that superlatively absurd Opinion of Malbranche , which I noted above . He gives us a Summary , and Parallel Consequences , of his Doctrine in that particular ; which is , That We see not the Things themselves , but only their Ideas , which the Soul sees in GOD : — And , that there is no possibility of seeing any Bodies , except in that Being , ( GOD ; ) which contains them after an Intelligible manner . — Bodies , therefore , and their Properties , are ( only ) seen in GOD ; so that ( says he ) a Man who reads this Book , does not really see the Book it self , but the Idea of it , which is in GOD. Which he deservedly characters , to be Unintelligible Iargon , and a Solid piece of Nonsense . He exposes that equally-senseless Opinion , That Bodies , of their own Nature , are neither heard , seen , smelt , nor tasted ; and , that when , for Example , we Taste any thing , the Body Tasted cannot produce any Savour in us ; but GOD Almighty takes that Occasion , to stir up that Sensation in us , to which the Body does not really concurr . So that Mankind has , it seems , quite lost its Animality ; at least , that we are not Naturally Sensitive Creatures , but only Supernaturally ; or , by GOD's Immediate Power making us such , every time we are to use our Senses . He proceeds : According to him , it is impossible for any Man to move his own Arm ; but , when he is Willing to move it , GOD takes it , and moves it up and down , as the Man Wills. If a Rebellious Son , or Subject , murther his Father , or his Prince , by stabbing him , the Man himself does not thrust the Ponyard into his Father's or Prince's Breast , But GOD Almighty does it , without any other Concurrence of the Man , but his Will. It seems , our Laws are very Unjust ; which do not Hang Men for meerly Intending , or Willing ; but for Ouvert - Acts ; in which the Man himself has no hand at all ; they being , all of them , entirely of GOD's doing . Whence we see , that , with the Cartesians , such Doctrine as this has no Impiety in it at all against GOD : It comes from Them , and so 't is all Sacred . He proceeds , and affirms that no Second Causes act : So that no Body , tho' mov'd with never so great a Velocity against another , can be able to drive that other before it , or move it in the least ; but GOD takes that Occasion , to put it into Motion . At this rate , one need not fear his Head-piece , tho' a Bomb were falling upon it , with all the Force that Powder can give it ; for , it would not so much as break his Skull , or singe his Hair , of GOD did not take that Occasion to do it . — The most Natural Agents , with him , are not so much as Instruments , but only Occasions of what is produc'd by them : So that a Man might freely pass through the Fire , or jump down a Precipice , without any Harm , if GOD Almighty did not take that Occasion to burn him , or dash out his Brains . 52. Coming to Cartesius , whom he calls the Great Master and Deliverer of the Philosophers , from the Tyranny of Aristotle ; — and the First World-Maker of our Century , he lays the Blame at his door , of all this presumptuous Pride of his Followers , and their Fantastick Philosophy ; and animadverts severely upon divers of his odd Placita : As , that there is always the same Quantity of Motion in the World. So that , if all the Men and Animals in the World were Moving , which most part of them can do when they please ; yet , still there would be no more Motion in the World , than there is in the Night-time , when they are at Rest ; and , what Motion they had when they were Moving , must be communicated to the Aether , when they are at Rest. And , whereas Cartesius ' s Skill in Geometry gave those Contrivances of his Witty Fancy all their Credit , this Author assures us , p. 15. that , from the beginning to the end of his Principles , there is not one Demonstration drawn from Geometry ; or , indeed , any Demonstration at all , except every Thing illustrated by a Figure be a Demonstration ; for , then , indeed , there may be enow of such Demonstrations produc'd in his Philosophical Works . Now , in case this be so , then , it seems , Explications by Figures do serve Cartesius , and his Followers , for Demonstrations in Geometry , as well as Explications by Words serve them for Demonstrations , or Proofs , in other Sciences . — He adds , that , His great Fault was , that he made no Use at all of Geometry in Philosophy . — Nay , that His whole System was but one continual Blunder , upon account of his Negligence in that Point . — That Galileo and Kepler have by the Help of Geometry , discover'd Physical Truths , more worth than all Cartesius's Volumes of Philosophy . He confutes his Vortices , by Mr. Newton's Principles ; who shews it impossible , upon many Accounts ; that the Earth , and other Planets , should move in a Vortex . With which most Consummate Geometrician , I believe , none of the Cartesians will be willing , or able , to grapple , or contend . And , were Cartesius now alive , perhaps he would have as much admir'd Him , as Himself , in his Life-time , was admir'd by others . — He subjoins , that , His Notion of a Vortex being ruin'd , the whole Cartesian System must of necessity fall to the Ground : And , that World , whose Origination he pretended to have deduced from Mechanical Principles , must be a wild Chimera of his own Imagination . He affirms , that Cartesius's Discourse about the Motion of the Moon , is so notoriously False , that there is no Almanack-maker , but can demonstrate the contrary . Farther , That the Cartesians pretend to give a true Account of all the Phaenomena in Nature ; whilst they understand so very little , that they have not given us an Explication of any one Thing : — And , that Cartesius has blunder'd so much in the easiest , and most abstract Things in Nature , that of the Seven Rules he has given of the Laws of Motion , there is but One of them True. Lastly , He affirms , that Cartesius's Fancy of Making a World by Mechanical Principles , — has given the Ignorant Atheists ( for , so are , says he , most of that Persuasion ) some plausible Pretences for their Incredulity , without any Real Ground . Where the the Parenthesis lays such a Blemish on the greater Part of the Followers of Cartesius , and on his Doctrine , as occasioning it , that , as I have charitably endeavour'd , in divers places , to wipe off that Aspersion , and have taken their part ; so , I am sorry to see now , that 't is beyond my Power to do it . I must own , that there have been many Vertuous Persons , Cartesians ; but I am not so well vers'd in their Catalogue , as to to know , whether they , or the Athèists of that Persuasion , do make the Major Part. These are his present Objections against Des Cartes ; and , by what I have read of this Learned Author , I know no Man more likely to make good what he has charged upon him , than He is . 53. You see , Sir , how much it behoves the Cartesians to look to their Hits , if they have any ; and , to arm themselves against such brisk Attacks , tending to the Overthrow of all their Hypothesis by way of Geometry ; which I have attempted to do by way of Logical , Physical , and Metaphysical Principles . For , if this Opposition to Cartesius , by Geometrical Arguments , should come to be a Confutation ; then , since Mr. Le Grand tells us , his Physicks is but a Part of the Mathematicks , his Credit , as a Philosopher , will sink utterly ; as I am inform'd , the Esteem of his Doctrine does , by large degrees , in both the Universities ; or rather , it is quite vanish'd out of one of them already . 54. For my part , let them come off with the Geometricians as well as they can , I will not give them much Trouble ; but , do sincerely declare , that if they can bring any one Evident Principle , either in Logick , Physicks or Metaphysicks , which they will vouch to have the Nature of a Principle in it ; and prove that it abets any Point of their Doctrine , as 't is distinguish'd from ours , I will cross the Cudgels for the next Comer , and promise , never to oppose them more . Fairer Offer was never made ; nor any Method ever propos'd , that shews a greater Sincerity of the Proposer in pursuing Truth , nor that can be more Decisive of a Philosophical Contest ; in which , half a Sheet of Paper will do the Business , as well as whole Volumes . You see , Sir , I allow my Adversaries a large Field ; out of which they may please to pick and cull what they like best , or judge they can best prove . If they know of any thing that grows there , which will bear the Test , and can approve it self by Principles , to be an Evident Truth , they have Free Liberty , and a fair Occasion to do Right to themselves , and oblige the World ; and , withall , they will do Me an Especial Favour , ( for which I shall not be Ungrateful , ) in making me , by their Confutation , see a Truth I never knew before . This very Compendious Method , I say , will shorten Disputes , avoid all shew of Wrangling , which is grateful to no Man ; and , finally conclude the whole Cause . Or , if this does not please them ; and , that it agrees not with their Genius to stand bringing Evident Proofs ; then , let them but meerly name , or put down Categorically , any one Principle of theirs , which they judge to be the Strongest , and most Evident , of any they have ; and , which they will vouch to be Influential upon the Cartesian Doctrine ; and I will undertake to Demonstrate , that either it is no Principle , or , that it has no Force to prove any Point of their Doctrine , nor has any Influence upon it at all . In case this Rational Proposal ( which , if both Parties do candidly seek Truth , ought rather to be call'd an Overture of Peace , than a Challenge ) be as friendly Accepted as it is meant , it must needs draw upon us both the Eyes of all Learned Men who are Lovers of Truth , and are Weary of Long Disputes ; especially , if they be concern'd to know whether the so much fam'd Philosophy of Cartesius be Solidly Principl'd , or only Extravagantly Witty : And , their Expectation will be strangely rais'd , to see what will be the Issue of a Controversie thus closely manag'd ; our Philosophical Combat being , by this means , brought to the Last Trial , and a Final Decision by Principles , which are the Arma Decretoria or Truth . For , if it shall hap to appear that Cartesius's Doctrine has not so much as any One Principle , which is truly such , their Cause will be quite lost , past hopes of Recovery : But , if it subsists by Principles , then I must make them Satisfaction , by acknowledging publickly , that I have foolishly over-ween'd ▪ and take the Shame to my self , for my Rash Presumption . We may confine our selves ( as I said ) to half a Sheet of Paper : All shall be transacted by pure Dint of Reason ; and , he that uses the least Uncivil Word to his Adversary , and falls into Passion , shall be held to have lost his Cause , and to be reduc'd to a Nonplus . Every Man , acquainted with Humane Affairs , knows that , in some Cases , [ Responsum non dictum , ] may be a sufficient Plea to justifie one who is to vindicate his Christian Credit , unjustly attack'd , without any Provocation given to his Opposer . It happens too , often times , that a Man cannot clear himself fully of those Blemishes with which he is aspers'd , but by laying them at the Door of the Injurious Affronter ; whose Faults , if they be Great ones , cannot be so much as Nam'd , but the Words which express them must needs sound harshly . Retorted Language , in such a Case , is only the Rebound of the Aggressor's Violent Strokes , upon Himself ; and are not thrown at him , but only Reverberated from an Object incapable to receive their Impression . But , especially , such a Replier is excusable , when he observes such a Temper and Measure , that he imputes no Impiety or Irreligion to his Adversary ; but rather , charitably excuses him from any such high Crimes , even tho' he had causlesly , and uncharitably , imputed the same to himself ; which ( as I hope every Man will observe ) is the distinguishing Character between Mr. Le Grand's Aggressive , and my Defensive . Notwithstanding , however such a Carriage against an Assaulter may , in Prudence , seem sometimes unavoidable ; yet , certainly , it is , in it self , neither Edifying to good Christians , Instructive to the Learned , nor Profitable to the Readers . Therefore , to avoid it for the future , and to clear Truth , which ought to be our only Care , I have thought fit to make this Fairest and Civillest Overture . If it be accepted , neither Party , in case they do seek Truth , can be justly displeas'd . But if it be refus'd , and that my Opposers resolve to pursue their former Rude Method , I shall hope that all Wise and Good Men will hold me Excus'd , ( I dare say , your self will , ) if I decline the Ungrateful Task of Reciprocating the Saw of Contention ; but let them still wrangle on contentedly to themselves , and apply my Thoughts to better Things . 55. It remains , Worthy Sir , that I beg your Pardon for Publishing this Paper , without acquainting you first with my Design . But , since you are not nam'd in it , it need not concern you in the least , unless you please your self . Besides , I have discours'd with other Cartesians , of your Profession , upon the same Subject ; and , added , for their sakes , some Passages , which , otherwise , had not needed : So that it cannot particularize you , in the least . And , since this Paper has no other Tendency , but to clear Truth , I have reason to presume , that your Candour would not have been displeas'd at it . I intreat you to do me that Justice in your Thoughts , as not to interpret this Address , by way of Letter , to be a kind of Challenge , or Provocation . I am too well acquainted with the Study and Practise , in which you are so Laudably and Successfully . employ'd , to think it can allow you any Leasure for an Avocation so Impertinent to your Proper and Precise Business . I hope my [ Ideae Cartesianae Expensae ] may give you Satisfaction in divers other Points . But , I must bespeak your Pardon , while you peruse it , for the many Errata . It happen'd , that the Compositor understood no Latin ; and ( besides other Faults , ) in two or three places , he hapt to put in what I had blotted out in amending my Copy ; and , my Circumstances were such , that I could not always be in Town , to correct the Press . I am , Honoured SIR , Your Sincere Friend , and Humble Servant , J. S. FINIS . Some Books Printed for , and Sold by Abel Roper , at the Black-Boy , over against St. Dunstan's Church in Fleet-street . SOlid Philosophy Asserted , against the Fancies of the Ideists : Or , The Method to Science farther Illustrated . With Reflexions on Mr. Locke's Essay concerning Humane Understanding . By I. S. The History of Poland , in several Letters to Persons of Quality ; in Two Volumes : Comprehending an Account of the Form of Government in that Kingdom ; King 's Power , Court and Revenues , the Senate , Senators , and all other Officers ; Of the Religion , Dyet , and Little Dyets , with other Assemblies and Courts ; Of the Inter-regnum and Election , and Coronation of the King and Queen , with all the Ceremonies ; Of the present Condition of the Gentry and Commonalty , as likewise , of the Genius , Characters , Languages , Customs and Manners , Military Affairs , Trades and Riches of the Poles : Together with an Account of the City of Dantzic's Origin , Progress , and Present State of the Teutonick Order , and the Succession of all its Great Masters : Of the present State of Learning , Natural Knowledge , Practice of Physick , and Diseases , in Poland : And , Lastly , A Succinct Description of the Dutchy of Curland , and the Livonian Order ; with a Series of the several Dukes , and Provincial Masters . With a Table for both Volumes ; and a Sculpture of the Dyet , in their Session . By Bernard Connor , M. D. &c. Compos'd and Publish'd by Mr. Savage . Of the Nature and Qualification of Religion , in reference to Civil Society . Written by Samuel Pussendorff , Counsellor of State to the late King of Sweden . Translated from the Original . Marriage-Ceremonies : Or , The Ceremonies used in Marriage in all Parts of the World. Very diverting , especially to Ladies . By Seignior Gaya . Translated from the Italian . The Second Edition : With an Addition of Remarks on Marriage ; by Mr. Brown. A Defence of Dramatick Poetry : Being a Re-view of Mr. Collier ' s View of the Stage . In Two Parts . A Voyage to the East-Indies : Giving an Account of the Isles of Madagascar and Mascareigne , of Suratte , the Coast of Malabar , of Goa , Cameron , Ormus , and the Coast of Brasil ; with the Rellgion , Customs , Trade , &c. of the Inhabitants . As also , A Treatise of the Distempers peculiar to the Eastern Countries . To which is annex'd , An Abstract of Mr. de Rennefort's History of the East-Indies : With his Propositions of the Improvement of the East-India Company . The New Atlas : or , Travels and Voyages in Europe , Asia , Africa and America ; thro' the most Renowned Parts of the World , viz. From England to the Dardanelles , thence to Constantinople , Egypt , Palestine , or The Holy Land , Syria , Mesopotamia , Choldea , Persia , East-India , China , Tartary , Moscovy and Poland ; the German Empire , Flanders and Holland ; to Spain , and the West-Indies : With a brief Account of Ethiopia ; and the Pilgrimages to Mecha and Medina in Arabia , containing what is Rare , and worthy of Remarks , in those vast Countries ; relating to Building , Antiquities ; Religion , Manners , Customs , Princes Courts , Affairs Military and Civil , or whatever else is worthy of Note . Perform'd by an English Gentleman , in 9 Years Travels , more Exact than ever .