UC Santa Barbara Journal of Transnational American Studies Title Excerpt from Internment During the Second World War Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5jv9n1wf Journal Journal of Transnational American Studies, 9(1) Author Pistol, Rachel Publication Date 2018 License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ 4.0 eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5jv9n1wf https://creativecommons.org/licenses/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0//4.0 https://escholarship.org http://www.cdlib.org/ i Internment during the Second World War 9781350001428_pi-222.indd i9781350001428_pi-222.indd i 5/10/2017 9:04:38 PM5/10/2017 9:04:38 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) ii 9781350001428_pi-222.indd ii9781350001428_pi-222.indd ii 5/10/2017 9:04:39 PM5/10/2017 9:04:39 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) L O N D O N • OX F O R D • N E W YO R K • N E W D E L H I • S Y D N E Y iii Internment during the Second World War A Comparative Study of Great Britain and the USA Rachel Pistol Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 9781350001428_pi-222.indd iii9781350001428_pi-222.indd iii 5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) iv Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 50 Bedford Square 1385 Broadway London New York WC1B 3DP NY 10018 UK USA www.bloomsbury.com BLOOMSBURY and the Diana logo are trademarks of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc First published 2017 © Rachel Pistol, 2017 Rachel Pistol has asserted her right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identifi ed as Author of this work. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury or the author. British Library Cataloguing- in- Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: HB: 978- 1- 3500- 0142- 8 ePDF: 978- 1- 3500- 0141- 1 eBook: 978- 1- 3500- 0143- 5 Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data Names: Pistol, Rachel, author. Title: Internment during the Second World War : a comparative study of Great Britain and the USA / Rachel Pistol. Description: London ; New York : Bloomsbury Academic, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references. Identifi ers: LCCN 2017006374 | ISBN 9781350001428 (hb) | ISBN 9781350001435 (epub) Subjects: LCSH: Germans–Great Britain–Evacuation and relocation, 1940–1945. | Italians–Great Britain–Evacuation and relocation, 1940–1945. | World War, 1939–1945–Prisoners and prisons, British. | World War, 1939–1945–Concentration camps–Great Britain. | Japanese Americans–Evacuation and relocation, 1942–1945. | World War, 1939–1945–Prisoners and prisons, American. | World War, 1939–1945–Concentration camps–United States. Classifi cation: LCC D801.G7 P57 2017 | DDC 940.53/1741–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017006374 Cover image © Marshall/ Fox Photos/ Getty Images Typeset by Newgen Knowledge Works Pvt Ltd., Chennai, India Printed and bound in Great Britain To fi nd out more about our authors and books visit www.bloomsbury.com . Here you will fi nd extracts, author interviews, details of forthcoming events and the option to sign up for our newsletters. 9781350001428_pi-222.indd iv9781350001428_pi-222.indd iv 5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) v In memory of David Cesarani 9781350001428_pi-222.indd v9781350001428_pi-222.indd v 5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) vi 9781350001428_pi-222.indd vi9781350001428_pi-222.indd vi 5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) vii Contents List of Illustrations viii Acknowledgements ix Introduction 1 1. Th e Origins of Internment 9 2. Life in the Camps 33 3. Endings and Aft ermath 73 4. Memory 99 Conclusion 133 Notes 141 Bibliography 191 Index 223 9781350001428_pi-222.indd vii9781350001428_pi-222.indd vii 5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) viii Illustrations 2.1 Location of internment camps on the Isle of Man 39 2.2 Camps and holding facilities for those of Japanese ancestry in western United States 53 4.1 Th e recreated guard tower stands alone in the wilderness that is Manzanar 116 4.2 Excavated water garden foundations at Manzanar 118 4.3 Th e Tule Lake Visitor Center 120 4.4 Inside the Tule Lake Stockade as it stands today 121 4.5 Outside the Tule Lake Stockade as it stands today 122 4.6 Th e memorial in the cemetery at Manzanar 123 4.7 Th e memorial in the cemetery at Camp Amache, Granada 124 4.8 A section of memorial highway outside Manzanar 126 4.9 ‘Go for Broke’ memorial in Los Angeles 127 9781350001428_pi-222.indd viii9781350001428_pi-222.indd viii 5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) xii 9781350001428_pi-222.indd xii9781350001428_pi-222.indd xii 5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) 1 Introduction Th e topic of this book could not be timelier. In both Great Britain and the United States of America, much is being made in the political sphere of the issues of race, immigration, and the rights of foreigners residing in each nation. It is impossible to consider the treatment of enemy aliens during the Second World War without exploring the treatment of foreigners in preceding centuries. As the fi rst chapter of this book discusses, protests over immigration and calls for restriction are invariably heightened during times of economic discontent. Th roughout history, immigration is perceived negatively whenever a country is experiencing eco- nomic problems. Th e fi nancial crisis of 2007– 2008 and the subsequent recession and austerity measures hark back to the economic crises of the late 1800s, and the Wall Street Crash of 1929. Both countries have been in this position before, but arguably little has been learned. Current events are therefore not surprising, but are disappointing for the lack of attention paid to the history of the preced- ing centuries. It is, therefore, of even greater importance to be aware of the way foreigners have been treated in Great Britain and the United States of America, both in peace and war, in order to avoid repeating the mistakes of the past. Evidence of the turmoil both Britain and America are experiencing is found in recent political events, not dissimilar to those experienced during the 1930s and 1940s. Great Britain unexpectedly voted to leave the European Union, and the Leave campaign triumphed using a campaign of fear, which included mas- sive distortion of facts surrounding foreigners and immigration. Nigel Farage, former leader of the UK Independence Party (UKIP), unveiled a billboard dur- ing the campaign that showed a picture of Syrian refugees fl eeing their home- land, for which he was reported to the police for inciting racial hatred – not only was the image in incredibly poor taste, but it harked back to Nazi propaganda footage of migrants. 1 While UKIP tried to distance itself from the comparisons made between their rhetoric and that of the Nazis, there can be no mistak- ing the message UKIP was trying to portray  – that immigrants are parasites, 9781350001428_pi-222.indd 19781350001428_pi-222.indd 1 5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) 2 Internment during the Second World War 2 not refugees, and that many of them are trying to take advantage of Western countries. Such sentiments have been oft repeated in Britain, such as when east- ern Europeans arrived in Britain because of Russian persecution in the late nine- teenth century, and when Jewish refugees sought asylum in Britain during the 1930s. Th e ‘Brexiters’ consistently campaigned for the idea of ‘taking the coun- try back’. Gisela Stuart, Labour member of Parliament and spokesperson for the Leave campaign, claimed that the only way to ‘take back control’ on immigration was to leave the European Union, because of concern that ‘no matter how great the pressure on schools, hospitals and housing becomes or how much wages in our poorest communities are pushed down’, the needs of ordinary British peo- ple would not be met. 2 Th e problem with such arguments is that they encour- age a ‘them and us’ mentality, which feed xenophobic and racist attitudes. Proof that this attitude engenders violence was tragically given when Jo Cox, member of Parliament for Batley and Spen in West Yorkshire, was gunned down by a man who gave his name in court as ‘Death to traitors, freedom for Britain’. 3 In the days following the vote to Leave, thousands of stories were posted on social media that showed how those who were not white, or who spoke with an accent, were harassed, threatened, and told to ‘go home’. 4 In the fi rst few days following the EU referendum, hate crimes increased in Britain by as much as 57 per cent. 5 Regardless of nationality, no one should suff er insult or injury as a result of their nationality or skin colour. As the grieving family of Jo Cox said during this tragic and turbulent time, it is necessary for the British public ‘to focus on that which unites us and not which divides us’. 6 Th is is a message needed not just in Britain, but across the globe, as men, women, and children are imprisoned and killed for the sake of their race or religion. Both Great Britain and the United States of America are currently nations divided, and in America, immigration and the presence of foreigners is also being used as an explanation for social and economic problems. Refugees from the Middle East have been brought up in debates about the threat of terrorism. Since the tragedy of September 11, 2001, there has been a fear of anyone of Middle Eastern appearance, or more specifi cally, anyone who appears Muslim. Much in the same way that Japanese and Japanese Americans were targeted because of the way they looked, those who appear Muslim are subject to increased scrutiny and discrimination. Th is follows a long history in America of discrimination based on skin colour, particularly experienced by the African American community. Th ere have been many atrocities committed in the name of Islam, and since 9/ 11, many have been charged and found guilty of ‘jihadi terrorism’. 7 Th e problem America faces is that the attacks that have taken place in the past fi ft een years have been 9781350001428_pi-222.indd 29781350001428_pi-222.indd 2 5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM5/10/2017 9:04:40 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) Introduction 3 3 perpetrated by American citizens. In the Orlando massacre  – the largest mass killing on American soil since 9/ 11 – the gunman was an American citizen. Th e growth of technology and accessibility via the World Wide Web of terrorist lit- erature and chatrooms where vulnerable children and teenagers are groomed for violence is perhaps the most serious threat to American national security that exists today. However, the issue is not as simple as America being targeted by these individuals. Th ose most vulnerable to such grooming are those who live on the edge of society. As the divide between the rich and the poor continues to grow, and the divide between diff erent ethnicities fails to diminish, the number of marginalized individuals in society is increasing. One only has to look at the case of Flint, Michigan, where the residents have been poisoned by the water sup- ply since 2014, and even today lead- fi lled water continues to enter their homes. Over half the population of Flint are black and 41 per cent live in poverty, forced to exchange food stamps for bottled water. 8 Th e residents feel that their concerns are not adequately addressed because of the colour of their skin, and because they are poor. Racial inequality is still prevalent in American society, and until this is eradicated, it is highly likely that the rise of extremism will continue. Th ere is also the issue of what constitutes terrorism. Since 9/ 11 there have been a number of mass shootings in America, but these are not classed as acts of terrorism in the same way as jihadi terrorist attacks. Oft en when a white extrem- ist opens fi re on schoolchildren, work colleagues, cinemagoers, shoppers, or those against whom he holds a grudge, the debate turns to gun control. Th e total number of individuals killed due to gun crimes in America far outweighs the numbers of those killed through acts of terrorism. 9 Th at is not to say terror- ism is not a threat, but it shows the distortion of the terrorism debates, which inevitably revolve around race, much as arguments about national security did during the Second World War. President Donald Trump, to take the highest pro- fi le example, made immigration and terrorism the foundation of his presidential campaign. Aft er the Orlando massacre, Trump said, ‘Th e bottom line is that the only reason the killer was in America in the fi rst place was because we allowed his family to come here’, and that ‘with the terrorists, you have to take out their families. When you get these terrorists, you have to take out their families’. 10 Such comments are redolent of the campaign waged against the families of Japanese immigrants during the Second World War. Trump supporters have even gone so far as to link present- day America with Japanese American internment by inap- propriately claiming that Second World War internment forms a legal precedent for the creation of a Muslim registry. 11 Th e need for a true understanding of the history of Japanese American internment has never been greater. 9781350001428_pi-222.indd 39781350001428_pi-222.indd 3 5/10/2017 9:04:41 PM5/10/2017 9:04:41 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) 4 Internment during the Second World War 4 Trump’s campaign slogan is ‘Make America Great Again’  – the implication being that the alleged ‘weakness’ of America is due to the number of legal and illegal migrants resident, and not any other social or economic issues. Trump’s website proclaims the need for immigration ‘reform’, the main plank of his pol- icy being the insistence that Mexico pay to build a wall to strengthen American borders. According to Trump, ‘the Mexican government has taken the United States to the cleaners. Th ey are responsible for this problem, and they must help pay to clean it up’. 12 Trump has labelled Mexicans as ‘dirty’, ‘criminals’, and ‘rap- ists’, racial slurs that his supporters are quick to endorse, in the same way that the terms ‘Japs’ and ‘yellow peril’ were readily used by Americans in the nine- teenth and early twentieth centuries. Th ere have been hundreds of thousands of deportations of illegal immigrants from American soil during the twentieth century, but as Michael Chertoff , the former secretary of Homeland Security under President George W.  Bush, said regarding Trump’s ambitious deporta- tion plans: ‘I can’t even begin to picture how we would deport 11 million people in a few years where we don’t have a police state, where the police can’t break down your door at will and take you away without a warrant.’ 13 Once again, this harks back to the treatment of Jews in Europe during the 1930s and 1940s, and the treatment of enemy aliens during the Second World War. Th ere is a diff er- ence between illegal and legal immigration, but the problem of giving power for blanket arrests is that this power can so easily be abused. During the Second World War, German, Austrian, and Italian enemy aliens were considered on a case- by- case basis, while the wholesale internment of all Japanese along with their families, who were mostly American citizens, was a blatant contradiction of constitutional privilege. Th e concept of internment is not controversial in the sense of being a recognized solution to dealing with enemy aliens in a time of war, but when that becomes an excuse to lock away American children, it shows how power can be abused. Th is is a period of isolationism, where both Britain and America are call- ing for tougher border control. Right- wing politicians in both nations believe that the only way to protect a country is to keep out foreigners. Th ere are many diff erent issues involved in the immigration debate, such as illegal versus legal immigration; however, there is very little distinction made between these cat- egories when talking about immigration, leaving all foreigners victim to nega- tive connotations. Not since the 1930s and 1940s has there been such hatred directed at foreigners living in Britain, with calls for foreigners and non- whites to ‘go home’. In America, there have been various times during the twentieth century when immigrant or refugee groups have been targeted by racists, and 9781350001428_pi-222.indd 49781350001428_pi-222.indd 4 5/10/2017 9:04:41 PM5/10/2017 9:04:41 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) Introduction 5 5 the Civil Rights Movement and the Black Lives Matter movement demonstrate how unequal American society continues to be in the present day. Th e fact that individuals are still targeted and stereotyped as a threat to be feared because of the colour of their skin shows how little progress has been made in the past cen- tury. Th e issues of racial inequality and the inherent fear of the ‘other’ are just as prevalent in modern- day society as they were in the early twentieth century. Th e First World War was a confl ict between nation- states, whereas the Second World War was a confl ict based more on ideology than nationality. Th e lack of greater understanding of this issue caused the detention of tens of thousands of individ- uals who would have gladly fought for the Allied powers from the beginning of the confl ict. Ultimately, as shown in Chapter 3 , many internees in both countries were admitted or draft ed into the Armed Forces, and the heroic eff orts of these former internees is impressive. As the chapter also discusses, many of the former internees have contributed incredibly positively to their adoptive nations post- war, or in the case of those of Japanese ancestry, they have gone on to achieve greatness in spite of their treatment by their country of birth. Th ere is much to be learned from the actions and reactions of the internees to their incarceration, and the sacrifi ces they and their families have made cannot be overlooked. Th is monograph is the fi rst transatlantic comparison of Second World War internment. Greg Robinson has written an excellent comparative history of North American internment, and Roger Daniels has also considered the treat- ment of enemy aliens in both the United States and Canada. 14 Th is work aims to build on their work, among others, to further demonstrate how Allied countries treated enemy aliens. Th e United States has a written Constitution and Bill of Rights, whereas Great Britain governs by an unwritten code, which makes the comparison of internment in the two nations signifi cant from both a legal and social standpoint. Th e benefi ts of comparative history are immense. As Marc Bloch believed, ‘history cannot be intelligible unless it can “ succeed in estab- lishing explanatory relationships between phenomena ” ’. 15 Comparative history is ‘a way to determine what needs to be known, and social analysis not at least implicitly comparative is hard to imagine. Th ere is really no other way to identify historical eras or recognize historical change’. 16 It is also a means of ‘isolating the critical factors or independent variables that account for national history’. 17 Th is book is written primarily from a social and cultural standpoint, and the experiences and memories of the internees themselves form a key part of the internment discussion. Th ere are as many diff erent experiences of internment as there were internees, but by telling the internees’ stories readers will hopefully understand the human sacrifi ces behind the history. 9781350001428_pi-222.indd 59781350001428_pi-222.indd 5 5/10/2017 9:04:41 PM5/10/2017 9:04:41 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) 141 Notes Introduction 1. Heather Stewart and Rowena Mason, ‘Nigel Farage’s Anti- migrant Poster Reported to Police’, Th e Guardian , 16 June 2016. Available online:  http:// www.theguardian.com/ politics/ 2016/ jun/ 16/ nigel- farage- defends- ukip- breaking- point- poster- queue- of- migrants 2. ‘EU Referendum: Immigration Target “ Impossible ” in EU, Vote Leave Says’, BBC News , 20 June 2016. Available online:  http:// www.bbc.co.uk/ news/ uk- politics- eu- referendum- 36573220 3. Patrick Sawer, Laura Hughes, Robert Mendick, and Luke Heighton, ‘Jo Cox’s Sister Calls Her “ Perfect ” and “ Utterly Amazing ” as Accused Murderer Tells Court His name Is “ Death to Traitors, Freedom for Britain ” ’, Th e Telegraph , 18 June 2016. Available online http:// www.telegraph.co.uk/ news/ 2016/ 06/ 18/ jo- cox- mp- shot- thomas- mair- arrives- at- court- following- murder- cha/ 4. For examples, see Harriet Sherwood, Vikram Dodd, Nadia Khomami, and Steven Morris, ‘Cameron Condemns Post- Brexit Xenophobic and Racist Abuse’, Th e Guardian , 27 June 2016. Available online:  https:// www.theguardian.com/ uk- news/ 2016/ jun/ 27/ sadiq- khan- muslim- council- britain- warning- of- post- brexit- racism ; and Jamie Bullen, ‘Brexit: Facebook Page Highlights Racism aft er EU Referendum Vote Triggers Spike in Hate Crimes’, Evening Standard , 27 June 2016. Available online:  http:// www.standard.co.uk/ news/ politics/ brexit- facebook- page- highlights- racism- aft er- eu- referendum- vote- triggers- spike- in- hate- crimes- a3281951.html 5. Peter Yeung, ‘EU Referendum: Reports of Hate Crime Increase 57% Following Brexit Vote’, Th e Independent , 28 June 2016. Available online:  http:// www. independent.co.uk/ news/ uk/ home- news/ brexit- hate- crime- racism- reports- eu- referendum- latest- a7106116.html 6. Rajeev Syal, ‘MP Jo Cox Wrote Passionate Defence of Immigration Days before Her Death’, Th e Guardian , 19 June 2016. Available online:  https:// www.theguardian.com/ uk- news/ 2016/ jun/ 19/ jo- cox- passionate- defence- immigration- death- article- eu 7. For a list of attacks that have taken place since 9/ 11, see Nadia Khomami, ‘Terrorist Attacks by Violent Jihadis in the US since 9/ 11’, Th e Guardian , 5 December 2015. Available online:  https:// www.theguardian.com/ us- news/ 2015/ dec/ 05/ terrorist- attacks- by- islamists- in- the- us- since- 911 9781350001428_pi-222.indd 1419781350001428_pi-222.indd 141 5/10/2017 9:05:39 PM5/10/2017 9:05:39 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018) 142 Notes 142 8. See Oliver Laughland and Ryan Felton, ‘ “ It’s All Just Poison Now ” : Flint Reels as Families Struggle through Water Crisis’, Th e Guardian , 24 January 2016. Available online:  https:// www.theguardian.com/ us- news/ 2016/ jan/ 24/ fl int- michigan- water- crisis- lead- poisoning- families- children 9. See ‘Gun Violence Archive’. Available online:  http:// www.gunviolencearchive.org/ ; ‘Guns in the US: Th e Statistics Behind the Violence’, BBC News , 5 January 2016. Available online:  http:// www.bbc.co.uk/ news/ world- us- canada- 34996604 10. ‘Donald J. Trump Addresses Terrorism, Immigration, and National Security’, 13 June 2016. Available online:  https:// www.donaldjtrump.com/ press- releases/ donald- j.- trump- addresses- terrorism- immigration- and- national- security ; ‘Donald Trump on the Issues’, Th e Politics and Elections Portal . Available online:  http:// 2016. presidential- candidates.org/ Trump/ ?on=terrorism 11. Rachel Pistol, ‘Why Shinzo Abe’s Pearl Harbor Visit Comes as Th reat of Internment Returns’, Newsweek , 26 December 2016. Available online:  http:// europe.newsweek.com/ why- shinzo- abes- pearl- harbor- visit- comes- threat- internment- returns- 536364 ; Rachel Pistol, ‘75 Years aft er Pearl Harbor, the Th reat of Internment Returns’, Th e Huffi ngton Post , 1 January 2016. Available online:  http:// www.huffi ngtonpost.co.uk/ rachel- pistol/ 75- years- aft er- pearl- harb_ b_ 13896910.html 12. ‘Immigration Reform Th at Will Make America Great Again’, Available online:  https:// www.donaldjtrump.com/ positions/ immigration- reform 13. Julia Preston, Alan Rappeport, and Matt Richtel, ‘What Would It Take for Donald Trump to Deport 11 Million and Build a Wall?’, Th e New York Times , 19 May 2016. Available online:  http:// www.nytimes.com/ 2016/ 05/ 20/ us/ politics/ donald- trump- immigration.html?_ r=0 14. Greg Robinson , A Tragedy of Democracy: Japanese Confi nement in North America ( New York :  Columbia University Press , 2009 ) ; Roger Daniels , Concentration Camps, North America: Japanese in the United States and Canada during World War II ( Malabar, FL :  Krieger ,  1981 ) . 15. William H. Sewell Jr., ‘ Marc Bloch and the Logic of Comparative History ’, History and Th eory 6 ( 1967 ),  208 . 16. Raymond Grew , ‘ On Reading Six Books in Search of Another ’, Comparative Studies in Society and History 11 ( 1969 ),  355 . 17. George M. Frederickson , ‘ From Exceptionalism to Variability: Recent Developments in Cross- National Comparative History ’, Journal of American History 82 ( 1995 ),  587 . 18. See A. W. B. Simpson , In the Highest Degree Odious: Detention without Trial in Wartime Britain ( Oxford :  Clarendon Press , 1992 ) ; Aaron L. Goldman , ‘ Defence Regulation 18B: Emergency Internment of Aliens and Political Dissenters in Great Britain during World War II ’, Th e Journal of British Studies 12 , no. 2 ( 1973 ), 120 – 36 . 9781350001428_pi-222.indd 1429781350001428_pi-222.indd 142 5/10/2017 9:05:40 PM5/10/2017 9:05:40 PM Journal of Transnational American Studies 9.1 (2018)