BOMPAS KILL CUE DAY DAWN AUSTIN NO MURCHISO M! MAGNET YONER GABRIL LYNTON WULLENA, A.A. APPERTARRA IDONCASARES NORTHAMPTON YALGOO .NERIN PMIDAR IULLEWA DERALDTOM VICTORIA . COAL SEM WALKANAY MILL QUENCERE DONGARA HRRINO PARRAL COOROO no PARCALADEC --- WATChoo JURIEN BAY CAMEL OURAE DALAROO MOORA YATHE ROO LWOOJAN AARONGAN MILLS N EN N NORCIA COORE SPENCERS BROOK GINGIN BINDOON YY INIX310000 BAINDING AA. CASCOOMALLING YAMIN AN SWAN 6 MUCKERING A.A. NORTHAM CUILOFORE VERSO BURRACOPPIM RBERRIN NOTY house "FRE MANTLE ROCKINCHAN CE AN S LAVON SCHIDLOWS WORK CALJIE A PERTH GREENHILLS M PLACQBEVERLEY SERPENTINE AANBEVERLY A.A. JARRANDALL COCI, BURNS NOORANDINE 1.A PUNCELLY sort ICA PIN L.A. MUARA HARVES 2014 NARROCIN A.A. BANASTER WILLIAMS WILLIAMSBURGH MANDURAN INJARRAY BOLUPA MIC SMARADONG NARROOSRS Juous* AUSTRALINO ARRANA BUNBURY ZATOLL WAGIN LAKE WAGIN A LALA - - BOYA PANNINCA.A. LYAWARTUPA.. The West Australian settler's guide and farmer's handbook Western Australia. Bureau of Agriculture NBROOK ERDEN PLANTACENET CASTEAUX - (^PART LKZ If If 'The West Australian Settler's Guide as Farmer's Handbook. SY3 Descriptive Notes on the Agricultural Areas and Crown Lands open for Selection. An enumeration of the productive possibilities of the Golden West. Issued by direction of Edited by the Bureau of W L. LINDLEY-COWEN, Agriculture. * Secretary. 1897 E. S WIGG & SON., Printers, Perth. Harvrrd Coli,:£o Library June 24,1910 J. J. Lowell food PREFACE. It was at first intended to issue the Settler's Guide and Farmer's Handbook as a whole in one volume, complete, but the parts have so insensibly outgrown the limits originally fixed for them, and the demand for information about the cultural resources and prospects of Western Australia is so great, that it has been deemed expedient to issue the book in parts. As will be seen on perusal, Part I. consists chiefly of a description of the agricultural areas and Crown lands open for selection, with an account of the early settlement and progress of the pastoralists and agriculturists of the colony. An endeavor has been made—it is to be hoped not unattended with success—to write a plain, unvarnished tale, and yet in such language as to make it interesting even to those whose thoughts are not on settlement bent. The early history of Western Australia and its pastoral pioneers is most interesting, but not nearly so interesting as the country itself as we know it now, when every dawn discovers new features, and each succeeding day dis- closes new avenues for industrial enterprise, and offers renewed encouragement to the able-bodied, active, capable settler, whether miner, farmer, or mechanic, to "go in and win." Western Aus- tralia may be likened to a huge pie, the crust of which has only, as yet, been nibbled round the edges. Of the treasures that are hidden underneath that thick and somewhat forbidding crust, we have as yet only the faintest conception. We want Jack Homers here to pull out the plums, and plums there are undoubtedly for men of all avocations. But the men who come to Western Aus- tralia, with the intention of making it their home, must be men firm of heart and stout of body, men of mind as well as muscle, and it is this class of men that the Settler's Guide is, in part, designed to attract and the Bureau of Agriculture is anxious to assist after they have arrived here. There is, it may be safely said, no country in the world that offers at the present moment the same inducements to the settler as Western Australia. The permanence of its mineral resources is now beyond question, only their immense value and the vastness of their extent having yet to be determined. The agronomic possibilities of the colony are equally promising, and only need the developing hand of time to place Western Australia in the van of the producing provinces of the Southern Hemisphere. L. L-C. Perth, August 18th, 1897. t MAP 01 Soym West Land Division OF §■"« |^ ^ | | ^> | ;| ———.ScaZcltOMdes to an inch 1 s H C/J 65 2 < a: u < I! o p o Ul CO _i -I s < u a u Q < u jur > k- z • a !, £ it 7- < « a 5 3 too* ^ftojyttg r/ tff a o a < a M f^ wt-n Of ■9 (*/99-11 z < s w AC «/,«f it* f HC StTt O0 9f n- < z JI9NV97O0** 0 z 'tecf 0 7W7«M vefvvooy a HUP 3 3 iv>;<■ « 01 0 JfVfOAA0 719A k D At* f*7V(fVrf .CO BP fff C CD U - < WESTERN AUSTRALIAN RAIIMgafS — Sectional Diagram — SHOwme Altitudes. Mileage. Rainfall. 5 Perth £ i t « S BUNBURY e a > \ - * B - ! * « i i i * 5 I B . i 5 f I A. HiiOMT iM SiA-ltVtL B. MtCtA MM) fKtmtfTU C J5 BuNBURY t. BuSSELTON . A J B | B J* BOYANUP to BrIDCETOWN _| J>CAU 5 - BRUNSWICK r. COLUC — INDEX. PAGE. Advantages of Southern district- 137 Advantages of Swan district - 170 Advantages at Toodyay - - 82 Advice to fruitgrowers - 114 Advice to prospective settler - 7 Agricultural area, Appertarra - 195 „ . „ Bainding - 63,66 „ ,, Beverley - 61,95 „ „ Boyanup - 4r „ ,, Caljie - - 61 „ ,. Collie - - 28 „ ,, Coolup - 21 „ „ Dalaroo - 190 „ „ Dalyup - 151 „ ,, Darkan - 96 ,, ,, Ewlyamartup 97 ., „ Doodlekine - 63 „ Harvey - 23 „ ,, Jandakot - 8 „ Katanning - 96 ., „ Koojan 190,192 n Meckering - 63 „ „ Mourambine 95,98 „ „ Mullewa - 196 „ „ Myrup - 151 11 1. Narrogin - 95 „ „ Nonga- - 196 ii .1 Pallinup - 95,97 „ ,, Preston - 40 ,, ., Tammin - 63 ii ,. Tenterden -97,127 1. ,, Tweed- - 41 „ „ Uduc - - 27 11 Wagin - - 95,96 „ „ Weeranooka 196 „ „ Wickepin - 95 Agricultural areas, descriptive notes ----- 95 Agricult'iral areas, Southern dis- trict - - - - - 130 Agricultural labor at York, diffi- culty of obtaining - - 53 Agricultural settlement at Mew- castle 78 Agriculture: Southern district, opening for - - - - 89 Agriculturists, openings for, in Southern district - - - 89 Page. Albany garden blocks - - 129 Albany, soil near - - - 94 ,, cultivation suitable - 44 Amount of settlement Southern district ... Ijo Annual rainfall, Newcastle - 86 Annual show, York - - - 84 Apiary at York 55 Appertarra agricultural area - 195 Application of shares principle - 85 Arable land, Southern district - 133 Arable land in Swan district - 169 Area recommended - - - 130 Area required, York district - 50 Artesian water supply, Swan - 165 Arthur river land - - - t02 Artificial grasses, Woongong - 18 Assistance to settlers, Katanning n9 Available land, York- - - 55 Badjelling, timber heavy near - 75 Barnado's boys, Dr. 53 Beaufort river, land - - - 102 Bees near York - - - 57 Benefits of ring-barking - - 177 Best crops to grow, Southern district - - - 131 Beverley agricultural area - 95,6 r, 63,66 Beverley to King George's Sound, soil - - - - 89 Blackwood country 37 Blackwood, timber at - - 37 Blocks at Albany, garden - - 129 Boranning, yields at - - - 107 Boyanup agricultural area - 41 Boys, Dr. Barnado's- - - 53 Brassey's estate, Broomehill, Lord .... 120 Bremer Bay district - - - 150 Bridges, estimates for roads and 59 Bridgetown 38 „ climate of - - 39 „ railway - - - 38 Broomehill ... - 125 Broomehill, Lord Brassey's estate - - - - 120 Broomehill suburban blocks - 125 Brunswick river, dairying at 27 PAGE. Page. Bunbury - - - - 28 ,, clearing, cost 29 „ facility for sale of crops 32 ,, fertilisers suitable - - 32 „ rainfall 30 „ vermin pests - - 33 „ yields of potatoes - - 30 Busselton, land and climate - 35.36 Butter market, Geraldton - - 195 Caljie agricultural area - - 61 Camballing forest - - 106 Canning Hills, soil at 16 Canning, orchard at 14 Capabilities of Ksperance district 150 Cape weed 85 Capital required by settlers - 120 „ „ for settlers, Swan 166 „ „ by Southern dis- trict settlers" - - 130 Capital required by settlers, York 5o Carlisle vineyard ... 160 Cattle at Yutheroo ... 179 Character of country, Midland district ... 190 Character of soil in Southern district - - - 134 Characteristics of land on the Swan ... 165 Cheriton estate, Gingin - - 174 Citrus fruits, Gingin - - - 178 Claims for York-Greenhills line- 54 Classification of land on Great Southertr line ... 124 Classification of soil, Yilgarn route - - - - 67 Clay land .... 5,6,15 Clear ing at Bunbury, cost of - 29 „ cost of 135 ,, Esperance, cost of - 152 ,, forest land, cost 52 „ Midland district, cost of 183 „ Swan district - - 172 „ and treatment of land - 141 „ at Williams, cost - - 115 Climate of Midland district - 189 ,, Nelson district - - 44 „ and soil, Newcastle - 81 „ "of Southern district - 93 „ Swan district - - 172 „ Vasse 36 Close settlement in Southern dis- trict ... 140 Close settlement, York, retard- ing of ... 55 Coal deposits near Yasse - - 37 Coast change ... 6 Collie agricultural area - 28 Colonisation Estates Co. - - 20 Colony, proposed Italian - - 191 Comparison of Victoria with Western Australia- - - 65 Competition for produce - - 131 Congenial place for lucerne - 10 Conservation of water, Yilgarn route 68 Coolup agricultural area 21 „ drainage scheme 22 Coondle esiate, Newcastle- - 79,8o Co-operative wineries on the Swan ... 158 Corkscrew grass, Newcastle - 86 Cost of clearing at Esperance - 152 „ ,, forest land - $2 „ „ Midland district 183 „ ,, Nelson district - 43 ,, „ Southern district 135 Cost of land, Gieenhills - - 5I Country at Eucla ... 201 „ at Marradong brook - 106 ,, Midland district, charac- teristics of ... 190 Country at Mount Barker- - 128 „ for orchards in Williams district ... 109 Country at Wagin Lake - - 117 Creaton esiate 20 Crops at Eucla ... 202 „ facility for sale- - - 32 ,, in Nelson district - - 42,44 „ prices of, at Newcastle - 83 „ and soil at Harvey - - 25 „ Southern district, best - 131 Ciops suitable for Esperance - 151 „ ,, Swan district 167 „ „ Williams „ 113 „ at Wagin ... 99 ,, at York, values 51 Cubbine district, rich land in - 73 ,, timber heavy at - - 75 Cultivation at Bridgetown- - 40 ,, at Esperance - - 151 „ limits of safe - - 66 „ New Norcia - - 194 „ successful- 66 „ suitable for Albany district - - - 94 Cunderdin water supply - - 68 Dairying ... 139 „ at Brunswick river - 27 „ Midland district - 180 „ in Swan district - 171 „ at York ... 56 Dalaroo agricultural area - - 190 Dalyup agricultural area - - 151 Dandataga, annual average rain- fall ... 182 Page. Page Dandaraga, soil at - - 182 Dandelion - 85 Dangin rainfall - - 75 ,, rich land at - - 73 ,, timber heavy at - 75 „ Toapin rocks - - 72 Dardanup - 27 Darkan agricultural area - 96 Darling range - -4 Daylerking - - 107 Deepdale, irrigation facilities at- N7 Deep river district - - 199 Deep river, forests - - 199 Department, roads and bridges- 59 Descriptive notes on agricultural areas - - 95 Desert land - - 72 Dr. Barnado's boys - - 53 Donnybrook, fruits at - -43 Doodlekine agricultural area - 63 Dorakin, timber heavy at - 75 Drainage scheme, Coolup - 22 „ south-west - - 23 Drawbacks of York district - 52 Early sowing necessary - 66 Eastern areas, good land - 71 Eastern country, fruit, suitability for - - 70 Eastern country, vegetables, suitability for - - 7o Eastern country, vines, suitabil- ity for - - 70 Eastern division - - 46 Esperance - - 148 „ capabilities for settle- ment - - 150 Esperance, cost of clearing - 152 „ railway requirements- 150 „ rainfall at - - 152 „ selections at - - 152 „ soil, characteristics - 149 ,, stock-carrying cap- acity - - 151 Esperance, suitability for crops - 151 Estate, Newcastle, The Coondle 79 „ „ The Norman 79 Estates, retarding settlement, York - - 55 Estimates, roads and bridges department - - 59 Estates in Swan district - 163 Eucalyptus oil, extraction - 47 Exhausting land, warning - 51 Eucla, coast country - - 201 „ crops at - - 202 „ district - - 201 „ prospects as wheatcountry 204 „ water supply - - 201 Ewlyamartup agricultural area - 97 Explanatory notes, poison lands 75 Facilities for irrigation, New- castle - - 87 Farm site, model - - 121 Farmers, area required at York- 5o Farmers, capital requisite, York 5o Farmer and Government policy- 60 Farm servants, natives as - 69 Farming adapted for Williams - 113 Farming, progress of industry - 60 „ ,, Williams - 112 „ at Wagin Lake - 98 Feed, figs as - - 188 ,, in Midland district - 186 Fencing, raspberry jam wood for 48 Fertility of soil, Yilgarn - 67 Fertilisers adapted lor South - 142 ,, for Bunbury - - 32 „ for light soils- - 51 Figs as feed for stock - - 188 „ at Lowlands - - 10 „ at Mandurah - - 9 Flats, Williams river - - 107 Floral wealth, Western Australian 58 F odder question - - 10,11 Foods, value of imported - 105 Forest at Camballing - - 106 ,, land, clearing cost - 52 Forests at Mount Barker - 128 ,, Nelson district - - 43 Fruits, Gingin - - 178 ,, grown, Swan district - 170 Fruit grown, York - - 50 Fruits, Wagin - - 99 Fruit, suitability of Eastern dis- tricts for - - 70 Fruitgrowers, advice to - - 114 Fruit-growing, Greenough - 195 „ prospects at York 56 „ York, adaptabil- ity for - - 49 Garden blocks at Albany - 129 Gardens, market - - 13,14 Gate, ingenious swing - - 120 Geography of Southern district - 93 Geraldton, butter market - 195 Gimlet gum country - - 48 Gingin district - - 174 „ pastures - 177 „ soil at - 177 Good land, Lastern areas - 7 „ at Hay river - 121 Good soil, Newcastle - - 8' Goomalling area - - 71 Gordon river, land open for selection - - 121 Gosse estate, Kelmscott- - I Page. PAGK. Government and the farmer Grasses, artificial, Woongong - Grass, corkscrew, Newcastle „ kangaroo, Newcastle ,, silver, at Newcastle Grass Valley, water conservation Great lone land Great Southern, land classification ii ii railway - „ „ ,, promoters n ii ,1 purchase - Greenhills, cost of taking up land „ line, claims for ii ii York „ yield at Greenough flats „ fruit at - „ soil of - ,, water supply Guidance of new settlers, sug- gestions for Gum country, gimlet ,, ,, salmon - „ danger signal, wando „ morrell, at York - „ wandoo, a danger signal - „ white, country, Toodyay - „ the York Hackett, Hon. J. \■., estate at Bridgetown Harper, Mr. C., and the Harvey Harvey agricultural area „ and Governor Stilling - „ Mr. C. Harper's opinion Harvey, soil and crops - Hay river, good land at- Hotham river Imported foods, value of Improvements, pastoral leases - Industry, dairying, at York ., farming, progress of • Index to land, timber an Information for new settlers Irrigation, orchards, Newcastle - Irwin river valleys Italian colony, proposed Jamwood for fencing Jandakot agricultural area Jarrahdale Kangaroo grass Karri forests at Torbay - Kalanning „ agricultural area „ classification of soils ,, fertilisers for - „ hints for settlers 60 IS 85 68 72 124 S.s 97 <)i 51 54 54 64 195 195 1'15 I95 142 48 47 48 47 48 87 47 40 24 23 24 '24 25 129 106 105 7i 56 60 90 50 87 194 191 48 8 19 85 94 18,147 96 100 118 120 Katanmng settlers assisted at- 119 ,, settlement near - 12} Kelmscott, Gosse estate- - 17 King George's Sound and Bev- erley, soil between - - 89 Koojan agricultural area 190,192 near Newcastle Labor, difficulty of obtaining - ,, native, on farms - Land, Arthur river „ available for settlement, York .' Land available for wheat, utiliz- ation of I-and bank Land, clearing and treatment - „ cost of clearing forest „ good, Eastern areas „ grams, resumption of Great Southern Land in Great Southern district „ Great Southern line, classi- fication Land, Greenhills, cost of „ Hay river, eligible Lands office, plans Land open for selection at Gor- don river Land open for selection, South- ern district Lands, poison, necessity for fencing Land, poison, provisions, etc. - „ policy, Midland railway company Land policy of Great Southern railway company Land, rich, in Yilgam district - „ settlement on Midland railway Land on shares principle „ Swan district ,, timber as index to „ under crop at Wagin „ Vasse „ warning against exhaustng. Leases, pastoral, rent of - Lemon orchards, irrigation for, ,. at the Williams - Light soils, fertilisers for Lime, value of, for vine - Limestone formation Limits of safe cultivation Lotting spring Lowlands, figs at Lucerne at Uunbury ,, congenial place for ,, Fremantle 87 53 69 102 55 122 r36 141 52 71 93 89 124 5r 12') 69 I 136 52 75 r74 91 73 175 85 164 9o 90 36 51 71 108 5i 9 d 74 10,19 32 10 II PAGE. PAGE. Lunatic Asylum, Whitby Falls - Maize cultivation at Bunbury - Mandurah, figs at „ vegetables on coast - Manna gum Market for poultry „ for produce on Swan ,. gardens Marradong brook country Marradong-Pinjariah railway - Marradong valley Meckering agricultural area ,, water supply Merredin water supply - Meckering, yield at - Midland district „ „ average yields - n cattle - „ „ climate - ,, „ country charac- teristics Midland district, dairying —, ,, ,, feed in - „ ., pastoralists ii pests „ „ rainfall - „ „ rate of wages - „ „ roads - „ „ seasons - • „ „ settlers - ,, ,, timber country - Midland railway ,, „ Company and its land policy Midland railway and settlement „ „ suggested pur- chase of Millar Bros, and Torbay karri - Mission station, New Norcia Mixed farming at Williams Model farm, site Mokine, farming at Morrell gum at York Moulin, country at Mount Barker country - Mountains of South-west Mooranoppin, desert near „ rainfall in 1895 - Moorumbine area Mueller, Baion V., floral wreath of colony Mullewa agricultural area Municipal taxes, absence of Myrup agricultural area Narrogin agricultural area Natives as farm servants . 18 32 9 II 49 57 167 106 Io4 108 63 68 68 64 173 187 179 189 190 l8o 186 [81 185 197 187 [83 188 196 187 8i,i73 174 175 r74 94 193 113 121 107 47 74 128 4 7.' 65 95 58 106 59 151 95 69 Native vermin round York - 58 Necessity for fencing poison lands - - 52 Nelson district, land and crops - 42 „ „ native pests - 42 ,, „ notes on - 41 „ „ poison in - 42 ,, „ timber in - 43 New Norcia, cultivation at - 194 „ „ mission - - 193 „ „ olive oil manufac- tured at - - 194 New settlers, information for - 50 Newcastle - - 78 „ annual rainfall - 86 ,, climate and soil - 81 „ Coondle estate - 79,80 „ crop values at - 83 „ facilities for irrigation near - - 87 Newcastle, Norman estate - 79,80 „ settlement at - - 78 „ soil of district - 86 Nonga agricultural area - 196 Northam - - 62,77 Notes on agricultural areas - 95 „ on poison lands, explan- atory - - 75 Olive oil, manufacture, New Norcia - - 194 Openings for agriculturists in Southern district - - 89 Opportunities in Southern dis- trict - - 138 Orange, orchards at Newcastle, irrigating - - 87 Orchard area in Southern dis- trict - - 132 Orchard at Canning - 14 ., country at the Williams 109 Orchards, Gingin - - 176 Orchard, orange and lemon, nr. Newcastle, irrigation for - 87 Orchard, prospect in York dis- trict - - 57 Orchards on the Swan - 157 Pallinup agricultural area - 95 Pastoral leases, payment for improvements - - 71 Pastoral leases, rent of - - 71 Pastoralists in Midland district 181 Pasturage, Kucla district 202,203 Pastures at Gingin - 177 Patterson estate, Creaton - 20 Pests of Midland district - 185 „ in Nelson district, native - 42 ,, and poisonous vegetation - 132 PAGE. PAGE. Pests in Swan district - „ in Williams district Physical geography, Encla dis- trict Physical geography, Southern district Pingelly and wheat growing advantages Pinjarrah Pinjarrah-Marradong railway - Plains, the Victoria Plans at Land office Poison lands, provisions, etc. „ land, necessity for fencing „ in Nelson district ., plants ,, at Williams Policy of Government - ,, of Midland railway co. - „ of Great Southern rail- way company, land • Potatoes at Bunbury, yield of - „ in Southern district Poultry farming, Southern dist. market for „ in York district, raising Preston agricultural area Produce, market for Prices obtained for crops at Newcastle Produce in Southern district, competition for Produce suitable for cultivation at Esperance Proposed Italian colony- Productions of Southern district Prospect before farmers Progress of farming industry „ „ at the Williams Promoters of Gt. Southern rlwy. Prospects of Eucla, wheat Propect for Iruit growers, York Provision for poison areas Purchase of Gt. Southern rlwy. ,, of Midland railway Qualing rocks (Juandinning common - Quelquelling, yield at - Railway, Donnybrook to Bridge- town Railway facilities at Ksperance ,, Great Southern „ from Pinjarrah to Mar- radong Railway, the Midland - „ purchase of Gt. Sthrn. Rainfall at Bunbury 169 110 202 93 30 104 192 69 75 52 +3 132 ill 60 174 9i 30 139 140 57 57 ,1" 167 83 131 151 191 143 5<> 60 112 90 -'"4 56 75 91 174 74 107 64 3« 150 88 [04 81 91 3o Rainfall at Dangin - - 75 ,, at Esperance - 152 ,, Midland district - 197 ,, at Mooranoppin (1895) 65 ,, at Newcastle - - 86 ,, Southern district - 137 ,, of South-west - - 4 „ Southern Cross (1895) 65 ,, in Swan district - 170 „ of Williams district - 10y at York - - 41l Raising poultry in York district 57 Raspberryjam wood for fencing 48 Range, Darling 4 11 Roe - - 4 Rate of wages, Midland distiict 187 Rates and taxes, absence of - 59 Roads and bridges, estimates for 59 Rent, pastoral leases - 71 Reserve, the Toodyay - - 80 Resumption of Great Southern land grants - - 93 Requisites for new settlers - 140 Rich land in Yilgarn district - 73 Ring-barking beneficial - - 177 „ value of - - 49,102 River, farms at Hotham- - icC „ land on Meaufort- - 102 „ land on Arthur - - 102 „ the Salt - - 74 ,, of South-western district - 4 Roads in Midland district - 183 „ in Southern distiict - 129 „ in Swan district - - 166 Roe range - - 4 Safe cultivation, limits of 66 Salmon gum country at Yilgarn 70 n 11 11 ilt York - 47 Salt river - 74 Schools, Southern district - 130 Seasons in Midland district - 188 Serpentine, Lowlands estate - 19 Servants, natives as - - 69 Selections at Esperance - 152 Selection of land, Gordon liver- 126 „ in Southern district, land available - - 136 Settlement on Midland Railway grants - 175 Settlement at Newcastle, agricl. 78 ,, in Southern district 130,140 „ capital requited for - 130 Settlement at York, estates re- tarding - - 55 Settlement at York, land avail- able - - 55 Settler, advice to prospective - 7 Settlers assisted at Katanning - 119 PAGE. PAGE. Settler's capital required for Swan district Settler and the Govt. policy Settlers' guidance, suggestions for „ information for the guidance of . - Settlers in Katanning district, hints for Settlers near Katanning „ in Midland district ,, requisites for new „ success, factors for ,, at Wagin, advantages for Shares principle, lands faimed on Shepherds, natives as - Show at York, annual - Silver grass Sir John Forrest and the Bridge- town railway Soil in Albany district - „ between Beverley and King George's Sound Soil of Canning hills „ character, Southern district „ characteristics of F.sperance „ fertilisers for light - „ at Gingin „ of Greenough ,, of the Harvey Soils at Katanning, classification Soil of Mount Barker district - „ of Newcastle district „ of South-western district - „ etc., Torbay „ at Wagin Soils at Wagin, classification Soil of Western Australia, Sir F. A. Weld on Soil on Yilgarn railway route - Sorghum at Bunbury South-western district - „ „ drainage - „ ,, mountains „ „ rainfall of „ „ rivers of - ,, ,, soil of ,, „ yeoman of Southern Cross, rainfall in 1895 „ district „ „ advantages ,, „ agricultural areas ,, amount of settle- ment Southern district, arable land - ,, „ characteristics of soil Southern district, best crops for „ „ climate 166 60 142 50 120 123 196 [40 69 I i>.> 85 U, 84 85 38 94 89 16 134 149 5i 177 195 23 100 128 81,86 6,7 128 99 100 16,17 67 32 3 23 4 4 4 6,7 -1/ <>5 88 137 130 130 133 88 r31 93 140 136 138 I3J 93 r39 140 131 137 129 i30 i3o 134 89 32 Southern Distriet and close set- tlement Southern district, land open for selection Southern district, openings for agriculturists Southern district, opportunities ,, „ orchard area „ „ physical geo- graphy Southern district, potato crops - „ ,, poultry farming ,, „ produce, compe- tition for Southern district, productions of „ „ rainfall „ „ roads- „ „ schools in „ „ capital reqrd. n >• soil - ,, „ timbers of „ ,, vineyrds. area ,, „ water supply 89,133 ,, ,, yields in - 136 „ railway, Great Sowing early necessary Spring, the Lotting Statistics of Williams district Stirling and the Harvey, Govr. Stock, country for, Hsperance - ,, in Midland district „ raising „ ,, in Yilgarn district Suburban blocks, Broomehill - Successful cultivation Suggestions for guidance of new settlers Suitability of Kastern country for vines Summary Toodyay advantages Supply of water, Southern district „ water, question of Swan district ,, ,, advantages „ ,, arable land ,, artesian water at - ,, clearing at „ climate of district - „ dist., co-operative wineries „ crops suitable for - ,, dairying at the „ district. estates in ,, „ fruits grown in ,, ,, land in ,, ,, orchards in ,, ,, pests in - „ rainfall in district „ roads .N8 66 74 108 24 ISI i85 137 73 "5 66 142 70 82 89 7" :55 170 169 165 182 158 167 17r 163 170 164 r57 109 170 K>6 PAGE. Swan water supply „ wheat yield at „ wine making on - Swing gate at Goblup - Tambellup Tammin agricultural area „ water supply at Taxes, absence of Tenterden agricultural area Timber at Badjelling, heavy „ in Blackwood district - „ at Cubbine, heavy „ at Dangin, heavy „ at Dorakin, heavy Tortray and karri forest Timber, Deep river „ an index of land Timbers of Midland district Timber in Nelson district ,, in Southern district „ at Toapin, heavy Torbay, soil, etc. Treatment of land Toapin rocks ,, timber heavy at Toodyay district ,, reserve summary of advantages ,, white gum country Tweed agricultural area Uduc agricultural area Utilization of wheat lands Valley of the Marradong Valuable soil, York Values of crops. Newcastle Value of forest land „ of ring-barking - „ for wheat growing, South- ern district land Value of crops at York Vasse, the „ coal deposits near ,, land and climate Vegetables in coast country Vegetables, suitability of East- ern country Vermin pests at Bunbury „ in York district Victoria: a comparison with Western Australia Victoria Plains Vine, limestone for Vines: suitability of Eastern country Vineyards area, Southern district Wages, Midland district 170 156 I58 120 63./O 68 50 97.127 75 37 75 75 75 94 [99 90 187 43 89 7| UN 141 7» 75 7« 80 82 87 41 27 122 108 87 83 5i 19,102 94 51 35 .v 36 11,12, 13 70 33 58 65 192 9 70 132 187 Wagin agricultural area ,, classification of soils ,, Lake country ,, „ farming at ,, and fruit ,, land under crops ,, soil, character of ,, and prospects for settlers Wando gum: a danger signal Warning against land exhaustn. Water conservation at Cunderdin „ ,, Grass Valley ., ,, Meckering - „ ,, Meredin ,. ,. Tammin „ „ Yilgarn line „ in Southern district , supply, artesian, Swan - „ „ Eucla „ „ Greenough „ ,, question - „ ,, in Southern dist. ,, ,, at the Swan ,, „ at the Williams - Weed, Cape Weeranooka agricultural area - Western Australia : floral wealth Western Australian wine Wheat crops along Great South- ern railway Wheat growing, Eucla - „ lands, utilization ol 11 growing at Pingclly, ad- vantages for Wheat yields at Boranning „ yield on the Swan flats - „ „ at Wagga - Whitby Ealls Whitegum country, Toodyay - Wickepin agricultural aiea Wild dog pest in Bunbury dist. Williams, best crops for- ,, district „ cost of clearing „ land at ,, and mixed farming - ,, district as orchard country Williams district, pests of „ „ and poison - ,, progress of farming - „ rainfall at - ,, district, statistics river flats „ water supply - Wine of Western Australia „ making on the Swan Woodbridge estate PAGE. 96 100 117 98 99 99 99 100 48 5i 68 68 68 68 68 68 r33 165 201 195 76 89 170 114 85 196 58 159 94 204 122 98 107 i5" 08 18 *7 95 33 »3 104 15 108 113 109 no in 112 109 108 107 114 i59 r58 160 PAGE. PAGE Wongong, artificial grasses 18 Yatheroo - 179 „ cattle - - 179 Yeomen of South-west - - 21 Yields, Greenhills - 64 „ at Meckering - 64 „ Midland district, averages 187 „ Quelquelling - 64 „ in Southern district - 136 „ of potatoes, Bunbuiy - 30 „ of wheat, Boranning - 107 ,, in Southern dist. 94 ,, Swan - - 156 Yilgarn, rick land in district - 73 ,, route, soil - 67 ,, salmon gum country - 70 ,, stock raising in district 73 „ route, water conservatn. 68 York, bees at 57 York dairying - 56 „ district - - 46 ,, adaptability for fruit- growing - - 49 York annual show - -. 84 ,, area and capital required- 50 ,, average rainfall - 49 ,, crop values - - 51 ,, drawback of district - 52 „ estates retarding settlmnt. 65 ,, fruit grown at - - 50,56 York-Greenhills line - t 54 York gum - - 47 York, labor scarce at - - 53 „ native vermin in district - 58 „ poultry raising - - 57 „ scarcity of available land- 55 „ value of crops - - 51 Youngedin, rich land - - 73 1 ON s 0 •0 ; X»AXiT X- THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLER'S GUIDE ^DESCRIPTIVE NOTESO^ ON THE AGRICULTURAL AREAS AND CROWN LANDS OPEN FOR SELECTION. HE following notes on the agricultural areas and Crown lands available for selection in the South- west Land division of the colony have been specially prepared for this publication. It is impossible to do more than faintlv outline, in a few hundred pages, the vast agronomic possi- bilities of even so small a portion of the great territory of Western Australia as the division under review. It would take many volumes the size of the present one to adequately describe, and to completely enumerate, the many advantages that Western Australia, with its diversity of soils and climate, offers to the sturdy agricul- turist of mind and muscle. 2 For the purposes of description, the large land division has been subdivided into districts. The statements contained in the following pages are all founded on fact and experience, and no attempt has been made to unduly magnify the good, or minimise the bad, features of the colony's lands. Western Australia is not all sand; neither is it all soil of exceptional fertility. Between the two extremes there is a happy mean, and it is the object of these notes to briefly and truthfully point out that, in spite of many detractors, this happy mean does exist to a very great extent in this colony. In proportion to its area—an area greater than many European" Kingdoms—the South-west Land division of the colony—the chief cultivable portion—contains a very small proportion of land that cannot be put to some good purpose; a very large proportion that only awaits the potent agency of the plough to become productive. 3 CHAPTER I. THE SOUTH-WESTERN DISTRICT. For the purposes of definition in this chapter, the south- western district will be deemed to be all the country along the coast west of the road between Fremantle and Albany. This is a very large section of what is known as the South-west Land division, within which is comprised all the territory that, prior to the discovery of the Yilgarn goldfields, was regarded as being suitable for cultivation. The south-western district, with which we are now dealing, embraces Jandakot, Canning, Armadale, Woongong, Beenup, Jarrahdale, Serpentine, Dandalup, Pinjarrah, Coolup, Drakesbrook, Wagerup, Cookernup, Harvey, Brunswick, Collie, Picton, Bunbury, Donnybrook, Boyanup, Busselton, Black- wood, Bridgetown, and further south to the shores of the Southern ocean. The country east of the Albany road to the boundary of the south-west division from Beverley to Albany, will be dealt with as the southern district, as the Great Southern railway runs through almost the centre of it. These lines of distinction have been drawn, not only artificially by roach and railways, but natur- ally by divergences of soil, timber and rainfall. The contrast be- tween the two territories is tersely and clearly described in the Descriptive Notes Respecting Agricultural Areas in Western Australia, officially compiled and issued by authority of the Hon. Commis- sioner of Crown Lands :—" In dealing with the areas along or adjacent to the South-western railway and its extension to Donny- brook, a totally different class of land is found to that of the areas along the Great Southern railway. While the latter areas are specially suitable for cereals and fruit culture, the former include land that is more adapted for fruit and vegetable growing and for dairy farm- ing. In some places the country is heavily timbered, costing a considerable sum to clear; but against this must be placed the fact that smaller areas are sufficient for a selector, the land being cap- able of intense culture. It is also, for the most part, well watered, whilst the rainfall is regular and considerable. The highest hopes are, indeed, entertained in regard to these areas, and much thriving settlement is looked for in the south-western district. There are nine areas in this locality, comprising 283,588 acres, of which 57,255 acres have been selected by 226 applicants." What is meant by a " totally different class of land" is deserving of a more detailed description, so that from these pages the reader may be in a position to determine where he would be most at heme; but it 4 must be understood that no other district is being decried in point- ing out the advantages of the south-west. Every part of the colony where agricultural areas have been allocated has its recommenda- tions, to which attention will be drawn in reviewing them. The mountains and rivers of the south-west are among its chief physical features. The Darling range, commencing at Yatheroo, north of Perth, in the midland district, runs south right through the middle of the south-west for a distance of 300 miles to Point D'Entrecasteaux, near Cape Leeuwin. The range runs parallel to the coast line at a distance of about 18 to 20 miles, and the highest peak in this range is about 1,500 feet. Mount William, in the Murray district, between Bridgetown and Albany, one of the moun- tains of the Roe range, attains an elevation of 3,000 feet above sea level. The Darling and the Roe ranges extend in the same north and south line, but the latter is more to the eastward. Many rivers have their sources in these ranges; notably the Swan, Helena, Canning, Serpentine, Murray, Brunswick, Collie, Preston, Blackwood, Warren, Margaret, and Vasse rivers, which rise in the Darling range and, running from east to west, empty themselves either into the Southern and Indian oceans, the Harvey estuary, or the Leschenault inlet, between Fremantle and Bunbury. The Tone, Balgarup, Forth and Weld rivers have their sources in the Roe range. AH these rivers, together with innumerable watercourses, which are known as brooks, supplied by thousands of springs which have their rise in the enormous catchment area of the ranges, in July and August, when they are at their highest, not infrequently flood some of the lower levels of the flat country through which the streams flow on their way to the sea. In order to obviate the recurrence of these floods the Government has undertaken an extensive scheme of drainage which will be pushed on to completion this year, and will relieve Collie and Harvey settlers of a too bountiful supply of water at a time of the year when it is not required. The rainfall of the south-west is, as the records of years prove, consistent and considerable. The rains are not as a rule experienced here earlier in the autumn than in the eastern districts, but they are very much more copious and frequent when they commence, and are prolonged generally well into October, and frequently into the beginning of November. The result is that the rainfall registered at the meteorological stations from Fremantle to the Vasse is more than double that of places eastward from York, Northam, and New- castle. The following figures may be considered as a fair average rainfall at the places mentioned: Fremantle, 30 inches; Jarrahdale, 41 inches; Pinjarrah, 38 inches; Bunbury, 36 inches; Busselton, (otherwise known as the Vasse), 37 inches; Bridgetown, 40 inches; Augusta, (near Cape Leeuwin), 39 inches. This large rainfall keeps most of the rivers in the south-west flowing all the year round, while the smaller streams leave a sufficient number of pools in their 5 beds in the height of summer to meet all requirements except those of extensive irrigation, which could however be carried out on a large scale if the surplus water that runs into the sea in the winter season, was impounded. So far the settlers have been satisfied with the crops they can grow unaided by an artificial water supply. There are many spots in the south-west division admirably adapted to intense culture under irrigation, and these before long are bound to attract closer settlement. Hitherto, to use a biblical illustration, the vineyard has been large and the laborers few. Up to the date of the acquisition of self-government, and the almost simultaneous development of the goldfields, the demand for produce was not large enough to stimulate the inception of enterprise of a special kind. Now that producers have before them a sphere of great profit opened up by the demands of an ever-expanding market, the south-west, which has lain comparatively idle, is in great requisition by the class of husbandmen for whom the Homesteads' Act was passed ; that is to say, by those who desire to get a small holding, and to improve it to its utmost capacity. To these a garden that could be irrigated from the waters of a brook at midsummer, when all kinds of table vegetables are at a premium, would prove to be a most valuable possession, and one that, in its virgin staie, as we shall show in the course of this chapter, is only waiting hands to claim it. Next to the exceptional rainfall of the south-west and the great possibilities which a practically unlimited water supply carry with it, the district is famous for its timber, which, however, will be very briefly glanced at here, as it is more fully dealt with else- where. Typical scenes from the magnificent jarrah and karri forests that are doing so much to build up a great export trade for the colony, have been selected for insertion in this work, and give an excellent idea of the country in its natural state. The country lying between the Darling range and the sea is curiously compounded of limestone formation and of soil that is so deficient in lime and salt that cattle kept a few miles inland have occasionally to be sent to runs which border on the coast for a change. The limestone formation is so far destitute of all the constituents that are necessary for the maintenance of stock in the fullest vigor, that they have to be sent back a few miles from the salt water to what is called the "clay land," to fatten. The stay of the cattle on the new pasturage need only be for six or eight weeks in each year, and if they are shifted regularly they are kept fat, and in the spring put on flesh readily. Stock kept exclu- sively either close to the coast or on the clay lands, become, in course of time, more or less debilitated. For a year or two they may do fairly well on the well grassed frontages of the Darling range, but they slowly fall away unless they get the occasional rough lime and saline-impregnated herbage, which is a wonderful tonic, even though it may be of the coarsest fibre. 6 The coast change and its effects have been referred to in order that the frequent references to the clay land and the limestone formation may be clearly understood. Until this line of demarca- tion in the character of the soils of the territory lying between the Darling range and the Indian ocean is fully appreciated, the reader will have a difficulty in following clearly what has still to be written about the characteristics of the south-western district, and the diverse uses to which the different formations are best adapted. Although the phrase, line of demarcation, has, for want of a better one, been used to denote the separation of the limestone from the clay country, the line is so sinuous and erratic in its course that the word is almost misleading, for the two kinds of country run into each other and not infrequently overlap. The south-west districts are remarkable for the diversity of their soils, and this statement finds a direct and early application when one gets a few miles out of Perth and at the Canning discovers oneself in the clay country. But one does not leave the limestone behind at this point; on the contrary, the South-western railway between Perth and Bunbury will be found to cut it at several points much further inland, until we come upon it again at Creaton, 15 miles from the coast. Iq places the limestone formation disappears almost at the ocean's edge, while in one place, below Mandurah, no limestone can be found at all on a big stretch of country which has the sea for its western boundary, although it is possible that an impregnation of lime would be found in the soil. The reason why so much emphasis is laid upon the uncertain or crooked course of the boundaries of the two kinds of soils is that limestone is a main ingredient in ensuring the success of special kinds of cultivation which are highly recommended to be carried upon land where it is found, and it would be a misfortune if a selector rashly took up a block under the belief that it had a limestone bed, because it was as near the coast as other land upon which the presence of this strata had been proved by actual investigation; in other words, proximity to the ocean is not to be accepted as attesting the possession of limestone, and distance from the coast is not to be regarded as showing that a certain block is destitute, or nearly so, of that constituent. After the foregoing explanation it will be realised that we only speak in terms of the most general approximation in setting it down that of the strip of country eighteen or twenty miles wide, which intervenes between the Darling range and the sea, half of it is of limestone formation, and the other of heavy clay or loam land. Probably the statement is pretty r,early correct if it is understood to be applied in the same way that the same measure- ments would be found in the hands of a man who inserted his right and left fingers one between the other, and thus formed one surface composed equally of different members. In this way the 7 limestone interlaces the clay, and the clay—which is often not clay at all, but loam—the limestone. The clay derives its name from a clayey sub-soil, and is generally denoted by the thick growth of blackboys or grass trees. The advice which one of the most experienced and capable men who have courteously contributed information would give to a prospective settler is:—"If you want to grow corn or fruit trees, find a place in which redgums and black- bjys cluster thickly—where the blackboys do not have only one head, as they do when found on the limestone, if they appear there at all, but a number of arms or limbs, each crowned with a head. If the short thick girth of the trunk, whence the arms spread out, makes a shade like a young bay tree, under which cattle may shelter from the sun and rain, then put your pegs in and make tracks for the nearest Lands' office, for land that will grow blackboys to perfection will grow heavy marketable crops. You need look no more, for there is no better land to be found in Western Australia—with the exception of the swamp land-—for vegetables, or maize, or lucerne. Settle where the blackboys and the redgums thrive, and if you are not afraid of hard work, you will thrive too." Having now given a general idea of the soil of the south- western district, it may be as well to take a flying survev along the course of the railway that joins Perth to Bunbury, to see what is being done. The fine cuts the very heart of the distiict, and there are to be found in it examples of the best forms of cultivation— orchards, farms, vineyards and vegetable gardens. The trip will indicate the good beginning that has been made towards making "the earth to yield her increase." All that is to be deplored and remedied is that there is not one occupier for every score that this fertile tract is capable not only of supporting, but of maintaining in a state of comfort. Here will be found the avenue to a progressive career that within reasonable bounds will only be limited by the energy and resources of each holder to clear additional land, to crop it, to buy implements and stock shrewdly, and to exercise sound judgment in their use and management. It may be safely said that if a man takes up a piece of the best of the land in the south- west without any surplus cash, but enough to make a successful start, if he puts his mind, his heart and his muscles into bis task, the first years will not be easy ones, but his success is practically assured. The best land of Western Australia, unlike that of some of the eastern colonies (but which has long since been alienated), is not found ready cleared by the indulgent hand of nature, or, to speak more truly, is denied a growth of timber. Our best spots are in our heaviest forests of red gum, York gum, salmon gum, peppermint, and blue gum, or are in paper bark swamps, and have to be wrested from thick, deep-rooted, primeval owners, before the idyllic dream is realised of every man sitting in the shade oi his 8 own vine and fig tree and none daring to make him afraid. The settler who has grappled with and effaced the forest trees, who can look out upon a broad expanse of stubble land after harvest, would need to be very improvident to bs afraid of meeting any creditor; but between the taking up of the block allotted to him and the ac- complishment of this task there is before him many a day when he will literally fulfil the old scriptural mandate and earn his bread by the sweat of his brow. If he shrink from the weight of his labor he can find an easier vocation in taking up the more lightly timbered lands along the Great Southern railway, or beyond Greenhills or Goomalling, with his eyes open to the fact that there the rainfall is much lighter, that the climate is for some months dry and hot, and the conditions of life not so pleasant; while in the south-west a crop has never, with ordinary care, been known to fail, or a fruit tree to die for want of water. Here there is little or no need to conserve water for stock; little or no expense in sinking wells or scooping out dams; no anxious watching for the thundercloud to burst to save driving cattle or sheep perhaps for miles to the nearest watering place to slake their thirst. In giving the settler a wide range of choice as to the peculiar natural gifts he shall desire to bestow upon himself, Western Australia is almost unique. No district has a monopoly of advantages, but there is in their distribution a nice balance and equipoise of merits and demerits. The south-west has the unfailing and plenteous rainfall, and the heaviest clearing; in many places the smallest areas of first class land in one piece. The eastern division is nearer the goldfields market ; it has very large stretches that could be placed under crop without a break, and a beginner can readily clear a nice piece of jam country to get in a crop in his first year that will cheer him on his way. The south-west is more intractable ; it resists the advances of civilization; the forest is not easily subdued, and the land that can soon be reclaimed will prove disappointing in the end. Before booking at Fremantle for Bunbury, the enquirer for Crown lands on agricultural areas should have a look at Jandakot, which is situated 10 miles east from Fremantle, and which was thrown open for selection in August, 1890. It comprises 36,000 acres, mostly of a light sandy nature. There are, however, in the area a fair proportion of alluvial banks and swampy lands which are highly suitable for the production of vegetables, of which the Perth and Fremantle markets are lamentably bare for the greater portion of the year. The land is, however, imperfectly drained, and it is somewhat expensive to clear. Some of it would cost quite ^10 per acre before seed could be sown; but, on the other hand, the productiveness of the soil, and the consequently small areas required, compared with what is necessary, say, at Mecker- ing, for mixed farming, would compensate for this outlay. There Bunbury. Mr. E. M. Clarke's Vineyard on 3he Sou3h-Wes3ern Railway. It fts established on yellow sand restftng on coral lheestone, orftgftnally under Tuart Guf t forest. An abundant supply of ftoisture is drawn up to the surface by capftllary force, and the roots fftnd in that class of country a great feedftug range. 1 9 is absolutely no water difficulty, water being, if anything, too abun- dant. Portions of this area have a limestone formation, which renders them of a special value. There is a site for a sewage farm upon the western side of this area, and a reserve for a town- site in its south-eastern corner. It is approached from Perth by Nicholson's road, which is now being macadamised, and from Fremantle by the Forrest road, whit h traverses the area, striking the Perth-Bunbury road at the fourceen-mile post. This latter road has lately been cleared about half its width from end to end. On the eastern side of the area, and about three miles from the nearest portion, runs the South-western railway. An undoubted drawback to the locality has been the comparative lack of good roads leading to it, or to serve as feeders to the railway; but the works now in pro- gress will, to a great extent, do away with this objection. The con- tiguity of the area to the Perth and Fremantle markets, and the richness of much of the land, are still, however, great elements of attraction, and out of the 36,cco acres of this area 34,300 are surveyed, of which seventy-eight selectors have taken up 16,539 acres. The present settlement is well distributed over the area. There are several farms and holdings in a highly improved condition. The value of the limestone for the vine is exhibited on the pro- perty of Mr. W. D. Moore, 011 the Canning road about two miles out of Fremantle. The vineyard yields superb crops of grapes of the best wine and table varieties, and from a few acres the returns obtained would form a substantial income, if the proprietor were not a large merchant and a gentleman of affluent means, whose pleasure it is to have a rural home looking out upon one of the most flourishing gardens which skilled culture and a wise choice of site unite in forming. It is Mr. Moore's recreation to demonstrate, by the means of this plantation, that in the limestone having an easterly aspect the vine will do even better here than it will on the sunny slopes of France. Not only on Mr. Moore's estate, but also at Rockingham, where there is another splendid vine- yard, as much as 12 tons of muscatels per acre have been picked and marketed. The vines at the latter place were planted on the site of a limestone quarry. The stone was taken out for building purposes and the excavation having been filled in with the soil of the neighbourhood, the cuttings were put in by way of experiment many years ago, when the capabilities of Western Australia as a fruit producing country were not as well known as they are to-day. The fig is also a greedy feeder on the limestone, and asks for no more care than the native ecualyptus. A cutting thrust in the sandy soil grows like a weed, until it attains an enormous size and is so heavily laden with fruit that it is profitable to use it for fatten- ing pigs. Mr. William Paterson, manager of the Agricultural Bank, is planting 40 acres near Mandurah with figs, in order to TO turn the fruit into bacon. At Lowlands, the estate of Mr. A. R. Richardson, 24 miles from Fremantle on the South-western railway, there are some fig-trees of great size, one of them measuring seven feet five inches in girth of trunk. Mandurah and Rockingham can show several nearly as large. Mr. Thos. Hardy, the well-known South Australian horticulturist, admired the fig plantations greatly when he visited the colony a few years ago. He said he had seen nothing nearly so fine of the kind anywhere else south of the line. Mr. Paterson, who is the first to undertake the culture of the fig on a large scale, is importing fourteen varieties. He estimates that in seven years time the yield will be of the value of .£1 per tree; he is planting 2,000 trees. It is pointed out that such a plantation requires no grafting, pruning, or budding, and very little cultivation, while the cuttings are cheap and easily procured, and the trees, generally speaking, almost immune from disease. In his opinion the fig has been too much neglected in the west ; if it had not grown-almost wild and had a smaller yield of fruit, the satiated appetite would not have looked askance upon what he regards as being one of the most wholesome and appetising of fruits. In a country like Western Australia, where bacon brings is. per lb., he knows of no better or more profitable purpose to which to devote his Mandurah estate than to raise figs upon a large scale there in the limestone country. The olive also does remarkably well on the coast, and fine specimens of these trees may be seen anywhere between Fremantle and the Vasse. The limestone country, which we have been inspecting before going into the clay districts further inland, grows several other crops that are valuable, although it is not recommended for general farming purposes. Lucerne, a fodder plant that is extensivelv culti- vated in the eastern colonies, is in a congenial place among the limestone. Patches of it have been put in for test purposes, with most gratifying results. The roots go down to a great depth, and all through the summer it can be repeatedly cut after it has had twelve months to establish itself. The value of lucerne, and the important part it should take in the feeding of stock during the dry season, may be emphasised, for probably there is no part of the world where summer fodder is more required than in the neighbour- hood of Fremantle and Perth. In the spring, indigenous and exotic grasses and clovers grow in the richest spots, and especially where the ground has been cleared and cultivated ; but as the season advances these disappear, leaving the dairv herds of the metropolis and the chief seaport town of the colony to subsist mostly on rank scrub and imported bran, for which from is. to is. C;d. per bushel (according to market supplies) is charged. There is another aspect of the fodder question which should be emphasised in connection with lands available for selection within reasonable distance of the metropolis, and that is the meat II supply. In speaking of this subject official evidence can be adduced. The issue can be put in one short sentence :—The meat supply of Perth a id Fremantle falls far below what it ought to be in quantity and quality, because there are not in the vicinity of those centres pasturage grounds that will for the greater part of the year maintain the drafts of the butcher in flesh. Hence, those drafts have to be small and intermittent; the purveyors cannot muster on the seaboard a reserve stock of sheep and cattle, because they would fall away in weight; they have to buy only for almost immediate needs, and the public have to pay in the added price of meat for this defective and precarious system. If the butchers had proper feeding places near the slaughtering yards, they could carry on their business and reinforce their supplies on a much sounder and more helpful basis, and the consumer would get the benefit of the margin of wasting and loss being greatly reduced. That is to say, if cattle brought from the Kimberley district, the chief breeding ground, could be rested and topped up after their journey, before being slaughtered, the retail price per pound of their carcases could be reduced, because there would be so many more pounds of meat per beast to sell. This was part of the evidence that was given by leading members of the trade and pastoralists before the Parliamentary Joint Committee of both Houses that, on the motion of Mr. Charles Harper, M.L.A., President of the Bureau of Agriculture, sat during last session. The committee was appomted to enquire into the causes of the present high price of meat and to suggest such means as may appear most desirable for the purpose of effecting a reduction in the price of good whole- some meat to the consumer, without too seriously endangering the future of the pastoral interests. It was shown in the course of the enquiry, which lasted several weeks and embraced all phases of the question, that the quality of the meat would be gieatly improved if the cattle could be slaughtered on the pasture grounds, and that the nearest place where pasture grounds could be obtained was near Muchea, on the Midland line. So far the Govern- ment has not announced its intention to carry the recommenda- tions of the committee into effect, and the position of affairs still offers great inducements to cultivators to lay down paddocks near Fremantle, or at Jandakot, for instance, with lucerne, which would tide the butchers over the dilemma. Another purpose for which the coast country between Fremantle and Mandurah is admirably adapted, and for which very few acres, comparatively speaking, are now em- ployed, is the production of culinary vegetables. It might be made the South Brighton and Cheltenham of the west, for the soil is very similar to that south of Melbourne, which for twenty miles by about eight broad has been made a cabbage garden, or rather a thousand cabbage gardens, for none of the blocks are more than fifteen acres, and some of them 13 have only five acres. The newcomer to the west, who takes the slightest interest in agricultural pursuits, is greatly impressed with the scarcity and the dearre^s of vegetables, the producing of which is the industry of an industrious and independent class of growers, who, as the result of a system of high tillage that is not excelled by the peasantry of France, are able to raise a great variety of crops in abundance. An acre of ground turns out 8,000 head of market- able cabbages, and other crops in similar profusion. The market gardeners of the South Brighton district form a strong guild both in numbers and aggregate wealth, and most of them till their own freeholds, upon which they have built comfortable and commodious houses. They return from market with their wains laden with nearly two tons of manure, which their stout and well-fed horses easily draw along a steel-plated track, which has been laid along the Brighton and Point Nepean road for about ten miles. Their work is done with American digging-ploughs and cultivators, which economise labor and turn it to the best account, while the crops, under the forcing influences of manure and a good rainfall, are refreshing to the eye, with their splendid growth and the hue of livid dark green that betokens the presence of a plethora of plant food. If you travel further afield to the confines of this blooming utilitarian garden land a desolate landscape is seen—a forbidding waste of desert sand dotted with stunted ti-tree and heath, which leaves a chilling sense of barrenness and irreclaimable solitude. Yet the desert is part of the same tract as those luxuriant beds of cauliflowers, turnips, potatoes, and onions, which we passed a while ago, changed only by the transmuting energy of the market gardener. Here around Fremantle and Perth there is hardly the germ of the great well-organised, well-equipped enterprise that is directed to the growing of table esculents in the east of Australia and elsewhere. A few Chinese, with spade and hoe but little in advance of the primitive delving tools of Adam's time, occupy some swamp lands and sell their cabbages by weight as carefully as though they were refined gold. But where are the men of English race who are grasping the prize of intense culture and the liberal rewards for it that are so close within their grasp? Is it not so? when the market gardener starting in Western Australia can get his land for nothing, as close to Fremantle as South Brighton is to Melbourne, instead of paying at least £20 per acre for it. Is there any exaggeration in saying that big profits are allowed to pass unheeded, when cabbages sell for twopence per pound, and in the other colonies twopence will buy the entire head? Can the most sceptical say that an acre of the swamp lands on the Jandakot agricultural area that is naturally irrigated, and which the Government will give as a free gift to any man who will crop it, is not more than equal, with similar treatment, to an acre of the Cheltenham sand, whose arid surface in the middle of summer can only be moistened from a tap »3 and pipe that draw upon the Yan Yean reservoir, and which has to be paid for at so much per thousand gallons, according to the weekly reading of the meter by the officer of the Water Supply department? And let a simple calculation be made as to what 8,000 head of cabbages, at the average weight of 5 lbs., would amount to at twopence per pound, or even one penny per pound, grown on land close enough to the metropolis to be carted there without railway charges, and on land, which except for the £1 for registration, costs the gardener nothing. It may, however, be said that the market for vegetables will soon be supplied when the epoch of the humble but hardworking Mongolian with his rake and his trowel gives way to a sturdy generation of British ploughmen who are the owners of Clydesdales and Planet Juniors and all the other paraphenalia and horse power of an up-to-date vegetable grower. Let those who may fear that they will not find elbow room in the business, that competition will quickly be supplied, and that the present prices, or an approach to them, be very evanescent, note the following counsel :—The de- mand for vegetables is not to be gauged by the present consump- tion, for vegetables are far more sparingly doled out at most tables than bread, simply because there are, to use a familiar phrase, " not enough to go round." If the supply increased the demand would spring in the same ratio, for although this is not the place in which to indite a treatise upon the bills of mortality, or the social well- being of the people, it is admitted by the medical faculty that in some respects—including that of eating plenty of vegetables, which are not now forthcoming—the hygienic conditions of the people of Western Australia could be much improved. Again, the colony is so large and the spheres of profitable industry it offers are so numerous that overcrowding is a very conjectural contingency, at any rate for many years to come. It may be said, however, that market gardening is an industry that is soon overdone, as the crops take comparatively but little time to mature. For this to occur the prices now realised would have to fall several hundred per cent. To show the unlikelihood of over-production in this industry within measurable time, supposing the population to increase ever so slowly, a great many credible witnesses could be called, but it will be preferable to take the records of Parliament. In the ses- sion of 1895 the Hon. E. McLarty, M.L.C., and a member of the Bureau of Agriculture, who speaks with mature knowledge of the Mandurah district, asked the assistance of the Legislative Council, by resolution, to foster the establishment of market gardens with a view to encouraging the establishment of canneries. His speech on the subject was so full of pith and cogent force that this chapter would be incomplete if some of his remarks were not quoted here. The motion which the hon. member moved in the Council on the 8th October, 1895, was as follows :— *4 That in the opinion of this House it is desirable that the Government should enquire as to the best steps to take to encourage the production and preservation of vegetables. He said :—" In moving this motion, I may say that, unfortunately, the rules of the House prevent me from going as far as I wish to, otherwise I should have framed the resolution in favour of a sub- stantial bonus being given to any establishment which might produce 25 or 30 tons of preserved vegetables in any one year. Hon. members are aware that we are now importing large quantities of preserved vegetables. Last year, I believe, the value of our imports in this direction amounted to between ^8,000 and £9,000, and next year the amount will probably be larger. This fact I regret. I speak with some practical knowledge when I say that we can produce, at certain seasons of the year, at all events, any quantity of vegetables; and I should like to see some encourage- ment given to their growth, so that we may supply our goldfields and our northern parts without resort to importation. At Mandurah one of the preserving establishments has already gone into the business, and it is turning out an article quite equal to anything that is being imported ; and all that is now required is that there shall be a supply of vegetables to enable us to produce all the preserves we require. I think a bonus should be given to enable the establishments I refer to to offer a sufficient price for vegetables to induce people to grow them. If that were done, it would, in time, save the colony the large amount which is being annually sent away for preserved vegetables, and it would instead be distributed among our own settlers. Only this week I have noticed how much land is being taken up ; but on a considerable portion of it people are planting fruit trees. These will take four or five years to mature, and if, in the meantime, some inducement could be offered to them to grow vegetables between the rows of trees, they would be much benefited. Vegetables will grow luxuriantly, and a return can be got in a few weeks from them." In bringing the motion (which was passed) before the Council, there is no doubt Mr. McLarty had chiefly in his mind's eye the rich flats that abound in the neighbourhood of Mandurah, which has since come even more prominently into notice as a highly desirable place for settlers on small holdings. At the time of writing (June, 1897), an agitation had declared itself in favor of the Government using the powers of the Agricultural Lands' Purchase Act to take over a portion of the Hall estate and cut it up for the benefit of fruit and vegetable growers. A very short run from Perth by rail brings us to the Canning; but so far on our trip southward we will take the road route, or we should miss the sight of what Mr. Wiedenbach has done to demrnstrate the surprising capabilities of the Canning district to supply the metropolitan market, in which fruit is very scarce and dear, with the finest productions of the orchard. He took up what *5 an expert describes as being to the eve of a novice " a very rough bi-t of country, that was quite repellent with its thick growth of blue gum, ti-tree, and stinkwood, and what appeared to be an ill-nourished surface of yellow clay." But Mr. Wiedenbach had been a skilful fruitgrower in another colony, and he perceived that this piece of ground was a diamond that only needed polishing. He sampled the soil and found it full of nodules of limestone ; he saw it was deep and well drained and sheltered, and he set to work six years ago to transform this wilderness into an orchard that confounds any detractor of the pre-eminent capacity of a well- chosen holding to respond to the transforming hand of man. Look at it to-day. You see a model and blooming orchard, the trees bright with foliage, and the limbs bearing down under the weight of apples, of apricots, peaches and plums, of superlative size, and whose size is almost as matchless as their taste. The well laid out rows of orange and lemon trees are grateful shady places to recline in on a blazing day, under the heavy dark green leaves which the clustering golden fruit disdains to be hidden by. On leaving this orchard the vision is rudely disturbed, for beyond his fences there is revealed in all the stark plainness of their native hue, the dank unkempt thickets of ti-tree, the gaunt blue gums, the hard yellow clay that, but for the object lesson we have seen, would be prone to turn the land-seeker to some fairer prospect. It is not advisable even for an expert to be always deterred by externals in looking for a location in Western Australia, where there are, not infrequently, some kinds of country having no external attractions at first sight, yet on further acquain- tanc; revealing great potentialities of profit. Mr. Wiedenbach's pro- perty has been introduced to lay stress upon the text laid down at the outset, that the Canning is a terribly neglected district— especiallv having regard to its closeness to the capital. It is so close to Perth as to be almost a suburb of that city; it is capable of producing not only enough fruit for local requirements, but for ex- port, and yet the invitation which it extends to the orchardist is, with the exception of the place to which reference has been made, almost entirely set at nought. This is the salient fact with which one is impressed in going through the heart of the Canning. It is evident that the nearer a perishable product like fruit is grown to market the less likely it is to be damaged in transit to the con- sumer, and that as it has been proved that orchards are very profit- able, even when they maybe 100 miles or more from the metropolis, the profit will be proportionately greater when the crop is raised at the thresholds of the people who are anxious to buy and consume it. The same conclusion applies to vegetables, which are grown by Mr. Wiedenbach in great abundance ; yet, nevertheless, the Canning is almost entirely a grazing ground which is much used by the dairymen of Perth and Fremantle as a clay change for their cows. No doubt l6 it is an excellent thing for the cattle which have to provide milk for the inhabitants of those large centres, to be kept in health, but the absurd spectacle is presented of landowners receiving nine- pence or one shilling per head weekly for the agistment of stock upon land that under orchard cultivation would foot up in the credit account of receipts to ^200 per acre. It only remains to be added that there is land for sale at the Canning, and that it is understood the owners are in treaty with the Government for some of it to be added to the public estate for the behoof of settlers and close settlement. There are a few wheat crops to be seen at the Canning at harvesting time, but not one fifth of the land is in any better state than when it was the undisputed possession of the native tribe which hunted and fished within its boundaries. The very healthy upland plains of the Canning, a good height above sea level, have a most equable and agreeable temperature, the extremes of heat or cold being unknown, and the air is so pure that the medical faculty desiderate the establishment there of a con- valescent home. Among the Canning hills which fringe the river there are some spots where fruit and vegetables would thrive, but these patches are small and difficult of access, as the country is rough and steep. The larger part of the hills consists of ironstone ridges, the home of the jarrah, which is cut in large quantities by the Canning saw mills, whose line, starting from the Midland Junction near Guildford, runs southward to within four miles of Kclmscott on the South-western railway. At the junction of the river and the latter railway, there are some excellent pieces of country, which lie between the hills and the stream and beyond the Gosnell estate. One of these blocks, several thousands of acres in extent, belongs to Mr. Panton, P.M., of the City of Melbourne, Victoria, who is known not only as an expert in matters pastoral, but also as an artist and a patron of art. The railway bisects his property, the best of which is the clay country near the river. Further south it is of a light loam, merg- ing into a sand plain ; but as the late Sir F. A. Weld said, when he was Governor of the colony—" West Australian sand is the most fertile in the world." Some further observations of His Excellency, who held the vice-regal office from 1869 until 1874, and under whose administration the colony made a decided advance, may be regarded as reliable testimony, for he took the greatest interest in agriculture, which he had studied in a practical spirit, and was well versed in geology and the chemical composition of soils. His Excellency was, therefore, competent, not only from a familiar knowledge of the colony, but also as an educated critic, to give evidence that is of value touching the subject of the settlement of the land, and the degree of success that is likely to attend it when it is intelligently and industriously followed. Sir F. A. Weld's general description of the physical features is so clear and concise »7 and instructive that it will bear reproduction. He says:—"The whole of the settled district, nearly the size of France, is usually level, often undulating, but never mountainous. The western sea- board is generally comparatively flat country of a sandy character, composed chieflv of the detritus of old coral reefs, which has been again deposited by the action of water; more inland is a formation which is here called ironstone, it appears to be chiefly a con- glomerate of disintegrated granite, stained with iron; granite, slates, quartz, pipeclay, and in places trap, are all found in this country. e s The Darling range, for instance, presents these characteristics; it runs from north to south in the central district inland of Perth, and appears once to have formed the coast line. The whole country, from north to south, excepting the spots cleared for cultivation, may be described as one vast forest, in the sense of being heavily timbered; sometimes, but comparatively seldom, the traveller comes upon an open sandplain, covered with shrubs and flowering plants in infinite variety and exquisite beauty, and often, especially in the northern and eastern districts, low scrubbv trees and bushes fill the place of timber. On the whole, the soil mav be said to possess immense productive powers under favorable circumstances." It may be added that the late Sir F. Napier Broome, who succeeded the late Sir W. F. C. Robinson to the Governorship in 1882, on a public platform expressed his convic- tion that the agricultural land available for settlement was capable of maintaining a much larger population than the colony at present possesses. Of the colony and people he said :—" The more one sees and knows of Western Australia and its people the more they win upon the newcomer." In later speeches he set a still higher value on the colony, its resources and capabilities, as well as the energy of its "handful of inhabitants." A large population could be maintained if the magnificent paddocks of Colonel Ashburner (another absentee landlord), bordering the Canning river, were subdivided. There is here one of the largest and most desirable swamps that anyone can point to, and as one of its boundaries is the river, the expense of draining it would be compara- tively light. What a potato field it would make for the raising of two crops in the year, and the heaviest in the suaimer, when supplies are dearest. A black, peaty mould, the depth of which has not been reached, fills the swamp with a sturdy growth of water-loving vegetation. Now we are at Kelmscott, and the Gosse estate, a wide spread of meadow lea, to which the red- gums, sparsely scattered, lend a very park-like aspect. It is satis- factory to be able to state that this holding is being cut up and sold for orchard purposes, on the principle that suburban blocks, being much higher in price than more distant places, should be made to yield the largest possible sum per acre. The Gosse patrimony would grow corn to perfection, but it is too valuable for corn, while alongside a railway line a fruit producer could be sure that his i8 fruit would be none the worse for travelling a dozen miles or so to the tables of the people. It was some of the choicest of this land on the rising grounds approaching the range, that Messrs. M. E. Jull (Under Secretary for Public Works) and W. L. Owen (Warden of Menzies) obtained, on which to establish what is now a most flourishing and encouraging vineyard and orchard. At Woongong there is a fine bit of level country consisting mostly of flats nearly as level as a table, and about a mile wide. Here there is another oasis in the miles of virgin forest country that we have passed through, in the form of wheat fields, where about 300 tons of chaff was cut last year, and there is also a very nicely kept orchard. To the west, the Messrs. Bateman, the owners of 12,000 acres, have been sedulous in laying down pastures in artificial grasses, a branch of the improvement of land that is more neglected in the west than in any part of Australia. They are operating on a stiff, rather low lying clay soil that shares with the Canning the patronage of metropolitan stock owners in order to give their animals the essential annual clay change. The grazing paddocks of the Messis. Bateman are especially good towards the end of the summer, when there is, as a rule, a scarcity of feed. On the Darling range, about three miles east of Woongong, Mr. Butchers has an orchard of a few acres, the prolific character of which will be realised when it is stated that this season he declined ,£100 for the fruit of four orange trees. He has also, on a plateau 01 the range, a patch of lucerne which makes a marvellously quick and continuous growth. Passing Cardup an attractive farm of 1,500 acres under the shadow of the range, where now, just after the sowing season, the young corn is shooting through the chocolate soil with a bright, strong growth that augurs well for another ton and a half of hay per acre—the average of last year's reaping—Whitby Falls, one of the most notable properties in the south-west, is neared, and it is worth breaking the journey till next day to inspect what has been accomplished by means of irrigation, whose potent forces are al- most unapplied in Western Australia. Whitby Falls was purchased 11 years ago by Mr. William Paterson, now manager of the Agri- cultural Land Bank, and has since been purchased by the Govern- ment as a site for a lunatic asylum. The orchard at that time was neglected, but when Mr. Paterson relinquished it a few months ago it was one of the most productive in the colony. The site has many natural advantages. From the range there trickled a rivulet of water that suggested great possibilities of watering the orchard by gravitation, but in the hot weather there was only a trickle. Ring-barking the timber, however, in the neighborhood of the orchard and along the course of the stream, greatly increased the supply and enabled artificial watering to be carried on all through the summer. *9 Leaving Whiby Falls, and still going south, some miles of country that is chiefly jarrah forest intervene before we are upon the scene of the next object lesson that is calculated to teach so much to an intelligent and receptive observer who wishes to see what others have done, and what the country will grow to the best advantage, before he starts work on his own account. The forest is occupied by the Jarrahdale sawmills, a large and powerful company who have laid down a branch line extending from the South-western railway to the main timber station in the ranges further eastward. Jarrahdale, as its name would indicate to any Western Australian, is not a place where granaries will ever be seen, but the wine press would have plenty of occupation if all the vine land could tempt the peasantry of one of the provinces of France to make of it a second Moselle. Pushing on to the Serpentine, Lowlands, the estate of Mr. A. R. Richardson, is an unique example of natural irrigation, for here the Serpentine river disperses itself over flats, percolates through the soil, and resumes its course in its bed at a point nearer the sea. The Serpentine is a second Nile in its fertilising effects, and it would be very hard to find a place where stock will fatten more quickly than on Lowlands. Mr. Richardson, who has only just retired from public life, after sitting in the Legislative Assembly for the De Grey and holding with much honor and usefulness the portfolio of Commissioner of Crown Lands, did not find Lowlands what it is to-day. When he became its owner it was densely overgrown with flooded gums and undergrowth, which were very hard to kill in the deep, strong, moist loam. As fast as the flooded gums were ringbarked they threw up saplings and suckers so plentifully that it seemed a sisyphean labor to try and wrest the territory from their grasp. But Mr. Richardson was not to be daunted by the assertion that is often made, that if a flooded gum has plenty of water it is impossible to vanquish it. He had perseverance, and, fortunately, he had means, for Lowlands has always been a place that demanded a liberal expenditure of money. The saplings and suckers were ruthlessly decimated, hacked, and grubbed and burned year after year, every inch of ground that was so hardly won was resolutely guarded from further encroachment, until at last the flooded gums gave up the fight. In the end Mr. Richardson could survey square miles of magnificent pasture ground, clothed during the hottest season of the year with a high close mat of couch, and he can now send his sheep and cattle prime fat to the butcher at a time when locally fattened stock is very scarce. In making a success of Lowlands, where cereals and fruit are also produced, Mr. Richardson has only put into practice the maxim that land, like a good horse, must not be left to take care of itself if it is to do good work and be worth keeping. In speaking from his place in the Legislative Assembly on one occasion, he dwelt strongly upon the ,evils of earth hunger of a man taking up more land than he 20 could improve and thus turn to profitable account. The gist of his speech was that five acres of which the most is made are better than hundreds that are onlv partially productive, and Lowlands exemplifies that Mr. Richardson is a man who can not only speak to the purpose, but carry his theories out in a most thorough, workmanlike and practical manner —practical in the sense that a satisfactory balance sheet can be produced at the end of the year. For nearly half a century the site of Lowlands remained unimproved in the hands of the Colonization Estates' Company; it was one of the best of their grants, but the pasture hidden from the sun and light and choked by the trees' was sour and watery; the land looked more like a partly drv morass and was passed over by scores of stock owners, who looked to the north-west and the Murchison for their ranches, while within 35 miles of Perth there was, ready to their hands, an area that, cleared and sown with grasses, would top a beast to the acre. On a smaller scale, perhaps, the rule will be found to apply all through Western Australia, and especially in the south-west, that a superficial examination, a quick discouragement when a piece of land is found to be thickly timbered or badly grassed, may lead to the rejection of a really good location. On the west side of the Serpentine station there is a very eligible block, the owners of which are the members of a company in New South Wales. It is several thousands of acres in extent, and nearly all of it ought to be helping to make up the shortage in the local wheat supply. Nearer the Darling range the good land is in narrow strips. Pushing on to North Dandalup the way is through some thick red gum fores's and blackbov growth that the selector would be fortunate to obtain if the country hereabout belonged to the Crown The river at North Dandalup runs throughout the year and inter- sects this estate, and so does the railway for several miles. Creaton, the estate of the Paterson family, was originallv part of the grants. The Murray river, the Perth road and the Mandurah road, and also a belt of limestone, cut through Creaton, which embraces 12,000 acres, a very large proportion of which has been improved so highly as to be almost outside the pale of the Agricultural Lands Purchase Act, notwithstanding that the legatees are prepared to treat with a purchaser. Pinjarrah is, owing to its fertility, rainfall, and nearness to Perth, with which it is joined by rail, one of the safest districts for new men to get a prosperous foothold. The river flats of Creaton make splendid wheat paddocks, which have been cropped for many years. There are also some swamp lands upon which pigs are raised without any special attention, until they are wanted for the fattening pen on the approach of the bacon curing season. Some excellent fruit also comes from the banks of the Murrav near the Creaton homestead. The frontages to the Murray about Pinjarrah were among the first blocks to become the holdings of men who had the resources 21 and the energy to convert them into squattages, pig farms, orchards and vineyards. The names of Edward and Duncan McLarty (Beamlelup), Duncan McLarty (Blythwood), Paterson (Creaton), Captain Thomas (Ravenswood park),and Captain Favcett (Pinjarrah park), are synonyms in the south-west for yeomen on a large scale, who worked hard themselves, and employed a great deal of labor. They have been steadily enlarging their scope of work, adding field to field, barn to barn, until their places have become the convincing grounds for jaundiced sceptics who, visiting the colony in" the course of a globe trotting tour, are occasionally prone to sneer at Western Australia as a producing country, simply because what Governor Broome called her "handful of inhabitants" have not been numerous enough to spread over her wide dominions and make everywhere blades of corn grow where only indigenous scrub grew before. Pinjarrah and its highly improved estates may be regarded as a land of promise, where those who have toiled and been success- ful, who have carved arable lands out of the giant forests, and who, long before a railway was thought of, had the pluck to cart wheat and hay to Perth, are enjoying the guerdon of their stubborn uphill march. At Coolup, a railway station within eight miles, we see men whose work is just commencing, whose conquest and secure in- dependence in taking up the vocation of a farmer has yet to be achieved. The Coolup agricultural area contains 50,000 acres, which formed the northern portion of what was at first gazetted as the Harvey area. The surveyed section includes 30,005 acres, forming 217 allotments, of which about 50 have been taken up. The area, the northern portion of which is within two miles of Pinjarrah station, was thrown open in Sepember, 1893, and it is nearly midway between Perth and Bunbury. This land is the nearest to the city, suitable for a market gardener, that is available under the provisions of the Homesteads Act for the granting of a free farm of 150 acres, but the locality is not so well drained as could be desired, although there are facilities for draining it into the Murray which winds through it. Along the river there is a somewhat narrow line of superior loam which the residents, in some cases, are using for the rearing of fruit and vegetables. The larger proportion of the Coolup area consists of yellow clay, that forms indifferent grazing ground, but produces good crops of wheat when it is well broken up and dressed with bone dust. There are also light loamy tracts from which the surplus water, even in the hollows, readily disappears. Back from the river, wells have to be sunk to get water, which is obtained within 20 feet, if judgment is shown in' picking out a likely spot. There are some large holdings on the area, notably those of Mr. Kirkham and the Messrs. Olsen Bros. Mr. Kirkham, who is on the Murray close to where the road from the railway station is surveyed to the river, is an English farmer of experience who knew his business so well that on selling out in order to emigrate to Western Australia he was able to bring 22 with him a not inconsiderable sum of money. He bought out an original selector on the river frontage and, aided by a number of sturdy and willing sons, he soon cleared some hundreds of acres on his holding and is now cropping roo acres. So far he has had oc- casion to be well satisfied with his yield cf hay, which, during the first year after the plough was put in, was something in the nature of an experiment, as seed had never before been sown on the area proper, although Mr. Robert Herron, a squatter, on the opposite bank of the Murray, had for some years been tilling one of his home paddocks. This paddock, however, was stiff land, while Mr. Kirk- ham's is a soil of a much more friable nature. The success of Mr. Kirkham has given a great stimulus to the development of the area, but so far most of the work has been done either on the river banks or close to Pinjarrah, where some of the richest paddocks were taken up very soon after the declaration of the area. Here there is most cheering evidence that the legislature acted wisely in consenting to bestow 160 acres upon every bona fide settler, for the holdings close to Pinjarrah are nearly all of this class, and improve- ments in the effacement of timber and replacing red gums with fruit- trees are proceeding apace, as if each selector were vieing with his neighbour to see who will first be qualified to claim his title from the Crown by reason of having fully complied with all the conditions of the Act. The Messrs. Olsen Brothers, whose place is a few miles further to the south-east, being determined to lay a good foundation, have put in a well-concerted series of drains before hurrying on with the sowing of seed. Last year was, nevertheless, made good use of in the breaking of land in readiness for 1897, and, at the time of writing, not only had the drainage scheme been completed, but the fallowed land, which had been sweetening for 12 months, was disclosing a very healthy young crop, and the owners of it could contemplate it with a sense of security, no matter how heavy the rainfall might be, for the drains were faithfully doing their work. A serious drawback to the area is being removed in the erection of a bridge across the Murray. Up to the present time the only access to the railway station has been by means of a ford that is flooded in the winter, during which the settlers have to make a detour of 16 miles in order to cart loading to and from Pinjarrah. As soon as the disability was brought under the notice of Sir John Forrest by a deputation of the residents, the Premier, in pur- suance of his policy to help the producer, put a sum on the Estimates to construct a substantial bridge, which is to cost, wi.h the necessary making of the road leading to it, about .£2,ooo. When these works are completed the selector on the Coolup area will be closer to his market than his compeers on any other area, with the exception of Jandakot; but if the Coolup railway station is to be considered as the market, for the carting ends there and the freights for the short run to Perth are very light, the Coolup grower is nearer than any other holder of a free homestead farm, for there is 33 not a railway to Jandakot, although one has been talked of. The Harvey agricultural area adjoins that of Coolup on the southern boundary of the latter. The Harvey area was thrown open for selection in January, 1893, and covers 43,000 acres. The survey takes in 155 blocks and 19,803 acres. More than 10,000 acres have been alienated. The area is 40 miles from Bunbury and 76 from Perth; the South-western railway is laid throughout its length. There is, perhaps, no area that would be so rapidly taken up if portions of it were not liable to be inundated by the storm waters from the higher country near the ranges. In spite, however, of this risk, settlement on the Harvey has been proceeding briskly, and happily, without untoward circumstances retarding the prosperity of the selectors, who for the last few years have been favored with very mild winters. Nevertheless, the danger has been the subject of earnest representations to the Government through the medium of the Producers' conferences, which in 1896 passed a resolution to "the effect that it was expedient that a drainage scheme should be undertaken, in order to protect settlers from flood in the south- west. A somewhat tardy commencement was made by the Public Works department to accomplish the object aimed at in this manifesto, and the subject again came before the conference in the following vear, when the South Murray Farmers' Agricultural Associa- tion sought to hasten the completion of the work. The Public Works department announced that surveys had been made, and that the most urgent precautions against flood would be immediately executed. In the discussion that ensued one delegate suggested that the drainage of the Harvey and Collie agricultural areas were only local issues, and that the conference should confine its attention to national questions, but this view was strongly combated by the Hon. E. McLarty, who, in the course of his address, submitted some important observations as to the broad matters of general concern to the welfare of the colony that were embraced in the topic, and supported his view by citing the following reasons for the position he took up : " I cannot agree with the argument that the motion dealing with the drainage of a large portion of the south-west is purely a local question, affecting one particular district. The object of these motions is to have a large area of fertile and cultivable land thrown open for, and made available to, settlement. Until the drains are cut there will be thousands of acres of Crown lands, otherwise eligible for settlement, but liable to flood in the winter, and, therefore, almost useless. It is the general impression among those who know the land, and in this belief I share, that if the flood waters could be thrown off the land at the Harvey it would be very productive. I have noticed that new settlers produced last year excellent crops on some portions of this land, but the reason was that we had a very mild winter. We did not have in the south-west the usual amount of rainfall, and the land was not swamped. Therefore, some magnificent t'4 crops, which I have never seen excelled, were grown, which proved that the land is rich, provided inundating water can be kept off it. It outrht to be a very simple matter to get rid of the water, as there is a good fall to the estuary. The other day I had a conversation with the Minister of Public Works, and he asked my opinion on this matter. I had no hesitation in saying that the draining of the land would be a judicious expenditure and one that would do a great deal of good. I pointed out to him the magnificent crops that were grown there last season, which I at- tributed mainly to the fact that there had been a very mild winter. If, I added, there were drains to take the water off, similar crops could be produced every year. I am pleased to learn that the Government is going into the matter of having the drains made. The drains can be cut for a very small cost. The original estimate was 9d. per yard, but it has been found that with improved ap- pliances the cost is reduced to 3d. per yard, which certainly would not be a very great item. I have the greatest confidence that if the • Government carries out this work, it will be the means of settling a great many people on the land." Doubtless the low estimate given by Mr. McLarty in the foregoing extract, of the cost of making drains, will be noted by intending settlers on the Harvey agricul- tural area, as it shows even if they have to put in some auxiliary cuttings after the general scheme has been completed, the outlay is not one that need act as a deterrent to those, who in all respects, save that of drainage, may regard the Harvey country as a desirable location. There is also a large area of land to the west of the Harvey river that is eminently adapted for summer crops of potatoes. Here the intense cultivator would find his chance among the gullies and river bottoms that intersperse the range. These choice spots are not of large acreage, but that is immaterial when 10 acres are good enough to make a good living out of and provide, as well, for putting by something for a rainy day. These swamp patches can all be easily drained, as the brooks which are the tributaries of the Harvey and Murray rivers are on steep grades and of great width. Speaking of a representative piece of the Harvey country that was chosen by Governor Stirling for his own" use, when he had all the lauds of Western Australia to choose from in 1829, Mr. Charles Harper, M.L.A., Chairman of the Bureau of Agriculture, said :— "The stranger travelling by the South-western railway, and getting out at the Harvey river station, is at once struck by the remark- able picturesqueness of the surroundings. Tall red gums here and there darken the sky with their heavy foliage, and battalions of blackboys are drawn up in picturesque array. The richness and density of the forest and other growth convey the impression that the land must be exceedingly rich and fertile, and capable of carry- ing other and more profitable vegetation. A few minutes' drive to the eastward takes you to the foot of the Darling range. A 25 sparkling stream rushes out of the forest-covered hills which over- look the fertile plains below. Below the Harvey residence the river bank on the south side has been brought under cultiva- tion, though many of the old giants of the forest stand in their gaunt and grim solitude, frowning on the smiling fields at their feet. The deep rich loam of these fields seems almost too good for cereal crops, and suggests that root crops and vegetables and fruit would here find a happy home. A little water laid on from the mountain stream would make this one of the loveliest spots in the district. Fruit trees seem to thrive hereabout vigorously, and with very little attention, the citrous tribe being remarkable for their healthy and rapid growth, and are apparently blightless. There is a marked difference between the countrv here on the face of the range and the country correspond- ingly situated to the north of the Canning river. There is very little scrub, and not much rock. The quality of the soil at the foot of the hills, and on the spurs, and even to the crest of the range, is so good in many places as to be well adapted for cultivation. It is of a nature to be admirably adapted for the growth of the vine and the production of a high-class wine. A vineyard, ten acres in extent, has been planted with the carbenet sauvignon grape on one of the slopes, and although it has received only intermittent attention, such as the manager of the sheep, cattle, farm, and dairy could give it, many of the vines look capable of anything which vigorous growth can produce. It may safely be said that if gravelly and easily cultivated hilly slopes, blessed with an ample rainfall in winter, and bright skies in summer and autumn, go to make up the requirements of a good vine-growing and wine- producing country, these are all here in rich abundance. The country below the range may be generally described as a red gum forest, the trees varying from three to ten to the acre, with a considerable growth of blackboys, but nothing else in the way of the plough. . . . Opinions vary as to the corn-growing capabilities of the land. Some set down the yield at 15 bushels; some at 20 bushels to the acre; but all agree that a little bone dust produces a marked and lasting effect. A remarkable feature of this country for Western Australia is its evenness of character and generally unbroken nature. Once cleared, there would be nothing but a few watercourses to prevent the cultivation of 10,000 acres without a break. The tall trees and the blackboys are, as I have said, a testimony to the fertility of thesoil; but whether the best return will comefrom cereals, grazing, dairying, or fruit, remains to be seen." The expert testimony of Mr. A. Despeissis, M.R.A.C., who is in charge of the viticultural and horticultural departments of the Bureau of Agriculture, has been given of the merits of the Harvey. From his report we take the following conclusions, which will apply to the major portion of the south-west :—" Climate.—The climate is cool and temperate ; the latitude is 330 S. From official 26 returns I find the annual rainfall for a number of years is 37 inches per annum, being more than double what it is on the Avon. From Beverley, through York, Northam and Toodyay, where, even with the scanty rainfall, fruit growing and mixed farming are being pro- fitably carried on, the rainy season sets in in April and practically terminates in October, although all through the summer occasional thunderstorms supply to vegetation an amount of moisture, which, although it does not interfere with the process of ripening of fruit or of harvesting, maintains the plant in a state of luxuriant growth. The Harvey runs all the year round and follows a winding course. Numerous springs, which could easily be developed after the clearing of the country, act as feeders to it, and make of the question of water supply an easy one, offer- ing at the same time great advantages and facilities for summer irrigation and the successful raising of catch crops in the summer time. Owing to the proximity of the sea, 15 miles in a straight line, destructive frosts never harm potatoes and other- tender crops, and the climate may be said to be well adapted for the pursuit of mixed farming as weil as fruit growing, more especially fruit from the temperate climates, such as apples, pears, etc., as well also as trees requiring a greater amount of~rainfall to mature to perfection, viz.— oranges and lemons. Grapes thrive admirably in this district. The nature of the soil varies from (a) a light loam with a good admixture of gravel in it, and is especially suitable for the purpose of vine growing. This land is now under red gum (eiicalvptttscallop/iylla)'< A jarrah(fi'. tnarginata), of fine growth, which testify to its qualitv; (b) a few patches of ironstone gravel overlying a strong subsoil (jarrah and white gum—E. redunca—country) on the top of hills and spurs from the Darling range; (c) rich red loam of volcanic origin, with a few boulders of basaltic rocks in it. This land is very fertile and especially adapted for fruit growing as well as mixed farming (red gums and blackboys or grass trees of very large size—xaiitfmrca); (A) rich deep alluvial flats alongside the river banks and in between the spurs and undulations of the ground. This soil is under red gum and blackboys of very large sizii. Lucerne, root crops, heavy hay crops, as well as fruit trees of all sorts, from the apple, the pear, to the orange and lemon, do splendidly on such soil which, once cleared, is easy of cultivation and is of great fertility. The cost of clearing the land at the Harvey would amount, according to the means generally employed for that purpose through the country, from £6 to £10 per acre on an average, and if the trees were killed either by the methods of ringbarking or sap- ping, it would, a year or two after, cost from 25 to 30 per cent. less. The future of the place is the great possibilitv it offers as a fruit and vine growing colony, combined with mixed farming, comprising the cultivation of potatoes, lucerne, tobacco, corn for hav, maize, and also their conversion into pork, mutton and beef for the colonial market." 27 The Uduc agricultural area joins the south line of the Harvey area; it comprises 12,000 acres and was thrown open for selection in August, 1894. The survey includes 54 lots aggregating 8,415 acres, of which up to date 1,400 acres have been chosen by eight occupiers. Uduc is about five miles south-west from Cookernup townsite, 80 miles from Perth. The blocks could be worked under practically the same conditions as those described for the Harvey area. Many of the most central had been taken up before the land was subdivided, by people who are gradually applying for others to increase their holdings. In the vicinity of the Brunswick river, which is crossed in going from Perth to Bunbury a few miles below the Uduc agri- cultural area, there are some dairymen who send butter to the city; but the quantitv is so small that very few people of the colony ever taste the home-made article. The output of the Brunswick is chiefly consigned to large householders in easy circumstances, who do not cavil at paying 2s. per pound for a prime fresh local brand; but even this return has not so far encouraged many butter-makers to enter the field. In the late winter and spring some butter is made, but as soon as the flush of green feed has given place to the yellow tinge of the ripening summer the churn is put away as an implement that it will not pay to use. The dairyman who peruses this chapter and who is accustomed to modern methods of cream producing and butter making, will perceive that given a rainfall of at least 35 inches— 38 inches would be nearer the quantity if we wished to press the point of plenty of moisture—and loam lands that can be watered in summer, he could do well in a country where milk is never less than sixpence per quart retail, nor butter less than fifteenpence per pound. If he should be in eastern Australia he will know that he would be well satisfied to receive one third of these returns, and that in places which are not so near market, where railways are not running almost past his door, as they are in the south-west district, and where land suitable for dairying costs very much nearer £1o per acre than the ten shillings per acre he would have to give in the west for any area in excess of the 160 acres comprising his free homestead farm. The truth is that Western Australia buys her butter abroad just as, speaking generally, she buys her wheat beyond her bounds, not because it does not pay to produce milk, butter, and wheat, but because she is too young—dating her birth from the inception of responsible government, which was her real starting point in national progress—to have had time to supply her needs from the fruits of the soil. Beyond the Brunswick we are at Dardanup. the most notable estate in which neighborhood is Prinsep park, once the property of Mr. H. W. Venn, who for five years held the post in the Forrest Ministry of Commissioner of Railways and Public Works. Mr. Venn had a fine herd of Ayrshires, which was dispersed when he sold Prinsep park to an English syndicate, who have a belief that 28 payable gold will be found in the locality. There is a fine expanse of fertile ground in the possession of the Australind, an English company that is merely nursing the princely present that was handed over by the Crown under the old location grant svstem. It still remains to be developed by the race of new settlers who are being drawn westward by a more liberal land law than obtains in any other part of the world. Journeying on, the Collie agri- cultural area is entered upon, and it extends to within eight miles of Qunbury, which is widely known as the birthplace of the Premier of the colony, the Right Honorable Sir John Forrest, K.C.M.G. The whole of the Collie area, which is a very popular one owing to its proximity to the port and market of Bunbury, where important harbor works are in progress at a cost of ,£i00,000, has been selected, with the exception of two blocks, and the greater portion is under cultivation. The unoccupied allot- ments are of 100 acres each. The area embraces 7,150 acres, sub- divided into fifty-one holdings. It has been available since February, 1892, and is served by both the South-western railway and the extension of the line to Busselton and Donnybrook. The soil is mostly of a stiff clayev character, on which fruit and vegetables do better than cereals. The land will be improved when some drains of a serviceable capacitv are cut to carrv the surplus rainfall into the Collie river. It has been found necessary to enlarge the original area, owing to the great eagerness that has been shown to select thereon. The drainage could be perfected at a very moderate cost, and the Government are now having the work done in response to representations that were made by the residents. From Bunbury and Picton Junction, close to Bunbury, there branches out to the south-west and south-east respectively two new railway lines through two of the most important agricultural districts in the colony, namely, the Blackwood and Bridgetown districts, which call for notice in some detail, because of the large areas of eligible lands which are available there for selection. The districts form the continuation of the fertile country for which Bunbury is celebrated, and which contain some of the most notable examples of what can be wrought by the aid of capital, scientific cultivation and determination to make swamp lands which are dark and unprepossessing in their virgin state, blossom with the harvest of plenty. The best of the land of Bunbury is, in the estimation of one of the most respected authorities upon the agronomical resources of the colonv, Mr. William Pater- son, (for it has been his duty to examine all parts in greater detail than other men) the best that is to be found anywhere in the west, from the Vasse to Geraldton, or from Fremantle to Meckering, and in support of his conviction he points to the vineyard and orchard of Mr. Ephraim Clarke, mayor of Bunbury, which are bowers of beauty and luxuriance. The land was heavily timbered before it 29 was reclaimed. It is so fertile that it will grow to perfection any- thing that has been tried there, from cabbages, turnips and potatoes, to grapes, apples, and peaches. A very heavy crop of cereals, in- cluding maize, could be taken off it if the land were not too valuable for general farming. Mr. Clarke has taken the lead in showing what the district can do under proper treatment, but he does not possess a monopoly of the high class areas. There is besides, all the way from Bunbury to Mundurah, a great deal of land that for orchards and vineyards is not to be surpassed. It is of a sandy nature, with limestone subsoil. The great disability is that much of the best land was alienated from the Crown in the early days of the colony, and in too many instances it is left practically idle. This is the more to be regretted because the district is so well-watered that it is suitable for close settlement. It has the Collie, Preston, Capel and Harvey rivers and many affluents running through it, so that farmers are not put to the expense of making wells and the labor of drawing water for stock or domestic purposes; water can, how- ever, be struck at from 10 ft. to 20ft. In the driest season there is never any tear of drought, and the Boyanup and Dardanup plains could easily be irrigated. The Preston river furnishes an ample supplv of water for the purpose, but it would have to be raised by pumping. Parts of the Harvey and Uduc agricultural areas also present facilities for irrigation. The general character of the soil around Bunbury cannot be described in a word or two, as it ex- hibits many varieties. There is a rich loam in the swamps along the coast, and further inland good red loam is met with, and ironstone ridges among the hills. Near the sea line some sand plains intersperse the more fertile country. The configuration of this division of the colony is as full of contrasts as the land, for from stretches of level flat the traveller can, without leaving the terri- tory of Bunbury, get into mountainous country, rough enough to tax his bushcraft. These gravelly hills grow splendid jarrah; red gum indicates the superior chocolate loams; swamp gums shade the fringes of the rivers and the creeks; paperbark trees shaggily appear in the beds of the swamps; banksias in the sand plains; tuart on the limestone formation, and blackbutt on the deepest and most valuable spots of all—the pitch black loams that teem with practically inexhaustible plant food of every kind. With so much variety in the size and density of the timber it will be understood that the cost of clearing land ready for the plough has a range from £i> to £20 per acre, but the larger figure would only be demanded for the subjugation of small patches of the swamps, an acre of which, producing two crops per annum of potatoes, would be equal in its earnings to 20 acres of cereal paddocks. It should be noted by any student of the Bunbury district, that there is no more profitable rural industry at the present time than potato growing in well drained swamp land, if the precaution is taken be- fore commencing operations of obtaining from the laboratory of 3° the Bureau of Agriculture an analysis of the soil of the block selected, in order to make sure that the swamp is not too largely impregnated with salts to be profitable to work. The presence of saline deposits in swamps is not common along the south-western coast of Western Australia, but cases of the kind have come to light in one or two instances, and the defect has only been cured by treatment that is applied under the direction of the experts of the Bureau. With this reservation the most experienced residents about Bunbury recommend the potato as the staple crop in pre- ference to wheat or oats. As much as eight tons of potatoes per acre are commonly dug, and the crop is worth from £8 to ^10 per ton, while there is a railway to carry the produce to market after only a few miles of carting. The average yield of potatoes isfourtons per acre, and of hay one ton per acre. Nearly all kinds of farming crops are grown, but not often in large quantities by any one culti- vator. The settlers of Bunbury have so many aids in their climate, rainfall and excellent sale for produce, that they are, on the whole, a substantial and prosperous class of yeomanry, and there are still thousands of acres of Crown lands open for selection in the district on the various agricultural areas (except the Collie) within ten miles radius of either side of a railway line. Settlement has been steadily progressing during the last five years, and it has received a great impetus of late, as is shown bv the returns which are regularly published. All descriptions of fruits— including those of the berry7 tribes, which dc not thrive in the eastern division—are grown, but chiefly apples, oranges, grapes and stone fruits; these succeed well with reasonable care, if judg- ment has been shown in choosing the site of the orchard. The assistance of the Land bank has been mostly sought by new men, the older inhabitants bemg too well established to stand in need of loans, even when these are granted on the most liberal terms. As the rainfall is from 36 to 40 inches per annum, and it nearly all falls between April and October, the winters are very wet and the outlying roads become very sodden, so that some privation in this respect must be borne by those who go on to original holdings. There is, however, a long spell of fine weather during a somewhat protracted summer, and most ot the heavy carting occurs while the roads are at their best. The seasons are mild and very regular, so that he who sows is sure to reap. Many of the farms are from 100 to 200 acres, and these are deemed to be quite large enough either to meet the needs of a man who has a family to rear in solid comfort, or to find employment, as a rule, for all his available resources of capital and labor. It is held to be a mistake for a man to burden himself with a large area of unimproved land. The con- centration of improvements and cultivation multiplies the income, while the spreading of imperfect work—imperfect because more is undertaken than can be accomplished—over a great deal of ground fritters it away in non-productive outlay. The chief thing to be 3i aimed at is to get some land cleared—even if it be only a few acres —and some crop in the first season. The amount of capital each man will require in going on the land cannot be stated on one uniform scale; it will depend upon the individual thrift, good management, and the number of the family who will have to be supported while the preliminary work is being done and the first yield is as yet in the ground. The only safe general rule that can be formulated is that the sum in hand should be sufficient to buy tools, plough horses, stores, fencing wire, clothing and sundries for the first twelve months. That is to say, this rule will apply if a man has no intention to work half time at home and half time to assist in gi%ing him a start wherever he can get emplovment in his neighborhood. This method of getting in the foundation of one's own homestead has been followed by some of the settlers in every district with the happiest results. A man who is determined to lift himself out of the grade of a laborer for hire into that of an independent cultivator, may have some difficul- ties to overcome and his headway will not be so rapid as that of others who have the potent leverage of means to help them to achieve their goal, but, nevertheless, the path is not an insuperable one to tread. Moreover, those who have the grit, the youth, and the foresight to choose it, are pretty sure to have the qualities that, as thev get over the first struggle, will enable them to make a better use of their earnings and their opportunities than some of those who have never had to surmount so many obstacles in the way of their success. The man who, starting life with no adventitious aids, but, having a stout heart and a pair of arms that he is not afraid of using, puts his wages into the best of all banks in accepting 160 acres as a free homestead farm in Western Australia. He saves house rent, municipal taxes, water rates, and a bill for firewood and manv other items of expenditure that drain the purse of the worker in the city, while he is stimulated not only by the freshness of the air in the country, but also by the knowledge that he is mak- ing a certain provision for middle life. The settler in the Bunbury district need have no qualms that his children will not be within easy reach of a school, or that the schoolmaster's fees will be an item that he will have to reckon among his bill of expenses, for the Government has made the most liberal provision for the gratuitous education of the rising generation. There are public schools in charge of certificated teachers at Bunbury, Picton, Waterloo, Brunswick, Cookernup, Yarloop, Coolingup, Boyanup, Dardanup, Ferguson, Donnybrook, and Upper Preston. Another question may arise—" How much land should I take up, supposing I select outside an agricultural area where there are no free homestead farms?" The counsel of capable guides, touching the Bunbury district, is that not less than the minimum conditional purchase area—ico acres—should be obtained in preference to a "garden block" of smaller size, for several reasons, the chief 32 of which are economy of early charges and great elbow room. Take the case of a piece of land which, 100 acres in extent, includes a swamp or other exceptionally good garden or orchard block. If the selector applies for the choicest few acres of this allotment, say, from five to twenty acres, he has to pay £1 per acre cash for them, or as much as would (supposing 25 acres to be bought) pay the conditional purchase rent of £2 10s. per annum of 100 acres for eight years, and at the same time the holder of the garden or orchard lot would have little or no grazing land for his working horses or family cow. Therefore, the case is plainly in favour of applving for the 100 acres as a conditional purchase, even by the intense cultivator who does not contemplate cropping nearly the whole of that area. It surely is a great recommendation of the south-west that, instead of the seller of produce having to seek out the purchaser, in accordance with the customary law of trade, the farmer and orchardist is canvassed by the agents of the city and goldfields merchants, who desire to buy forward before the crop is off the ground. This is especially the case in regard to potatoes, chaff, and fruits in Bunbury and its environment, for when these products are to be had there, the quality is assured. The low railway freights, too, are another incentive to put as much land as possible under cultivation for what is held to be, at the present time, the best market in the world. The returns from land in good heart are so liberal that we are told the most profitable course is to keep it in that condition by using, every second year, a dressing of from 2 cwts. to 4 cwts. of bone dust per acre. Unless some fertiliser is employed the light sandy soils exhaust themselves, and although the alluvial river flats, swamps, and heavy loams could stand the drain for many years, it is not regarded as good farming to over- draw upon the resources of the ground. The most successful growers started with manuring, have continued it, and have not given their farms a chance to grow sickly crops. Every year the area under vines and fruits is being added to, as the profits are larger from these products than from the raising of cereals ; and to a man who takes a delight in having a charmmg and picturesque homestead, the care of a garden is more attractive than the ordinary round of sowing and reaping, which leaves the eye only fallow or stubble to rest upon for several months in the autumn and early winter. The cultivation of maize, as well as vegetables, sorghum, and lucerne, is strongly recommended by those who speak with the greatest knowledge as to the capabilities of the d'Strict. Thev hold that far too little has been done to utilise these sources of large profits and quick returns, which the heavy rainfall, the deep soils, and the temperate climate combine in making a large portion of the most congenial output of local production. It is also found to pay well to keep sheep in the cultivation paddocks after the harvest has been garnered ; store sheep fatten rapidly, and there is always a good 33 demand for fat stock. One source of trouble is the wild dog, especiallv on the outlying boundaries. Eaglehawks also make away with a percentage of lambs, and boodie rats, opossums, parrots, and silvereyes do some damage among the fruit trees and cereal crops; but as settlement goes on, and the more stringent provisions for imposing a vermin rate and paving bonuses come into force, in accordance with the resolution of the Producers' conference, these pests may be fairly expected to almost wholly disappear. Happily, poison plants are almost unknown, but specimens, chiefly of the heartleaf variety, have been found. The note made by one well- informed authority on this subject says :—" There is poison in this district, but not to anything like the same extent as in many other parts of the colony." Bunbury is said, by those who have tried it longest, to be " a fair district for stock, particularly along the coast." The principal grasses are on the occupied lands near the coast, and comprise couch grass, several varieties of trefoil, prairie and rye grasses, all of which are spreading fast, as well as manv valuable native grasses. The arable lands are in good sized blocks on the large private estates, but the selector must be content with paddocks of from 10 acres to 50 acres, all good and fit for the plough. Since the great flow of immigration commenced, four or five years ago, there has been a large influx of settlers, chiefly from the other Australian colonies. They are mostly men of English blood, with an infusion of Irish, Scotch, Germans, Italians, and Scandinavians. The value of modern implements of agriculture is becoming daily better recognised, and those of the older patterns are being put aside in favor of machines which are being largely ordered or have arrived. Double and treble furrow ploughs, reapers and binders, and steam plant for chaffing hay, are now in common use. It is desirable, according to the admission of the graziers, that more should be done for the improvement of flocks and herds. A few stations have imported pedigreed stallions, bulls, and rams, but there is still room for more attention and money being turned in the direction of raising the grades of draught horses, and obtaining larger beef and mutton carcases to contribute to the meat supply. The great essential for doing this rapidly and on a sound basis is to form artificial pastures, but until there is more than enough land cleared than is required for cropping, those who have contributed the data for this chapter say that there will be a reluctance to run stock on anything better than ringbarked land or fields of stubble. The statement exhibits how much scope there is for an enlarged scale of operations in the reclamation of land. Here again our informants point out that the labor trouble inter- poses itself. It is pointed out that there is more work in Western Australia than there are hands to accomplish within a few years. She wants to clear her forests and at the same time carry out a broad and enterprising public works policy, and the result is that able bodied men are in great demand. The farmers want them, and so do the contractors, and the competition sometimes causes 34 the latter to outbid the former in the rate of wages they are willing to pay to get hands. So much the better for the over-crowded laborer of older communities, who has to hustle his neighbor in finding an employer and, therefore, young men, or those in the prime of life, and who get their living under the hardest of condi- tions elsewhere, should be eager to come to a country where they may get a higher rate of pay, and very often better food and healthier surroundings. Now we come to a cardinal feature in the land settlement question of Western Australia, and one of our contributors has made some remarks upon it that are so pregnant and full of pith that they must be printed in extenso. He says:—" Nearly all the food sup- plies, which at the present have either to be imported or done with- out, could be produced in the south-western district. I do not see why we should have to rely on the other colonies for butter, cheese, bacon, jam and such things all the year round, and potatoes and onions for a great part of it. The supply of fruit is far below requirements, as can be seen from the absurdly high price it fetches. This (Bunbury) district will some dav produce as much fruit as can be consumed by the whole of the colony." It is freely admitted that dairying is neglected. As has been previously mentioned, vegetables are not grown wholesale on all the good black swamp lands, but only on small widely- scattered plots, while there are places belonging to the Crown that would equally well repay the industry of the husband- man. There are, besides, private estates which await subdivision, and which are most advantageously situated in regard to railway communication, being only on the outskirts of the town of Bunbury. For some years, until the harbour works are completed, there will be a large local demand for vegetables, and the wants of the large numbers of holiday-makers, who make Bunbury their watering place in the summer season, will offer a good opening to those who work garden land judiciously. Besides, it is anticipated that the development of the Collie coal deposits within a few miles of Bunbury will ensure a large and permanent population. On the coast, frosts are no menace to the potato grower, and it is near the sea, fortunately, that the best land for this crop is mostly to be found. Further inland, frosts are occasionally very severe and damaging in their effects, especially from June to September. The best land in the Bunbury district is well adapted for close settlement, that is to say, for subdivision in ten to 20-acre blocks, if the holders are satis- fied to do without grazing ground and will grow fodder for their horses and cows. The keeping of poultry is an adjunct to every steading, but fowls are not kept as a speciality; bees have no keepers, with one or two exceptions, and an isolated hive here and there. The chief requisites for the well doing of new settlers are set down as follow :—(1). A fair amount of capital. (2). Energy, perseverance, and a willingness to take advantage of the experience 35 and advice of a successful neighbor. Ringbarking is recommended as the first step after selecting, to expedite the clearing of all the land that cannot be grubbed while it is green, in order to sow early and get a return in the first season. The better the land, the heavier the clearing ; but the greater yields obtained from what have been forest lands soon compensate for the initial cost in pre- paring them for cultivation, as contrasted with the lighter clearing and smaller returns that may be expected from the sandy areas. The favorite fertiliser has been bone dust, but superphosphate and desiccated nightsoil are coming into vogue as the result of experiments which have shown that they have the most appreciable effect in forwarding and enlarging the crop. Liberal manuring is always money well spent. So far as is publicly known, there are not around Bunbury any privately owned eligible properties that are open forsubdivisional sale or for occupation under improvement leases, but there is plenty of choice on Crown territory. In conclusion, it is laid down as the outcome of the investigation that has been very carefully conducted by the direction of the Bureau of Agriculture, that the chief advantages of the Bunbury district are :—(i). Its mild and healthy climate, that makes it the congenial home of all but tropical vegetation. (2). The richness of the soil and plentiful supply of good building and fencing material. (3). Its regular and plenteous rainfall, and consequently well- nourished crops, and an abundant supply of water for man and stock. Away to the south of Bunbury to what is colloquially known as the Vasse, which is designated on the map as Busselton, on the shores of Hamelin harbor, excellent country is passed through. Mr. William Paterson, whom we have more than once justly cited as an authority on the natural resources of the colony, says between Bunbury and Busselton there are thousands of acres as good as the site of the orchard of Mr. Clarke, which has been eulogised as an ideal place for fruit (including grapes) and vegetables. To avoid repetition, it may be said at once that this tract has every attribute for producing potato crops equal to those of Ireland, and that at present it is so sparsely populated that there is room there for several shiploads of immigrants, whom the people of Western Australia would welcome, if they bent their energies to the task of relieving them of the necessity of importing food supplies, the pay- ments for which, of course, deplete the wealth of the community by those sums being withdrawn from local circulation. Busselton is 32 miles from Bunbury; it is a picturesque seaport town, and has been compared with Bournemouth, both as regards its climate and extensive sea beach. Busselton is situated at the head of Geographe Bay. Cape Naturaliste, a bold headland, rises on the coast line to the south. As a summer resort, the Vasse, where excellent fishing is to be had, is connected with the South- western railway via Boyanup, and is in high repute as a 36 watering-place, being regarded as the Tasmania of the west. It rivals Tasmania in growing remarkably fine fruits of all the English varieties, and the harbor is a safe and pleasant yachting ground. The choice is offered of swamp and forest lands, and if the clearing is rather heavy it is repaid by the fertility and stamina of the soil. It is well- known that the further the traveller goes south the broader becomes the stretches of superior land between the mountains and the sea, and this is well exemplified now that we have gone from Fre- mantle southward, nearly 200 miles, and are inspecting the grand territory in the neighbourhood of the Vasse. The land only wants working to yield a great increase; but so far very little of it has been worked, the few settlers being content to use tolerably large holdings, chiefly for grazing, from which they have derived a com- fortable livelihood, without doing a great deal of farming or orchard culture. The gifts of nature have been so prodigally bestowed that the inheritors of them could not grasp them all ; the horn of plentv is full and overflowing. Who will profit by it? Why should there be any poverty or hunger in the crowded communities of the old world, when there is such a splendid field for emigration—such bountiful offers from the state as that of free grants of land and loans of money to bring it into subjection and profit. If it were planted with apples, stone fruits, and raspberries, strawberries, and gooseberries, the Vasse country would be able to compete with the world; its fruits could be shipped fresh to England and the Continent under the improved methods of packing and carriage that are now in vogue, and landed at the other side of the globe in perfect condition after only a four weeks' voyage, at the season when gourmets are depending upon the exotics of hot-houses to supply their tables with desserts. In being so much nearer the great markets of the world than the orchards of Victoria, South Australia and New South Wales, the Vasse, with its highly suitable soil and climate, is marked out as a specially favored fruit-growing ground ; with its copious rainfall it is indepen- dent of the costly scheme of irrigation which has threatened Mildura with disaster. Hence it is claimed that this division of the south- west has great potentialities for a productiveness that makes it resemble a payable lode into which the miner's pick has hardly been struck. So far we have only spoken of the Vasse from the point of view of its exceptional fruit-growing capabilities; but it is almost equally to be recommended as the sphere of that scheme for the raising and canning of vegetables upon which Mr. McLarty ad- dressed the Legislative Council two years ago. He showed that theie was a lucrative market on the goidfields for this necessarv article of diet ; that .£8,000 or ^9,000 is annually sent abroad to supply local needs, and that there were places in the south-west where everv kind of esculent would grow like pumpkins in a compost heap. While Mr. McLarty, as in duty bound, spoke more directlv of the capabilities of his own district, it can be demonstrated by our informants that Busselton is willing to enter the lists at any exhi- 37 bition with vegetables of a size and flavour that would win the approval of the most impartial judges. Up till now, vegetables, which are luxuries in many parts of the colony, are always plentiful at the Vasse; but if a preserving factory were started, there would be a demand for tenfold the output that is raised to-day. The chief crop now grown there is rye, which, both in straw and gram, finds a ready market. Some impetus has been given to the cultiva- tion of garden blocks at.the Vasse, owing to the establishment of timber stations cutting the superior jarrah and karri forests which form the subject of some striking photographs which appear in this volume, but what has been done is only a small beginning of what remains to be accomplished, particularly if artesian water is struck, as it has been at Perth and Guildford, within a depth of 200 feet. A Settler's Guide is not the place in which to indite com- pliments to the beauty of the fair sex, but it may be set down in the practical spirit of a deponent who is desirous only of adducing a utilitarian fact, that the wonderful health-giving properties of the Vasse district is eloquently attested by the radiant clearness of the complexions of the ladies of the place, the lily and the rose striv- ing with each other in their countenances. Proceeding southward from Busselton, within a few miles of the coast line, we get into the Blackwood country, so called from the course of the Blackwood river, which empties itself into the Hardy inlet near Cape Leeuwin. The river has come down in a south- westerly course from the Darling range, passing through Bridge- town, which we shall visit by and by, when we have had a look at the land along the shores of the Southern ocean. This large and fertile tract is thickly timbered, notably with the giant karri and the umbrageous, handsome, evergreen and monopolising pepper- mint, which it is very difficult to destroy by ringbarking, owing to the gnarled and deeply indented surface of the trunks. In this territory, 50 miles south by west of the Vasse, is the large timber station known as Karridale. A tramway connects Karridale with Port Hamelin, from which the timber cargoes are shipped to many parts of the world. In the neighbor- hood of the sawmills are extensive swamps which, if drained, would make the best of garden ground. Now they are the resort of water- fowl. "A most interesting and peculiar natural phenomenon (says the Western Austialian Year Book) is to be seen in the neighbor- hood. The walls, or banks of sand, from two to three miles long, and from 70 feet to 90 feet high, are gradually advancing from the seaboard over the land, at the rate of from one to three inches a year. Between this place and the Vasse signs of coal have been found in various spots, and from the rough work done by a tiffin bore excellent specimens have been brought to the surface; but owing to the want of funds prospecting has ceased." Upon Cape Leeuwin, the most south-westerly point in the colony, 23 miles from Karridale, a lighthouse of the first class has been erected. The level coast 38 lands which lie at the foot of the hills are held in large estates by proprietors who rear sheep and cattle upon them, but do very little cultivation. All that has been said of the advantages and possibilities of the Busselton district will apply to that of the Blackwood, for although boundaries have been set in mapping out the colony, the whole of the province from Busselton to Cape Leeuwin has the same natural features, speaking generally, and the same climate and rainfall. The Blackwood can therefore be summed up as a large tract that has been very little developed, that is as well endowed as Devonshire for the production of English fruits and vegetables, and that is large enough and contains enough Crown lands to give free homestead farms to all the agri- cultural population of that county, and still have some to spare. Going almost due east from Karridale we pass through the Lower Blackwood and Nannup lo Bridgetown, which is the terminus of the Donnybrook to Bridgetown railway that is now being constructed. An approximate, but clear idea of the situation of the areas of which we have been traversing since we left Bunbury, may be obtained if it is borne in mind that Bunbury, or rather Picton Junction, which is close to it, is the point of a triangle, of which Karridale and Bridgetown form the points of the base, the right hand side of which looking north is the route of the railway from Picton Junction and the South-western line to Bridgetown. Parliament did not authorise the extension to Bridgetown until the question had been before the Houses for two sessions and the work had been supported by all the strength of the Forrest government. The opponents of the proposal contended that the railway would not pay. They laid stress upon the paucity of the population, the limited amount of local land that was under crop, and the fact that there were some blocks nearer Perth that were still open for selection. In reply, Sir John Forrest said :—"The construction of this railway will further the object we all have in view, and that is to open up those portions of the country which are capable of producing. We have our mineral resources to the eastward, and the goldfields, which are being very quickly and extensively developed in accordance with the approved policy of the Govern- ment, but, at the same time, we should do all we can to encourage the agricultural districts to produce food supplies by giving them railway facilities to send their products to the goldfields markets, I think we are all agreed that it is our duty to give facilities of transit to all producing centres, and I am sure that no one will deny that the Blackwood district, of which Bridgetown is the centre, is- an important agricultural district. It only wants a railway to make it of still greater importance. Without a railway a district like the Blackwood cannot compete with other agricultural districts which have this means of transit. And we must remember that this railway will establish a new centre of population, and to which all the settlers to the south-east and the south-west will take their 39 produce for conveyance to the markets at the metropolis, while it will stimulate the settlers all round that district to greater efforts in cultivating their land. I entertain the most sanguine hopes for the future of that portion of the colony to which I have referred. The soil there is of a splendid character; it is seven feet deep and is capable of producing anything we require in the country. I look forward hopefully to the time when this railway will be run through that country beyond it, even as far as the magnificent port of Albany. In view of the rapid strides which the colony is making, I do not think that my hopes will remain unrealised for any lengthened period." Mr. A. Forrest in supporting the Bill bore testimony from personal knowledge, that should be very reassuring to intending settlers, as follows :—" In the Blackwood district we have a great fruitgrowing country, where the present produc- tion could be increased a thousandfold, and though there are only a few hundred acres under crop, yet, if hon. members visited it in the fruit season they would see the trees breaking down with loads of fruit, and would be convinced that the district is capable of supporting a large population in fruit growing. Another important factor in building this railway is that the whole of the land through which the line passes is Crown land. The railways in other agricul- tural districts have been made entirely through freehold land, whereas along this railway there is no freehold land worth speaking of—perhaps a few thousand acres in the whole length of 46 miles." Mr. A. R. Richardson, who then held the portfolio of Commissioner of Crown Lands, and who knows the country through which the railway will go as well as any man in the colony, put in a strong plea for the acceptance of the scheme. His speech is so full of instructive matter as to the recommendations of the soil, that some of the points he made ought not to be missed. He said :—" What I particularly wish to point out are some peculiar circumstances in the agricultural conditions of this district. Fortunately for us ,it is a district that is capable of yielding those kind of products which other parts of the colony are not suitable for producing. We have a large amount of agricultural country opened up by railways now, and I think if this railway was to pass through agricultural country under exactly similar conditions, I should be inclined to say we were not justified in making this railway. But the other districts are wheat-growing, or mainly cereal producing districts, whereas in the Blackwood district we have a climate and soil which are favorable to the reproduction of many othtr kinds of products, such as potatoes, onions, English fruits, dairy produce, cheese, pork, bacon, and a large variety of agricultural products, which, to our disgrace be it said, we are importing from other countries in large quantities. Indeed, we are now sending away thousands of pounds annually to pay for agricultural products which the Blackwood district is particularly suitable for producing; but I do not think we shall ever produce these things in that, or other districts, in sufficient quantities for supplying 4o the colony's wants, unless we make railways into those districts which are specially adapted to produce these articles. Another point is that many of the products for which the Blackwood district is suitable are of that description which will not stand long carriage. Such things as potatoes and onions, when carted a few miles, are so increased in cost that all profit is knocked out of them. You have the best climate at the Blackwood for producing potatoes and onions and other things that are heavy in carriage, but if you ask a producer to cart these things 20 miles you take away all the possibility of profit ; so that the only way to induce the production of these heavy articles is to make a railway. The same may be said of fruits in their green stage. The Blackwood climate is specially adapted for English fruits such as cherries, raspberries, strawberries, and those delicious and delicate fruits which many parts of our colony will not produce. Another argument which, I think, is a good one, is that the hon. member for Geraldton observed there are no poor people down there; and I think no better testimony as to the fertility of the soil could be given as showing that people who have been isolated so long and have been so far from any market, are yet able to make a comfortable liveli- hood amid such unfavorable surroundings." The Government triumphantly carried their point, and the line, which will cost ^170,000, is now well advanced towards completion. There was considerable division of opinion as to whether the route should be by wav of Preston or the Thompson's brook. The latter, which is 11 miles the shorter of the two, was adopted. The line passes near a property belonging to the Hon. J. W. Hackett, M.L.C., which that gentleman has devoted to the growing of fruits and vegetables on a large scale and under the management of a skilful superintendent, w-ho has practically had carte blanche as to the expenditure. The outlay has been very great, for most of the estate consists of swamp lands which grew exceptionally large and numerous trees, so that the block was scarcely one that a man of straightened purse would have attempted to reclaim. A few of the most intractable acres have only been wrested from their virgin wilds of trees and under- growth at a cost of scores of pounds per acre, but they have proved to be surpassingly excellent when placed under crops of vegetables, strawberries, gooseberries, raspberries, cabbages, potatoes, cauli- flowers, etc. The property is one that the faint-hearted have only to see in order to lose all their doubts as to the great natural re- sources of the southwestern district. The Preston agricultural area adjoins the Donuybrook rail- way terminus, where a townsite has been laid out. It is bounded on the north by the Preston river, which supplies a constant running stream of fresh water. The area, which includes large tracts of good alluvial soil, was thrown open for selection in August, 1894; it contains 51,545 acres, the whole of w^hich is surveyed into 284 blocks. There are, according to recent returns, 4i thirteen settlers on the area, holding between them 5,626 acres. The sub-division is 25 miles from Bunbury, and is adjacent to the Bunbury-Bridgetown main road; it is well watered by brooks, and has a rainfall of 38 inches annually. The clearing in places is heavv, and the average cost of this work is £6 per acre. The facilities which the railway offers, and the superior quality of most of the land, should lead to the speedy alienation of the area, which is exceptionally adapted for potato and other root crops, fruit culture, and dairying; also for pig raising. The Tweed agricultural area is ten miles from Bridgetown, and 35 miles from Donnybrook; it has been available since March, 1893, and consists of 29,o00 acres; 16,882 acres are surveyed into 92 blocks, and thirteen settlers hold 8,929 acres. It is interesting to note in regard to this area, which contains some of the finest agricultural and fruit growing land in the colony, that some of it was specially selected by the late Mr. Anthony Hordern, originator of the Great Southern railway scheme, as a site for his projected agricultural college and experimental farm. The land having been abandoned by his executors, was surveyed and subdivided by the Government, and thrown open for selection. The clearing in many places will be rather heavy, costing probably £6 per acre. There is here splendid alluvial soil and a heavy rainfall, while the river Blackwood, which contains large permanent pools of fresh water, runs through the area. This area is distant from Perth about 175 miles. The Boyanup agricultural area, about 12 miles from Bunbury, was thrown open for selection in June, 1892. It contains 40,843 acres, the whole of which is surveyed into 284 blocks. There are 26 settlers on the area, holding between them 5,240 acres. It is served by the line between Bunbury and Donnybrook, which connects with the South-western railway. This area contains much land well adapted for cereals, fruit and vegetable growing, and dairying. The Bunbury-Busselton railway also runs through this area. The following notes of the Nelson district, in which Bridge- town is situated, have been kindly supplied for publication in this volume by Messrs. J. Allnutt, (Acting Resident Magistrate of Bridge- town), Lewis C. Mculton, J. R. Walter, and James Inglis, whose names are a guarantee that the intelligence they convey is a thoroughly authentic statement concerning a part of the colony in which they have long resided as leading and enterprising settlers :—" There are not generally good roads to the land belonging to the Crown that is open for selection. Our main trunk roads are some of the best in the colony; all the settlers here have had to make their own roads to their homesteads. Latterly the Nelson roads board have assisted selectors with their bye roads, but this year the Government allowed us no funds for this purpose. The capital we consider essential for a successful start is ,£110 for a free 42 hompstead farm of 160 acres, and .£350 for 500 acres conditional purchase—with the addition of plenty of pluck and energv. The Tweed agricultural area is mostly taken up and occupied. The schools in the Nelson district are situated at the following centres :— Bridgetown, Dwalganun, Dingun, Warren, Ballingup, and Green- bushes. The area we should recommend a man of small means (say from £100 to .£200) to take up, would be a homestead farm of 160 acres, and about 100 acres of conditional purchase for grazing purposes. It would be advisable for all small farmers to keep a few sheep and pigs, and a cow or two for milking purposes. Cows would require some artificial food for the first six months in the year, and it would pay to feed them throughout the whole year. The buyers for wholesale houses eagerly seek for supplies of fruit; chaff is in good local demand, and for fat stock there is the best market possible. There is good sale for vegetables, poultry and pigs. The railway freights for produce are, as a rule, very low. The Western Australian farmer has one of the best markets in the world at present. The Kelson district grows fruit and vegetables to the best advantage, more especiallv what are termed English fruits. A close watch should be kept for the appearance of noxious weeds, such as stinkwort, thistle and sorrel, in order that they may be eradicated before thev have time to take hold and spread. If the land is continually cropped with the same cereal it will exhaust itself, but not if it is given a rotation of crops. We have known some land to produce corn for 30 years without manure. This land after one year's fallowing produced the best crop of corn we have seen, and is still producing fine crops of hay. As a general rule, however, good manuring is the great secret of success, when it is combined with thorough cultivation, i.e., fallowed, rolled and well ploughed and pulverised. We are great believers in fallowing. Some local cultivators are also sheep farmers, and the number of settlers who are adding this branch to the earnings of their farms is inci easing. The Nelson district is very much troubled by native pests, such as dingoes, boodie rats, opossums, eaglehawks, &c. It is a disputed question whether eag'e- hawks do not do more good than harm by destroying ground vermin. There are poison plants of the heartleaf, bloom, York road, and prickly varieties in the district. The zamia palm, which is commonly regarded as the cause of "wobbles" in cattle and sheep, is dispersed generally throughout this part of the colony. Heart- leaf poison is found in patches; York road poison prevails from Scott brook, on the Upper Blackwood, in a north and east direc- tion. Prickly poison is found in rocky country only. Small patches of bloom poison are scattered over the south-east of the district. Nelson is a good district for stock, and it would be a much better one if there were fewer trees, or ring-barking were more largely practised; the country is too much shaded. It more land could be cleared and laid down with grass, which the climate makes it 43 admirably adapted for, where one beast is now kept the pastures would support a hundred, and this is what the country must come to. The natural herbage of the country dies out in time when fed down by stock, and nothing good for stock grows in its place. On the best land indigenous grasses still grow. Replying to your enquiry as to what extent of arable land can be found in one piece in the Nelson district, we should say that the average of the locality would be fifty out of every hundred acres fit for the plough. The other fifty acres would be suitable for vines or fruit growing. The countrv is well watered, as a rule, but some seasons have much less rainfall than others, notably the last two or three years. The cost of conserving water by means of tanks, dams, and wells, need not be taken into account, as these devices are not necessary in the boundaries of the Nelson. In only the very driest season is there anything like a water difficulty, and then only the back blocks are affected. Back country is to be under- stood to mean away from the larger brooks and rivers. In well sinking water can be struck at from six to seventy feet, but this is very seldom resorted to. Many small areas near the rivers Blackwood and Capel. The general character of the soil is patchy in many places; there are large stretches of ironstone gravel that are very good for vines. The configuration of this part of the country is hilly. The timber comprises magnificent forests of jarrah, red gum, blackbutt, karri, and blue gum. The cost of clear- ing per acre to put in a crop is from £2 to The crops usually grown are fruit of all kinds, potatoes, hay, wheat, oats, barley, vegetables, grten fodders of all kinds, and roots, such as beets, mangolds, turnips, etc. The average yield per acre is as follows :—Apple (matured trees), four tons; grapes, four tons; stone fruits, four tons; potatoes, five tons; wheat, 16 bushels; oats, 25 bushels; barley, 16 bushels; hay, 25 cwt.; green fodder, 13 tons; root crops, ten tons. The facilities for the transport of produce to market are the railway that is now being made from Donnybrook to Bridgetown, and good trunk roads. The fruits grown are :—Apples, pears, quinces, medlars, persimons, plums of all kinds, peaches, apricots, nectarines, passion fruit, tomatoes, gooseberries, and Cape gooseberries, raspberries, currants, straw- berries, rhubarb, grapes, oranges, lemons, citrons, walnuts, mul- berries, blackberries, almonds, hazel nuts, cherries, loquats, and melons of all sorts. The climate is a little too cold and frosty for oranges and lemons to be cultivated to perfection. All the other fruits are grown with the greatest success. As an estimate of the quantity of Crown land open for selection, we may say that about three-fourths of the territory on either side of the Bridgetown railway station is still available, notwithstanding that settlement has been progressing steadily. The co-operation of the land bank has been availed of. The general character of the seasons is that the autumn rainfall starts in May and lasts till August, with fre- 44 quent showers during the year. The driest months are from Christmas to the end of February, The average size of selections on Crown lands is from 100 to 200 acres. Nearly all the settlers are British subjects. The chief advantages of the Nelson district are soil, climate, and rainfall. The class of implements in general use is the most modern. Anything but the most up to date machinery and appliances have been discarded, and more of this class have been obtained during the last 12 months than in any previous year. What is being done in stock raising? The answer to this question is that shorthorn grades are being crossed with improved herds, such as Herefords and Devons, polled Angus, shorthorns and Jerseys. The sheep of the district are being im- proved by the introduction of imported strains of Lincolns and Shropshires; and pigs by some of the best blood of Tamworths and Berkshires. There is opportunity for a larger scope of work in planting vineyards, orchards, and in clearing the land. Is not dairying being neglected? Yes; partly because of the low prices of butter and the want of milkers. Men will not milk or engage as milking hands, and the women have discarded the milk pail altogether. They regard milking as too much drudgery; too great a tie; early and late, Sunday, as well as other days, cows have to be attended to with the precision of clock- work if dairying is to be a success. While wages are so high and other labor so plentiful, men are too independent to stick regularly to milking, and nothing but better prices will encourage people to dairy. There must also be a reinforced labor supply, so there may be a possibility of obtaining milkers. Vegetables could be more extensively grown if labor was cheaper and more plentiful. You cannot beat the despised Chinese gardener in grow- ing vegetables. It is no use growing products if the labor is to cost more than the article produced, and this is now often the case. It is not the fault of the country that there is not more cultivation, but the scarcity of labor, its dearness, and often its want of skill. One of the best crops in our district, and one of the most profitable and readily saleable, is that of the potato, for the growth of which there is any quantity of Government land available at various distances from the railway line. The seller can get £7 jos. per ton, and he is usually paid on delivery. There is so much Government land obtainable that private land is not much enquired for, which may be given as a general answer to your interrogatory: "Are there any private lands available for the production of root crops ; if so, state price and terms." Frosts are prevalent and destructive in our neighbourhood ; these occur from May to October. As a rule, our district is not adapted for close settlement, that is, 10 or 20 acre men. But we believe around Bridgetown a large number of families could successfully settle. A small area of land well cultivated will produce more and pay better than 100 acres slovenly cultivated. Hereabout many meii settle on a piece of land, and if they have any time they can spare 45 away from it, they can always get remunerative work and earn money to spend on their own land. Fowls are being turned to account; bees are not kept, but they would do well if properly attended to, i.e., this had been proved. From our experience and observation the chief requisites for a new settler are to have means to employ labor and to be able to get it. Men with energy, who can and will work steadily and with judgment—not your eight hours per day men, who think more of pleasure than of work, and spend all their earnings in beer—need have no fear of failure to get employment in our part of the colony. The lessons of local experience in the clearing and treatment of the land are to clear well and to cultivate thoroughly. The best fertilisers have been found to be farmyard manure and bone dust ; liberal manuring from the outset is profitable. There are not many large privately owned estates that would be available for subdivisional sale, or for occupation under improvement leases, and there is not much demand for them. In response to your invitation to make suggestions for the guidance of new settlers, we are of opinion that it is no use giving advice, as those to whom it is tendered generally take their own course, and in the end come to the ideas of those around them of older local experience." CHAPTER II. EASTERN DIVISION. YORK, BEVERLEY, AND GREENHILLS DISTRICTS. York, 66 miles from Perth on the Eastern railway, is one of the oldest and largest farming centres in the colony. Its fertile lands were discovered by an exploring party led by Captain Stirling, R.N., Lieut.-Governor of the colony. He named the territorv in celebration of the fact that a number of persons from the county of York, England, were among the earliest immigrants when Western Australia was founded in 1829. Large giants of this fertile land were bestowed upon the newcomers. There are no Crown estates near York left for selection, but a splendid tract is being opened up beyond Greenhills, 15 miles further east, by the branch line that was authorised during the last session of Parlia- ment. The town of York stands on the banks of the Avon, the chief stream in the eastern districts. The river in the summer time diminishes to a series of deep pools, which are ample, not only for the watering of stock and domestic requirements, but would in places serve to irrigate gardens and orchards. The course of the Avon is marked by a low range of hills, two of the principal of which, Mount Bakewell and Mount Browne, are the chief landmarks of York. From the Avon the country is undulat- ing, and traversed by gullies or brooks, the tributaries of the river. Before the land was cleared in large areas for cultivation it grew, on varying soils, several kinds of timber. In Western Australia the forests are so true an index as to the suitability of the ground on which they grow for various tillage purposes, that it will be instructive to examine these aspects of the York country, especiallv as the same forest characteristics are found all over the eastern division, which is a very large one, embracing all the agricultural areas lying between Northam and Southern Cross. 47 The York gum—to use here only the vernacular names of the different trees—is pre-eminently the habitat of the best wheat lands. It grows on the eastern slopes of the Darling range, from north of Beejoording, south-east to the Pallinup river. The York gum is generally about 70 feet or 80 feet in height, is about two feet in diameter of trunk, and is d irk and rugged in appearance ; the wood is very hard, heavy, and tough ; it is reddish in color and much esteemed for wheelwright's work. This tiee usually grows in a rich loam, which with sufficient rainfall produces some of the heaviest crops of hay and cereals that are reaped in the colony. The salmon gum is also largely found in the country lying between York and Southern Cross, and the timber, which is hard, heavy and durable, is used upon the goldfields for mining purposes, and for the construction of bridges and culverts. The tree grows from 40 to 70 feet in height, with a trunk from 12 inches to 30 inches in diameter. The name, says Mr. Ednie Brown, Conservator of Forests for Western Australia (in his report presented to Parliament last session) refers to the color of the bark, which is of a reddish, burnt appearance, fairly smooth and somewhat persistent. The home of the salmon gum is a good stiff loamy soil, with a clay sub-soil, which, of course, is just what is wanted for wheat. For a long time the salmon gum country was neglected, for it had a most desolate appearance. It is the peculiarity of this tree that it destroys all herbage near it. But as soon as the trees have been killed by ring- barking, grasses grow luxuriantly. When this was discovered, thousands of acres of land, which had been regarded as useless, were selected for farming purposes. Hence some of the new men have been able to get better land than some of the oldest settlers. When the agricultural commission sat some years ago, evidence was given by a pioneer of the Greenhills area (Mr. Penny) that he had taken a great deal of pains to select land that did not grow sal- mon gums, because that land was no good. On the 16th of October last. the Premier, Sir John Forrest, in moving the second reading of the Greenhills Railway Bill, said he had seen Mr. Penny on the pre- vious day, when that large cultivator had expressed much regret that he was finding that the places which he had excluded con- tained the best land. Such are the profitable lessons of experience from which the seeker of a fertile location may reap the benefit. The morrell gum is also commonly met with on the eastern agricultural lands, and is indicative of rich country. It reaches a height of 50 feet or 60 feet, and is from 12 inches to 18 inches in the bole, and thrives best on a loamy soil. It is also found in a good, strong, or what would be called in an English county, heavy land. The bark is light colored ; the timber dense and strong, and the leaves are especially rich in eucalyptus oil. This is extracted bv Mr. Jonah Parker, at Dangin, about 100 miles further east than York, along the course of the line to Southern Cross. The product has been pronounced in English laboratories to be of a very 4» superior quality. The manufacture would be proceeded with on a large scale on the property referred to, if the site were not 40 miles from a railway station. The wandoo, or white gum, unlike salmon, York or morrell, is a danger signal to the selector, for the country upon which it is found growing most luxuri- antly, is, to use the words of Mr. Ednie Brown, ''of a hard, uncompromising nature (decomposed granite), being flat, stagnant, sour, sandy on top, and invariably resting upon pipeclay. This is very boggy in winter and hard in summer." Moreover, the wandoo often grows among poison plants, and in country that is generally waterless unless shallow wells are sunk. It is a well balanced sturdy little tree, with a white trunk speckled with yellow. The timber weighs over 70 lbs. per cubic foot, and has been found very useful for railway trucks, receiving buffers, and other works requiring resisting strength. In the ground it will last o vears or more as a fencing post. An average tree is one of o feet or 80 feet in height and 30 inches in diameter. The white gum is the principal tree on the eastern slopes of the Darling range. The gimlet gum, so called from its twisted or fluted shape, is the companion tree of the salmon gum. These are the only trees to be found on many miles of country in the dry territory east of the Darling range. The gimlet gum flourishes on a good retentive soil, stretching beyond Coolgardie, and where it has to be cleared to make way for the plough, the harvest is well worth reaping if the rainfall if sufficient. The timber is much of the same class as that of the salmon gum, and is in general use upon the goldfields. Raspberry jam, an acacia well known in the York and Beverley districts, is a great friend to the settler in supplying him with cheap fencing, although it is fit for higher uses. According to the Con- servator of Forests, it is a small tree of about 30 feet in height, with stems reaching to 1 foot in diameter and boles 10 feet to 12 feet in height. It is of a handsome rounded shape when allowed to spread out its branches, and the appearance of the leaves is bright green and somewhat pendulous. The vernacular name is derived from the peculiar scent of the wood, which is wonderfully similar to that of raspberries. An oil of this flavour is obtained from the wood by distillation. The wood in the ground seems to last for ever, and the smaller trees are used for fencing posts without splitting. It is a beautiful wood, impervious to white ants, dark in the middle, with a white margin on either side, very heavy, and would make an excellent timber for cabinet and ornamental work of all kinds. The sandalwood of commerce, which is found occasionally intermixed with wandoo, York gum, and morrell, is an article of export that in the early days of the colony supplied many a farmer with stores and material. It has been so much sought after, as it was worth £j or £8 per ton, that the Conservator of Forests advises that the exhausted districts will have to be replaced by plantations 49 in suitable areas, if a supply is to be maintained. It grows most freely on barren soils, and is not gregarious. Two other species of ecalypts, the flooded gum and the manna gum, are rare in the York district. The flooded gum is what is known as red gum in the other colonies. It only grows in wet situations, or along what have been watercourses. The wood is red, and, like the jarrah, is not decayed by water. What the York people call the manna gum is not to be found in the classification by the Conservator of the forest trees of Western Australia. Locally the manna gum patches are regarded as highly productive when placed under crop. It will have been noted that only forest areas have been spoken of as being fit for cultivation, and, therefore, clearing is the first work of the settler. The cost of clearing is much lightened by ring- barking and burning off when the trees are dead, but in order to get a ready return a paddock has to be grubbed while the trees are green. While the crop is growing, the timber of the remainder of the holding, except a few trees reserved for shade, are ringbarked to hasten the work of their removal in subsequent seasons. Besides, ringing brings up the grass for the feeding of stock, so that mixed farming of the most profitable kind may be carried on. The jam tree is not injurious to pasture, and after this growth has been cleared sheep will feed down the shoots of jam and keep the cultivable ground clean. The destruction of the timber is also necessary in order to increase the water supply, which is not very abundant east of the river Avon. Returns obtained from all parts of the colony are unanimous in declaring that ringbarking should be done immediately ground is taken up, to obtain the three advantages of sweetening the soil, getting grass and obtaining water. The average rainfall in the York district is 15 inches, which nearly all falls between April and September. The most has to be made of this inconsiderable supply by early sowing, and for the filling of tanks and dams. In preparing a dam, sheep are often driven into it to puddle the clay and make it watertight. In a dry season stock have, on some holdings, to be travelled some distance to water. In going further east the rainfall gradually diminishes. There is good summer feed among the edible scrub after the grasses have been fed down. In spite of the drawback of a light rainfall nearly all the farmers fatten a few sheep, and there are large sheep runs within a few miles of York. Cattle are not largely kept. Horse- breeding receives some attention. The frontages to the Avon were alienated many years ago, but the owners of them, nevertheless, allow the public free access to the water. It is admitted that a larger rainfall would be of incalculable advantage to a people who are on the highway to the goldfields, which furnish an excellent market for all they can produce. For fruit-growing York is well adapted, both in regard to soil and climate, although there are no local orchards on a large scale, 5o with the exception of that of Mr. Frank Craig on the confines of the town. Some fruit from the property of Mr. Kenneth Edwards was very highly praised in. London. The only varieties of fruit that do not thrive are cherries, loquats, gooseberries, raspberries and straw- berries. The prevalence of frosts and the scanty rainfall are not favorable to the potato, although in some spots small areas have yielded potatoes very largely. There are near the Helena, on the west of the Avon, some moist lands that are especially valuable for producing vegetables during the summer in a colony where cab- bages and pumpkins are sold retail at 2d. per lb., and other escu- lents at a proportionate price. But this garden ground, as it is called, is mostly in private hands, and in Western Australia every man likes to be his own landlord and to purchase direct from the Crown, as has been proved by the experience of the Great Southern and Midland railway companies, whose land grants have not been nearly so readily taken up as the blocks belonging to the Government. But a visit to the land that Mr. Kenneth Edwards has devoted to the cultivation of vegetables affords very convincing proof of the value of intense cultivation in chosen spots. The land regulations provide for the sale of garden blocks at £1 per acre for 10 acres under certain improvement conditions. The testimony furnished by men of experience in the York district at the instance of the Bureau of Agriculture for the guidance of new settlers, may be summarised as follows :—Although there are no Crown lands available near York, there is fertile fcrest country beyond Greenhills, 15 miles to the eastward, which it would be very advantageous to secure. There are also eligible private estates between York and Greenhills, the owners of which only require a fair inducement in order to open them for settlement under the provisions of the Agricultural Lands Purchase Act, which was passed last session, accompanied bv a vote of ,£200,000, to enable the Government to put that statute into force for the purpose of augmenting the producing resources of the colony and adding to the national wealth. There is an excellent prospect before industrious men who possess, say, from £1$o to £300, intelligence and industry, and who have some knowledge of farming, because in going into tillage they would have an assured market at good prices for their crops, railway communication to that market, and reasonable freights, besides the protection of the import duties. There are good roads to the railway and schools in every division, so that children are never beyond the reach of the schoolmaster. If a man is without capital it may be possible for him to become a settler by working for his neighbours, but his slow progress would be discouraging to anyone who had not a dauntless spirit. To farm on proper lines a man should take up 300 or 350 acres, because he must have some grazing ground, if only to turn his horses upon in the slack time of the year, while crops are growing. 5i It is further pointed out that while at present prices for all kinds of produce are remunerative, these rates are likely to be maintained. The population of the colony is rapidly increasing, and, so far, the farmers have not attempted to grow wheat, because of the high price and strong demand for chopped hay—known in the colony as chaff—which is used as fodder. When enough fodder is produced the wheat market will still have to be supplied. Just now most of the flour mills in the country districts are shut down because wheat cannot be had. This season wheat has brought 6s. per bushel, and chaff £y per ton. At the time of writing, owing to the drought in the eastern colonies limiting their export of fodder, chaff is selling at £8 per ton, delivered at the railway stations. The demand has been so brisk that buyers' travellers have, during the past three seasons, been canvassing the York district for supplies for the produce trade of the goldfields, and of Perth and Fremantle. It has been found that wheaten hay pays better, in this district, than oaten. While the taking up of land, unless the selector has some money to commence fencing and clearing, is deprecated in ordinary circum- stances, the loan obtainable from the Land bank of the state is deemed to be a compensation for this drawback, provided that the borrower is the right man in the right place. There is opportunity for a much larger scope of work than that which is now being done. Every year large numbers of the most improved implements are being used as a means of developing the agricultural resources of the district. A warning is given against exhausting the land by cropping it every year without manure. This is a shortsighted policy which means poor harvests and false economy. Even what have been the best forest lands should be enriched the first year after they are cleared, and every season afterwards, unless a dressing of bone dust is very liberally applied, when the ground will be good for two vears. The lighter soils, lighter in color and in quality, should be fertilised still more heavily with guano, bonedust, or phosphates. Xothing is better than stable manure, but it is not obtainable in sufficiently large quantities for big fields. Keep the land in good heart and it will keep gold in your pocket, is the maxim of the best farmers of York, and there are none better in Western Australia, nor any who c:op a larger acreage. Many of them rest their land every alternate year and use it while it is out of cultivation for grazing. Under proper treatment the fields show no signs of exhaustion, although some of them were cleared and cultivated by the fathers of the men who are still turning them to good account. If a comparison is made of the value of improved lands and of the cost of clearing them, it will be seen that there is a substantial balance in favor of the settler. Let us give an example. The selector, taking up say some of the forest lands that will be tapped by the Greenhills line, has to pay only 10s. per acre in payments of sixpence per acre extending over 20 years, to entitle him to the Crown grant, subject to the fulfilment of the improvement 52 conditions. The cost of clearing the most heavily timbered of this land will be ^5 per acre. When cleared the land will yield a ton of hay per acre, which during the last three years has been worth £6 or £7 per ton, while the cost of putting in and taking off the crop and chaffing it, with bags included, does not exceed £2 per acre. Next year there will be no clearing to pay for. Compare these figures with the balance-sheet of the agriculturist in other parts of the world. The drawbacks of the York district which weigh against the advantages of soil and situation—lying, as it does, between two markets—are a comparatively light rainfall, and in the long dry summers which prevail, some scarcity of water ; also the presence of poison plants which render it necessary to take precautions against danger to stock. As regards the rainfall, although the district would be a still better one if it were not so dry and had more than one river intersecting it, disastrous drought is unknown at York. The rainfall, albeit the average is several inches short of what could be desired, is well maintained, and the farmers being familiar with local meteorological conditions, adapt their operations and utilise them to the best advantage. Thev plough early, and not a shower is allowed to go to waste. The friable nature of most of the soil of the best wheat areas produces a fine tilth which is favorable to the retention of moisture. There are some very stiff soils to be found, notably blue or grey clayey lands, but these are in such a very small proportion as to be only an exception to the rule. The fact that the government returns show an average of 11 bushels of wheat to the acre may be taken as satisfactory evidence that the district is well suited for the requirements of the agricul- turist. The pastoralist, and the farmer who keeps stock, have two resources against losing their cattle and sheep by poison plants which, to use the common names, may be described as box, York road, and berry poison. It is necessary to fence out the poison, or to employ a shepherd or herdsman to keep the stock awav from the deadly shrubs which grow on all kinds of land, but chielly on white gum forests and on sand plains. In spite of all watchfulness, however, some losses are experienced. The poison plants are most deadly after country has been burned and the tender shoots are sprouting or during the season of blossoming. The poison areas have been made the subject of special legislation, under the provisions of which the Crown grant of infested land is obtainable when it has been cleared of the hurtful vegetation and been proved to be fit to carry stock. If the poison leasehold is fenced within three years, the lessee is granted 18 years longer to get rid of the poison. A great deal of land is held under the Act, but it remains to be seen how much of it will be declared free of poison when the term of the lease expires. West of the Avon, at Helena Yale, poison shrubs grow freely. East of York these pests are far less common. 53 Another minor drawback—for it is the design of this hand- book to state both sides of the case fairly—is the difficulty of getting agricultural laborers at the rate of wages paid for this class of work in other parts of the world. This matter has been brought before the Legislative Assembly upon a resolution which affirmed that it was desirable for the Government to support assisted immigration to encourage the development of the farming industry. It was represented that it was useless to repine at the large sum of money that was sent out of the colony every year to pay for imported food products, while landholders were restricted in their operations by having to give 6s. or 7s. per day to their hands, and were not able to get enough of them even at that price. According to the advocates of the resolution plenty of labor could be got from the rural districts of England if their passages could be paid. Many of the men who were now available had not been brought up to the work, but being " down on their luck" took the employment temporarily till they could get a few pounds, when they left their employer suddenly, perhaps in the midst of harvesting, when they could not be easily replaced. In reply, Sir John Forrest expressed his sympathy with the object of the motion, but he saw two difficulties in the way of achieving it, even if parliament agreed to the system of assisted immigration. In the first place he doubted, from all he had been able to learn on the subject, whether England had any agricultural labor to spare; and even if men were brought to Western Australia the chances were that they would forsake the farms for the better paid service of contractors for public works, or to go to the goldfields, with which alluring tales of lucky finds were associated. So far Western Australia has not adopted a scheme of assisted immigration. It may be of interest to those who are living in what has often been described as the overcrowded old world, to read that the lack of agricultural labor has on two occasions been voiced in influential quarters, in pressing a plea for introducing into the colony a number of the lads who have been cared for in the homes estab- lished bv Dr. Barnardo. The first representation on this subject was made last year by Mr. Cookworthy, the then member for Sussex, who earnestly asked the Legislative Assembly to give to the boys who had been rescued from want the opportunity of pursuing a career of usefulness and good citizenship in a young countrv, where the honest and industrious servant has a good chance of rising in the world. He contended that the proteges of Dr. Barnardo had been well trained in the excellent institution with which that well- known philanthropist has so long been associated, and that it would be estimable to second his efforts by making Western Australia a field of emigrants for a band of young colonists, not onlv in their interests, but also for the behoof of those who were much in want of their services. The advocacy of Mr. Cookworthy was revived at the last annual conference of producers that was held at the 54 chambers of the Bureau of Agriculture, Perth, in April, by the Brunswick Farmers' Club moving that, with a view to providing agriculturists with a suitable class of labor, the Government should facilitate the introduction into the colony of boys from the Bar- nardo homes and similar institutions in England. In discussing the motion, which was carried almost unanimously, several of the delegates spoke highly of the work and conduct of Dr. Barnardo's boys in Canada, and a suggestion was made that the proposal sub- mitted to the conference might be improved upon by providing for the immigration of girls as well as boys. The subject is introduced here to show that able-bodied workers need not fear that they will fail to obtain employment at good wages, and also to disclose one of the difficulties which the settler has to face in not always being able to get enough assistance at the outset for the clearing of land to quickly get a very remunerative area under crop. The policy of the Government to assist the producer is ex- hibited in the construction of the York-Greenhills line. This rail- way is the first agricultural line which the colony has made out of revenue. In moving in the Legislative Assembly, on the 16th October last, the second reading of the bill authorising the making of the line, the Premier, Sir John Forrest, said the railway would pass through good country, the praises of which had been sung by members of that House for years. It was a favored spot, from which proprietary farmers produced a large quantity of cereals. '' I do not," he went on to say, " think that anyone who takes any interest in the agriculture of the colony, and who desires to see it encouraged in every possible way that it is possible to do so, will be able to oppose the railway on the ground that it is not required. The ob- jects the Government have in view in recommending hon. members to build this line at the present time from York to Greenhills, is to give facilities to agricultural producers in that part of the country; we have no other object in view." The line is estimated to cost ,£40,000, without rolling stock. It was not undertaken by the go- vernment, as Sir John Forrest owned in making his financial state- ment on the 27th August last, without careful consideration and a personal inspection of the neighborhood. The ministerial party in making that inspection had occasion to express great regret that a large portion of the land lying between York and Greenhills is com- prised in large privately owned estates, which are only used for grazing purposes. These estates were regarded by the Pre- mier as an obstacle in the way of the close settlement and extensive cultivation that are essential to the mak- ing of a great agricultural district. In his financial statement, speaking of the line, he said :—" We know very well that this is an agricultural railway, and that new railways have to be viewed with very great care if there is nothing else but agriculture to depend upon for traffic. We know very well that unless the land is thickly settled and a large quantity is under cultivation, the chances 55 are that an agricultural railway will not pay. Still, after having visited the locality, and having the benefit of the experience of per- sons who are conversant with the place, we think we will not be going very far wrong in asking this House to appro%e of this rail- way being built out of current revenue." In other words, reading between the lines, the Premier might have said :—There is land along the route that is highly suitable for the farmer, although the farmer has not, so far, been able to get possession of it. But the Government has obtained power from Parliament to buy this land, and may do so. There are also many settlers outside the large private estates who, as large and enterprising producers, are deserv- ing of railway communication. Moreover, beyond Greenhills there is a first class unalienated territory that is now beyond the reach of settlers because it is so isolated from a market. Hence there are great possibilities before the district, and it is the duty of the Government, which is the farmer's friend, to carry out the work. The estates retarding close settlement — which is the Premier's agrarian ideal—in the neighbourhood of York, comprise some of the earliest grants from the Crown. When the colony was founded immigration was encouraged by gifts of land, pro rata, upon the value of the stock, assets or capital which a pioneer brought with him to Western Australia. These lands were naturally chosen by the beneficiaries for their quality, and to-day are very valuable. Some of the old families, such as those of Parker and Burgess, crop hundreds of acres every year, and are always enlarging their clearings; others are content with fencing, ringbarking and grazing. The estates through which Sir John Forrest travelled en route to Greenhills, were those of Messrs. Hardey Bros, and Messrs. Dalgety and Co. They consist for the most part of salmon gum, morrell, and jam country, and are enviously regarded by those who are look- ing for a location to settle upon, especially as they are almost adjoining the townsite of York. The Premier when he passed through them did not hesitate to express the opinion that the land was not being turned to the best account—that, in fact, it ought to feed people in- stead of sheep and cattle, and the day is looked forward to when the Crown, by purchase, will be able to open the ground to the entry of the producer. It is well known that a number of offers have been made by land owners to sell their properties to the state under the power conferred by the Agricultural Lands' Purchase Act, and by the time these lines are read in other parts of the world, the Government may be able to announce that some of "the eyes of the country," which have hitherto been inaccessible, are awaiting the cultivator. One beneficial result of the scarcity of land available near York is that what used to be regarded as inferior paddocks are being cleared and cropped, and the owners declare themselves well satisfied with the return they are getting from the experiment. It is admitted that the country is patchy—first and second class land being interspersed—and that the second class predominates in the 56 ratio of two acres to one of the superior blocks. In other words it is the exception to find from 200 to 500 acres of uniform quality. The rule is that in taking up, say, 500 acres, the larger portion of it will be good grazing country, with enough forest country—that is growing salmon and morrell gums on a rich deep chocolate or blue soil—to give the grower as much or more ground than he can work, and a substantial income. The dairying industry may be said to be unknown at York, although it is one that the tariff encourages by imposing a duty of twopence per pound on imported butter. The modern dairy, with its system of artificial feeding of cows, and the making of butter with refrigerating and other appliances, would be the only one that would be possible for the greater part of the year, but while hay sells for £7 per ton no one thinks of making ensilage or growing lucerne for the purpose of getting cream. The marvellous progress of the dairying industry in the other colonies has served to retard it in Western Australia, which, for the greater part, is content to use the factory brands of butter sent from the eastern colonies. Around York the presence of the poison plants, the long dry summer, and the strong demand for chaff, all check the establishment of dairies, and the facts are mentioned here in order that this book may be a Settler's Guide in the fullest sense of the word. Another draw- back is that owing to the precautions which the Government has deemed to be necessary to prevent the introduction into the herds of the colony of the destructive Queensland tick, a quarantine embargo of a month's duration has been placed on imported dairy stock. This practically amounts to prohibition, except in the case of pure bred stud animals, and without large drafts of dairy cows from the east, dairying will not be able to make a fair commence- ment in the west. Leaving dairying on a large scale out of the question as one of the prospects of the York district, it can be said that it excels as a place for the fruitgrower. It has thousands of acres that are better suited for the production of nearly all kinds of fruits than for the growth of cereals or hay. Take the slopes of the Avon for example, where all the conditions of deep rich land, drainage, aspect and climate, combine to bring apples, apricots, peaches, oranges, and lemons to perfection. Then in the ironstone gravel country, where the jarrah grows, west of the Avon, the vine flourishes, and the grapes make "high-class wine; clean to the taste, rich in color, and of pleasant boquet." The loose formation of these areas, mixed as the gravel is with loam, not only allows surplus water to freely percolate through the soil, but also permits the roots of the vines to go deep for nourishment. The appearance of the land, and the heavy cost of clearing, are not prepossessing, but it has been found that the vineyards planted in such situations amply repay the money and the attention bestowed upon them. So far very little of the land that offers such advantages has been planted 57 with fruit trees or vines, notwithstanding that there are four special inducements to embark in this enterprise :—1. That the local market, owing to the population of Western Australia having quadrupled during the last seven years, is insufficiently supplied with fruit, which is in especial demand on the semi-tropical gold- fields. 2. That prices are very remunerative—grapes selling retail at sixpence to eightpence per lb.; oranges, from is. to 3s. per dozen; and apples at is. per lb. 3. That Western Australia is from four to nine days' sail nearer the London market—which Aus- tralian consignments reach at the dear time of the year—than the other colonies, viz., South Australia, Victoria, Queensland, New South Wales, and Tasmania. 4. That owing to the codlin moth being found in the other colonies, Western Australia prohibits the importation of apples. The raising of poultry receives some attention in the York district. Nearly every farmer sends some birds to market every year, but there are no poultry farms on the large and organised scale adopted in England and France. Around York the birds are kept in a semi-wild state, having the run of the fields, and requiring little shelter in so mild a climate. Nor are fashionable strains, either for the table or laying qualities, much sought after. It is the common barn-door bird that is chiefly relied upon; it is hardy, gives little trouble, is a fairly prolific egg-producer, and can always be sold at from 5s. to 6s. 6d. per couple. The goldfields' hotels are constant customers for all the poultrv, including ducks and turkeys, which ate not largely kept, that the farming population can supply, while there is never a glut in the poultry markets of Perth and Fremantle. The birds are profitable to those who rear them, because to a large extent they find their own food, having a great range of run and the ground never being heavily stocked. It is be- lieved that the high price of grain would prevent the keeping of poultry in confmement at a profit. For this reason the rule is to send the birds away without fattening them in pens. This process is almost unknown anywhere in the colony, where the poultry served at table are, as a rule, somewhat spare, but, owing to the healthful conditions under which the birds are reared and the variety of their food on the farms, the dish is of excellent flavor and very wholesome. 'In the territory of which we are writing the value of bees is almost entirely overlooked, as there is only one apiarist there. He has 80 hives at a place about 17 miles west of York, and he has only recently started bee-keeping. His neighbors are watching the result of his experiment with some interest, to see whether bees will do as well in the east as they do in the south of Western Australia. So far the apiarist is able to make an encouraging report, although he will not be able to form definite conclusions until he has had the experience of another season or two. Along the coast line, that is to say within 30 miles of the sea, in the south-west, bees 58 have been kept with a surprising degree of success. As will be seen by the student of the report of the late Baron von Mueller, which appears in another chapter of this work, Western Australia is marvellously rich in both the variety and the number of her wild flowers, which, in the spring season, make even the roughest scrub paddocks at a httle distance resemble a conservatory, and supply beautiful displays at the competitive shows which are held through- out the season in the chief centres. The flowers must be rich in saccharine juices, for the swarms of wild bees are able to lay up in the hollow trunks of trees large stores of honey, which become the prize of the splitter or the settler. The honey has a peculiarly piquant and agreeable taste, but, unfortunatelv, a great deal of it is wasted by the falling of the tree containing it, which breaks up the comb and drives into the honey the dust and the splinters of the cavity. Finding from the teachings of nature that the colony is admirably adapted to the bee, many settlers in the south have es- tablished hives with swarms of what have been wild bees, and have improved the stock by sending abroad for Italian and other queens. In two instances within the personal knowledge of the writer the bees have thriven so well and proved to be so prolific that the household expenses of the family are paid out of the profits of about 10o hives, and the income derived from the farm is devoted to the purchase of plant and the clearing of more land. What has been done in the south may be accomplished in the east, especially by immigrants who bring with them from other countries a knowledge of the proper system of bee-keeping, which the men referred to in the foregoing did not possess. Thev were in the early stages of their experience as apiarists indebted to Mr. R. Helms, the biologist of the Bureau of Agriculture, for the instruction which, aided by their own studv and observation, has enabled them to obtain a material addition to the earnings of their properties. Among the minor foes of settlement about York and Beverley the native vermin, both fur and feathered, have to be reckoned. The dingo, or wild dog of Australia, which would be mistaken for a fox if it were seen in an English county, is a great enemv to sheep, and among an unprotected flock is a terrible butcher. The dog will often worry as many as twenty sheep before feeding on one, and he is ruthlessly pursued by trap and poison, and sometimes run down by a well mounted stockman. The Government gives a reward of 10s. per head for each wild dog's scalp that is produced to the resident magistrate of the district. The Producers' conference has on two occasions voted this reward to be insufficient to lead to the extirpation of the dogs. A sheep owner will lay baits of meat or fat poisoned with strvchnine, or occasionally set a trap if he finds that a dingo has been harrying his stock, but the dogs are allowed to breed in their fastnesses in the back country almost undisturbed. The delegates at the conference were of opinion that the reward should be raised to £1 per scalp 59 in order to induce parties of professional dingo huntsmen to be organised to carry on the work of extermination. They were so impressed with the mischief and losses that are occasioned by the ravages ot the dingo and other vermin that it was resolved that subject to the exercise of local option as to whether any district should join in the movement, the residents of any vermin infested territory should, in the form of a rate, subscribe pound for pound of the amount granted by the Government, to increase the bonuses for scalps. The wild dog is said to be increasing in the eastern districts, but it is not so numerous as to demand the folding of sheep at night, as is the case in some places further south. The eaglehawk, for whose head and claws a bonus of 2s. per bird is paid, is the cause of the loss of many a lamb; but at other periods of the year, after the lambing season, this species of vulture lives on the smaller ground vermin of the marsupial tribe which do damage in crops, orchards and vegetable gardens, and for this reason the eaglehawk is not without friends who deprecate the payment of a reward for its des- truction. A bonus is also proposed to be given for the killing of opossums, boodie rats, parrots and silvereyes, chiefly in the interests of the fruitgrower. It may be added that the conference affirmed that it was not desirable to afford any protection to the kangaroos, which in some parts of the colony, particularly between Perth and Bunbury, are greedy among the crops. A new arrival will note with satisfaction the absence of inroads upon his income in the form of the various municipal and other taxes that are generally levied in older communities. On an agri- cultural area there are no tithes to pay of any kind, except it may be a fee of 5s. per wheel of the vehicles employed on the farm, which sums form the nucleus of the revenue of the local roads' board. In municipalities rates are struck, but the Government comes to the aid of the resident in a new district by donating, under the authority of a vote of Parliament, liberal subsidies for the construction of roads. These subsidies amount to ,£300 or ,£400 per annum. There is also given, when good reason is shown, a special grant which, in the case of the goldnelds Roads' boards, has amounted to very large sums, in addition to which, all large public works, such as the bridging of rivers or the making of roads, are put upon the estimates, and, on being passed, are carried out by and at the cost of the Public Works department, which employs a very large staff of architects, inspectors and clerks. For the financial year ending 30th June, 1897, the item on the estimates for roads and bridges amounted to .£168,700. The total vote granted to the Works and Railways departments was ;£ 1,447,114, being an increase on the vote of the previous year for these departments of ;654i>745- A visit to the York and Beverley districts affords convincing proof that, in spite of any untoward circumstances arising from a 6o light rainfall, the existence of poison plants, and large private estates that are being used solely for grazing, the Avon district—within which York and Beverley and their surroundings are included—is in a highly prosperous condition, from the agriculturist's point of view. In all directions wheat fields are being reclaimed from the forests; the trees are being grubbed and burned ; every grower, whether large or small, is extending his operations; new and improved machinery is being purchased, and large sums of money are going into the pockets of local producers, instead of being sent to other colonies for food supplies. And yet only a beginning has been made; the traveller can ride for miles through country as good as that from which heavy harvests are being reaped, but upon which nothing but ringbarking has been done. It is the aim of the Government and of all friends of Western Australia to settle these lands, to burst up large squattages; not by spoliation in the form of a penal land tax such as has been resorted to in other places that could be named, but by the making of an unconstrained bargain with the owner. They want to see the colony freed from the reproach which is often unjustly levelled by its detractors, that Western Australia is unable to grow sufficient wheat to feed the people. It is true that wheat is not largely grown, but that does not imply that it cannot be largely grown. The upspringing of the colony into a great and prosperous country has occurred so suddenly; fleets of steamers from all parts of the world, but chiefly from the sister colonies, have been disembarking so many thousands of emigrants upon Western Australia's shores every year since 1892, that there has not been time to cater for their wants. As Sir John Forrest said, in declaring the policy of the Government on the approach of the general election which took place in June last, the colony is more than capable of doing that, and it would be done even if the Government had,for lack of a sufficient number of yoeman, to clear land and turn farmers themselves. To anyone who has watched the progress of the farming in- dustry in the Avon district nothing is more gratifying than to note the modern methods that have come in vogue. Until gold was discovered at Yilgarn, husbandry was for the most part conducted on a primitive scale ; single furrowed ploughs were in general use, a seed sower was unknown, and a steam chaffcutting plant quite a rarity. Now two or three furrow ploughs are always employed; there are seedsowers, reapers and binders, and all the hay is chaffed by steam. The railway trucks are gay with the brightly painted devices on the implements of standard makers travelling to the homesteads of men who are earnest in their endeavour to grasp the advantages they enjoy and economise costly manual labor in in- creasing the output of their holdings. The Government, determined that the producers' tools of trade should go untaxed, has during the two sessions carried proposals for the remission of duty upon fenc- ing wire, galvanised iron wire, and other material which is used by 6i the man who is making a home upon the soil, and also for admitting all machinerv free at the Customs house. The onlv agricultural area that, at the time of writing, is open in the York district, is that at Caljie, containing 12,500 acres, which have been available since December, 1892. The south-west corner of the Caljie area is only about five miles from York. Most of the land is li^'ht. sandy, and inferior, and should be taken up in blocks of not less than 1,000 acres, as the larger proportion of it is only fit for grazing. It would cost about .£3 per acre to clear the land. Now that the Greenhills line is about to be made, an agricultural area is being surveyed beyond the terminus of the line which will tap a large tract of fertile country. No heavier crops are grown in the colony than those at Greenhills, and settlement beyond Greenhills has hitherto only been retarded bv the long distance that produce would have had to be carted to York, the nearest railway station. The line will start about six miles south of York, and will be about 18 miles long. Tenders for its construction are now (June, 1897) being called for, and it is hoped that the rails will be laid in time to carry this season's harvest. What has been written of the country around York largely applies to the adjoining Beverley district, which is nearer the port of Albany. The Great Southern line, after being made by a private company on the land grant system between Albany and Beverley wai, in 1896, (with the sanction of parliament) purchased by the Government, together with the land grants appertaining to it. Those settlers who had obtained holdings from the company have been placed on the same footing as conditional purchasers from the Crown. Beverley is an important farming and grazing district. The Beverley agricultural area, containing 35,000 acres, lies along the Great Southern railway and fronts the Dale river, and was thrown open for selection in September, 1893; it contains some good land timbered with York gum and jam trees, but the greater portion of the area is a lighter qualitv of soil, and a large portion of it is still available for selection. The clearing of the forest country in this locality is estimated to cost from £3 to £4 per acre. The contiguity of the area to the railway line, and the comparatively large holdings that could be secured for mixed farming purposes, are in favour of this localitv. The area is 103 miles from Perth, 238 miles from Albany, and five miles from the town of Beverley. CHAPTER III. NORTHAM, MECKERING, AND GOOMALLINQ DISTRICTS. Northam, which, like York, Beverley and Newcastle, stands in the fertile valley of the Avon, is whnt Sir John Forrest has aptly described as " the gateway to the goldfields." It is surrounded by large estates which are gradually being turned into wheat fields. The sheep runs are amongst the best in the colony. The discovery of the Yilgarn goldfield made a great change in the history and de- velopment of Northam. It gave the town a railway, first to Southern Cross and afterwards into the heart of the auriferous country as far as Menzies, and it added a new corn-growing pro- vince to the colony. Beyond Northam lay 100 miles of country which had been deemed valueless for the farmer ; much of it w;as grassless salmon gum country, and the rainfall was light ; there were sheep raisers but no cultivators there. The peopling of Yilgarn when the prospector unearthed its treasure, caused attention to be turned to the unpromising areas of the east. There was a great market for produce close by, if produce could be grown. More- over, there was no other Crown land near Northam that could ful- fil the boast of the Premier that "every man who lands on the shores of Western Australia knows there is a block of 160 acres of land available for him ; that there is also financial assistance to settle on the land, and that he may obtain the lands at 10s. per acre." All along the valley of the Avon the territory had been alienated years ago by men who were bringing the organisation of capital and skill to utilise them to the best advantage. If new comers were to avail themselves of the beneficent legislation of the colony to secure a homestead and help to build up the national wealth by adding to its productiveness, they must test the arid tracts which for half a century had been neglected. The experi- ment was worth making, for here, if corn would grow, was ample room and scope enough for an army of yeoman who would be nearer the consumers than the producers of other districts, and therefore they could afford to obtain a lower yield per acre than the moister districts and yet turn their holdings to good account. The test was made, and with the most successful results. As in the case of the despised mallee of Victoria and South Australia, what 63 had appeared to be almost a desert proved to be splendid arable land when it was treated under conditions adapted to its peculiar situation and requirements. The Lands department saw its op- portunity; it cut up the Meckering agricultural area a few miles east of Northam, and when that subdivision was rapidly taken up others followed, and the work of settlement has within the last two or three years been proceeding with great rapidity. Tammin, Doodlakine, and Bainding areas were thrown open, and in spite of a very dry season, almost approaching to drought in 1894, the experiences of the settlers have been most propitious. Their crops have never failed, and men who went on the land, in some cases with very small means, or with the assistance of the Land bank, are to-dav letting contracts for clear- ing, buying additional horses and machinery, and employing labor. It is calculated that there is a profit each season of ^5 upon every acre cultivated, and unless exceptionally severe years should be experienced, what we have called the new wheat-growing province of Western Australia is likely to steadily grow in size and pro- ductiveness. From every point of view these newly-occupied agricultural areas are deserving of detailed notice in this Settler's Guide. In the first place, there is plenty of land awaiting settle- ment there, which cannot be said of every district ; moreover, the land, or the best of it, cannot be excelled for the growth of wheat, and the holdings are easily cleared. The limited rainfall is com- pensated for, as far as possible, by summer ploughing and early sowing; while the Public Works department on behalf of the Government is giving much attention to the conservation of water. These and other surroundings peculiar to farming in the far east are deserving of review. The Meckering agricultural area commences 20 miles to the eastward of Northam, which is an important and flourishing town, near Clackline, the junction whence the Yilgarn line branches from the Eastern railway. The area contains 80,760 acres, and sixteen blocks were set apart as free homestead farms under the Home- steads Act, 1893, the remainder of the land being made available for conditional purchase. The blocks average about 150 acres, but it is competent for any selector to take up several of them, amounting in all to not more than 1,000 acres. The area is officially described as chiefly York gum, salmon gum, and jam country; soil, loam, with clay sub-soil. Water is frequently found at a depth of about 20 feet; ring-barking and clearmg greatly increases the supply. Nearly all the settlers have blocks of several hundreds of acres, and keep some stock. The Tammin agricultural area was gazetted open for selection in September, 1894. It is beyond Meckering, 50 miles east of Northam, and 117 miles from Perth, and is intersected by the Northam-Yilgarn railway. The survey includes 45,000 acres. It is heavily timbered forest country, the soil being a rich deep loam, 64 growing salmon gum, gimlet wood, and morrell gums, which it costs .£5 per acre to clear. Water has to be obtained from tanks or wells. The Doodlekine area is next passed through on the road to Coolgardie. This area w^as opened for selection in December, 1892, and comprises 40,000 acres about 75 miles from Northam, 142 miles from Perth, and is bounded on one side by the railway to Southern Cross. Here sand patches intersect the forest country. About 15 miles further on is the Bainding area, which has been available since December, 1894, and contains 55,000 acres, a larger proportion of which are of the esteemed forest country than is to be found on the Tamin and Doodlekine areas. In all these areas the one drawback is the small rainfall, which steadily diminishes the further east the settler goes. Some statistics may be given to enable the reader to judge of the extent to which the district is threatened with drought, which is occasionally relieved by the occurence of a thunderstorm which does not pass over the moun- tain ranges to the coast. Starting from 1888 the reports of the Government Astronomer show that this would have been an excellent season for wheat growing, as 100 miles beyond Northam rain amounting in all to about 14 inches fell regularly every month from March to September. The following year was also a good one, so excellent, in fact, that wheat and hay could have been harvested at Southern Cross where, so far, a seed furrow has never been cut. There was also a sufficient rainfall in 1890, but a check occurred in 1891, when the record at Southern Cross was only 5.20 and at Mooranoppin, near Doodlekine, 8.41. In 1891 there was more rain along the Yilgarn railway than in the Avon valley, the records being respectively, Northam 14 43, and Southern Cross 15"10, which was visited by some heavy local thunderstorms. During five weeks from April 17 to May 21, frosts prevailed at Mooranoppin. The 1893 season was the best of which any records have been kept, Mooranoppin registering 14'Qi, and Southern Cross 1397, while portions of the Avon Valley were flooded. Quellquelling, Meckering, and Greenhills yielded in some paddocks as much as 40 bushels to the acre. The next season was the driest that has been known. Southern Cross getting only 5-11 inches of rain, and Mooranoppin 10-28 inches. But even in that year early sown crops in the east would probably have been worth reaping. Some instructive evidence comes from Victoria as to the prospect of establishing permanently prosperous wheat-growing centres in the eastern agricultural areas of Western Australia, having regard to the occurrence of such unfavorable seasons as that of 1894, which did not furnish any guide, because at that time culti- vation had not been begun any distance eastward of Northam. Comparisons can to some extent be made with the results achieved in Victoria during 1896, in that year of drought in the mallee country, which corresponds to the eastern forest lands of 1 I 65 Western Australia. The Australasian says :—" An illustration of the great benefit of good cultivation, combined with early sowing, in a very bad season, is furnished this year by Mr. Alexander B. Cobham's farm at Pine Hills, Waitchie. The crop consists of 40 acres of wheat which has a luxuriance of growth that would be remarkable in an ordinary season, but is something extraordinary in the present drought." Mr. Cobham says :—' The crop was sown the third week in March, but no rain fell till April. The rainfall with which it has grown is as follows:—April, 0.58 inches; May, 1.06 inches; June, 0.81 inches; July, 0.21 inches; August, 0.95 inches; September, 1.58 inches; October, (1 to 18), 0.10 inches; total, 5.38 inches. This crop has therefore being grown with less than 5! inches of rain, and has been subject to particularly trying weather, hot winds, for several weeks past, having been prevalent. We intend starting cutting the crop for hay to-morrow. We shall sell the crop as chaff, and expect to make a profit (that is after deducting the cost of seed and all labor) of about £5 per acre. This should satisfy anyone that there is money to be made in the mallee, even in a dry season. The rainfall of the year to date (18th October) amounts to 7.45 inches. The average rainfall of the district is over 13 inches, and it mostly falls before the end of October.' Some samples of this crop have been kindly sent us by the Rev. Mr. Patterson, to whom the letter from which we have quoted was sent. The wheat is remarkably well grown and is fully 4 feet 6 inches high. A single plant has sent up 118 stalks, each of which carries a head, save one, and the exception has a head just coming out. With the wheat plants is a sample of Cape barley, grown on the same farm. It is three feet high and remarkably well headed. On first looking at these samples their strong healthy growth gives one the impression that they are from irrigated land." The point of this extract is that it goes to show that crops can be grown, with careful and early cultivation, with less than the rain- fall which is generally considered essential to their success, and also that the eastern farming districts of this colony have not yet experienced anything like so dry a year as that which has been known in the mallee. The only month during which in 1894 the rainfall at Doodelkine did not greatly exceed that which produced Mr. Cobham's heavy yield at Waitchie, was September, when the returns respectively were :—1.59; Doodlekine .59; but an earlier sown crop at Doodlekine would have been already ripening in September, and therefore almost independent of rain. Rain came very late in 1895. Early sowing proved to be of special value, but new ground could not be broken up in time to sow early, so that only fallowed land yielded well. The returns show Mooranoppin, 9.60; Southern Cross, 542. 1896 was a good season for early crops, heavy rain falling in March. Self-sown wheat, with the benefit of these showers, was wonderfully good, 66 while crops that were put in early in March gave an abundant harvest. Mooranoppin had 13.98 inches, and Southern Cross 9.00. "A careful study of the above records (writes the special correspondent of the West Australian, after a tour through the new eastern wheat-growing agricultural areas lying between Northam and Southern Cross), seems to warrant the following deductions :— (1) That the most vital point in successful cultivation is early sowing. If summer ploughing is impossible, there only remains for the farmer to fallow during the spring, and sow not later than March and April—the former for preference. (2) That a light rainfall, evenly distributed, is much more favourable to wheat growing than a heavier rainfall unevenly distributed. (3) That in dry seasons the rainfall out east perceptibly diminishes every ten miles. During such seasons success is possible only by early sowing—say in Feb- ruary—good seed and careful cultivation. (4) That, according to the Australasian record of successful wheat growing at Waitchie, the foregoing rainfall statistics show that out as far as 100 miles east of the Avon Valley, wheat cultivation should be successful even in our worst years. (5) That from 1887 to 1896, the rainfall statistics show the climate of the Avon valley and district to be admirably adapted for wheat cultivation. During none of the years within this period has the rainfall been so small as to cause a failure of the crops, except where late so ving was practised. (6) That in manv vears the ground during July, August and September, becomes flooded, and growing crops destroyed on the low-lying flats. For this reason a system of surface drainage is necessary. (7) That the rainfall regis- tered in spots close to prominent hills is above the average for the locality. Thus the rainfall for York is above the average for the district ; and similarily Mooranoppin, which is located close under a high rock, is higher than Kellerberrin, situated more in the open. (8) That early sowing is only possible where a farmer has his own teams—the system of ploughing and seeding by contract invariably means late sowing and frequent failure." The meteorological reports go to show that the limit of safe cultivation is 100 miles east of the Avon valley, a point that is marked by the Merredin peak, a vast granite rock which the railway department utilise as a catchment area. A dam has been constructed at the base of the peak to catch all the rain that falls upon the rock. The country near the peak varies from sandy stretches to the stiff red ground of strips of forest. The simile of a traveller is that the forest is interspersed with sand plains in the shape of the fingers of a hand. Where the country is so unequal the selector should endeavor to name his own boundaries. It is estimated that there are 25,000 acres of eligible forest land between Mcrriden and Hine's Hill and adjacent to the Yilgarn railway. The Bainding agricultural area intersects this forest. The area runs to within two miles of Hine's Hill railway station, and it 67 is mostly first-class land. Close to a market and the railway, easily cleared and cultivated, it is alone deficient in water supply. A settler on the area says that the only way to get water is to camp close to a large granite rock and to build a tank at its base ; but this would leave stock without a supply and it is highly desirable for the settler to keep sheep. It is expected that the ringbarking of the land will provide water. It has done so in other parts of the colony, but about two years have to elapse before the trees are all dead and water makes its appearance. Meanwhile the buying of stock could be deferred and reliance placed upon cultivation. The cost. of ringbarking is handsomely repaid by increasing the feeding capacity of country and cheapening the cost of clearing. In the future the scheme of carrying water to the Coolgardie goldfields, which-has received the sanction of Parliament, may assist the settlers en route. "There is an excellent indicator," writes the special correspon- dent whom we have previously quoted in this chapter, "of the class of soil through which the Yilgarn railway passes, and that is the side of the permanent way. Thousands of bags of wheat, oats, and barley are yearly transported by the railway to the goldfields. The oscillation of the train shakes a small proportion of the seeds on to the railway line. This is well worked by the permanent way men and so becomes a perfect bed. The seed is in position for the first rains and has all those conditions that I referred to at the commence- ment of this article for the successful growth of cereals. It thus becomes instructive to watch the various portions of the railway line to see how the plants thrive. ... All along the railway line right to past Merriden the wheat seeds stooled out into beautiful plants, on which ripened many ears of fine corn. Many experienced farmers have been struck by this circum- stance, and have all said that what could be done on the railway line could be done elsewhere in the same locality in the same soil ; and when men of experience and judgment say these things, it is very evident, that, given a good water supply, our eastern forest lands will be to this colony what the mallee lands have become to Victoria and South Australia. It may here be remarked that it has only been by the cultivation of their dry areas, as wheat fields, that these two colonies have been able to supply the needs of their own population. Take away the mallee country from Victoria, and the northern area from South Australia, and these colonies at once drop from wheat-exporting colonies to wheat-importing colonies. For this reason I have placed so much stress on the forest land of our eastern districts. Our great want as a nation is to produce our own breadstuffs. I believe that the cultivation of these forests will settle the problem." It is related that in one paddock in the district under notice a thunderstorm in January germinated some wheat that had fallen to the ground while reaping was going on, and the plants grew vigorously, in spite of the time being midsummer, until the autumn 68 rains fell. Last year a somewhat similar experience, we are told, happened to Mr. Packham, of Doongin, in the Tammin agricultural area, whose self-sown wheat plants stooled out so freely that one of them covered as much ground as half a dozen of those which were sown in the ordinary course. Mr. Packham's experience seems to bear out the experiments of the director of the Wagga state experimental farm in New South Wales, who sowed wheat at the rate of 4 lbs. to the acre, and obtained from 28 to 30 bushels to the acre, the conclusion arrived at being that light early seeding is much more productive than heavier sowings at a later time. "It is imperative that early sowing be practised in these eastern areas. Without it the selector may have keen disappointment in his crops. September and October are not reliable months for rain, real summer weather sometimes being experienced during them. It therefore naturally follows that the wheat plant, if possible, should be so well grown by September that the occurrence of a hot spell will not damage it." A beginning has been made in summer ploughing. The loamy soil from which the salmon gums and gimlet wood trees have been cleared is sufficiently friable to allow of the work being satisfactorily done. It is important to remember that it is land of this class that is offered to the man who desires to become a cultivator. The Crown Lands department is careful to pick out the choicest parts of the country that remain in its hands, to encourage settlement, and the new comer is invited to become the owner of the most eligible lots which, from personal inspection, shall commend themselves to his judgment. It is a great testimony in favor of the eastern territory that for the most part pastoral lessees who have their sheep runs there are a prosperous class, and there has been only one notable case of failure among them. In this instance the failure is ascribed to the paddocks being too large, so that the fences enclosed inferior and poison land. One great measure of relief from the water difficulty is being carried out by the Railway department, which, having found the water of the Bulong pool to be so highly mineralised as to be injurious to the boilers of their engines, has resolved upon undertaking a large and costly scheme of conservation. The rocks within three miles of the line are being surveyed to ascertain the rainfall catchment area, and tanks are to be made to act as reservoirs, which, it is expected, will have some water to spare for settlers, who will only be asked to pay 2s. per 1,000 gallons. These tank sites have been chosen at Grass Valley and Meckering, while a dam has already been provided at Cunderdin, having 35 miies of drains; it cost £7,500 and it has a holding capacity of 12,000,000 gallons. Another one has been con- structed at Merriden peak. The base of the peak and of the Cunderdin rocks is encircled with cement channels, and in the latter case a tunnel half a mile long is cut through the rock. A dam of 60,000,000 gallons capacity is being made at Tammin at an outlay of £ 11,000. There is also one which holds 3,750,000 gallons at Keller- 69 berrin, and in this locality a second, to contain 20,000,000 gallons, is being surveyed about three miles north of the station. Merriden dam, which stores 8,000,000 gallons, cost ^8,000. Another important factor in the success of the settler in the east is that, when water is supplied, he will be able to get, in addition to some hundreds of acres of superior forest country for cultivation at 6d. per acre per annum (which, in 20 years, amounts to the purchase money of the block), a homestead leasehold for grazing purposes of 5,000 acres (or less) of third-class land at a rental of id. per acre for 15 years, and 2d. per acre for an addi- tional 15 years. Enormous areas, on which coarse but nourishing shrubs grow, have been locked up for lack of watering places, which, to a large extent, are being supplied in meeting the require- ments of the Railway department. These are very pressing, owing to the enormous development of the goldfields traffic that is expected to lead to the duplication of the line at no distant date. Plans may be obtained at the Perth Lands office, showing approxi- mately, by means of both colours and surveyors' notes, the value of the different portions of a district and also all the mountains, rivers, watercourses, soaks and dams, together with a scale showing the distance of the various blocks from a railway line. The notes tell a plain, unvarnished tale, and the words " poison," "sand plain," "thick scrub," arrest the attention of the reader as boldly as " rich black (or chocolate) soil," "well-grassed land," "good forest," or "permanent water." Sheep can be very cheaply worked, as native shepherds are obtainable. The blacks are voluntarily assigned to those who employ them, and give their services for clothes, main- tenance and tobacco. A great deal has been written of the alleged illtreatment of the aboriginal servants by their employers, but on investigation it will be found that these tales emanate from new arrivals in the colony, who make a visit to the north, and are unfamiliar with the habits of the natives and the conditions which govern their intercourse with the whites. This is not a fitting place in which to enter into the merits of the controversy on the subject of the protection and care of the blacks, which has formed the theme of voluminous correspondence between the Premier and the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and of ani- mated debates in the houses of the legislature ; but it may be pointed out that if no other motive than that of self-interest operated to en- sure that the natives are properly treated by those who engage them, this incentive would be a very strong one. The natives are very useful, and possess a special skill as trackers and bushmen, which makes their services well worth retaining; while, on the other hand, if these retainers were dissatisfied with their servitude, there would be nothing to prevent the children of the bush from changing their environment in the summary fashion of the tribes who wandered all over their respective districts and lived by hunt- ing before colonisation by the whites took place. 7o In so warm a climate as that of the east, it is satisfactory to know that fruit trees and vines and vegetables can be grown in abundance, if some discretion is shown in choosing the site for the orchard and garden and homestead near one of the large granite rocks, which always denote the presence of water at a very shallow depth. Another recommendation, that many people will regard as of the first. importance, is the healthfulness ot these dry table lands. A spare, wiry frame and longevity would appear to be the characteristics of the older settlers. During the greater portion of the year the heat is intense in the day- time, bat as soon as the sun sets the air becomes cool and bracing, allowing of sound, refreshing sleep. The ill humors of a dyspeptic who could do a day's harvesting in the temperature of a Turkish bath would indeed entitle him to sympathy. To judge from the appearance and the endurance of some of the stalwart younger generation, a sanatorium established anywhere between Meckering and Southern Cross for asthmatic or consumptive patients would soon acquire a great reputation for its efficacy. What has been written of the neglect of the salmon gum country in the York district applies with full force to the growers of Yilgarn, who were grossly deceived by appearances. Because the land did not grow anything except this species of eucalyptus it was considered to be barren, and it was only by an accident that its fertility was disclosed. When the route of the Yilg irn railway was cleared, the places where the trees had been threw up grass so thickly that it could not fail to attract attention. Then a patch or two of the forest was cleared to see whether it would produce wheat, and men who had been on the land for twenty years had to confess themselves astonished at the crop. A typical case is that of the Sewell's at Chureening, to the south of the railway, near Tammin. They had been cultivating the lighter jam tree soil, and four years ago they were induced to clear 12 acres of salmon gums, which for about 25 years had lain idly in their possession. The harvest was such an eye-opener that they have selected a large block in the Tammin agricultural area, and are getting it ready for cultivation. Nor is it only the local settler who has become a convert to the richness of the timbered tracts for cereals. A large slice of this territory has been acquired by an English syndicate, of whom Mr. Lowles, M.P., is a member. This gentleman recently visited the colony, and made a tour through the goldfields of Coolgardie and the surrounding centres. En route he inspected the Crown lamis between Northam and Southern Cross, and was so impressed with their value that he took up an extensive location, of which 1,000 acres have already been got ready for ploughing. The syndicate have this season a large area under crop. The manager of the Land bank, Mr. William Paterson, whose judgment may be relied upon, for he is a large grower near the South-western line, recently saw the Tammin agricultural area, of 7i which he highly approved. "What could not be done with this land with the rainfall of the south-west?" was his observation when he was given an opportunity of examining it. It has been so conclusively proved that the forest soil is superior to the jam country for farming purposes, that the latter should be set apart by the selector for fruit growing, for which it will be admirably adapted. There is a great deal of valuable land in the eastern areas that has not yet been surveyed by the Lands department, and about which, therefore, less is known than Tammin, Meckering, Doodlekine, and Bainding. On these areas settlement is proceeding so rapidly that in a year or two the " eyes" of them will have been picked out, and it will be necessarv for the seeker for an eligible homestead to go a little farther afield and inspect some of the pastoral runs which occupy some very choice country to the southward of the Yilgarn railway. A selector may take a block out of any pastoral leasehold, but must pay the value of any improvements which have been made by the lessee. In most cases the runs are unfenced, and may, therefore, be erroneously supposed by those who are looking for land to be private property. The policy of the land legislation of Western Australia is that the grazier occupying Crown lands must always give way to the cultivator. The farmer is the man to whom every encouragement is given, while the past^ralist has very little more than a premissive occupancy pending the arrival of the time when the land will be required to produce corn, hay, or fruit. Accordingly, the terms upon which pastoral leases are issued are almost nominal, but the leaseholder has no right to the soil or the timber, and may not even do ringbarking without the permission of the Minister. When that permission is given ringbarking is appraised as an improvement. Pastoral leases are granted in the eastern division in blocks of not less than 20,000 acres, at a rent according to the term for which the lease may be granted, as follows :—For each thousand acres or part of a thousand acres, two shillings and sixpence for each of the first seven years, and five shillings for each of the remaining years of the lease. If the land is so shut in by other holdings as not to contain twenty thousand case shall a lease be granted for less than £1 per annum. All pastoral leases expire on the 31st December, 1907. The fair value of any improvements existing upon any block applied for within an agricultural or special area is determined by the Minister, and the amount is added to the purchase money of the block which the conditional purchaser desires to obtain. He has to pay for the improvements in five yearly instalments, with interest added at the rate of five per cent. per annum, and the first payment has to be made when the land is applied for. Subject to these provisions there is, upon the sheep runs of the eastern pastoralists, a very wide choice of location by the agri- culturist, for, as it might be supposed, the squatters, who are the acres, a lease may be granted 72 pioneers of the district, marked out their boundaries with an eye to securing the most eligible properties. This will be apparent from the notes that have been made by surveyors, who have made them- selves acquainted with the quality of the country that is held under grazing tenure. In the other colonies, with their larger popula- tions and smaller territory, the class interests of squatter versus selector have excited a spirit of antagonism, and the cry, "Unlock the lands !" has led to the progress of land settlement, only after many a hard and bitter battle in the legislative chambers. Happily, in the magnificent range of this colony, there has been ample room for both the pastoralist and the producer, who, as a rule, have main- tained amicable relations with each other. A glance at the good country, or some of it, that lies outside the blocks surveyed and set apart for the farmer at Meckering, Tammin, Doodlekine, and Bainding, which may be deemed to have received sufficient description in the foregoing pages, will be instructive. The observations are the outcome of a tour through the several districts referred to by the special correspondent of the West Australian, and bear the impress of personal knowledge of a division of the colony that is but little known by the people of Western Australia, for before the goldfields' era few travellers had penetrated into what were commonlv regarded as the waterless fastnesses of Yilgarn. To show that the country is not pictured in rose colors by the writer, his melancholy description of what he calls''The Great Lone Land," a desert 40 miles long and 12 wide, which he met with near Mooranoppin, would be worth quoting. This place of desolation is one of the largest sand plains in the eastern division. It is only relieved by one patch of rich salmon gum country. To the north of the Tammin agricultural area, which has practically all been taken up, there is a fine forest of about 3,000 acres, the bulk of which has also been selected. A creek at the foot of Cunderin peak, and on towards the Cunderin railway station, runs for seven miles through very fair land, which improves as the railway station is approached. Adjoining the station is a small but high-class gimlet wood and salmon gum forest, portion of which has been set apart as a water reserve. "One day in the winter of 1895," says the traveller, "I stood on the summit of the Toapin rocks, near Dangin, and obtained a fine view of the excellent country which abounds in that locality. The rains had been fairly abundant and the grass was growing healthfully, so that the surroundings were viewed under favorable circumstances. Acres upon acres stretched before the view, and but a slight fund of imagination would have been necessary for the observer to have peopled these fertile plains with bud-li- 3 home- steads and yellow wheat fields. With but a trifling exception the whole of these rich lands were untilled, unused and unpeopled. The rich, red soils, possessing all the elements of fertility, seemed to beg in mute eloquence for the transforming power of the human 73 hand. Like the mallee lands of Victoria, it has been recently demonstrated that our forest lands, at one time entirely discarded, are to be a great source of national wealth. The returns this year (1896) from the forest lands are peculiarly encouraging. To those who have been through our back country this spring the convic- tion must have been forcibly driven home that the area of our agricultural lands is much wider than was formerly imagined. From all directions most gratifying reports from the holders of forest lands are to hand, and this class of country is rapidly growing in the estimation of our farmers. So largely is this the case that the margin of cultivation is yearly being forced back to regions where a scanty rainfall has hitherto developed the idea that successful wheat-growing was not practicable there." The first-class lands are surrounded by areas of second and third class country. These areas are admirably adapted for stock raising. In the white gum country and on the sand plains rough scrub and grasses grow, on which stock thrive. Mixed farming will have to be undertaken in this class of country. Wheat-farming alone, it is universally recog- nised, cannot pay in the long run. To work the ground satisfac- torily the soil must be periodically rested and enriched by the droppings of the stock which are kept to feed down its stubble and its weeds. Suppose a farmer selects, say, 640 acres of first- class land under conditional purchase and a free homestead farm of 160 acres and 5,000 acres of third-class land under the homestead lease system, he will thus be able to grow abundant crops and keep a fair quantity of stock. Even,' farmer in the eastern districts practices mixed farming, and owing to the success of this season it may be expected that in a few years grazing country will be as eagerly sought after as the first-class forests are now. But in run- ning stock through the white gum grazing lands the settler must beware of the poison plants, chiefly of the box species, which are especially dangerous in earlv summer. Where these occur the poison patches should be fenced out or grubbed out, or the sheep should be tended. By taking these precautions losses are avoided. The agricultural lands are not infested with poison, which is not greatly to be dreaded if the proper methods of managing stock where it is found are understood and carried out. Some of the richest lands in Western Australia are to be found in the districts of Dangin, Cubbine and Youndegin, which lie between Greenhills and the Southern Cross line. When the railway from Greenhills (the first section of which from York to Greenhills is now being laid) is extended to the Yilgarn route, a splendid tract of country will be tapped. Hereabout some of the best blocks are held under what are known as pastoral poison leases—a system of land alienation which will be dealt with more in detail under a separate heading, with a view to pointing out what are deemed to be weak points of early legislation on this subject. While poison land was deemed to be suitable, after it was cleared of the noxious 74 vegetation, for the raising of stock, the Cubbine poison leasehold is so fertile that most of it is capable of producing excellent crops, to which a great many acres are being devoted. Twenty-five miles east of Cuttening, from Darderring spring to Qualing, cultivation is being successfully done in an extensive forest area of the finest character. From the summit of Qualing rocks a fine view of the country is obtained, and the devious course of the dry bed of the Salt river, growing salt bush here and there, can be seen for miles. There was a great flood in this river in 1872. cutting off the squatters from their out stations, but it has not been running for years. Its bed, which is very broad, is superior pasture land, and it is lined with forests for a depth of from one mile to three or four, comprising a belt of valuable country that ought to be one day the "home of many a thriving settler, when the golden corn shall wave in the breeze, and the fattened sheep recline under the foliage of the shade trees." The country is dotted with granite peaks in all directions. At their base the greenness of the manna trees betoken moisture, and there is no doubt that in this locality abundant water supplies are to be procured in many places. The Salt river is one of the tributaries of the Avon or Swan river. From Qualing to Moulien the distance is 15 miles in a westerly direction. For the first mile or two excellent forest is traversed, terminating in sand plain, which leads to Moulien homestead. Nangin hill is in the midst of a heavy forest on the bank of the Salt river. Thence north-east, superior agricultural country, some thousands of acres in extent, is passed through. There is room here for farms, and the country is certainly worth a visit from an intending settler. The whole of the country is parcelled out into pastoral leaseholds, varying in size from 20,000 to 120,0c0 acres. In order to see the country to advantage, a trip from Moulien to Toapin, via Dangin and York, is recommended. About 30,0c0 acres of superior land are embraced in a ride of ten miles, beginning at Moulien. It is probable that an agricultural area will be laid out here. The Wareening hills are good feeding country. A little to the west of these hills is the Lotting spring, in the midst of granite rocks, which are the source of the chief water supply oi the east. The Lotting spring is on the eastern boundary of a large salmon gum forest, which extends westerly to the Salt river and northwards to the northern base of mount Stirling. Approaching the Moolyun homestead from Qualing, the homestead is found at the base of one of the huge granite rocks which are features of the landscape. The creek running through the stock yards is moist even in the hottest summer. The track from Moulien, after traversing the forest already referred to as the probable site of an agricultural area, crosses a lakelet known as the Jennebury pool. For four miles beyond the river the country is very eligible for selection. Through Badjelling, to Toapin, a stretch of good country extends to Dangin, but there are some poison patches in the neighborhood. Round 75 about Dangin, Toapin, Badjelling, Cubbine, and Dorakin, there are some heavily timbered areas. The country is dotted with the granite ridges which indicate the presence of water, and which would, therefore, be chosen as homestead sites by the settler. On the west of Dangin there are some exceptionally sturdy jam trees which attest the goodness of the ground. This is one of the best spots for settlement, and there is plenty of scope for it. The white gum belts are, as usual, blemished with box poison, but the salmon gum country, which is the predominating timber, is free from this pest, as is generally, although not invariably, the case. In the Dangin district the attention of the Lands department is being directed to the merits of a large block suitable for an agricultural area. The correspondent adds :—" I have had many enquiries about the land at Dangin, for its fame has spread, and 'nowadays there is keen competition for rich forest lands possessing a good rainfall. The rainfall at Dangin is about 14 inches, and once the Greenhills railway is finished the district would be in great demand by would-be settlers. The case of the Meckering agricultural area need only be cited as a case in point. Until three years ago settle- ment there was comparatively slow. During the last year it has been most rapid, and now the area is almost entirely selected, while there are weeklv enquiries for land at the Northam Land office. I foretell a great settlement in our eastern forest areas, and am certain that attention will be given to those in the mount Stirling district." From Warralling, which borders on a few hundred acres of cereal land, into Greenhills, the country is chiefly suitable as pasture ground. So many references have been made to poison lands that it is desirable to supply some explanatory notes of the provisions under which these areas are acquired, and the terms under which they are defined. Under the Land Regulations, proclaimed on the 2nd March, 1887, poisoned land is defined to be land that, in the opinion of the Minister, is so infested with poisonous indigenous plants that sheep or cattle cannot be depastured on it. Poisonous plants are con- sidered to be eradicated when it has been proved to the satisfaction of the Governor in Council that land originally infested has been rendered safe for depasturing cattle and sheep at all seasons, and has continued so for a term of not less than two years. The lease- holder of a poison block is required to pay for the survey of the same ; to select not less than 300 acres ; to pay an annual rent of ^,"1 per 1,000 acres or part of 1,000 acres ; to produce evidence that the land applied for is poisoned land under the regulations ; to fence within three years, and to pay the stipulated rent for a period of 21 years ; whereupon, having given proof that he has eradicated the poison, he becomes entitled to a Crown grant of the land, or sooner if all the conditions of the leasehold have been fully complied with. The bulk of the land held as poison leaseholds was taken up under an earlier Act than the one which the regulations quoted amend, 76 and which did not require the land to be fenced within three years. The result was that nothing has been done for the improvement of many of these holdings, but they cannot be forfeited until the ex- piration of 21 years from the date the lease was granted. It has also been found that some of the leaseholds comprise choice agri- cultural land ; notwithstanding that, it will be seen from the wording of the clause setting out that the blocks shall be made safe for the carrying of stock, the intention of Parliament was to limit the opera- tion of the law to pastoral country. The question of water supply, which is regarded as a most im- portant one in facilitating the settlement of that part of the colony, has been receiving attention on the part of the roads board of the district. While it is recognised that when ringbarking has done its work and the forests have been killed there will be plenty of water on the Meckering area, the need of making immediate provision is of the first importance. The board has made over- tures to the Commissioner of Crown Lands to resume four wells belonging to private owners, with a view to prevent stock being short of water in a dry season. These supplies were obtained before it became the rule of the Lands department to retain permanent supplies of water for the use of the public. The large increase of the population of the neighborhood is urged as a strong reason for the nationalisation of all the available water. The pur- chase of the wells would be only one step in advance of the action taken by the Government some years ago, when a water conserva- tion board was formed on the Meckering area. The demand for water is all the greater, inasmuch as the soil is especially adapted for summer cultivation, which is necessary in order to get the seed germinated by the first rains. The water supply for the horses in ploughing alone is likely to make a great drain upon the slender resources of the settlers during the most trying time of the year. The best means of meeting the demand is under the earnest con- sideration of the Government, fully cognisant as it is of the fact that a bountiful water service will greatly facilitate the progress of settlement from Meckering to Bainding. The Goomalling agricultural area, to the westward of Northam, is confidently expected to become a great farming centre, particu- larly as it is contemplated to make a railway in that direction. On this subject the views which Sir John Forrest expressed in the Legislative Assembly on the 27th August, 1896, when (as Colonial Treasurer) making his financial statement, carry the greatest weight, for perhaps no one has such a familiar knowledge of all parts of Western Australia as the Premier, who has been one of the most dauntless, indefatigable, and far-reaching of her explorers. Sir John Forrest said :—" We propose also to make a railway survey from Northam to Quelquelling. I am able to say, from personal knowledge, that there is no place in the colony where an agricultural railway would be likely to pay better. From Northam 77 to Quelquelling is about 20 miles on the road to Goomalling, and the route runs through an agricultural country all occupied by farmers in small locations, and is one of the best, if not the best, area of agricultural land in the colony. It is just about the same sort of land as that at Greenhills, the only difference being that the line runs from York for some distance through large freehold properties, whereas the line from Northam runs through the land in the hands of small owners." The surveyor who is plotting out the Goomalling agricultural area, writes to the Lands department as follows in describing the country: "I have ridden over a large area of the country. I think you will be pleased to learn that I anticipate being able to forward a design for cutting up about 10,000 acres within a radius of six miles of reserve 1092, and having its extreme alignment about 15 miles east of Goomalling. Eighty per cent. of this land will be really first-class forest country, and a portion of the remainder very good. I have also examined the countrv 10 miles south from Goomalling, where two or three thousand acres of good forest country can be obtained. The Goomalling territory, free as it is from the water difficulty, needs no further encomium. Land is also available for selection near the Clackline railway station, which is the junction of the Great Southern and Yilgarn lines. The country in this locality is very hilly and more suited to the vigneron and orchardist than the yeoman. As a grape-growing district this section cannot be surpassed, the ironstone gravel of the slopes of the Darling range providing all the requisites for the flourishing vineyards of Mr. Edward Keane, Mr. Quinlan, M.L.A., (Cooringa), Messrs. Bull and Stevens, and others of smaller size, within the radius of a few miles. Those readers who are interested in this subject are referred to the chapters on the soils of Western Australia, and on vine and fruit culture, that appear in other portions of this volume. Although this chapter has been entitled " Northam, Meckering, and Goomalling districts" very little has been said of Northam proper, for the reason that the land in its immediate vicinity is in private hands. In a treatise dealing with the great producing entrepots of the colony Northam would have had a foremost place, for in the extensive area it has under cultivation, the modern methods of its cultivators, their progressive spirit and enterprise, and the quantity and value of their yields, it would be hard to find an example of greater achievements, not alone in the western colony, but in any other part of Australia. But this book is intended to furnish counsel to those who are desirous of establishing themselves in what, it is to be hoped, will prove a career of content, usefulness, and expansion, upon Crown lands; and therefore places like Northam which are in the possession of those who were in the van of settle- ment, obtain only passing, but appreciative, notice, as belonging to the sphere of realisation, rather than to the domain of the founder of new centres, and the beginner at work that still remains to be done. CHAPTER IV. THE TOODYAY DISTRICT. Newcastle, the entrepot of the Toodyay district, is picturesquely situated on the Avon about 50 miles east of Perth, at the terminus of a branch of the Eastern railway, 64 miles by rail from the metro- polis. Like York, Northam, and Beverley, nearly all the land around Newcastle is in private hands, but some very eligible es- tates are now under offer to the Government, which is empowered to buy land in blocks of not less than 2,000 acres near a railway, for the purpose of promoting land settlement. This power was given bv the passing of the Agricultural Lands Purchase Act. A sum of ^200,000 was set apart by Parliament to carry out the provisions of the Act, which was one of the first measures introduced last session. In moving the second reading of the bill in the Legislative Assembly on the 22nd July, 1896, the Commissioner of Crown Lands, Mr. A. R. Richardson, said :—"Hon. members will recognise this bill as a somewhat important measure and also as a new departure in our legislation. I have very great pleasure in moving thesecond reading, because I believe the resultwill be a very considerable increase to our agricultural settlement, and it will give a great number of oppor- tunities to those persons who are desirous of so doing, in the way of obtaining access to land close to railway and large centres of popu- lation, which they are now unable to obtain. Owing to the peculiar circumstances of this colony, we have, somewhat to. our sorrow, considerable areas of valuable land, containing a fair proportion of agricultural land, placed in choice and eligible situations as regards transit and access to market, which it is now impossible for anybody to get hold of; not because owners are unwilling to sell, but they decline to part with small portions. They will either sell the whole, or none at all; and not many people are in a position to treat with owners for large areas of 7,000 or 8,000 acres. The Government have had brought under their attention a suggestion that it would perhaps be wise to undertake, under certain conditions, the repurchase of these lands, to cut them up in lots and offer them for sale, subject to special conditions as to improvements. The land so purchased must be recommended first by a board which has to report on all land it is considered desirable to acquire. There is also a very necessary precaution in providing that the land shall be situated in accessible places—for instance, near a railway—so that the Government are not likely to obtain much land that is placed at an inconvenient distance. I think the bill will give to the colony 79 an increased area of land under cultivation ; in fact, during the last few years I have had an idea of this sort in my mind, but then the Government were not in a financial position to carry it out. Now I think it is a wise step to repurchase good land and cut it up for sale and improvement." The Coondle and the Norman estates are two choice properties, close to Newcastle, which have been offered for sale to the Crown, and the proposals are under consideration. The Coondle estate is part of the famous Toodyay valley, which has a great reputation for the strength of its dark red soil. It was granted to the original proprietor in consideration of his rights as a pioneer, and comprises 7,000 acres five miles north of Newcastle. On the maps of the Lands department it is known as " Location No. 1," and it is one of the possessions of the Leake family, one of whose members was for many years Chief Justice of the colony. The land is undulating, and portions are almost mountainous; but no country is better known for its excellence in the eastern division. Most of it is timbered with York and salmon gum. It is confidently expected that the estate will be acquired by the Government, and will be subdivided into holdings large enough to be sought after as farms by men possessing a few hundreds of pounds. There is a good road from the estate into Newcastle, and a sufficient supply of water for stock and household use. There is sure to be an eage'r demand for land at Coondle, if the aspiration of Newcastle is realised by it passing into the hands of the state. It is a source of great regret by the people of the district, that it is hidebound by the comparatively little use that is made of some of the choicest subdi- visions, which only sustain sheep and cattle, instead of being con- verted into fields of wheat. It is pointed out that there is no lack of pastoral runs which do not offer great inducement to turn them into arable lands, and that it is a waste of good gifts to have the farmer shut out from such fair tracts as Coondle. The Norman estate is a splendid property of 7,000 acres, adjoin- ing Coondle, and is six miles from Newcastle. It was, in the early days, given as a Crown grant to Mr. R. Norman, and has passed as a legacy to Mr. Fenwick, an American gentleman, who, during a recent visit to the colony, intimated his willingness to sell it to the Lands department. The Norman is a fine agricultural block, and is watered by the Boyagerring brook. It is estimated that 500 acres without a break could be put under crop in more than one part of the grant, which grows York gum and jam ; in fact, the local land agent (Mr. A. N. Piesse) says that eight-tenths of it could be cultivated. There is no finer wheat land in the district. In the south-west corner, which is timbered with gum, there are patches of box poison, and also some York road poison, which also thrives on some parts of the commonage. After the first rains, local stock- owners find this vegetation to be most dangerous. East of New- castle there is no poison within a distance of 20 miles. The chief pasture plants are corkscrew and silver grass, which are very fattening. 8o In addition to the Coondle and Norman estates the Toodyay commonage offers some scope for additional settlement near Newcastle. This area is 17,200 acres in extent; it is under the control of a board, and its nearest line is three miles north-west of Newcastle. The commonage is well adapted for fruit growing, and some of the largest oranges produced in the colony have been sent from the immediate neighborhood. The best of the soil is a chocolate loam that cannot be surpassed, but no large area in one piece is obtainable for the cultivation of cereals. Patches of good land, about 50 acres in extent, may be selected. The commonage is fairly well watered by soaks and springs. No blocks granted there have been thrown up. The board has power to refuse selectors' applications, but they never do so. The south-east corner of the commonage has been settled for several years by people who have prospered on their holdings. The Toodyay reserve embraces the only other Crown lands in the district that it would be advantageous to take up. This block lies north-west of Newcastle, in the same line as the commonage; the reserve is a mile nearer Newcastle, and comprises an old townsite. The original area was 800 acres. As a townsite the land had no attractions for investors, as it was so close to Newcastle that the volume of trade was drawn to that place. For years it'lay idle, while it was enviously regarded by fruit growers, who recognised in its deep well drained land and situation the ideal place for successful operations. As time went on and settlement came to a standstill iu the district, as regards the development of fresh centres of industry, the Government were importuned to throw open the townsite for intense culture. The request was pressed by the present Commissioner of Crown Lands (Hon. George Throssell, M.L.A., of Northam), before he accepted the ministerial portfolio, in pursuance of the active interest he has always manifested in fostering the productive industries of Western Australia. He was supported by Mr. B. D. Clarkson (who, at that time, represented Toodyay in the Legislative Assembly), Mr. A. N. Piesse, Mr. O. Bull (one of the largest vignerons), and others, and so good a case was made out that the proclamation of the townsite was revoked in February, 1896. The land is now obtainable under special provisions which have regard to the valuable character of an area that has not only been proved to be remarkably well adapted for oranges, lemons, apples, peaches, and grapes, but is also within less than three miles of the Newcastle railway station. When a block is applied for the applicant has to lodge with the Government land agent 10 per cent. of the upset price of the land ; which is £2 per acre. The application is advertised in the Government Gazette for one month, and the block is then submitted at auction and sold to the highest bidder. If the man who asked that the land should be put up should not be the purchaser, his 10 per cent. deposit is re- funded. An idea of the exceptional quality of the property will be 8i formed when it is stated that some of it has realised ^13 per acre for the planting of oranges, lemons and vines, which it produces to perfection in the practically inexhaustible dark red soil which forms the slopes of this garden of nature. It is nearly surrounded by the Avon rivei, and grows grasses all through the summer most luxuriantly. Here the pasture ground is distinguished by being free from scrub, and if it were not fed down the silver grass could be mown at midsummer like a crop of hay. The average size of the holdings is about eight acres, and owing to the exceptional fertility of the spot an excellent living can be made off them from around Newcastle, if a location is wisely chosen; fruit-growing is regarded as the most profitable of all rural occupations. About one- third of what was the townsite has been selected, and in a few years, when the young orchards and vineyards laid out there have come to maturity, the place will be one of the features of the New- castle district which a visitor will be anxious to see. The land also yields heavy crops of all kinds of vegetables, with the excep- tion of potatoes, which suffer from the occurrence of frosts from April to September. It was what is now a vegetable garden that was sold for the top price of ^13 per acre, and it was greatly coveted because it is moist even in the hottest part of the year. The supplv of vegetables to the goldfields, where high prices are realised, is an industry that is as yet only in its infancy. The smallest block under cultivation on the townsite is one of six acres. There are nearly 300 acres of the land still available. Small pad- docks for the keeping of a cow, in order that they may add fresh butter and milk to the comforts of the household, have been set apart by some of the settlers. As a contrast to the occupation of comparatively large areasfor mixed tarming, the close settlement and scientific cultivation of the fruit-growers of Newcastle are very in- structive, as showing the very wide range Western Australia offers to the immigrant of every class, of skill, training, means and equip- ment, from an adaptation of the blocker system to grazing and farming on the largest scale. The concessions granted to the Midland railway company, when the colony was not in the prosperous circumstances it enjoys to-day, have been very inimical to the progress of Newcastle. In consideration of the line being made by the company from Guild- ford, nine miles from Perth, to Walkaway, near Geraldton, a distance of 280 miles, it received a grant of 3,360,000 acres of land (6,000 acres per mile), which were cut out in alternate blocks to a distance of 40 miles on each side of the railway. The grants embraced all the Crown land within the 40 miles radius, and their existence has been deplored by every well-wisher who desires to hasten the day when the colony will grow her own wheat supply. It was the intention of the company to dispose of its lands, but several causes have militated against the realisation of this design, except to a limited degree. It became necessary to seek the 82 assistance of the Government in order to complete the line, and a loan of ^500,000 was guaranteed on the security of a mortgage upon the land grants. The mortgage has retarded the alienation of the company's estate, and selectors have always shown a preference for the easier terms granted to them by the Crown. Moreover, it would not be possible for the holder of a farm taken out of the Midland grants to obtain the assistance of the Land bank. Most of the land has therefore remained locked up, while there has been a demand for similar country held by the Crown Lauds department. A strong agitation has commenced for the ceding to the Govern- ment of the Midland railway and its hereditaments, and the pur- chase of the Great Southern line and its estates, which also belonged to English shareholders, has given strength to the move- ment. If the step should be taken, enormous areas will be thrown open for selection, which are now unimproved. The best of them are to be found around Dongarra, near the Irwin River, which will be dealt with in writing of the country between Guildford and Mullewa; but the encroachments made within the boundaries of Toodyay seriously operate to reduce the agricultural returns ot the district. A summarv may be given of the evidence collated from reliable sources, of the advantages which Toodyay presents to those who are looking for a place possessing railway communication, a fair rain- fall, and proximity to market, together with a soil that will profit- ably repav the labor and outlav expended upon it. As a rule there are excellent roads in every direction, and the number of schools that have been established reflects the greatest credit upon the Rev. R. K. Taylor, who has exerted himself to make it the boast of Toodyay that no child need grow up there without the benefits of education. It is considered essential that a man who does not propose to obtain more than 3c0 acres should have capital of about £1 per acre to start with. He can make a good beginning with less, but his progress will be comparatively slow, unless he can employ labor to clear the land quickly so as to be in a position to get the benefit of the high prices which are now prevailing for farm produce. As a rule cereals pay better than root crops, except in such swamp lands as those which have been described in speaking of the Helena Valley and parts of the Toodyay old townsite. If fertilisers are used, as thev should be while a farmer's revenue is so large as it is at the pre- sent time, the land does not quickly exhaust itself. If there is enough cleared land to permit of cropping everv alternate year the additional weight of the harvests would recommend this plan For fruit-growing Toodyay is almost unrivalled. The fruits, quickly ripened in the bright sunshine and the dry air of the latitude, are of exquisite flavor and large size, while the vineyards produce very superior wine grapes. Most of the farmers keep a few sheep, which they purchase as stores and fatten for the butcher and »3 the supply of their families. There are also several large graziers, notably Mr. B. D. Clarkson, who raise sheep on a large scale. Sheep thrive better than cattle. Dairying is neglected, and the want of improved strains of milch cows is keenly felt. Nor are the breeds of special merit. The cattle industry may be said to be a languishing one, and the first step towards a better state of things would have to be the importation of high class strains of short- horns, Herefords or Devons from the eastern colonies. The poison plants are a menace to any large expenditure on this enterprise. The dingo has not been exterminated, but the bonus of 10s. per scalp is paid upon about 100 heads of this pest of the sheep- breeder every year. The evil is not so great as to demand the shepherding of flocks, as would be the case in some of the rough but well grassed country of the south-west. If there are no hurt- ful shrubs and the wild dogs were all killed out, the district would be regarded as a first-class one for stock ; as it is, it is spoken of with some qualification in this respect. In a dry season water is not as plentiful as could be wished, but there is never any approach to disastrous drought. Well water can be struck at shallow depths. There are facilities for irrigating garden or orchard plots along the course of the Avon, but land for this purpose would have to be purchased from private owners. The general configuration of the country is undulating, while there are some hills so steep as to be only adapted for grazing. The timber consists of morrell, salmon, York, and white gums and jam trees, which costs from 35s. to £ 5 per acre to clear, the jam country which has been ringed for some years being indicated by the lowest figure and the virgin green forest areas in the higher one. Since horsefeed has been so greatly in demand very little save wheaten hay has been grown in Toodyay. This kind of crop is not only the most lucrative, but it demands less labor than wheat. The district is visited by buyers' travellers, who secure all the produce that growers are willing to part with. When the writer visited Newcastle to obtain the information which is now being printed, farmers were holding their hay, as the market had a strong upward tendency. About Christmas time chaff had been selling at £6 and £7 per ton, but short shipments from the other colonies, the result of a short harvest and a dry season, were making their influence strongly felt, and there was a disposition to keep the barns full until supplies would realise ^"8 or £9 per ton, but this may be regarded as a speculative quotation and due to special causes which would pro- bably be of short duration. The facilities for the transport of the crops to market are all that could be desired, especially as the railway freights may be almost said to have been indulgently framed in favor of the farmer. Most of the small quantity of wheat that is reaped is kept for seed grain. Wheaten hay is preferred to oaten, not only for its extra weight, but also because it is better adapted to the climate, as it does not so quickly get overripe during harvesting 84 and stands an unexpected spell of dry weather with less injury. The co-operation of the Land bank is not very largely availed of simply because the growers are too prosperous to require to borrow. They recognise its advantages, and would strongly commend them to those who had heavy preliminary expenses to incur in establishing them selves. But as most of the older settlers till their own land and have overcome all the early difficulties of re-claiming their fields from the forest before the bank came into existence, they have the profits of the sale of their crops to enable them to undertake further improve- ments and to buy plant, both of which are employing a lot of capital in Toodyay. The scene at harvesting time is very different now to what it was a few years ago, when old-fashioned implements of limited power were in vogue. Now more than one reaper and binder is to be seen in many paddocks, and all- the hay is cut bv steam instead of horse or hand power, the use of which it does not require a long memory to recall. The altered regime is fully recognised bv the manufacturers of agricultural machinery in England, and they spare no effort to bring the latest additions to the resources of the farmer under the notice of so progressive a body of men as the pro- ducers of Toodyay, who know what they want, and have money to pav for it, without asking for long terms. An example of the good- ness of the market of the Eastern districts for ploughs and reapers, and binders, harrows, scarifiers, and steam chaff-cutting plant, was afforded at a show held last year at York, and the illustration fullv applies to Newcastle, where, however, the possession of an ample and well appointed show ground prevents exhibitors having to combat difficulties in displaying the latest triumphs of the designer, the en- gineer and the artisan. The show ground at York, stored as it was with many examples of fhe stock and the produce of so large and prosperous a district, was found to be too small to accommodate the machinerysections, and in thisdepartment the display had to be relega- ted to a piece of spare ground which the visitors passed on their way to the exposition. But, so far from umbrage being taken by the machinery firms at what they might have considered to be scant courtesy on the part of the show committee, seeing how expensive it is for exhibitors to send goods of heavy bulk such a distance from town, that every agrarian labour-saving invention that adorns the catalogues of the most up-to-date firms for the season of 1896-07, was displayed, it was evident that the opportunity was too good to lose, and anyone who would ascertain the number of machines of various kinds that have been introduced around Newcastle, Beverley, York and Northam, during the last three years, would be forced to the same conviction. A cry of something like commiseration is being raised on behalf of the farmers of Great Britain, whom high rents and foreign competition have been seriously depleting within the last few years. In Western Australia it is not too much to say that the pro- ducer in anything in a large way, is on the high road to indepen- dence. 85 It is worth while adduciug another feature of the management of the large estates of Toodyay to show the spirit of independence that is abroad in the colony, and the determination of every man who gets his living off the land to be his own landlord. There are in the possession of private owners of large means, who have been able to clear very large paddocks, some extensive areas of arable lands of the most superior character. One of the best of these estates has been offered tj a tenantry on the share principle, that is to say, the landlord is willing to take a portion of the crop in pay- ment of rent; but during the present season (1897) none of the pad- docks have been let, and stock have been turned into these corn lands, which have gone back to pasture, while almost every acre belonging to the Crown that will produce wheat is being sought out and applied for. It should be added that pasture land is marvel- lously improved by cultivation. Not onlv do the indigenous grasses, the best of which are of the silver and kangaroo varieties, spring thickly upon it, but the dandelion, or Cape weed plant, so thickly covers the ground that is a great assistance to the stock-owner in fattening his sheep in spring and early summer. The Cape weed was introduced to the colony some years a<;o by a vessel which car- ried hay from the Cape of Good Hope to Esperance Bay, and since that time the plant has been steadily making its appearance all over the settled districts of Western Australia, and is generally welcomed. It is true that the so-called dandelion, when it is in flower, imparts to butter made from the milk of cows despastured upon it, a slightly bitter taste, and injures the keeping qualities of the butter; but, on the other hand, it outstrips in rapidity of growth almost any other kind of herbage as soon as the rains of autumn fall. Cape weed is making great encroachments among the pastures of Toodyay, and as very few milch cows are kept there, it is encouraged. The silver grass, which may bs ranked with dandelion for the shortness of its life each season, and for its fattening properties, is the almost universal feed for stock up to December, when, having shed its seed, it wilts away, and the thin parched shoots are scattered by the wind or so sodden by a thunderstorm as to be almost annihilated. But while it is green it is an invaluable fodder plant, not alone because it is succulent and nourishing, but also on account of its being found everywhere, although the best land produces it in the greatest abundance. Just before it seeds it is almost equal to hay in sustaining working horses and in giving to them a bright satin coat. The kangaroo grass, which is also a great mainstay, resembles English rye, and while it remains green is a luxury for the animals turned out where it is found. Its peculiar sweetness attracts to it the marsupial tribe in preference to any other, and it is well known that the kangaroo is a veritable epicure in his choice of diet. Wherever there is a patch of this grass or a sward of tender shoots of coarser kinds coming through burnt ground, or a wheat paddock that is unprotected, kangaroos will be 86 found, where they have not been exterminated, as is the case in the Newcastle district, at any rate near the town, by the progress of settlement. The corkscrew grass is also very common about Newcastle. This is good fodder, but its sinuous spines, from which it derives its name, are troublesome to sheep, and injurious to the wool. Still, in a part of the colony like Newcastle, that is too dry for maize, and in which oats are only moderately successful, the corkscrew grass, which does not die off in the hottest season, is a serviceable root. Some oaten hay is grown, but chiefly for racing stables. Not only at Newcastle, but in the whole of the eastern districts, the staple hay crop is wheat, although it grows too thick a stalk to satisfy horse owners in its natural state. But after the wheat has been passed through a chaff-cutter, the cut of which can be adjusted to any length of the sample, from a quarter of an inch upwards, this process of artificial mastication prevents the coarseness of the stalk being objectionable. The rainfall, which is about the same as York, namely, 15 inches, is less than the Newcastle people desire, especially as the Avon is the only watercourse of any note in Tcodyay, and residents of back blocks have to resort to wells and dams to tide over the latter end of the summer. The cost of well-sinking is generally £2 per foot, and for excavating dams, 1/- per yard; well water in most places is struck at a depth of 20 feet. The earliest rains are expected in April and the latest at the end of September, but there is occasionally a thunderstorm before the regular autumn rains set in, and sometimes a shower or two late in October or the beginning of November. But as the average season provides only a short, and not too abundant, rainy period, summer ploughing is in favour wherever it can be practised, that is, where the land is not too heavy and the teams available are strong enough to do the work. The soil of the district may be clearly defined as heavy and light; the first is that which has been more than once referred to in writing of the eastern division as "rich forest land," that is to say, the country that grows the largest York gums, manna trees, and silver wattles. This formation can stand the strain of yearlv cropping if it receives a dressing of from two to three cwts. per acre of bonedust, phosphates, or guano. It is only by continuous cropping and starving that such land can be exhausted. It produces from one to two tons of hay, or ten or eleven bushels of wheat, per acre, and those who possess cleared areas of this soil are justly regarded as fortunate men. And even of the rich forest country there are patches that are strangely and superlatively good. When the writer was at York, Mr. Parker, one of a family of very large farmers, and the owners of some of the most valuable and fertile agricultural lands of which Western Australia can boast, called my attention to what he called " the red streak " running in a line north and south for a mile or more across the stretch of broad acres, through which the young corn was 87 making its appearance. The band of darker higher green to which Mr. Parker pointed was almost as vivid as a mark of blood upon a pallid face. The whole field had the health of a well-nourished crop, but the plants on the " red streak" stood above the rest of the wheat as though they had been sown three weeks earlier than those on the remainder of the rest of the ground. "That," said Mr. Parker, "is a wonderfully prolific belt of country which runs for miles as far as Northam. It always grows twice or three times as much as any other place on the farm. Last season we could not get the reaper and binder through it, yet it has received just the same treatment as the rest of the ground, and the whole of the crop was sown on the same day." The "streak" has been found like a line of reef in various properties, and it is Mr. Parker's belief that it could be traced without a break, if anyone took the trouble to follow it out of the cultivated lands, through the forest, a great deal of which still remains in a state of nature, not- withstanding that it is of such great fertility. Last year the Messrs. Parker were the largest producers of hay in the eastern districts, a result which they ascribe to the possession of cleared forest lands, thorough cultivation, and the fact "that they have a large slice of the potential 'red streak' right through their properties. The light soil is the jam country. This class of timber is never found on the best land. The jam tree soil yields from 15 cwt. to a ton of hay, and about eight bushels to the acre. Jam is usually found intermixed with morrell gums. There are a few red gums at Toodyay, but they are so rare that they are hardly to be taken into account as a guide to the good, strong loam in which they grow. Wattle and stinkwort is found in fertile hollows that would grow first-class fruit. As in the territory beyond Northam, white gum country in Toodyay is to be avoided by the farmer. An excellent rule for the stranger to follow is that the darker the ground the larger the crop that will be taken off it. If any capitalist should desire to establish orange and lemon orchards of an ideal kind, he can do so by the aid of irrigation on the banks of the Swan river at Nardie pool, and at Deepdale, a few miles from Newcastle ; but he will have to buy the slopes of the river at these points from private owners. A great country for fruit of every kind. Western Australia can rival Spain in raising the cit- rous tribe for size, thinness of rind, and luscious quality. The oranges grown at Cheriton, near Gingin, are a marvel to visitors who have seen the bests fruits the globe can produce, and the younger trees planted at Newcastle bid fair to equal them when they reach their prime. CHAPTER V. THE SOUTHERN DIVISION. THE SOUTHERN DISTRICT. The southern district in these pages will be understood to be a belt of country, eighty miles wide, extending from Beverley to Albany, on the shores of Princess Royal harbor, and through the centre of which belt is laid the Great Southern railwav, 243 miles in length. The Great Southern railway was the scheme of Mr. Anthony Hordern, a Sydney merchant, who placed his proposal before the Government of Western Australia in i88j. He asked that in consideration of constructing the line he should be granted a subsidy of 12,coo acres per mile, selected in alternate blocks within 40 miles east and west of the railway. Colonel McMurdo and Mr. Joubert made similar offers. The Legislative Council, which was the parliamentary institution in those days of Imperial Government, desiring to know more than had then been ascertained about the character of the country through which it was desired to make the line, sent out a survey partv to make a reconnaissance. The members of the party were the Hon. the Surveyor-General, Mr. (now Sir Malcolm) Fraser, the deputy survevor-general Mr. (now Sir John) Forrest, Mr. C. D. Price, inspecting surveyor, and Mr. H. S. Ranford, whose services and intimate knowledge of the district are commended in the deputy survevor-general's report. They found that the section of country under review is a plateau having a mean surface level of about 1000 feet above the sea. The principal features of this plateau have some interest ; from it flow all the principal storm water channels of the southern part of the' colony, including the Swan river, the upper portion of which is called the Avon, and its branches. It is a noticeable feature of the physical geography of this part of the colony that it differs from that of other parts of the world. The best land is here high up away from the coast, whilst in other countries the rivers have made the lowlands fertile bv what thev have borne from the highlands. Doubtless, says Sir Malcolm Fraser, the fact of the highest countrv being near the coast accounts in a great measure for the lesser rainfall and a higher temperature in the interior during summer, as the moisture from the sea becomes precipitated before the clouds reach far from the coast; both the position and the limits of the principal forests clearly support this supposition. The bed rock of the southern 89 district is granite, "covered in parts by concretionary ironstone, sand plains, and clay flats." The deputy surveyor-general estimated there were about half a million acres of good agricultural land along the route as being available for occupation, in addition to 158,000 acres of similar land that had been parted with by the Crown. The Surveyor-General adds :—" I consider the block as a whole quantity of about three and a half million acres, now let for pastoral purposes, may compare favorably with any like quantity taken in a similar way in one block anywhere else in the central district of this colony." The survey party found that the country passed through presented no engineering difficulties of magnitude. The rivers and streams crossed are so near their source that bridges are small and far between. With the easiest of grades the line rises from 700 feet at Beverley to its greatest altitude, 1,277 feet, 75 miles south of York. It then alternates between 989 feet at Arthur river, to 1,250 feet at Yowangup, then down a gradual decline to 815 feet at Kendinup to the sea level at King George's Sound. Jarrah forests were found in the Darling range and abutting on the Gordon plains, southward of the Gordon river, and elsewhere to the westward. The report which Sir John Forrest made 16 years ago as the result of personal inspection of the country between Beverley and King George's Sound, is a reliable guide for, as he says, he wrote from "careful examination," and he is a witness of special know- ledge and experience of the geography and characteristics of Western Australia. Some extracts from his report may, therefore, be advantageously quoted:—"The soil within the area colored yellow on the maps is mostly of a light chocolate color, grows ex- cellent grass in ordinarily good seasons, is timbered generally with eucalyptus loxophleba (York gum), acacia acuminata (raspberry jam trees), and acacia microbotrya (manna gum), and is well adapted for the growth of cereals. In the vicinity.of Moojebup, Yowangup, Ettakup, and Martinup, etc , there is at present a better opening for agriculturists than in any other place between Beverley and King George's Sound; the land is of the richest description, the clearing is tolerably easy, and the climate salubrious, and it must eventuallv be a large wheat producing district. It is within 100 miles of King George's Sound, b^ing in that respect nearer a port than Moorumbine, which has for many years produced a large quantitv of grain. In the vicinity of Staunton springs, Kechualling, Wagegarrup, Collanilling, Dumbleyung, Coompetine, Moojebup, Camballup, Moordinnp, Jackatup, etc., are also admirably suited for agriculture and, with increased facilities of transport, would no doubt provide the colony with large quantities of wheat and other cereals. The water supply along the route, although in some places scarce, may, I think, be considered as tolerably good, and in manv places water is plentiful. The Palinup river has in the past been very defi- cient in this respect, and a fine country has been almost deserted in 9o consequence. Recently, however, tanks have been made, and more fresh-water wells have been obtained; and I believe that with ordinary good seasons and renewed energy, the whole of the upper Pallinup will not only carry larger numbers of sheep, but will also be a wheat-producing district. Water is now secured and conserved in this neighborhood by wells, dams, and tanks, and generally with excellent results. The prevailing timber along the route and over the country examined is eucalyptus redunca (the Wandoo or white gum tree). 'This tree,' says Baron von Mueller in his excellent work on the forest resources of Western Aus- tralia, ' is so indifferent in regard to soil, as to prosper on cold, clayey, or poor gravelly flats, where humidity stagnates in the wet season,' and I may go a little further and say that it generally grows on that description of country. In the same way as eucalyptus redunca is an index of inferior land, so eucalyptus loxophleba (York gum), and acacia microbotrya (manna gum) are an index of the most fertile countrv. Within the limits reported upon, viz., 20 miles on each side of the supposed line, there are at the present time about 250 homesteads. These 250 settlers are for the most part industrious, hardworking men, and manage to make a fair living. A few of them have made a moderate competence ; but as a rule they live on their homesteads, attend to their sheep, and do the work of laborers. Many of them began life as shepherds, and by care and industry have secured a small independence. The district seems in many places well adapted for the growth of fruit. The vine, plum, peach, and pear trees seen in the gardens on the elevated country along the water-shed of the Arthur and Gordon rivers, appear healthy, and to bear abundantly. There cannot be a doubt but that the whole of the country between Beverley and King George's Sound is capable of being more beneficially utilised than it is at present, and that as population increases and cultiva- tion is more common a larger number of people will reside upon the land." After the report of the surveyors had been received, the overtures of Mr. Hordern for the construction of the Great Southern railway on the land grant principle were accepted, and he formed in London the company which carried out the project. The land grant railway, for the making of which the company received in round numbers 3,000,000 acres of land, did not realise the hopes either of the shareholders or the people of the colony. The early death of Mr. Anthony Hordern prevented his colonisation schemes from being carried out. He had intended to establish experimental farms for training purposes, to provide advanced instruction in all branches of agriculture for students, the sons of men who were able to give them a start in life. These farms were to be under the control of professors, who, when the students had completed their course of instruction, would choose suitable land for them to establish their own homesteads upon, and assist them with direction and advice in order that they might make 9i their ventures successful. The advantages of co-operation were to be secured by the experimental farm in each locality purchasing from the producers, milk, olives, and grapes, in order to manufac- ture these materials into butter, cheese, oil and wine. The company had other plans of land settlement which did not bear much fruit, while the experimental farms never assumed a more tangible shape than a descriptive report. For years, from 1884 till 1891, the country along the Groat Southern railway was locked up, pending the selection by the company of its land grants in alternate blocks that should equally divide the frontage to the line with the Crown, and the progress of the district was greatly retarded. The old settlers who had come from York in search of new pastures for their flocks, lost their security of tenure; an excessive value was placed upon the estate by the company, and the result was they obtained very few purchasers for a territory that lias been looked to for funds to pay for the construction of the line. The shareholders received no interest on their investment, and the land has not developed in the- way that had been expected and desired, because the land was appraised at from £1 to £2 10s. per acre, while the adjoining blocks belonging to the Government, were to be had at the uniform price, upon conditional purchase, of 10s. per acre, or as a free grant under the Homesteads Act. To buy from the company also meant that the settler was debarred from participating in the benefits of the Land bank, and to be subject to what was for a long time a less liberal freight tariff for the conveyance of produce than that which was ruling on the Government railway service. From time to time the company made overtures to the Government to purchase their railway and land grants, but it was not until October, 1896, that the Ministry saw their way to ask Parliament for the authority to enable them to accept an offer. The price was fixed at ^1,100,000. The matter came before the Legislative Assembly on a motion moved by the Hon. Sir John Forrest. The Premier urged that it was the policy of the coun- try that the railways should belong to the people of the colony. Although the land grant system of building railways had been adopted at a time when the colony was not so prosperous as it had since become, it was a matter for regret that one-half of a strip of country 80 miles wide, between Beverley and Albany, had been handed over to a private company. The arrangement had not proved satisfactory to the people of Western Australia, especially to the residents of the district through which the railway ran. The 3,000,000 acres, com- prising the land grants, were a large portion of the temperate part of Western Australia, and of the south-western division, that had a good rainfall. The time had come when it was advisable for the country to hold these lands, in order that they might be developed under the liberal land laws of the ctate. The total quantity of land sold, or ageed to be sold, by the company, up to the end of Febru- ary, 1895, in round numbers, was a quarter of a million acres; so that there remained unalienated about two and three-quarter 92 million acres still held by the company. This land would now come back to the Government, together with the 83,129 acres which had been sold by the company on deferred payment. Besides this, there was a large amount of property held bv the company in the town of Albany. "I have no doubt," Sir John Forrest went on to say, "that if the Government possess themselves of this property, as we ask the House to authorise us to do, the settlement of the country along this railway will largely increase, and we will be able to throw open these lands, with the advantages of the Homestead Act and the Agricultural Bank Act applying to them, although they have not applied to these lands hitherto. The people who live there now, and those who may come there, will have all the advantages of the lfberal land laws of the colony, including the facilities afforded by the Homesteads Act and the Agricultural Bank Act, and in which the people settled along that line have hitherto had no part or interest up to the present time, and were not able to avail themselves of these advantages and facilities. All along the line at the various towns we shall have many more land sales than the company have had in recent years, and the land revenues from this source will be con- siderable. I see no reason why the whole of the lands could not be thrown open to pastoral settlement, in those portions which are not required for agricultural." When the motion for the purchase of the line, having been agreed to in the Legislative Assembly, was considered by the Legislative Council, the Hon. C. A. Piesse, the member for the south-east province, felicitated the country upon the purchase, which would remove a blight from the district Which he represented, owing to it having been vain to try and settle the country under the conditions laid down by the railway company. He proceeded :—" The old settlers who held only small holdings for the purpose of sheep farming, suffered most severely, because the company took it for granted that, having made their selection in the early days, they had got the best land available, and the company, thereupon, selected all around them, and deprived them of their runs. Fortunately, the Government are to get this land back, and I mav tell hon. members that some choice spots will now be available for selection. There are some beautiful pools on the Williams which are never dry, and the land around them is only waiting for people to select. I should like to lay stress upon this point, because a feeling has got abroad that all the eyes have been picked out of the land. That is not so. In seven years working the company have only secured five new settlers in the district to which I refer, and these do not hold more than 5c00 acres of land." The Houses having unanimously decided to buy the line and the estate of the company, a bill was passed the same session to give effect to that resolution, and hence there is to-day a very much widened area over which the man who desires to obtain land on easy terms may range, and cut his boundaries where he pleases, so long as he observes the condition of lying north, south, east, or 93 west. The resumption of the Great Southern land grants have such an important bearing upon the inducements that are offered by Western Australia, that the short history that has been given of the career and operations of the company has been needed to elucidate the fact that there is, close to a main line passing through a territory 240 miles long, and possessing good soil, a temperate climate, and a fair rainfall, greater room for settlement than in any other quartet" of the colony, owing to the locking up of the lands for about ten years. In other words, had the railway been laid by the Govern- ment, settlement would have been encouraged instead of being checked, as it was by the interposition of private ownership of the land, and desirable areas, which are now awaiting occupation, would have been beyond the reach of the selector. The advantages these areas possess will be appreciated before the close of this chapter is perused by the reader. Professor William Brown, principal of the Longerenong agricultural college, Victoria, who travelled through the southern district in 180,0, found that the country possessed a climate of the most delightful character for residence and certain agricultural productions. As there is a large water frontage, dense forests, and a great variety of aspect by hills and valleys, there are some of the most favorable conditions for rainfall and its conservation. Near Albany the temperature seldom goes over 85 degrees, and never under 36 degrees in the shade. The climate is therefore that of the south of England. Farther north the temperature gradually increases, until in summer it reaches about 100 degrees in the shade, at Beverlev. "With such a geographical range, then, the variety of soil and shelter, the water supply, sea coast resorts, together with the abundance of timber and open valleys, there are attractions of the most substantial sort for settlement. Indeed, the question is one of 'What is it you want?' and not of 'What can I get?' It is evident, then, that any branch of farming and gardening can be entered upon under proper choice. On the sea coast and along the southern sections English grasses and green fodders will luxuriate, and thus induce to dairying as a leading pursuit, though there, also, culinary crops and some fruits will be successfully cultivated. The international seaport of Albany cannot fail in drawing out the capabilities of that district. Mount Barker, with its more suitable soil and climate, will unquestionably look to the production of fruit; the Stirling range is decidedly one best adapted to sheep raising, while those of Broome Hill and Katanning are evidently for the cereals, and, indeed, if required, for any other thing in agricul- ture and gardening. The latter sections are of high value." To an interviewer, Mr. Brown stated that he had made a thorough examination of the south from a farmer's standpoint. His brief and strong statement is that " not the other colonies onlv, but even the people of Western Australia themselves, evidently do not know how much is waiting for development." He saw thousands of acres in 94 contiguous blocks of fine chocolate lands, light clay loams, and peaty soils in all shades and situations. The very hilltops are covered with good soil which are all accessible to the plough, none being higher than 150 feet above their own valleys. The upper ranges have some natural grasses and healthy sheep and cattle runs. He saw several fresh water lakes and creeks that keep good all through the season, and that cannot fail to become an important element in the settlement of the country. Of the timber, as he confessed, he never, in all his American, Canadian, British or Australian experience, saw so much value per acre as stood upon some portions of the Millar Torbay property in the shape of karri trees—hundreds and thousands of acres of magnificent trunks 150 feet and 180 feet in height, without a branch, and as sound as a bell. The late farm manager of the agricultural college, Rosewcrthy, South Australia (Mr. M. Eastwood), has stated "that the land along the line, from an agricultural point of view, may be classed in two sections, that within the first 45 miles from Albany being rather wet, and the climate mild. The soil is a deep black sandv loam in the valleys, changing generally to light sand and iron- stone on the hills. This land is well suited to the growth of English grasses, clovers, lucernes, etc., and on this account will be well adapted to dairying in all its branches. All kinds of market garden produce can be grown all the year round in abundance, and for fruit culture the climate and soil are admirably suited. Large quantities of green fodder may be provided throughout the vear for cattle. Most of this land is rather heavily timbered with red gum and jarrah and is expensive to clear and cultivate. Some of the valleys within a few miles of Albanv are almost clear of timber, but require drainage. Beyond the 45 miles the country rapidly changes, the climate becomes much warmer and drier, and the soil less sandy. The red gum and jarrah give place to white gum, York gum and jamwood, the two latter trees generallv being indicative of good soil. Along this portion of the line the countrv is undulating in character, the soil varving in quality from rich chocolate loam in the vallevs to light grey sand and often ironstone and gravel on the hills. The chocolate soil is well adapted to the growth of wheat and other cereals. The wheat crops growing in different settle- ments along the line this past season are as fine as I have seen in any of the eastern colonies, yielding from 18 to 25 bushels of grain of first class qualitv. This portion of the land (between Beverlev and Mount Barker) I consider will be largelv occupied by wheat growers. It is, in my opinion, speciallv adapted to wheat and sheep farming combined. The vine and fruit trees will also repay the settler for planting. Much of the poorer soils on the hills will, when partially cleared of timber bv ringing and burning the undergrowth, grow good grass and make first class sheep runs." Along the route of the Great Southern railway the Government have opened nine agricultural areas, comprising 450,328 acres. 95 The Pallinup area of 180,000 acres has been gazetted, but has not yet been thrown open for selection. The Beverley area, which is one of the nine referred to as being available for selection, is described in the references to the Beverley district. Of the others we avail ourselves of the particulars furnished in The Descriptive Notes Respecting Agricultural Areas in Western Australia, issued by the Lands department. This work says :—" It might be thought by some that the enterprising Western Australian Land company had exhausted all the best of the land along their line by their extensive selections ; but this is far from the case, as the land was selected by them along the line, subject to the condition that the Government should divide the frontage with the company." . . . "Of the areas thrown open 40,937 acres have been taken up (to January, 1897), principally at Katanning, by ninety-six settlers, a satisfactory number, when it is remembered that only one of these areas has been open just three years, while some of them have not yet been open twelve months. Lying, as they do, along the route of a splen- did line of railway, between the capital of the colony and Albany, the port of call for the great ocean liners, with land admirably adapted for the growth of cereals, and in many places of fruit and vegetables, these areas possess many inducements to settlement." The Moorumbine area was gazetted open for selection in July, 1893. It possesses the advantage of having the railway running directly through the middle of it, and adjoins the Brookton siding at Seabrook townsite, which by rail is about 223 miles from Albany, 20 miles from Beverley, and 118 miles from Perth. The land is much the same as that in the Beverley area—that is to sav, it is mostly of a light loam, very suitable for the production of fruit and cereals. The timber on this country consists mainly of York gum and jam, and it is estimated that the average cost of clearing would be from .£3 to .£4 per acre. The land is well adapted for mixed farming, and it is recommended that for this purpose a square mile of country should be acquired. At the beginning of 1897 five selectors had taken up 1,754 acres of the Moorumbine area. The Xarrogin area was opened for selection in January, 1893. It contains 25,c00 acres, of which 12,782 acres are surveyed into 42 blocks. There were, when the latest published returns were made up, 13 settlers on this area, who held in the aggregate 6666 acres. This is also a good corn growing area, and it directly adjoins the railway, and is distant only two miles from the Narrogin railway station, which is about 64 miles from Beverley, 179 miles from Albany, and 162 miles from Perth. The Wickepin area was open for selection in March, 1893. It contains 97,cc0 acres, of which 37,195 are surveyed and cut up into 222 blocks. There are nine settlers upon this area, which is about ten miles from the railway, and they hold between them 5539 acres. This is regarded as an especially good area, much of the 96 land being of an excellent description, and well suited for the growth of both cereals and fruit. The timber is chiefly York gum and jam, and the country would cost about £2 per acre to clear. Excellent roads lead from the railway to the area, which is served by the Cuballing siding; the siding is situated by rail about 55 miles from Beverley, 188 miles from Albany, and 153 miles from Perth. Good water has been obtained by sinking at shallow depths in this area. The Wagin area was thrown open for selection in November, 1892, and contains 26,000 acres, of which 16,421 are surveyed. Only a limited portion is rich enough for the growth of cereals, but much of the land is suitable for fruit culture. At present there five settlers on this area, who hold between them 1287 acres. As the area is situated on the main trunk line adjoining the Wagin Lake townsite, and as there is already considerable settlement in the vicinity, on the land which belonged to the Western Australian Land company, no doubt there will be much enquiry for land in this area later on. Putaning townsite is situated within this area, consisting of 44 suburban lots averaging from four to thirteen acres each. The Darkan area was opened for selection in April, 1894. It comprises 62,000 acres, of which 12,131 acres have been surveyed into 52 lots. This area is distant from the southern railway about 30 miles, and may be said to be situated between Wagin on the east and Bunbury on the west. There are good roads leading through the area, and on to the Wagin railway station, which is 95 miles from Beverlev, 149 miles from Albany, and 192 miles from Perth. This area embraces a fair quantity of rich soil, and has a splendid rain- fall. A branch of the Hillman river runs through it. The land would cost about £4 per acre to clear, and is well adapted for fruit and cereals. At present three selectors hold land to the extent of 865 acres. The Katanning area is one of the largest and best agricultural areas in the colony, and settlers located thereon have already achieved a considerable measure of success. It was opened for selection in January, 1892, and contains 100,000 acres, of which 40,907 are surveyed into 282 blocks. Of thisamount, i9,707acres have been taken up by selectors; situated between Beverley and Albany, by rail about 127 miles from the former, and 116 miles from the latter place, and 225 miles from Perth, close to the central station and chief stopping place on the Great Southern railway, and a flourishing settlement thrown open by the Western Australian Land company, this fine area was bound to attract settlement; this it has already done in a marked degree. The suitability of this portion of the colony for cereals is largely demonstrated by the establishment of a first-class roller mill at the townsite of Katanning by Messrs. F. H. and C. A. Piesse. The land costs from ^3 to ^4 per acre to clear, and water is obtainable, especially after clearing. The rail- way runs right through the area. Besides a network of roads, run- ning for the most part parallel and at right angles, three townsites 97 are laid out along the line within the area—Woodanilling, Moojebing, and Pinwernying, and for the encouragement of village settlement, 394 town and suburban lots of from three-quarters of an acre to one-eighteen acres have been surveyed. No doubt this is one of the best areas yet declared in the colony, and the settlement already taking place is encouraging. The peculiar suitability of this land for fruit culture is brought prominently before the notice of the public by the splendid orchards which have been planted close to Katanning townsite bv Messrs. F. H. and C. A. Piesse, and the Western Aus- tralian Land company. The Ewlyamartup area was gazetted as open for selection in March, 1893. It adjoins the railway in the vicinity of Broome Hill, which is an important settlement thrown open by the Western Aus- tralian Land company, situate by rail 139 miles from Beverley, 104 miles from Albany, and 237 miles from Perth. It contains 46,000 acres, of which 39,258 acres are surveyed and laid out in 198 blocks ready for selection, but as yet there are no settlers within this area, due undoubtedlv to the greater attractions of the Yilgarn goldfields during the last two years. The timber on this country is chiefly York and white gum. The land is in parts very good, and suitable for corn-growing. It would cost, on the average, about ^3 per acre to clear. There are good roads intersecting it, giving easy access to the railway line. The area is not particularly watered, but doubtless clearing would largely increase the supply, as in the cases of other localities. The ground in this area will no doubt be taken up when the good land in the Katanning area has all been applied for. The Tenterden area is by rail 50 miles from Albanv and 291 miles from Perth. It was opened for selection in November, 1892, and contains 30,0c0 acres, of which 19,750 acres are surveyed into 58 blocks. As yet there are only five selectors, holding 1,085 acres. The land is chiefly timbered with white gum, and is of the same average quality as that of the other areas along the Great Southern railway, much of it being suitable for corn growing, and more of it for fruit culture. A special feature in favor of this area is the large rainfall, which increases as a southerly direction is taken. This area has also been laid out and mapped with a view to village settlements, fifty-five town lots and 57 surburban lots having been surveyed and thrown open. Speaking once more in general terms of the areas along the Great Southern railway, they are essentially corn-growing areas and are easily and comparatively economically cleared, while in many places vines and fruit of all kinds will flourish abundantly. They are nearly all easily approached by the railway, which is well equipped by stations, sidings and rolling stock, and which maintains a daily train service. The Pallinup area, the largest of the agricultural areas in the south, is situated about 30 miles to the south-east of Broomehill. This area comprises some 180,000 acres, but only portions along the 98 various creeks are suitable for agricultural settlement. It is only partially surveyed at the time of writing (1897), and has not yet been thrown open for settlement. The area contains some good land, both for cereals and fruit-growing. Surface water is scarce, but supplies may be obtained by tanks and wells. It is intersected by the Pallinup river, and Warperup creek and many tributaries. This area is likely, when opened, to become a much sought after and valuable one. Pingdly, 32 miles from Beverlev, is a fine wheat-growing district which offers exceptional advantages to settlers, owing to a block of 191,400 acres, with an extensive frontage to the Hotham river, and close to the railway station, which belonged to the Western Australian Land company, being available for selection. The Moorumbine agricultural area, which has already been described, also runs up to a siding, so that the transportation of produce is well provided for. The Advertiser (Albany) furnishes some evidence of the fertility of the soil. That journal reports that Mr. J. N. Taylor, nine miles west of Pingellv, obtained 900 bushels of wheat from 30 acres of land, or at the rate of 30 bushels per acre. Off the field referred to, Mr. Taylor has taken never less than 22 bushels to the acre, and that only in very bad seasons. Some of the 900 bushels of wheat which is the subject of notice, was purchased by Mr. A. Y. Hassell, who pronounced it to be as good a sample of seed grain as he had ever seen. The next township going south along the railway is Narrogin, 63 miles from Beverley, which is surrounded by large areas of arable lands, which are extensively under cultivation. The conservation of water is rendered easy in this locality owing to the presence of many small watercourses, which can be dammed at a small expenditure of money and labor. Besides the unoccupied blocks of the Narrogin agricultural area, there are 9,180 acres of the resumed land grants to choose from. These grants adjoin the agricultural area, the railway station, and the townsite. Wagin Lake, 95 miles from Beverley, is a very progressive scene of tarming industry. It is studded with excellent farms, which are in an advanced state of improvement. Within the last six months the officers of the Lands' department have been kept busy in registering new applications for land, which inspection shows to be easily cultivated and capable of growing heavy crops. Among the chief settlers is-the Hon. C. A. Piesse, one of the pioneers of the Arthur river settlement on the Perth-Albany road. When the Great Southern railway was opened, Messrs. F. H. and C. A. Piesse, who had been in business at the Arthur river, migrated to Katanning and Wagin Lake. They bought land largely from the Western Australian company, and have spent much money in utilising it for farms and orchards. It is their rule never to keep an acre of wholly unim- proved land, the improvements ranging from fencing and ring- barking on grazing areas, up to the sowing of wheat in fertilised 99 paddocks, and the laying out of vineyards and orchards which are among the most celebrated in the colony. They have manifested the utmost confidence in the Wagin Lake and Katanning districts, and their properties are calculated to inspire the same feeling of reliance in those who come to spy out the land. Messrs. F. H. and C. A. Piesse have altogether 6000 acres of land, for most of which they gave high prices to the company. They cut out their blocks close to the railway stations, abutting on the boundaries of the town- sites. In some cases they could admittedly have got superior country at a little distance from the line, but they preferred to save cartage expenses, and to spend those savings on manures. Of the 6000 acres, 1500 are cleared and under crop in alternate years, about 800 acres being thus harvested each season. The estates include 114 acres under vines and orchards, namely, 80 acres at Katanning, 29 acres at Wagin Lake, and 4 acres at the Arthur river settlement. A drive round the outskirts of Wagin Lake with Mr. C. A. Piesse furnishes a very instructive insight into the resources of the district. His homestead is built on a hill com- manding a picturesque prospect of hill and dale, and a park- like expanse of jam and manna trees. The house, a very spacious one, is built of handsome grey granite, which is found on the crest of one of the local ranges. From the house slope the cornfields, vineyards, and orchards of the enterprising proprietor. He points to trees that are thriving on land which would be too poor to yield more than one or two crops of cereals, but which is capital for fruit production. The apples, apricots, peaches, plums, and cherries are, Mr. Piesse says, as large as those which are produced on the best chocolate soil of the Hon. F. H. Piesse at Katanning; but the flavour is not quite so full or pleasant as that of the fruits of the richer loam, which is always the most profitable when placed under cereals. The great variety of the soils of the district is, Mr. Piesse says, very advantageous, although this natural feature of the south used to be decried. He remembers the time when superficial observers were prone to say that the York gum and manna country should be cultivated, and all the other soils left for pasturage purposes; but the lessons of experience have vindicated the reputation of other kinds of land that was looked doubtfully upon. All that is necessary is to select the right kind of crop for each variety of ground, and every class—except the poorest gravel— will yield a profitable return. In the opinion of Mr. Piesse, it is beneficial to have such a diversity of natural conditions which con- duce to the enlargement of the number of products which the dis- trict has to send to market. In other words, if all the land was of the richest chocolate or deep loams, there would be a reluctance to plant anything except wheat, or oats, whereas, since it has been found that fruit can be very profitably raised where the cereal harvest would, sooner or later, be scanty, every encouragement is given to extend the orchard acreage. 100 Mr. Piesse is much impressed with the facilities that are now- presented to new settlers, in comparison with the harder lot of those who had to pay what are now admitted to have been oppressive prices for their holdings under the regime of the Western Australian Land company. To have the state as a landlord, offering cheap land, and cheap loans to improve it, instead of being under the rule of the owners of a private railway, whose freights, time table, and general regulations were beyond the control of the Parliament of the colony, is an object that Mr. Piesse has labored for. He endeavored for vears to throw off a voke that was repressing the settlement of the land and keeping down the growing of food supplies for the population of Western Australia. The thrall of private rule was creating class interests of the most injurious kind, the Government tenants being privileged to prosper, while their southern neighbors were galled by the rigor of their contracts. Now that the cause which was so long fought for has been won, Mr. Piesse submits that it is within the reach of the new men to do as much in twelve months, with the aid of the Land bank, as many of the older residents were able to accomplish in three years. Formerly Wagin Lake was the destination of men of means, whose substantial stone houses—more like suburban villas of the middle-classes than the humpies in which pioneers have lived in some parts of Australia— attest that they have come to stay ; but even some of these found it to be very exacting to pay as much as £2 per acre to the Western Australian Land company, instead of 10s. per acre to the Lands' department. To them the purchase of the land grants bv the Government has brought a most sensible relief, for Sir John Forrest has announced that if Parliament approves of the step he will be in favor of remitting all payments beyond 10s. per acre, no matter how much the owners of the blocks agreed to give the company' for them. This question is expected to come before Parliament during the ensuing session ; but as the Forrest Government is fresh from an appeal to the country, with a substantial majoritv behind it, no doubt is felt as to the vote upon the question as to whether the conditional purchasers from the company are to be placed on the same footing as those who dealt in the first instance direct with the Crown. So far, however, nothing has been said respecting the making of a refund to purchasers who have their titles, of the amounts which they paid in excess of 10s. per acre for their properties. Mr. Piesse, who is entitled from his long and extensive exper- ience on the subject, to speak with authority, makes the following classification of the soils of the district of Wagin and Katanning :— (1). A light sandy soil, having a clay subsoil, on which chiefly grows white gums and patches of manna. This land will grow one or two successful crops of cereals in a good season, and if it is not then enriched it should be used for pasture or planted with fruit trees. A profitable use can be made of these areas by ploughing them in September and planting immediately crops of the squash tribe, which 101 yield abundantly, while the pumpkins, water melons, etc., do not appear to be any drain on the fertility of the land, which can be sown next autumn with wheat or oats. The only precaution that has to be taken in following the course here prescribed, is that the new land must not be broken up until the seed time for the squash has arrived, for the crop will not do well if the land is allowed to consolidate after ploughing before the squash seed is put in. By using some of their virgin paddocks for producing water-melons and pumpkins for the goldfields, the Messrs. F. H. and C. A. Piesse have had very lucrative returns which, after deducting expenses, in marketing the crop, have gone a good wav towards defraying the cost of clearing the land on which the yield was grown. (2). An excellent chocolate loam, upon which the white gum is never seen; this land grows York gums, manna, and jam, and it is the best that is found in the south. It is equally good for corn raising or orchards, a;id not only produces a heavy harvest, but is of great stamina, even where it is only fallowed by way of recuperation. (3). A red clayey soil carrying a small admixture of gravel. Here the salmon gum is mostly seen, and it has been usual to pass it by. The exper- ience gained to the east of Northam, however, where salmon gum country has been tried with encouraging results, is tending to bring this territory into use about Wagin and Katanning. (4). There is a small proportion of a more friable chocolate soil on which small York gums, more than usually ragged in appearance, appear together with some manna trees, but no white gums. These spots are especially congenial to fruit trees. The places in which this characteristic are found are to the west, south and north of Wagin Lake, but none to the eastward of that centre. Land of this description is available for selection at distances varying from six to 20 miles from Wagin, Katanning, and Narrogin. (5). A white, cold, sterile gravel, carrying some ironstone, is found upon some of the higher levels. This sort of country has not yet been proved to be profitable for any cultivation. It might grow vines well enough ; but while there is so much better land, thoroughly adapted for vineyards, open for selection, vignerons naturally hesitate to risk their outlay and labor in making experiments, which, even if they were successful, would only be generally followed when there is ten times the present rural population in Western Australia. The gravel country is used for pastoral purposes, for which, when it is free of poison plants, it is fairly well adapted, if not too heavily stocked. On some of the lighter sandy loams near Wagin, the peculiarity is met with of patches of redgums, which only grow in heavy lands within the limits of the south-western district. One of these small forests is to be seen near the Tellanan brook, a water- course that was utilised by the Western Australian Land company to supply water for the locomotives of the Great Southern railway. Mr. Piesse says that Mr. W. Fleay is settled upon a similar area near the Arthur river, and he has found the land very fertile. 102 The value of ringbarking as the initial work of the selector is lauded by Mr. Piesse, who estimates that at least 30 per cent. is saved in the subsequent cost of clearing if it is not necessary to do that work for a couple of years. As a case in point, the experience of Mr. Taylor, of Kechualling, is cited. Mr. Taylor, when he commenced work on his holding, paid ^3 and ^3 10s. per acre for clearing. He had a lot of his trees ringed, and this season he called for tenders for removing the dead trees, when there was competition for the job at 30s. to £2 per acre. If Mr. Piesse's advice is followed, selectors near Narrogin, Wagin, or Katanning, will clear only enough trees in the green state to make room for the first year's crop. They will, meanwhile, ringbark all their trees, with the exception of a few shade trees. When the course of decay has made clearing simple and economical, it will be carried out, and one crop of cereals or squash will be taken off the land that is intended for an orchard, before fruit trees are planted. Then the trees will have a clean nursery bed to thrive in, instead of one infested with white ants, which find shelter in the dead wood that lies about a paddock until the second season's ploughing and harrowing has enabled them to be removed. So far, owing perhaps to adopting this precaution, the orchards about Wagin and Katanning are very free of disease, the red scale of the citrus family being the only parasite that has made its appearance. Mr. Piesse predicts a great future for the land on the Arthur and Beaufort rivers when the Pinjarrah-Marradong railway is carried on to join the Great Southern line somewhere near Wagin. Although this valuable territory has been cut into under the "poison " regulations of a former time, which allowed monopolists to get possession of blocks for 21 years and leave them unimproved, there is, according to our informant, enough left to give new impetus to settlement, whenever this fertile division is brought by the steam engine within reach of market. At present an enormous area of well-watered and superior land is only used as sheep runs, not- withstanding that it has a better rainfall than that which belongs to theGreat Southern route. It will be possible for many selectors to get a river frontage, and to be within 130 miles of Perth. To get to Perth by rail now, the traveller has to travel east, instead of west, to Narrogin, Wagin or Katanning, and make almost a circle of his mute before he is set down in the city. So it is not surpris- ing that, with all its many recommendations, the tract of territorv of which Mr. Piesse speaks so praisefully is entirely undeveloped by the husbandman who seeks to sell his produce. There are a few fields and orchards devoted to supplying the needs of the households of some of the old identities, but it is not incorrect to say that sheep-raising is the resource of the district. For the growth of soft fruits, the Williams district, lying west of the Williams road, is reputed to be fully equal to the Lower Blackwood. At Wandering Mr. Watts has succeeded in growing a first-class sample of dates. 103 He forwarded some of them to the Bureau of Agriculture, which placed the fruit on exhibition in the Chamber during the sittings of the last Producers' conference, and they were much admired by the delegates. The dates were shown in all stages of growth—from the germ-buds to the matured date in the fresh state, in wh'ch it is seldom seen south of the line. There were also samples of the fruit in a preserved condition. The size of the fruit, and the lustre of the portions of the tree that were forwarded with them, exemplified that the opinion held by Governor Weld, when he was at the head of the administration of the colony, that Western Australia, in its temperate regions, had the climate of the Mediterranean and the soil of South Africa, was a conclusion drawn from very accurate obser- vation. In dwelling upon what a granary of the colony the southern district will be, Mr. Piesse desires to correct what he speaks of as a misapprehension existing among those who have not travelled from Beverley to Albany, except in the train, that the "eyes have been picked out of the several farming centres." The reply to this fallacy, said Mr. Piesse, is that the prohibitive prices set upon the land by the Western Australian Land company prevented the best portions being alienated. . Had sales been made readily, there would have been no need for the Government to step in and buy back the grants in order that they might become available to the non- capitalist who desired to cultivate them. The newcomer to-day is the gainer by the loss the country sustained in shutting out selectors from 1884 till 1891, in order that the company might select their grants at leisure and with a full knowledge of the likeliest areas, and also, by that wholesale alienation of the public estate he is in as good a position to get a valuable holding adjacent to the railway— now that the colony is in the full tide of its goldfields' prosperity— as if he had arrived ten years earlier, when lucrative markets would not have been open to him to the same extent that they are now. If this statement is doubted, a day spent in the examination of the country under the guidance of Mr. H. S. Ranford, the Govern- ment land agent, whose headquarters are opposite the Katanning railway station, will dispel all misgiving. CHAPTER VI. THE WILLIAMS DISTRICT. Intersected by the Perth-Albanv road, which in a former chapter is treated as the eastern boundary of the south-western district, is the Williams district. The Williams territory is dealt with as part of the southern district—notwithstanding that it runs west beyond " southern " lines—because its soil, climate, and rain- fall have more affinity with the features of the country along the Great Southern than that bordering on the South-western railway. That is to say, it is much drier than the section near the coast line, of which Pinjarrah and Bunbury are the principal centres; the soil is of a lighter character, the timber is smaller, and therefore cheaper to remove, the arable areas are larger, the natural herbage in its virgin state more scanty than will be seen in the south-west proper. The essential advantage which distinguishes the Williams from the southern division is that the former is the better watered. While there are hundreds of miles of fertile country near the Great Southern railway, which runs from Perth to Albany, that are solely dependent upon a conserved water supply, the Williams has the Hotham, the Arthur, Murray, Williams, and the Beaufort rivers, which never go dry, running east to west a few leagues apart from each other. Moreover, the Williams has 24 inches of rainfall, while the south has 16, but it partakes of the dis- advantage of the latter in carrying poison in places. It is, how- ever, one of the oldest settled farming places in the colony, and the residents mostly have large holdings on which they combine the raising of sheep with the growth of cereals. Two causes have operated against new settlement to any large extent—the lack of railway communication and large private estates. It will be necessary to examine these causes more closely than the mere naming of them, to see how far they are In process of being re- moved, lest the readers of this Guide may be led astray by being diverted from the Williams, under the impression that they cannot get a desirable foothold there. A survey of the route of a railway from Pinjarrah to Marra- dong, which is about 45 miles from Pinjarrah to the Williams, is now being made. This is regarded as the first section of a line that will ultimately join the Great Southern railway at Wagin Lake. When this junction is made the journey between Albany and Perth will be reduced by about 100 miles, and a very large tract of country will be opened up, while easy transit to market will be given for a large quantity of produce which has now to be carted from 40 to Jo5 60 miles to the nearest railway station. The people of the Marradong and Williams have for years forcibly represented the undue burden they were carrying, in being outside the pale of the railway service; they urged that the cost of cartage swallowed up the profits of their crops, and that it was more profitable for them to grow sheep than wheat while they were under this disability. The appeal was not lost upon the Government. "One of the principal planks of our platform," said Sir John Forrest in his inaugural address to the Pro- ducer's conference in 1896, " has been, and still is, to give better means of communication to the people of the colony, and especially to those parts of the colony which are capable of agricultural de- velopment." The Premier deplored the fact that every year Western Australia was paying an increasing sum for imported food; that in 1895 .£400,000 was expended on commodities which the colony ought to gather from her own lands; he declared it was time more was done by Parliament and by the Government than had been before to lessen the importations. This declaration was made in April; on the 27th August, in delivering his budget speech, Sir John made it clear that he had meant what he had said, and that he had had the Williams in his mind's eye when he addressed the Conference. In dealing with public works, he announced—" We propose to make provision for the survey of a railway line from Pinjarrah to Marradong, in the Williams district. We hope these surveys will be finished before the end of the financial year and that when we next meet it will be possible for us to go on with this work out of current revenue ; but we cannot make any promise with regard to that, as all will depend upon the amount of money required after the surveys are made, and also upon the money then available for the work. At the same time the Government hopes when this House meets after the general election it will be found possible to proceed with the work of construction." At the time of writing (July, 1897) the financial year which closed on June 30 for 1896-7 shows a credit balance of more than ^500,000, so that the Government may be expected fo include a Bill to authorise thecon- struction of a railway from Pinjarrah to Marradong among its pro- posals for the ensuing session. The scheme will probably receive cordial support, because it will have an important source ot revenue in the timber industry as well as in the carriage of produce. For 23 miles, beginning 11 miles from Pinjarrah, the line will pass through the magnificent jarrah forest of Camballing, which has been a revelation to all who have seen it. "When the world learns from the experiments which are being made in the wood-paving of the London streets (writes a special correspondent of the West Australian) what the value of jarrah is; when public works and building enterprise, and mining requirements, have denuded the other forests of the colony, one of the largest and grandest of them all will make a railway pay of itself alone. If a man wants to see what jarrah timber is, let him see those towering 106 trunks on the road to Camballing. The jarrah of most other districts is puny compared with the goliaths of Camballing. And this mag- nificent forest, in which there are many trees ten feet thick at the base, is a virgin one. Except to clear the road, an axe has never so much as chipped the bark off any of the mammoth trees, that are so thick that the sun is sometimes shut out by the intertwining foli- age." When the question is asked or debated in Parliament—" Will a railway to the Williams pay?" it can be answered by interroga- ting the questioner—" Will it pay to carry jarrah?" An estimate of the enormous value of this superb forest has been made by a Scotch syndicate represented bv Messrs. Millar and Young. These gentle- men spent about a week looking for the cheapest and easiest roitteior a line to bring the timber from the forest, and it is understood that they are making representations, through their principal, which will result' in the Government being approached with a view of obtain- ing large rights over this important national asset, which, so far, has been ceded to private firms in other portions of the Darling range upon merely nominal terms. But, remembering that the Premier has pronounced against private railways, and has said, on more than one public occasion, that all his influence will be exerted against private concessions being granted in a similar direction. Parliament will probablv be asked to decide that the forest shall be utilised as the feeder of a railway belonging to the colony. After passing through the Camballing forest the traveller reaches the Hotham, on the banks of which are some first-class farms. One of them is owned by Mr. F. Cowcher, who left Pinjarrah nearly 30 years ago to get more room. The father of ten sons, several of whom are selectors, he has cleared a large area of valuable river-flat which, in the absence of a railway, he finds it lucrative to use as a fattening ground for stock. To the reporter who collected informa- tion for these pages he said :—" To give you an idea of what I could grow here, I will tell you the produce of two acres of my garden, which are no better than nearly all of the farm. I got last year from those two acres, four hogsheads of wine, two tons of potatoes, half a ton of plums, a sack full of dried peaches, and a heavy crop of vegetables and garden stuff for the pigs. And that is the kind of soil that is 40 miles from a railway. My neighbor, Mr. Farmer, who has one of the best farms in the district on the river Murray, and who has been cropping his land for 30 years, with only an occasional rest, getting from 15 to 28 bushels of wheat per acre, will tell you, and show you, what sort of a corn-growing centre this will be when we get a railway." At present there is not one-tenth of the cultivable lands cropped. Leaving the banks of the Hotham, an ironstone timbered ridge exists tor about five miles, and then the valley of the Marradong brook is reached. There is no need of a finger post to point it out, for suddenly there breaks upon the view an expanse of deep rich fallow land on the hillside, of a dark chocolate colour. Across the valley, and all 107 along its course for ten miles, the same kind of soil extends, and it is closely settled, and largely under cultivation. There, full in view of the road, are the farms of men who have made farming pay, in spite of the absence of a railway; whose homesteads, extensive barns, machinery sheds, and stacks of hay, attest the success of land settlement in Western Australia. Now, as to the profitableness of farming in the Marradong valley, which there is every reason to believe will not much longer remain isolated, Mr. James Munday, who is not ashamed to admit that he began with little or no capital except his brains, energy, and a strong pair of arms, says :—" I can crop at a profit here, 60 miles from Jarradale by road, and not only rear a family of nine young children, but get ahead a bit in the world, after selling my stuff delivered by wagon. I am clearing more land this year, and besides my own farm I have leased this year Captain Fawcett's property at Mokine. I made enough money out of last year's harvest to be able to buy this season a winnower, a double furrow stump-jump plough, a chaffcutter and horseworks." Onwards past Mokine another belt of five miles of forest is entered. Emerging from the forest, the trees in which suffer in comparison of those at Camballing, there is at the foot of the hill a superior blackboy flat in the valley, some selections upon which have lately been taken up. Thence the road passes through 2000 acres which have been reserved for the Quandinning common, and several large sheep pasturage properties. Sixteen miles from Marradong the Williams is crossed upon the Quandinning bridge, which has been erected by the Public Works department to make the stream passable for the settlers in the winter season when the river runs a banker. The flats of the river are well drained and yield heavy crops; they are largely cultivated. Fifteen bushels of wheat per acre is reckoned a fair yield; this quantity is often exceeded by early-sown crops. The clearing on the flats is heavier than it is away from the river, and corn is in cases grown among the dead trunks of standing trees that have been ringed. Three miles from Quandinning Daylerking is passed. There is a Government school there. Some excellent farms are in this neighborhood. Beyond, the country is chiefly occupied by sheep farmers, but some cultivation is also carried on. The largest holder of both freehold and leasehold estate is Mr. W. Lavender, at Boranning (otherwise known as Williamsburgh), 70 miles from Pin- jarrah. He has about 200 acres cleared, out of a pastoral property of 70,000. His return is from 16 to 20 bushels.per acre of wheat, and 25 to 30 bushels per acre of barley. When he is able to manure his land with stable refuse it yields from 25 to 30 bushels of wheat per acre. On fallowed ground he has harvested from 40 to 50 bushels of oats per acre. Some of his ground has been cropped for 25 years. He says that onions and potatoes would grow splen- didly along the river flats. Mr. Lavender has some thousands of acres which are highly suitable for cultivation. 108 The valley of the Marradong through to the Williams river is a comparatively narrow strip of good land, 40 miles long, timbered with wando, white gum, blue and red gums. It also grows wattle, sapling gums, jam trees, and black boys. The soil is chiefly a light- colored loam that has been proved to be so good for the production of cereals that when the railway is made it will not pay to run stock upon the better parts of it. The land is easily cleared level enough to plough, yet is well drained, and has a clay sub-soil. For 30s. per acre all except the large trees can be taken out, and for ^3 the wando and gum trees will be included in the grubbing. At Marra- dong the land is generally of a chocolate color, and this portion is regarded as the pick of the Williams district ; the heaviest crops are garnered there, as a rule. On the flats of the Williams, touch- ing the river, Messrs. Hamersley, Cornwall, and others, in picked spots, get quite as good a return as any of the Marradong growers. This, however, is the exception, as the Williams land is more prone to run light both in color and quality, and to surfer from a bed of gravel intervening between the top soil and the clay. Where the light land is met with the timber is light also, so that what is saved in the cost of clearing might be advantageously expended on manure. So far, with the exception of a little stable manure, fertilisers have not been used owing to the distance which bonedust or guano would have to be carted. The practice is to crop the land only every third year, the fields being rested and fallowed for 12 months each in turn. During the resting year sheep are turned into the paddocks. The stock do well on the arable land, and their droppings help to keep the ground in good heart. The contour of the country between the hills, which are topped with ironstone ridges, is undu- lating enough to prevent any portion of it being soured by surplus water, yet not steep enongh in any part to allow the top soil to be washed away by a heavy rainfall. The valley is indeed a fertile river flat. high enough to escape danger in flood, and broad enough to make an immense cornfield. The Crown Lands department has courteously furnished some statistics showing what scope there is for settlement in the Williams district. There are in the possession of private owners 100,000 acres, within five miles of the main road from Camballing to the Williams river, a distance of about 40 miles. Of this area 60,000 acres belong to farmers and graziers, and 40,000 acres, which were part of the land grants of the Western Australian Land company, as consideration for the making of the Beverley—Albany railway, have recently reverted to the Government owing to their purchase of the line. Between Camballing and Boranning, private estates comprise 19,000 acres, and prior to the resumption of the land grants the company held 26,000 acres in this neighbourhood. From Boranning to the Williams bridge, 22 miles further on, there are 41,000 acres selected, and the company had 14,000 acres, which may be chosen by new comers under the liberal land regu- 109 lations of the colony, although up till the end of 1896 it would have cost three or four times the Crown price of 10s. per acre for conditional purchases, to have acquired them from the proprietors of the railway. The computation is made of land approximately within five miles of the main road from Pinjarrah to the Williams, because the road runs along the valley of the Hotham, and it is in the valley that most of the cultivable land adapted to the growth of cereals is to be found. Including the resumed land grants of the railway concessions the Lands department estimates that 60,000 acres of value to the farmer remain to be selected within five miles of the road. Most of these 60,000 acres are equal to the best of the blocks already alienated, but they are not in large areas. The day has gone by when an immigrant might hope to obtain in the Williams district more than 200 acres of fertile land in one lot, seldom, in fact, more than 100 acres. While the railway was being agitated for it was represented to the Government that 100 or 200 acres would be useless to a settler who was 50 or 70 miles from a railway station. His only prospect of success was to go where he could get, in addition to wheat fields for the sowing of cereals, grazing country to bring in an income from a wool clip and the sale of sheep to the butcher. Now, how- ever, the construction of the promised line will give a man as good a living from the cultivation of 100 or 200 acres as he can now make from 1,500 to 2,000 acres while depasturing is his chief resource. The rainfall of the Williams district, although not heavy, is sufficient. The average is 24 inches, and this quantity, in the temperate climate in that part of the colony, goes further than it would more to the north. The easy slopes prevent much of the rain running off the fields to swell the flow of water in the river. The friable soil easily allows the showers to enter it, and the clay sub- soil stores and conserves the supply. The years 1894 and 1895 were the most unfavorable that have been experienced for many years, the record for 1895 being only 13 inches. But even under these adverse circumstances land, which owing to the cost of carting fertilisers and of taking crops to market has almost always to depend upon its own resources, has grown nothing less than seven bushels to the acre, while 30 bushels have often been harvested when the average rainfall has been registered. In 1896 rain fortuitously fell early in March, which enabled growers to sow early, with a corresponding increase in their returns. As an orchard country the Williams district is hardly to be excelled, all kinds of fruits doing well, except citrus. Apricots, apples, peaches, muscatel grapes, and plums are produced, of large size and superior flavor. So far the fruit garden has merely been an appanage of the steading to supply family require- ments, as so perishable a commodity as fruit could not be sent to market in presentable condition after being jolted over a road in a wagon for 50 or more miles; but with 110 the advent of the locomotive it is expected that the natural advantages that are ready to assist the skill of the orchardist will be largely utilised. The principal places where trees of the kinds we have named are to be seen in a most thriving condition and, in season, laden with a highly remunerative yield of fruit, are Mr. W. Lavender's property at Boranning, and Mrs. Hamerslev's estate near the Williams river. The latter estate is about two miles from the township ; the site rises abruptly from the river bank; it is a picturesque, somewhat rugged glen, with large boulders of granite jutting out of the hillside, almost on the brow of which there are over- spreading carob bean trees—a novelty in the colony—which were introduced many years ago. The close arching boughs and foliage form a cool arbor which the most searching noontide sun cannot penetrate. A young orchard was planted tour years ago by the late Mr. Hamersley, one of the oldest settlers on the Williams, and the result has shown the excellence of his judgment in selecting the site, and the varities of trees best suited to the location. The trees have grown sturdily, and are large enough for a full year's growth beyond their age. The peaches and apricots are bearing heavily. Adjoining the orchard there is a small and flourishing vinevard. Three additional acres have been planted with apples since Mr. Hamersley laid out the ground. The only drawback is the bird pest, which the Producers' conference asked should be dealt with by the offer of liberal bonuses for the destruction of parrots and silver- eyes. Another scourge is the wild dog. Dingoes are more numerous now then thev used to be. The pastoralists say the wild dogs kill so many sheep as to seriously reduce the profits of wool-growing; they have, our informants add, taken to attacking rams, which is a proof of the boldness and ferocity of the pests. Unless shepherds are employed, at a cost in wages and rations of ^65 per annum, per man, it is impossible to keep sheep, and the dingoes have even been known to attack the stock while they are yarded close to the shep- herd's camp. The losses are so great, according to the statements of leading tlockmasters, that the squatters want more people to take up land. Instead of settlers being regarded with the jealousy that exists between the runholders and the farmers in many parts of Australia, they will be welcomed, and the laying of the line is looked to as a means of bringing an agrarian population which will help to drive back the wild dogs. Mr. Francis Cowcher, who has suf- feredmuch from the raids of the wild dog, makes an instructive report, which should serve to discourage on the part of selectors the wholesale slaughter of kangaroos, a practice which helps to nourish and multiply the dingoes. He states :—" When I first knew this district, the dingo was generally a mangy cur. Now he is a fast, strong, gamesome, and well-fed animal—ready to kill sheep for the mere sport of the thing; and there are three times as many dogs about as there used to be, in spite of all that are trapped and HI poisoned. The reason is that the kangaroo-hunters feed the dingoes and enable them to rear all their young. The hunters take the skin off a kangaroo, and the carcase is a rich feast of the best food for the first wild dog that comes along. A bitch with whelps, that would be too weak to kill much game for herself, finds a butcher has been in the bush for her. She eats as much as she wants, suckles her young strongly, and the whelps, as soon as they are able to run about, find plenty of kangaroo meat to rear them into sturdy, tigerish sheep-killers. Now, if a stop were put to the destruction of kangaroos, which are already very much scarcer than they were a few years ago, the dingoes would go more hungrv than they do now, unless they got near a sheep fold, and there they would find plenty of strychnine baits to tempt their appetites. As it is now, the brutes can eat kangaroo without touch- ing the baits, for the hunters will not poison the carcases of the animuls their hounds run down, lest they should endanger their own dogs, so that when the dingo wants mutton he generally likes to kill it for himself. The worst of it is he does not kill one and make a meal of it, but will harry and seriously bite nearly a score if there is no shepherd about." Next to the value set upon a rail- wav nothing was so strongly urged upon our reporter's notice, in travelling through the district, as the wise discretion it was urged the Government would exercise in raising the bonus for the scalp of the dingo from 10s. to £1 per head, even although a moiety should be furnished bv levying a vermin rate upon the occupiers of land. It was pointed out that it is not onlv when the dogs were among the flocks that they should be hunted down, they should be pursued to their fastnesses in the hills and exterminated there. This could only be done by inducing hunters to form parties, and make scalp-getting their business. The Williams district is not free of poison plants, which have been the means of enabling large areas to be held unstocked, unfenced, and unimproved. Under a law passed in 1871, but which has since been amended, it was permissible to hold "poison lands" for 21 years, subject only to the payment of a nominal rent and to the condition that the noxious growths should be eradicated by the end of that period. This led to the Western Australian Land corporation (not the Western Australian Land company, which constructed the Great Southern railway) and other large syndicates, making large selections, some of which have been sought to be made the subject of speculative dealings in London. Before the present regulations in regard to " poison lands" came into operation (providing that the holdings shall be fenced within three years) the valley of the Hotham was encircled with properties upon which York road poison grows unchecked—the propagating places of this vegetation—and which, had they not been alienated, might now be cleared and turned to account as farming land. The cost of eradicating the poison plant by grubbing it out is given at from 10s. 112 to 15s. per acre. A number of paddocks enclosed by a sheep proof fence have been effectually cleared of this danger to stock. The shrub is most deadly when it is making a new growth after a "burn," or when it is in the Howering stage. Those who are entitled to speak with experience of the Williams district inform our representative that a great deal of progress is being made towards adding to its productiveness by providing supplies of wheat and fodder for home consumption. The railway policy of the Government is regarded as an earnest of Sir John Forrest's appeal to the farmers of Western Australia, and to others who desire an excellent opening to become farmers, to lessen the outflow of money for the food grown elsewhere ; it has given, we are told, a strong incentive to put more land every year under crop, and to farm it according to the most approved methods. "Five years ago," said Mr. Cornwall, who is one of the largest cultivators, "there was not a stump jump plough in the district; now there are more than thirty of these implements between the Williams river and Camballing, all of two or three furrows." A plough made in the colony is preferred for its lightness, strength, and suitableness for finely breaking up the soil. Some superior heavy draught horses have been imported to expedite work on a large scale and enable sowing to be done early enough to allow the seed to be germinated by the first autumn rains. Besides wool, hay, and wheat, the minor resources of the district includepig-breeding. A good many fowls are also profitably kept, the birds finding their own living around the haystacks and in the stubble fields, for many months of the year. Many consignments of fowls are sent to supply the hotels and the shipping at Albany. The latitude and excellent drainage of the undulating valley of the Williams, are all in favour of the poultry-keeper, and when freight trains supersede the long journey of the wagon, which, in summer, greatly distresses the birds on their way to the market, the farmers assure us that they will make poultry-raising a larger auxiliary source of income than it is now. A synopsis of the information collated in reply to the enquiries made by the reporter of the Bureau for the Settler's Guide is here given :—The roads to the lands that are open for selection belong- ing to the Crown (and which have this year been greatly added to by the purchase of the Great Southern line) are in excellent order, unless the settler, in order to get an unusually good garden block, makes his way over the hills to the banks of one of the many brooks which feed the Hotham, orthe other rivers which have been named. The Pinjarrah and the Williams Roads boards last year co-operated in clearing the main road between Pinjarrah and the Williams river over its entire length, in order to afford the greatest possible facility for the conveyance of produce to the railway station. This road is comparatively level, and as it was marked out to traverse as much ironstone—which is a naturally macadamised highway—as was prac- ticable, without making too great a detour, the heavest loading can Small groups of this tree (E. pateus) Are found upon some of the rich flats and bottom lands of the watercourses that run through the Darling Ranges. It is very difficult to split or burn, and the high cost of clearing such land has been hitherto much against its settlement. It is generally associated with Blackbovs of large size, as well as forest trees of various kinds, that testify to the general adaptability of the soil to plant growth. "3 travel over it. It is now the advice of the spokesmen of the district, that until the railway is laid, only men with a few hundreds of pounds to enable them to handle from 700 to 1000 acres, with a small flock of sheep, should seek to establish themselves in so isolated a part of the colony. When the freight trains are running, half as much land, with intelligent and industrious farming, will suffice. In this statement an exception is made in favour of the viticulturist, or the orchardist, who, if he possesses only small means, can, after planting his trees and while waiting for his fruit and the locomotive, main- tain himself by doing work for the roads board, or on the larger holdings. There are no surveyed agricultural areas in the district. The selector can, however, mark his boundaries to please himself, as compensation for not being able to obtain a free homestead farm without at the same time applying for an additional 100 acres. Attention is drawn to the declaration in the deliverance of the Premier, Sir John Forrest, to the country at Bunbury prior to the last general election, that an early effort would be made by the Government to allow free homestead farms to be selected anywhere on Crown lands and to further liberalise the land laws in other respects. It is admitted that the Williams has not had a large share of the new settlement that has so rapidly taken place within the last five yeais in all farming localities that have the means of ready transit of crops to the consumer, but all things being equal, the evidence of the yields of cereals, fruit and vegetables are pointed to as proof that there is no more fertile or highly-favoured division in Western Australia. The want of more schools has been brought under the notice of the Education depart- ment, which undertakes to provide a school wherever there are not less than 15 children to attend it. The Williams is described by those who know it best as being well adapted for mixed farming; but if a large grazing area is desired, as well as an arable area, the selection will have to include a proportion of ironstone country and "poison" land. The buying agents of produce firms are to some extent deterred IrpOi canvassing for supplies, which they prefer to obtain nearer to a railway line, but when the stuff is taken to Pin- jarrah or Jarrahdale on the west, or to Narrogin on the east, it finds a ready sale. The railway freights are considered to be very reasonable—especially as about four times the freight has been paid in wages, wear and tear, and horse feed before the station is reached. "We cannot compete, with any fairness to ourselves, with districts that are alongside the rails," is the form in which this argu- ment of Sir John Forrest, on behalf of the producer, is corroborated. At the same time our informants concede that they know of no market so good as that of Western Australia for the cultivator near a line. The crops the district grows to the best advantage are wheat, oats, and fruit, and on the moist parts of the river flats, root crops and vegetables, but not much has been done to turn anything but wheat and oats to commercial account. Only the local demands n4 have been met for other yields. The land does not soon become exhausted, as is proved by the fact that relying onlv upon resting and fallowing, fields are now producing well that have been under cultivation for nearly thirty years. As a vineyard and orchard area the Williams does not take a second place, even in comparison with Guildford or the Lower Blackwood, except that it is better adapted for stone than soft fruits, for which the Blackwood has a larger rainfall and a lower summer temperature. The fruitgrower is advised, with the utmost confidence, to inspect the vales and flats along the Murray, Hotham, Williams, Arthur, and Beaufort rivers before he settles elsewhere. In spite of dingoes and poison patches sheep are largely kept, in fact, they may almost be said to be the mainstay of the territory. The sheep are generally paddocked in enclosed blocks, from which the poison has been grubbed ; if on open country, the flock is always in charge of a shepherd. Eagle- hawks take a few lambs in the dropping season, and some chickens from the poultry yards ; but if the wild dog could be exterminated sheep owners would hardly begrudge the occasional depredations of the enemy of the boodie rat and other ground vermin. The mischief done by parrots and silvereyes in the fruit gardens is considerable. The country is one that stock thrive upon if they are guarded from poison. Not a great many cattle are kept, partly because deaths from poison are so much more serious than when sheep stray on to the dangerous ground. The principal grass is the silver-grass, which grows thickly, and to a great height; dandelion, or Cape weed, has been making its appearance. Until Marradong is passed the extent of arable land in one piece is not more than about 10o acres. On either side the hills wall in the valley closely. Beyond the Marradong the valley widens out; and around Boranning Mr. W. Lavender and others have hundreds of acres, without a break, if you wished to run a plough, from end to end. Until the land of the Great Southern company were acquired by the staie, a newcomer would have accounted himself fortunate if he had been able to secure as much as fifty acres together, fit for culti- vation. There is a better prospect at the present time, for the company, having an early choice of the lands of the district, picked most of the best that were available, and then put an almost pro- hibitive figure upon them. It should, therefore, our advisors state, be borne in mind that, owing to settlement having been retarded on some of the choicest sections, due to the operations of the railway company, a new arrival now has, in the Williams district, a chance that would have passed awav had the Crown always been able to deal unrestrictedly in finding a suitable location for would-be producers. The country is so well watered by five rivers and their tributaries that the artificial conservation of water is not one of the initial difficulties of the conditional purchaser. Drought is unknown, in the sense of implying a scarcity of water for the use of man or of stock, but dry seasons which have had a prejudicial effect upon the "5 harvest have been experienced. In so well watered a country the rivers present facilities for irrigation, in some places by gravitation, but not over any large extent of ground without pumping. The configuration of the country varies from uplands and mountain slopes and ridges to stretches that are almost level fells only a few feet above the margin of the streams. These are ideal places for what are known as "summer" gardens, i.e., for the growth of vegetables from November to April without irrigation. During these months vegetables on the goldfields, and at Perth and Fremantle, reach the highest prices. There is also a good sale for water-melons and other varieties of the squash family, which on the river bottoms to which attention is now being called would give a large return. The timber varies from the smaller trees such as jam, wattle and sapling gums, to large wandos and red gums. The big trees are as often as not left standing after ringing, and their roots are evaded by using a stump jump plough. The cost of getting land ready for the stump jump plough is stated at from 30s. to £2 per acre. The borrowers from the Land bank have not come largely from the Williams district, which is a centre of an old settlement of pioneers who are past the initial outlay and time of difficulty. The Land bank's clients mostly are the younger race of men who have a career of achievement opening to them. The Williams has a short, mild winter, and a dry summer, in which the climate of what his Excellency the late Governor Weld described as that of the south Mediterranean, is enjoyed. The air is the foe of asthma. The residents are nearly all of British nationality, and most of them hold more than 400 acres. The chief advantages of the district are its rivers, rainfall, drainage, fertility, and the cheapness with which it can be cleared. The best farming aids are in general use, and thoroughness of cultivation is insisted upon by those who have made the most headway. The merino sheep is chiefly bred by flockmasters, who are now giving some attention to crossing with Lincolns and Leicesters, with a view to increasing the weight of the carcase and of the wool clip. There will be room for a much larger scope of farming work when the Pinjarrah-Marradong railway is opened for traffic, owing to the eligible areas of Crown lands that will be open for selection within five miles north and south of the railway. A little dairying is done for home consumption, but practically none for market supplies. Besides the public estate that is available for settlement, there are several desirable private properties that are open for sale or lease. The owners of these estates profess themselves as being willing to treat, on equitable terms, with applicants for holdings, on the share principle, for the cultivation of cleared land or the renting of unimproved blocks. The district is not deemed to be adapted for subdivision into blocks so small as ten or 20 acres, as there is no centre of population near enough to encourage specialists in intense culture. Mixed farming n6 is held to be the better enterprise for the average immigrant, who, we are told, will do well enough if he is thrifty, hardworking, and possesses, with common sense, some knowledge of the work which he undertakes to do. The lesson of local experience in the clear- ing of land, is to ringbark first, and to get a return from the land before going to the expense and submitting to the delay in taking out all the largest timber. It is believed that bone dust would be the best fertiliser, and our informants look forward to using it freely when they can get it delivered by a freight truck. Their profit is expected to come in by being enabled to sow their land every year, when it is sustained by enrichment, instead of standing out of the return for their outlay in clearing for two seasons out of three, while the paddocks are depending upon the processes of natural re- cuperation and the running of sheep upon them to maintain their nutritive resources. CHAPTER VII. KATANNING, BROOMEHILL, TENTERDEN, MT. BARKER AND ALBANY DISTRICTS. Between Wagin Lake and Lime Lake, eight miles southward, there are some first-class unoccupied areas of chocolate soil that are well deserving inspection by enquirers for land. This country is rather heavily timbered with morrell, salmon, and white gums. It is highly recommended by Mr. H. S. Ranford, the Government Land agent, who has a wide and accurate knowledge of the ground along the Great Southern line that is most suitable for settlement. There are thousands of acres awaiting the plough within five miles of the station. As Yaarrabin, 1 1 miles nearer Katanning, is approached, the aspect of the country becomes less inviting, a light sandy stretch replacing ihe ruddy land that wherever it has been tilled has proved the mainstay of the farmer. The conviction that must force itself upon anyone who makes the journey, is that with hay selling at £"j per ton, and the Katanning roller-mill idle for want of wheat at 5s. and 6s. per bushel, it is a great pity to see arable lands bounded by a railway, growing nothing but eucalyptus. "What a contiast is here presented," says the Land agent, " in the broad breadths of Western Australia to that of any of her neigh- bors, where men jostle each other at the ballot-box to get the chance of being the fortunate drawer of the number that will entitle one of a crowd of applicants to the coveted prize of a piece of Crown land; or to the tedious proceedings of land boards, where the claims of from half a dozen to a score or more selectors who have pegged out the same block, are decided ; where the bachelor has no chance against the married man; and the newly- married man has to stand aside for the father of a family. Here, equally good land can be had for the asking; there, even when an applicant has, atter vexatious delays and expense, got a holding, he has to pay £1 per acre for it, and go to an usurer, or at best a store- keeper, with a mortgage, in order to carry on, unless he has means. In Western Australia the selector can get advances from the state, through the agency of the Land bank, at 5 per cent., and instead of having to meet his creditor with a substantial instalment of the prin- cipal, after selling his first crop, he can reap five crops before the bank asks him for even a tithe of the loan. Moreover, as selec- tion has had at least 30 years start of Western Australia in the other colonies, all the land near railway lines, and most of the best land, ii8 even where there is no railway within a score of miles, has passed into private hands. Let a new arrival look at the sectional maps of the Lands department, which plot the country between Beverley and Albany, and note the huge white spaces, intersected by the Great Southern line, marked 'Locn , Western Australian Land company, limited.' He can squat where he likes on these spaces, on any of these great tracts that are fertile enough to tempt English investors to spend three quarters of a million of money to acquire them. The land grants, which are once more Crown estate, were the incentive that moved the company to construct a railway 243 miles long, at a time when the population of the country was only a fourth of what it is to-day, in the expectation that buyers for the grants would be attracted at prices from £1 to £2 per acre. The more liberal terms offered by the Government prevented the company making large sales, but notwithstanding that the Lands department gave away free homestead farms and sold conditional purchase blocks at 10s. per acre, there were some customers for the grants of the company. Surely then," says Mr. Ranford, bringing his argument to a point, " land similar to that which, in the hands of the company, realised up to £2 per acre, must be a great acquisi- tion now that it is to be obtained from the Government for nothing, to the extent of 160 acres per man and at 10s. per acre for any balance up to 1000 acres per man." Katanning is 222 miles from Perth; it is the principal inter- mediate centre on the Great Southern railway, having a larger number of farms and a larger township than any other, with the exception of Beverley and Albany, the starting point and the terminus of the line respectively. The local Lands office, and the post and telegraph office are commodious buildings, and travellers are accommodated at a well appointed hotel. The chief private buildings are the warehouse of Messrs. Messrs. F. H., A. and C. A. Piesse; their roller mill, built <~>f brick, and equal to producing a very large output ot flour, was erected before the Yilgarn goldfields created such a great demand for chaff as to induce nearly all the farmers to cut their wheat crops for hay. Katanning does, however, supply itself with flour, while Wagin buys flour from the other colonies at about ^20 per ton for the year 1897. The Messrs. Piesse are anxious to encourage high-class farming. They have shown the way in the use of fertilisers, which are an innovation in the south. In 1895 the Messrs. Piesse used bonedust with success on their paddecks adjoining the railway line. This year (1897) they had tried Thomas's phosphate, drilling it in with 45 lbs. of seed to the acre. The reporter of the Bureau was taken to see the result of the experiment. The phosphate had been used in a field of light loam, within a quarter of a mile of the railway station. Some of the ground had not been manured. The difference in favour of the phosphate, which was applied in the proportion of two hundredweights to the acre, was most marked. ii9 The crop was only of three weeks' growth; the land had produced cereals for several seasons without a rest, and the part that had been left to nature showed some signs of exhaustion, the wheat plants being thin and somewhat pale in colour. The phosphates had sent up a strong growth which had stooled out so thickly as to suggest that less than 45 lbs. of wheat to the acre would have been an ample sowing. This part of the crop was from six to eight inches high; the portion that had no phosphates was only half as high, and it had a straggling, not to say—by comparison—sickly appearance. The crop was put in with a Massey-Harris cultivator, an excellent machine in the estimation of the Messrs. Piesse, but they state that an improved implement that will sow the fertiliser 'and the seed in drills at one operation is now being manufactured by the firm mentioned from a design sent from Australia. A sample of the new machine will be at work at Katanning next year. The pad- docks which we inspected are not representative of the better class of land that is to be seen on the properties of some growers a few miles out of the townsite; but a central position was of the first importance to the Messrs. Piesse, in order that they might be able to superintend their clearing and cultivating operations without losing time from the conduct of their large trade. They have assisted many a selec- tor to get a start by supplying him with stores and implements on easy terms of payment. They had ;oo acres of crop in when data was being collected for the Guide, and their enterprise in adding paddock to paddock was spoken of as having been a stimulus to others to imitate their success. In one year their harvest was threatened by an inundation from the railway dam, owing to the em- bankment of the line, which is close to their western boundary, not having been pierced to provide waterways. While the railway was in the hands of the company it was difficult for farmers to obtain relief from the danger of flood in a wet season owing to the lack of culverts, but the Government are prepared to make them wherever gocd reason can be shown. In addition to growing cereals, Mr. F. H. Piesse has laid out 80 acres adjacent to the railway station and the orchard of the Western Australian Land company, for the growth of fruit of nearly every kind. The orchard is a first-class one, on which money has been freely expended, and which is now coming into full bearing. Last year at the Newcastle show Mr. Piesse made a great display of apples, peaches and apricots, and was a leading prize-taker. The orchard is on the side of a hill, so that it is in a sunny, well-drained situation ; it is less than six years old, and as an example of the fruit-growing capabilities of the south it is sufficiently convincing. The adjoining orchard of the Western Australian Land company was planted as an object lesson of the same kind, and it is thriving well enough to fulfil its mission, if oranges and lemons are excepted from the list of fruits that Katanning produces in perfec- tion. Another notable property is the estate of His Excellency Lord Brassey, Governor of the colony of Victoria, who, at a very early date 120 in the history of the Western Australian Land company, purchased from that corporation 25,000 acres at Broomehill, and proceeded to establish a model sheep farm under the management of an experienced superintendent. Goblup is one of the best pieces of country in the south, and it is a very healthy sheep run. The merino sheep is bred, and much attention is paid to keeping the flocks up to an uni- formly high standard. The paddocks have an ample supply of water from wells and dams, and the fencing and other improve- ments are of the most substantial description. Speaking of im- provements, it may be mentioned that an economical substitute for a swing gate is to be seen leading into the paddock of a sheep far- mer who hails from South Australia. Strands of wire are stretched between two hurdles eight feet apart. By an ingenious, but simple device on the lever principle, the bars of wire are drawn taut across the gateway. A catch being released, the wire and its wooden supports can be easily lifted aside, and the vehicle having passed through the opening, the portable grating is replaced, and forms an impreg- nable barrier against stock. A gate of this description can be made in an hour, and the only fittings required to complete its adjustment are two double loops of wire around the gateposts to hold the top and bottom of the hurdles, and an augur hole and a pin of iron to form the fulcrum of the lever. The system that is in vogue in some English counties, and in Tasmania, of feeding sheep on young crops of wheat and oats, is adopted by Mr. C. A. Piesse. He says that, pro- vided the stock are not too long kept off the sprouting corn, or allowed to remain too long upon it, they do a great deal of good. The crop may be almost eaten bare up to the sixth week of its coming through the seed-bed, and the result will be a more even growth and better filled ears of corn. The stalk may not be so long, but the plants stool as the result of being fed down at the right time and with judgment, but the harvest is heavier than if the sheep had been kept off it, especially if the feeding down is followed by a liberal fall of rain. Mr. A. Piesse, a younger brother of Messrs. F. H. and C. A. Piesse, is clearing land near the Katanning townsite, at a cost of £3 per acre, for the enlargment of his vmeyard of 25 acres. In his opinion grapes are one of the most profitable crops to which a man can devote his attention, anywhere between Beverley and Kataning. Mr. A. Piesse, who has been at Katanning ever since the old regime of the sheep squatters gave place to mixed farming and a large output of produce, was asked to state his experience of the amount of capital a man would require in order to make a hopeful start on the land in the district. In giving his answer, Mr. Piesse supported it with details which uphold his conclusions. He says: —" A man should have not less than .£50. He should be content at first with a homestead farm of 160 acres, unless he takes it in a place where he is likely to be so shut in that he is not likely to be 121 able to enlarge his holding when he has made some headway, for he will need about 500 acres more if he intends to keep stock, and in later years reach a plane of solid independence. A ring fence and sundry expenses, such as stores and tools, will make the £50 look very small, but with the land fenced the selector will be entitled to get a loan from the Land bank. If he is a worker and knows how to go about his clearing, the 50 per cent. of the value of his improve- ments which the bank will allow him to draw will not only keep him going but will give him something over. This balance, with a job or two on wages or a bit of a roads board contract, will find the money for a pair of horses. He can now get some stores on credit, and get a stump jump plough on a hire note, for which accommodation the crop he is about to put in is a good backing. While the crop is growing he can still be working for wages, and the seasons are so certain and regular that the harvesting of the first crop puts a man in a fair way. I have seen several men get going on the lines I have sketched, and have known of no failure. One man who started three years ago is not only straight with the world, after making enough to pay all his creditors, but he has a stack of hay and stock which he lias no need to realise upon, and lately he has taken up a much larger block than the one he began upon. He came here with less than the ^50 I have mentioned as the minimum of the necessary capital; certainly he got on to some very good country, and was a tiger to work, but there is plenty of good land to be occupied yet, and some of it is not far away." The Government have just thrown open a reserve of 6000 acres, which had been gazetted as the site of a model farm. The reserve was proclaimed at a time when it was deemed that a farm under skilled direction should be established to disclose the productiveness of the south ; but that has been so fully demonstrated by the work of private hands that any- thing in the nature of an experiment is now deemed to be supererogatory. The reserve has been locked up for five or six years, and notice has been given that it will be available on a certain date. All the applications received on that day will be regarded as having been received at the same time, and if more than one application is received for one block the applicants will have to ballot to determine who is to have it. This course was followed vhen the long interregnum imposed by the terms granted to the West Australian Land company came to an end. The company had the right for some years to choose their seleccions, and in order that they might not be prejudiced in doing so the Crown consented not to alienate any of the country after the sign- ing of the railway contract, until the company had got its full com- plement of land grants. This, of course, proved a great drawback to the development of the district. Meanwhile, people were spying out eligible. spots, which they intended to apply for as soon as the embargo was removed. To prevent a scramble, and avoid dis- 122 putes as to the priority of a budget of applications for certain sections, it was decided that all the applications made on the open- ing day of the restored rights of the people should be referred to the arbitrament of the drawing of lots. No more just way, one would think, could have been conceived, but some applicants adroitly made their success almost certain by getting their friends to put in papers for the land. The man who had only one string to his bow had little chance against a large combination, the successful member of which, not wanting the block, would transfer it to the bona fide selector in whose interests the application had been made. Mr. Piesse is satisfied that there will be enough corn grown in the colony during the next five or six years to keep im- ported wheat or flour out of the market. He points to the rapid influx of farmers from the other colonies, who desire to participate in benefits that are denied them in the more crowded and competi- tive spheres which they are leaving. If all the wheat lands in the south alone were utilised Mr. Piesse says Western Australia would have wheat to spare, instead of supporting the producers of other countries as she is doing now. He is a great advocate for the use of fertilisers on the rules of arithmetic in adding up his profits. "If," he says, " it costs ^3 per acre to clear land, it is a mistake not to get as much off it as possible, for it costs as much to plough, to sow and to harvest poor land, as rich. The larger the crop the greater the margin between working expenses and profit. A ton of guano, bone- dust or phosphates will cost or £6, and it will give a fair dressing to from six to 10 acres, increasing the weight and value of the crop fully one-third. In other words, the manuring has cost from 8s. to 12s. per acre, and the enlarged yield is worth fully £2. Whv then should land be left to nature, as it generallv is in the south? We have found that bonedust or phosphates pays better than guano, un- less what is known as ' live guano'—that is containing the ammoniacal salts unimpaired—can be obtained, but this sort of guano is a scarce article. The ordinary sample of guano contains too large a propor- tion of gravel to be the best value. Up to date Thomas's phosphate appears to take the palm for excellence, but its use is at present an uncompleted experiment. Although hay is the most profitable crop to grow just now, when the Meckering, Goomalling and Greenhills lands are opened up, our farmers will go back to growing wheat. In the east the new areas I have named have an advantage of 12s. 6d. per ton in supplying chaff for the Yilgarn goldfields, as compared with growers about Wagin Lake and Katanning, but we can com- pete with those places on equal terms in sending wheat and flour to the metropolitan and Fremantle markets. The Katanning roller mills alone could grind 80,000 to 100,000 bushels of wheat each year, if the corn were grown to keep it fully employed." A ride of a few miles east of Katanning along the main road will take the visitor past some large and admirable farms, past broad cornfields (from May until the end of October), substantial stead- 123 ings and out-buildings, and many other evidences of a prospering people. A flourishing estate is that of Mr. Andrew, a very old settler, who crops about 100 acres of rich chocolate loam. The paddocks are undulating, converging into a large creek that pro- vides an ample water supply for the watering of stock. The ground that is under cultivation grew York gums and jam. Near the house, which is of brick, and commands from the eminence on which it stands a fine view of the property, there are still standing the trunks of some of the biggest specimens of what was at one time a very heavy forest, but which was well worth clearing. The soil is of a very bright, almost carmine hue. It breaks well under the harrow, and can be relied upon to produce a ton of hav and upwards, season after season, without manure, except what is removed from the sheep folds and stockyards. Beyond the fences the green timber is so close together as to shut out the sight of the ground, looking at it from a little distance. There is no more fertile spot around Katan- ning. Mr. Andrew had almost the first choice as a pioneer. He was formerly a pastoralist in another part of the colony, and is still the owner of a good many sheep and a few score head of cattle. His preference is decidedly in favour of sheep. The pasturage, he says, suits sheep better than cattle, for, except in the spring, it is not very long, and sheep by feeding close to the ground get a better living than cows or bullocks. There is nothing but merino sheep on the place. As a farmer Mr. Andrew has found the great merit of fallow- ing. It not only sweetens and strengthens the land, but the prac- tice also enables him to get in his seed very early, and this it is one of his main objects to accomplish. The corn should get every shower of the season, is his maxim; then if the season should prove to be a dry one, the crop is greatly helped to give a fair yield, and if there should be a normal or a plentiful rainfall, the harvest is above the average. In July, 1897, when these notes were collected by the representative of the Bureau, the fields were looking as well as even their owner could desire. About two miles further on Mr. Westley Maley has established himself in a few years, with the aid of capital, as firmly as it would take the average settler half a lifetime to accomplish. But although Mr. Maley has smoothed his way by employing a great deal of labor, his place is none the less an object lesson of what may be accomplished on a smaller scale by those who do most or all their own work. Even before an axe or a plough was used on Mr. Maley's location its value was apparent to those who passed over it. A member of the survey party that plotted it was apprised that Mr. Maley, who was then well-known in commercial circles in the city, was willing to renounce the desk for a country life if he could get a very eligible holding. As the result of the special information, the southern district gamed a settler who has not been content to move along well-worn ruts according to old fashioned rules of farming. Having got an area that is not better than many others along the 124 Great Southern line, but which has more superlatively good land for its acreage than is commonly found, Mr. Maley let large contracts for clearing, and imported white Tuscan and purple straw varieties of seed wheat, as well as the seeds of Johnson grass and of other herbage, which he judged would be especially well adapted to the district. Of the white Tuscan he says :—" If you do not sow it early it is an absolute failure; if it is sown in time, the yield is larger than that of any other variety I have seen tried." He adds :—" The purple straw should be cut for hay, and it will then give a very satisfactory return. It is generally sown in South Australia, as it does well where the rainfall is light and the summer comes in early. I intend to stick to these two varieties of wheat; they are popular with my neighbors, to some of whom I have sold purple straw wheat for seed at 7s. per bushel." Mr. Maley in reply to enquiries as to what he thinks of the countrv as a field for settlement, has made the following statement:—" There is, I believe, an excellent future before farmers here, but the one thing to be garded against is earth hunger. A man, where there is so much room to select and such liberal land laws prevail, can easily cripple himself by grasping too large an area, I mean more than he can profitably use. It is so easy to pay sixpence per acre per annum that there is a temptation to lose sight of the improvemeiTts, and also of the fact that unless the ground is fenced, ringbarked, and stocked, it is a drag instead of a help. The object to be put before all others is to make as much land as possible earn an income, not to scatter one's energies in trying to cover too much ground. Another point that I think it is well to bear in mind: that it is better to go a little farther from a railway station and get first-class land, than to have a train at the farm door, if the country is inferior. I do not say the ground right at Katan- ning is inferior, but it is not so good as it is here at my place, five miles away. There the soil is less than a foot deep, here it is two feet deep, but there is not an unlimited quantity of it. Not far out- side mv boundaries you come upon ironstone and poor gravel. That class of country is among the ranges, and the principal timber found upon it is white gum. I call it third-class country, useful, if lightly stocked, for carrving sheep. Wherever a chocolate soil above clay can be found it ought to be selected, as it is good for every kind of cultivation, and if laid down with artificial grasses, will support a lot of stock. I have been sowing Johnson grass, which does very well indeed, but not better than corkscrew grass— one of the native grasses—which cannot be excelled if it is given a chance on corn lands that are let go back to pasture. It is very drought-resisting and prolific, and I do not know a better friend of the stockmaster in the whole range of botanical research. Silver grass is also well worthy of encouragement; although it is com- paratively short-lived it is very luxuriant in the spring, and stock fatten rapidly upon it. After it ripens, if the paddocks have been saved, sheep thrive upon it." Mr. Maley, discussing methods of 125 cultivation, states that he has found the sprinkling of lime over seed wheat, after it comes out of the pickling tub, to be very beneficial. It imparts a vigorous growth to the young crop as soon as it appears through the ground. A bushel of lime is sufficient for the treatment of enough seed for 100 acres. The use of lime was learned by him in South Australia, and trial has, in his opinion, proved its value wherever the crop is not grown on a limestone formation. The lime is not slacked, but used just as it comes from the kiln. The strength of the bluestone, which he approves of, is half a pound of bluestone mixed with enough water to immerse a bag of wheat. Another of his successful experiments is that of the tree lucerne, it needs no attention, grows quickly, and is greedily eaten by stock. He has had 120 acres cleared for £2 10s. per acre, and has always been able to get plenty of men to do the work. His greatest trouble has been the shortness of water, as the wells he has made have not in every case reached water. His counsel would be to make a dam in the first instance, and do without stock for a year or two until clearing has brought soaks into view. Fallowing is recommended by Mr. Maley, not only because of the wholesome effect it has upon the land, but also because it allows him to get a great deal of his ploughing done in the slack time of the year ready for early sowing. He learns a lesson in this respect from self-sown crops, which always yield heavily; one of them gave 20 bushels of wheat to the acre. Not only does the early sown crop yield more hay, but it stools out freely, and there are more ears of wheat than when the farmer gets behind with his ploughing by waiting for the autumn rains. Al- though he has not yet planted many fruit trees, he thinks highly of his district for vineyards and orchards as well as for cereals. Broomehill, 139 miles from Beverley, is distinguished for a more liberal rainfall than that of the more northerly portions of the southern district. It has a salubrious climate, and a great tract of territory where farmers are doing well. Three miles to the west of the station is the settlement, where there are many desirable farms. Lord Brassey's property which has been previously referred to is in this vicinity. The climate and rainfall are so regular and the soil so fertile, that 18 to 20 bushels of wheat is an ordinary crop. On the east of the line, Mr. Powell, a late chairman of the Western Austra- lian Land company, and Mr. Hassell, together purchased 34,800 acres, portions of which have been cleared and brought under cultivation. On Mr. Hassell's property-water has been obtained at a depth of 12ft. from the surface. The company contemplated estab- lishing a training farm at Broomehill, where young men would gain " colonial experience" with a view to placing them on farms suited to their means, when they are considered capable of managing on their own account. Surburban lots have been surveyed at Broomehill, and many of them have been pur- chased by railway employees in order that they may raise 126 garden produce for the use of their families. These suburban blocks range from 10 to 15 acres and they are sold at 10s. per acre. The Western Australian Land company used to charge the purchaser with the cost of surveying suburban lots; the charge had to be paid in instalments, the first of which was due when the application was approved. The Government makes no charge for surveying any Crown lands, except areas which are applied for under the poison regulations, in which case the consideration which the Lands department receives beyond the benefit that accrues from the clearing of the ground from poison is merely nominal. Ettacup was one of the first places in the southern district where settlement took place, some of the grants being nearly as old as those which are associated with the history of York, from which the early pastoralists came to settle nearer the coast. The Governor of the colony, having visited these settlers and their children in 1884, wrote :—" Many of the farmsteads I saw are such as their owners may well be proud of. They represented years of arduous toil and of courageous struggle with many difficulties. I found some of the grey-haired early settlers of the colony still strong and hale, although nearly half a century of colonisation had, I was rejoiced to see, enabled them to rest from their labors, and to enjoy increasing comforts and easier circum- stances, while the farm or the station was looked to by the stalwart sons. Wherever I went I perceived that Western Australia, though not a country of rich men, is nevertheless a land in which the honest, energetic worker, of a shrewd wit, has rarely failed to gather round him, as time went on, the possessions which constitute a modest competence, and perhaps something more. . . I did not find feverish, brand-new, shifting, and disappointed communities. Each little township resembled an English village rather than the colonial assortment of stray atoms one is familiar with elsewhere." There is still a good deal of unoccupied land near Broomehill, for the Ewlyamartup agricultural area of 46,000 acres is in the vicinity of this farming centre. While this book was in the press Mr. W. H. Angove, surveyor, of the Crown Lands department, had recommended the Minister to subdivide part of Location 257, which formerly belonged to the Western Australian Land com- pany, for agricultural purposes. The western boundary of this "location" is the Great Southern railway, and it is only a little to the east of Ettakup. The Gordon river touches the south- west corner of the land, which is of a superior quality. In Mr. Angove's opinion the "location " would make a first-class agricul- tural area. The Minister has Mr. Angove's proposal under con- sideration, and in the meantime the ground is open for selection in any sized block that will suit the applicant, who is not restricted by the survey lines in marking his boundaries. A little to the eastward of location 257 there are two large properties which Mr. J. F. T. Hassell and Mr. T. W. Powell bought from the West Australian 127 Land company, the former being 12,000 and the latter 21,560 acres in extent. These estates are used as sheep runs. South of location 257 the boundaries of the electoral district of Plantagenent, which is represented in the Legislative Assembly by Mr. A. Y. Hassell, are entered, and for 12 miles the line passes through Crown lands that did not form part of the Western Australian Land company's land grants, from which it may be inferred that the area is not of the best agricultural kind. There is some good agricultural and pastoral land in location 263, which is south-east of the Ewlyamartup agricultural area, and recently a number of blocks in this locality have been ap- plied for. The Gordon river runs south through this location, which largelv consists of a chocolate loam timbered with salmon gum, jam, and white gum. In the moist, low-lying places along the course 01 the river-paper bark trees are seen. The southern boundary or location 263 runs to within 91 miles of Albany. Here we get into open country that the West Australian Land company passed by, but there are some excellent arable lands in the neighborhood with- in six miles of the line. The nearest siding to this land is at Tam- bellup, between Tenterden and the Broomehill stations. There are between 3,000 and 4,000 acres adjacent. At the time of writing Surveyor Angove is examining and plotting this piece of country. By the time the Guide is before the public his plan and report will have been furnished to the Lands department. He is dealing with an area that extends to within 82 miles of Albany. It touches location 411, 12,000 acres, mostly pastoral country, some of which was obtained from the company by Mr. Hugh Climie and Messrs. Garrity and Co. for the pasturing of sheep. The next land grant still going south is No. 407; it takes in part of the Stirl- ing range, and comprises 77,400 acres. The Stirling range is not rich country. This grant is, generally speaking, a sand plain. East of it, and divided from location 407, is the Tenterden agricultural area of 30,000 acr<;s, one of the recommendations of which is that it has a larger rainfall than those further north. It has excellent railway accommodation, for the Pootenup siding, the Cranbrook station, and the Tenterden siding, are all within 17! miles of each other. Cranbrook is 175 miles from Beverley. A large tank, containing two and a quarter million gallons, was made by the company for the purposes of the railway. It soon became full of good fresh water, which shows how easily water can be con- served in the south at a moderate outlay. The Land company planted a wattle plantation for experimental purposes at Cranbrook. The descriptive prospectus of the Western Australian Land com- pany says :—" From indications in the ranges of this district it is confidently anticipated that valuable mineral deposits will be dis- covered." Mount Barker, after passing Kendenup siding, is the next rail- way station in the direction of Albany, from which it is 203 miles distant. About seven miles to the east of Mount Barker is the 128 Porongerup range, covered with a splendid karri forest. Some of the immense trees measure 70 feet to the first branch, and 18 feet in girth. The Messrs. Millar Bros., large sawmill owners, are cutting karri for home use and export. They have also purchased 5000 acres of very rich black soil, upon which yate is the chief timber. The ground about Mount Barker varies in character, much of it being particularlv well adapted for fruit and cereals. The Poronge- rup ranges, besides being heavily clothed with karri, have a deep, rich soil, which has been taken advantage of by several settlers. Messrs. Dunn, Moir Brothers, and J. Knight, have selections in the ranges, and are growing fruit and vegetables, including heavy crops of potatoes, with much success. There was, by some freak of nature, a natural clearing on the crest of the range, so that the producers were not put to the expense of removing the giant trees, which stand in the way of the hills being rapidly and extensively tilled. The Western Australian Land company received 30s. per acre for the alienated blocks; adjoining land is now open for selection under the Crown. Mr. H. E. Warburton has a pastoral run of 10,000 acres, and sheep and cattle both do well in the hills. Between Mount Barker and Albany there are sandy stretches. The large farming areas have now been passed through, what remains to be seen is garden land which only needs high cultivation to be very remunerative when it is properly treated in small areas. At the nine-mile lake,or Torbay Junction, nine miles from Albany, there are what an official report describes as '' alluvial flats of humus or peaty mould, well watered, sparsely timbered, and specially suited for root crops, garden produce, and dairy farming; its close proximity to Albany, where there is always a ready market, renders this place particularly suited to immediate settlement." To the westward of the lake Messrs. Millar Bros, have purchased 7000 acres which are being cleared prior to cultivation. A townsite has been laid out upon the northern slopes of a large fresh water lake. The Western Australian Land company reserved 100 acres on the west side of the lake for a public park. This station is the junction of the branch line laid by Messrs. Millar Bros, to Torbay for the purpose of developing the timber trade of the district. The neighborhood of the lake should be inspected by those who are in search of, say, 100 acres of land, which they can take up as a free homestead farm, with a view to supplying the vegetable market, which at Albany, owing to the important shipping trade of the port, is not an inconsiderable one. The soil is a deep black rich formation, and there is ample rainfall in this district to render artificial irrigation superfluous. There are sidings at Grasmere, Eastwood, and Gledhow, less than a mile and a half apart, so that the cost and labor of carting produce to Albany are reduced to the minimum. The land drains freely into the lake, and as it is naturally moist there is every natural ad- vantage in this neighborhood which a skilled farmer would desire. The largest and most profitable crops would be cut in the summer, •Y/a^doo £ou;o. There are no surveyed agricultural areas near Albany. I have recommended the plotting ot an area south-east of Broomehill, and shall recommend others, as there are many good sites to select from. There are schools at Broomehill, Kojonup, Cranbrook, Mount Barker, Denmark, King river, and Albany. I should recommend to a man of small means, having, say, from ,£100 to £200, from 160 acres to 600 acres. All the produce grown in the Broomehill district is readily sold, and I believe produce grown lower down around Mount Barker and districts in the neighbor- hood of Albany is readily disposed of. I do not consider the rail- way freights for produce are especially low, particularly as regards small parcels. At the same time, as far as my knowledge goes, I should say the cultivators of few countries have so good a market as that of Western Australia. Broomehill and Kojonup grow wheat, hay, and wool to the best advantage; Mount Barker and Frankland river excel in wheat, hay, potatoes, and fruit, while root crops, vegetables, and fruit do exceedingly well on the Porong- orup range, and at Denmark, Torbay, and the Albany district. The land in the Broomehill district requires manuring to some extent every year, or fallowing. When this is done good averages are obtained. I should think the land would soon exhaust itself other- wise. No one has made a specialty of orchard or vine-growing in the Broomehill and Kojonup districts. Nearly every farmer has a few acres of fruit trees ; I should say 200 acres would cover the two districts. Mount Barker, Frankland river (Yoouminiup), and Forest Hill districts have some old orchards, but not, I think, vine- yards. The total orchard area would probably be about 100 acres. Around Albany there are a few small orchards; the whole area would probably be no more than 100 acres. Many of the cultiva- 144 tors around Broomehill, Kojonup, Frankland river, Mount Barker, and Wilson's Inlet are also sheep farmers. Dingoes, opossums, and tamars are a nuisance in many parts of the Broomehill district. Dingoes and wallabies are too plentiful lower down towards Albany. A considerable extent of poison country exists in the Broomehill and Kojonup districts, infested with York road, box poison, and narrow leaf. I cannot sav what is the aggregate acreage of the poison country, but I should think it would com- prise about one-fortieth of the whole of the localities in question. There is very little poison in the Mount Barker district. Around Torbay and Denmark there are small patches of indigo poison, and on granite country in the neighborhood of Albany there are small quantities of the heart- leaf variety. Speaking generally, those portions of the south of which I , am writing are good places for stock; of course, precautions have to be taken to keep them off the poison patches. At Broomehill, Pallinup, Kojonup and Cranbrook, the principal grasses are silver grass, pin and kangaroo grass, and native couch. There is silver grass and bush feed at Mount Barker, and bush feed in the Albany district. The extent of arable land that can be found in one piece is about 500 acres. For water, Broomehill, Kojonup, Pallinup, Mount Barker and Kendenup depend upon wells, tanks and waterholes. There are waterholes and creeks at Denmark, Torbay, King river, the Porongorup hills, and at Albany. The cost of conserving water is for sinking wells, 20s. per foot; tanks and dams, ad. per cubic yard. There is never a serious water difficulty in a dry season. Well water can be struck at a depth varying from 12 to 60 feet. There are facilities for irrigation at the Frankland river and at Denmark. At Broomehill, Pallinup, and Kojonup the country is undulating. The best ground is a chocolate and brown soil found in what is known as 'cup and saucer' land. The medium soil is a light loam; the grassy lands are red sandy and light sandy. Mount Barker has a brown loamy soil and is rather hilly. The soil of the Albany district is sandy and peaty. Torbay and Denmark :—On the karri hills there is choco- late soil and in many valleys rich alluvial soil. The timber of Broomehill and Pallinup consists of raspberry jam, white gum, York, salmon, morrell and yate ; at Kojonup the forests are of jam, white gum, York gum, yate and red gum. Mount Barker possesses red gum, yate, jarrah and white gum. Torbay, Denmark and Albany are timbered with karri, jarrah, red gum and yate. To clear land ready for the plough costs £1 10s. to £3 per acre at Broome- hill, Kojonup and Pallinup ; from £2 to 2>5 Per acre at Mount Barker and district; from £2 to ^5 at Albany, and from £2 to £10 at Torbay. The crops usually grown at Kojonup, Broomehill and Kendenup, are wheat and hay ; the producers of Mount Barker, Frankland river and the Porongorup range, show a preference for hay and potatoes, and those of Albany and Torbay for potatoes and JUART jjOUNTRY Occupies a comparatively narrow strip of red sand and limestone belt which lies along the coast line from the Vasse to some distance north of Perth. This sandy loam is very fertile, and rests on a subsoil of a more retentive nature. This kind of soil constitutes one of the best vine lands of the country, and record yields of grapes are obtained from vineyards established on it. i4S vegetables. The general yield where wheat is grown is from 15 to 18 bushels; it has been as low as 10 bushels ; their hay harvest is from one and a-half to two tons. The facilities provided for trans- port of produce to market are the railways to Albany and Coolgardie. The fruits locally grown are apples, peaches, apricots, pears, nectarines, quinces and grapes. The fruit yield is moderately successful at Broomehill and Kojonup ; probably the crop would be better if the orchards had the benefit of more skilful cultivation. The fruit of the Mount Barker and Frankland river districts is of superior quality. The Crown land open for selection within a radius of 20 miles of a railway station may be tabu- lated as follows :— Broomehill, 40,000 acres; Tambellup siding, 10,000 acres ; Tenterden, 10,000 acres; Mount Barker, 10,000 acres; Albanv, 10,000 acres; Denmark and Torbay, 20,000 acres. Settle- ment has not been progressing, but it has lately received an impe- tus. So far the co-operation of the Land bank has not been availed of. The rainfall at Broomehill is 18 inches per annum; at Kojonup, 20 inches per annum. The rainfall increases as you go south to Albany. For the last few years dry seasons have been experienced around Broomehill, Kojonup and Pallinup. Last year was a dry one in the southern districts of Mount Barker and Albany, where there are generally good seasons. The average size of selections on Crown lands is about 100 acres. The residents of the districts under notice are chiefly of Scotch and Irish nationality. The chief advantages of Albany and Mount Barker are their liberal and tem- perate climate. Denmark and Torbay are to be recommended for their rainfall, rich soils and excellent climate. Broomehill and Kojonup boast most of their healthy climate, being clean for stock, for the excellent land selected, and for the fertile and valuable areas that are still open for selection. The class of implements in general use are reapers and binders, strippers, single, double and treble fur- row ploughs, and scarifiers. There are ample opportunities for a larger scope of work. In stock-raising nothing special is being done, every farmer merely depending upon the stock of his own rearing. Dairying is being neglected. It always has been in the Broomehill, Kojonup and Pallinup districts. Not much dairying either has been done around Mount Barker or Albany. Vegetables are grown to a considerable extent around Albany, Grasmere, King river, and on the Porongorup hills. Potatoes and other root- crops do well there, and also at Mount Barker, Denmark and Tor- bay. There is Government land, suitable for vegetables and root- crops, to be found within the radius of the railway, which has been referred to in answering a previous question. There are eligible large estates open for subdivisional sale, if not available for occupa- tion under improvement leases. The unimproved areas of the late T. W. Powell's estate around Broomehill, and his improved Palli- nup estate, are open for sale; but I do not know whether they are available for occupation under the improvement system. Mr. J. F. 146 T. Hassell advertises for persons willing to lease land on the share system of cropping. The land he refers to is at Kendenup. The terms upon which this land is available on the share system are obtainable on application to Mr. J. F. T. Hassell, Albany. Frosts are prevalent in the south from May to October, those months being the approximate dates of the earliest and latest frosts. Around Albany, Denmark, Torbay and Mount Barker, the districts are adapted for close settlement, namely, for ten and 20-acre men. Poultry is not largely kept in this part of the colony; bees not at all. From mv observation the chief requisites for a new settler are the possession of not less than ^100 for the taking up of 100 acres, a single and double furrow plough, two horses, dray and harness. A reaper and binder he can hire for the first year. The lessons of local experience in the clearing and treatment of the land are :—(1.) That although a total clearing by grubbing is the best, it is too expensive for the small man. (2.) It is better to grub the smaller trees and ringbark the big ones. (3.) My impression in Victoria was, and many Victorians bear me out in this, that the land is enriched by the timber being ringbarked for two years before being grubbed. It seems to give back to the soil some quality which it does not seem to have if the trees are grubbed and cleared right off. Besides being cheaper to wait till the trees are dead and dry, it is quicker to plough between them while they are dying, and a new man can consequently get more land under crop during the first few years after he goes upon his holding. The best results have been obtained from the use of bone dust; it is superior to any other fertiliser. Liberal manuring is certainly profitable from the outset. The suggestions I would make for the guidance of new settlers are :—(1.) They should get all the information they can from the Government land agents, who will be able to advise them where to select land. Probably by so doing they will not be disappointed. On reaching a district where they intend to look for land they should hunt up a Government surveyor, if there is one in the neighborhood, who will be able to fully advise them. Having secured their land, if the season is early, they will do well to grub the small trees only and ringbark the larger ones, putting in as much crop as possible the same year. (2.) Then the land should be fenced in while the seed is in the ground, if it is getting late in the sowing season, in order to save time. There will then be something coming in to keep the pot boiling. A larger area can then be got ready for cropping next year. Do not miss sowing for a year by trying to get too much ready for the plough all at once. {3.) The land should be well ploughed, not simply scratched over as is too often done, with the result of failure. I know of a man near Ettakup who ploughs his land well and harrows it properly; he never fails to get a good crop. (4.) The selector should also select a suitable site for a tank for the conservation of water. A good tank is seldom found wanting in a bad season." 147 The following recommendations have been made by Mr. H. S. Ranford, Government Land agent at Katanning, with reference to the areas in the southern district :—" Katanning, April 30, 1897. (1.) If the land along the Great Southern railway is to be settled and improved to any great extent, it is very necessary that the pro- visions under which second and third class homestead leases can be obtained should be legally amended, so that such leases might be granted throughout the south-west division. (2.) Taking the Hordern area, 80 miles wide, between Beverley and Albany, this would contain about 12,000,0c0 acres, and I consider that dividing the land into first, second, third class, and what might justly be called ' poison land,' we might fairly assume that we have 3,000,000 acres of each sort; so the necessity for making provision for second and third class land is readily apparent. (3.) The classification should be made after selection, as the area is so vast and beyond our means to survey in sufficiently accurate manner to show in our plans as required by the present Act. Rent should be paid at second class rates, pending inspection. (4.) The sooner arrangements can be made to grant homestead leases, the better for these districts and the colony." CHAPTER VIII. THE ESPERANCE DISTRICT. The Esperance district extends from the Hamersley river to Eucla, on the south-east, where the territory of Western Australia touches that of South Australia. Esperance is 237 miles east from Albany by sea, 120 miles from Dundas, and 140 from Norseman. There is at Esperance Bay a large and safe harbor; the port is so sheltered by numerous islands that it has, from the town, the appearance of being land-locked. The opening up of the Dundas and Norseman goldfields has given much value to the country near Esperance from a farmer's point of view. The great saving in the cost of sending locally grown produce to those goldfields, as compared with bringing it from a distance, is too patent to need any exemplification. Esperance is the nearest point to the Yilgarn goldfields. It has asked to be connected with Coolgardie by a direct railway, but in order that an intending selector may not be misled, it may be said the request is not likely to be granted. The matter was debated in the Legislative Assembly on the 7th October, 1896. Mr C. J. Moran, member for Yilgarn, then moved :—"(1.) That in the opinion of this House, it is desirable that a railway line should be constructed from Esperance Bay to Norseman forthwith. (2.) That if the Government do not choose to undertake the work they should be empowered to grant permission to private personsto build the line." He urged that there was more foreign capital available for the development of Norseman and Dundas goldfields by very many hundreds of thousands of pounds than was set apart for the Southern Cross fields at the time the House decided to build the railway to Southern Cross. The Norseman goldfield, he sub- mitted, had every prospect of being rapidly developed, provided the mines there were given the same facilities of transit that were given to the other goldfields. Private persons had offered to con- struct the line, and one or them had undertaken to hand over the line to the Government in ten years. Another offer conceded to the Government the right to fix the maximum rate per ton freight to be charged on the proposed railway. The Hon. Sir John Forrest, in reply, said there was no doubt that at the present time the House was not prepared to agree to the construction of a line to the Norse- man. It seemed to him that the motion before the House was a mischievous one, because it raised the hopes of the people, which would not be fufilled, and it therefore did more harm than good. Although the line might pay, yet political reasons ought not to be i49 quite ignored in dealing with questions of that sort. If by building the railway in question they would injure the port of Fremantle and the trade of Perth, they had to consider that question, and, no doubt, it would be dealt with at the proper time. He had to say that they had not to deal with that question at the present time. The following extracts from the report of Surveyor E. S. Brockman, dated June 26, 1896, have been courteously furnished by the Under-Secretary, Crown Lands department (Mr. R. C. Clifton) :—" The country for 50 miles on each side of Esperance may be generally described as—First, an irregular belt of sand and limestone hills joining the coast line on the south and extending inland, with an average width of about five miles. This belt of country is fairly grassed with a coarse coast grass, and contains numberless little hollows (with good soil and water at shallow depths), suitable for growing vegetables, lucerne, and root crops. Adjoining the coast hills on the north comes a very irregular strip of ordinary sand-plain country, consisting of loose sand and gravel, with poor vegetation and very little water, having an average width of 25 miles, practically extending to the edge of the 'certain rain- fall.' This is succeeded by mallee scrub of stunted growth for the first few miles, growing on poor sand, clay, and gravel, but increasing in size, with a marked improvement in the soil as it extends inland. From a line about 60 miles north from the coast inland to Norseman the soil is generally good; it is covered with mallee scrub and occasional salmon gum and black-heart forest, and is well grassed in patches, after good rains, which are apparently rare. Generally speaking, the country is poor where the rainfall is good, and the soil good where the rain is uncertain. The excep- tions to this rule occur principally along the valleys of the small rivers rising in the mallee country, and running through the sand plains and coast hills to the sea. The most noticeable of these exceptions is on the Dalyup; but there are good little strips on the Sart, Oldfield, Munglinup, and Young rivers, and also, I am informed, on the Thomas, principally within pastoral leases, and not of sufficient extent to set apart as special areas. There are also patches on the edge of the mallee country. The only patch of con- siderable extent not subdivided, is on the Munglinup, about 4000 acres. Of the special areas already subdivided the Myrup creek area contains about 300 acres of good land. The subdivided portion of the Dalyup special area is very good land, consisting of clays and strong loams; it is well grassed and the clearing very light ; it is within the good rainfall, and inland from the belt of sandy coast country, and is therefore well situated for hay growing for the Norseman market. I consider that this from its situation is the most valuable piece of agricultural land now held bv the Crown in the colony. It would be advisable to prevent the whole of this area being selected by one or two selectors, and I would suggest limitmg one applicant to two blocks as subdivided. As ISO evidenced by the number of applications there is a strong desire to acquire garden blocks under clause 55, on the coast line in the neighborhood of Esperance. In this case I think the regulations exactly fit the country, as there is much good garden land, though in small patches." The Bremer Bay and Esperance districts extend 520 miles east from Esperance. The Hon. G. Throssell, Commissioner of Crown lands, has asked the Surveyor-General to report as to the cost of sending a party to examine and report on the agricultural lands available in the Bremer Bay and Esperance districts. This step has been deemed necessary by the Commissioner on account of the large number of enquiries for land which have been coming from that quarter. At present there is very little detailed information in existence with regard to the agricultural prospects of these localities. The Minister is satisfied that the department should be in possession of the fullest and most accurate data at the earliest possible moment. Although the Government is not prepared to grant a railway at present to Esperance, lest it should ultimately become a rival to the Fremantle-Yilgarn line, they are able to show that the means of transit for produce or mining machinery are not nearly so unfavorable as those existing in other parts of the colony which are without steam haulage. "Norseman," says Mr. A. R. Richardson, late C >tnmissioner of Crown lands, "is specially favored in being near the coast. It is also favored with a beautiful climate, where all kinds of draught stock are able to haul more than is possible in a tropical climate such as that of the north-west. I say the people of Norseman are favorably situated. The people in other parts of the colony such as I have mentioned, may well envy them in living under conditions that are so favorable as compared with the conditions existing in many other places." As for producers, a line would leave them more exposed to the competition of the eastern colonies; it would chiefly benefit South Australia. Mr. Loton stated when the subject was discussed in the Assembly :—" The people of Norseman are doing very well with their present facilities, and they may continue to do well. Some of them can earn very good money by carting supplies to the fields, the same as was done at Ballarat in the old days of goldfields' development in Victoria." Mr. John Rushton, secretary of the Esperance agricultural, horticultural and fruitgrowers' society, sends replies from the society to the questions asked by the Bureau. He says—" The re- plies are as reliable as it is possible to make them, taking into con- sideration the very recent general settlement of this district. There can be but little doubt that, given proper facilities, the district as a whole is capable of much in the way of settlement, and, though the soil near the coast is not striking to a casual visitor, yet what has been done proves it to be better than it looks. We have no reason to doubt that when the time arrives for the construction of the rail- »5i way from here to the goldfields, settlement will be rapid and profit- able. There are no good roads to Government land that is open for selection. The roads board is, however, bringing the matter under the notice of the Government with a view of obtaining assist- ance for the purpose of making roads. We consider the capital essential for a successful start on a homestead farm of 160 acres, would be .£250. This sum would be required for clearing, fencing, working plant, and first order of seed. If a man takes up 500 acres he should have ,£500. There are two surveved agricultural areas in our district, namely, Myrup and Dalyup. These areas were only thrown open for selection on the first of April last, consequently too late to allow them to be placed under crop this year. On Dalyup, 14 selections have been made, and five on Myrup. Myrup was made available some time before Dalyup was proclaimed. The only school in the cultivable country is one at Esperance. We should recommend a man, having not more that from £100 to £200, to take up a garden block of 20 acres. The produce of the district is eagerly competed for by the buyers' travellers; the demand greatly exceeds the supply. Just now there is no market anywhere else as good as that which is at the command of the Western Australian producer. The Esperance district grows to the best ad- vantage lucerne, barley, rye, wheat, root-crops, such as mangolds, beets, etc., pumpkins, melons, tomatoes, and all classes of veget- ables. There has not been sufficient time since settlement began at Esperance, to test accurately what crops should be avoided here. Our society would rather defer for a while giving a definite answer to your question—' What crops should be avoided?' As far as we are able to judge, the land, being of a sandy nature near the coast, quickly exhausts itself; but, a little way back from the sea, there is a large amount of first-class mallee country, which would be capable of growing good crops without manure for some years. There is a very large orchard and vineyard area throughout the dis- trict, that is of land suitable for planting with vines and fruit trees. It would be almost impossible, even approximately, to give the quantity in figures. Some of the local cultivators are also sheep farmers. The district is not much troubled by native pests, such as dingoes, boodie-rats, opossums, eagle-hawks, etc. There is box poison all over the district, principally on the gravel banks of the creeks. It is singular that the poison is in all cases found on the right hand of these creeks, as seen when travelling inland. There is heartleaf poison on the granite outcrops; candiup grass, which is noxious vegetation, is found in the swampy country in fairly large quantities. The larger portion of the country hereabouts is, gener- ally speaking, more or less affected by poison plants. Nevertheless, with care and reasonable attention, the Esperance is a good district for stock. The herbage is of excellent character. There is bush- feed on the sand plains, alternating with grass. The chief grasses and stock-feeding plants are speargrass, barley grass, dandelion and 152 native couch. The extent of arable land that can be found in one piece is, we should think, from about 100 to 10oo acres. This esti- mate includes the mallee country. The country is well watered within 15 miles of the coast. Within this limit of the sea there is an abundant supply, but outside that range the supply is indifferent. The cost of conserving water on the coast is very small, there being no scarcity. The quality of the water is excellent. It can be obtained in wells at a depth of from 3 feet to 10 feet. Beyond 20 miles from the coast verv little has been done in the conservation of water. In a dry season there has never been a water difficulty on the coast. Such a difficulty has occurred in the mallee country. In the mallee the only way of obtaining water known at present would be by condensing. Possibly artesian water might be struck if bores were put down. There are facilities for irrigation almost anywhere within 10 miles from the coast. The general character of the soil and configuration of Esperance territory is :— (1.) Sandy near the coast; (2.) in the mallee country, rich loam with clay subsoil; (3.) the general configuration of 1 his division of the colony is undulating. The country here is sparsely timbered on the coast with paper-barks and yates; there are also peppermint and eucalypti. Outside the coast is the mallee country; the land is well timbered. Cost per acre to clear ready for the plough may be estimated as follows :—(1.) £1 per acre near the coast ; £2 10s. per acre in the mallee country. The crops usually grown are wheat, barley, and oats. These are cut for hav, the general yield of which market are very bad at the present time. Fruit is only grown in a comparatively few places. It has been tried at Fanny's cove. Here grapes, peaches, and figs have been planted. At Esperance figs are grown. Very few other fruits have been cultivated. So far as the experiments in fruit growing have gone fair success has been achieved. Settlement has been progressing fairly well. The co-operation of the Land bank has not yet been sought. The local annual rainfall calculated for the last 20 years is 25 inches at Esperance. The general character of the seasons is good. The average sizes of the selections on Crown lands are (1.) garden areas, 10 acres ; (2.) for farming purposes 150 acres. The land has been taken up by old settlers. So far we have no recent immigration. The chief advantages of the Esperance district are the splendid harbor and close proximity to several of the goldfields, which provide us with an ample market for produce. Esperance is the port of the goldfields. The country between Esperance and the goldfields is of a level character, and presents no engineering difficulties for the construction of a railway; there is also fair pastoral country between the port and the goldfields. The class of implements in general use are single, double, and treble furrowed ploughs, stump-jump ploughs, and harrows. The Osborne side delivery, and the Massey- Harris reaper and binder are employed and give satisfaction. Jn is one ton per acre. transport of produce to 154 the direction of stock raising a fair number of sheep, horses, and pigs are bred. Given a railway, the opportunities for a larger scope of work are good. Dairying is being neglected, and it cannot be said that we do any dairying for market purposes. Vegetables are not grown to any extent at present. Large plots are now. however, being brought under cultivation, and it is hoped that vegetables will be verv largely grown. Potatoes do well and are planted. Several of the potato crops at the present time (July 1897) are looking very wyell. There is Government land suitable for potato cropping available. This land is not nearer than 250 miles to a railway, Coolgardie being the nearest point where the locomotive runs. There are also private lands available for potato growing, but we are unable to give the price and terms which would be offered to purchasers. Frosts are not prevalent and destructive on the coast. Heavy frosts are experienced further inland. The approximate dates of the earliest and latest frosts are May and August, respec- tively. The Esperance district is adapted for close settlement, i.e., for 10 and 20 acre men, supposing that the market of the goldfields is opened up by the laying of a railway so as to enable garden and dairy produce to be quickly and economicallv transported there in good order. Farmers are not keeping fowls or bees. From our observation, the chief requisites for a new settler are railway and good roads. The lessons of local experience in the clearing and treat- ment of the land show that the best results are obtained from fallowing and early sowing. The soil has not yet been sufficiently tested to answer authoritatively the question, 'What fertilisers are best adapted to it?' We can, however, say that liberal manuring from the outset is profitable. There are no eligible large estates open for subdivisional sale, or available for occupation under improvement leases. The only suggestions that we can make for the guid mce of new settlers are that they must have some capital and previous experience in agricultural pursuits." CHAPETR IX. THE SWAN DISTRICT. The Swan district, geographically considered, is a large one, extending from the mouth of the Swan river, the York road, or the Eastern railway, on the south, to the westerly course of the Moore river on the north ; on the east to Bindoon and Bailup (or half way from Fremantle to Northam), and to the shores of the Indian ocean on the west. From a producer's point of view the Swan district may, roughly gauged, be said to comprise only the rich alluvial flats of the Swan river in the neighborhood of Guild- ford, a strip of country that is not more than three miles wide and eight long. These alluvial flats are bounded on the east by the Darling range, and on the west by sandy stretches of coast lands, which up to the present have only been improved by the removal of banksia timber for the supply of firewood for Perth. The flats, with the river frontage to the Swan, were much coveted in the early days of the settlement of the colony; there were many eager claimants for this fecund spot. Governor Stirling, the arbiter, solved his invidious task with wise impartiality on the partition principle, and gave to each applicant only one acre in twenty-five fronting the stream. The long narrow parallel lines of the first grants made near Guildford are still known as Governor Stirling's "ribbon blocks." En passant it may be remarked that the present system of the Lands department, in dealing with water frontages, is to make that frontage one-third as wide as the depth of a block, with the reservation, however, of the water for public purposes. For years no survey has approached nearer than one chain to the edge of a river; along that chain the public and stock are free to travel. If fences are erected across that reserve they may be law- fully cut down. The " ribbon blocks" on the Swan did not reserve water rights for public use. The pioneers of Western Australia who set such store by the goodly territory of the Swan did not over-estimate its value and productiveness. More than half a century's experience has fully approved the judgment of those who first trod the forests of flooded gum that had thickly crowded on the kindly soil along the course of the river. The Swan was for years the granary of Perth; it is now the great orchard ground of the metropolis, and it is equally luxuriant in the heavy crops of cereals and fruit it abundantly produces. The pioneers who sought to dwell in this Arcadia, forecasted its fertility from ordinary observation; the artesian bore has in later years furnished the geologist with the materials for con- 156 firming their conclusions from scientific knowledge. The flats resemble the prolific valleys of the Nile; they are the product of floods that washed from the interior earthy deposits, which, settling layer upon layer in the course of ages, made fat seed-beds that in their transition from their original place had become sweetened by exposure to air and water. In those deposits there was the humus of decaying vegetation, swept from the surface of the tracts over which the floods had raged, and the black loam, with which the flats have alternately been built up. At a depth of 200 feet there have been found boulders of considerable size,showing that, atone time, the flats must have been the bed of a very rapid stream, as the stones had been carried for miles from the ranges, while the pres- ence of the alluvial, to a depth, in places, of 40 or 50 feet, mark the places where, owing to depressions, the stream had coursed more slowly, carrying and liberating as it flowed nothing but mud, which, when dried, became the richest garden mould. It is on the " made" land—made in the manner that has been briefly sketched—that the Cultivators of the Swan are able to achieve their greatest success. As soon as you get beyond the somewhat narrow line of the alluvial, there are the gravelly sides of the Darling ranges on the east, and on the west, cold, sandy country, timbered with banksia, which is of no agrarian account. About here the ranges carry the distinctive sign of poor country in the growth of the kingya blaekbovs, which may easily be identified by a stranger from their single stem, sur- mounted with a bunch of heads, that are very similar in appearance to a cluster of drumsticks. Where these are seen the place is one that the intending selector should avoid. "The banks of the Swan," says Mr. Charles Harper, M. L. A. (President of the Bureau of Agriculture), " are highly adapted to the growth of wheat; the river bottoms are remarkable for some of the yields of corn that have been taken off them. I have been told that 400 bushels of wheat were obtained from ten acres, which have been pointed out to me. Of course that land had been, to some extent, manured. Wheat is seldom grown now on the flats; the crops are nearly all cut for hay. The general yield is about a ton and a half to the acre. The upland is not so rich. The flats vary from 20 yards to half-a-mile wide. I should say there are 2000 or 3000 acres of them in the Swan district proper, that is, close to Guildford. All this land is in private hands. It is many years since there were any Crown areas here. The original grantees got the land in consideration of their colonisation efforts in Sir James Stir- ling's time. Not many of the grants belong to the families of the original beneficiaries. At first, the Swan was almost exclusively a farming district, as it was the nearest place to Perth where suitable land could be got to provide flour for the people. There is still in the neighbourhood an interesting relic oi that time. I mean Cruise's mill, which was driven by the water-power of Ellen's brook, a tributary of the Swan. When York was opened as a farm- 157 ing centre, wheat for a time ceased to be grown, because compe- tition came from the eastern districts. It was easier for the York growers to cart wheat (for they had no railway) to the city, than to cart hay. So the Swan growers, still having the hay market to themselves, cut their crops for fodder instead of for corn, and Cruise's mill fell into desuetude. Ellen's brook is only a small stream, and a dam had to be made above the mill to increase its driving power. Cruise's mill did good work in its day, and it was a good investment for its owners, besides being a landmark that must have been very remindful to the English immigrants, of a rural scene at home.'' The old grants have not been much subdivided; there are now new men, but old acres, on the Swan. An exception is the pro- perty of Mr. W. D. Moore, which was originally selected by Mr. George Moore. Neither have the grants been extensively im- proved, except close to the river. There are thousands of acres which have not even been ringbarked. It is expensive to clear them of their forests of red gum, white gum, and swamp gum, and many of the owners are living abroad. "Absenteeism," says Mr. Harper, " is the reason that more has not been done in the Swan district. In other directions, notably fruit-growing, very satisfac- tory progress has been made. The Swan is a great orchard place now, one of the principal in the colony. Cereal crops are grown, but fruit production takes the pride of place. Latterly," Mr. Harper states, '' a great improvement has been made here in methods of orchard cultivation ; old errors are being corrected and knowledge is being enlarged; new and superior varieties of stocks are being introduced. At one time trees and vines were overcrowded, so that horse power and labor-saving plant could not take the place of the spade; now the plantations are being laid out accurately on the square, quincunx, or septuple systems, and proper work is done upon them at all seasons of the year. The best soil is allotted to fruit and vineyards, with the result that better fruit is being sent to market. You may hear people say that they used to see finer peaches than they get nowadays, but they forget that they are speaking of the fruit of a special tree, of a superior variety perhaps, or one which had the good fortune to be planted in an excellent situation, and to have been attended to. The bulk sample of the yield of the Swan orchards and vineyards is of a higher grade than that which was formerly sold. Moreover, study has been given to having a rotation of crops in the orchards. I can remember when there was a glut at one time of the year, and none at all for many months afterwards. In the vineyard stocks there has been a marked im- provement both in the table and wine varieties. Among the choice sorts that have been introduced, speaking of table kinds, are Knight's centennial, Waltham cross, black St. Peter. Before we got these stocks the standard dessert varieties were white Nice, chasselas, crystal, and Whortley hall and sweetwater. 158 There were not many wine grapes grown of the better kinds. Now there are many acres planted with carbinet, mataro mal- bec, besides doradilla, which is an excellent grape, both for the table and the wine vat. It makes superior white wine. All vines thrive on the Swan ; I cannot say that the dessert stocks do better than the wine kinds, but the table crop is certainly very fine. I have never seen choicer grapes, either larger or of bettei flavour. If anything, the ground is too rich for the wine grape. The crop is a very heavy one, but an earthy- flavour in the wine has sometimes been suspected. Perhaps a more gravelly countrv, with an ad- mixture of lime and ironstone, would grow a more perfect grape for the wine maker. A great deal of wine is made in the district. The largest vignerons are Mr. C. Ferguson, of Houghton, whose cellars are about five miles from Guildford, Mr. George Lennard, also an extensive grower, and Messrs. Nanson & Co." The Swan district is one of those which are looking forward to the establishment of co-operative wineries in order to prevent a glut of grapes, and to ensure the making of wine of a high and uniform grade on a large scale, under the most skilful treatment and supervision. The scheme.has engaged the attention of the Bureau of Agriculture. It is the desire of the Bureau to establish co- operative wineries on a purely mutual basis, so that the producers will reap all the profits of their labor above actual working expenses. The plan that has been outlined by the Bureau is that the capital required to equip a central winery shall be advanced by the State at 5 per cent. per annum, the loan to be repayable in ten vears, on the security of the first mortgage over the land, buildings, and plant of the factory, and the joint and several guarantee of all the members in the group. It is also proposed that the Government shall have power to levy a tax upon the vineyards which supply grapes to the State-aided winery in case the interest and sinking fund are not paid within three years. An alternative plan is that advances shall be made by the State at the rate of 5 per cent. per annum for a period of ten years, amounting to ten shillings in every pound of fully paid up capital subscribed by the groups; the land, buildings, plant, and machinery to be given as security for the subsidy. The proposals of the Bureau received the assent of the Producers' conference, 1896, and at the conference of the following year another resolution was agreed to affirming the desirableness of co-operation among producers. It was urged that in order to prevent the grape market being over supplied, which would result in a serious fall in prices, it was necessary that the growers who do not possess plant and cellars should take steps to provide their own output on terms, which, while being helpful to themselves, would impose no risk of loss upon the State. In the other colonies overstocking had occurred, with the result that some of the smaller vineyards had become unre- munerative, and the large vignerons were given the power to rule the market, buying at quotations which they took care to fix low enough 159 to serve their own interests. As a great deal of capital was needed to carry on the mak ng of wine in a manner that would ensure a high class quality of wine, it was not to be expected that every man who planted a few acres of vines could successfully embark in the business of fermentation, blending, and keeping his wine until it had properly matured; nor was every vigneron skilful enough to make really good wine even under the most favorable conditions. The result was that Western Australian wine had not, like that of France, a distinctive quality and character appertaining to certain districts, and which would enable foreign buyers to give orders with confidence that they would get what they wanted. So far co-operative wineries have not been established. The price of grapes is so good that there is not at present much incentive to see the plan earnestly achieved. There is a demand for all the grapes that are grown, and the growers are, for the time being, content to let well alone, but Mr. Harper utters a warning that there is danger ahead. He says Western Australian vignerons are only repeating the policy of inaction, in not looking ahead to provide a certain market for their grapes, that has proved to be mischievous in California, Victoria, and South Australia. In these countries there was a time similar to that which is being enjoyed on the Swan, when it was only necessary to produce grapes in order to net large profits. But as enlarged and new vineyard areas came into bearing a disastrous competition set in to get the owners of large cellars to take the crop. The capitalists saw their opportunity and took advantage to press rates down as low as 30s. per ton for grapes which, when converted into wine, realised a very handsome profit, after allowing a very liberal margin for working expenses and all charges. The growers, in fact, had to come to the position of workmg for the benefit of those who were enabled to become monopolists, because those who had grapes to sell were without the means of turning them into wine. Those means could be as fairly supplied to vignerons on adequate security as loans from the Land bank are advanced to the farmer; but the State is not likely to offer money from the public coffers to assist any of the producing industries unless the need for such is pressed upon the attention of the Government. By and by, when the menace to the vineyards which is looming up assumes a more tangible shape, Mr. Harper says the small grape-growers, meaning those who do not make their own wine, may find that the capitalist is too strong for them. That has been the experience of other places; the wine-makers who have established a reputation have been able to bring so much influence to bear, owing to their vested interests, that the numerical superiority of the vignerons who have desired State aid have been unable to obtain it. To illustrate the scope of the scheme formulated by the Bureau, and to show the scope of work that a central winery would have in the Guildford district, His Excellency the Governor, Sir Gerard i6o Smith; the Premier, the Rt. Hon. Sir John Forrest, other members of the Ministry and of the Legislature, be sides a distinguished party of private guests, were on April 3, 1896, conducted on a tour of inspec- tion through portion of the Swan district. The object of the Bureau in arranging the tour was to enable the merits of the pro- posal to establish state-a'ded wineries to be better understood by Parliament and by the public. The party were conveyed to Woodbridge, where the large and well-appointed orchard was seen in full bearing. It was much admired as an example of the method with which it had been laid out, its scrupulous neatness and the thoroughness of its cultivation. From the broad verandah of Woodbridge the visitors had a view of the verdant fruit trees, the Swan river, and the sparklmg cascade of the artesian bore, which in summer refreshes the thirsty ground. The orchard is planted upon deep rich flats of heavy black loam, and that it can grow all kinds of English fruits to perfection was shown by the splendid samples which the visitors were invited to partake of. The nursery stocks, which occupy several acres, were in a very forward and healthy condition. The party drove to Carlisle, on the west Swan road, the property of Messrs. Nanson, Lindley-Cowen and Despeissis. The site of the vineyard, which is no acres in extent, was purchased in 1893 from Mr. Harper, and since that time a won- derful transformation has been made. From a piece of lightly tim- bered forest land, light reddish and slate-coloured in different parts, it had become a vineyard that might have been transplanted from a sunny slope of France. There were then in course of being broken up, additional acres for new plantations of vines, it being the intention of the proprietors to bring the whole of it under cultivation. The guests were entertained at Carlisle, and the postprandial speeches bore many references to the subject of estab- lishing central wineries. In proposing the toast of " The Ministry," Mr. Harper said that the Bureau had become convinced that, in the interests of the wine industry, which was destined to become one of the great resources of Western Australia, a new departure should be made. It was well known that every man who grew grapes ought not to make wine, and it was desired to give the small grower the benefit of co-operative enterprise in turning out wine of a high class. To make wine properly required a plant which was beyond the ordinary private resources of the small growers to purchase, especially as it was evident that the vigneron should use every pound of his capital and his available labour in bringing additional land under cultivation. Under these circum- stances, and in order to prevent a surplus production,whichhad been the bane of the viticulturist in the other colonies, the Bureau had drawn up a scheme bv which it was proposed to ask for a State loan for the establishment of wineries in such districts of the colony as had a large area of vines under cultivation. It was with the object of showing the members of the Government, and as many •J^ARRI £oUNTRY, jr stock and carries more stock than any other. The proper management of stock is an important factor in securing success on the land. It is not every one who goes on the land who is fit for a settler's life, and the blame of individual unfitness is often thrown upon the land. The parts of the Midland district I know most about are well watered, if the water is only taken care of instead of being allowed to run to waste. It is easy to conserve water ; there is good holding ground for dams and drainage from the rises into them. The cost of an artificial water supply, which is necessary, is not heavy. Wells are usually sunk for £1 per foot; tanks and dams are excavated for a shilling per cubic yard. There has never been any serious want of water in a dry season; if there had been, we should only have had to blame ourselves. In sinking a well, if we do not get water at a shallow depth, we try another place. The well water is, if any- thing, too fresh; a little more salt would be preferable. There are facilities for irrigation on the banks of the Gingin creek, as the orangeries and orchards of Messrs. Edgar Wedge and Co. and Mr. Henry Brockman most successfully attest. The general character of the soil and configuration of the district is land of a deep dark and rich chocolate; limestone patches, or a lighter and less fertile loam of a light color and sandy texture ; low ridges and i87 vales are the predominating features of the landscape. The choco- late country is very friable, and works up splendidly beneath the plough and harrow. I grow oranges and lemons upon it admirably. There are springs at the Yatheroo homestead which are used for irrigating the fruit trees. The spring water is collected in a dam, from which it is reticulated through channels cut in the garden. The limestone and ironstone country commences about 15 miles from the coast line. The timber in the Midland territory consists of red gum, white gum, York gum, salmon gum, raspberry jam, wattle and manna trees; there are also amongst what may be termed the undergrowth, blackboys, wooly and prickly bushes. We have done most of our clearing by contract. This year (1897) there has been less labor available than I ever remember before, in spite of good wages being offered. The rate of pay has increased fivefold, as compared with what men used to get in the early days of the colony. The rate now is £1 to £1 5s. per week and rations found. The cost of clearing is never more than £5 an acre, and sometimes only as many shillings, but in the latter case only shrubs have been dealt with. At Koojan Mr. Padbury has been employing Chinamen to clear land which Europeans would not undertake at the price he offered, namely, 50s. per acre. The Chinamen found the job pay well at the price, and one of them went back to his own country with £90 in his pocket. It is surprising how much hard work Chinese can do, considering their inferior physique; they keep at it longer hours than the whites, if they get a piecework job. The country which Mr. Padbury had grubbed was ringbarked two or three years ago; every year as the trees decay the land is less trouble to grub, and the price is reduced in consequence. The crops usually grown in our neighborhood are oats, wheat, hay and potatoes, and almost every kind of veget- able. The growers mostly use their produce, or fatten stock with it, as we are so far from the railway the cartage to the line would swallow up most of the profit. The local wheat is grown at Yatheroo; I have a mill there ; it is the only mill in the district. As to the yield per acre, I have never had less than 15 bushels per acre and as much as 40 bushels; my average yield is about 20 bushels, and a ton of hay to the acre. If I manured the land I should expect two tons of hay to the acre. Self-sown hay crops yield very heavily; but there are too many burrs in the crop to allow it to be sent in to mar- ket. If we send produce away by rail, we have to cart it from 15 to 30 miles; we are fairly well satisfied with thefacilitiesfortransport. I have omitted from the lists of fruits that grow well with us, the Cape gooseberry, which thrives luxuriantly on all our soils, except the limestone. The squash family are also well suited here ; figs do not flourish anywhere more abundantly than they do in the Midland district. Fruit is grown on the lighter, not the best lands, and melons, pumpkins, etc., on the moist spots near the watercourses; they go ahead like weeds. The deep red, almost purple, land on 188 the limestone is reserved for grass. I have about 150 fig trees in bearing; I planted 50 more the other day. I would sooner be over- done with fig trees than with oranges and lemons, because you can fatten pigs, fowls, in fact, all kinds of stock, on figs, and they are no trouble to grow. I do not use at home one-hundredth part of the fig crop. I shake the fruit down from the trees, and let the pigs in to fatten upon them; this saves labour in picking and carrying the figs to the pens. Our orchards are fairly successful, that is to say, figs, grapes, oranges and lemons are all that we could wish, but apricots are not of more than second-class quality; nectarines are superior, and the peaches something great. Apples come to a fair size, but the flavour is not equal to that of the apples that are grown further south. There is a strip of Crown land open for selection, 16 miles wide, between Yatheroo and the railway. The company tried to get all the best land, but they were under the restriction that they had to share the railway frontage equally with the Govern- ment. There will be a great deal of selection on Victoria plains. I can recommend a man to go there who is looking for a selec- tion; there has not lately been any land taken up. The co- operation of the Land bank has been availed of by some farmers on the Victoria plains. Personally, I would rather borrow privately if I wanted money, but I am willing to admit that my reason may not be a good one. I hold that if a man should be unable, through some special misfortune or sickness, to meet his obligations to his creditors, he may prevail upon an individual lender to be lenient with him; but the bank is governed by statute, and if a man does not punctually pay up he must be sold up. The local rainfall is 24 inches per annum, and the general character of the seasons is a long, dry summer, and a short winter. Six or seven months in the year, or from the beginning of November to the end of April, there is seldom a single shower. During the past few years we have not had rain until the end of May. The rainy season has been getting shorter than it used to be; the wet weather has been late in commencing and has gone off early. The maturing of the crops has been a very critical time owing to the scarcity of rain. A shower or two that would have been very beneficial to fill the wheat ears has often been withheld. We harvest in November and December; hay is cut in October. July and October are considered our wettest months. The rain commences about the end of Mayas a rule. I have occasionally known good rains to fall in April, and they have been very welcome; we cannot get too much rain in April. The land around here is mostly freehold; it was taken up long enough ago for the improvements to have been made, the purchase money to be paid by deferred payment instalments, and the titles to issue. Some owners have only small blocks of about 150 acres; others as much as 16,000 acres. The settlers are all British subjects. The chief advantages of the district are good soil, fair rainfall, and a railway, although its route is not very close to 189 some of the best parts of the district. The stock fattening capabilities of the Midland are very much in its favor. The implements in general use for farming are single, double, and treble furrow ploughs, mowers, reapers and binders, and chaff-cutting plant. Mr. Drummond has at Dandaraga a six furrow plough, but it is most suitable for stirring up fallow. I use a steam driven chaff- cutter; most of my neighbors cut their hay by horse power. In stock raising attention is mostly given to the breeding of cattle, about 2,000 head of which are kept around Yatheroo. Sheep are somewhat neglected. There is not much opportunity for a larger scope of work at present, as the best of the land is taken up. If ever the large estates are subdivided and sold, farming could be carried on upon a much larger scale than it is at present. Dairying is done during the winter and spring by Mr. Drummond and Mr. Cook, as well as at Yatheroo. Most of the butter that is made is sold locally, except the output of Mr. Cook's place and mine, which goes to Perth. The topping up of cattle for the meat supply is our staple resource. Potato and other root crops do fairly well, but they are only grown in a small way for home use, the same as other vegetables. There is no Government land suitable tor potato crops awaiting selection, nor have I any knowledge that private owners are willing to make sales for this purpose. We get frosts in June and July which prevent a winter crop of potatoes being grown. I have known sharp frosts to occur in September; but as a rule July is the latest month when they are experienced. The Midland district is not the place for 'blockers' i.e., 10 and 20 acre men; they would be too far from a centre of population to be able to make a living by intense cultivation, nor would they be likely to get enough water for summer irrigation which would help them to work with success. Poultry and bees are kept. Nearly everyone has hives and fowls. Bees thrive well. Fowls are sent to Perth, where they bring 6s., and ducks, . 7s. per couple, and turkeys, about 10s. each. It is a healthy country for turkeys, being so dry, but fowls pay better than any other sort of poultry. The chief requisites for a new settler are, in my opinion, that he should get from 500 acres to 1500 acres of eligible land, and should be thrifty, sober, and industrious. He should know the value of money, and take care to get a pound's worth for a sovereign. Some men by careful management make a given amount of money go twice as far as others. The selector in order to prosper in the Midland must go in for stock to some extent, and engage in mixed farming. A few sheep should be bought, if only to keep the weeds down ; they are splendid scavengers, and their manure is not to be despised as a dressing when they are run on the stubble. The lessons of local experience are in favor of ring-barking as a first step after going on a piece of new country, as it makes the clearing of land after the first year so much easier than it would be if the timber were left in 190 the green state. Ringbarking reduces the cost of clearing by at least one-third, if clearing is delayed for seven or ten years. After the trees are dead the heaviest forest lands in the Midland district can be cleared for 30s. per acre, provided the wood is thoroughly dry. As artificial manures have not been used generally locally, I cannot say from observation what fertilisers are best adapted to our soils, but I believe there is nothing better than bonedust. Some bone- dust has been experimented with and excellent results obtained. The day will come when it will pay to manure all round to increase the productiveness of the arable lands, and thus prevent the soil becoming exhausted. Liberal manuring from the outset is profitable if the produce is marketed to make a livelihood for the grower. As far as I know there are no eligible private estates open for sub-divisional sale, or available for occupation under improvement leases. I have nothing to add to the suggestions I have already made for the guidance of new settlers." There are two agricultural areas along the Midland railway which are described as follows in the directions issued by the Lands department:—The Koojan area, which is situate about 100 miles north of Perth, was opened for selection in November, 1894; it contains 14,000 acres, of wljich 9209 acres have been surveved into sixty-two blocks. At present (Januarv, 1897) there are eight settlers on the area, who hold between them 3156 acres. The Midland railway runs along the eastern boundary of this area. A large number of selections took place in this vicinity just previous to the area being gazetted. It is therefore probable that much land here will be taken up by persons desirous of increasing their holdings, as well as other new selectors. This land is suitable for corn growing and truit culture. The cost of clearing would be about .£4 per acre. The Dalaroo agricultural area is north of and adjoining the Koojan area; it was opened for selection in November, 1894. It contains 9000 acres, of which 3685 acres are surveyed into 23 blocks. There are at present no selectors on this area. It adjoins the western side of the Midland railway line. A townsite (Moora) has been laid out on this area, consisting of 89 town and 62 suburban lots. The land here is somewhat similar to that in the Koojan area. The average rainfall is about 20 inches. A branch of the Moore river runs through the area; there are also small swamps suitable for gardening purposes. The Hon. H. B. Lefroy, Minister of the Postal and Educa- tion departments, who is very conversant with the Midland district, says sandy country lies along the road from Gingin to Dandaraga to the Moore river; banksia and scrub occupy this sand plain, which has a most uninviting appearance; there are patches of blackbutt and red gum, but they are small and far isolated from each other. Approaching Yatheroo homestead there is a surprising revelation that is as pleasing as it is unexpected by a stranger. Yatheroo is described by Mr. Lefroy, who is a large pastoralist, and therefore competent to give a practical opinion, as being equal to any fattening place he has seen in his travels. Adjoining Yatheroo is the Kianabbey estate, which has been pur- chased bv Mr. Roberts from the executors of the late Mr. Mcintosh. Kianabbey has the same characteristics as Yatheroo and Dan- daraga, but it has not been made to the same extent as the Yatheroo run. Yere is another notable grazing property. It belongs to Mr. Drummond, after having passed through the hands of Mr. Pad- bury, who was the first to discover its true worth. Besides the large estates there are a number of well-kept farms to be seen. These holdings comprise from 200 to 500 acres, a fair proportion of which is under cereal cultivation. Taking now a survey of the Midland district along the course of the railway line, in lieu of the road, soon after Gingin is left behind, low hills of iionstone, gravel, and growing jarrah and banksia are sighted. The hills extend as far as the Moore river. The Mogumber railway station is on the banks of the river. Crossing the river, 18 miles further on, Mr. Padbury's flourishing homestead, Koojan, is reached. A large sum has been spent in converting the property from rough bush land to one of a very desirable character, viewed either from the standpoint of the stock raiser or the yeoman. A salmon gum forest has been annihilated, in order to make room for rich pasture grounds and corn- fields. A similar area along the railway and a branch of the Moore river is being rapidly taken up by farmers, and therefore the ease with which salmon gum may be cleared ready for the plough cannot be too widely known by settlers. The facility with which some forest lands may be cleared is graphically described by a correspondent of the Western Mail in discussing the proposed Italian colony, which was a scheme of Signor Vanzetti's. The extract states :—" There are several salmon gum forests of from three to five thousand acres area, separated by sand plain and thicket. Some of the sand plain will grow vines luxuriantly, while much of the tamma thicket is suited for both cereal and orchard purposes. The salmon gum country would be of value in about three years after settlement. It would need to be first ring-barked, then, when the trees were thoroughly dead, a box of matches would, render the land fit for the plough. The inflam- mable nature of the dead salmon gum forests is incredible. The trees will burn from the uttermost twig at the top of the tree to the deepest root in the soil. Holes large enough to bury a horse in are created by the action of the fire following the roots down in search of more wood. The explanation of this peculiar fact is possibly found in the statement that all these trees are hollow, so that a vent is left for the flame to travel by. It is absolutely astounding what a single lucifer will do. The whole dead tree when once ignited will burn for days, and a burned forest looks like a miniature volcano field, with smoke pouring from holes which were formerly the butts of trees. Such a mode of clearing is 192 cheapness itself. Ringing will probably cost half a crown per acre, for the trees are thick, and in three years' time after the application of fire ten shillings an acre will cover the cost of clearing what was missed. A reliable settler on forest land was telling me of his experience in this class of land. When the timber was dead he let a contract to clear it at twenty shillings per acre for the plough. Accidentally a fire broke through thirty acres of it, and from his description, after the fire the thirty-acre paddock must have resembled a skittle alley when nearly all the pins are knocked down." Mr. Lefroy says:—"The Koojan agricultural area embraces much good land; this is a stiff red soil that will grow cereals well. The site of the area would doubtless have been taken up by the Midland railway company, only they had to leave half the railway frontage in the possession of the state. The area promises to become the scene of many smiling fields of ripening corn. Twelve miles further on from Koojan the traveller arrives at Moora railway station and town site. Between Koojan and Moora, salmon gum predominates. Moora has a 'telegraph station. A post and tele- graph office and a police stafion are about to be built; also, a new public school. The children of the district are now being taught in a rented building. It may be predicted that Moora will become one of the most thriving townships between Perth and Geraldton as soon as the district obtains a larger farming population. This settlement is retarded by the ownership of the Midland company of so much of the kmd in the neighborhood; the company will not part with any of their grants except at high prices. They have been approached by would-be buyers, but no one has ever been able to buy any land from them; at the same time they have never attempted any settlement of their estates on their own account, and in the face of the generous character of the land legislation of Western Australia, it is no wonder that settlers have not been attracted in larger numbers to the Moora district. Moora is the railway station of the people of Dandaraga, which designation in- cludes the residents of Yatheroo and the surrounding territory. It also serves the northern part of the Victoria plains, the southern portion of which does business with Mogumber. The name Victoria plains is a misnomer, as the land is not level but hilly. The Victoria plains cover the Darling ranges at their northerly commencing point, but the ranges do not in this locality rise to any considerable altitude. The timber seen hereabouts is very similar to that seen in the Newcastle and Northam districts, namely, York, white sal- mon gums and manna trees. There are farms on the plains, but the greater portion of the country is leased for grazing purposes. The Victoria plains have always been looked upon as being of a superior character to the average of the pasturage areas of the central district, especially for sheep. The wool grown here always holds a very good position in the London market. A good many fat ,2 c w >, K H Z- O w 2 < PC CT 2 < C - L , § IS ill fcfi ® C 5 o c .a 5 | o . c js a; ~ u o J* .5 H O u u *> c .2 v. -s 15 ,1^ u w 1 I 0) » i! ,B ■S o .S p. *- 4) ll X . at £ Q 8.1 ,5 E 193 sheep are also sent from the plains to Perth every year. Strictly speaking, this section of the colony cannot be considered first-class agricultural country owing to the presence of granite, but between the stony places there is some arable land that in course of time will be cultivated. Many of the sheep runs have been greatly im- proved; most of the sheep are kept in fenced blocks; some of them are shepherded in the open. There are poison plants in spots throughout the district, but most of the country thus affected is unoccupied. The poisons are of the York road and white gum varieties." One of the principal stations on the Victoria plains is Walebing, which was taken up about 40 years ago by the father of the Hon. H. B. Lefroy and his uncle, who came out from Ireland to engage in pastoral pursuits. They went in search of suitable country beyond the coast fine, which was all that had then been explored, and found a large stretch of good feeding ground at what was afterwards named Victoria plains, and formed Walebing station there. The Hon. Anthony O'Grady Lefroy, who, with his brother, established Wale- bing, became secretary to the Governor of the colony, and subse- quently filled for more than 30 years the office of Colonial Treasurer. During the latter portion of this time Walebing was managed by the Hon. H. B. Lefroy. Walebing carries a large number of sheep, and it has been well improved as far as the freehold land extends, but Mr. Lefroy states that the regime of the Midland company has proved a serious discouragement to enterprise and expenditure in respect of the leaseholds for which no tenure can be obtained. South of Walebing is the New Norcia mission station, which was founded by Bishop Salvado, of the Roman Catholic church, for the reclaimation of the aborigines, who, besides being trained in agriculture and other useful kinds of work, are brought up in the faith of the church. The mission furnishes excellent illustrations of the great variety of crops which the Midland district will produce. The features of the station have been vividly sketched by " L.L.C." in the columns of the West Australian, who drove there from New- castle, a distance of 50 miles. He writes :—" The road traverses country that seems to be given over entirely to its native denizens and a few wandering flocks of sheep. It is chiefly ironstone country, with here and there patches of good clay land, moderately heavily timbered, chiefly with white gum. Almost every acre of this most inhospitable looking country is good for cultivation of the vine, and the day will come, many years hence though, I fear, when smiling vineyards will greet the traveller on every side. Nearing the mission there are more evidences of settlement, and the well tilled farm and neat homestead of Mr. Clune are particularly noticeable from the main road. The term 'mission' is altogether too insig- nificant to express New Norcia, which is really a township, and a more pretentious one, in some respects, than many that boast of a mayor, town council and tax gatherer. The mission building looms 194 up on the right hand side of the road, and on the opposite side is the chapel, all the farm buildings and a number of cottages. . . . The good bishop's hospitality is proverbial. . . . The olives, mission grown and mission pickled, were a treat. . . . The wine, mission grown and mission made, sound as the bell that sum- mons the faithful to prayer, clean and bright, and pure juice of the grape. . . . And the olive oil—no cotton seed here—but com- ing up to the standard of the real Simon Pure. No taste, no smell, no colour. . . . And the bishop's snuff—his only luxury! Mis- sion grown and mission made. . . . And those candied almonds, and figs, and raisins, and grapes, and apples, and a host of other things. . . . The whole time we were there we lived like the pro- verbial fighting cock, and the only two things set before us which were not grown on the place were the coffee and sugar. Farmers, please note. On Sunday afternoon we had a good look round the flour mill, stables, implement sheds, and all the other outbuildings and adjuncts and accessories of the mission farm. The wheat is grown and ground into flour, which is converted into bread and macaroni, and the meat is all grown on stations belonging to the mission. The bishop is a great horsebreeder. The mission horses are deservedly popular in the market. Many used to find their way to India at one time, but this trade has declined altogether. All the stock about the place is good, and the bishop is a great believer in the truism that a good animal eats no more than a scrubber. It will be well when this is more generally recognised. There are nearly 10oo acres cleared, and it takes, as the yield is not very large, a greater part of this to supply the wheat for the mission wants from year to year. The land is rich, judging by what I saw. It is the scanty rainfall and short season that makes wheat growing some- what precarious. The bishop has a thresher with a straw-cutter attached, of which he is very proud, and he also has imported several other machines of recent invention. The mission shows what can be done in the face of the greatest obstacles, and what the ground can be made to produce even with a very limited rainfall. It is a glorious monument to indomitable courage, unwavering perseverance, and ceaseless industry. Under the guidance of Brother Ramiro we visited Glentromie, the home of Mr. and Mrs. Davidson. This fine estate is well known m Western Australia as having been at one time the property of the late Mr. McPherson, a popular squatter, and one who dearly loved a horse. The improve- ments put up in his time show this. The stables, built of brick, contain over 20 stalls and loose boxes, and everything about the place shows that no expense was spared to make it a model institution." Beyond the Victoria plains the valleys of the upper and lower Irwin river form one of the best agricultural districts in the colony. The land is extremely fertile and very valuable, but as none of it is open for selection space need not be devoted in the pages of the i95 Guide to enlarge upon its advantages. The produce of the Irwin is sent to the Murchison goldfields, or shipped from Dongara (the port at the mouth of the lower Irwin) to Perth. On the upper Irwin the Midland company had large grants of country, many of which have been acquired by some of the promoters of the company. Walkaway, the terminus of the Midland line, is another agricultural centre. The Greenough river runs westerly into the Indian ocean, a little to the north of Walkaway. The Greenough flats were thirty years ago rapidly settled. They have had a somewhat chequered history. Until rust made its appearance in the crops, the farmers made liberal profits out of wheat growing. Then a disastrous flood accentuated their difficulties. The flood waters came from the interior and washed away crops, fences, and stock. There are what are known as front and back flats, divided by ironstone and limestone. The fertile area consists of about forty square miles. It is still largely cultivated. On the fiats the land has all been alienated from the Crown. White gums, York gums, and wattles were the chief woods which the first settlers had to clear. Their holdings average about 300 acres per man. The chief drawback of the district is the uncertainty and insufficiency of the rainfall. The soil is of two kinds, it is of a heavy loam, ?lmost of a clayey character on the front flats; behind the lime and ironstone the ground is of a lighter quality. Water can be obtained from springs, but it has a strong taste of lime and magnesia. Fruit grows well if the trees are sheltered from the violent south-west winds that prevail during summer. The back country in the hills is occupied by graziers; sheep are their principal stock ; they rely on breeding, not on the fattening of stores. Nearer to Geraldton cattle thrive when drought does not make feed scarce. Mr. John Morrell, whose place is between Walkaway and Geraldton, makes a good deal of butter during the cool season. There is an eager market in Geraldton for fresh butter. For the greater part of the year new milk is not to be had there. Unless the making of ensilage is resorted to, the district is too far north for dairying, except during the three winter months of the year. For the same reason the farmers get better returns from their crops when the seed is sown in dry furrows to await the first rains in autumn. The wheat is ground at a roller flour mill at central Greenough. Among the chief fodder plants of this part of the colony is the wild oat, which is encouraged to grow on the pasture grounds. The sheep farmers in the hills sow the seeds of the wild oat. The plant is cut, threshed, and the seed bagged until the winter rains are falling, when the sowing is roughly done on burnt ground or other likely seed bed places; the ground is not ploughed to Geraldton is connected by rail with Northampton. There are three agricultural areas adjacent to the Geraldton-Northampton railway. These are officially described as follows:—" The Appertarra area was thrown open for selection in April, 1894, and comprises 196 6560 acres, the whole of which has been surveyed into torty-three lots. There is at present one settler here, who holds 144 acres. The area is situate close to Northampton townsite, adjoining the west boundary cf same, and extending north therefrom. The land here is of a light loamy nature, and should prove suitable for the growth of cereals and fruit. The cost of clearing would be about £5 per acre, as the land is not heavily timbered. As there is a prospect of a revival of the mining industry at Northampton, selection in this area is anticipated at an early date. The Northampton-Geraldton railway passes through the southern portion of this area." The Nonga agricultural area contains 11,311 acres; it was thrown open for selection in September, 1893. It has been entirely subdivided into seventy-four blocks, but as yet no land has been applied for. There is a fair amount of good soil in this area, which has a frontage on the Bowes river and Nokanena brook. The proximity of this area to the Northampton-Geraldton railway line should lead to its early settlement. The dry seasons we have lately experienced have placed a great check on agricultural development. The cost of clearing here would be about £4. per acre. The Weeranooka area, which contains 14,500 acres, and forms a portion of the original Northampton area, has not been laid out in blocks, as at present there appears to be little demand for agricul- tural land in this locality. Mullewa, which is the first township on the line from Geraldton to Cue, the capital of the Murchison goldfields, is in the neighbor- hood of an agricultural area that was proclaimed, in order that farmers desiring to produce crops for the requirements of the mining population might have an opportunity of settling on Crown lands close to the railway. The Mullewa area contains 12,000 acres, and was thrown open for selection in August, 1894. Of the total area gazetted 6104 acres have been surveyed into fifty-four lots. There is one settler on this area, who holds 138 acres. A townsite has been laid out here comprising ninety-three town and suburban lots. This area is situate at the termination of the Geraldton-Mullewa railway, about 65 miles from Geraldton. Since the area was gazetted the railway has been completed to Cue. As there is a large population on the Murchison goldfields the land on the Mullewa area should soon be in more demand, and though the rainfall in some seasons is somewhat uncertain and scanty the blocks are considered suitable for the growth of cereals. The cost of clearing would be about £3 per acre. The following statement has been supplied, respecting the con- ditions which a settler would meet with in the Midland and Ger- aldton districts :—Some eligible large private estates are open for subdivisional sale, or for occupation under improvement leases. In local farming operations, liberal manuring from the outset is profit- able; but so few fertilisers are used that it is not easy to say which kind is the best to use. In order to succeed, a selector should be i98 vineyard area is steadily increasing. The land does not quickly exhaust itself if it is properly manured and cultivated. The district grows hay and grain crops to the best advantage. We know of no market for produce that is as good as that of Western Australia. In our opinion from .£100 to ^"200 would not be sufficient capital for a start on a piece of land large enough, under the conditions that prevail in this district, for the maintenance of a family. The amount of money that is required to sustain preliminary expenses, and to keep things going until returns begin to come in, depends upon the part of the colony in which the selection is made. In the southern part of the colony more capital is required than in the Victoria district. In the latter district ^500 and £1500 respectively would be needed by the applicant for a homestead farm of 160 acres, and a conditional purchase of 500 acres, respectively. The surveyed agricultural areas in the district are Nonga and Appertarra, near Northampton, and at Mullewa. CHAPTER XI. THE DEEP RIVER DISTRICT. The following report has been furnished to the Lands depart- ment by Surveyor W. H. Goodwin, and we have to acknowledge our indebtedne-s to the Surveyor-General for placing the data of what is looked to as a new field for settlement at our disposal:— "The Deep river has its source at lake Muir, which has been almost dry for the last four or five years; it takes a southerly course through paper bark swamps for about one mile, thence westerly for four and a half miles, thence southerly without any definite channel for seven miles over wide and more or less scrubby plains, which are joined by other plains from the north-west. After this there is a well denned channel, and the river takes a south-easterly course for twelve miles, when it turns south-westerly for about 27 miles; thence south-easterly for 18 miles, thence easterly for about six miles to the Nornalup inlet. The river is spread from source to mouth by innumerable creeks and gullies, but the only tributary of any importance is the Weld river, which joins the Deep river at a place 22^ miles S.S.W. from lake Muir. Permanent water is found all along the course of the river from a point about 13 miles south from its source, but continuous running water is not met with until about 26 miles south. It would only be possible to take a small b~ 7 ,— 157 201 7 Blackwood 3394 4l 39 3 Sussex 108 3 26 ~4 101 Plantagenet 26* 10* 3* Total 31,082* 29* 1,753 1,903 340 17 GRAPE VINES AND OTHER FRUIT CROPS. South-Western, Graph Vises. Other FriiitCrops. Miscellaneous Crops. Total Area under Crops. District. Wine Making. H Not Bearing. Productive. Not Bearing. 64 1 Victoria J I I4i 254 274 4 20,-364$ Toodyay 317 262 131 l6l — 28,283* Swan 154* 194* 164 2231 — 7,204* York 24i 534 30} 1144 98 1 23,124! Perth Hi 33* mi 76 I40| 94 1,2374 Fremantle 7! 38} i9i 3«J 26 — 9454 Murray 824 15! 42 1301 7 3,203 Wellington 50 5i ll6* 165 — 6,676* Williams 3°4 35i 554 io54 1054 — 15,513} Blackwood 16* I2J 10 974 102 — i,597i Sussex 8i 3 3i 23 344 — 1,601* Plantagenet 4 2} 14! 53i 1434 — i,3374 Total 9374 5444 8104 1,0274 i,357i 25 111,089} Broome ... North and North-Wkstern 4 2} 2| 9i Gascoyne 29 Ashburton Pilbarra 32 East Kimberlev... 10 Kimb. Goldfiefds "4 3 44 Roebourne • 4 7 Total 1 1 64 ... 924 Esperance Murchison Dundas ... Central and Southern. 14 E z z 151 54 400 ... ... i ... ... 1 ... 5564 Total Grand total To which must be added :— Acreage under permanent artificially sown grasses New ground cleared during season and prepared for 1 next season | Land in fallow 111,7384 4,043 4 acres. 24,945^ acres. 22,561 J acres. i8 HAY, GREEN FORAGE, AND ROOT CROPS. South-Western. District. Hay. Green Forage. Potatoes. Onions^ Al l other Root Crops. Market Gardens. Victoria H.5054 56 36} 2} 44 354 Toodyay 16.607 70 9i 2 84 84 Swan 4.6354 107 244 i| I 434 York 15.639* g I7! n — 194 Perth "45 40 335 64 144 53 Fremantle 632! 10 4 5o I0| 81 334 Murray 2,370 67i 264 oi 28J 424 Wellington 4.742 11 S4 239i 61 124 34 Williams 9,73S 125 31 1! 28 2| Blackwood 904 16 36 2 4 64 Sussex 967 178 104 8] 5 28 Plantagenet 8744 19 136 144 16* 17 Total 69,260* 815} 718J 59 132! 2934 North and North-Western. Distiict. Gascoyne ... Pilharra Kimberley Goldfields Roebourne ... Broome East Kimberley Total Espeiance II.IV 10 30 40 Potatoes. Onions. < 4 0* Central and Southern. 136 ... o4 Market Gardens. 19 2 6 5 10 42 APPENDIX V. RAILWAYS. TABLE OF PASSENGER FARES. Eastern Railwav. From Frtmantlc Station to the following Stations and Stopping Places. Height Distance STATIONS. Single. Return. above lea level Miles. Class. St and ISt 2nd Class. Class. Class. S. d. *. d. d. d. 5 co Frcmantlc S. s. 5co T Kremanllc, East O 3 0 2 0 5 0 3 20-50 Fremantle. North 0 3 0 2 0 5 0 3 34-35 4 Cottesloe (late Bullcns) 0 7 0 4 II 0 6 51 35 6 Claremont 0 11 0 6 0 7840 37*0 u1 Subiaco 1 6 6 7 0 0 10 II 1 4 0 9 Perth. West 1 2 5 I I .! Perth. Central 1 9 I 0 I a 5 3S05 12 2 I t, 121 Perth, Hast 1 11 I I 10 8 3410 I6| Bayswatcr a 4 I 4 a 6 I 5270 Junction to Racecourse 3 a 0 2540 20 Guildford 2 II 1 8 4 s 1 6 41-65 22 Midland Junction 3 3 I 10 10 1 24-M le Siding 3 6 2 0 4 9 24 Grcenmount ... 3 8 I 5 3 3 0 20215 25 2 S (1 3 2 4798o 685-45 271 Darlington 4 0 I 6 6 a 3 ft 29 Smith s Mill 4 4 I 6 6 3 9 92510 31 Mahogany Creek 4 8 I 9 7 101865 Mundaring 5 a I 0 4 2 34 -i 7 9 4 8 97 '-5° 35 Sawyer's Valley 5 4 1 2 8 0 4 9 89875 37 Lion Mill 5 6 3 4 8 ft 5 0 1005 75 41} Chidlows Well 6 4 3 9 9 6 5 8 98000 *i Laeev s No * Mil l <1 10 4 I to 3 6 2 723 95 48 Byneld's Will 7 6 4 6 II 3 6 9 00500 54 Coates (i 6 5 2 la 064-90 77820 58 Mount Baker ... 9 7 9 a 5 7 13 8 62 Clackline 9 10 6 0 9 5 9 9 Junction for Newcastle. «1 0 60965 67 Mokinc 10 B 6 6 16 0 9 9 51951 72 Spencer's Brook 11 6 7 0 17 i 10 (1 Junction for Nortkam. 533-'0 75 Murcsl: 1 0 7 4 18 0 n 0 534 05 77 Woodside 12 4 7 6 18 6 n 3 54790 82 82 Gregson s 13 2 8 I 19 9 12 2 S4790 Hurgcs's Siding Mackie's Crossing 13 2 8 1 19 9 12 2 57690 84 13 '1 8 3 20 .1 la 5 579 50 °9i York '4 4 8 9 21 6 13 2 61065 96 Hicks' .. r5 9 9 9 23 8 M 8 60700 99 G Igcring i', u 9 10 24 0 14 9 63940 103 Dale Bridge 16 8 10 3 at 0 I5 5 64«-55 107 Edward's Crossing 17 4 10 8 26 0 16 0 64700 1 to 17 Beverley 17 10 II 0 26 9 16 6 Racecourse Branch, Junction Station. Bayswatcr Kacec-oiirse ... Newcastle Branch, Junction Station. 778 20 62 Clackline "a '» 71500 43 Coorinja n 7 I 17 6 IC 47030 76 Newcastle 12 2 7 5 18 3 II 2 20 TABLE OF PASSENGER FARES—Continued. Height Distance. SINGLE. ReTURN. above STATIONS. sea level Miles. JSt 2nd 1st red Class. Class. Class. Class. Northam Branch, Junction Station. i. d. ». d. s. d. «. d. Sr9'S" 72 Spencer's Brook Il""8 16 11 17 6 10 8 73 Springhill Siding i8 3 7* Burlong Pool .. 12 2 19 9 18 3 II 2 49080 7" Northam 12 6 18 9 u 6 49000 79 East Northam 12 10 23 H 19 3 II 9 64300 87 Grass Valley ... 14 2 25 4 21 3 13 0 695-00 101 Meckering 16 4 26 5 24 6 15 0 73500 "5 Cundcrdin (Boorabbin) 18 10 27 9 28 3 17 5 774-00 129 Tammin 21 i 28 10 32 0 19 9 80900 144 Kellerberrin 23 8 30 7 35 6 21 11 831-00 154 Doodltkine ... 25 2 37 9 23 5 82200 166 Hines Hill R ... 27 4 34 4 41 0 25 5 1048-00 180 Merredin 29 6 36 4 44 3 113300 r94 Burracoppin ... 31 10 38 10 47 9 29 8 129100 219 Boddalin (29-Mile Rocks) 38"'6 ... 121100 Parker's Road 7 1 57 9 35 II 116300 248 Southern Cross 40 10 7 5 61 3 38 0 ... 266 Yellowdine ... 42 5 7 8 63 8 39 0 ... 278 Karalee ... 44 7 7 10 66 II 41 8 ... 289 Koorarawalyee 46 3 8 8 "9 5 43 3 3P6 321 Boorabin j Woolgangie ( •" 49 I 10 0 "7 73 8 45 11 ... 342 Bullabulling 55 1 13 2 82 8 51 « ... 360 Coolgardie 58 3 14 7 87 5 3i ... 384 Kalgoorlie 62 3 r5 7 93 5 21 TABLE OF PASSENGER FARES—Continued. Great Southern Railwav. Fares from Beverley. Height Distance Single. RHTUKN. Return above Stations. Tickets sea level Miles. 1st. and. '1ST. and. available Class. Class. Class. Class d. J. d. S. d. d. 8 241J Albany *. 0 fa 0 S. 0 1 month 40 30 0 45 47 230J Marbellup 3« 6 28 II 57 M 43 5 ■i ar4.1 Hay River 35 26 II 53 9 5 43-' 203J Mount Barker 10 25 6 \o 8.10 34 0 51 0 3» 3 Sea Kendenup 10 35 191 3i 23 11 4» 7 11 „ y-t<' 181J Tenderden 30 2 22 8 45 3 34 0 H 835 175 Cranbrook a? 4 22 0 44 0 33 0 803 I08J Pootenup 28 0 21 0 42 0 31 6 II 867 154 Tambellup aS 8 19 3 3-* 6 28 II ■l 1073 138i Brooinehill a3 a 17 5 34 9 26 a ,, 1022 126 Katauning ai 2 15 11 31 9 23 II „ 933 "3 Yaraben 19 0 14 3 28 6 21. 3 11 814 102 Lime Lake •7 > 12 11 25 9 *9 5 840 91: Wagin Lake ... 15 8 II 9 23 6 17 8 7 days 935 83 Buchanan River 14 0 10 6 21 0 «5 9 „ 1014 73 Wolwolling 12 a 9 2 18 3 13 9 1114 63 Narrogin 10 8 8 0 16 0 »a 0 1109 54 Cuballmg Pool 9 a 6 II •3 9 1o 5 „ 962 4a Popanving Pool 7 0 5 3 10 6 7 II M 73 3r Pinjell'y 5 4 4 0 8 0 6 0 W 786 "8 Brookton ... 3 4 2 6 5 0 3 9 It 667 Mount Rokeby I 4 I 0 2 0 1 6 II «47 •• Beverley Torbay Brunch. 15 ., Torbay Junction 44a 17 Torbay Mills ... a 10 0 8 1 3 1 0 SouthtWestern Railwav. From Perth to the following Stations. Height above sea level Distance Miles. Stations. Single. Return. ISt. and. Class. ISt. and. Class. Class. Class. J. d. J. d. J. d. S. d. 6810 3 Burswood ... ... ... ... 0 6 0 4 0 9 0 6 i845 8 Cannington '4 0 Io 2 0 1 1 102 00 16 Kelmscutt 2 8 I 8 4 0 2 6 l8l 49 19 Armadale 3 2 2 0 4 9 3 0 17065 21 Wor'gong 3 6 2 2 5 3 3 3 12840 29 Jarrahdale Junction 4 10 3 0 7 3 4 ° IO685 34 Serpentine 5 8 3 7 8 6 5 5 I469C North Dandalup 2700 54 Pinjarrah 19 0 5 8 13 6 8 6 6670 62 Coolup 10 4 6 6 15 ° 9 9 1II55 70 Drake's Brook II 8 7 4 17 6 11 0 IO890 76 Wagerup 12 8 7 II 19 0 11 II 89 55 80 Cookernup Brook 13 4 8 4 20 0 12 6 120 10 86 Harvey 14 4 9 0 2l 6 13 6 6925 93 Mornington 15 ° 9 8 23 3 14 6 96-20 99 Brunswxk 16 6 lo 4 24 9 15 6 3450 102 Collie 17 0 10 8 25 6 16 0 4430 107 Waterloo 17 10 II 2 26 9 16 9 2760 III Picton Junction 18 6 11 7 27 9 17 5 1050 "5 Bunbury 19 2 12 O 28 9 18 0 22 TABLE- OF PASSENGER FARES—Continual. South W e st e rx Railwav. Height Distance alcove sea level. Miles. IO'SO 2«7S 5 89.00 9 122 15 16 «*35 25 1050 122 15 16 48-50 27 49^0 32 2005 36 6-50 42 Bunbury and Donnybrook Branch. Hunbiirv Picton Junction Dardanup B yanup Junction Donnybrook ... Bunbury, Bsyanup. and Busstlton BtanJi Bunbury Hoyanup Coolingup Ludlow Wonnerup Bussclton Northers Raiiavav. Tabic of Passenger Fares from Gerald ton to the foltowing Stations :— Height Distance SINaLK, RETUrN. slxive Stations. sea level. Miles. 1st. 2nd. ISt. 2nd. Class. Class. Class. Class. 53° Geraldton Geraldton and Waih.iway. s. d. J. d. J. d. s. d ?4.V> 6 Kaee Course ... 1 0 0 f I 6 1 0 7" /5 ,2i Bootenal •1 0 1 3 11 0 1 11 95 00 1si Wiley's 2 8 1 8 I 0 2 6 9090 Walkaway Geraldton and Northampton. a 4 2 1 ,■> 0 3 2 53" Geraldton 4H35 4 Chapman 0 8 0 5 1 0 0 8 116 25 10 White Peak 1 8 1 1 2 0 1 8 391 15 19 Tavlor's S 2 2 0 4 9 S 0 21 Oakabella 3 6 2 2 h o S 8 3 8 44630 25 Mc(Juire 4 2 7 6 3 3 11 3<>37" 27 Mercy's 4 6 2 10 6 0 4 3 354 uo 28 Ryan's 4 8 1 11 7 U 4 IS 4ol/25 3" ilowers 5 U 3 2 7 6 4 9 56085 34 Northampton ... Geraldton and Slullewa 5 8 a 7 8 « 5 5 5 30 Geraldton 4*1 .« 8 Mulleua Junction 1 4 0 10 2 0 1 3 79780 81S 10 13 19 Moonyoonooka No. 1 Tank ... 2 7 4 1 1 8 a 11 2 « 4 0 2 8 c t 71370 79905 22 34 Newmerracarra ... ... ... 4 10 « 2 J 2 7 3 11 9 4 9 7 9 Greenough Kiver Crossing 7 in 003 25 65 Mull wa IS 7 10 4 2l 5 15 6 , 23 The following table gives an approximate idea of the present general rates of freight on the Goverment railways :—' Hay, Chaff, Petatoes, Flour, Oats, and other Cereals, Fruit, Farmland Garden Produce. 50 "5 100 150 200 miles. miles. miles. miles. miles. Rates per ton. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 6 8 89 10 10 14 o 17 1 Bricks, Coal, Snud, Gravel, Lime, Limestone, and Road Metal. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. A. 50 61 71 9 2 11 3 Aerated Waters, Butter, Cheese, Honey, Ice, Soap. Beef, Pork, Ale and Stout, Bacon, Hums, and Caudles. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. s. d. 13 4 17 6 21 8 27 II 34 2 TABLE OF PASSENGER FARES—Continued. Midland Railwav. Height Distance. Single. RETUKN. above Stations. sea level Miles. .t. 2111I. 1st. and. T c Class. Class. Class. t: d. /. s. d. 4I-65 Midlandjunction S. 1. S. 10 Upper Swan ... 1 !l 1 t 2 I) 1 9 16584 2.! Muchea « '.' •2 » 5 ;i 4 8 10 Chandala 5 II ii 9 7 1; 5 6 3294' 4" Gingin 8 :> ;, 0 In u 7 « 602 22 48 Mooliabeenee ... 8 n 6 11 12 0 9 a 52 Callalla 8 ',' 1; 1; 13 0 9 9 61 Wann.Tiial in 11 7 1; 1:. 0 II 6 56864 60 Mo^umber 11 1i 8 c 17 8 13 0 76 Giliingarra 12 (I 9 e la a 14 3 86 Koogan 14 ;>. in 7 21 a 16 0 66556 08 Moora ... 1G S 12 3 24 6 18 8 Ho Coombcrdale ... 18 8 18 !l 27 8 20 6 85217 122 Wathtroo 20 1 15 :; 6 22 9 I40 Marchagee 2D 8 17 6 :5 0 2G 8 86627 152 Coorow 25 8 19 0 ::s 11 28 « 88081 I64 Carnumah SS * 21 0 42 0 31 6 I83 Three Springs ... :«) >; 22 !> 45 11 31 8 86035 195 Arrino :.i 1; 24 3 I.S 9 36 6 207 Yand.mook :;t r. 2.", !l SI 9 »8 9 50333 217 Minginew "S 27 54 3 Locicier 11 11 40 9 0 9 223 Strawberry B7 27 9 !' 41 9 ! 159 37 230 Irwin .:m :: 28 ,-,7 0 43 0 241 1" 3.. Yaradino ... 11 u i;n 45 0 4" 3D 3 9 243 Dongara i; i;n 45 0 30:0 »53 11! li .V! 268 Bokara 11 ;•, 47 6 «74 Cireenough Koad 11 !' :\i 117 (1 50 3 I/. as »77 Walkaway 9 34 8 « 51 3 9090 1.; <•,, r, 41 " - — -- — —. - - — Advertisement. RoberiIon $ Moffai, COMPLETE HOUSE FURNISH ERS,^^ Goderich Street, Perth. LATEST DESIGNS IN DINING, DRAWING, and BEDROOM SUITES CARPETS, LINOLEUMS, &c. FRENCH and ITALIAN BEDSTEADS BED and TABLE LINEN CHINA, CUTLERY, and GLASSWARE IRONMONGERY and KITCHEN UTENSILS LAMPWARE RIMMEL'S SOAPS and PERFUMES Sole Agents for the "LEADER" BICYCLES. All Goods purchased direct from i auupqt the Manufacturers, and 1-l/fltOI NET PRICES. WHOLESALE and RETAIL. Robertson & Moffat APPENDIX II. LAND LAWS. CONDITIONAL PURCHASES. There are several modes of obtaining land under conditional purchase, as prescribed by the following clauses of the Land Regulations and Homesteads Act :— SBLBCTION WITH RESIDENCE INSIDE A SURVEYED AGRICULTURAL AREA. Section S3 of the Homesteads Act takes the place of Clause 46 of the Land Regulat.ons— This section is only applicable to land within a surveyed agricultural area. The maximum area allowed to one person is 1000 acres, and the minimum IOo acres. The price is 10s. per acre, payable as rent at the rate of 6d. per acre per annum for 20 years ; application must be accompanied by the rent clue for the first year, or part of a year, as prescribed by Clause 101 of the Land Regulations. The lessee must, within six months from the date of approval of his application, take personal possession of the land, and must reside upon portion of it, as pre- scribed by the Act. The improvements required are that within two years one-tenth of the land shall be fenced, the whole within five years, and within ten years a sum equal to 10s an acre shall be expended in prescribed improvements, in addition to the cost of the exterior fencing. At the expiration of the lease, or at any time after five years from the date of commencement of the lease, provided that all conditions have been complied with, and the fencing and improvements maintained, a Crown grant may be obtained on payment of the balance of purchase money and prescribed fee of 30s. A statutory declaration, in the form prescribed by Schedule No. 16 of the Land Regulations, shall be furnished to the Minister on or before the 1st of March in each of the first five years of the lease, and at the end of the tenth year, and also when applying for the Crown grant, setting forth that the required conditions of residence, fencing, and improvement have been fulfilled. PERSONS NOW HOLDING LAND IS FEE SIMPLE OR UNDER SPECIAL OCCUPATION LICENSE WISHING TO TAKE MORE LAND. Section 34 of the Homesteads Act takes the place of Clause 47 of the Laud Rcgiila'ious. This section is intended for those who possess land in fee simple or special occupation under the present or any former Land Regulations, or who may be the holder of a lease of such land from the owner, and reside upon a portion of such land, and is applicable either within an agricultural area or outside of it. Under this section a person can take up from 100 to 1000 acres anywhere from land available for selection within 10 miles of his homestead. The rent and conditions, excepting residence, are the same as under Section 33; but if the land is not surveyed, the conditions shall date from the date of survey instead of from the commencement of the lease. 3 FREE SELECTION WITH RESIDENCE. Clause 48 of the Land Regulations— This clause is intended for those who wish to apply for land outside an agricultural area, and intend to reside upon it. The rent and conditions are the same as under Section 33 of the Homesteads Act; the only difference being that Section 33 is intended for a surveyed agricultural area; and Clause 48 for land outside of an agricultural area ; but if the land is not surveyed, the conditions shall date from the date of survey instead of from the commencement of the lease. SELECTION WITHOUT RESIDENCE EITHER IN A SURVEYED AREA OR BY FREE SELECTION. Clause 49 of the Land Regulations— This clause is intended for those who do not reside upon their own land, and who do not wish to reside upon (he land taken up. This clause is equally available for land within an agricultural area and land outside of an area. The rent and conditions, excepting residence, are the same under this clause as under Section 33 of the Homesteads Act, but double the expenditure on im- provements is required in lieu of residence ; and if the land is not surveyed, the conditions shall date from the date of survey instead of from the commencement of the lease. SELECTION BY PASTORAL LEASEHOLDERS INSIDE THEIR LEASES. Clause 50 of the Land Regulations— Any pastoral lessee in the South-west Division, at any time within 14 years from the 2nd March, 1887, may select land within his lease (not in an agricultural area) in one block adjoining his homestead, not exceeding 5 per cent. of the area held by him on lease within such division. The minimum area shall be 500 acres, and the maximum 3000 acres. The rent and conditions, excepting residence, are the same as under Section 33 of the Homesteads Act; but if the land is not sur- veyed, the conditions shall date from the date of survey instead of from the com- mencement of the lease. DIRECT PURCHASE. Clause 54 of the Land Regulations— The price of land under this clause is not less than ten shillings an acre, payable as follows, viz :—Ten per cent. on application, and the balance within one month after the application has been approved. This clause is equally available for land within an agricultural area and land outside of an area, and residence is not required under it. From 100 to 5000 acres can be held outside of an agricultural area, and from 100 to 1000 within an agricultural area by one person, but in either case only three separate selections can be made. The improvements required are that the land shall be fenced in within three years from the date of survey, and 5s. an acre expended upon it in improvements within seven years from such date, Dut if the land is surveyed at the tima it is applied for, the conditions shall date froir. the commencement of the license. The foregoing clauses refer only to the South-west Division of the colony, or to lands in the Eastern and Eucla divisions set apart under Section 31 of the Homesteads Act. GARDEN BLOCKS—FIVE TO TWENTY ACRES. Clause 55 of the Land Regulations— The price of land under this clause is not less than £1 per acre, payable on application. It is intended for those persons who require land for vineyards, orchards, and gardens in small blocks of from 5 to 20 acres, either within an agricultural area, if small blocks have been surveyed in it, or outside of an area. 4 Residence is not required, and not more than 20 acres can be obtained under this clause by any one person. The improvements required are that the land shall be fenced, and one-tentn part shall be planted with vines or fruit trees, or otherwise be cultivated as a vegetable garden, within three years from the date of survey. If the land required is outside the South-west Division, it must be within a special area, or within ten miles of a town site. SELECTION IN SFKCIAL AREAS OUTSIDE THE SOUTH-WEST DIVISION. Clause 52 of the Land Regulations— This clause is applicable only to land within a surveyed special area. The price is 10s per acre, payable at the rate of is. per annum for ten years, and application must be accompanied by the rent due for the year or part ef the year, as prescribed by clause 101 of the Land Regulations of 1887. The maximum area allowed to one person is 5C00 acres, and the minimum is 100 acres, and not more than five applications shall be entertained from one person. The improvements required are that within two years the whole of the land shall be fenced on the surveyed boundaries, and that before the expiration of the lease an amount equal to 10s. per acre shall be expended on the land in prescribed improvements, in addition to the cost of the exterior fencing. At the expiration of the lease, or at any time during its currency, provided all the conditions have been complied with, a Crown grant may be obtained on payment of the balance of purchase money, and the prescribed fee of 30s. PASTORAL LEASEHOLDERS OUTSIDE THE SOUTH-WEST DIVISION MAY SELECT UNDER CERTAIN CONDITIONS. Clause 55 of the Land Regulations— Under this clause any pastoral lessee in the Kimberley, North-West, Gascoyne, and Eucla divisions, who, at any time within fourteen years after the 1st March, 1887, shall have stocked his land in accordance with the regulations, may obtain, for the purpose of a homestead, a block of land within his lease not exceeding one per cent, of the total quantity held, on the same terms and conditions prescribed for purchase under Clause 52 of the regulations The minimum area shall be 500 acres, and the maximum 5000 acres. In any case on failure to comply with the conditions, the land shall be forfeited and revert to the Crown, with any improvements that may be upon it, and any purchase money paid shall be forfeited. No person under eighteen years of age can hold land under conditional purchase. PASTORAL LEASES. Leases of pastoral lands within the several divisions are granted on the following terms :—In the South-West Division, in blocks not less than 3000 acres, at a rental of £1 per thousand per annum. In the Gascoyne and North- West Divisions, in blocks of not less than 20,000 acres, at a rental of 10s. per thousand per annum ; in the Eucla Division, in blocks of not less than 20,000 acres, at a rental of 10s. per thousand per annum for all that portion of the division situated to the westward of a north line from Point Culver, and 5s. per thousand per annum for the remaining portion of the division ; in the Eastern Division, in blocks of not less than 20,ooo acres, at a rental of 2s. fid. per thousand per annum for the first seven years, and 15s. for each of the remaming years of the lease ; in the Kimberley Division, in blocks of not less than 50,000 acres when on a frontage, and not less than 20,000 acres when no part of the boundary is on a frontage, at a rental of 10s. per thousand per annum. In any case where land applied for is shut in by o her 1 o dings, and does not contain the minimum area fixed by the regulations, a lease may be granted foi a lesser quantity. 5 A pastoral lease gives no right to the soil or to the timber, except for fencing or other improvements on the lands leased, and the lands may be reserved, sold, or otherwise disposed of by the Crown during the lease. Any pastoral lessee upon being deprived by the Commissioner of the use of any land held under pastoral lease shall, subject to the provisions of the Land Regulations, receive fair value for a'll improvements on the land of which he has been deprived; in the event of the land being selected from his lease under con- ditional purchase, he is entitled to claim from the conditional purchaser fair value of any lawful improvements on or appertaining to the land applied for, and for severance ; the value of the improvements to be ascertained by arbitration as pre- scribed by Clause 108 of the Land Regulations. All pastoral leases expire on 31st December, 1907. Reduction of Renr fot Slocking—Any lessee in the Kimberley Division, or in that part of the Eucla Division westward of a north line from Point Culver, may have a reduction of one-half the rental due under the regulations, if within fourteen years from the 1st day of January, 1887, he have in his possession, within the division, 10 head of sheep or one head of larger stock for every thousand acres leased. Penalty for Non-Stocking—A penalty of double rental for the remaining . portion of the lease is imposed, except in the South-West Division, if the lessee has not, within seven years, complied with the conditions as to stocking. ICO ACRES GRANTED FREE. Free Homestead Farms. Under "The Homesteads Act, 1893," and Amending Act, 1894, any person who is the sole head of a family, or a male 18 years of age or over, and who does not already hold over 100 acres of land, may apply for any Crown land which has been surveyed and thrown open for selection in the South-Western Division of the colony, or in the Eastern and Eucla Divisions, if situated within 40 miles of a railway, as a free homestead farm, subject to the undermentioned condi- tions :— Application in either case must be made on the prescribed form, accompanied by a fee of £1. On approval an occupation certificate is issued, within six months from the date of which the selector shall take personal possession of the land, and shall reside thereon for at least six months during each of the first five years of occupancy. In certain cases, of illness or for other valid reasons, absence may be allowed, and forfeiture waived. Within two years a habitable house must be erected of not less than £30 value ; or £30 expended in clearing and cropping ; or two acres of orchard or vineyard properly prepared and planted. Within five years one-fourth of the land must be substantially fenced, and one-eighth cleared and cropped. Within seven years the whole must be fenced, and at least one-fourth cleared and cropped. At the end of seven years, if all the conditions have been fulfilled, a Crown grant may be obtained on payment of survey and Crown grant fees, but if the conditions are not carried out, the land is forfeited. The Crown grant may be obtained after twelve months' residence if the required improvements have been made, and on payment of 5s. per acre, together with the fees referred to in preceding paragraph. A homestead farm cannot be mortgaged or transferred until all conditions entitling the holder to a Crown Grant have been fulfilled. The holder of a homestead farm may hold other land under existing Land Regulations. Any person holding land, not exceeding ifo acres, and residing upon such land, may obtain a homestead farm from any Crown lands adjoining his holding, subject to all the preceding conditions except that of residence, which in tse mav be performed upon his former holding in lieu of on the homestead arm. 6 SECOND AND THIRD CLASS LAND MAY BE SELECTED AS HOMESTEAD LEASES. Under Part II. of "The Homesteads Act, 1893," leases of second or third class land are granted, called homestead leases, but which are really another form of conditional purchases. The area of a homestead lease shall not be less than 1 000 acres, or more than 3,000 acres in second class land, nor less than 1,000 acres, nor more than 5,000 acres in third class land. The lease is for a term of 30 years, dating from the 1st January preceding the date of application. The rent for third class lands is id. per acre per annum for the first 15 years of the lease, and 2d. per acre per annum for the remaining period of 15 years, and for second class lands 2d. and 3d. per acre per annum respectively. The conditions are as follows :—The lessee shall pay one half the cost of survey, in five yearly instalments ; within six months from the dale of the approval of his application, he shall take possession of the land either by himself or by an agent, and for the next five years, for at least nine months in every year, reside upon the land. Within two years from the 1st January or July, as the case may be, preceding the date of the approval of his application, he shall fence in at least half of the land, and within I he next two years shall fence in the remainder. During every year of his lease, from Ihesixlh to the fifteenth year, both inclusive, he is required to expend in improvements on the land comprised in his lease, if second class land, an amount equal to tld. per acre, and if third class land, an amount equal to jd. per acre for the whole area comprised in his lease. Any excess of moneys expended during one year shall be carried forward to the credit of the sum required to be expended in the succeeding year or years. The following shall be deemed improvements :—Sub-division, clearing, cultivating, grubbing, draining, ringbai king, tanks, dams, wells, and any other work upon the land which increases or improves its agricultural or pastoral capabilities If the land is not surveyed, the conditions shall date from the date of survey, instead of from the date of the lease. At the expiration of his lease, if all the conditions have been complied with, the Crown grant of the land may be obtained on payment of the prescribed fee. If at any time during the continuance of the lease, on proof that he has paid the prescribed rent and survey fees, and that he has complied with the conditions of residence, and that he has fenced the land on the surveyed boundaries, and has expended on prescribed improvements, in addition to the cost of such fencing, a sum equal to the aggregate rents payable in respect of the lease for the last 25 years of the term, and that the improvements so made are in good order and con- dition, and has paid to the Minister the difference between the aggregate amount of rents then already paid in respect of the lease and the value of all the lands comprised therein, calculated at the rate of 6s. 3d. per acre, if the land is second class, and 3s. od. if third class, the lessee shall, upon payment of the prescribed fee, be entitled to a Crown grant of the land comprised in his lease. No transfer of a homestead lease shall be approved until the lease has been in existence for five years. All land rents are calculated from Ist January to 31st December, and are payable in advance to the Collector of Land Revenue, Perth, or at the various resident magistrates' offices throughout the colony, on or before the 1st March. The rent on leases and licenses applied for during the ye.;r shall be calculated from the 1st day of the quarter preceding the application {except in the case of poison leases and homestead leases, for which a full year's rent must always In the event of the lessee not paying his rent on the 1st day of March, he is subject to a fine of 5 per cent, for the first month, 10 per cent, for the second, 15 Homestead Leases. KKNTS 7 per cent, for the third, and 20 per cent, for the fourth month, after which, if the rent and fine be still unpaid, the lease or license shall be forfeited. During the month of January in each year a complete list is published of all leases and licenses, showing the rents or instalments and purchase money due for the current year, and after the 31st of March another list is published, giving particulars of all those on which the rents have not been paid. APPENDIX III. AGRICULTURAL BANK ACT, 1894, AMENDMENT ACT, 1896. Under these Acts advances can be made to holders of land in fee simple special occupation lease, conditional purchase license, or under the provisions of "The Homesteads Act, 1893." Advances.—Advances are only made for the purpose of effecting improve- ments, and no advance will be made upon any land which is otherwise encum- bered, nor will any security over fee simple lands other than a first mortgage be accepted as sufficient. When the proposed security consists of lands held under special occupation lease or conditional purchase, the applicant will be required to execute an absolute transfer of all his right, title, and interest in the land, together with all improvements thereon, to the manager of the bank ; and when the security consists of land held under the provisions of " The Homesteads Act, 1893," the applicant will be required to transfer his interest to the Crown. Form of improvements.—Advances are made for the purpose of effecting either one or more of the following improvements :—Clearing, cultivating or ploughing, ringbarking, fencing, draining, wells of fresh water, reservoirs, buildings, and any other form of improvement which, in the opinion of the manager, will increase the agricultural or pastoral capabilities of the land. Proportion of value of proposed improvements to be advanced.—In cases where, in the opinion of the manager, ample security is offered, three-fourths of the fair estimated value of the proposed improvements may be advanced, but one-half is the proportion generally allowed. Mode of payment of advances.—All adv: nces are paid proportionately as the improvements are effected, i.e., applicants can have "draws " while the work is proceeding. Rate of interest.—Interest at the rate of five pounds per centum per annum will be charged upon ail advances, and must be paid half-yearly, on the 30th June and 31st December in each >ear. Interest is only charged on the actual amount of the advance made, or such proportion of the loan or loans as the applicant may have drawn. Fees payable.—All applications must be accompanied by a valuator's fee equivalent to 1 per cent of the amount applied for. No charge is made for the purpose of drawing any mortgage or transfer. Repayment of loans.—All loans have a currency of thirty years. During the first five years simple interest only is payable. At the expiration of five years from the 1st day of January or the 1st day of July, as the case may be, following the date of every advance, the borrower shall begin to repay the principal sum at the rate of one-fiftieth of the amount half-yearly, until the whole has been paid. Provided always, that the advance may be repaid sooner than is herein provided, and in larger instalments, at the option of the borrower. All applications must be for one or more of the following sums, viz.:—^50 ^"75, ^100, and extending up to £800. Further particulars and application forms may be had on application to the Manager, Agricultural Bank, Perth. PART II. THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLEE'S GlUIDE . . . AND . . . FAEMEE'S HANDBOOK The Settler's Outfit, Clearing, Ringbarking, Cultivating, Harvesting, Gardening, Farm Book-keeping, Recipes and Medical Hints. Issued by direction of the Bureau of Agriculture. Edited bv L. LINDLEY-COWEN, Secretarv. 1897. E. S. Wigg & Son, Printers, Hav Street, Perth. Part I. of The Settler's Guide and Farmer's Handbook, containing descriptive notes on Crown lands and agricultural areas open for selection, with numerous cultural hints, may be had on application to the Bureau on Agriculture. Price, is. Part III., dealing with native and introduced grasses, and fodder plants and farm crops, will be ready shortly. ERRATA. Page 343, second paragraph, third line, read "the day-book and journal can be combmed by using the left hand page for the day-book, and the right hand page for the journal," instead of "the left hand page for the journal." INDEX. PAGE. PAGE. Accident cases 3°3 Clod crushers 270 Antidotes to poisons 361 Clouds and wind 309 Arrangements of flower garden 336 Colic, or gripes 368 Artificial respiration • 362 Comparative evaporative power Asthma 367 of soils 372 Axle grease, to make - 369 Concrete 371 Balancing accounts for the year 360 tar 371 Barometer for farmers 306 Constipation 368 „ how to read 312 Construction of gate - 242 Barrows, capacity of - 37" Contract form for clearing 225 Beer, hop, to make 378 Convulsions 368 Beeswax, to prepare - 369 Cool house 298 Bird skins, curing 372 Corns and warts, to remove - 3S4 Bite, snake 363 Cow house, details 300 Blacking 309 „ easy device for leading - Cream, furniture 370 Book-keeping 342 374 Boot blacking 3"9 Cross fertilization 371 Botanical names of trees 214 Croup 367 Boundary fencing 235 Cultivation 258 Breaking up new land =5« „ of flower seeds 335 Bruises 3"3 „ of vegetables Cultivators 321 Building necessaries, quotations 3o5 276 Burning off 230 Curing bird skins 372 „ out trees 227 Diary for settlers 226 Burns 363 Dams, excavating 252 Bush Fires Act 232 Day book 344 ,, strainer for fencing Calendar for vegetable garden 238 Details, cowhouse 300 337 „ farm buildings 300 Capacity of barrows - 37o „ roofs 301 „ of carts 370 Device for leading a cow 37o „ of pumps 384 „ for pickling 293 Capacities of windmills and Diamond cement 37-? reservoir 254 Diarrhoea 368 Carts, capacities of 370 Digging 373 Cases of accident 363 „ plough 260 Case of drowning Dimensions 300 Cattle, killing 375 Disinfectants 368 „ weight by measurement 391 Dislocations 3<>4 Cement, diamond 372 Dogs and dingoes, poisoning - 383 ,, for mending - 372 Drain, box 24') „ for waterproof 37 2 „ surface 24') Chaff cutting 2*5 ,, table of depths 24S Change of seed 371 „ tile 249 Clearing 2-'4 Dressed cattle, weight of 377 „ by explosives- 228 Dropper fence, sheep proof - ?35 „ by traction engines - 229 Drowning case, how to treat - 362 ,, contract form 225 Dumoulin's liquid glue 373 „ trees 227 Dynamometer tests 267 PAGE. PAGE. Ear, foreign bodies in - Easily made oven Eggs, pickling Elementary substances Emetics Engine, judging an Erecting fences Evaporative power of soils Excavating dams Excavation Explosives for clearing Eyes, sore Fallowing Fanners, book-keeping for Farm buildings „ hands, wages „ laborer „ roller „ water supply Feeding down Fence, dropper, sheep proof - ,, how to erect „ opossum proof „ specification for „ vermin proof Fencing „ materials, prices „ timber used for „ with wires - . . Fly papers Fertilization, cross Fever, typhoid Flower seeds and cultivation - „ garden arrangement - „ „ management - „ seeds, sowing Forest devil Fractures, bandages for Fractures of limbs Furniture cream Garden calendar Gardening implements Gates, how to construct Gate, swing Gates, whitewash for - Glue, liquid Good swing gate Grain harvesting „ „ machinery - „ phosphorised Grease, axle, to make - Grease and paint from cloth, to remove Gripes, or colic Grubbing tools Hard soda soap Harness dressing „ plough Harrow, the cutaway - „ good spading 365 Harrowing 274 210 Harvesting hay 283 381 „ operations - Hay harvesting 279 374 283 ;,(,2 ,, rakes 283 383 „ stack ->S4 23H „ stack, to measure 377 372 „ treatment of - Hemorrhage 284 252 363 373 ,, from lungs 363 228 „ from stomach 363 366 Hints on ploughing 200 275 „ on vegetable growing - Home-made soap 3 I5 343 3«4 20 H ome for settler, how to build it 296 255 Hop beer, to make 378 255 Horses, draught of 390 275 „ tractive force 389 251 Horse power 286 House for settler 210 235 How to avoid typhoid - 3<>7 238 How to build a home - 290 240 How to erect a fence - 24c How to hang paper 3«>3 240 How to keep the ledger 352 234 How to make a leveller 203 247 How to read the barometer 322 234 How to read, the thermometer 3r3 235 Implements for gardening 317 .574 1 mplements for gardening 31/ .171 „ for spraying 318 3<><> Insensibility - ,06 335 Indigestion - 368 330 Instructions to meteorological 337 observers ... 361 336 Journal ... 345 228 Judging an engine 3«3 303 Kangaroo skins, tanning 388 304 Killing quiet cattle 375 374 Kitchen garden 315 321 Labor book ... 360 3i7 „ branch, bureau - 255 241 Laborer, the farm 255 244 Land leveller, serviceable „ measuring 263 243 264 373 Ledger, how to keep - 352 244 Leveller, how to make 263 286 Levelling 378 287 Levelling land before ploughing 263 383 Limbs, fractures of 3'>4 369 Li ve and dressed weight of ait tie 377 Liquid glue - 373 3<*l Lungs, hemorrhage 363 368 Machinery for grain harvest - 287 211 Making hop beer 378 3»5 Masters and Servants Act 250 375 Management of flower garden- 337 266 Measuring a hay stack 377 270 ,, land Medical and surgical hints 264 270 361 PAGE. PAGE. Mending, cement for - 372 Mensuration - - 378 Meteorological Observers, in- structions - - 311 Meteorological phenomena - 313 Meteorology - - 306 Method of stoving roots - 220. Miscellaneous - - 379 Moisture in the soil - - 276 Monthly calendar for vegetables 337 Mortar - - 380 Nipples, sore - - 365 Nostrils, foreign bodies in - 365 Observers, meteorological, in- structions - - 311 Opossum proof fence - - 240 Oven, easily made - - 2to Outfit for selectors - - 200 Pain - - 368 Paint, base for - - 302 „ from cloth, to remove - 369 Paints - - 381 „ recipes - - 301 Paper-hanging, paste for - 375 „ tools for - 302 Paper, how to hang - - 303 Paste for paper-hanging - 375 Pavement, concrete - - 389 tar - - 388 Percentage of elementary sub- stances - - 374 Phosphorised grain - - 383 „ pollard - 384 Pickle for seed - - 293 Pickling, device for - - 293 eggs - - 381 „ seed - - 292 Piles - - 366 Plants per acre - - 295 Plough harness - - 266 Ploughing, hints on - 206 Ploughs - - 260 Poisons and antidotes - 361 Poisoning wild dogs - 383 Pollard, phosphorised - 384 Post and rail fence - - 236 Polish, stove - - 388 Preparing beeswax - - 369 Prices for fencing materials - 247 Prices for wire netting - 247 Pumps - - 253 „ capacity of - - 384 Putty - - 387 euantity of seed per acre - 295 uotations for building neces- saries - - 305 Rain gauge - - 309 Reaping machinery - - 281 Recipes for paints - - 301 ,, sickness - - 362 Reservoirs, capacities - Respiration, artificial - Retention of urine Ringbarking Roller, useful farm Roofs, details Rough base for paint - Seed, change of „ per acre, quantity Seeds, flower, and their culti- vation Seed, pickle for „ pickling „ sowers Selector's outfit Serviceable leveller Setting the thermometer Settler's diary „ home Sheep proof fence Soap, hard soda „ home made Soldering Soils, evaporative power Soil, moisture retained by Sore eyes * „ nippies „ throat Smut, pickling to prevent Stove polish Stoving stumps Stretching wire netting Stripping grain Stump-jump plough Sub-soiling with the plough - Suitable land for vegetables - Swing gate Snake bite Sowing flower seeds „ seed Spading harrow Specific gravities Specification for fence - Sprains Spraying implements Slacking hay „ wheat Staining wood Stomach, hemorrhage - Storing grain Table of depths for drains Tanks, dams and wells Tanning kangaroo skins Tar concrete Thermometer for farmers Thermometers, how to read - Thermometers, setting Throat, foreign bodies in Timber for fences To avoid typhoid - 254 362 - 3°5 214-223 - 275 - 301 - 302 - 371 295 335 293 292 272 209 263 313 226 201 235 385 384 386 372 276 366 365 368 2l|- 388 229 241 287 227 268 3l6 244 363 336 272 270 398 239 365 3i8 284 290 382 3<>3 291 248 251 388 371 307 313 3i3 365 234 367 PAGE. PAGE. Tools for building - - 212 „ for grubbing - - 211 „ for paperhanging - 302 Traction engine and clearing - 229 Tractive force of horses - 389 Treatment of hay - - 284 Trees, clearing - - 227 Trees, common and botanical names - - 214 Tree puller - - - 228 Typhoid fever - - 366 „ to avoid - - 367 Unusual metcrological phe- nomena - - 313 Urine, retention of - - 365 Valuation book - - 357 Vegetables, cultivation of - 321 Vegetable growing, hints on - 315 Vegetables, suitable land for • 316 Vermin proof fences - - 240 Vinegar - 391 Vomiting - - 308 Wages for farm hands - - 255 Waggon jack - - 391 Wall papering - - 302 Warts and corns, to remove - 384 Washington whitewash for gates - - 243 Waterproof cement - - 372 Water supply on the farm - 251 Weight of cattle by measurement 391 „ live and dressed cattle 377 Weights and measures - - 393 Wheat, stripping - - 287 „ stacking - - 290 Whipple trees - - 265 White-wash for gates - 243 Whitlow - - 365 Wind and clouds - - 309 Windmills - - 253 Windmills, capacity of - 254 Winnowing - - 289 Wire for fencing' - 235 „ netting, how to stretch - 241 „ „ prices - , - 247 Wire strainers - - 238 Wood stains - - 382 Wounds - - 363 Yeast - - 392 „ cakes - - 392 I»ART II. THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLER'S GUIDE «\ AND FARMER'S HANDBOOK. |x> INTRODUCTION. Bv the EDITOR. "I have a baylife as skilful as may be; yet, remembering the old saying that the best doung for the field is the master's fooL, and the best provender for the horse, the master's eye, I play the overseer myself."—Gervase Markham, 1620. )HE numerous inquiries received almost daily by the Bureau of Agriculture, by whose direction the Settler's Guide is issued, show that there are a number of people who have either already taken up land in the colony, or intend doing so, with the object of cultivating it, who have had little or no previous experience in agriculture. The majority of our more recent settlers are the "bone and sinew" of the eastern provinces; men well versed in colonial agricultural practice. For these any elementary lessons conveyed in the following pages will have little interest. They are intended for the guidance of the new settler who has not had the same experience, but whose welfare is nevertheless a matter of supreme importance, 206 It is impossible to learn farming from a book; and no pretence is made in the following pages of imparting the whole theory and practice of agriculture. It is merely intended to convey, in the plainest language, a few useful and practical hints on the pre- liminary preparation of 1 md after it has been taken up in its virgin state, and to give the new settler, lacking knowledge in cultural methods, the results of the experiences of others who have been farming for a lifetime in the colonies. Speaking generally, colonial farming cannot be called high-class farming. It is capable of great improvement, and it is pleasing to record that improvement is now gradually taking place, thanks to the dissemination of knowledge by the various departments of agriculture of the colonies and by the Australian press, to the noble example set by men of superior intelligence, and, in some cases, of superior means also, who voluntarily divorced themselves from the vast army of single croppers, and launched out in entirely new direc- tions, in an endeavor to show how the land could be made to produce to its fullest extent. The depression which has existed for the past few years in all the colonies, except Western Australia, has perforce, caused the farmers of the eastern provinces to pay greater attention to varying the products of the soil, and unite in developing new features of rural industry that had hitherto been cither totally neglected, or carried on by individuals in a more or less tentative and perfunctory manner. Prior to the granting of responsible government to this colony, and the shortly subsequent discovery of our phenomenal auriferous wealth, there was little or no inducement to the Western Australian farmer to produce much more than would supply his actual needs. He was in an isolated position. There was no demand for the produce of his broad acres across the seas, if we except wool and an indigenous pro- duct—sandalwood. The population of the colony was small— something under 40,000 souls—and the wants of these were easily supplied from the few fertile acres under cultivation. During the decade immediately preceding the advent of self-government, the area under cultivation decreased rather than increased. The long period of stagnation—its monotony, if broken at all, being only so by an active period of retrogression—which enveloped the Western 207 Australian farmers in their isolation like a mantle of fog, had the effect of making them, paradoxical as it may appear, the most sturdy, independent, self-contained, and, in a manner, prosperous farmers of the Australian group. The Western Australian farmer of the old school is scoffed at freely by newcomers who do not know him, and who do not realise all he has had to go through. There are ample evidences that farming in this colony was, twenty or thirty years ago, and is at the present time, by the same old school, conducted on sounder agronomic principles than it ever has been in the eastern colonies by the average free selector. Land, that in the halcyon days of the east would have been scorned by the selector, has been under crop here for forty years and is still in good heart, thanks to the judicious treatment it has received. The Western Australian farmer is a farmer of the very best type; his adversities have made him so. In the eastern districts, in the south-west, and in other parts, one can find farms on which the first sod was turned by the plough nearly half a century ago, that are models of all that a well-con- ducted farm should be. This defence of the Western Australian farmer is made by one who knows them well; by one who has never hesitated to tell them their shortcomings, and it is made in the interests as well of the new settler for whom this Guide is published. The new-comer who wishes to settle on the land will be one of the two classes into which new arrivals may be generally divided. The one class comes spilling over with theory and energy. The man belonging to this class wants to give advice; not to receive it. He wants to write a book at once and tell everyone in the country how things should be done. His end is premature. To this class the Bureau of Agriculture has nothing to say. The other class, in which we find the man of intelligence, of quiet energy, of perseverance, the man who knows much, and knowing much, realises how little he knows, how much that he has learnt in one country will have to be unlearnt in another, how knowledge is the same all the world over, and yet how variously it has to be applied before it can become power, the man who seeks advice, not scorns it ; this is the man, whose success is almost assured, whom the Bureau of Agriculture welcomes to the shores of Western 2o8 Australia, and will cater for in every reasonable manner, and it is this man, if he contemplates settling on the soil, that I ask not to hold in too light esteem any advice that may be given him by the Western Australian farmer. Like, yet unlike, the farmer from the east will find that there are many lessons, taught by previous experience, that he will have to unlearn before he can be said to be truly successful here. That he may be successful is the earnest desire of the Government and people of this great colony. • CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS. RINGBARKING, CLEARING, FENCING, CULTIVATION. The Selector's Outfit. I am now presuming that the land has been selected, and the settler and farmer of the future is about to leave Perth and take up his holding to commence the preparations preliminary to ringbarking, clearing, fencing, and cultivating. I am not presuming, however, that the selector is a man of capital, and can afford to while away his time in the city while all the rough work is being done, but that he has only sufficient capital, aided by his own labor and the strictest economy, to establish himself on the land. The new settler in Western Australia has one advantage in his favor—the absence of great variations of climate. With the exception, perhaps, of the extreme south-west, where the rainfall is very heavy and continuous for some months, one might live in the open from year's end to year's end, satisfied, dry, and warm, covered only by a blanket and a sheet of bark. There are still in this and the eastern colonies many bark huts to be seen, still inhabited and very cosy, that were put up in the early fifties. Canvas now takes the place of bark as a temporary dwelling, and the new settler will have to equip himself with a tent and fly if he is going to settle on his block at once and commence to fulfil the residence clause of the Land regulations. It is surprising how comfortable tents can be made with a little trouble and ingenuity. They are made in the following sizes, and can be purchased in Perth for about the prices set opposite to each respective size :— 8 feet X 5 feet, 10s. 6d., fly, 6s.; 10 feet X 8 feet, 12s. 6d., fly, 8s.; 12 feet x 10 feet, i6s. 9d., fly, 10s. 3d. A fly, which may be described as a second and upper roof to the tent, is essential. It keeps the rain out in the winter, and adds greatly to the coolness of the tent in the summer. In pitching the tent there will be no difficulty experienced in finding suitable saplings tor uprights and ridge pole, etc. The highest ground should be selected as a site and the shade of trees will be welcome. 210 As the settler has come to stay, unless the price of it is of the most vital importance, a few sheets of corrugated roofing iron, a few feet of guttering and a 200 gallon tank may most advantage- ously be added to his equipment. Four uprights of stout saplings, with forks left at the upper ends, well sunk in the ground, two cross pieces for wall plates, with half a dozen sheets often foot ;ron laid on top, with bark, bag or brush sides, will make a temporary cook-house that will add greatly to the comfort of the good wife. Two lengths of guttering tacked at the back will always ensure a supply of fresh rain water. Half a ton (a case) of ten foot iron may be purchased for about .£10, and if the selector can afford this outlay the tent may be dispensed with and a rough slab hut put up at once. The case in which the iron is packed is not to be despised, turned upside down on four stakes driven into the ground we have not half a bad table. When the selector is thoroughly settled down he will be free to provide himself with a brick oven, but he need not wait until then for a serviceable oven that can be made for little or nothing. Procure an iron nail can or an oil drum, clean it thoroughly and set it lengthways on stones or bricks, sufficiently high to get fire under it. Close it round with sheet iron, or anything that will resist fire. Leave about an inch clear space between the drum and the iron that surrounds the oven, and cover the latter with a layer of clay, working it well to make it secure and reduce cracking. The thicker the clay the longer it will hold heat, and the more it is worked the less it cracks. Leave an outlet at the top or back of the oven for the smoke to escape. Fit a door of wood or iron to close the mouth, and put in shelf to form sole for the bread or whatever has to be cooked, to stand on. If there are large white ant hills near the house the inside may be scooped out of one, and this will make an oven. Or one may be made entirely of pug, and if covered will last for many years. The selection of cooking utensils must be left to the wife. In case the selector is so unfortunate as to be single, the outfit will probably begin and end with a frying- pan, a billy, a pannikin, and a camp oven; though this latter com- paratively inexpensive article is considered by many as a useless accessory, and evidence of gross extravagance on the part of the owner. There are many men who have lived for years under the genial sun of Australia who have never owned anything more than a " bluey," a " billy," and a thirst. In the event of a chimney being required, ready made iron ones, which may be affixed with a few nails, may be had from about £2 5s. to £2 15s. each, according to size, and colonial ovens cost, 24 inches, 16s.; 30 inches, 22s.; 36 inches, 30s., each. A few bricks will be required for the hearth, and the chimney will last much longer if it is bricked up inside the back and sides for a couple of feet or so, to keep the fire from the iron. If bricks are not available, pug made from white ant hills or stiffish clay will do for the time being. 211 Tools. The tools required by the selector on taking up his holding, will comprise axes, wedges, maul, grub hoes, picks, spades, fork, shovels, crosscut saws, files for sharpening same, tomahawk, steel bar, grindstone, and a set of carpenter's tools. Collins's or Sharpe's axes are the best, and are sold at 6s. each. Wedges, of which three or four will be required, are also sold at 5d. per lb. If the maul rings are bought, the head and handle of the maul, which is used in driving the wedges in splitting logs, can be made by the selector from any tough wood, a i££-inch augur for boring the hole in the head for the handle being the only accessory tool required. The augur may well be added to the outfit, as if dvnamite is used in clearing it will be found necessary. Maul rings may- be bought in Perth for 2s. 3d. per pair. The maul is a large two-handled mal- let, and the ac- companying illus- tration shows how the rings, which are to prevent the head splitting, are put on. Mattocks and grub hoes are used in clearing, for getting out the earth from between the roots. Grub hoes are made without the chopping arm, but mattocks, as shown in the illustration, are most generally in use. Grub hoes cost in Perth about 4s. each, mattocks 4s. 6d. each, and the handles is. each. A strip ot leather inserted between the eye of the hoe and the handle will keep the head tight, as the handle is not wedged in like that of the axe. Grub hoes, mattocks, and picks, when they have become blunt, and perhaps jagged, if the ground is stoney, from continued use, are not ground, but " laid "; that is, they are put into the forge and given a new edge and re-tempered. The cutting attachment may with advantage be given a turn on the grindstone. One long-handled pick, costing 4s. 6d., handles is. each, will be sufficient in the settler's outfit of tools. This is chiefly useful in particularly stiff ground, where the surface roots are so thick as to necessitate its use in preference to the grub hoe. It will be found that if the handles of all the tools, so far enumerated, are dipped for a few minutes in kerosene before they are used, they will last much longer and be less liable to fracture. This treatment toughens the wood considerably. It will have been noticed, perhaps, that a strip of wood off a kerosene case that has been saturated by the oil, will, if broken across the knee, not come away in two clean parts, but will splinter longitudinally, and will re- 212 quire much twisting and pulling before the parts are finally separ- ated. The application of kerosene to the wooden parts of all farm machinery thai is much exposed to the weather has a most bene- ficial effect in preserving it, and will repay the slight cost of material and labour. The spades and shovels required by the settler require no des- cription, though care should be taken in selecting them. A spade costs from 4s. to 5s. 6d., and shovels, long or short-handled, round- mouthed or square, 3s. 6d. each. A digging fork may well be added to the outfit at a cost of 4s., as it will be found useful in clearing up and putting together the small scrub and under-ground blackboys preparatory to burning them. The cross-cut saw had better be of the old-fashioned peg-tooth type, unless the settler has some knowledge of the lightning-tooth saws, which are not easy for the amateur to sharpen. Anyone of ordinary intelligence can put an edge on the old type of saw with a flat file. Saws of this or the lightning kind may be had as fol- lows :—4^ ft., lis. 6d.; 5 ft., 12s.; 5^ ft., 13s.; 6 ft., 14s. 6d.; 6i ft., 16s. each. Flat files cost 9d. each. The tomahawk, with hammer-head attached, is the handiest of tools, and no outfit is complete without it. Price, 3s. The grind- stone is an absolute necessity. Prices vary according to the size, and may be quoted approximately as follows :—12 inch, 3s. 9d.; 14 inch, 4s.; 16 inch, 4s. 9d.; 18 inch, 6s.; 20 inch, 7s.; 23 inch, 8s.; 24 inch, 11s. each. Fittings, 4s. per set. There is no necessity to go in for an elaborate standard treadle arrangement. A good strong spindle and handle or crank is all that is required, and two stakes well set in the ground, or a stake and a friendly tree or stump, will do for the stand. It is always advisable to keep the grindstone covered. This little attention adds years to its life and always makes it more satisfactory to use. Care should be taken in grinding tools, particularly heavy ones like axes, to keep an even surface on the stone, not to wear it away unduly either on the one side or the other, or, as is more com- monly done, in the centre. Should this occur, the stone can be set right again by using a piece of square steel rod, pressing it firmly and squarely against the grinding face of the stone, which is turned meanwhile until the stone is ground true again. In mounting the stone an almost everlasting lubricant can be secured if a piece of bacon rind is laid fat side up in the sockets and under the spindle. It is surprising how long this simple and effective device will last, even under heavy pressure, as in the case of windlasses used for drawing water from wells. A six foot octagonal steel crow-bar, which may be purchased for 8s. 6d., and a few carpenter's tools, will complete the settler's initial outfit. A claw hammer, three chisels, \, f, and ij inch, a cold chisel, two saws, files for same, saw set, a biace and an assort- ment of bits, an adze, a jack and a smoothing plane, if the slab hut 213 or more pretentious building is going up at once, may be had in Perth for the following prices, and may be regarded as a sound investment :—Claw hammer, 2s. 6d.; handled chisels, § inch, 10d., | inch, i id., i{ inch, is. 6d. each ; cast steel cold chisels, is. 6d. each ; Sorby's hand saws, 26 inches, 5s. each ; Disston's hand saws, 26 inches, 7s. each ; hand saw files, 6d. each; saw sets, 9d. each; improved brace, 4s. 6d. each ; \ dozen bits, assorted, to 1 inch, 8s. lot; adze, complete, with handle, 5s. 6d.; jack plane, 5s. 6d.; smoothing plane, 4s. 6d.; Mathieson's screw augers, ^ inch, is 8d., J inch, 2s. 3d., 2 inch, 5s. 6d.; nails, any size from i£ mch to 6 inch, 2^d. per lb.; bolts and nuts, | inch, 4d., \ inched.,! inch, 3^d. per lb. Should the settler desire to add a blacksmith's and farrier's outfit to his initial working plant, he can do so at the following cost :—Blacksmith's tools—sledge hammer, 5s. 6d.; hand hammer, 2s.; tongs, 2s. pair; flat file, 12 inches, is. 4CL each; half-round file, 12 inches, is. 4d. each; vice, any size, 36s. per cwt.; anvils, any size, 29s. per cwt.; bar iron, 10s. per cwt. Farrier's tools—shoeing hammer, 3s. od. each; shoeing pincers, 2s. each; shoeing knife, is. 2d. each; shoeing rasp, is. 9d. each; buffer, is. 6d. ; pritchel, is. 9d. Portable forges, similar to the one illustrated, the "Buffalo," may be had for £4 4s. each, and blacksmith's bellows at from 45s. to 80s., according to size. All the foregoing quotations for implements and tools have been kindly supplied by W. Sandover & Co., of Perth and Fremantle, and are subject to slight modifications governed by market fluctuations. CHAPTER II. RING-BARKING AND ITS EFFECTS. Compiled from Information Received from Societies in Various Districts. The object of ring-barking or sap-ringing is to kill the trees in order that the pasture and water supply may be improved, and to facilitate clearing in the future. The surface roots of trees absorb nearly all the nutritive value from the soil, and grasses and other herbage cannot possibly grow, while the leaves of some trees, the salmon gum and sheoak, for instance, completely destroy the herbage upon which they fall, and grasses cannot be got to grow until the trees are dead. There are two methods of destroying the trees, one by ring-barking, that is taking off a belt of bark about a foot in width, and the other sap-ringing, that is cutting into the sap or outer wood of the tree as well as taking off the bark. The illustra- tion herewith shows the different methods, and on perusal of the following pages it will be found which varieties of trees, in the opinion of old colonists in various districts, should be ring-barked and which sap-rung. The season for ring-barking or sap-ringing varies according to locality; but in all cases the trees should be rung when the sap is up. To ring too early in the spring when the sap is rising, means that but the top of the tree will be killed, but the roots will retain their vigor and continue to throw up shoots and suckers, which will be a continual annoyance to the selector, and prove a greater evil than the tree itself. When the trees are in bloom, it may be said, speaking generally, is quite time enough to begin ring-barking, and at this season the work is expeditiously carried out, as the bark strips most easily. In large paddocks, or in paddocks of any kind where stock are to run, a few of the best trees should always be spared to give shade. After the ring-barking has been done, the fallen timber and logs should be cleared up so as to give the grass every possible show, and it will be found economical to keep the paddocks clear of suckers as fast as they grow, and timber, as it falls when the trees are dead. The following are the common and botanical names, as supplied by the Conservator of Forests, of the trees found growing in the South-west Land division of the colony :— Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata, Smith). Red gum (E. calophylla, R. Brown). Flooded or "blue" gum (£. mei>acarpe, Mueller). White gum (E. reduiica, Schauer). 215 Peppermint (Agonis flexiiosa, de Candolle). Yate (E. coenuta, la Billardiere). Sheoak (Casuarina Fraseriana, Miguel). Paperbark (Melaleuca sp.) York gum (E. loxophlcba, Bentham). Jam (Acacia acuminata, Bentham). Salmon gum (E. salmonophloia, F. von Mueller). Morell, or Parker's gum, or mallee of Victoria (E. oleosa, F. von Mueller). Mallet, or fluted gum, or gimlet wood (£. salubris, F. von Mueller). Blackboy (Xanthorrhoea). Wattle (Acacia leiophylla, Bentham). Wattle Badjong (A. mierobotyra, Bentham). Karri (E. diversicolor, F. von Mueller). Spearwood (E. doratoxylon, F. von Mueller). Tuart (E. gomphocephala, de Candolle). Black-butt (E. patens, Bentham). Zamia (Cycas sp.) Flooded gum (Eucalyptus rudii, Endlicher). Flooded gum (Eucalyptus dccipens, Endlicher). Morrell (Eucalyptus longicornis, Mueller). Sandalwood (Santalum cygnorum). South-Western District. Varieties of trees.—Jarrah, red gum, flooded gum, banksia, white . gum, blue gum, peppermint, yate, black-butt. Method and time of destruction.—Great diversity of opinion exists, apparently, both as to the method of killing the trees, whether by ring-barking or sap-ringing, and also as to the period of the year during which the work should be done. There is, however, an unanimous opinion that jarrah, red gum, banksia, and black-butt, should be destroyed by ring-barking, and yate, peppermint, and flooded gum by sap ringing. In the case of blue gums, the advo- cates of sapping and ring-barking' are equally divided, while in the case of white gums the advocates of ring-barking are in a large majority. One correspondent does not enumerate the trees in his locality (Bridgetown), but advises " all to sap when the trees are in flower;" while another correspondent would "advise all newcomers to adopt ring-barking." In regard to the time of the year when the ring-barking or sapping should be done, there is a wide range of opinion. All the months in the year are recommended, except April, May and June. There is a slight preponderance of opinion in favor of ring-barking the trees from October to February. One correspondent at Jayes reports having killed jarrah and white gum in three days by ring- barking in February. July to October appears to be the best period for destroying the red gum. January, February, and March for the 2l6 blue gum, white gum, flooded gum, peppermint, yate, and black-butt. All, with one exception, agree that the banksia may be killed by ring-barking at any period of the year, the dissentient being in favor of the months of Januarv, February and March. Referring to jarrah, red gum, and black-butt, Mr. J. Forster Johnston, of Leschenault, writes :—" I have had over 1,000 acres ring-barked on my Preston property in different months, varying and the early part of November, for jarrah, red gum and black-butt. Yate requires ringing in January, as, if rung at that time, it will die in a few days, and will not throw up suckers, which it will do if rung in the winter months. . . . White gum you can ring at any time when the bark strips freely; in fact, it is no use ringing any tree if it will not bark freely." Mr. J. P. O. Wellard, of Mornington, writes :—"In ring-barking I have found the months named (January, February and March) the best for my land. The trees take longer to die, but they do not throw out any suckers. I think it will be found very hard to lay down any hard and fast rules about ringing, as it will be found not only to vary in different districts, but also in the same districts, as to the best time of the year." Blackboys.—Mr. Wellard continues :—" What is almost as necessary as ringing the timber here in the hills, is having the blackboys cut down. I have had some land chopped and find the stock much prefer the cleared land to that where the blackboys are still growing in the same paddock. Price for chopping the black- boys, about 2s. per acre." On this subject Mr. J. Forster Johnston writes :—"I have 100 acres at the Preston ... so thick with blackboys that I have known a stockman to ride three times round the block before he could find a beast in it, so I determined to have the blackboys chopped off. I let 50 acres to an old man at 2s. 6d. per acre . . . and on settling up he was so satisfied that he walked back 40 miles to do the other 50 acres and had a nice cheque to take. My neighbors laughed at me for doing this, from March to Novem- ber, and found »it all effective." Referring to the '' Leschenault blue gums" the same writer says :—" These trees I find very difficult to kill. Some few will die right out and others live for years." The late Mr. Andrew Muir, of Lake Muir, writes :—" I find the best time to ring-bark in our district is in the months of September, October, 217 saying it was money thrown away, but I see now a good many of them are following my example. You can now see nearly all over the paddock and there is a good swath of English grasses growing in a large portion of it." The Preston progress association reports that "chopping down blackboys greatly improves the carrying capabilities of the land." Effect of the destruction of trees upon the water supply and growth of grasses—There is a decided unanimity of opinion that the killing of the timber increases the water supply in all the localities from which correspondents have replied, but apparently more so in some localities than others. The increase in the water supply is probably governed by the diversity of the timber and the geological formation of the ground, and thus the slight difference in opinion may be accounted for. With one exception, that of the Ferguson farmer's association, who report that "the natural grasses die out" after ring-barking, there is a decided unanimity of opinion that the destruction of the timber is followed by a marked increase in the stock carrying capacity of the land. So unanimous is this opinion that one is led to believe that the exception referred to above has been caused, perhaps not by ring-barking, but by the young and finer grasses which the destruction of the timber had induced to grow, being fed out by overstocking. In fern (bracken) country ring-barking appears to be of doubtful benefit. Mr. Andrew Muir, Lake Muir, writes :—" From my own experience I should say that ring-barking improves all lands where there are no ferns; but in fern country the killing of the timber stimulates the growth of the ferns to such an extent that they completely choke out the grasses in a few years." Cost per aere of ring-barking or sapping.—The highest price paid for ring-barking is, according to the returns, 2s. 6d. per acre, the lowest, is.; the average price per acre being is. ofd. The highest price for sap-ringing is given at 4s. 6d. per acre, the lowest at is. 6d., the average per acre being 2s. 9|d. Cost per acre of clearing before and after the destruction of the trees.—In nearly all cases the returns show that the cost of clearing the land ready for the plough is reduced to one-half after the timber has been killed by ring-barking or sapping. The highest price for clearing is returned by the Ferguson farmer's association at ^20 to ^25 per acre before ring-barking, and £10 to £12 per acre after the timber is dead. Mr. Andrew Muir returns the cost of clearing at ^15 per acre before and £12 per acre after ring-barking in his district. Nearly all the other returns give the cost at £10 to £12 per acre before ring-barking, and ,£5 to £j after. Omitting the two returns mentioned above, those of the Ferguson farmers' association and Mr. Muir, the average cost of clearing over the whole area covered by the returns is, before ring-barking, £9 14s. per acre, after ring-barking, ^5 10s. 6d. per acre. 2l8 Murrav District. Varieties of timber.—Jarrah, red gum, blue gum, banksia, she- oak, paper bark, wild pear tree. Method and time of destruction.—Jarrah, ringbarking. Red gum, Mr. Richardson recommends ringbarking, while the Murray horti- cultural society recommends sapping. Blue gum, sheoak, paper bark, wild pear, sapping. Banksia, ring-barking. August to December for all trees except banksia, which may be rung at any time, and paper bark and wild pear, the best period for ringing these being returned as doubtful. "The blue gum can be killed at any time of the year within 24 hours, if it is properly sapped," according to the Murray horticultural society's return. The honorary secretary of this society in returning the form writes :—" It is the general opinion here that ring-barking and sapping tend to toughen the roots of the trees, making the trees harder to pull up for some time after, so if you cannot afford to wait for two or three years to allow the roots to rot, it is a better plan to pull up the trees green, as the heavy tops help to bring them down. But having waited the time mentioned, the clearing of the land is made all the easier, as the trees come down willingly." Effect of the destruction of the trees upon the water supply and growth of native grasses.—There is a very decided opinion expressed in both returns that the destruction of timber largely increases both the water supply and feed. Cost per acre of ring-barking and sapping.—From is. to 2s. for ring-barking, according to the quantity of timber. From 2s. to 3s. for sapping. Cost per acre for clearing before and after the destruction of the trees.—The returns show the cost of clearing to be reduced to one- half after the timber is dead. Before ring-barking the cost is set down by the Murray society at from £2 to £5 per acre, and by Mr. Richardson at from ^4 to £15 per acre. After ring-barking, from £2 10s. to £8 per acre. Great Southern Railwav District. Varieties of trees.—White gum, York gum, jarrah, jam, she- oak, stinkwood, manna gum, flooded gum, red gum, yate, salmon gum, Parker's gum or morrell, mallet or fluted gum. Method and time of destruction.—In three of the returns sapping is recommended for all the trees mentioned above, with the exception of the salmon gum, which one correspondent advises should be ring-barked. York gum and flooded gum are liable to throw up suckers, it is said in another return. "Sap-ringing is desirable in each case for immediate results, but ring-barking is preferable if one can afford to wait the results for, say, four years." —Wagin-Arthur farmers' alliance. The Katanning farmers' association advocates destroying the white gum and jarrah, either by ring-barking or burning around the butts; and ring-barking jam, 219 sheoak, and manna gum, and sapping York and flooded gums. Stink wood if cut down, dies out. York gum and jam should be rung when the sap is well up. The bark will then fall off every limb, and the roots can be burnt right out. Flooded gum is very difficult to kill. Firing round the trunk in the month of March very often has the desired effect. Two correspondents state their experience has shown that ring-barking and sapping may be carried on all the year round with successful results if the work is properly performed. The Wagin-Arthur farmers' alliance advises that the work should be done during December, January and February, while the Katanning farmer's association advocates ring-barking, or sapping, as the case may be, in September and October, for all trees except manna gum, the period for this variety being extended from September to March. Sheoak may be treated at any time. Effect of the destruction of timber on the water supply and growth of grasses.—All the correspondents are of the unanimous opinion that the destruction of the timber improves very materially both the water supply and the stock carrying capacity of the land. The Katanning farmers' association, however, makes a reservation in favour of the retention of jam trees—" Jam is the only tree which does not injure the grass to any extent. When all the trees are destroyed, the sun has more power over the grasses, which quickly dry up. In the middle of the summer the grass is often found to be green and succulent under the shade of the jam trees when it is dried up elsewhere. . . . Stock eat the leaves of the stinkwood and young sheoaks." Cost per acre of ring-barking or sapping.—In two returns from the Wagin district the cost of sapping is put down at is. less per acre than that of ring-barking, the prices being 2s. to 3s. per acre respectively. In the other returns the cost of ring-barking is from 9d. to is. 6d. per acre, and of sapping from is. 9d. to 2s. per acre. The average cost per acre, taking all the returns into consideration, for ring-barking is 2s. id., and sapping is. n^d. Cost per acre of clearing before and after destruction of the trees.— The Wagin-Arthur farmers' alliance return puts the cost of clear- ing, both before and after the destruction of the timber, at £3 10s. per acre. The other returns show that the cost of clearing after the timber has been killed by ring-barking or sapping is reduced fully one-half. The Broomehill agricultural society's return puts the cost of clearing prior to ring-barking at .£3 per acre, and after the timber is dead, at £1 10s. per acre. In the Katanning return the figures are £2 and £2 per acre respectively. York District. Varieties of trees.—York gum, white gum, salmon gum, jam blue bush, native cassia, manna gum, morrell gum, flooded gum, sheoak. 220 Method and time of destruction.—The Beverley branch advises ring-barking all the eucalypti, while the York branch advocates sapping, without anv reservation. The Greenhills progress associa- tion advises that old York gum trees should be sap-ringed and that the young ones should be ring-barked; that white gum, salmon gum, cassia and jam, should be sap-ringed, and that the blue bush should be cut down. It will thus be seen there is a preponderance of opinion in favor of sap-ringing. From January to April is the opinion of the York and Beverley branches for ring-barking or sapping all trees, while the Greenhills association advises November to April for ring-barking York gum, and May to October for sapping this tree. November to May is the period advised for destroying white gum and cassia, and " any month " for the remaining trees. Mr. W. Padbury filled in a return embracing his experience in the Eastern districts, the Victoria Plains, and at Yatheroo. His remarks may be inserted here. He says :—" I would not cut through the sap of trees on land I wanted to cultivate ; as when the tree is dead and the tree-puller is put on to it, if it has been cut through the sap, it is liable to break off and leave the stump in the ground. I prefer using the tree-puller in clearing, to the ordinary grubbing, as it pulls more roots clean out, and in plough- ing afterwards you do not find so many obstructions. For red gums, white gums, salmon gums, and York gums, I find sapping the best, and the time I do it is as soon as the bark will run after the first winter rains, until the sap goes down again. With flooded gums I find you must cut through the sap, as they will not die otherwise. My experience is that trees that have been sap-ringed do not generally throw out so many suckers. Some trees take two or three years to die, according to the nature of the tree and the land on which it grows. I think when the sap is well up, say September, October, and November, is the best time for ring- barking, as the tree dies more quickly if the work is done at this time." Effect of the destruction of the trees upon the water supply and growth of native grasses.—There is an unanimous opinion expressed that a most marked increase takes place in both the water supply and the number and vitality of the native grasses that spring up after the trees have been destroyed. Cost per aere of ring-barking or sapping.—From is. 3d. to 2s. 6d. per acre are the prices given for ring-barking, and is. yd. to 2s. 6d. for sapping. The York branch puts down the first cost of sapping at is. 3d. to is. od. per acre, and second cost 4d. to 6d. per acre for killing suckers. Cost per acre of clearing before and after the destruction of the trees.—The cost of clearing for the plough after the country has been ring-barked for two to three years, is in all cases estimated at half that of clearing prior to ring-barking. The average cost o 221 clearing when the trees are green is, for the district, £2 15s. per acre, and half this sum per acre when the trees are dead. Northam District. Varieties of trees.—York gum, jam, morrell, white gum, gimlet wood, salmon gum, manna gum, wattles, sheoaks, flooded gum. Method and time of destruction.—Mr. Gregory advises ringing salmon and flooded gums, sheoak and jam, and sapping white and York gums. This, in the main, is also the advice of the Irishtown branch, while Mr. Throssell advises sapping all the trees except the jam, which should be rung. Mr. Dempster furnishes an interesting note on the destruction of the York gum. He writes :— "All trees or scrub can be killed at once by sap-ringing, but the York gum throws out shoots for years after the top of the tree has been killed, and the cost of keeping under the suckers is more than that of ringing in the first instance. I have not yet met any one who can speak positively as to the best time of the year for ringing these trees. Occasionally, some die and give no further trouble, but as a rule they will not under the present system. Kill- ing the tree slowlv by barking I think is the most effectual. I have an idea, supported by facts, that goes to prove that by killing the tree slowly the strength returns to the soil, for the best results I have ever seen from ringing have been by the slow process." Mr. Dempster and Mr. Throssell have apparently succeeded in killing the other trees by either ring-barking or sapping all the year round, but they both evidently incline to doing the work in the summer. The former says: "I rather think that the summer ring-barking is best for York gums and large trees of the same class." Mr. Throssell writes: "I have not arrived at any con- clusion, as I have succeeded in the matter of effectually killing the gums by ring-barking during all the months of the year. I prefer summer for either sapping or ring-barking. In the latter the process is slower, but more effective." The Irishtown branch advise that the work should be done between November and March, while Mr. Gregory favors January and February for York and white gums, and September and October for the others. Eject of destruction of trees upon the water supply and growth of native grasses.—There is a decided consensus of opinion that the destruction of timber improves both the water supply and the growth of the native grasses. Mr. Throssell writes in reference to the latter :—" Especially is this noticeable on the salmon gum country, which prior to killing the timber is devoid of herbage. The effect is marvellous, as different species of grasses put in an appearance the first winter after the timber has been ring-barked, and grow luxuriantly. Owing to this ' discovery ' the salmon gum country is coming into great favor." 222 Cost per aere of ring-barking and sapping.—From is. 3d. to is. 9d. for ring-barking, and is. 6d. to 2s. for sapping. Cost per aere of clearing, before and after the destruction of the trees.—The highest price quoted for clearing before the timber has been destroyed is .£3, and the lowest £2 per acre. The highest quotations given for clearing after the timber is dead is £2 10s., and the lowest £1 10s. per acre. The average per acre of the returns is : before ring-barking, £2 14s. ; after the timber is dead, £1 17s. 6d. Mr. Throssell writes :—" Referring to the value of killing timber as a preparatory measure to clearing for agriculture, it requires to be explained that in setting down the saving at only 10s. per acre, I refer to landowners who let out their clearing by contract at so much per acre. But for the farmer who thoroughly ring-barks or kills off the timber some years before clearing, and then clears his land with his own or monthly hired-labor under his own supervision, the saving, I am confident, would be fully one-half." Toodvav District. Varieties of trees.—White gum, jam, York gum, red gum. Method and time of destruction.—White gum, rinsj-barking; York gum, ring-barking or sapping; jam, sapping; red gum, not stated. White gum should be destroyed from September to October; York gum, February to March ; jam, at any time ; red gum, not stated. The secretary adds in a note :—" The branch is of an opinion that the red gum should never be interfered with on the pastoral lands, as these trees do not do any harm to the feed, and are invaluable as shade." Effect of the destruction of trees upon the ivatcr supplv and the growth of native grasses.—The destruction of the timber has a most beneficial effect in increasing the water supply and the growth of the native grasses. Cost per acre of ring-barking or sapping.—is. to is. 6d. per acre for either operation. Cost per acre of clearing before and after the destruction of the timber.—Before, £2; after, £2 10s. to £2 15s. The secretary writes as follows :—" For agricultural purposes the branch is of the opinion that grubbing when the timber is green is preferable to killing the timber by ring-barking, or sapping before clearing. The cost per acre of clearing after ring-barking is from 5s. to 10s. less, but this is from two to three years after the ring-barking has been done." Geraldton District. Varieties of trees.—Wattles, York gum, jam, flooded gum. Method and time of destruction.—Wattles, York gum, and jam, by ring-barking; flooded gum, by sapping. November or December, when the sap is down, is returned as the best time for destroying the trees. 223 Effect of the destruction of trees upon the water supply and growth of native grasses.—The effect is very great upon the water supply. Even within six months after ringing the supply gets stronger. The grass grows thicker and is appreciated more by stock. Cost per acre of ring-barking or sapping.—Ring-barking, about 5s. per acre ; price for sapping not stated. Cost per aere of clearing before and after the destruction of the trees.—Before ring-barking, £5 per acre (wheat lands) ; after the timber has been killed, ^3 per acre. Note.—Mr. M'Kenzie Grant writes :—" Ring-barking, I find, . is only the beginning of clearing the land, as the saplings and young shoots keep springing up and have to be grubbed out year after year." CHAPTER III. CLEARING; HOW TO DO IT, AND HOW NOT TO DO IT The removal of timber from virgin land preparatory to plough- ing, is known in Australia as " grubbing and clearing." The cost of doing this work, of course, varies very greatly, as will have been gathered from the earlier chapters which give the average price of clearing in the various localities described. The chief factor in the cost of clearing is the quantity of timber that has to be removed, and there are also subsidiary causes which regulate the price at which the work can be done, as, for instance, the nature of the soil, the time of the year at which the work is carried on, the variety of timber, the proximity to the labor market, and the mechanical aids that may be employed. Taking all these things into consideration, and speaking generallv, the spring and early summer are the best periods of the year in which to do this work. If the land is clay or at all inclined to be stiff it will have been well soaked by the winter rains, and be easier to remove from around the roots of the trees. Land cleared in the spring and ploughed the same season, is less prone to throw up suckers from the fragments of roots that are bound to be left on the ground, no matter how carefully the work is done, than land cleared or ploughed in the autumn or winter. Another advantage of clearing in spring and early summer is that the rains are less frequent and the timber has a better chance of burning. Light sandy soil covered with banksia and other woods that burn readily, may be cleared at any time of the year. The new settler may think that anyone who has sufficient strength can do grubbing and clearing as well as the next one. This is a great mistake. One cannot exalt clearing into an art or a science, but there is a knack in doing the work that, simple as it looks, requires a good deal of practice before one can become master of it. So much is this the case that if the inexperienced settler has the money at his command, my advice to him is to get this most laborious work done by contract. If he has not, and is compelled to do the work himself, the hints conveyed in the following notes may be of use to him. If I now give in skeleton form the outline of a specification for clearing, it will, I think, with a little explanation, convey to the mind of the new settler the chief features of the work that has to be done, and the proper way in which it should be performed. 225 1. All trees to be grubbed completely round and out to a depth of not less than 18 inches, and all roots to be run to the same depth or until they can be broken by the hand. 2. All underground blackboys to be grubbed out below the crown. 3. All zamia palms to be grubbed and completely removed from the ground. 4. All scrub large enough to impede the progress of the plough, or that cannot be completely turned in in ploughing, to be grubbed out. 5. The timber and scrub, after having been grubbed, to be burnt and the ashes spread as far as they can be cast. 6. All wood not absolutely required for burning the butts and stumps of trees, to be left on the ground. 7. No holes to be filled in until they have been examined by • or his agent ; when passed, to be filled in three inches above the level of the surrounding ground. 8. The whole of the ground to be left ready for the plough, and the contract to be completed in a workmanlike manner on or before 9. If the contract is not completed on or before the date above-mentioned a penalty of _ ..shillings per day for every day over the specified time, to be paid by the contractors, and deducted from any money that may be due to them. Such is the rough framework of a specification for a grubbing and clearing contract. The first clause is self-explanatory. The second and third clauses refer only to that part of the country where zamia palms and underground blackboys are to be found. The latter, if not grubbed well below the crown, that is, where the leaves shoot from the bole, will continue to spring up perennially. Clauses 4 and 5 need no explanation, unless it is to say that the reason for having the ashes spread is that they are a most valuable potash manure and should be made as much use of, and spread over as large a surface of ground, as possible. Clause 6 is inserted at discretion. If work is very plentiful and the settler has a large area, it may be omitted; but if the area is 100 acres or less, the economy of firewood cannot begin too soon. It may appear to the settler that there is plenty of wood for all the world, and for ever; but even if there was, there is no sense in wasting it. There is no sense in wasting anything, so far as my experience goes. But, as a matter of fact, it does not take very long, if clearing is vigorously pursued, to exhaust the wood supplies on a 100-acre farm ; for it must be borne in mind that even with the most careful management about 80 per cent. of what would otherwise be available for fire- wood has to be used in burning the trunks and butts of trees that cannot be utilised. It is important that no holes should be filled in until they have been examined for roots, and when they are filled in they should be 226 heaped up a little in order to allow for the settling down of the loose soil that must eventually take place. It is for the person letting- the contract to say whether he will supply tree pullers, tools, explosives, and rations. As a rule, the contractors supply themselves with all these things, and it is better, as it saves possible complications, that they should. Before going any further, I should like to impress upon the minds of not only new settlers, but old settlers also, the desirable- ness of having all contracts made in writing. Verbal agreements frequently give rise to misunderstandings that might have been avoided if ink and paper had been resorted to. The best of inten- tions may exist on both sides at the time the verbal contract is made, but it is a very difficult matter, in the first place, to get two minds to completely grasp the same situation from exactly the same aspect; and it is, in the second place, an infinitely more difficult matter to get these same two minds two months afterwards to look back upon the situation as it then appeared, and again view it from the same aspect. Memory is so apt to play us false; black and white, never. The risks to both sides of acting upon a verbal agreement are infinitely greater than committing oneself to any serious error in signing a written contract that has been mutually agreed upon. There is another matter I should like to mention here, and that is, the advisableness of the settler, particularly the new comer, keeping a daily record of his work. A diary may be had for a shilling that will last for a year. It may be used as a day book, in which the outgoings and incomings in cash and produce may be put down until such time as they can be entered up in the proper books. Every event of any importance should be noted, the tak- ing-on of a new hand, paying him off, ploughing, sowing, harvest- ing, burning off, increase in live stock, and the hundred and one operations and events that make up the routine of twelve months of farm life. It is surprising the many little mental worries and anxieties, occasioned by the vagaries of memory, that this simple record relieves. Between tea time and bed time there is always a spare half hour, and a portion of it cannot be more profitably expended than in recording, in black and white, the more import- ant events of the day. To return to clearing, and the new and inexperienced settler who has, perforce, to undertake the work himself. On clearing the lighter soils, which generally in this colony mean lighter and easily removed timber, there is very little to be said. Common sense in this, as in everything else, must be the settler's best guide. It may be that it will be considered desirable the first year to leave all the large timber standing—in which case it should be ring-barked at once, no matter what time of the year— and grub out only the small stuff, say 12 inches in diameter and under. If the large trees are not too thick this can be done 227 with advantage, and the ground can be ploughed—" scruffed up" is the better expression, as it is hardly ploughing, un der the circumstances—with a stump-jump plough. This plough, as the illustration shows, and as its name im- plies, is constructed in such a manner as to permit ground of the very rough- est kind being worked. If an obstacle which cannot be cut through is encount- ered by the share the movable beam is raised by the tractive force, and, after the obstacle is passed, the share falls into the land again and recommences work. The stump-jump plough is, however, an expensive item—a double-furrow costing about £1j, and a treble- furrow ^23—the small settler will be hardly able to afford, and unless he can get the work done by contract, an ordinary siugle- furrow plough will have to be called into requisition. Ploughing only partially cleared land with a single-furrow rigid plough is a most exhilarating, but not altogether satisfactory, operation, but still it can bz done with a little care and without damaging the imple- ment. If the land is to be cleared outright at once, which is by far the best way, if time and means permit, the settler must gird up his loins and make up his mind to tackle the job bravely. If a big tree has to be got out it is no use playing round the roots. Dig the THE WRONG WAY soil away well round the tree, so that you have plenty of room to 228 work. There is nothing gained by chopping off the roots close by the trunk, for you must remember that every root has to be traced until it is well out of the way of the plough that is to follow clear- ing. Again, the tap root has to be got at, and this cannot be done unless you give yourself ample room to work round and under the tree. If the tree has plenty of top, when the main lateral roots are cut in all probability it will fall ; but if there is little or no top, then either the tap root will have to be cut, or the agency of fire will have to be invoked. Don't be too ready with the fire stick. Grub well round the tree to the full depth before you think of starting the fire. Once you have started your fire, do not think of letting it go out. Clearing is not eight-hours-a-day work. Last thing at night and first thing in the morning the fires have to be gone round and put together. A sapling from six to seven feet long is used as a lever for putting the logs together whilst burning. A second and more expeditious method of clearing is by means of a tree-puller or " forest devil." Several of these machines, both for horse and man power, have been invented and perfected in this colony, and will be found satisfactory in every way. Where clearing has to be done quickly and on a large scale, the tree-puller is almost indispensable ; but on a small piece of land, and especially when it is intended for vines or fruit frees, I am inclined to think that the slight extra cost of clearing entirely by hand is money saved in the long run. . A third method is by the use of explosives, and this I have found both expeditious and profitable, especially on ring-barked country where the timber is dead. I have always used dynamite in preference to either powder or rackarock, the only other explosives I have tried. It is not necessary to use sufficient explosive to blow the tree down, but merely to loosen the ground about the roots and create a vent under the butt of the tree. When the timber is dead a fire-stick will generally do the rest. A hole should be bored with a two-inch auger, not in the butt of the tree, but immediately under it, in the fork of the roots. From J lb to ^ lb. of dynamite will be quite sufficient to shake up the roots and create a vent for the fire under the largest tree. Last summer I had to have some ground cleared. It was stiffish clay land, and the ground was very hard, and I found a considerable saving in time, and consequently money, was effected by using a small quantity of dynamite, as I have described, to loosen the ground round the trees. Dynamite may be had in 5-lb. packets, costing 8s. 9d.; detonators cost 9d. per doz., and fuse is. per coil. At one time it was thought the royal road to clearing had been found in the use of saltpetre and kerosene. I have tried the following method myself, but must say have only found it to be advantageous with timbers that will in any case burn readily. A hole, eighteen inches deep, is bored with a 1J inch auger down the centre of the stump after the tree has been felled. Into this hole 229 two or more ounces of saltpetre are put, or it is filled up with kerosene and plugged up. In fine weather, in the spring, the plug is removed and about a quarter of a pint of kerosene is put in if the saltpetre has been used, or the hole is again filled up with the oil if oil has been previously applied. This being set on fire, it is said the stump will continue to burn away quietly until both stump and roots are consumed. Personally, I am of opinion that a little dynamite properly applied, or one of the other methods of clearing mentioned in this chapter, are cheaper and more satisfactory in the end. There is a fourth method, which is certainly the most expe- ditious, but it requires a large amount of capital and would only pay where a large area of country had to be cleared. I refer to the use of traction engines fitted with long wire ropes by means of which the trees can be pulled down as they stand, without any preliminary preparation, and then " snigged" up into rows eight or ten chains apart, and there left for all time or to be burnt off at leisure. If this process is followed there is nothing to do but to fill up the holes and set the stump-jump plough to work. Mr. James Biram, a Victorian farmer recently arrived in this colony, writes as follows to the Secretary of the Bureau of Agricul- ture :—" I send you herewith particulars of a plan that has been adopted in South Gippsland, Victoria, for the last seven or eight years, of burning out or stoving trees or stumps, instead of grubbing. The Gippsland timber required to be killed by ring-barking for two or three years first, but I believe that in the north-eastern and Goulburn Valley districts of Victoria, among the box timber, they will burn out at any time, and this method has been in use for many years there. Some of the timber in this colony might be like the box and burn out at any time, while others might want to be killed; but I am sure it is worth trying. The method is as follows :— "Clear away all the earth from the stump and the surface roots to a depth of about six inches. Pack small billets of wood alongside and over the surface roots, and also pack billets all round the stump for a height of about one foot or eighteen inches. Cover all the billets with earth exactly in the same manner as for burning char- coal, leaving a small vent-hole for the purpose of lighting a fire. When the fire is fairly alight close the vent-hole. Go round the fires once or twice a day with a light wooden rammer, and where- ever the ground is loose or has burned hollow, press the earth close again and keep it covered up. The success of the operation lies in not allowing the fire to burn hollow, but in keeping the earth close to the burning roots and stumps. In this manner the largest sized timber may be burned out in from one to three weeks, and the roots will be burned down quite clear of any plough or other farm implement. After the burning, spread the ashes and earth again. The top part of the stump that is above the banked up earth will burn through before the stump is burned. It must be rolled aside and the earth 230 closed over the place again. If standing trees are burned in this way, care will have to be taken to keep stock away ; and also :r. going about it, as the trees may fall unexpectedly, but it is found cheaper and better to chop down the trees and burn out the stump than to grub the trees, besides the sour earth is not turned up as in grubbing. The work is light. It takes very little time or trouble to go round the fires to keep them burning, and one man can attend to a great number as well as keep on lighting others. Before leaving Victoria last March I was at the farm of Messrs. Murdie Bros., well-known farmers near Warragul, who have some very heavy timber on their land. They told me this was the best way they had tried. An old man had taken a contract from them last year to clear 50 acres of stumps. He had been working by himself all the winter and had nearly finished, and it had cost them from .£3 to £4. per acre less than the old way. Other farmers about there told me it was only half the cost of grubbing to stove the stumps. I had some stumps cleared on my own selection about three years ago for £2 per acre that would have cost over £4 per acre to grub." Burning Off. With some varieties of trees it is much easier to get them down than to get rid of them after they are down. This is particu- larly the case when the timber has not been previously killed by ring-barking. The usual method of getting rid of the timber is by burning it, first cutting the smaller limbs up into convenient lengths for handling with an axe or cross-cut saw. The larger limbs and butts of the smaller trees should also be cut up and pulled up to the largest trunks by horse power. The mistake is sometimes made by those who have not done this work before, of stacking up all the small timber on the trunks and setting fire to the whole lot at once. This should not be done except in the case of trees that are dead, and consequently dry, and that are known to burn freely. Burning off is, at best, under the most favorable circumstances, a tedious process, and though it may seem very slow work, it is quicker in the long run to economise the smaller stuff and add a little to the fires as needed. It occasionally happens, in spite of the greatest economy, there are still butts unburnt, and which are too large to be moved whole and which cannot be split by the wedge and maul. When this occurs it has to be decided whether it is cheaper to haul more timber to the spot or break up the butts by means of ex- plosives. A plug or two of dynamite judiciously applied will do more in the few minutes the operation requires, than a man and a team will do in a day. Another way, which has been recommended to me, but which I have not tried, of getting rid of the huge butts of red gums and other trees that are full of sap and refuse to burn except under the most intense heat, is to throw earth up to them and treat them 231 in the same manner as if burning charcoal. In burning off, in fact, in the whole operation of clearing for the plough, it should not be forgotten that it is one hundred per cent. labor, and in order to cheapen the process as much as possible, not cheap labor, which is very often dear labor in the long run, but mechanical appliances and every other available means should be employed to assist the capable laborer in his work. In the rudimentary, but necessary, work of clearing, brains should come into play as well as hands. The foregoing remarks are not intended as a complete discourse on the whole art of clearing, but merely to indicate to the newcomer the several methods which may be followed with advantage. In this, as in everything else, a little practical experience is of more value than a whole library of theory. CHAPTER IV. BURNING OFF. The Bush Fires Act and Regulations. It is very desirable to burn off scrub country occasionally in order to sweeten and promote a more vigorous growth of succulent feed. Fire is the great revivifying agent of the Australian bush. It may seem very strange to those living in the colder latitudes of the northern hemisphere, but a large number of seeds of indigenous plants of Australia will not germinate until they have been subjected to an intense heat. Nature has protected them with an outer covering that is so hard that only fire will break it sufficiently to permit the requisite moisture to gain admission to the seed and induce germination. The end of summer or beginning of autumn, before the rains set in, is the best time for burning, and it should be done at night if possible, as it is so much easier to see where the sparks fly. Every precaution should be taken to prevent the fire getting away, and it is better to burn a strip round the fences first in order to obviate this as far as possible. By the following extracts from the " Bush Fires Act " it will be seen that regulations can be made from time to time by the Governor in Executive Council, as to what time burning off is permissible in certain districts. It will also be noticed that burning off may be done, under certain conditions, at any time, provided adequate notice is given to neighbours. INTERPRETATION. 4. In this Act the following words shall have the meanings respectively assigned to th 10s- ^ the large posts were handy. FENCING MATERIALS. BLACK AND GALVANIZED STEEL FENCING WIRE. Per ton Gauge | Length per cwt. Weight Required per Mile. Black Galv. 1 Wire 2 Wire 3 Wire 4 Wire 5 Wire £ s- £ s. 12 0 12 0 12 10 12 10 No. 6 8 Yds. 469 586 727 880 c. q. lbs 3 3o 300 2 1 19 200 c. q. lbs. 720 600 4 3 10 400 c. q. lbs. II 1 0 900 7 I 0 1 0 0 c. q. lbs 15 0 0 12 0 0 9 2 20 800 c. q. lbs. 18 3 0 1500 12 0 II 10 0 0 IO 10 10 10 10 15 10 15 9 10 4-point thick set barbed fencing wire (448 yards per cwt.) £16 per ton. WIRE NETTING, in rolls of 50 yards. Mesh. Width 24m. 3oin. 36m. 48in. 6oin. 72m. i4in. Price per yard ... 24d. 3d. 34d. 44d. per yard 2111. „ , 2d. 2£d. 3d. 4d. 44d. 5d. 3in. „ l4d. lid. 2d. 3d. 34d. 4d. Galvanised fencing staples 35s. cwt. Reid's wire strainers ... 20s. each. Boring machines (post hole) complete with, Six bits each (4in., (in., }in. lin., i4in., 2in.) 35s. Prices supplied by W. Sandover and Co. CHAPTER VI. DRAINING. The Necessitv of it, and the Results. In the coastal districts, where the rainfall is copious, it will be found advisable to drain the clays and loams, and loams overlying clays. The new settler should carefully note, during the first winter, where the water lodges on his land, and mark these spots for future draining. In districts where the rainfall is scanty, sur- face drains, made in the winter with a plough, are generally sufficient to carry off the surplus water, but even here deep drain- age could be advantageously undertaken. Where the rainfall is heavy and continuous a more elaborate scheme of under drainage will have to be undertaken if the best results are to be secured. In laying our drains the first thing to be decided upon is the outfall. This, I need hardly say, should be at the lowest point ; from this a series of main and subsidiary, drains should radiate, their depth and proximity to each other being governed by the nature of the soil. The following table from M'Connell's Agricultural Note Book (a cheap and useful little book that every farmer should possess) gives the width and depth of drainage according to the soil :— Soil. Depth in feet. apart in feet. Distance ft. in. ft. Stiff clay 2 6 Friable clay 2 6 18 Soft clay -2 9 21 Loamy clay 3 0 21 Loam with gravel 3 3 27 Light loam 3 ° 33 Sandy loam 3 9 40 Light sand with gravel 4 o So Coarse gravelly sand 4 6 6o The figures in the above table mean, for instance, that a drain of 2 feet 6 inches deep in stiff clay will only take the surplus water away from the soil for a distance of 7^ feet on each side of it ; whereas in coarse gravelly sand the drain should, at a depth of 4 feet 6 inches, make itself apparent on the ground 30 feet away from it. 249 Drains may be made in various ways, but it must be borne in mind that no drain should be of less depth than will allow the deepest culture without injury to itself. Where "blackboys" (Xanthoreas) are plentiful, these may be used, and will last for a great number of years. A trench is dug to the required depth, sufficiently wide to allow of two blackboy trunks being laid side by side, the scales facing the way the water runs, with a few inches of space between them, a third trunk is then placed on the top, as shown in the illustration, and the trench filled in, and the earth well trodden down by walking a heavy horse up and down it until well solidified. A box drain may be made of slabs, split or sawn, or any waste timber of any kind, the two sides and top only being required, unless the fall is very great, when it is advisable to have the bottom in as well. Rubble drains, where stone is available, are cheaply made, and very effective, the rubble being laid in the trench, as shown in the illustration. Tile drains are really the best, and though expensive, and not within the reach of everyone, are cheaper in the end, as, if care- fully laid, their life should be at least half a century. The best shape for tiles is an oval, or elliptical bore, with one or two flat outside bottoms. They should be made of well-ground clay, well burnt, with not too much sand in their composition, straight, smooth, and free from ragged ends. In making surface drains attention should be paid to the character of the soil, in order to prevent scouring or the washing away of the sides, as much as possible. The fall can be made greater in stiff soils without this occurring, than in light soils. The advantages to be derived from draining may be summed up as follows :—Soils sweeten much more rapidly, and are con- sequently sooner ready to throw a good crop ; they are more easily and sooner worked; lime and manures act better; seed time and 250 harvest are earlier, and larger and better crops result; good natural grasses spring up, and the herbage is more nutritous; noxious weeds and insects are kept in subjection, and the health of live stock is improved. CHAPTER VII. THE FARM WATER SUPPLY. Tanks, Dams, and Wells. If the new settler has not been sufficiently fortunate to locate himself where there is a permanent supply of pure fresh water, one of his first duties will be to provide this, both for himself and his stock. Soaks are not infrequently found, and, if opened out, may provide sufficient for moderate needs, and, in the south-west, springs capable of affording a domestic supply are not uncommon. Though these may do for the time being, there is nothing like having a permanent and plenteous supply of water, and this must either be obtained from wells, tanks, or dams, or from all three combined. If it is decided to put down a well, unless the settler has some practical knowledge of what he is about to undertake, he had much better have the work done by contract by an experienced well- sinker, either by the day or by the foot. It is not an easy matter for an amateur to put down, and brick up and finish off a well properly, especiallv where quicksand or a liberal supply of water is struck and rushes into the well freely. In the sandy country along the coast, water is invariably struck at very shallow depths, and these wells require no skill to put down. They may be slabbed up to prevent the sides washing in, and the work is quickly and effectively done by anyone with a little common sense. When the roofs of the house and outbuildings are of iron, either galvanised iron tanks, or underground or overground brick tanks should be provided to conserve the rain water. Even with an adequate supplv of well water it is always advisable to have a tank or two of rainwater in reserve. It is not unusual for wells to become con- taminated, either bv the subterraneous springs that feed them washing out an alkali pocket in their course into the well, or by drainage of impurities from the surface. One cannot be too careful about the water one drinks, and every precaution should be taken to ensure a plenteous supply of pure water for this purpose. Overground brick tanks are in every way preferable to under- ground ones. They are as cheap, or cheaper, to construct, they are less liable to contamination, they are more easily cleaned, and the water is more readily drawn from them, and if a leak should occur it is more easily detected, and more quickly stopped. Water for stock may be conserved either by dams built across the bed of a stream, or in tanks excavated in the ground. Wells mean lifting the water, and this is a laborious and costly process which should be avoided if possible, if many head of stock are kept. 252 Dams of sufficient strength to impound a considerable quantity of water may be made of the rudest material, provided there is sufficient of it to withstand the lateral pressure. Two walls of rock, with clay well rammed down, or two rows of piles with clay in between, may be made to serve. In this kind of work horse labor should be used as much as possible, and if the stuff on the sides of the creek is suitable, the plough and scoop may be brought into requisition. If the packing between the walls has to be carted, the walls should be far enough apart to allow a cart to be driven right through, so that the load may be dumped into its place at once, without any shovelling. The passing of subsequent loads over this making and tank sinking, but for other purposes on the farm. Before excavating for a tank, unless the farmer is well up in the business, it is desirable to put down one or two trial holes to the depth the tank is to be sunk, in order to see whether the soil is good holding ground or not, or whether there is any indication of a rise of salt water. I have known one or two instances where, at a depth of about eight or nine feet, saline springs have been struck, and completely ruined the tank. This, of course, is of rare occur- rence, and I only mention it to put it on record. From surface indications the experienced eye can easily locate good holding ground, but the new comer will be wise to put down a trial hole or two first. The excavation of a tank is a very simple the soil at the bottom of tank and rendering it impervious to moisture. all helps to solidifv the whole mass, and when it is com- pleted with a little topping up and some gravel, if available, the top of the dam makes an excellent and dry crossing- place over the creek. The illustration shows a handy little scoop, costing about £4, that will be found very useful, not only for dam matter, and in ordinary ground may be done very quickly with a plough and scoop. The tank is first marked off and the timber cleared away, the surface is then ploughed ; this is scooped away, and then another layer is ploughed up and scooped away, and so on until the re- quired depth has been reached. The sides are fmished off with a pick and shovel when the ex- cavation is completed. If there is any doubt about the holding capacity of the ground, it is a very good plan to puddle the bottom by driving a flock of sheep into it after the first shower. The pressure of sheep's feet has the effect of ramming down and completely solidifying 253 When more than one paddock has to be watered, the tank should be placed in the centre, where the fences intersect each other, so that the stock in all the paddocks can have access to it. It is not a good plan to leave the whole of the tank open to stock. In the hot weather they are liable to get into the water to escape the flies and the heat, and spoil the water. With a little ingenuity approaches, which will permit drinking, but not bathing, can be fenced off. It is need- less to say that the tank should be excavated in the lowest place in the paddock, so that the catchment area should be as large as possible where the rainfall is light. In the autumn, before the rains are expected, the area for some distance round the dam should be thoroughly cleaned up, the dung and other things, likely to wash into the dam and pollute the water, being carefully removed. Plough fur- rows should then be run leading into the dam, so that every drop of rain that falls has a fair chance of finding its way into the reservoir provided for it. There are various mechanical appli- ances for lifting water, and when some- thing better than hand power is required, a wind-mill will be found, perhaps, as satisfactory as anything. The names of the various kinds of wind-mills is legion, and all have some- thing to recommend them. They are not expensive, and one with an angle iron stand and pump complete can be bought for somewhere about ,£40, or, perhaps less. Two pumps are illustrated in this chapter. The small one is made in several sizes, from 2^in. bore up to 3^in., the lesser bore discharging 1 3-5ths gallons of water per minute, and the larger one 4f gallons. They cost from 14s. to £1 5s., according to size. The large illustra- tion shows a " Douglas Force Pump," suitable for drawing water from wells or cisterns and forcing it up to any height required. These pumps may be worked either by hand, wind, horse, water, steam, or any other power, and are bored 254 from 2|in. to 5£in., and cost complete from £2 to .£5. When there is the slightest suspicion of alkali in the water, care should be taken to have a brass-lined pump, brass not being subject to corrosion. Where running water is available as a motive power, rams may be used for ele%ating the water to a moderate height. These are comparativelv inexpensive appliances, and are always at work so long as the water runs, but only a fraction of the water that passes through them is elevated. Capacities of Windmills and Reservoirs. CO n' Diaft3 lftnde D si 5< V = > =T 3 s 0 ~ c 53 > Amount of landlSize of reservoir that can be capable of holding covered one water for twentv- r. ft •g. n 3 c 2 0 -t• c if 2 c ft foot deep by mills working four hours contin- uous pumping on 5 — , H 3■"! 3 2, = 0 JJ"J5 -~ 3 £.? for 100 days in estimate given. 5' £.1 : S ?r 2 ft 3 § £ — ~ the year at the Reservoir 4 feet r. 3 w < u -I rate of fifteen deep; banks 16 3 3' hours per day. feet ; base 5 feet high; interior size. I ! -? : ,° : 1 : ft "3 : Acres covered : -t- IO 8 10 3,660 87,840 — — 10 6 50 10 1 2,580 61,920 — — 10 4 75 10 1,320 31,680 — — 12 10 30 12 4 7,5°o 180,000 103 acres. 90 by 75 feet. 12 8 5o 12 3i 6,300 151,200 86 acres. 90 by 60 feet. 12 I 6 75 12 1\ 2,700 64,800 37 acres. 60 by 40 feet. 12 4 "5 12 I i-320 31,680 18 acres. 50 by 30 feet. *4 12 3o 10,620 254,880 146 acres. 125 by 80 feet. 14 10 So 14 4* 7,260 174,240 100 acres. 90 by 75 feet. *4 8 14 2f 4,620 100,880 63 acres. 75 by 5o feet- 14 6 14 if 2,940 7i>56o 40 acres. 65 by 40 feet. 14 4 r7s 14 1 1,680 40,320 23 acres. 50 by 30 feet. 16 5 20o 16 1,700 47,680 25 acres. 50 by 35 feet. Extra reservoir required to reserve overflow after 24 hours pumpmg should be of one and two-acre sizes, holding from 8 to 16-acre feet of water. Large reservoirs of one and two-acre sizes, 8 feet deep, banks 9 feet high, base, 45 feet. A square acre is 209 feet on each side. A two-acre reservoir would be 209 x 418 feet. CHAPTER VIII. THE FARM LABORER. Hiring, Wages, Rations, and the Masters and Servant's Act. The really capable farm laborer is not easy to procure in this colony. The attractions offered by the goldfields are greater than those of the farm, and the consequence is that most of the labor that by right of training belongs to the rural districts, finds its way to the fields. The wages paid on the fields are higher than those the farmer can afford to offer, though when the extra cost of living is taken into consideration, the increase is more apparent than real. The majority of men who are now working on the farms is made up chiefly of those who have been to the goldfields and have come back sadder and wiser, or of those who have not been through this experience, and are working in the rural districts until they can save enough money to take them eastward. The average colonial farm laborer is undoubtedly below the average of his English compeer; and there is an opening for a good class of farm hand. The farm laborer of the present day is not the Hodge of a century ago. Agronomic science has developed, and in a lesser ratio he has developed with it. The man with brains in the colonies finds so many avenues of more congenial employment open to him, that he is seldom found drudging on a farm as a laborer. If he is, it is from causes which need not be mentioned. Again, the land laws of the colony are so liberal that anyone who has an inclination to follow rural pursuits may become the owner of his own farm. Farm hands are usually hired by the month, and the rate of pay varies from ^3 to ^5, with board and lodging, the lower rate being for the laborer pure and simple, and the higher for the team- sters and ploughmen. It costs about 10s. per week to keep a man. The usual bare ration is 10 lbs. flour, 12 lbs. meat, 2 lbs. sugar, and \ lb. tea per man per week. Butter or jam are frequently added. There is a labor branch in connection with the Bureau of Agriculture, and farmers requiring hands, or men requiring work in the country, can register their names at the offices of the Bureau. The following extracts from the "Masters and Servant's Act, 1892," are of interest to both the employers of labor and the employed :— 256 (4.) Whenever the employer or employed shall neglect or refuse to fulfil any contract of service, or the employed shall neglect or refuse to enter upon or commence his service according to the contract. or shall absent himself from his service, or whenever any dispute, question, or difference shall arise as to the rights or liabilities of either of the parties, or touching any misusage, misconduct, ill- treatment. or injury to the person or property of either of the parties under any contract or service, or touching the loss or destruction of such property, the party feeling aggrieved may lay an information or complaint in writing before a justice of the peace, setting forth the ground of complaint, and the amount of wages, compensation, damage, or other remedy claimed for the breach or non-perform- ance of such contract, or for any misusage, misconduct, illtreatment, or injury to the person or property of the person complaining, or for the loss or destruction of such property, and upon such information or complaint being laid, the justice taking the same shall issue, or cause to be issued, a summons to the party so com- plained against, setting forth the grounds of complaint, and the amount claimed for wages, compensation, damage, or other remedy as set forth in the said infor- mation or complaint, and requiring such party to appear at the time and place appointed in such summons, before any two or more justices of the peace, to answer the matter of the information or complaint, so that the same may be then and there heard and determined. (7.) Upon the hearing of any information or complaint under the provisions of this act, the justices hearing the same, after due examination, and upon proof of the matter of such information or complaint, by an order in writing under their hands, in their discretion, as the justice of the case may require, shall either make an abatement of the whole or any part of the wages or other remuneration then already due to the employed, or shall direct the fulfiment of the contract of service with a direction to the party complained against to find forthwith good and sufficient security by recognisance or bond, with or without sureties, to the satis- faction of a justice for the fulfilment of such contract, or shall annul the contract, discharging the parties from the same and apportioning the amount of wages or remuneration due up to completed period of such contract ; or where no amount of compensation or damage can be assessed, or where pecuniary compensation will not, in the opinion of the justices, meet the circumstances of the case, shall impose a fine upon the party complained against, not exceeding in amount the sum of twenty pounds, or shall assess and determine the amount of compensation or damage together with the costs to be made to the party complaining, inclusive of the amount of any wages or remuneration abated, and shall direct the same to be paid accordingly. (8.) If the order shall direct the fulfilment of the contract and shall direct the party complained against to find good and sufficient security as aforesaid, and the party complained against shall neglect or refuse to comply with such order, a justice may, if he shall think fit, by warrant under his hand, commit such party to any gaol, there to be confined and kept until he shall so find security; but never- theless so that the term of imprisonment, whether under one or several successive committals, shall not exceed in the whole three months, provided, always, that the justices hearing the information or complaint as aforesaid may, if they think fit, assess and determine the amount of wages, compensation, or damage to be paid to the party complaining, and direct the same to be paid, whether the contract is ordered by them to be annulled or not; or, in addition to the annulling of the contract of service and discharge of the parties from the same, may, if they think fit, impose a fine as hereinbefore authorised, provided always, that no apprentice- ship indenture or agreement shall be annulled except upon proof of illtreatment of the apprentice by the master, or incompetency on the part of the master to teach such apprentice, or wilful neglect so to teach such apprentice, or incorrigible misconduct on the part of the apprentice, provided, also, that the justices if they rescind or annul any agreement or indenture of apprenticeship may, if they think fit, order the whole or any part of the premium paid on the binding of the apprentice to be repaid to the person or persons paying the same provided, also, that nothing herein contained shall authorise the justices to adjudicate where the 257 amount claimed exceeds fifty pounds, or to make an order for the payment of any sum exceeding fifty pounds (exclusive of the costs incurred in the case), or to require security to an amount exceeding fifty pounds from any defendant or his surety or sureties. (13.) Where on the hearing of an information or complaint under this act it appears to the justices that an injury inflicted on the person or property of the party complaining, or the misconduct or illtreatment complained of has been of an aggravated character, and that such injury, misconduct, or illtreatment has not arisen or been committed in the boiia-iide exercise of a legal right existing, or bona- fidc and reasonably supposed to exist, and further that any pecuniary compensation or other remedy by this act provided will not meet the circumstances of the case, then the justices may, by warrant, commit the party complained against to gaol, there to be (in the discretion of the justices) imprisoned, with or without hard labor, for any term not exceeding three months. (14.) When any wages or money due for work shall be paid to an employee by any cheque, draft, order, or note in writing upon any hank or any person, and shall be dishonored, no employee shall thereby be deprived of any remedy given to him by this act for the recovery of his wages, but every such person shall be entitled to recover such reasonable damages as he may have sustained in consequence of the dish >nor of such cheque, draft, order, or note, and such damages shall be recoverable as wages. (15.) When any contr ict of service shall have been made by, or any work shall he entrusted to, the management or superintendence of the steward, agent, bailiff, foreman, or manager of any employer, and also where two or more persons shall carry on business as partners, in every such case respectively the like proceedings shall be had by or against such steward, agent, bailiff, foreman, manager, or any one or more of such parties, and shall be as effectual, for all the purposes of this act, as if the same had been had by or against the principals or all the parties, provided that when any such proceedings shall be had against a steward, agent, bailiff, foreman, or manager, in respect of any cause of complaint not being for personal misconduct, all sums of money paid or satisfied by such steward, agent. bailiff, foreman, or manager, by virtue of any order of the justices made in pursuance hereof, shall be recoverable by him against the employer from whom the same is adjudged to be due, or shall be allowed to him out of any money at the time of payment or afterwards in his hands belonging to such employer. (16.) When any married woman or infant under the age of twenty-one years shall have cause of complaint in any of the cases provided for by this act, such complaint may be lodged and all further Proceedings thereupon had by and in the name of such married woman or infant, or of the sureties of the infant, in any agreement or indenture of apprenticeship, or of any person nominated by such infant, and all such proceedings shall be as effectual, valid, and binding as if such married woman were sole or such infant were of full age. (1 7.) The provisions of this act shall apply to all contracts of service by indenture or other written agreement made by any employer in the United Kingdom or in any of the denendencies or colonies thereof, or in foreign countries, with persons about to proceed to or actually resident within the colony of Western Australia, for service in this colony, provided such contracts be not contrary to any law of the colony relating thereto. CHAPTER IX. CULTIVATION. Breaking up new Land—the use of the Scoop—Ploughing— Harrowing and Seeding. Having cleared part of his newly-acquired property of timber and scrub, the next thing for the settler to do is to prepare it for the 259 reception of whatever seed is to be sown. The land will have to be broken up, and the plough is the implement that must be used for this purpose. It is presumed that the settler knows little or nothing about agricultural practice and farm implements, and an illustration of a plough is given with all the parts numbered and named, so that if there is occasion later on to refer to any particular part, the reader will, after having studied the illustration, know at once what is meant. The objects of tillage are to so divide and mellow the soil as to render it permeable to air, to water, and to the roots of cultivated plants, and to so mingle all the parts of the soil that the constituents required by plants for their nourishment may be (qually diffused and 200 readily available. Tillage can be performed to perfection with the spade and the fork, but, of course, these rudimentary implements cannot be used where large areas have to be cultivated. It must not be forgotten that the two chief objects of tillage are to aerate the soil and diffuse the plant food that it may contain as much as possible. The implement that will do this next best to the spade is undoubtedly the digging-breasted plough. The first illustration represents a single furrow, long mould-board plough, as commonly used in the colonies. The second illustration shows a digging- breasted plough of the type most used in the United States, and now rapidly coming into use in Australia. A glance at the two illustrations will suffice to show that each of these ploughs must turn a very different furrow. The long mould- board turns an unbroken rectangular slice and leaves the ground in a series of parallel well-defined ridges. The digging plough com- pletely pulverises the soil, turning it right over, and leaves the ground, especially if it is light soil, with a comparatively even sur- face. Every particle of soil is turned by this plough, while the long mould-board plough partially turns the furrow slice bodily. The accompanying woodcut will explain the difference. As regards the method of ploughing, English agriculturists, as a general rule, maintain that ploughing should be done on such a system as to turn over the furrow slice with a uniform surface and with a mass of soil unbroken and compressed. If, however, the best condition in which to leave the soil is that in which atmospheric influences will be be^t able to act upon it, then the continuous packed slice of the long mould-board cannot obviously be superior to the disintegrated mass of stuff thrown from the short breast of the digger. The digging plough has another advantage, it will do as much work again m a day as a long mould-board plough, and with less fatigue to both hoises and men. It will stand any amount of rough work, and is as well adapted to breaking up new land as any iron plough. Its lightness is its great strength. The plough shown above is known as the " Oliver Chilled, No. 40," and costs about complete. It may be used with two or three horses. It will turn a turn a furrow 9 inches deep and 16 inches in width, and only weighs 130 lbs. as against 175 lbs. of the wrought iron colonial plough cutting a furrow 6 inches deep and only 9 inches in width. I have used this stvle of digging plough in all classes of soils for some years and have not been able to find fault with it yet. I have broken up stiff, imperfectly cleared land, full of roots, and never had a mishap, and ploughed up to twelve inches in depth with two horses in loam. The other illustrations show two makes of double fur- 261 row ploughs as generally used in the colonies, where ploughs of all sorts, shapes and sizes, from one furrow up to twenty furrows, may be found, drawn by horse, bullock, and steam traction. These chapters are written more for the homestead farm settler, who will be content with a single furrow plough and a couple of good horses. 262 When he gets to that happy state when he requires double and treble furrow ploughs and several teams of horses, he will have gained sufficient experience to get along without reference to hand- books on tillage operations. The physical condition of the soil when it is ploughed is a matter of considerable importance. The drier the soil is when it is broken, the better. Stiff clay soils should never be worked when they are saturated with moisture. Light sandy soils may be ploughed in any condition, wet or dry. The reasons for all this are obvious. To repeat, the chief object of ploughing is to aerate the soil. The atmosphere has no chance of penetrating a slice of 263 saturated clay akin in consistency to an unbaked brick. It merely dries the surface and leaves a stiff unworkable clod. Except in favored localities, the growing season here is so short that ploughing once commenced has to be continued, rain or fine, until the crops are in. The crops must be in early, or not at all. Hence, in the drier districts, the advantage of having a sufficient area of arable land, to have half of it in fallow. There is no doubt in my mind that where crops fail on new unexhausted land, it is chiefly owing to imperfect tillage. The scarcity of rainfall is blamed, when it is not culpable; as the same ground, ploughed when it was in a proper condition for ploughing, would have, it is safe to say, thrown a much better crop with half the rainfall. When stiff soils are ploughed, harrowed, and sometimes rolled wet, a solid impervious face is presented to the rain, which does not sink into the ground, but either lodges and drowns the young plants, or runs off the surface, or is speedily evaporated, instead of being stored up underground for the future use of the plants. As soon as the warm weather sets in, the surface cracks in all directions, and the little moisture there was in the soil is soon dissipated into the atmosphere, without passing through the plant. Before commencing ploughing, the land to be broken up should be carefully looked over. If there are any slight rises they may be "scruffed " up with the plough and scooped into any depressions that may exist; or the leveller, shown in the accompanying illustra- tions, may be used. The leveller may be made on the farm, all the aid it will be necessarv to invoke being that of the blacksmith to make the iron nose and even this is not an absolute necessity, as our hardwoods will stand a good deal of friction before wearing away. SERVICEABLE LAND LEVELLER. To make the leveller take two hardwood planks about 12 feet in length, two inches thick and eight inches wide. Cut down one edge with a drawing knife, plane or adze, so that it will be about 264 half an inch on the edge. Put the boards together in V shape with the flaring edges at the bottom inside and resting on the ground. Take an eight-foot board, trimmed down the same, but two inches narrower. Mortise and bolt the ends into the side boards about two feet from the ends. Put two bolts through where the side pieces are joined to make the front of the leveller. Bolt a hook on top so that the Whipple trees may be attached. Nail an eight-inch board across near the centre. When you want to cut down a ridge, ride upon the board, drive the horses on one side and swing your weight so as to cut into the soil. If you wish to fill up dead fur- rows or ditches, drive along one side and throw the weight of the body where the soil is to be moved from, and thereby guage the filling of the hole. The land may have crab-holes or hog-wallows in it, and if so, the best treatment for these, before filling them up, is a charge or two of dynamite. These crab-holes indicate an impervious sub- stratum, which must be broken up if proper drainage is to be secured. If they are merely picked in and filled up with the scoop they will be nothing better than quagmires when the heavy rains fall. The most satisfactory way of treating them is by blasting. I have a paddock, a portion of which, when cleared, showed a con- siderable depression honeycombed with crab-holes. With a steel crow bar I drilled holes all round the depression, about 4 feet deep and from 10 to 12 feet apart, and in each hole put a couple of plugs of dynamite. The result is most satisfactory. What was a minature lake in the winter is now under crop, not a drop of water is lying on the surface, and the crop there, if any- thing, looks better than that in any other part of the paddock, in all probability owing to the deep tillage or shaking up the ground got. The cost of doing all this, and reclaiming about half an acre of ground, was not more than 25s. Dynamite is preferable to powder, or any other explosive, because the force expended is chiefly in a downward direction. It is perfectly safe to use and easily obtainable. The charge must be put in deep—at least four feet—as it is the impervious stuff below that one wants to break up. If it is not put down to this depth the surface merely will be shattered, and little or no good effected. After the blasting the sides of the crab-holes should be picked in, the holes filled up with earth by means of the scoop, and well rammed. Before or after ploughing it mav be considered desirable to measure up the land exactlv, and the measurer shown in the accompanying cut can be made without very much trouble, and will be found useful in laying off lands and measuring ground before planting any particular crop. The implement is made in tlv fallowing manner :—Four boards, cut in the form shown, are "halved" together at the ends and braced by crosspieces, so as to form an octagonal wheel, the circum- erence being just one rod, and each side one-eighth of a rod, or 265 24| in to the wheel by a pin at the centre. It can then be wheeled in any direction, and the revolu- tions counted for the rods passed over. A plainly visible Two handles are put on, plough-handle fashion, and attached mark is put on one segment, in order that the revolu- tions may be more easily counted as this mark passes the handles. Such a mea- surer is more easily made than a circular wheel, on which it is quite difficult for the ordinary worker to strike such a circle the circumference of which will be exactly one rod. This frame is also made and put together more readily than a circular wheel. In the accompanying illustrations two sets of Whipple trees are shown, one for two horses yoked abreast, made of all iron, and cost- ing about £1 5s. the set; the other, a home-made set for three horses. There is no reason why these essentials should not be made from any round hardwood, and be equally as good and serviceable as the more expensive iron ones. A blacksmith will make the eyelets for six or seven shillings, and the rest can be done with the saw and brace and bit. The arrangement of the bars for three horses, as illustrated, compels each horse to do his full share of the work, or show at once that he is shirking. The point of attachment to the plough or load must be made exactly one-third of the distance from the point of attachment of the double and single Whipple trees, to give each horse an equal share of the work. To make a four- 1 8 t? horse set, at- tach a double Whipple tree to the point where the single one (seen in the sketch) is attached, and make the attachment for the load exactly in the middle of the rear bar. 266 A set of plough harness for two horses consists of two winkers, two collars, two sets hames, two backhands, and four trace chains. A complete set of harness, including saddle for dray work, leading traces and plough harness, can be bought for about £15; and a new farm tip dray, with wide-tired wheels (which have the greatest advantage m point of draught over narrow tires) may be purchased for from £20 to £2$. It should be borne in mind that time spent in the care of harness is never time wasted. A thorough washing and oiling while the leather is damp at frequent intervals adds years to the life of harness. It also should not be forgotten that the floor of the stable is not the best place to hang up harness, neither is it pleasant for the horse to have the winkers left in the manger with his feed. Before actually commencing ploughing, the width of the lands into which the ground is to be ploughed must be decided upon, and then they must be laid off. A chain (22 yards) wide is a most convenient width. A line is marked with tall sticks (that are easily seen between the horses) down the centre of the land, and when this line is ploughed, the distance of the furrow to the centre of the next land can be stepped off, and the second land laid out. The ground should be first opened out, that is, a shallow furrow should be thrown on each side away from the centre, and then up, the same two furrows being turned back again a little deeper towards the centre. By doing this the whole of the ground is moved, and there will not be any unsightly scrub left to grow up through the crown, as would be the case if the opening out were not done first. The following hints on ploughing, from M'Kay's Australian Agriculturist. will be of use to the beginner :— Ploughs with one or two wheels are the easiest for the inex- perienced. The plough should always be upright in the furrow while at work. The wheels are for regulating the width and depth, and for turning the plough round at each end of the field. The small, or land wheel, runs on the surface of the ground, and the higher it is drawn up the deeper the plough will work. The large or furrow wheel runs in the furrow, level with the bottom of the plough, and regulates the width of the furrow slice. The plough will come out of its work easily at the end by a little pressure on the handles while the horses are moving forwards. The plough must not be lifted or carried round at the end of the work, but must follow the horses or draught power, and must be turned on the large, not on the small wheel. A little practice soon enables this to be done easily. The draught chain at the head of the plough should be set so that the plough will run straight forward in work, and the best place will soon be found by trying it in the different positions from the centre, either to the right or left. It can also be raised or lowered for hard or soft land. Two horses are found sufficient for ordinary work. Yoke them two abreast. In dry soil, the animals should be further from the plough 267 than in loose or soft soil. Steel breasts or mould-boards are better than iron ones for stiff soil. The share should have more or less inclination downwards at the point in proportion to the hardness or softness of the soil. Stiff soils require sharp, keen shares; half-worn shares should be kept for soft soil. Strong, sharp coulters are necessary to cut through the strong, matted grasses of warm climates. In strong grass land, the coulter should have a decided slope forwards at the end point ; in clean land it may be almost straight down from the beam. The point of the coulter should just clear the share, and always cut in a straight line with the sole of the plough. When a plough is fitted with two wheels, the small, or land wheel, should be drawn up to the depth required to be ploughed ; and the large, or furrow-wheel, should be placed level with the bottom of the plough, and set to the width of the plouhing, measuring from the land slide or slade of the plough. When a plough is fitted with a land-wheel only, it must be drawn up to the required depth, the width being now regulated by the judgment of the ploughman. When a swing-plough (without wheels) is used, the depth and width has to be entirelv regulated by the skill of the ploughman. In comparison with similar tests made in England, dynamometer trials at colonial matches say much for the skill brought to bear by local makers upon the plough. In vol. I of "Transactions of the Agricultural Society of England," we have the following figures :— The draught in ploughing has been recently experimented upon in America with the following interesting results:—1. A deflection of the traces when under draught, from a straight line from shoulder to whipple- tree, results in a decided loss of power, and such loss is applied to the galling and worrying of the horses. 2. The use of a six-inch land- wheel under the end of the plough-beam, showed a saving of 14.1 per cent. of the draught at the average of the trials made, and, in addition, gave a more uniform furrow and relieved the ploughman. This saving can be made only when line of draught is light. 3. The use of the coulter is not common in America, and this report says its use was, without exception, attended with a decided loss of force or increased draught by whatever form of coulter used. The average gain of draught by dispen- sing with the coulter was 15 6 per cent. The coulter invariably disturbed the line of draught, resulting in a furrow of different dimensions from those formed without it. 4. The draught of a plough decreases in proportion as width of furrow increases, until the normal capacity of the plough is reached, after which it in- creases again under the same limitations as in previous case of depth ; yet it does not increase in as rapid a ratio as is seen in depth. The absolute draught in a 15-inch furrow was less than for a 10-inch furrow. On stony and sandy soils the share of the plough wears away very quickly, and time is lost in taking it off for re- laying, sharpening, etc. The chilled share is an advantage, so far as the iron being chilled, or made harder on the under side than it 268 is on the upper side, the share wears sharp until it is worn out. These shares are coming into very general use. The value of subsoiling by means of the plough—of giving as great a depth as possible to land under cultivation without bringing the poorer raw soil to the surface—cannot be overrated in a warm climate. The work is effectivelv done with the subsoil ploughs, many forms of which are made, for one, two, three, and four horses. We prefer the single horse implement. It is light, handy, and breaks the soil from four to seven inches deep. When run in the furrow after a plough turning out a slice six inches deep, a total depth of from ten to twelve inches is obtained at the lowest cost of labor. Subsoiling should follow the draining. It is absolutely valueless unless the water that flows into the soil moved by the subsoiler is carried off at once. Water allowed to lodge under such circumstances converts the subsoil into a sour mud that is destructive to every root that comes into contact with it. Beneficial, then, as subsoiling is, drainage (either natural or artificial) should be seen to before it is attempted. But with combined drainage and subsoiling, we have the means of growing crops at all seasons, whether they be very dry or very wet, or the happy medium between the two. The depth to which the ground is to be ploughed must be governed by previous tillage operations, the nature of the soil, the manure to be used, and the length of time ground can be allowed to lie fallow before the crop is put in. It may be said at once that it is not desirable to plough previously unbroken land too deeply, unless it is to lie fallow for some considerable time. Three or four inches is quite deep enough for the first ploughing of the average West Australian soil, only recently denuded of its forest growth of timber, and where seeding immediately follows the plough. The reason for this is that more sour soil would be turned up than could be possibly sweetened by atmospheric action, and any nutriment it contained be made available to the young plant. If a liberal dress- ing of fertilisers is applied, especially if lime or salt are included, deeper ploughing may be done with advantage. But it is advisable to plough a little deeper every year, and gradually turn up a "new farm " over the surface of the old one and so have "a heap of land to the acre." Sandy soils may be ploughed deeper at once, as the air pene- trates them more readily than stiff soils. If the ploughing is done in the spring, and the ground can be allowed to lie fallow until seed time in the autumn, then the deeper it is ploughed the better, especially if it is worked two or three times during the summer with the scarifier. The object of ploughing is to secure a good seed- bed for the young plants, and this can only be done by thoroughly pulverising the soil that is turned up, and adding the nutriment that may be deficient. It frequently happens in the stiffer soils, after a succession of shallow ploughings, that an impenetrable hard-pan is 269 formed, and this is one of the reasons why deeper ploughing every year is advocated; and when the maximum depth has been reached, then the ploughing should be shallower and deeper each alternate year, so as to prevent the possibility of a hard-pan forming. Hard- MORGAN SPADING HARROW. pans prevent the proper penetration of the roots of the plants and the absorbtion of water by the soil, and nothing is so inimical to plant life as either stagnant water near the surface, or an insufficiency of water. 270 When the newly-ploughed land turns up rough and cloddy it will be advisable, in order to secure a good seed bed, to break down these clods. This may be done by using either a disc, a cutaway, or a Morgan spading harrow, which are here illustrated, or one of the homely but effective clod crushers also portrayed in the accompany- ing woodcuts. The Cutawav harrow. The spading harrow, six feet wide, for two horses, costs £<), and is really a most excellent implement, and more effective than either the disc or the cutawav. I have had one in use now for three years, and have no fault to find with it. If the new settler cannot, however, afford one of these, then there is no excuse for his not having one of the other simple appliances here shown for breaking down rough land. Three logs, the last one being the heaviest, six auger holes, two chains, and six pins driven through to keep the chains in place, and the clod crusher is made and ready for use. It is dragged over the ground like a harrow, and literally tumbles the clod to pieces. The second one is a little more elaborate, and, if possible, more effec- tive on the stiffer soils. The one here shown can be made in half a day. Three railway sleepers, or similarly squared logs, placed parallel eight inches apart, with two crosspieces and a dozen old harrow teeth, are all the raw material required. Fit on the two crosspieces by first sawing into the upper and front edge of each sleeper, and split off a triangular-shaped piece, so that when the crosspieces are bolted on, the front edge of the bottom of each sleeper will be about three inches from the ground. The crosspieces should be bolted on with two bolts through each sleeper. Some old drag or harrow teeth 271 are put through the front sleeper four inches apart, the holes being bored so the teeth will slant back, which prevents clogging. An old mowing-machine seat is fastened to the centre of the middle plank. The drag can be drawn by a tongue fastened similar to a wagon, or by a short chain in such a manner that the draft is from the centre. This implement works well on any kind of ground when first ploughed, and will fit it in good shape for the harrow or cultivator. It will leave the surface more level and finer than a roller. • The land is now in order for the sowing of artificial manures, or, if none are to be used, for the reception of seed. When stable manure is used it is ploughed in, artificial manures are broadcasted or drilled in with the seed. Sowing, Harrowing, Rolling, and Fallowing. The-Agricultural Chemist of the Bureau deals most exhaustively in another part of the Guide with artificial manures and their application to the various kinds of soils and crops, so it will not be necessary for me to say anything more about them here. -iyr~ Seed may be sown either broadcast, by hand, or by use of the machines made for the purpose, or drilled in. It requires some 272 little practice to cast seed evenly by hand so as to avoid sowing it thick and thin in patches. If sowing is done by hand, a box that will hold about half a bushel should be suspended round theneck about level with the waist by means of a saddle girth, orotherbroadband. Bags are placed at convenient intervals along the field to be sown and the box is filled from these as required. Both hands are used in casting, the left hand throwing the seed to the right across the body, and the right hand to the left. The accompanving illustration shows a handy little seed sower, the "Cahoon," costing about £1 5s., and made so that any size seed can be sown. It is especially designed for the use of farmers who only cultivate a com- paratively small area and do not need one of the larger seed sowers, also illustrated herewith. The breadth of cast of the "Cahoon" is chiefly governed by the weight of the seed sown. The heavier the seed the greater the distance to which it is thrown. At an ordinary walking pace from four to eight acres may be sown in an hour. The larger seed sowers, which are worked by an endless chain from the wheel of a dray, cost about £8 15s., and will sow from 10 acres to 12 acres per hour. There is another method of sowing, and that is by means of the drill. If the tillage conditions are right, this has many advantages over broadcasting, the chief of which are that less seed per acre is required, every seed is buried at the same depth, the seed ger- minates better and is less subject to climatic extremes, and is better protected from the attacks of birds, rodents, and insects. Before the drill can be used satisfactorily, it is essential that the ground should be free from roots and stones, and that a thorough tilth has been secured. Seed boxes are sometimes made to attach to the disc and cut-away harrows, and these implements are then called seed drills; but they are not altogether satisfactory, although they 273 will work on rougher land than the proper seed drill, and are, perhaps, more economical in the matter of seed than the hand-casters. Three-quarters of a bushel of seed sown by a drill is better than a bushel and a half broadcasted, and where a large area has to be sown, the quantity of seed thus saved is an important item. There is no doubt that where the rainfall is scanty larger yields will be obtained if the drill is used than if the seed 274 is broadcasted. The drill has another advantage, that as the seed is sown by it in regular parallelled rows equi-distant, subsequent cultivation is easily accomplished, and weeds can be better kept in check. A good seed drill, that will sow both seed and artificial manure simultaneously, costs from ^40 to £60, and this is a large amount for the new settler to lay out, and it is for him to decide whether such expenditure is warranted. If, however, 100 acres or over have to be sown, and the land is in good order, a drill soon pays for itself in the seed saved. After the seed has been sown, the land will have to be harrowed until a fine tilth is secured, fully and evenly covering the seed. if necessary. The best way of covering the seed, especially in rough ground, is to harrow down the furrows first, and then diagonally, starting at one corner and going straight across to the opposite corner, and round and round this diagonal line until the whole field is harrowed. A great deal more work (probably one- third), and better work, is done this way. A set of these harrows, three leaves, costs ^4 10s., but it this outlay cannot be afforded, the farmer can make a set for himself for much less. A limb of a tree, with the branches left on, may be used as a makeshift, or a forked branch, with wooden tines driven in it, will last a season or two. A really serviceable set may be made by making the frame work of sawn timber bolted together, and purchasing the iron tines. When grass or other small seeds are sown a brush harrow is quite sufficient to cover them with. After harrowing, the roller, which can be made on the farm, is the next implement required. Illustrations of two simple and effective rollers are shown herewith. The following description of the way this farm roller is made is given in the Rural New Yorker:—" A frame of 4 x 4 hard- wood was made and the tongue placed as shown in the sketch, which also shows the braces and the gudgeons or pins which held the rollers in place. The logs were solid, 3! feet long and 18 inches in diameter. Gudgeons about 16 inches long were driven into the ends of the logs. These were inches iron squared for The "Acme" harrow illustrated here, is really a most excel- lent implement (cost, two-horse, £6), for pulverising the sur- face, but the harrows most commonly in use are the "zig-zag," which are dragged either down or across the furrows, or dia- or all three 275 12 inches of their length and driven into i inch holes, leaving the four inches round part to project. One log was set four inches ahead of the other in the frame. To keep the frame from tipping back quite so much, the tongue was placed over the front 4x4, and under the hind one. An old mower seat was fastened on the back part of the frame. No trouble with this roller bear- ing down on the horses' necks! Also, it was cheap, easy to turn, was just the right width to go between the rows of corn, and last, but not least, it would do better work than a large roller, because, instead of riding over the big clods, as a large roller would, it would push them ahead of it, grind away at them, and, probably, break them in several pieces before it mounted them. A large roller of the same weight would run easier, but a small one will break up more clods, and that is what a roller is for. "A large roller strikes a clod nearly on top, and simply pushes it down, while a small one strikes it on the side and gets several whacks at it before it is done. This pattern is more easily made than the previous roller, and is quite as good for all purposes. It must never be forgotten, however, that on no account should ground be rolled when it is wet and sticky. If _^^ss=^-~^ is mucn better to the ground is not wa^ un^ after sufficiently dry ^^^^^^^^^^K^^^B *'ie croP is UP- to roll when the ^^^^^:^^^8I^^odooctco& After the rolling seed is sown it - _ ™«V nas ileen done water furrows should be opened up with the plough to carry off the surplus surface water, and any short surface drains may be dug that cannot be opened with the plough. After the main crop is in, if there is any more land ready, it should be ploughed up at once and allowed to lie fallow, or else utilised for a summer crop until next seed time. The benefits of fallowing newly-cleared land in Western Australia are very great. Speaking generally, the land is sour when first broken up, and needs a thorough sweetening before the best results are obtained from it. There is no sweetener like the sun's heat, and land deeply broken up and left to lie open to the sun's rays for some months is as good as if a liberal dressing of manure had been given to it. The fallow should be scarified two or three times as oppor- tunity offers during the summer, and if this is done it will be in splendid condition for the reception of the seed in the autumn. 276 Whether the land has been newly cleared, or has been under crop before, there should be always a fair proportion of fallow on every farm. Four illustrations are given here of cultivators or scarifiers. Coleman's is the original type, and has strength and durability to recommend it. Bamford's steel cultivator, it is claimed, will prepare land equally well for seed bed or for autumn fallowing. A similar one is made by the Massey-Harris company, and has been used in this colony and well spoken of. The Planet Jr. horsehoe doe-< good work, but is more suited to light lands. There is also the Giant sectional cultivator, a The Giant. Canadian make (Richard Purser, local agent), to which a seed-box may be attached, and which is highlv recommended for all classes of land. It is said to be used in the United States for breaking up macadam- ised roads previous to re- metalling and rolling, so it must beof immensestrength. In the drier districts of the colony I cannot urge too strongly upon farmers the advisableness of running the harrows over the grow- ing crops in the sprmg as soon as the rains begin to slack off. Lawes and Gilbert found that 36 per cent. of the rain percolated to the depth of 20 inches into the soil. With a 25-inch rainfall every acre receives 567,168 gallons per annum, of which 200,000 sink deeply into the soil. Two-thirds of the whole are evaporated. This means that when there is only a 15 inch rainfall, 10 inches, or 1000 tons of water per acre, are evaporated and practically lost to the plant. It must be borne in mind that the plant is dependent upon the moisture in the soil for its nourishment. A plant cannot eat, it can only drink, that is, it cannot take up food in solid form, but only in a liquid staie. The plant drinks up its liquid nourishment, retains the solids in its composition, and the liquid is evaporated through its leaves. This shows the absolute necessity for retaining as much moisture in the soil as may be requisite for the full development of the plant. Harrowing in the spring, when the rains have practically ceased, breaks up the surface of the ground, destroying the minute channels or capillaries, by means of which the water finds its way down below, and in doing so arrests the 277 escape of moisture direct from the soil, compelling it to evaporate through the leaves of the plant. It also destroys weed growth— weeds mean extra evaporation. The farmer need not be afraid of doing; any serious damage to the crop. It is very difficult to kill a wheat plant once it is firmly established. I have harrowed wheat when it was two feet high without hurting it but, on the contrary, 278 doing it a lot of good. I am, by experience, thoroughly convinced of the benefits of spring harrowing, and would urge it upon all farmers settled in the drier districts. CHAPTER X. HARVESTING OPERATIONS. Various Methods of Harvesting Hav and Grain, Stacking, Thrashing, Chaff-Cutting. If the crop Is to be cut for hay it should be harvested well on the green side. Buyers for the goldfields' markets insist upon having a green sample, and as they are the largest purchasers, their wishes must be considered. The crop can be cut in many ways; by the antiquated hand-hook or sickle; by the scythe; by the mower; or by the reaper and binder. If the area under crop is sufficiently great it will pay the selector to purchase a reaper and binder at once. It is quite possible that he may be able to get his first crop harvested by contract, but there is always the possibility of the contractor having his own crop to harvest first, and thus delaying and de- preciating the value of the settler's crop he has agreed to cut. The reaper and binder, of which there are many makes in the market, and all more or less excellent, is cheaper in the end than the mower and rake. Every season sees these machines improved, simplified, and made more in accordance with the necessities of Australian agricultural practice, and better able to withstand the wear and tear of roughly cultivated paddocks, unskilled workmen, and the extremes of our climate. Soft wood, so largely used in the con- struction of these machines a few years ago, is now giving place to iron and steel, wherever it is possible to substitute these metals for wood. If it is decided to purchase a reaper and binder, and the selector has had no previous experience of these machines, it will pay him to spend a little time in ascertaining the merits and demerits of the different makes that have been worked in the district. The very gentlemanly agent for this make will probably wait upon the farmer with a bland smile and persuasive eloquence sufficient to stop a chaffcutter, and while nursing the youngest child with one hand, will produce with the other enough documentary evidence to con- clusively prove, to any ostensibly sane person, that his particular brand of reaper and binder is absolutely the acme of perfection, and the people who use any other are either suffering from a temporary hallucination, which must be dispelled when they see his machine at work, or else are wilfully blind. Hardly 28o will the new settler have had time to recover from the rhap- sodies of the departed agent than another will come along, who, in less time than it takes to say "Jack Robinson " will prove by facts, figures and other things, all capable of conversion and various con- structions and mis-constructions, that the other fellow's machine is only made of scrap iron and tin tacks and dungaree overalls and cheap paint and unclarified mutton fat. Between these two stools the ingenuous agriculturist may come to the ground, but it is to be 28l The " Dutton " Mower Knife Grinder. R. Purser, U'.A. Agent . hoped not. Never buy anything from or through a travelling agent, is a safe rule to follow; and a rider may be added to the effect that it is not advisable to tamper with new brands. The only thing, in my experience, that it is safe and best to purchase on the strength of a new name in the colonies is bottled spirits; the first consign- ment of a new brand never contains the same generous percentage of sulphuric acid, fusil oil and other cheerful, short-range poisons, that subsequent lots do. But though whisky, as supplied to the colonies, is oc- casionally, and by accident, made from corn, and frequently from potatoes and other farm pro- duce excepting corn, it is manu- factured mostly from petroleum oil and other deadly sins, and, it is to be hoped, will not enter into the agronomic economy of the new settler. To return to the reaper and binder— In purchasing this, and all other expensive machinery, the farmer should deal direct with an established agent, who has a reputation to lose as well as a living to make. There is no excuse for not doing so, for all the best makers of agricultural machinery have their established agents in the metropolis, and these in turn have reputable sub-agents in all the towns of the colony. These agents, when they sell a machine, fit it up and start it working, and guar- antee it, and if any accident occurs it is always possible to obtain duplicate parts without unnecessary and annoying delay. If it is decided to purchase a mower, there are many patterns in the market, and the selector should have no difficulty in get- ting a good machine. The illus- trations herewith show the ordinary mower for two horses (with a 4ft. 6in. cut) and the self-raking reaper. This latter machine delivers the crop, as showm in the illustration, ready for hand-binding; the former merely cutting the crop, which has to be raked up afterwards into wind rows. When the mower is used, a horse-rake will be found a neces- sity if the area of crop is more than a very few acres. Such a rake is shown in the accompanying illustration. 2S3 Another one, used in the United States on level ground for raking up windrows and carrying the hay to the stack, is shown, and this can be made on the farm, the block fully illustrating the construction of the im- plement, to which two horses are hitched. A horse on each of the wind- rows attached to the ropes will gather up an enormous mass of hay, which can be pulled right up to the stack or; hay shed. If desired the side uprights can be carried above the rails like those at the rear. If the crop is to be used for hay it must, as I have said, in order to meet the taste of the market, be cut well on the green side, after flowering and before the stalk begins to harden. If it is cut very green there will of course be little grain in the chaff, but the nutritive value of the straw will be higher. If a reaper and binder is used the sheaves are stooked, that is, any numbers of pairs of sheaves are set against each other, the usual number being six pairs. Stooks are generally set in rows with the ends of the stooks pointing east and west, so that the hay dries more gradually and retains its colour better than if the broadsides of the stooks are presented to our almost tropical sun. In the northern hemisphere where the heat of the sun is not so intense, the reverse order is followed, the stooks being placed north and south. If the crop is being harvested in broken weather the stooks may be bonded, that is, sheaves are placed along the top of the stooks, heads interlaced, to shed the rain, but it is seldom necessary to do this in Australia. When the sheaves are sufficiently dry, so that there is no possibility of heating in the stack, they are carted from the field to the stack. The cart is brought up alongside a row of stooks, one man forks the sheaves to the carter on the cart, who places them with their stubble ends 284 outwards, tier upon tier, until a load is made. A rope is then thrown across the cart from each corner behind and secured in front to the shafts, unless the distance is so short from the stook to the stack to render this unnecessary. If the stack is likely to remain for some time, it is better to lay down a stool or bed of straw or rushes or brush for the sheaves to stand on, when permanent stools are not erected. The stack may be of any shape, cylindrical, square, or oblong. The chief thing in stacking is to see that the centre is kept well up, that is, that the sheaves, placed stubble ends out, all point downwards and outwards from the centre. If a heavy fall of rain should occur before thatching, the moisture runs off much more readily if the stack is built this way, than if it is hollow in the centre. If the stack is to remain for any great length of time it is better to thatch with straw or rushes, but if it is intended to convert it into chaff without much delay this is not necessary. A layer or two of coarse salt between the sheaves will assist greatly in conserving the attractive green colour so fancied by the buyer, and adds also to the flavour of the chaff. When hay is a regular annual crop, the farmer will find it pay best to go in for a hay shed as soon as he can possibly afford it. A hay shed in Australia is simply a light galvanised iron roof thrown over a series of high uprights, and of any size that may be desired. With a hay shed the farmer is com- paratively safe against the accidents of weather and the vagaries of the market. They are not expensive to erect, and their original cost is returned many times over in the course of a few years. If the crop is cut with the scythe or the mower it must be raked up into rows and then put together with forks into cocks. When dry enough these are carted away and made into a stack. As good a looking sample of chaff cannot be made from loose hay as when it is bound in sheaves, but if the crop is cut at the right time and properly cared for, all other things being equal, the nutritive value of the feed is just as high, though the market value will be a few shillings lower. The rake gathers up a good deal of rubbish, especially on newly cleared ground, that is, of course, left on the ground when the reaper and binder is used. In the moister districts of the colony, where rain sometimes occurs during harvest, if it is thought there is any danger of hay heating in the stack, it can be obviated by placing a boss or trestle in the middle of the stack and building round it, laying down a good bed or stool of logs or brush first so that the air can get under the stack and have access to the centre. The boss may be cither in the shape of a triangular tree- guard, or conical, or like a saddler's horse for oblong stacks, and made out of rough logs and any kind of scrap boards that will hold it together. Chaff cutting is a very simple operation when the hay is in sheaves, and with anything like ordinary care a good sample of chaff can be turned out. When, however, the stack is of loose hay it requires some little skill to feed the machine properly. A hay 285 knife will be required with loose hay to cut down the stack, and if the straw is very dry and dusty it may be sprinkled with water before being fed into the machine. There are numerous makes of chaff-cutters, from the majestic portable or stationary cutter and bagger, driven by steam, and putting through a ton or more an hour, down to the humble hand power machine, which turns out less than this quantity in a day. There are, in the chief hay-growing districts, travelling chaff-cutters, and if the farmer can get one of these to cut up his crop by contract 286 he will in all probability find it more satisfactory than if he has to do it himself with one of the primitive machines driven by hand or horse power. Illustrations of a chaff-cutter and horse works are given herewith. The modern and highly improved steam chaff-cutter will cut hay to £ inch guage, but I do not think that this very fine chaff is as good for ordinary working horses as the longer cut. It looks nice, but the animals have a tendency to bolt it. The harvesting of the grain crop, that is, of wheat, can be done either by the stripper or the reaper and binder, the latter machine or a mower being generally only employed in the harvesting of other cereals. M'Kay, in his Australian Agriculture, makes the following observations on the use of the reaper and binder and the stripper :— The rapidity with which harvesting machines have come into use in Australia proves that, when suitable, our farmers are not slow to see the advantages of good things. The change which has taken place in the system of harvesting in the principal wheat- growing districts is very marked in its character. For a long series of years the Adelaide stripper has been steadily but surely gaining ground. The reapers and wire binders were introduced suddenly, and owing to the action of Australians, who saw them at the Philadelphia Exhibition, and afterwards string binders replaced the wire machines. Then, by a system of sowing only clean seed, it was seen that the land could be kept comparatively free from wild oats for many years, and in clean crops both machines did excellent work. Straw was of little value when grass was abundant, and markets distant and difficult of access; while in regard to the effect on the system on the fertility of the soil, burning the straw upon the wheat fields proved to be better than cutting it off by the reaper and Grain Harvesting. 287 failing to return it in the shape of manure, so that, wasteful as it is to burn the stubble, it is better than taking all that is grown off from the land; so, where the straw is usually short, no interference seems likely with the supremacy of the stripper as a harvesting machine; and it has also been made clear that the reapers and binders are capable of doing really good work. At first, the machines were somewhat complicated, and farmers were afraid to risk the danger of stoppages through something going wrong; but most of these machines that are now made inspire more confidence. There are situations, to, where both kinds of harvesters are used with advantage. With the aid of a reaper and binder, harvesting can be commenced a week or a fortnight earlier than stripping, and stripp- ing can be carried on long after reaping would be. impossible, because of the grain being shaken out. It is probable, therefore, that the harvest in the future may begin by reaping, until stripping time arrives. This will give a quantity of straw for the farm, and when the crop is ripe enough, the stripping machines may be put in to finish the work. By this means hurry and bustle will be done away with, and, at the same time, the farm stock will not be left without a supply of straw. The stripped wheat can also, if necessary, be sent to an early market, while that which has been reaped will the more easily be allowed to wait for the thresher. Recent dry seasons, and correspondent scarcity of horse and cattle feed, raised the value of straw in the estimation of fhe farmer. The losses of stock, too, and the difficulty of carrying on the ploughing through want of horse feed, have brought the importance of the straw-stack forcibly before the minds of those who keep an eye upon the ways and means. Markets have also been made available through the extension of railways, so that we have an ex- planation of the tendency to adopt a means of harvesting by which the straw is saved. When it is returned to the land, in the form of manure, we are in a fair way of making another advance in our system of cultivation. If the stripper only is used, the crop must, of course, be left till it is dead ripe ; but when the reaper is used it is now a well- established fact that a larger and in every way better yield is obtained by the grain being harvested before it is dead ripe. The straw also is of greater value as fodder. When the grain has become glazed and before it gets hard is the time when it is in the best condition for reaping. When harvested at this stage, "it is kept from shrivelling by drawing nutriment from the straw after being cut, and both weight and quality are benefited." Grain stripped on the green side shrivels, but it is not so when the crop is reaped. "Wheat that is stripped or reaped after it is dead ripe possesses dryness, flouriness and other excellent qualities, but is inferior in strength to that which has been reaped slightly on the green side." 288 On the subject of stripping, in the Australasian Farmer: Cheapness is the principal recommendation of the stripping system. Amongst the first settlers in the Wimmera district were a considerable number of Germans from South Australia, who came to the colony with their stripping machines, and an intimate know- ledge of the South Australian system of making wheat-growing pay. The other selectors, who came from the southern parts of Victoria, soon learned to appreciate the stripper, and the result was that cheap production, and an almost complete independence of the labor market, were established from the first in the Wimmera district. Thus, having been able from the outset to harvest the crops at a very low cost, and having been saved from the extortionate wages which had to be paid in other districts, the Wimmera farmers had an advantage which has contributed in no small degree to what measure of success they have attained. Some idea of the cheapness of stripping may be formed from the fact that the work is done by contract for from four shillings to six shill- ings per acre. Taking six shillings per acre as the contract price for stripping an average crop, and remembering that a farmer will be able to harvest his own crop at something below the contract rate, it is not difficult to see that no other machine has any chance of competing in price with the stripper. The farmer engages to supply food to the men and horses working the stripper, and this, with the charge per acre, brings his crop, in the shape of wheat and chaff, to the winnower. By supplying a winnowing machine, and finding food for the men, he gets his wheat cleaned and put into bags at sixpence per sack, so that the whole harvesting process, up to carting the bags to the station, is done cheaply and quickly. When it is considered that, even with the reaper and binder, after supplying string and going through the processes of reaping, stook- ing, and stacking, the item of threshing has still to be paid, it will be admitted, that for cheapness, the stripper is unrivalled. Hitherto the demand for chaff has been so great in Western Australia that since the discovery of the goldfields little or no wheat- 289 growing has been done, but before very long the supply of locally grown chaff will in all probability be up to the demand, and then the grain grower will have the market to supply. There are also combined harvesters made, which strip, clean, and bag the grain, the bags being filled and sewn up ready for market. But these implements are best suited to very large paddocks, and are only within the reach of the farmer on a very large scale. An illustration is given herewith ot a header which may be used conveniently by the small-area man for separating the grain from the straw after it has been reaped. After the grain has been stripped it is winnowed and bagged and is ready for market. An illustration of a winnower is given. Wide winnowers with plenty of middle space, should be used, and large machines are generally to be recommended. There is much saving of labor in using large portable winnowers capable of cleaning after several strippers. Horse power should be used wherever possible. 290 When the crop is cut with a reaper and binder it is stacked in the same way as described in the chapter on the hay harvest, and when ready is carted in and stacked to await the arrival of the threshing machine. The following remarks on thatching stacks are taken from the Australasian Farmer :— Covering the grain stacks is a course too often neglected, and the loss resulting is considerable. All that has been said in regard to the mistakes in producing grain and failing to save it, through careless stacking, applies with equal force to neglecting to provide suitable covering from the weather. The mildness of the climate, which encourages a careless system of stacking, results also in insufficient attention being paid to covering the grain ricks. When stacks are intended to stand only for a short time, they should be well covered with rick cloths of tarpaulin, or other waterproof material, as providing covers will be found cheaper than thatching; but in the case of stacks intended to stand throughout the winter, thatching is the more profitable course. Rushes and tussock grass are sometimes available for thatching, and can be used with advantage, but straw, of which there should always be a sufficient supply, answers the purpose well. The straw should be carefully sorted out into bundles, and then put on by an experienced thatcher. Begin at the eaves, and add tier after tier upon a section four or five feet wide, until the top of the stack is reached. A quick method is to lay on bundles, spread them out until the layer is about nine inches thick, rake and pat down firmlv, secure with straw rope or hemp lashings to pegs, and proceed with the next tier, continuing until the top is reached. But in the more complete system, the thatcher takes small bundles, amounting to a good handful, and places each in position singly. The top of the bundle is gathered into a point and inserted under the straw or hay of the roof, the bottom spread out, raked, and beaten down, and each section secured by ties as completed. In putting in the pegs which secure the ties, they should be driven slightly upward into the roof, so as not to lead water into the stack. The farmer who keeps a threshing machine of his own can have this important operation carried out to his mind, but as threshing is for the most part done by travelling machines worked by contract, it is often difficult to prevent waste and loss. It is frequently the contractor's main object to get through the work, and it should be the farmer's aim to see that the work is properly carried out. Frequent inspection of the straw will be necessary to see that all the grain is being taken out, and the sprouts will also have to be watched to see that the grain is not being cracked. Equal supervision will be advantageous to ensure that the grain is properly cleaned, and that it is not being blown away over the riddles. The farmer will earn more money in attending to these things than in trying to fill a man's place in pitching sheaves or hauling away chaff. The system of threshing by contract adopted in the colonies 291 might be improved upon. At present a certain sum per bag is paid for the threshing, the thresher being relieved from all trouble as to finding men and supplying food. The farmer has to collect a large staff of men for a few days and make arrangements for supplying them with food. The American system seems much more con- venient. A certain charge is made for threshing, and the owner of the machine carries out the whole work, paying men's wages, catering for his workmen, and relieving the farmer of a great deal of anxiety. A gang of men travel with the machine, carrying a cook, a portable kitchen, and all requisites with them. The worry of gathering up men and providing them with f^od is one of the farmer's greatest troubles in the colonies, and the American system might be adopted with advantage. If grain has to be stored on the farm, it may be done in bulk if there is a suitable building to hold it, or, if not, in sacks. The chief thing is to protect the grain against the ravages of mice. Two methods of stackmg sacks (from the Australasian Farmer) are given herewith :—In stacking sacks the most important consideration is to protect the grain from mice. There are two ways of securing this end. The first one is to leave space for the cats to run all through the stack, and the other is to leave no spaces through which the mice can penetrate. According to the first plan, the first tier of bags is laid about a foot apart, and the next tier, which is laid transversely on top, is also made up of bags about a foot apart. By thus leaving a space between all the bags the cats can creep about in every direction, keeping the mice from the grain. The other system is quite as effective, and equally practicable. A layer of sacks is placed in position close together, and chaff from the thresher or winnower is spread over, being pressed tightly into all the spaces. After laying the next tier, more chaff is put on, being rammed into every space, and the process is continued until the stack is built. The whole is then covered with chaff and straw, and the mice are unable to make their way into the sacks. In the dry districts sacks can be stacked in this way in the field with safety for a considerable time. When stored in the field, sacks should be kept well off the ground and covered with a thick layer of chaff or straw. If the farmer is a man of capital, he can with the greatest advantage build himself a mice and rat-proof barn. Such a building must be on piles, the floor about two feet above the surface of the ground. On the top of each pile is placed a good-sized square of flat iron, say two feet by two feet, and if nothing is allowed to lean up against the walls, and there are no steps leading into the structure, it will be found to be vermin proof, for the simple reason that rats and mice cannot walk upside down like flies, and they would have to do this to get in. The reaper and binder is the best machine for harvesting the oat crop. The stripper is sometimes used in the dry districts, but it is very wasteful. The same remarks apply to barley and rye. CHAPTER XI. FEEDING DOWN GROWING CROPS. Given early sowing and a favorable season, there is a decided gain in feeding down the growing crops with sheep or light horned stock. Sheep have golden feet on a farm, especially on light loams, and to use the patent medicine vendor's jargon, " no farm is complete without them." If the growing crops are well forward the sheep may be put in early, with great advantage to the sheep and the crop. A large flock that will get over the ground and the crop quickly is to be preferred, but better a small flock than none at all. Feeding down in a forward season prevents fungus diseases attacking sickly straws, the lodging of the crop, and induces the plants to stool out well, and give an increased yield. The sheep should be put on in dry weather, and early enough in the season to give the crop time to recover. With clean land, deep and thorough cultivation, clean seed, early sowing, feeding down, spring harrow- ing, and anything like a favorable season, the farmer is safe, and may count himself happy. Pickling Seed to Prevent Smut. Seed grain before sowing is pickled, in a manner which will be described, in order to prevent the plant when fruiting being attacked by parasitic fungi, commonly known as bunt and smut. Bunt is produced by a species of fungus called Tillctia foetens, which occupies the whole farinaceous portions of the grain of wheat, and gives the ear a burnt appearance. Smut is caused bv the attack of a fungus belonging to the section Ustilaginece of the Hypodermice group. Smut shows itself first in the organs of fructifaction, the epidermis of which is ruptured in a great number of places, a black soot like dust then appearing through the slits. In color and shape the smut fungus resembles the bunt, but its spores are not so long, and it possesses none of the disgusting odor that characterises the latter. Dr. Cobb, the vegetable pathologist of the Department of Agriculture, New South Wales, says:—"Loose smut first appears at a time when the wheat comes into flower, and this fact is in itself almost a guarantee that this is the period at which it infests the next crop. Bunt, on the other hand, does not break loose from its ball-like enclosures until harvested and threshed. That is the period at which it infests the crop, either through immediate con- tact with healthy seed, or by being disseminated on the land so as to infest the seed when sown." 293 There are numerous chemical substances that may be used to pickle seed, and prevent smut and bunt, but the one in most general use is sulphate of copper, commonly known as bluestone. This is cheap, easily procurable, and effective. When mixing the pickle a copper or a wooden vessel should be used, as the vitrol soon attacks and destroys other metals. The seed should not be allowed to remain long in pickle, as it might absorb sufficient to destroy the germ, or enough moisture to cause it to malt if sown in dry ground. The usual method of pickling is to dissolve bluestone in hot water at the rate of a quarter of a pound to the gallon. This is sufficient for half a bag of wheat. A quantity of the solution is made and put into a half-barrel or wooden tub. The butt of seed is submerged in this until the liquid has thoroughly penetrated it. It is then lifted out and placed on a cross piece over the tub to drain. If large quantities of wheat have to be handled, I think the most expeditious and economical way is to dump the contents of several bags out on the floor of the barn and sprinkle the grain with the liquid from a garden watering-can, turning the grain over with a shovel as the sprinkling goes on. A dusting with dry lime renders the seed at once fit for sowing either by hand or drill. If the salt pickle is used, the brine must be sufficiently strong to float an egg, and the seed must be immersed for fully five minutes in the solu- tion and, when taken out, mixed with one-twelfth its own weight of dry lime. Another plan is to dip the seed in a strong solution of lime, the lime forming a thin coating upon the grain. If only a com- paratively few bushels of seed have to be pickled, it will pay to empty the contents of the bag into the pickling tub and stir them well up. By this means all weed seeds, and light and defective seeds that would not germinate, will come to the surface and may be skimmed off. Every grain left in the tub will be sound and whole. In whatever way the pickling is done, it must be borne in mind that the seed must not be steeped or allowed to become saturated with the solution. The device, as shown in the accompanying diagram, will be found useful and handy, not only for pickling seed wheat and other grains, but for potatoes, as a precaution against disease. The above is thus described by a writer in the Rural New Yorker:—" I procure a good barrel, an oil barrel, and put a faucet or plug in close to the bottom. Then I make a box 19 inches wide outside (or three inches narrower than the chines of the barrel) by three feet long, put cleats in the inside corners to strengthen it; it is open top and bottom, and as high as the tub I draw the liquid into. I hollow out one end a little so the barrel will not roll when turned down on its side; the swell in the barrel just hits the end, making it just about balance. I place the barrel on one end of the box, with the faucet over the tub, fill with the solution and potatoes, 294 let stand one hour, and open faucet. WhenJ-the isolution has aL run off, with one hand the barrel can be turned in the opposite direction and the potatoes run into crates. Without any lifting, lugging, or getting wet, a person who can lift a half-bushel of potatoes can do all the work. I am using the same barrels and tubs I commenced with four or five years ago, and I see no reason why they are not good for several years yet. A pi itform will not do, as the barrel is hard to tip, rolls around, and when it passes the centre, comes down too hard, and all the potatoes want to get out at the same time. I am using the box for the first time this season, and think now that I want nothing better." If it is desired to pickle maize, peas, beans, or other large, hard grains, the coal tar pickle is really the best. The tar is poured upon the maize slowly and the grain stirred until every grain is lightly but completely coated. It is then dusted with dry lime. Seed so pickled will retain its vitality for any number of years, and will not only be free from attacks by, but prove objectionable to, the voracious crow and ground vermin. The all-devouring crow may sample a few of the grains so treated, but he will not be found making a practice of dining off them to any great extent afterwards, unless all creation has dried up and left him absolutely starving. The same remarks, founded on observation, apply to rats, opossums, and other vermin. 295 Quantity of Seed Per Acre. The following table will be found useful for reference :— NAME. Artichokes, Jerusalem, in rows 3 ft. x 18 in., according to size Barley, broadcast, for green fodder Barley, in drills Beans,field, in drills 20 in. to 30 in. apart. Beets, or mangels Buckwheat, in drills Cabbages, to be transplanted Cabbages, in drills Carrots Chicory, in drills Clovers Cocksfoot grass Couch grass Cucumbers, melons, pumpkins Flax (linseed) Grass Hemp, in drills Kohl-rabi, in drills Lucerne, broadcast Lucerne, in drills Lupins Maize, for grain Maize, for green fodder or ensilage Mustard, broadcast Oats Onions Parsnips Peas, in drills Peas, broadcast Potatoes, in drills, or hills, cut, Potatoes, (cut to single eyes), Radish, broadcast, Rape, broadcast, Rape, in drills, Rye Sanfoin Sorghum, broadcast, Sorghum, in drills, Turnips, in drills, Turnips, broadcast, Vetches or Tares Wheat, broadcast, Wheat, in drills, QUANTITY PER ACRE. WEIGHT PER BUSHEL. 2 bushels to 3 bushels 1} bushels to i4 bushels 2 bushels to 4 bushels 6 lbs. to 10 lbs. I bushel to 14 bushels 4 lb. to 1 lb. 3 lbs. to 4 lbs. 4 lbs. to 6 lbs. 4 lbs. to 7 lbs. 15 lbs. to 20 lbs. 3 lbs. to 5 lbs. 7 lbs. to 10 lbs. 1 lb. to 2 lbs. 14 lbs. to 2 lbs. 2 bushels to 3 bushels I lb. to i4 lbs. 3 lbs. to 4 lbs. 20 lbs. 8 lbs. I bushel to 2 bushels 1 bushel 2 bushels to 3 bushels 15 lbs. to 20 lbs. 2 bushels to 3 bushels 5 lbs. 6 lbs. to 8 lbs. i4 bushels to 2 bushels 3 bushels to 5 bushels 10 cwt. to 12 cwt. 3 cwt. to 5 cwt. 4 lbs. 8 lbs. to 10 lbs. 3 lbs. to 5 lbs. i4 bushels to 2 bushels 1 bushel * bushel to } bushel ^ bushel to J bushel 2 Irs. to 4 lbs. 4 lbs. to 6 lbs. 2 bushels to 3 bushels IJ bushels to 2 bushels £ bushel to } bushel Plants Per Acre. (tubers) 45 lbs. 40 lbs, 40 lbs. 64 lbs. 21 lbs. 50 lbs. 50 lbs. (roots) 40 lbs. (roots) 40 lbs. 60 lbs. 2C lbs. 40 lbs. 20 lbs. 56 lbs. 20 lbs. 40 lbs. 5o lbs. 62 lbs. 62 "l'bs. 60 lbs. 50 lbs. to 56 lbs. 50 lbs. 40 lbs. (roots) 40 lbs. 60 lbs. 60 lbs. 45 lbs. 35 lbs. 50 lbs. 50 lbs. 60 lbs. 28 lbs. 40 lbs. 50 lbs. 64 lbs. 60 lbs. Feet apart 2 3 4 5 8 No. of Plants. I0890 4840 2722 1742 680 Feet apart 9 10 12 I5 18 No. of Plants. 537 435 302 r93 r34 Feet apart 20 21' 25 30 35 No. of Plants. 108 08 69 4S 35 Rule.—Multiply the distances into each other, and with the product divide 43,560 (the number of square feet in an acre), and the quotient is the number of plants. CHAPTER XII. FARM BUILDINGS. How to put up a Cheap, Substantial, and Comfortable House The selector, in the matter of buildings, will necessarily be governed by the capital at his command. Possibly a tent, a slab- and-dab or log hut, or a tin shanty will be the first home of the new settler, but let us hope that whichever of these is chosen will soon give place to a more substantial and comfortable residence. To the settler who can run to bricks and mortar or stone from the very start I have nothing to say about house construction, as he will be well able to secure the services of an architect, and be very foolish if he does not. In this chapter I merely presume to offer to the selector with a limited amount of capital a few suggestions that will enable him to put up a house, costing little, and yet sub- stantial and comfortable. While the climate of Australia is tropical and sub-tropical, the style of architecture chiefly in vogue is essen- tially that of the temperate zone. Why this should be I do not know, but it has always appeared to me to be wrong. In building a house, or rather, I should say, a home—for the former frequently means a place in which we intend other people to live, the latter always an abode for oneself—the chief things to be aimed at are that it should be cool in summer and warm in winter. In order to obtain this most desirable end, certain natural laws must be strictly observed. These laws, as far as my experience goes, are more honored in the breach than in the observance, in the construction of dwelling-houses in Australia. Galvanised iron is very largely used in the construction of houses in the colonies, and a more unsuitable and really dangerous material for the purpose it would be hard to discover. A "tin" house is cheap, and like so many other cheap things, it is nasty. It is intensely hot in summer, and equally as cold in winter, and death lurks in every joint of it. From an hygenic point of view a tent is infinitely preferable, and a slab- and-dab hut a palace by comparison. Milk is a peculiarly sensitive, complex fluid, and at once affected by any marked variation in temperature. How very few houses there are in Australia in which a pan of milk could be set in any living room during the summer months, without its turning in a few hours. There is always a place specially constructed, called the dairy, in which the milk is kept. My argument is that what is good for milk is good for man, the most sensitive and complex of 297 solids, and that our houses in the tropical and sub-tropical portions of Australia should be constructed on the same principle as dairies, in which an equable temperature is secured all the year round. It is curious, but I have noticed it frequently in my Australian travels, that while a good dairyman will take all sorts of precautions to ensure his milk being kept sweet and cool in summer and warm in winter, he himself lives, year in, year out, in a construction of iron, wood or brick, stifling, stuffy and smelly in the hot weather, and cold and draughty in winter. Obliquity of economic vision must be responsible for this. The milk represents so much cash, thinks the dairyman, totally ignoring the fact that his brain, his bone and sinew, his flesh and blood, and his good sound physical and mental health, all rolled into one, is the biggest cash asset that there is on the farm. Australian farmers are a healthy lot because they live so little in the houses they build for themselves, while Australian farmers' wives, so far as my experience goes, are, as a class, anything but robust, because chiefly they live so much in these fearfully and wonderfully ill-constructed houses. Some years ago, before the age of butter factories and creameries, I liv-ed in the northern part of Victoria, near a very large home- built dairy, and I often visited the place. I made up my mind then that if I ever built a house in Australia it should be on the plan of this dairy—on the principle that what is good for milk is good for man. The time for the fulfilment of the self-imposed promise came some four years ago, and it is this house, in which I am still living, that I propose to briefly describe for the benefit of the settler who has not too much money to spend on buildings and yet desires to make himself as comfortable as possible. I should like to say that I never built a dwelling house before, and that I had no assistance but that furnished by an unskilled but handy laborer, and that I was not a millionaire when I started the contract. I mention these facts, not for my own glorification, but merely to show that any one of ordinary intelligence who can use a hammer, saw and chisel, can do likewise. We are all very wise after the event, and I can see lots of little mistakes in construction that will be avoided in the next house I have to put up. The house originally consisted of four rooms (it has now twelve); is built of two native materials, wood and mud, or pug, or adobe, or whatever one likes to call it; and this is how it is con- structed: I bought a couple of truckloads of slabs (face cuts), some round jarrah poles for corner posts, and the necessary sawn timbers for the roof, floor joists and uprights. I first put up a shed 40 x 20, that is, I put the necessary uprights in the ground and put the roof on top of them. Then I covered the sides with slabs, leaving spaces for doors and windows, trenching the slabs into the ground at the bottom and nailing them to the wall plate at the top. The openings between the slabs I closed with the thin ones, nailing them well on each side. The next work was to put down the floor joists and lay the floors, 298 leaving a space of 18 inches all round each room between the slab wall and the ends of the joists. The windows and doors were hung and the family moved in. Then commenced the real business of house building. Inside the slab walls I proceeded to put up 18 inches of pug. I first laid down foundations of broken stone to a level with the floors, and built the pug up on the top of these to the height of the ceiling, when this was done the ceilings were put in, the walls plastered with mud and made smooth, and the paper- hanging and plastering gone on with until the intra-mural decor- 299 ations were completed. The clay of which the walls are made is of the common or garden variety, worked up with water into stiff pug, carted in a barrow, and slapped up against the walls tier upon tier, right round the house, until the required height is reached. The finishing-off was done with lighter soil from the surface, and the surface of the walls made as smooth as if they had been built of brick and lime plastered. The construction of a place of this kind is as simple as can be, and the only things I am particularly desirous of impressing upon my readers are the precautions taken for keep- ing the building cool. In order to explain these fully and clearly a diagram is necessary. The diagram shows the outer wall of slab, the inner wall of pug, and between the two an air space. If the clay is thrown up against the wood it will shrink away from it in drying and leave a space of an inch or more. Leading into the house from as many directions as possible are air channels formed beneath the ground. These can be made of galvanised iron down pipe, drain pipes, wood, or any handy material that will secure the uninterrupted circulation of the air. They should fall away from the house, and this can easily be done, presuming the house has been built up on a rise and not down in a hollow. The longer these channels are, the cooler will be the air flowing through them. The arrows in the diagram show the direction in which the air circulates. The hot air from outside passing through these channels is cooled in transmission and passes between the outer wall of wood (a non-conductor of heat) and the inner wall of clay and along the channel under the ceiling (as shown) and out through the roof. The ceilings are covered under the roof a foot or eighteen inches thick with rushes, and a louvre window is placed at each gable end. It is easily seen that the hotter the roof gets the greater the circulation of cool air, and the cooler the house is, provided doors and windows are kept shut and the hot air excluded. In a house ventilated as this is there is no occasion for gaping doors and windows always ajar. So long as the outer air is hotter than that inside the house there is nothing to be gainer" n opening the windows if the house is properly venti- lated. ', sides of the channel running under the ceiling are perfora' md the hot air in the rooms escapes through this, and is replace by cool air from below. The proof of the pudding is in the eating, and I have lived for years, and am still living in such a house as I describe, and it is without exception the coolest house in summer and the warmest in winter that I know. In putting up stables, cow byres, pig styes, and other farm buildings, it must not be forgotten that the climate of this colony does not necessitate elaborate buildings. It is very nice to have substantial stables and out-buildings, but, at the same time, stock, &c., will do here without them. At the same time it must be remembered that the stock appreciate cool and shade in summer, and warmth and shelter from the rain in winter, as much as we do, 3oo and will repay in condition any extra trouble of this kind spent upon them. The cost of well-arranged tool and harness rooms will not seem great when we consider their convenience and the saving which may be effected by them. "A place for everything and everything in its place," is a maxim nowhere more important than on the farm. On many farms much time that should be saved is wasted in searching for tools left out of place and ill cared for. The following dimensions of farm buildings of a most suitable kind maybe found useful, and are taken from Mc Councll's Notebook :— Dimensions of Details. (M'Connell's Note Book.) Stable. Length of stable travis, 9ft. Height of travis at end near wall, 7ft.; at heel-post end, 5ft. 6in. Thickness of division boards, i£in. ; width, 9m. Heel-post. 6in. drum, or 6in. x 4m. Head-post, 6in. drum, or two pieces each 4m. x 2^in. Width of hay-rack, 18in.; height above floor, 9m. Width of manger, i8in. ; length, 2ft. Height of top of manger and rack, 3ft. Size of top and bottom rails of rack, 4m. x 3m. Size of spars, 2in. x iiin., or 2in. square. Depth of manger, 9m. or 10in. Width of windows for stables and cowhouses, 3ft. 6in. x 4ft. 6in. in height. Glass, 21-oz. Width of stable doors, 4ft. x 7ft. 6in. in height. Width of gutter in stable, 12in. Fall of ditto, i^in. to 10in. Fall of floor of stall, lin. in 3ft. Loose-box in stable to be twice the width of single stalls. Louvre-board ventilator for every four animals, to be 6ft. long x 3ft. wide and 2ft. 6in. above ridging—to be divided longitudinally by boarding so as to have an up-going and a down-going current of air irrespective of the direction of the wind. Cow-house. Length of stall from front partition to gutter behind, 7ft. for average cows and 7ft. wide; 8ft. square for largest only. Length of travis, 4ft.; height of travis, 4ft. to 5ft. Thickness of travis, if of stone slab, 4m.; if of wood-head, heel- posts, and top rail, 4m. x 3m.; boards, i£in. thick and 9m. wide. Length of feeding-trough, 3ft. ; width, 15m.; depth, ift. Width of gutter, 2ft.; height of cow's bed above bottom of gutter, 8in. ; height of gangway above bottom of gutter, 6in. Gutter to have a fall of ift. sideways (towards the gangway), besides the fall lengthways. Gangway to be inclined towards gutter. Cows' beds are thus 3m. above level of passages. 3oi Width of dunging passage, 6ft. Width of feeding passage, 4ft. Hammells for feeding cattle, 10ft. x 15ft. for each animal in shed. Cattle-boxes, 10ft. square, with feeding passage 6ft. wide; each box provided with a door 4ft. wide and a turnip trough. Cattle courts and sheds: 75ft. superficial allowed for each animal in sheds, 150ft. in the court. Shed for 300 sheep: 100ft. long x 15ft. wide ; court, 10oft. x 80ft., or 1 ooft. square. Roofs. A roof of two of span to one of height is suitable for the smaller offices. A roof of three feet nf span to one of height is suitable up to 30ft. span. Roofs under 15ft. span will do with simple tie-beam ; up to 25ft. require king-post; up to 30ft. require struts in addition. The following recipes from Mackay's Australian Agriculture will be found useful in making paint for rough outside work :— 1. Unslackened lime, 20 lbs., slake it with water, covering during the process to keep in the steam; strain the liquid through a fine sieve or strainer, and add to it 15 lbs. or more salt, previously dissolved in water; rice, 3 lbs., boiled to a thin paste, and stirred in boiling hot ; Spanish whiting, £ lb. ; clean glue, 1 lb., which has been previously dissolved in water, soaking it well, and then hang- ing it over a slow fire in a small vessel immersed in a larger one filled with water; next add hot water to the mixture, enough to make a nice thick paint, stir it well, and let it stand a few days covered from dust; then put it on hot if possible. This will last on wood, stone, or brick for years. 2. "Machine," or skimmed milk, 2 quarts ; fresh slackened lime, t\ ozs. ; linseed oil, 4 ozs. ; common whiting, 3 lbs. Put the lime into a stoneware vessel; pour upon it sufficient milk to make it like thick cream; add the oil a little at a time; mix thoroughly; add remainder of milk, then the whiting made fine; keep the whole well stirred while using. 3 Cement wash (cement, or water-lime, as some call it). Mix the cement with water, and apply three or four coats. Any color may be added. This will last for years, and by renewing once in two or three years a building may continue looking well at small expense. 4. Use common stone lime; slake or reduce it to powder in a tub, by pouring on sufficient water. During the process cover the tub with a bag to keep in the steam, then pass the powder through a fine sieve, and to every 6 quarts add a quart of salt and a gallon of water; then boil and skim clear; to every 5 gallons of the liquid add pulverised alum 1 lb., pulverised bluestone £ lb., and add, very slowly, about 6 lbs. of fresh burnt wood-ashes from mangrove or 302 oak-wood, if possible, and any coloring matter desired. Apply the paint with a brush. It looks well, and is very durable; will stop small leaks in roofs, prevent moss from growing thereon, make it incombustible, and render bricks impervious to water. A good base for rough paint is Spanish white, or, as it is more commonly called, whiting, mixed in pure, raw linseed oil ; stir until it is thoroughly mixed; then reduce with oil to the consistency of paint, and add a little turpentine or other drier, sufficient to dry it. Apply with an ordinary brush. It must be thoroughly beaten up together, so as to work out all the lumps of the whiting. Another: For weather-worn weather-boading take about one half common whiting, one half white lead, and a small portion of red lead or chrome yellow to overcome the blackness of the wood, or add umber for a drab color. Flax seed oil may be used; a little turpen- tine or kerosene makes the paint flow more freely from the brush. Small portions of Venetian red and lampblack do for dark colors. A good green paint for outdoor work may be made by rubbing two parts of white lead and one or more of verdigris with linseed oil varnish, mixed with oil of turpentine and diluted with ordinary drying oil. Wall Papering. When ordering wall paper for internal decorations it is worth knowing that a piece of paper is 12 vards long by 21 inches wide (reckoned at 20 inches). To find the number of pieces required, divide the surface of wall in feet by 60. One-eighth to one-ninth should be allowed for waste in hanging. Many, especially those situated some distance from cities, undertake to do their own paper hanging, and for the benefit of these, the following suggestions, as published in the Rural Neu Yorker, are given. Wall paper is cheap, it livens up the house and adds to its aesthetic comfort, and any moderate expenditure in making the home attractive is, in my opinion, amply justified. Individual taste must be relied upon in the selection of colours or designs suited to the various rooms to be papered, and so much has already been written upon this subject that I shall only say in regard to selection, choose for the first attempt a good quality of paper, one that will not tear easily; though the expense may be a trifle greater, the saving of time and dissapointment will more than offset it, at least until you have gained a little experience in hand- ling the paper. Sanitary papers will wash. The first matter for consideration is a proper outfit for the work. Purchase a " smoothing brush," a wide, thin-backed bristle brush which may be had for 75 cents. An ordinary whitewash brush of good quality, a rather soft one, is a good paste brush. Then one needs a large pair of scissors, and a pocket or pouch large enough to hold the smoothing brush and shears. This pocket is suspended from the waist while working. This is the entire outfit 3o3 of necessary tools, with the exception of an old table or, better, a couple of broad, smooth boards supported on light trestles, making a table about two feet wide and nearlv as long as the room. Do not cut the paper, piece by piece, as needed. Cut several at a time, but before doing this, the paper should be trimmed. Lay a bolt across the feet in an ordinary sitting posture, draw the end up over the knees, and with the right hand, shear off the margin with a clean, even cut, and roll up the ready trimmed portion with the left hand, proceeding in this way until the whole bolt is trimmed. Always begin with the ceiling, and as there are 12 yards in a bolt, a little head-work will quickly determine which way the paper should run to cause the least waste, though the shorter width is the easier to handle. In cutting wall paper, never cut odd lengths, but always a certain number of repeats. The repeat is usually from 13 to 17 inches long, and marked by a dot or print on the margin. The ceiling pieces must be cut to the nearest repeat longer than the width of the room. After the first cut, there need be no measure- ment, as one lays the second piece over the first and cuts to the same repeat mark, and so on until a whole bolt is cut, before be- ginning to paste and hang. This done, the worker will have a number of pieces lying upon each other. Do not separate them. Simply turn the whole bunch face downward on the long table. Have a pot of smooth flour paste at hand, and with the brush quickly and thoroughly wash over the first or uppermost sheet, and when done, fold each end in towards the centre, leaving 10 to 12 inches of the pasted side ex- posed at the middle of the piece. The first attempt at folding in the ends will, doubtless, be a failure, as it requires quickness and decision. Smooth these folds flat, and do not fear that the sharp break in the paper will do any harm. The sheet is now ready for hanging, the most difficult part of all. Along one side of the ceiling draw a cord parallel to the side wall, and about 16 inches from it, marking its position at intervals with a pencil. Take up the pasted paper, paste side up, and hold- ing it over your head on upturned palms, carefully fit the un- trimmed margin to the line marked, at a point equidistant from either end, and with a stroke or two of the smoothing brush paste it fast. For one person alone to hang the ceiling requires great dexterity, and an assistant to hold one end while you brush on the other will be indispensable at first, and at all times helpful. The weight of the paper, if not supported, would immediately tear itself away from the wall, so while the assistant holds one end, and with the left hand retaining the central part already placed, loosen the corner of the fold with the right thumb and finger, and pull it down part of its length, after which its own weight will gradually unfold it, while with bold strokes of the smoothing brush it is 3o4 pressed firmly and smoothly to the ceiling. Striking the edge of the brush into angles will push the paper entirely into them with- out tearing. Treat the other end in the same way, and if the paper should extend down the side walls more than three or four inches, cut it off to that length after it is on the wall. The operation is repeated for each successive sheet, carefully matching the paper at the middle. Never begin at one end, but always at the middle, and then if the paper does not perfectly match, the ends may be allowed to loosen by their own weight till near the middle, and then be corrected and brushed smooth again. The walls are not so difficult as the ceiling, though, in cutting the paper for them, the lengths are cut in the same way. Find the height of the room, beginning five or six inches from the ceiling, and measuring down to the baseboard, including the chairboard if there is one, and cut to the nearest repeat longer than this measure- ment. This will always result in the least waste of paper. Paste and fold in the ends as before, and mark with a plumb line for the edge of the first piece. The object in folding the paper paste inward is that it may be handled then like dry paper, and while at work the printed side will be against the wall, thus allowing it to swing clear without adhering until you have it properly placed. Loosen a few inches of the upper end, and beginning near enough the ceiling so that the border will cover it, fasten and let the sheet drop, smoothing it to the wall as it unfolds. Reaching behind, start the lower fold, and with the brush work the paper into the angle at the top of the chair-board, and draw the point of the shears along the angle, not so as to scratch, however, but merely to make a mark. With the left hand, draw the paper away a few inches again and cut along this line, and smooth down a second time. This makes a perfect fit every time, if properly cut. The piece thus cut off is not laid aside, but is placed beneath the chair-board, extending several inches above its lower edge as well as down over the edge of the base-board. Mark these angles as above, cutting to the line, and again smoothing into place with the brush. All angles, horizontal or perpendicular, are treated in this same way, and one should never undertake to cut a piece of paper beforehand to fit a certain space, for it cannot be done. Spaces over doors and windows will, of course, require the cutting of short pieces, which often results in considerable waste, but it cannot be avoided if you would do nice work. Last of all, the border is hung, but this requires no new method of handling. It may take a beginner a trifle longer to paper a room than it would a professional, but even the first attempt, if carried out in this way, will be far superior to the lower grade of professional work. The following approximate quotations for building necessaries are kindly supplied by W. Sandover and Co., of Perth and Fremantle :— 3«5 Square painted iron tanks. 50 IOO 200 400 gallons 35s- 45»- 57s. 6d. 75s. each. Round galvanized iron tanks, with brass tap. 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 1000 gallons 32s. 6d. 35s. 45s. 52s. 6d. 60s. 72s. 82s. 90s nos. each. Galvanized gutter O.G. or half-round, in lengths of 6 feet. 456 inch 2\d. 24d. 3d. per foot. Galvanized ridge capping, in lengths of 6 feet. 12 14 15 16 18 inch. 2|d. 3jd. 34d. 3$d. 4d. per foot. Galvanized down pipe, in lengths of 6 feet. 2 24 3 inch 2d. 24d . 2|d. per foot. Galvanized corrugated iron. 26 gauge. 5 6 7 8 9 10 feet. Sheets per ton. 226 186 162 140 120 112 » ,; /17 15s. per ton, £1% 15s. ^19 15s. per ton. Doors, American, four-panel. 6 it. 6 in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x I j in. 6 ft. 6in. x 2 ft. 6 in. x i4 in. 13s. 3d. 14s. 6d. 6 ft. 8 in. x 2 ft. 8 in. x I4 in. 6 ft. 10 in. x 2 ft. loin, x 1} in. 16s. 19s. each. Sashes, six-light. 8x10 Ioxi2 10x14 12x14 5s. 6s. 9d. 7s 9d. 8s. gd. per pair. T Hinges, 6 in. 8 in. loin. 12 in. 14 in. 16 in. 18 in. 4d. 6d. 6d. 7d. 8d. is. is. 3d. pr. Butt Hinges, l4 in. 2 in. 2j in. 24 in. 3 in. 34 in. 4 in. 3d. 4d. 4d. 4d. 5d. 6d. yd. pair. Rim Locks, 6 in. 7 in. 8 in. 2s. od. 3s. 6d. 6s. each. Genuine White Lead, 30s. per cwt. Raw Linseed Oil, 3s. od. per gallon. Turpentine, 3s. 6d. per gallon. Wood Screws, f x 5 6 7 8 5*d. 6d. 64d. 74d. J x 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 64d. 74d. 74d. 8d. 8$d. 9d. 10d. 1x6 7 8 9 10 11 12 14 "4d. 8d. 84d. 9d. 9d. 10d. 1 id. is. Iji S 9 10 11 12 14 16 10d. lO4d. lid. Is. Is. id. is. 4d. Is. 8d. 1} x 8 9 10 II 12 14 16 lid. is. is. is. id. Is. 2d. is. 6d. is. 10d. 1} x 8 9 lo 11 12 14 16 is. id. is. id. id. 2d. is. 3d. is. 4d. Is. 8d. 2s. 2 x 10 II 12 14 16 18 is. 3d. is. 4d. is. 6d. is. 10d. 2s. 3d. 2s. 8d. 2$ x 10 11 12 14 16 18 is. 6d. is. 8d. is. iod. 2s. 3d. 2s. 8d. 3s. CHAPTER XIII. METEOROLOGY. Written Especiallv for West Australian Farmers. Bv W. Ernest Cooke, Government Astronomer. Farmers and sailors are proverbially weatherwise. Being accustomed to an outdoor life in which the vicissitudes of climate play such an important part, they naturally acquire the habit of observing closely the sequences in the formation of cloud, direction of wind, and rainfall ; yet notwithstanding this general proficiency their knowledge may be supplemented by an intelligent use of instruments designed to estimate the density, temperature, and humidity of the atmosphere, and a carefully compiled record of the rain will inform them as to the quantity which they may reasonably expect to fall within a season. It is the purpose of this article to give a brief description of the meteorological instruments generally employed, with simple directions for reading them :— The Barometer. I am sorry I cannot recommend an aneroid, as it is in many respects convenient. But its indications are not as a general rule to be depended on, unless compared at intervals of a few months with some reliable standard. For those who intend to take systematic observations a mercurial barometer is almost indespensable. The particular form I should recommend is the "Board of Trade Standard," sold in England for 4s. Fairly reliable mercurial barometers can be obtained from ^1 is. upwards. In making observations pay no attention whatever to the legend •inscribed on the face, such as "rain," "change," etc. These may possibly be of use to the people of London, but are only misleading to dwellers in West Australia. Read the barometer (as described below) together with the attached thermometer at a certain hour or hours every day, 9 a.m. and 3 p.m. if convenient, and keep a record of these readings. Prognostications are to be obtained by observing first, the actual reading, reduced to sea level; second, the rate of rise or fall. In order to reduce to sea level a set of Scott's tables are useful, but failing these the reductions can approximately be affected in the following manner. First subtract a quantity, depending upon the reading of the attached thermometer, which can be obtained by interpolation from the following :— 3o7 Reading of thermometer 40 deg., subtract -031. „ 50 deg., „ -058. „ „ 60 deg., „ 085. „ „ 70 deg., „ in. 80 deg., „ 138. „ „ 90 deg., „ 164. „ „ 100 deg., „ 191. „ „ no deg., „ -217. Next add the correction for the height of the station above sea level. This can be obtained exactly from Scott's tables, or roughly, by taking 100 inch for every 100 feet in height. If readings are carefully taken and reduced, and the means computed every month, it will probably be found that they oscillate on each side of 30 inches. In fact it may be taken as a first generalization that a reading over 30 accompanies fine weather, and under 30 bad. But it will be further noticed that the barometer is on the whole lower in summer than in winter. Hence we may expect unsettled weather with a reading of 30■1 or 30^2 in winter, whereas it may be fine when the barometer indicates 29 8 or 29-9 in summer. But we must also pay attention to the rise and fall. The usual sequence is as follows :—The barometer commences to fall with fine, bright weather, becoming warmer until the lowest point is nearly reached. As this point approaches, the sky becomes overcast, and rain is probable. After the minimum, as the barometer commences to rise, the weather generally becomes squally, especially in winter, with driving showers from the N.W. and W. These gradually diminish in intensity, but may be expected occasionally as long as the barometer commences to rise, or the wind remains in the west. It not infrequently happens that the weather clears rapidly after the minimum has been reached, but the barometer remains stationary, or commences to fall a second time, and the wind backs from W. or N.W. to N. or N.E. In this case prepare for even heavier squalls within 24 hours, or probably less. The indications in summer are not as a rule so well marked as in winter, but generally when the barometer falls below 29 8 unsettled weather may be looked for, and if in addition the mercury be very unsteady thunder- storms may be expected. Do not mistake the diurnal change for a falling barometer, the reading at 3 p.m. being almost always slightly below that at 9 a.m. Thermometer and Hvgrometer. The best form of hygrometer consists of two ordinary thermometers mounted vertically side by side, one of which has a strip of muslin attached to the bulb at one end and dipping into a cup of water at the other. These thermometers are known as dry bulb and wet bulb. Suitably exposed the dry bulb indicates the "temperature in the shade," and the two conjointly with the aid of Symons' hygrometrical tables, give 3o8 the amount of humidity in the atmosphere. Considerable care should be bestowed upon the wet bulb in order to obtain accurate indications. A strip of fine mull muslin about four inches long and just wide enough to go once round the bulb, with a quarter-inch overlap, should be provided. Obtain the services of an assistant to hold the thermometer, and after wetting the muslin wrap one end round the bulb, leaving the other end to hang down. Now tie a piece of cotton round the stem (and muslin) above the bulb, and moderately tightly round the muslin underneath the bulb. The muslin should fit tightly and not be " baggy." The loose end which hangs vertically should be placed in a cup of water. The surface of the water should be i£ inches below the bulb, and the cup should be frequently refilled as the liquid evaporates. The muslin must be kept clean and renewed frequently (at least once a week in summer). This hygrometer will be found a valuable auxiliary to the barometer, but notwithstanding this the "farmer's barometer," where the three instruments are combmed, cannot be recommended, as the dry and wet bulb require to be exposed outside, whereas a barometer is usually mounted inside the house. It will be noticed that on a dry summer day when the dry bulb reads 100 deg. the difference between the dry and wet amounts to as much as 30 deg. This, of course, indicates that the atmosphere is very dry, and as a matter of fact, under these conditions it is capable of holding nearly five times as much aqueous vapour before condensation occurs. As a general rule the less the difference between the dry and wet bulbs the more humid is the atmosphere, but the actual amount of humidity can be obtained from Symon's hygrometrical tables. In addition to the hygrometer it is well to have a pair of self- registering thermometers, maximum and minimum, and I should recommend Negretti and Zambra's form of maximum (in fact I can confidently recommend these makers for all thermometers), and strongly advise that they be graduated on the stem, not on the mount. In this instrument there is a slight contraction of the tube just above the bulb. The thermometer is mounted almost horizontally, but with the bulb end slightly lower (about ^ inch) than the other, and acts as an ordinary dry bulb as long as the tempera- ture is increasing, but the moment it starts to decrease a small break is noticeable in the mercury column at the point of contraction. The force of cohesion being insufficient to overcome this extra friction, the mercury behind the break flows gradually down toward the bulb, whilst that in front remains in position, thus indicating the highest point reached. The minimum thermometer has a spirit column in the place of a mercurial, and a black glass index moves freely in the spirit, but cannot, without violence, enter the vacuum at the top of the tube. As the temperature decreases, the index is carried down by the spirit until the lowest point is reached, and as the atmosphere then gets warmer the spirit flows past, leaving the index to record the lowest temperature attained. The question of 309 thermometer exposure is a very difficult one. What do we mean by " temperature in shade?" Is it the shade of a tree, a verandah, or an iron shed? A form of exposure known as the "Stevenson's screen" has been adopted by the Royal Meteorological Society, and is in extensive use elsewhere. Nearly, if not quite all, the Govern- ment observing stations throughout Australia mount their ther- mometers in this manner, and it is to be highly recommended. If thermometers are not thus exposed a comparison cannot be made with the statistics published by any of the recognised observatories. The Stevenson screen is a wooden box i foot 6 inches high, i foot 8 inches wide, and i foot i inch deep, internal measurement. The top and bottom are of double boards, having an air space of at least an inch between, and plenty of ventilation, and the sides, including the door, are of double louvres, so that the wind passes through, but the direct radiation from the sun or ground is excluded. This is mounted on four stout posts, with four others extending diagonally from the top corners to act as supports in case of high winds. All four thermometers, viz., dry bulb, wet bulb, maximum and minimum, should be mounted in this screen, the two latter nearly horizontally, and the two former vertically, but behind the others. If readings can be taken only once a day, say at 9 a.m. the dry and wet should be recorded first, so that the heat of the body will not vitiate their reading. Then read the maximum and minimum without touching them, but enter the reading of the former to the previous day. After this has been done and checked, both of these may be set, and the muslin of the wet bulb be attended to if necessary. If obser- vations are also taken at 3 p.m. it is better to read the minimum and set the maximum at 9 a.m., and read the maximum and set the minimum at 3 p.m. In this case, of course, the reading of the maximum must be entered opposite the day on which it was taken. The self-registering thermometers immediately after setting should read the same, or nearly, as the dry bulb. Rain Guage.—This very useful instrument is so well known that a description and instructions as to its use are hardly necessary. It may be as well to state that the top scratch, or mark, on the measuring glass registers 50 points, or half an inch, and that rainfall observers in Western Australia are now instructed to record the amount in "points." It may also be mentioned that the Perth Observatory is prepared to issue rain guages to persons residing in approved localities, and likely to settle permanently, upon the con- dition that a record be faithfully kept and a monthly return be sent to head-quarters on forms supplied for the purpose. Wind.—The direction from which the wind blows should always be noted, and it is desirable to have a vane erected in a well exposed situation. A few hints as to the connection between the wind and weather have already been given under the heading " The barometer." It may also be added that the usual direction in which the wind changes in the south-western and southern portions of this 310 colony is from south round by E., N., and W. This is called "veering," as the reverse, viz., S., W., N., and E., is called " backing." In the winter it will be found that the wind almost always " veers," and steady rain sometimes sets in with the wind at N.E., changing to squalls as it reaches the N.W. By the time it reaches S.W., an early cessation may usually be expected, but the rain sometimes continues, especially on the south coast, right round to S.E. Do not confuse the direction of the wind with the direction from which the storm is travelling. When the wind is at N.E., the storm is generally well to the westward and approaching so as to pass the south of the observer. In fact, nearly all the winter storms travel from west to east or thereabouts. In summer the wind occasionally "backs," as thunderstorms seem to come from all quarters. With the wind " backing," the storm is probably to the north, and passing round to the eastward. Clouds.—It is probably by the feel of the wind and the appearance of the cloud that most farmers prophesy, but even if this be so it will be found that organised knowledge is preferable to that obtained at haphazard. The subject cannot be properly treated on account of its importance, in such an article as this, but I can recommend the careful perusal of "Cloudland" by Clement Ley. Clouds are divisible under three different headings—cirrus, cumulus, and stratus. The first-named are popularly known as " wind clouds" or " mare's tails." They are high whisps, very common in summer. When they appear in wintertime they are of considerable significance, for they usually presage rain. This prognostic is strengthened if they develop into cirro-stratus, a sheet of high thin cloud which forms those large dark rings round sun or moon known as haloes. When a storm clears quickly, and cirrus is seen above the lower clouds, it generally portends another fall of the barometer with more rain before long. In summer they occur so frequently that their significance is lost, and even the name of " wind cloud" has no justification. The name " cumulus " is given to any heavy woolly mass of cloud. It is seen in perfection on a warm quiet summer day about noon, or later. In its pure form it generally accompanies fine weather, but does not necessarily forecast it. When the edges harden, and the cloud appears like a huge cauliflower head, with a dark base, thunder and lightning may be expected. When, on the contrary, it appears with soft and very ragged edges moving rapidly, squalls are likely. Cumulo-nimbus is the name given to the ordinary squall cloud. It is a species of cumulus, but surcharged with moisture, and altogether darker and softer than the pure specimen. Sometimes the cumulus, instead of appearing in detached masses, forms into the long heavy rolls (strato-cumulus) and covers the sky in this shape. With this appearance fine dry weather may be expected, but frequently accompanied by keen winds between S. and E. The third great cloud division is "stratus." Originally this term was applied to 3" lifting fog, but now it signifies any thin layer of vapour clouds. There are really two distinct types of stratus. When cirro-stratus drops and becomes denser it forms into a dense sheet, through which the sun appears as a misty blue. This is called alto-stratus, and is considered an intermediate type. It generally continues to fall and becomes still denser. It is now regarded as a stratus, but perhaps the term strato-nimbus would better describe it. From this cloud steady rain often falls. The other type is met with on a fine day. It is a thin layer of vapour cloud, but broken up, showing patches of blue sky, and at night often forming beautiful coloured "coronae" round the moon. This is regarded as distinctly asso- ciated with fine weather. I should suggest that the former kind be designated strato-nimbus, and the latter broken stratus. Nimbus is scarcely a seperate division, but is a general term for clouds from which rain falls. I have now briefly described all the principal kinds of clouds except two, viz., cirro-cumulus and alto-cumulus. The former consists of high, small lumps, sometimes called mackerel clouds. They are not infrequently arranged in parallel lines and associated with cirrus. When these are lower and coarser, but still finer and higher than ordinary cumulus, they are called alto- cumulus. We have then the following classification, where the clouds are arranged roughly in order of height :— Cirrus, Cirro-stratus (alto-stratus), Cirro-cumulus, Alto-cumulus, Cumulus, Strato-cumulus, Cumulo-nimbus, Nimbus, Stratus. Having now given a brief sketch of the principal instruments employed by meteorologists, and indicated a few of the rules by which they endeavour to forecast the weather, I will now repeat for the benefit of those who may wish to take systematic observations, some of the instructions which are issued to the meterological observers connected with the Perth Observatory. Private observers cannot do better than conform to the same system, and I shall always be happy to give any explanations or afford any assistance in my power. Instructions to Meteorological Observers. The Stevenson screen must be erected in an exposed situation, with the door facing south. The bottom of the louvred box must be level, and about four feet from above the ground. 312 The barometer must be mounted either in the office or the observer's private quarters. A spot should be selected free from draughts and other disturbing influences (such as fires, etc.), and with a good side light if possible. In mounting it, first fix the detached bracket on the wall at a height of four feet above the floor, and then, taking the barometer very carefully out of the box, drop the end of the " arm " into the bracket. If the wall be constructed of stone or brick, a wooden plug should be inserted, and the bracket affixed thereto. Paste a piece of white paper on the wall immediately behind the top part of the tube. The thermometers are :—Dry bulb, wet bulb, maximum, and minimum. These are all placed in the Stevenson screen. The two former are to be hung vertically in the brass clips attached to the moveable wooden arms at the back of the screen. The maximum and minimum are to be laid horizontally in the wooden brackets attached to the uprights in the front part of the screen, the bulb ends being to the left and slightly lower than the other ends. The rain guage must be in a well exposed situation. Its rim must be level and about a foot above the ground. Reading the barometer.—There are two scales, one fixed and one movable. The latter is called the "vernier." First turn the "vernier" up until the light can be seen between the top of the mercury and the bottom of the vernier. Then turn the vernier down slowly until its bottom edge just touches the rounded top of the mercury. In doing this it is absolutely necessary that the eye should be in a line with the front and back edges of the vernier, and the observer must move his head up and down so as to be quite sure of this. The barometer, being now set, is read as follows:—First write down the reading of the fixed scale next below the point where it is cut by the bottom of the vernier. The divisions of the fixed scale are as follows :— 30.200 30.150 30.100 30.050 30.000 29.950 29.900 29.850 29.800 and so on. Secondly find a line on the vernier which agrees exactly with a line on the fixed scale (there will generally be one and only one such line). Take its reading on the vernier, remembering that the divisions run from below upwards 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 (marked 1), 12, 14, 16, 18, 20 (marked 2), etc., and add this vernier reading to the fixed scale reading. The sum will be the " barometer reading." 313 Example.—Thus, suppose the bottom of the vernier cuts the fixed scale between 30.050 and 30.100, the first quantity would be 30.050. Then suppose the vernier reading is 28. Add 28 to 30.050, and the sum 30.078, will be the barometer reading. Reading the Thermometers.—These must always be read in degrees and tenths. Thus, suppose the mercury is just half-way between 72 and 73, the temperature must be entered at 72.5. If not quite quarter way call it 72.2. If nearly 73 call it 72.8, etc. A little practice will soon make this easy. If the mercury is just opposite a whole degree always enter .0 ; thus 72.0, 73.0, not 72, 73. The minimum or spirit thermometer has a small black "index." The end of this index farthest from the bulb is to be read and recorded as the minimum. Setting the Thermometers.—The dry bulb need never be touched. The wet bulb need be taken down only when the muslin is changed ; but the maximum and minimum must be set once a day. At 9 a.m. the observer will notice that there is generally a break in the mercury column of the maximum thermometer just above the bulb. He must now lift the thermometer carefully out of the bracket and holding it vertically with the bulb end downwards, gentlv shake it until the mercury quite, or very nearly, unites; then carefully re- place it. This is called setting the maximum. Caution.—Never let the bulb end of a maximum thermometer be raised higher than the other end, even by half an inch. In setting the minimum thermometer at 3 p.m., take the instru- ment off the bracket and gently raise the bulb end until the black index has run down to the end of the spirit; then replace it care- fully. N.B.—In setting the maximum or minimum do not remove the thermometer into the sunlight. There is plenty of room inside the box. Accidents to Instruments.—The minimum thermometer is liable to have its column of spirit broken, but this can generally be immediately rectified. (A new minimum sent by rail or boat will almost always have this fault, and it must be attended to before mounting). Grasp the thermometer firmly at the end (not the bulb end) and extend the arm horizontally in front of the body. Then, taking care that there is nothing in the way, swing the arm rapidly downwards past the hips. Keep repeating this operation until the column re-unites. The " index " will now be found in the bulb, and perhaps stuck fast, but if the thermometer be held bulb upwards a slight tap will release the index. Always make a note of any such occurrence in the field book and on the monthly return. Unusual Meteorological Phenomena.—Whenever an un- usual phenomenon occurs, such as a violent storm or a rapid fall of the barometer, take frequent readings of the barometer and direction 314 and force of the wind, and note the lowest reading with the time of its occurrence, and the way in which the wind veered. Observations must be taken at proper times. If the observer is absent he must employ a substitute. CHAPTER XIV. THE KITCHEN GARDEN. A Few Hints on Vegetable Growing. The culture of fruits of all kinds is dealt with in a separate volume, the Handbook of Horticulture and Viticulture, edited by Mr. Despeissis, the expert of the Bureau, so no reference will be made to this subject here. It is to be hoped that the new settler will find time to establish a flower garden in front of the house, if it is only a small plot. Western Australia is universally famous for the variety and beauty of its indigenous flora, and many of our prettiest flowers are improved by cultivation in gardens. There is nothing that adds so much attractiveness to the surroundings and the beauty of the home- stead as a flower garden, and if only for the pleasure of the good wife and the silent education of the younger members of the family in the most beautiful and entrancing art of floriculture, every effort should be made to have a few beds of flowers and some ornamental trees and shrubs around the house. A trellis of vines of some table variety is a delight as well as distinct commercial gain, and the same may be said of the passion fruit (passiftora edulis), which thrives luxuriantly in moist ground, and gives a handsome return in a short time. Creepers should be planted to cover up rough and unsightly buildings, and they serve the double purpose of keeping the out- buildings much cooler. The dolichus lignosus is a favourite creeper in the warmer districts and grows very readily. The native kennedias and the bourgainvillta have the same recommendation, and make a most gorgeous show when in flower. "Truck" farming, as it is known in the southern states of America, that is, growing culinary vegetables and ground fruits, such as melons, pumpkins, etc., on a large scale, will be dealt with separately in the second edition of the Handbook of Horticulture and Viticulture. There are large areas of land in this colony, in the south- west, that are, by reason of the nature of the soil, the mildness of the climate, and the plenteous rainfall, admirably adapted to truck farming, and it is surprising that this industry has not developed more than it has. Vegetables are now being grown on more than a small scale with irrigation as far north as Cue, and on the Eastern Goldfields; and in Part i of the Guide a good deal was said about the possibilities of this culture in the south-west Land Division. 316 The swamp lands of the south are particularly suited to the growth of culinary vegetables, and it cannot be very long before the value of these lands is appreciated, and the monopoly of vegetable growing is wrested from the hands of the patient but somewhat objectionable Mongolian. I have never been able to understand whv the Chinese in Australia should be allowed to retain the practical monopoly of vegetable growing. Their intelligence is not so great as that of the Caucasian ; their methods are pre- adamite; and their labor, though apparently cheap, is more costly in the end than that of the white man. The truck farmers of the south-eastern states of America are all white men and have driven the Chinese completely out of the market. Why cannot the same be done here? I have no doubt it will in time, as our vast area of swamp and other gardening land becomes appreciated at its true value. There is at the present time, and will be for many years to come, more than a competence for the intelligent vegetable grower, and when I say intelligent, I mean the man who will not be content to fiddle about with a spade and hoe, but will go into the business on a large scale, using horse power as much as possible and hand labor as little as possible. As this chapter is intended to deal chiefly with the house garden of the settler it is not necessary to say more about soil than that a light fertile loam should be selected for the garden. No matter how rich it may be naturally, the more manure that is applied the better, if the best of vegetables are wanted. Liberal applications of well-rotted stable manure aided by artificial manures should be made after each crop is removed. If the soil is of a stiffish nature the ground should be ploughed or dug very deeply, and in the vegetable garden sub-soiling or trenching will be found to pay. In matter of implements illustrations are given of a handy little garden plough, turning a furrow 5 x 10 inches and costing ^3. THE PLANET JR. COMBINED DRILL, WHEEL HOE, CULTIVATOR, RAKE AND PLOUGH; COST £2 15s. The Planet Jr. implements are great favourites with gardeners and the various kinds are also illustrated. 3i8 In order to prevent or mitigate the attacks of insect pests and fungus diseases the gardener should provide himself with a spray pump. If the garden is only a small one a knapsack pump such as shown in the illustration, costing 5s., will do all the work. If a cheaper and smaller one is desired a handy little pump costing £1 15s. is also shown. 3i9 The application of flowers of sulphur is often rendered necessary to destroy the spores of fungus diseases, and though this can generally be applied, like lime, by means of a dredger or a piece of gunny sack shaken over the plant, if a large area has to be gone over it will be found more economical to buy a sulphuring machine, such as is shown herewith, costing ^3. 320 When a large area has to be sprayed it will be found better to get, at once, a Nixon spray pump, such as is shown below, and have it fixed to a barrel. The barrel is placed on a sled or low wheeled waggon and drawn by a horse wherever wanted. Cost, 10s. PLANET JR. PLAIN DOUBLE WHEEL HOE; COST £l IOS. It is impossible with a range of climate so great as that of Western Australia to formulate a gardener's calendar that will be suitable to the whole of the south-west Land Division. The new settler must be guided by local experience in 'the first place, and by the results of his own experience as it accumulates. The following notes on the cultivation of culinary vegetables, compiled by Mr. W. Adamson, the well-known gardener of Victoria, will be found useful by the amateur. 32i Asparagus (Aspaiagus officinalis.)—Cultivation.—Sow in Sep- tember in rich, light soil, in rows eighteen inches apart, and when large enough thin out to nine inches. Care should be taken to keep down all weeds for the first year, else they will choke and destroy the young seedlings. To have the young plants strong for transplanting, plenty of water or liquid manure should be given during dry weather. The most economical width for an asparagus bed is five feet, which will take three rows, one down the centre and one on each side, about a foot from the edge. When planting is finished, the ground should be mulched with a thick coating of good stable dung, and when the weather becomes dry water must be given, and that in abundance, if complete success is desired. The after cultivation consists simply in keeping the ground clean, and in dressing with salt during the spring. 322 Artichoke (Oifuora scolifmus.)—Cultivation.—Sow in spring in a row where they are to remain; thin to a foot or eighteen inches apart, and transplant the following season, allowing each plant four feet on all sides. Beet (Beta vulgaris.)—Cultivation.—Red beet is not so much grown as its merits deserve. It requires a deep, open soil. The ground should be dug at least two spits deep ; and if manure is necessary, it may be turned in with the bottom spit, so as to bury it ten or twelve inches below the surface. This will cause the top roots to descend, and prevent forking. Seed may be sown in August and September for summer crops, and in November and January for early autumn and winter crops. Sow the seeds thinly in drills drawn eighteen inches apart, making the drills two inches deep in the light soils, and one inch on the heavy soils. When the plants are fit to handle, thin out to six inches apart. Keep the surface stirred from time to time in dry weather to promote growth. Swiss Chard, Silver, or Sea Kale.—Habit erect and vigorous. The midribs are silvery white and very large. They should be served as asparagus, and the remainder of the leaf makes a valuable dish, dressed as a spinach. This beet is reproductive, and will bear frequent cutting, but the roots are not edible. 323 Beans, Broad [Faba nilgai is.)—Cultivation.—Sow in April for the earliest crops, and again in July and August ; and for the latest crop, in September. Sow the seed in drills three to three and a half feet apart, and twelve inches in the rows. Cover the seed to the depth of about two inches. As soon as the crops come into bloom, the top of each stem should be pinched off to increase the advance- ment of the pods. Beans, Snake or Yard Long.—This variety, which is a climber, produces long, narrow, stringless pods about twelve to eighteen inches long, of very delicate flavour. It is an immense cropper, and bears in bunches. It succeeds best in warm districts. Sow at the same time and in the same manner as recommended for the French bean. Beavs, Wax Pod or Butter (Phaseolus vulgaris.)—Dwarf varieties.—The wax pod or butter beans are perfectly hardy. The pods are stringless, and can be cooked whole; the flavour is excellent. When they become better known, they will take the place of the ordinary French beans. Sow at the same time and in the same manner as recommended for the French bean. 324 Beans, French (Phaseolus vulgaris.)—Cultivation.—For the earliest crop sow in September, in the warmest and most sheltered part of the garden ; later crops may be sown in damper and more exposed situations. Successional crops may be sown once a month until January. Sow the seed in drills two feet apart, and two inches in depth, or less in heavy soils, and four inches between the seeds. If the weather becomes dry the ground may be mulched, and soak- ings of water should be frequently given. The climbing varieties should be sown in drills four feet apart, and six inches between the seeds. They may be sown near a fence or building, and trained on strings or trellises; otherwise sticks five or six feet in length should be stuck in the rows, one to each plant. ;f>. , a Beans, Lima—Cultivation.—Lima beans should not be planted until warm weather has fairly set in (say October). The tall variety requires stakes or poles about five feet high. They are dressed and cooked like broad beans, which they somewhat resemble in flavour, but far more nutritious, and served with butter. In America they are very largely grown, and highly esteemed. Borecole, Kale or Curled Greens (Brassica oleracea accphala.)—Cultivation.—Sow the seed from December to February for the main crop, and again in July, and plant out as soon as ready in rows two feet apart, and eighteen inches to two feet between the plants. 325 Brussels Sprouts (Brassica oleracae bullata minor.')—Cultiva- tion.—Esteemed as the best of the cabbage genus. Sow the seed in June or August, for use in midsummer, and again November, January, and February for early and late winter use, and plant out in rows two feet apart. Brocoli (Brassica oleracea boirytis asparagoides.)—Cultivation.— Brocoli does well on soil that has been manured for a previous crop, and if the soil be light it need not even be dug for the young plants. For a winter crop the seed must be sown in October, and the plants put out about the end of the year. For the chance of a crop to succeed cauliflowers in summer, seed may be sown in January or February, and planted out in April. When the plants are sufficiently large, transplant into rows about two to two and a half feet apart. Cabbage (Brassica oleracea capilata.)—Cultivation.—This is one of the most important of vegetables, as it may be had in use every day in the vear. A little seed may be sown once in every month, except in May and June. When the plants are large enough to handle, transplant into rows from two to two and a half feet apart. Savov Cabbage (Brassica oleraceo bullata.)—Cultivation.—The general cultivation of savoys is very similar to that of the cabbage. The best time to sow the seed is from December to March. Savoys are generally preferred for winter use, being of better flavor, and not so rank when grown large. Portugal Cabbage (Brassica oleracea costata.)—Cultivation.— Sow from October to January, and plant out under the same con- ditions as cauliflowers. It likes a rich soil. A very tender and sweet variety of the cabbage tribe. The heart of the plant can be used in the same manner as the cabbage, and the ribs of the largest leaves will be found an excellent substitute for sea-kale, if served up in a similar way. Chinese Cabbage (Pe-tsai.)—Cultivation.—Similar to that of the cabbage. Cardoon (Cynara canluiiculus.)—Cultivation.—This vegetable is little known, and less cultivated, in the colony, though it is extensively grown and much esteemed on the continent of Europe, where it is used in soups and for stewing. The leaf-stalks are the parts used, and the mode of culture is almost exactly the same as for celery. Caper of Commerce (Capparis spinosa.)—Cultivation.—The caper is a trailing shrub, which grows freely on dry, rocky soil, and might become an article of commerce, as it succeeds well in this climate. The flower buds are the parts used, forming the caper of commerce. Plants may be raised from seed in heat m spring, and planted out when strong. They may also be raised from cuttings. The roots of the plant are particularly strong and vivacious, and if they can get deep enough, even among rocks or stones, they will continue to grow for an indefinite period. It is considered advisable to cut the plants over every third or fourth year. 326 Cape Gooseberrv (Physalis ednlis.)—This, though used as a fruit, is generally cultivated as a kitchen-garden plant. Sow the seed in September, October, and November, in a pot or seed pan, and when large enough they should be planted in a warm, sheltered situation, and should stand three or four feet apart. The plants will last several years, and should have the old wood cut out annually. The fruit, when used in a raw state, should be thoroughly ripe, as previous to ripening they contain a deleterious principle. Capsicum or Pepper (Capsicum anniium, Capsicum Jrutescens.)— Cultivation.—The varities of capsicum or chili require light, rich soil and a warm situation. For the earliest crop sow in the begin- ning of September in heat. When the plants are large enough to handle, prick into pots or boxes, and after they have become well- established and hardened-off, plant out in October, when the weather is fine. Seed may be sown in the open ground in the beginning of October. They may stand two and a half to three feet apart. The plants must be duly watered while young, and shaded from the hot suns until established. The best situation is at the foot of a wall or fence, on the sunny side. Carrot (Daucus hortaisis.)—Cultivation.—The most suitable soil for the carrot is a deep, rich, light, loamy or sandy soil, which has been enriched at the previous cropping ; but should the soil be poor, a dressing of well-decomposed manure shall be given, and thoroughly mixed with the soil. The seed should be sown in shallow drills, which may be a foot apart for the early horn, and fifteen inches for James' intermediate and similar varieties, and from eighteen inches to two feet for field carrots. The soil should be made verv fine, and if in a dry state, or very loose, should be pressed very hard after the seeds are sown. The ground should be kept loose on the surface by frequent stirrings with a hoe. When the seed is sown in cold weather, and not likely to vegetate before hoeing becomes necessary, it is useful to drop a few seeds of radish or turnip to mark the position of the rows. The horn varieties may be left three to four inches apart ; other varieties at greater distances, up to eight inches for field carrots. Make large sowings from August till February. Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea botrytis caulijiora)—Cultivation. —Cauliflowers may be obtained in this climate during at least half the year under ordinary treatment, and in cool situations, or where water is plentiful, nearly the whole year around. The soil for them should be equally rich as for cabbage, and where that for winter crops happens to be damp it may be formed into ridges, and the cauliflowers planted on the top. The distance between the plants must be regulated by the size of the heads required; heads of the largest size mav be obtained from plants thirty to thirtv-six inches apart, but for private use small or middle-sized heads are the most suitable. Of course the summer crops must have the greatest amount of space, but plants put out in autumn 327 need not be more than two feet or eighteen inches apart. For the first, or autumn crop, the seed must be sown from December to February, and for later crops a little may be sown every month until August; but heads can rarely be obtained during the hottest months, except in cold districts, or by abundant watering. Corn Salad or Lambs' Lettuce (Valerianella olitoria.)—Cul- tivation.—The first sowing of this useful small salad, which is chiefly grown by the French, ought to be made at the commence- ment of the autumnal rains, and a successional crop put in at intervals of two months thereafter. Seed may be sown in any waste soil of a light nature, in beds four feet wide, and in shallow drills six inches apart. The seedlings must be thinned to four inches apart, and the outside leaves picked for use as they expand. In summer, seed should be sown every month in a moist, sheltered spot ; the seedlings thinned as soon as fit for handling, and when large enough for use, the heads cut as wanted, close to the surface of the ground. Cress (Lapidium sativum)—Curled cress may be grown in winter on a patch of ground at the foot of a fence, or other warm spot, by drawing shallow drills as close as possible with the finger or a small stick; the seed sown quite thick, and the surface beaten with the back of a spade, barely covering the seeds. A shady spot should be chosen for summer; or where there is not a garden the seed may be sown in boxes, or between the single folds of a wet flannel. American cress may be sown monthly in drills nine inches apart, slightly covered with earth ; when the plants are bushy, the heads may be cut close to the surface of the ground. Water cress is an excellent salad. Young runners are most commonly used for planting out, but seed may be sown during the autumn and winter months in a moist, shady place. Celerv (Apium graveolens.)—Cultivation.—Celery requires a very rich deep soil, and a moist situation is the best to select, but not where the soil is saturated with water. Seeds may be sown in August for the earliest crop, and at that season require artificial heat to cause them to vegetate. They may be sown in a seed pan or shallow box in light rich soil, and placed in a hot-bed frame, or some other warm place. As soon as the plants are large enough to handle, they should be pricked into other boxes, and continued in heat until well established, then hardened off, and planted out to six inches apart in a bed of rich soil six inches deep, on a bottom of boards or some other hard substance, which the roots cannot penetrate, to facilitate transplanting, where they must be well watered and shaded ; and when of sufficient size, the soil cut into squares with a plant in the centre of each ; then lifted with the balls entire, and conveyed to the trenches, where they must be shaded with boughs, boards, bags, or anything at hand until re-established. During the season of growth water must be applied in unlimited quantities. The second and later sowings may be 328 made in the open ground, and the young plants treated in a similar manner. October will be early enough for sowing in the open air, and two more sowings may be made in November and December. Manure to the depth of five or six inches should be dug into the bottom of the trench, and as much liquid manure as can be spared may be given while the plants are growing. A trench should be sixteen to eighteen inches in width, and the plants set at six to twelve inches apart. Earth up the plants as they advance in growth, but it is not advisable to place much soil around them, with a view to blanching until about a month before they are wanted for use. The final earthing up requires to be done care- fully; in order that the soil may not fall into the heart of the plant, the leaves should be tied together, then the soil thrown in, in layers, and packed closely around the plants by hand. Sweet Corn, or Table Maize (Zea mays.)—Cultivation.—Few are aware of the excellence of the sugar maize as a vegetable; it will bear favorable comparison with asparagus and peas when boiled in a green state, and eaten with white sauce or gravy. The cobs should be taken as soon as the grains are fully formed, and before they have begun to harden. Seed may be sown in Sep- tember and three following months for succession, in drills three feet apart, and the plants a foot apart. It requires rich soil, and is improved by top-dressing during growth. Cucumber (Cucumis salivus.)—Cultivation.—For the earliest crop out of doors, plants may be raised on a hot-bed, well hardened off, and planted out in September, as soon as the weather has become warm. The plants must be protected with hand- glasses, or some other covering, and shaded when necessary until established. For a late crop, plants may be raised in a cool frame, and planted out in October, always providing duplicates to replace failures. Seeds may be sown at the same time, and again in the course of a month, where they are to remain. The soil must be kept loose by frequent hoetngs, and before the weather becomes dry, should be mulched with a good layer of stable dung. Abun- dant water is necessary in dry weather. Egg Plant (Solaiium esculentum.)—Cultivation.—The egg plant may be treated in exactly the same manner as the capsicum —the earliest raised in heat and transplanted, and the later crops sown in a warm situation, where they have to remain ; the plants may stand eighteen inches to two feet apart. The fruit must be thinned if a fine sample is required. They may be easily grown in pots, and trained to stakes like tomatoes. Endive (Chicorium endivia.)—Cultivation.—This is a good useful salad for winter use, becoming now of more repute than hitherto. To grow it well the culture recommended for lettuce is exactly suitable. The heads require to be blanched, which may be effected either by tying the leaves close together, or covering each plant 329 with a flower pot, saucer, or piece of slate, a few at a time. The seeds should be sown in January, February, and March, and the plants transplanted with the first autumn rains. Sweet, Pot, and Medicinal Herbs.—Cultivation.—The best way of growing these with little trouble and expense is to procure a few plants of the required sorts, such as marjorum, sage, thyme, hyssop, etc., and plant them together in a portion of a shady border, in lines fifteen or eighteen inches apart each way. If plants cannot be conveniently had, seed may be sown in a warm border, in lines one foot apart, merely deep enough to cover the seed. When up, thin out to a foot apart, water and mulch the first summer in dry weather, and keep the surface loose. Next autumn, or early in spring, take up and divide the roots, and plant again fifteen or eighteen inches apart, and continue making new plantings every winter, as a means of saving them during the summer drought. Kohl Rabi, or Turnip-Rooted Cabbage (Brassica oleracca caulo-rapa.)—Cultivation.—This is a delicious vegetable, and highly esteemed by those acquainted with it; but its merits are not suffi- ciently known or appreciated. It is greatly superior as a table vegetable to any kind of turnip, but must be tested in good condi- tion, and while young and tender. The seed may be sown from January to April, in beds as for cabbage, and transplanted into good soil. The bulb-like stems will be fit for using during the winter and spring, and should be taken when not more than three or four inches in diameter, or they will become coarse and inferior. Leek (Allium porrum.)—Cultivation.—The leek likes a deep, friable, and rich soil. The first sowing may be made in June or July, and subsequent sowings once a month till December. When the young plants are about the thickness of a goose-quill, they may be transplanted into deep holes made with a dibble or stake, nine to twelve inches apart, in the bottom of a drill drawn with a hoe, into which the plants are dropped and a few crumbs of soil put in to cover the roots, unless the soil is dry, when the holes may be filled with water. In the process of hoeing, the holes become filled up with soil, and, as they grow, soil from each side may be drawn to them to cause the stems to lengthen. The drills should be fifteen inches apart. Large leeks for exhibition may be grown in trenches prepared as for celery. Lettuce (Lactuca.)—Cultivation.—This popular salad plant may be had all the year round by frequent sowings and plantings. A warm and dry situation should be chosen for the winter crops, and one that is low and damp for those of summer. The soil should be loose and extremely rich, for lettuces are crisp only when grown rapidly. For summer culture, sowings may be made where the plants are to remain—as they cannot be safely transplanted in dry weather—once a month from August onwards, in rows eighteen 33o inches apart, and thinned to twelve inches. For a winter crop, sowings may be made in March or April, and the plants transplanted in rows. Rock, or Musk Melon (Cucumis mclo).—Cultivation.—Rock melons for the earliest crop may be raised on a hot-bed in July and August, well hardened off, and planted out in September, or as soon as the weather has become warm enough; the plants should be protected until well established. The soil for the rock melon should be a good, rather strong loam, without manure, except a little to give the plants a start. For the later crop, sow in September and October in the open ground. The seeds should be sown in hills, which ought to be from five to six feet apart, placing ten or twelve seeds in each, and when the plants have two or three rough leaves thin out to three or four inches. Water Melon (Cucumis citrillus.)—Cultivation.—The water melon requires a richer soil than the rock melon, and if well grown will afford abundance of fruit without stopping the shoots or any other manipulation being required. Every effort should be made to get the fruit ripened early, for it is little valued except in hot weather. A. warm situation should therefore be chosen, and the plants raised in heat in July and August, and grown strong before being planted out, two or three on a hill, about eight feet apart. Mango Melon, or Egvptian Prolific Vegetable Peach.— Cultivation.—Cultivate in a similar manner as that recommended for rock melon. Grows like a rock melon, branching out in dozens of vines in every direction full of fruit and blossoms, commencing early and lasting on till frost if watered in dry weather; suitable for all climates. Fried in batter, green, a substitute for egg plant. It is also said to be superior to vegetable marrows, cooked in a similar style if used before being too ripe. When ripe and yellow makes beautiful, white, transparent preserves and sweetmeats, equalling the celebrated California fruits and Japanese pie melon; they are just like an orange when ripe. The late fruit makes excellent pickles. Young green ginger makes the best flavouring, and it does not colour the preserves. Mango Melon, or Vegetable Peach Jam.—To every pound of vegetable peaches allow three-quarters of a pound of the best white sugar, and one pound of good, young, green ginger to every 8 lbs. of fruit. Mode : Cut up the fruit, taking care to scoop out all the pips (using a spoon is best); weigh, and put into a china basin with the quantity of sugar sprinkled on, and allow it to stand twenty-four hours; choose young ginger, wash carefully, and scrape off all the outside skin; then boil in an enamel pan for several hours in clean water; boil till you can stick a fork in ; then take out and cut up as finely as possible ; this is imperative or it will spoil your jam ; mix all together, and boil gently. It takes a long time to cook, as the melon must be quite clear, and a thin skin must come over the jam. This is ascertained by occasionally taking out a small spoonful and 33i putting on a saucer to cool. Always cover the jars with strong paper while hot. About six ounces of preserved ginger, cut very small, improves it, but darkens it. Mushroom (Agaricuscampestris.)—Cultivation.—The mushroom can be successfully cultivated in pots, boxes, or beds, either out of doors, or in a shed or cellar, during the autumn and winter months. The beds are made of fresh horse-dung, which must be dried- and fermented until the violent heat is gone, before being used. When ready, the material should be made into a bed four feet wide and a foot deep, beaten extremely hard with a rammer or mallet, and left until the heat is steady at sixty or seventy degrees, when pieces of spawn, about the size of walnuts, should be inserted about an inch deep, and eight or nine inches apart, all over the bed, which must then be covered to a depth of three inches with soil, such as the mushroom naturally grows in, well beaten with the back of the spade, and, if out of doors, should be covered with a good thickness of hay. The soil should not be allowed to become dry, nor ever very wet ; therefore something should be at hand to ward off heavy rains if out of doors. Mushrooms may be expected in six or seven weeks from the time of spawning, and a good bed will last for two or three months. In gathering the crop, the stalks should be pulled completely out, otherwise they rot and destroy the young brood. Beforeithe month of April, while the weather is warm, the bed may be made in a trench, dug six inches deep, in dry and well-drained ground. Mustard (Sinapis alba.)—Cultivation.—Mustard for salad may be grown under a variety of circumstances both indoors and outside. During the hot weather it should be sown in a shady place. It may be grown in pots or boxes in the dwelling-house, or on the windowsill, or even on a piece of woollen cloth kept moist. Any kind of light soil will suffice, as water alone will enable it to grow large enough for use. The treatment recommended for cress will equally apply to mustard. The seed should be sown about a week later than cress. Oniox (Alluim cepa.)—Cultivation.—To produce good crops of onions, ground of a deep loamy nature should be selected; it re- quires to be well worked and manured. Onions may be trans- planted, or the seed may be sown where the plants have to remain. When required early, the seed may be sown in April, though June is considered the best month to sow for transplanting. For that purpose the seed should be sown in wide drills or beds, and kept free from weeds until fit to transplant. For bulbing on the ground where sown, the month of August is a suitable time. Sow the seeds in drills a foot apart, and thin to six inches. As some of those transplanted are likely to start for seed, the flower-heads must be pinched off as soon as they appear. For pickling onions, seed of the silver-skinned varieties should be sown in August, rather thickly in drills, and left unthinned. For salad the seed may be sown whenever required, providing the soil is watered and shaded should the weather be dry. 332 Okra, or Gombo (Hibiscus esculenttts.)—Cultivation.—This plant is not so much grown in this country as its merits deserve. The pods, which are used while green and tender, form an excel- lent ingredient in soups, stews, and pickles, and are believed to be very nutritious. They can also be cut in slices, and dried for winter use. For an early crop the plants may be raised in heat in July,- like tomatoes, and planted out; the ordinary crop may be sown in September and October for succession, in drills two feet apart, and the plants thinned to the same distance. The soil should be rich and well cultivated. Parslev (Petroselinum sativum.)—Cultivation.—Though par- sley repays for good soil as well as any other crop, it does not always obtain the best kind of treatment, being generally used as an edging to the walks in the kitchen garden, or sown in some out- of-the-way place in poor soil, and insufficiently thinned. The seeds should be sown in drills fifteen inches apart, and the plants thinned to twelve inches. Sowings should be made in August in a low, shady border, for summer and autumn supply, and again in March or April for winter use. Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa.)—Cultivation.—Treat in the same manner as recommended for the carrot. On dry, early soils, a sowing may be made in autumn, on the occurrence of the first rains, to furnish roots for use in spring, and again in September, though the produce of these sowings must be used early, otherwise the plants would run to seed. October is the best month in which to sow the main crop, and for winter use a sowing may be made about the beginning of December. The rows should be eighteen inches apart, and the plants thinned to six or eight inches, according to the size of the roots required, thin roots being the most suitable for private families. Peas (Pisutn sativum.)—Cultivation.—Soil that has been manured for a previous crop will suffice for winter-sown crops, but for summer an additional dressing should be given, and the ground well worked. For dwarf varieties the rows should be two and a half to three feet apart, for taller sorts four to six feet, and the seed of the former should be placed about one inch apart, and the latter three to four inches apart. The sowing of peas may com- mence in April, and be continued till February. The autumn sowings should consist of the earliest varieties, including rising sun, on account of its hardiness ; the same, or other early kinds, may be sown in June; second earlies and marrows in July and August; marrows again in September and October, and the latest varieties in November and December ; afterwards early varieties again. To maintain a continuous succession, it is a good rule to sow whenever the previous crop is fairly above ground. Potatoes (Solaiium tuberosum.)—Cultivation.—The soil should be in good condition, and if requiring manure, stable dung, super- phosphate of lime or bone dust should be used. The first crop, for 333 which a dry soil and warm situation should be chosen, may be planted in July in favourable localities, using the earliest varieties; a successional crop of the same, and also of the second earlies, and late varieties in August, and the latest up to November. Then in January, early varieties may be again planted for an autumn crop. The early and dwarf-topped sorts may be planted two feet by ten inches apart, larger-topped sorts should have thirty inches by twelve. With regard to sets, large kinds with few eyes, if cut into pieces of good size, will yield as much produce as whole tubers of equal weight, though, in general, whole tubers of 4 to 6 ozs. in weight are preferable; but if the eyes are numerous, all but the crown should be rubbed off, otherwise numerous stems will rise, and a large proportion of the produce will be of small size. The after culture consists in drawing soil to the stems, and frequent digging or hoeing of the spaces between the rows. Pumpkin (Cucurbita melopepo.)—Cultivation.—Sow from Sep- tember to December in hills, well manured, from eight to twelve feet apart, placing from ten to twelve seeds in each hill, but not allowing more than two of the best to run. Radish (Raphanus sattvus.)—Cultivation.—The soil for the radish, if not naturally sandy and loose, must be very finely pulverised before the seed is sown; it should also be moderately rich to encourage rapid growth, but not recently manured, unless with dung rotted to mould. The seed may be sown in drills in the cool months, when the plants take longer to grow, to enable weeds to be kept down easily; but in summer time it may be sown thinly broadcast, or very thinly in the rows with carrots or other root crops, or with lettuces to be drawn out as required. It may be sown every third or fourth week throughout the year. In winter a dry situation, and in summer a moist one, should be chosen. Rhubarb (Rheum hybrtdttm.)—Rhubarb delights in a rich, loose, deep, and well-drained soil ; it does not succeed in stiff soil, preferring that which is sandy. The seed may be sown, in the beginning of September, where the plants have to remain, or in drills for transplanting. The drills may be made in light, rich soil, two feet apart and an inch deep; the seeds should be sown very thinly. In the permanent plantation, the plants must stand three feet and a half or four feet apart, according to the size of the variety, and the crowns covered not more than two inches. A good plan is to sow a row on the permanent plot, in patches four- teen or sixteen inches apart, and transplant two-thirds of the plants the following winter, leaving the remaining third where sown. The beginning of August is the best time to transplant, just before the plants commence to grow; but if the ground is not wanted, transplanting may be effected in April or May. No stalks should be gathered from the seedlings the first year after being planted, but all left to strengthen the roots. Rhubarb may be forced for winter use in the same manner as sea kale. 334 Salsifv, or Ovster Plant (Tragopogon porrifolius.)—Salsify succeeds well under the same treatment required for carrots and other root crops. Seed for an early crop may be sown in August, and for the general crop in October. Sow the seed in drills about fifteen inches apart, and thin the plants to six inches. The young leaves, when blanched, may be used as a vegetable. The roots are boiled or stewed like carrots and parsnips, or half boiled and grated fine, made into small flat balls, and dipped into batter and fried like ovsters, which they strongly resemble. Scorzonera, or Black Ovster Plant (Scorzoncra hispanica.) —Culture the same as recommended for salsify. Similar in many respects to salsify, and is called by some the black oyster plant. It is cultivated exclusively for the roots, which may be boiled and served plain like parsnips. Before cooking, the outer coarse rind should be scraped off, and the roots soaked in cold water for a few hours to extract their bitter flavor. Sea Kale (Cratnbc maritima.)—Sea kale will succeed well in any ordinary garden soil. Sow the seed in August and September in drills two feet apart, and thin the plants to a foot apart. For blanching, the plants should be covered with pots, boxes, or casks, or the like, and covered with fresh dung in such quantities as will produce a gentle and prolonged heat. They are ready for use when they have grown the length of a few inches. Spinach (Spinacca oleracra.)—The soil for spinach requires to be made very rich, so as to grow it quickly, and obtain the largest weight of leaves. The round spinach is grown for summer use, and the pricklv or Flanders varieties for winter. The first sowing may be made as soon as the first autumn rains have fallen, and successional sowings once a month until the weather becomes too dry, unless water is plentiful, when sowing may be continued throughout the year. The seed should be sown thinly in drills, which, in winter, should be eighteen inches or more apart, and the plants thinned to twelve inches; the spring and summer crops need not stand further apart than half that distance. In gathering the leaves for use, they are taken singly from the winter crops as thev attain full size, but in summer the whole plant may be cut off by the ground. Squash (Cucurbtta melopepo.)—Cultivation.—The squash is closelv related to the pumpkin and vegetable marrow, except the bush varieties, which do not run, and require so much room. Stachvs Tuberifera (Chinese Artichoke.)—Cultivation.—This plant grows to a height of fifteen inches, being free and branching; from the axis spring a number of fine roots on which the tubers are produced, about two inches in length, and make a nice salad, resembling the taste of the radish, and when cooked and served with melted butter in much the same manner as the globe artichoke, they are delicious in flavour. The roots should be planted in rews two feet apart, and nine to twelve inches from each root. 335 Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum.)—To have tomatoes early, seed must be sown in July in heat, and the young plants grown in pots until ready to plant out when the weather has become warm in September. For later crops, the seeds may be sown in a warm border out of doors towards the end of August. The tomato requires rich soil, and succeeds best in that which is sandy. The earliest plants should be planted and trained against a north wall or fence; later crops may be planted against other fences, or in the open quarters, allowing a space of three feet to each plant, but in all situations they ought to be supported off the ground by stakes or trellises. The plants, as they grow, should be kept, thinned of shoots, weak laterals being pinched off, and those that are to remain stopped at the flower. To ensure a full crop during dry weather an abundance of water is required. Perennial Tree Tomato {Cyphomandra betacea.)—This fast- growing perennial, which is perfectly distinct from the ordinary tomato, reaches a height of ten or twelve feet, with leaves over eighteen inches long and by more than twelve inches broad, and, independently of its fruit, is a beautiful foliage plant. It comes into bearing in about eighteen months, and its fruit, which is orange- coloured and about the size of a hen's egg, is veiy delicious. Turnip (Brassica rapa.)—To have turnips tender and mild they must be grown rapidly and without check; therefore the soil must be in good condition. The seed may be sown broadcast on a bed, or in drills, the latter being the preferable mode. The drills for early sorts should be at least fifteen inches apart, and the plants thinned to six or nine inches; but for swedes the drills should be eighteen inches, and the plants twelve inches apart. The first sow- ing should be made in the beginning of February, or earlier, if a good rainfall happens to occur. Successional sowings may be made of white sorts in autumn and early spring, choosing the yellow- fleshed varieties for summer growth, as they withstand the heat better than the others. The seed should be sown extremely thin, the plants thinned early, and the surface of the soil around them kept in a loose state. Vegetable Marrow (Cucurbita pepo ovifera.)—The instructions given for the cucumber are applicable to the growth of the vege- table marrow, with the difference of only having one plant instead of two in every space, and the distance eight feet apart instead of six, and little or no stopping, further than thinning where the vines are too thick. Flower Seeds and Their Cultivation. Soil.—One of the first considerations in the culture«of annuals is the condition of the soil, to which sufficient attention is rarely paid. It is seldom either properly worked or sufficiently fertile. With the exception of a few gross-growing kinds, annuals, to 336 attain perfection, should be sown in soil that is both rich and well worked. Great pains are generally taken with the soil of the vegetable garden, but that of the flower garden is left very much to itself, with the exception of a light digging once a year, and occasionally a little manure applied, whereas it should be well and deeply dug and highly manured. Sowing.—All the hardiest kind of annuals attain the greatest perfection when sown in autumn, because they have a longer season to grow. They attain greater development, and consequently flower the stronger; but tender sorts must not be sown till spring. Like all other seeds, they succeed best in a firm soil; therefore, if the soil has been recently dug, it should be pressed more or less before sowing. If the seeds are very fine—but large seeds are better to be sown first, and trodden or otherwise pressed into the soil—the less covering will then be required. For the finest seeds it is advisable to sift a little fine compost on the spot, and press it smooth before the seeds are sown. The covering must be in pro- portion to the size of the seeds. The largest of the lupin seeds may have an inch in depth of covering, while the twentieth of an inch or less will be sufficient for the smallest. Indeed, fine silver sand, just sufficient to cover the soil, may be sifted on them, and to prevent the soil from drying before the seeds have had time to germinate, it should be closely covered by a flower pot, a bell or hand glass, or even a flat pane of glass; but that, or any covering impervious to light, should be gradually removed as soon as the seeds germinate. It is a common and injurious fault either to sow too thickly, or to thin the plants insufficiently, as when overcrowded they can neither develop to perfection nor flower finely. Thinning should commence as soon as the plants can be fairly laid hold of, and continued until each plant has sufficient space for full develop- ment. Seeds of biennial or perennial plants, being sown in rows or beds for transplanting, need be only thinned to such an extent as to prevent overcrowding before being transplanted. An old- fashioned plan is to sow the seeds of annuals in rings, and it answers well enough for large-growing plants; but smaller ones are better sown in patches, which in both cases may correspond in extent with the size the plants attain. Arrangement.—When annuals are sown in mixed beds or borders, thev must, of course, correspond in height with the other plants, the dwarfest being nearest the eye. The same rule must be followed when beds are filled solely with annuals. The colors should contrast with each other, and also with those of other plants that are near. When annuals are grown alone in beds or borders, various modes of arrangement may be followed. A peculiar effect may be produced by mixing seeds of different kinds and sowing them together. In large beds they may be arranged in bands, according to size, sloping from back to front, or in groups, each sort forming a group. 337 Management.—The soil should not be allowed to become quite dry after the seeds are sown; therefore, if rain does not fall, watering must be practised. The larger kinds may be afterwards fed with liquid manure, if perfection in size and flowering is desired. Of course, the soil should be kept free from weeds; it should also be loosened around the plants, but so as not to disturb the roots. Tall-growing plants will generally require to be supported by some means. Tall plants may have a stake to each, while cylinders of wire netting, or rings of wire affixed to stakes, are suitable for those of spreading habit. Where seed is not required, the period' of flowering may be lengthened by picking off the seed vessels as soon as the flowers fall. Monthlv Calendar for the Vegetable Garden. Januarv.—Brussels sprouts—Sow largely, to use in June; broad beans—sow a few, to ripen about May and June; borecole, or kale—sow largely, to use from June ; French or kidney beans —plant medium crops, for use in April and May; brocoli—sow a few early sorts, to use in May and June, finish planting out late sorts early this month; cauliflower—sow largely towards the end of this month ; carrot—sow a few early sorts, to use in June and July; celery—sow a few seeds of an early variety, to use from the end of July, plant out former sowing, as they advance; chou de burghley—sow early in the month ; cress and mustard—sow fort- nightly; lettuce—sow a few to remain until fit for use in six or eight weeks; onion—sow a few for salads, to use from April; peas—sow a medium crop of early varieties, to use in April and May; potatoes—plant out kidneys or other early varieties, to use in April and May; raddish—sow a few of the long sort, to use in four or six weeks; savoy cabbage—sow a medium crop; turnips —sow largely, for use from March to May. Februarv.—Brussels sprouts—sow a few, to use from July to September; cabbage—continue sowing early sorts, to use in June and July; cauliflower—sow largely, to use in June and July; celery—plant out largely, as the plants advance, for winter supply; cress and mustard—sow fortnightly; endive—sow for use in autumn; French beans—sow for a succession; leek—transplant largely into drills for a winter supply; lettuce—continue to sow, for using in six or eight weeks; peas—sow a few early varieties, to succeed the former sowing; potatoes—plant out largely of early varieties, to use in May and June; radish—continue to sow, for use in four or six weeks; spinach—sow a medium crop for autumn use; savoy cabbage—sow a few early in the month, if not done last month ; turnip—continue sowing a few for winter use. March.—Brocoli—Sow a few of early varieties, to use in spring; cabbage—sow a few of early varieties, to use in July and August, transplant largely; cauliflower—sow a few to succeed former crops, transplant largely about the end of the month; 339 Julv.—Broad beans—sow largely for use in October and November; Brussels sprouts—sow a few to use in December; borecole or kale—sow a few to use in the summer months; carrot —sow largely of early and late sorts to use in October and November; cabbage—sow early and medium sorts to use about the end of the year; cauliflower—sow a few, or, if not done last month, sow largely early ; garlic and shallots—finish planting early; herbs —if not yet done, divide the old roots and re-plant ; horse radish— if not yet done finish planting out early; kohl-rabi—sow in pans for transplanting; lettuce—sow for a succession; leek—sow largely late this month for autumn and winter supply; onion—continue sowing largely; parsnip—sow a few to use in November; peas— sow largely all good sorts to use in October and November; potatoes—plant out a few early kidneys in a dry, warm situation; radish—sow for a succession ; rhubarb and sea kale—finish planting out; savoy cabbage—sow a few to use in November ; spinach— sow of winter sorts for the last time this season. August.—Asparagus—sow largely, plant seedlings as soon as the buds begin to swell, and top dress established plants ; beet— sow largely to use in January; brocoli—sow largely early and late varieties for autumn and early winter use; broad beans—sow largely all good sorts to use in November; Brussels sprouts—sow largely for mid-summer use ; cabbage—make a good sowing of early sorts for summer, and late sorts, including the red, for autumn, transplant former sowings; cape gooseberry—sow in hot-bed frame; carrot—sow largely of early sorts for end of summer; cauliflower— sow largely to use from end of November, plant out the former sowings as the plants are ready; celery—sow in a hot-bed frame for early use; cucumber—sow a few in a warm frame for planting out in October ; garlic and shallots—finish planting ; herbs—sow largely all pot herbs such as sage, thyme, marjoram, savory, etc.; leek—sow largely for winter use, transplant June sowing; lettuce— sow largely; melons (rock and water)—sow a few along with the cucumber seeds ; onion—sow largely for winter keeping, transplant early from former sowings; parsley—sow largely for summer supply; parsnip—sow largely for autumn use ; peas—sow largely as directed last month; potatoes—plant out largely early and late sorts in high ground; radish—sow every third week ; rhubarb— sow largely, gently force a few established roots; salsify and scorzonera—sow largely early varieties for autumn use ; sea kale— sow largely and blanch ; spinach—sow largely of the round variety to use in October; tomato—sow in a hot-bed frame. September.—Asparagus—sow early and transplant, if not done, top-dress established plants ; basil—sow in a hot-bed frame ; broad beans—sow for successional crop; French beans—sow a few in warm situation; beet—sow largely if not done last month; brocoli—sow largely if not done last month; Brussels sprouts—sow towards the end of the month for succession, trans- 34o plant former sowings; cabbage—sow twice in the month, plant out former sowings; caper of commerce—sow in hot-bed for trans- planting in October; cauliflower—plant out largely in a low situation; capsicum—sow a few in the cucumber frame; carrot— sow largely of late sorts for autumn and winter use, and a few of early sorts for summer, if not done last month; cardoon—sow largely; celery—sow a few towards the end of the month in the open ground and under protection for the autumn crops; cress and mustard—sow fortnightly; cucumber—sow a few again in the frame to plant out in October; egg plant—sow on hot-bed for trans- planting; garlic—plant out early if not done; herbs—plant early if not done last month; kohl-rabi—sow in drills to remain; leek— sow early if not done last month; lettuce—sow largely to use early in December; melons (rock and water^—sow early along with the cucumber seeds; okra—sow on hot-bed for transplanting; onion— sow thickly for pickling, bulbs to ripen in January; parsnip—sow largely for autumn and winter use; peas—sow largely, chiefly late sorts, to use from December; potatoes—finish planting early on high grounds, commence for a full crop on low grounds; radish— sow every third week; rhubarb—sow early if not done previously; salsify and scorzonera—sow early if not done previously; savoy cabbage—sow early and late sorts for autumn and winter supply; sea kale—sow early if not done, continue blanching established plants; spinach—sow largely if not done in August; turnips— make a good sowing towards the end of the month to use from November; tomato—sow with capsicum; vegetable marrow, pumpkin, and squash—sow in the open ground at the end of the month, and transplant from the frame if the weather is mild. October.—Asparagus—cut the shoots six inches long for use; broad beans—continue sowing for succession; French beans—sow largely of late sort, to use in December ; beet—sow largely for autumn and winter use; borecole or kale—sow largely to use in winter, transplant former sowings; brocoli—sow largely for succes- sional winter use, transplant stout young plants; Brussels sprouts— sow largely for successional winter use, transplant stout young plants; cabbage—make a good sowing for autumn supply, trans- plant stout young plants; capsicum—sow for full crop in a warm border, transplant those raised in heat; cardoon—sow for a full crop in trenches, to remain so ; carrot—make a good sowing -of late varieties.; celery—sow largely in the open ground, prick out young seedlings; cress and mustard—sow fortnightly; cucumber— sow largely in the open ground, plant out seedlings from under cover; herbs—sow a few still if not already done ; leek-—sow a few to plant out in January for late crop, transplant ; lettuce—sow a few to remain until fit for use in November ; melon—see cucumber; maize—sow sweet corn in the beginning and end of this month; peas—make a good sowing of large podding varieties for succes- sional crop; radish—sow a few long and turnip radish ; rhubarb— 34i remove the forcing materials, gently tear away for use the outer stalks from the other plants; spinach—sow a few of the round variety; savoy cabbage—make a good sowing, to plant early in autumn for winter use; sea kale—continue blanching; turnip— sow largely, to use from December; vegetable marrow, pumpkin, and squash—sec cucumber. November.—Broad beans—plant out a few for autumn use; French beans—sow largely; borecole or kale—sow a few early, to plant in autumn for autumn and winter use; brocoli—sow a few early, to plant in autumn for autumn and winter use; Brussels sprouts—sow a few early, to plant in autumn for autumn and winter use; cabbage—sow a few early, to plant in autumn for autumn and winter use; celery—sow largely, to plant in autumn for late crop; couve tronchuda or Portugal cabbage—sow for winter use; cress and mustard—sow fortnightly; cucumber—sow largely early in the month, and plant out from under cover; lettuce—sow largely where to remain if the situation is low and moist; melon—see cucumber; peas—sow largely of large sorts; radish—sow a few; turnip—sow largely twice in the month; vegetable marrow, pumpkin, and squash. See cucumber. December.—Cabbage—sow a few, to plant in autumn for winter use ; cauliflower—sow a few; couve tronchuda—sow for winter and spring use ; celery—sow for winter use; remove side shoots from, and earth up advanced crops if required for immediate use; cress and mustard—sow fortnightly; kohl-rabi—sow in drills for winter use; lettuce—sow largely if in a low situation ; peas— sow early and late sorts ; spinach—sow a few of the round variety; turnip—sow a few. CHAPTER XV. BOOKtKEEPING FOR FARMERS. The Necessitv of Keeping Accocnts Correctlv. (Bv J. Bucklev, Accountant to the Bureau of Agriculture.) (Introduction by the Editor.) Farming is as much a business as selling tea and sugar or dry goods, or banking, or any other commercial pursuit, and it is quite as necessary that the farmer should keep proper books of accounts as the dry goods merchant, the storekeeper, the banker, or any other commercial man. The farmer buys, sells, and makes profits and losses during the year, and it is absolutely necessary for the proper conduct of his business that he should know what profit or loss he has made at the end of the twelve months, and, more particularly on what lines he is losing money, and on what he is gaining. The average farmer is not fond of the pen, and is not a ready reckoner, as a rule. This is all the more reason why he should keep books of account so as to be a check upon his memory, in which storehouse farmers are too apt to insecurely lock away the ill-calculated results of their monetary transactions. I do not suppose that more than 15 percent. of the farmers of Australia keep any kind of account books at all, and perhaps not more than five per cent. keep them properly and can tell, after a glance at their books, how they stand, how much profit they made last year, and the chief lines on which these profits were made. On frequent occasions I have been selected as a judge of farms in competitions for the best managed farms in certain localities. I have, in the scale, always allotted a certain number of points to book-keeping, but my experience has shown that the full measure of these points has never yet been awarded, and frequently that the farmer who owned the best managed farm kept no books at all, or anything worthy of calling books of account. I remember asking one of the best and most practical farmers of an eastern colony why he did not keep a proper set of books, and he replied, " Oh, the bank does that for me. When I've got money in the bank I'm all right, and when I haven't I'm all right too, because they lend me some." Asked how he kept a check upon the bank, he said the bank was honest enough. But while the bank may be honest enough the want of system in not keeping books is all wrong. It would never do for the merchant to go on in this haphazard way, and it is not right for the farmer to do so. 343 The first book the farmer should possess himself of is a scribbling diary. This may also be used as a day-book and journal if the transactions of the farm are not very elaborate or frequent. "Great events from little causes spring," and it is of the utmost importance that every event that takes place on the farm should be recorded at the time of its occurence. Memory is so apt to play us false. If the ledger referred to later on is to be kept properly it is absolutely necessary that a short but complete record should be kept of the day's doings. What the farmer himself is doing, and what each man in his employ is doing, must be carefully set down for posting in the ledger at the end of the month. A note should also be made at the time of receipt or sale of goods, not in detail, but just the mention of the mere fact. For instance, "Received from W. Sandover and Co., one single furrow plough," or "Sold to J. Smith, half ton of chaff at £ per ton." Invoices and sale notes should be carefully filed away, as they will be wanted again when the books are made up, the entries in the diary serving as a check, so that nothing is omitted. The books necessary for the system of book-keeping as shown here- in are a day book, journal, and ledger. The day book and journal can be combined by using the left hand page for the journal. In the day book all transactions must be first entered, with full particulars of each item; sales of stock or produce, receipts and payments of money, with the dates of such transactions, and the names of the parties concerned. The journal on the right hand page is ruled in two money columns, the left one headed "Dr.," and the right one " Cr." The entries are to be kept on the left hand side of these columns in a classified form; when this is done they are ready for posting in the ledger. All figures under the "Dr." column in the journal are entered in the " Dr." column of the ledger, and all under the " Cr." column of the journal are entered in " Cr." column of the ledger. Having shown how the day book entries are recorded and entered in the journal in a classified form (journalised), it may be necessary to observe that the entries in the day book need not be confined solely to monetary transactions. The times when crops are sown or reaped, work in vineyard and orchard, variations in the weather, storms, floods, or droughts, might be recorded in the day book as they occur, making it a diary of events, or a separate diary may be kept, as the farmer thinks fit. This record may be of great use to the farmer as a work of reference in the future. Let us suppose that Jas. Thompson is the owner of 200 acres of land and possessor of certain working plant for farming purposes, also live stock and cash on the 1st of January, 1895. His first step is to ascertain the nett value of his land, working plant, live stock, and cash in hand, and make an entry in the manner shown in the day book, after which follow the various transactions supposed to occur in a farmer's business during the year, examples of which are given in the day book and journal as follows :— 344 Page i. DAY BOOK. January I The property I possess is as follows :— 2oo acres of land, value £200. Live stock, £122. Working plant, ^27, Cash in bank, ^100. The above items constitute the entire capital; it is sub-divided and classified in the Journal (lournalised) under the head of property, live stock, working plans and cash accounts. 5 Bought from Sandover and Co., one single furrow plough, £6 10s. As this purchase is an addition to working plant. that account is charged with it and credit given to Sandover and Co. for supplying.it. S Paid for stores for house, £7. This being an expense, expenses account is charged (debited) with the amount and cash account credited for money paid out. 12 Bought from M'Bean and Co., five sacks bonedust, £2 10s. The bonedust being for cropping purposes, crop account is charged (debited) with amount, and M'Bean and Co., receive credit (creditedl for supplying the bonedust. 30 Paid M'Bean and Co. my cheque, £2 10s. M'Bean and Co.'s account is charged (debitedl with this amount, and cash account credited for so much money paid out 30 Sent my cheque per post to Sandover and Co., £6 10s. This is similar to the foregoing transaction, and the same explanation applies to it February 4 Sold to Jas. Ferguson four tons of hay at £2 15s. per ton, £11, Ferguson is indebted for the amount of hay, his account is charged (debited) with the amount, and crop account receives credit 1credited), the hay being a portion of crop. 17 Sold to Jas. Murphy two calves at 15s. each, £1 10s. The foregoing explanation applies to this transaction, except in this matter, live stock account receives credit for the calves sold to Murphy. 345 JOURNAL. Page I. Ledger CR. 1895 Page. £ S. d. £ s. d. January I Dr. property account ... 95 200 0 o „ I Cr. capital „ ... ... 85 200 o o I Dr. live stock „ ... ... tio 122 o 0 „ I Cr. capital „ ... ... 85 122 o o „ I Dr. working plant account ... 105 27 o o „ I Cr. capital account ... ... 85 27 o o „ I Dr. cash ,, ... ... 100 o o „ I Cr. capital „ ... ... 85 100 o t> „ 5 Dr. working plant account ... 105 6 10 o „ 5 Cr. Sandover& Co. ac, I s.f. plough 1 6 10 o „ Dr. expenses account, stores ... 75 700 „ 5 Cr. cash ... ... 65 o o ,, 12 Dr. crop account, bonedust ... 115 2 10 o „ 12 Cr. M'Bean & Co. account, bonedust 2 2 10 o ,, 30 Dr. M'Bean & Co. account, cheque 2 2 10 o „ 30 Cr. cash account, cheque ... 65 2 10 o „ 30 Dr. Sandover & Co. account, cheque I 6 10 o „ 30 Cr. cash account, cheque ... 65 6 10 o February 4 Dr. Jas. Ferguson account, 4 tons hay at £2 15s. ... ... 3 II o o „ 4 Cr. crop account, hay ... ... 115 II o o „ 17 Dr. Jas. Murphy ac, 2 calves at 15s. 4 1 10 o „ 17 Cr. live stock account, calves ... no I 10 o Carried Forward ... ... £486 10 o 486 10 o 34^ DAY BOOK. Page 2. Feb. 24 Received cash from Jas. Ferguson, £11. Ferguson having paid this money his account is credited with the amount, and being a receipt in favour of cash, cash account is debited. 28 Received cheque from Jas. Murphy, price of calves, £1 10s. Cash account in this transaction is also debited, and Murphy's account receives credit (credited). March 6 Bought from Sandover and Co. one set of iron harrows, £4. This is also an addition to working plant; the account is charged (debited) and Sandover and Co.'s account receives credit (credited). 6 Paid my cheque for stores for house, ^4 10s. This is an expense for which payment is made. Expenses account is charged (debitedl and cash account is credited for the money paid out April 9 Paid my cheque to Sandover and Co. for harrows, ^4, Having paid for the harrows, Sandover and Co.'s account is debited with the amount and cash account credited for money paid out. May 6 Sold for cash twelve young pigs for 10s. each, £6. This is a cash transaction. Cash account is debited for money received, and live stock account receives credit (creditedl, pigs being a portion of live stock. June 2 Sold to R. Jenkins 150 bushels of wheat at 6s. per bushel, ^45. Jenkins' account is charged (debitedl with amount of wheat, and crop account receives credit 1creditedl. „ 5 Bought from Barrett and Sons seeds to the amount of £2 10s. The seeds being intended for crop purposes, crop account is charged (debitedl and Harrett and Sons receive credit for supplying the s 6 Drew from the bank the sum of £5 for petty cash. This being intended for payment of sundry current items for use of the house must be looked upon as an expense. Expenses account is charged (debited) and cash account credited for amount drawn from bank. July 10 Received from R. Jenkins £4.4 for wheat, allowing him £l discount. Cash account is debited for money received, and Jenkins- account credited for ^44 and also for £1 discount allowed. Profit and loss account is debited with discount, being a loss; this transaction requires four entries in Journal and Ledger. 347 JOURNAL. Page j. £ a. d £ s. d. Brought Forward ... ... 486 10 o 486 10 o Feb. 24 Dr. cash ac, cheque Jas. Ferguson... 65 11 o o „ 24 Cr. Jas. Ferguson account,cheque... 3 II o o „ 28 Dr. cash ac, cheque from J. Murphy 65 I 10 o „ 28 Cr. J. Murphy account ... 4 I 10 o March 6 Dr. working plant ac, I set harrows 105 400 „ 6 Cr. Sandover & Co. ac, harrows ... I 400 ,, 6 Dr. expenses account, stores ... 75 4 10 o „ 6 Cr. cash account, stores ... 65 4100 April 9 Dr. Sandover & Co. ac, cheque ... I 400 „ 9 Cr. cash account, cheque ... 65 400 May 6 Dr. cash account pigs, ... ... 65 600 „ 6 Cr. live stock account, pigs ... 110 600 June 2 Dr. R. Jenkinsac, 150 bus. wheat at 6s. 5 45 o o „ 2 Cr. crop account, wheat ... 115 45 o o „ 5 Dr. crop account, seeds ... 115 2 10 o „ 5 Cr. Barrett & Sons account, seeds... 6 2 10 o „ 6 Dr. expenses account, petty cash ... 75 500 ,, 6 Cr. cash account, petty cash ... 65 500 July 10 Dr. cash account, cheq. from Jenkins 65 44 o 0 „ 10 Cr. R. Jenkins account, cheque ... 5 44 o o ,, 10 Dr. profit and loss ac.,disc'nt Jenkins 125 100 „ 10 Cr. R. Jenkins account, discount ... 5 100 Carried Forward ... ... £6i$ o o 615 o o 348 DAY BOOK. Page 3. July 30 Sold to Wm. Jones, fruiterer, 20 cases oranges at 10s. each, £10t for cash. A cash transaction ; no account is required for Wm. Jones, as he paid cash at the time. Cash account is debited for money received, and crop account receives credit (credited), for oranges sold. August I Paid Jas. O'Neil 15 weeks wages at £1 per week, for work on farm, £1$. Crop account is charged with O'Neill's wages. His labor being used in putting in and taking out the crop. Cash account is credited for money paid from cash. IS Paid Barrett and Sons my cheque, £2 10s., for seeds. Barrett and Sons are debited with this amount, and cash account credited for the money paid out. Paid Wm. Robinson 10 weeks' wages at £l per week, for work in orchard, £10. This is charged to crop account (debited), and cash account credited for money paid out. „ 30 Paid John Brown 12 weeks' wages at £ 1 per week, for work in vine- yard, ^12. Crop account is also charged with this expense (debited), and cash account credited for amount paid. ,, 30 Paid Thos. Smith for fencing ,£25, contract work. Fencing being an improvement effected, improvement account is charged with the amount. and cash account credited for money paid out beptember 1 Provided food for 3 labourers for 6 weeks, at 10s. per week each, £9. The food consumed by labourers having come from the house, which was previously purchased and paid for, crop account is charged (debitedl with the amount. and expenses account receives credit (credited). „ 5 Bought from White and Co. one spring dray for £1$. The spring dray is an addition to working plant; that account is debited and White and Co. credited for the cost of dray. „ 10 *Given White and Co. my promissory note at three months for 1Cl$t cost of spring dray. White and Co. are debited with promissory note ^15, and bills payable credited. „ 15 Received for butter and eggs sold during the last six months, £10 5s. Cash account is debited, being so much money received, and live stock gets credit for amount of produce of stock. 25 Sold to Jas. Morrissey one draught horse for ^20 and received his promissory note for same at three months. Morrissey is charged with the price of the horse, and live stock receives credit, and having accepted a promissory note for the animal at three months fron* Morrissey his account is credited with the amount, and bills receivable debited. 349 JOURNAL. Page 3- £ S. d. £ s. d. Brought Forward 615 0 0 615 0 0 July 30 Dr. cash account, oranges ... 65 10 0 0 n 30 Cr. crop account, oranges ... 115 10 0 0 August i Dr. crop account, wages Jas. O'Neill 115 is 0 0 >' i Cr. cash account, wages Jas. O'Neill 65 15 0 0 M 5 Dr. Barrett & Sons account, cheque 6 2 10 0 5 Cr. cash account, cheque ... 65 2 10 0 I5 Dr. crop ac, wages Wm. Robinson 115 10 0 0 M 15 Cr. Cash ac, wages Wm. Robinson 65 10 0 0 M 30 Dr. crop account, wages John Brown 115 12 0 0 " 30 Cr. cash account, wages John Brown 65 12 0 0 M 30 Dr. improvements account, fencing 120 25 0 0 M 30 Cr. cash account, fencing ... 65 25 0 0 September I Dr. crop account, food for laborers... 115 9 0 0 M 3 Cr. expenses ac, food for laborers ... 75 9 0 0 M 5 Dr. working plant ac, 1 spring dray 105 15 0 0 .. 5 Cr. White & Co. ac, I spring dray 7 15 0 0 o 10 Dr. White & Co., ac, pro. note at 3 mo. 7 15 0 0 10 Cr. bills payable ac,, pro. note at 3 mo. 135 r5 0 0 I5 Dr. cash account, butter and eggs... 65 10 5 0 n IS Cr. live stock account, butter and eggs 110 10 5 0 n *s Dr. Jas. Morrissey ac, 1 draught horse X JO 0 o Cr. live stock ac, 1 draught horse 110 20 0 0 •• *5 Cr. J. Morrissey ac, pro. note at 3 mo. 8 20 0 0 •i 25 Dr. bills receivable at., pro. note ... 135 0 0 Carried Forward £778 15 0 778 15 0 350 DAY BOOK. Page 4- October I Paid for stores for the use of the house, £'9. Expenses account is debited and cash account credited. „ 10 Paid blacksmith's account, £5 10s. This is an expense incurred in repairing implements, and must come under the head of working plant, that account is charged with the amount (debited), and cash account credited for money paid. „ 20 Paid for draining £(), contract work. This being an improvement it is charged (debitedl to improvement account, and cash account credited. December 13 Paid this day my promissory note to White and Co. for £1$. Bills payable account is debited and cash account credited for cash paid out. „ 29 Jas. Morrissey paid his promissory note for ^20 due 28th December. Cash account is debited for money received, and bills receivable account is credited. „ 31 Used in the house, garden and orchard produce during 12 months, to the value of £lO. This must be looked upon as an expense as if the cash wrcre paid for the produce ; expenses account is charged (debitedl, and crop receives credit 1credited). ,, 31 Used in the house butter, eggs, bacon, poultry, during 12 months, value £1$. This is also an expense. Expenses account ischarged (debited), and live stock receives credit (creditedl. 31 Crop consumed by stock during 12 months value £25. A certain quantity of produce having been consumed by stock, live stock account is charged 1debited), and crop receives credit for what was used by stock. ,, 31 Paid for clearing, £20, contract work. This being also another improvement. the account is charged 1debited), and cash account credited for money paid. ■Bills given and received are deferred payments: the amounts represented by the:n do not appear in the cash book until the bills are met, that is, paid. Three days grace are given in addition to the ttme specified in bill. For instance, the bill given to White and Co dated 10th September does not become due until the 13th December. If the date of payment (due date) falls on a Sunday it must be met 1paidl the previous Saturday. 3Si JOURNAL. Brought Forward October 1 Dr. expenses account, stores ... 75 „ I Cr. cash account, stores ... 65 ,, 10 Dr. working plant account ... 105 ,, 10 Cr. cash account ... ... 65 ,, 20 Dr. improvement account, draining 120 Page 4. £ s. d. £ s. d. 778 15 o 778 15 o 900 5 10 0 600 ,, 2o Cr. cash account, draining ... 65 December^ Dr. bills payable account ... 135 15 0 0 ,, 13 Cr. cash account ... ... 65 „ 29 Dr. cash account ... ... 65 20 o o „ 29 Cr. bills receivable account ... 135 ,, 31 Dr. expenses ac, crop used in house 75 10 o o ,, 31 Cr. crop account, crop used in house 115 ,, 31 Dr. expenses ac, stock used in house 75 15 0 0 ,, 31 Cr.live stock ac, stock used in house no „ 31 Dr. live stock ac , crop consumed ... no 25 o o ,, 31 Cr. crop ac, crop consumed by stock 115 „ 31 Dr. improvement account, clearing 120 20 o 0 „ 31 Ci. cash account, clearing ... 65 900 5 10 0 600 15 o o 20 o o 1500 25 o 0 Total £9o4 5 0 9o4 5 0 352 In property accounts the "Dr." items mean expenses incurred, and "Cr." items mean receipts or returns in favor of the account. In cash account Dr. items mean actual cash received from time to time, and the Cr. items mean money paid out. Every purchase or sale necessitates four entries for each transaction. The first two are made in personal and property accounts. The last two, when the money changes hands, in personal and cash accounts, but when ready money is received and paid there is no necessity for a per- sonal account, the transaction is confined in the journal and ledger to property and cash accounts. When entering items in the ledger accounts from the journal, the journal page should be written in the ledger column under the heading of "journal folio," and the ledger page should be written in the journal under the heading of "ledger page," in order to show that such accounts are duly posted in the ledger. Index to Ledger. Page. Sandover and Co. I McBean and Co. 2 Ferguson, Jas. i Murphy, Jas. 4 Jenkins, R. 5 Barrett and Sons 6 White and Co. 7 Morrisey, Jas. X Cash 65 Expenses ... 75 Capital 85 Property ... 95 Working Plant 105 Stock no Crop 115 Improvements 120 Bills Account 135 Profit and Loss 125 Balance 130 Valuation Book 200 Labour Book 210 Dr. Page I. 1895. Jan. 30. To Cheque May 9. To Cheque Page 2. Jan. 30. To Cheque LEDGER. Sandover and Co. J. Kol. 6 10 0 1895. Jan. 5. By one D.K. Plough.. March 6. By one set Harrows. McBean and Co. 10 o I Jan. 12. By five bags Bonedust J. Fol. I 2 Cr. 6 10 o 400 10 10 c 353 LEDGER. Jas. Ferguson. Page 3 Feb. 4. Feb. 24. To Hay I I•LJ>"_£ I Bv Cash 2 "iL—o Jas. Murphv. Page 4. Feb. 17. Feb. 28. To Calves I ] » o | By Cash Page 5- June 2. To Wheat 45 R. Jenkins. July 10. By Cheque . By Discount:. 44 o o I o o 45 4J_ o- Barrett and Sons. Page «, . Aug. 5. June 5- To Cheque 3 J 0 I By Seeds White and Co. Sept. 10. 1 aept. > To Pro. Note at 3 months 3 15 o o | By Spring Dray ... 3 l_5" James Morrissev. Page 8. Sept. 25. Sept. 25. To I Draught Horse 3 20 q o | By Pro. Note at 3 months 3 354 Dr. 1895. Jan. I. To Cash in Feb. 24. To Cheque, Feb. 28. To Cheque, May 6. To Cheque, July to. To Cheque, July 30. To Cheque, Sept. 15. To Cheque, Dec. 29. To Cheque, LEDGER. Cash Account. Page 65. Cr. Bank J. Ferguson J. Murphy Pigs Jenkins ... Oranges ... Butter, Eggs Morrissey... Journal Page. i895- 1$ l& £ 9. d. Tan. 5. £ d. I IOO 0 n By Cash for Stores... Jan. 30. 1 7 0 0 2 II 0 0 By McBean & Co. ... Jan. 30. 1 2 10 0 2 I 10 0 By Handover & Co.... March 6. 1 6 10 0 2 6 0 0 By Stores 2 4 10 0 April 9. 2 44 0 0 By Sandover & Co.... June 6. 2 4 0 0 3 10 0 0 By Petty Cash 2 5 0 0 Aug. 1. 3 10 5 0 By Wages 3 15 0 0 Aug. 5. 4 20 0 0 By Barrett. seeds ... 3 2 10 0 Aug. 15. By Wages 3 10 0 0 Aug. 30. By Wages 3 12 0 0 „ T. Smith, fencing 3 25 0 0 Oct. 1. By Stores 4 9 0 0 Oct. 10. By Blacksmith 4 5 10 0 Oct. 20. By Draining 4 6 0 0 Dec. 13. By White & Co. ... 4 15 0 0 Dec. 31. By Clearing 4 20 0 0 „ Balance 53 5 0 £202 15 11 £202 15 0 Page 75. Jan. 5. To Stores March 6. To Stores June 6. To Petty Cash . Oct. 1. To Stores Dec. 31. To Crop ,, Stock Expenses Account. I 7 0 0 2 4 10 0 2 5 0 0 4 9 0 0 4 to 0 0 4 I5 0 0 £so 10 0 Sept. I. By Crop Dec. 31. By Profit and Loss . 3 900 41 10 o LEDGER. 355 Dr. 1895. Dec. 31. To Balance Capital Account. la H £ s. d. 449 O O £449 o o 1895. Jan. 1. By Land „ Stock „ Working Plant „ Cash Page 8s. Cr. £ s. d. I 200 o o I 122 O O i 27 o o I IOO o o £449 o o Page 95. Propertv Account. Jan. 1. Dec. 31. To Lands I 200 o o | By Balance Page 105. Jan. I. Working Plant Account. Dec. 31. To Plant 1 27 0 0 Jan. 5. To 1 Single-fur. Plough [ 6 10 0 March 6 To 1 set of Harrows ... 2 4 0 (b) Strong coffee. Rouse the patient. Keep Carbolic Acid Chloral 362 Corrosive Sublim- ) White of egg, flour and water freely, ate j emetics. Prussic Acid , (a) Bitter Almonds \(a) Sal volatile, one teaspoonful. (b) Cherry, apricot / (i) Artificial respiration, with cold and warm & peach stone. / affusions in the head and spine. (c) Cyanide of \ (c) Mustard to stomach, black coffee, potash. Nux Vomica Strychnine Mushrooms Opium— (a) Laudanum (£) Morphia (c) Chlorodyne Phosphorous Rat paste ) (a) Emetics, j (b) Strong tea. ( Emetics. ) Stimulants and castor oil. (a) Emetics. (l>) Strong coffee, keep patient awake, smell- ing salts with care. (c) Artificial respiration, warmth, sour red wine. Use magnesia in water. Avoid oil or fat. Verdigris Coal Gas Carbonic Acid Gas Chloroform Ether Strangulation I Use sugar and eggs. I Avoid oil, fat, or vinegar. , (a) Remove patient to fresh air, and keep him warm. (3) Douche or sprinkle the head ; rubbing. (c) Mustard poultices to calves and heart. (d) Smelling salts. '(e) Artificial respiration; pull forward the tongue occasionally. 'In all cases keep the patient warm. Emetics, to Produce Vomiting.—(a) Warm water, salt and water, mustard, alum, or bluestone in water; (b) tickling the back of the throat with the finger or a feather. Artificial Respiration (Sylvester's).—Put patient on the back, with pad under the shoulders, so that the head hangs over the end of the table. Then, standing at the head, grasp the arms below the elbows, and draw them upwards until they lie on each side of the head, then carry them again downwards on the chest and press on the lower part of the chest, so as to force the air out. This should be repeated at regular intervals about 20 times a minute. In Case of Drowning.—The body should be placed on the side, and the legs carefully lifted to allow the water to run out of the lungs, &c. (greatest care should be exercised, as any roughness may stop the heart). If respiration has stopped, the body is turned fifteen times per minute from side to face; when on the face pres- 363 sure is made on the back; by this method the tongue can fall forward and water in lung, or vomited, can run out of the mouth instead of being sucked down into the lungs, if on the back, and one lung is kept patent. Snake Bite.—(a) Suck the wound, if there is no abrasion in the mouth; (b) tie a tight strap at once around the limb between the wound and the body; (c) if liquid ammonia or Condy's fluid be at hand, drop it in the wound; () rest; elevation. Vomiting—(a) Small doses of milk; (b) ice to suck; (c) mustard, bran, or linseed poultices to the stomach; ( 4. Magnesia 58 10. Chlorides J 5. Soda ... ... 2 5 n. Other bodies ... 3-5 6. Potash ... ... 2'4 —McDonnell's Note Book. Flv Papers.—Of the sticky papers, the best are coated with artificial bird lime, prepared by boiling any vegetable oil with a little resin. Rapeseed oil, linseed oil, or any of the cheap oils answer well. After the resin and oil have been compounded, they may be made into a sort of emulsion with a little honey or molasses. The following formula gives good results: resin, 1 lb. ; raw linseed oil, 1 lb.; molasses, 40Z. Melt the resin, add the oil little by little, and while still warm beat up with the molasses. The poisonous fly papers are not open to the objection of being sticky, and if well dried will keep indefinitely. Cooley gives the following formula: Treacle (molasses), honey, or moist sugar, mixed with about i-12th of their weight of orpiment (yellow teisulphide of arsenic). Paper to be soaked in the mixture, dried and cut into suitable pieces, which are to be laid on a plate containing a little water. The water dissolves the mixture, bringing it back to the former condi- tion of a syrup, which the flies drink with great eagerness. For- tunately there are other substances which have a very disagreeable taste to human beings, and are not poisonous to them, and yet are quite attractive and fatally poisonous to flies. Redwood's formula for such a liquid is: Small quassia chips, \ oz. ; water, 1 pint ; boil 10 minutes, strain, and add 4 oz. of molasses. Flies will drink this with avidity, and are soon destroyed by it. It may also be em- ployed to saturate paper, which may be used as previously directed. —Trade " Seerets." Furniture Cream.—(1) Soft water, 1 gall. ; soap, 4 oz.; bees- wax in shavings, 1 lb. ; boil together and add 2 oz. of pearl-ash. To be diluted with water, laid on with a paint brush and polished off with a hard brush or cloth. (2) Wax, 3 oz. ; pearl-ash, 2 oz.; warm water, 6 oz. ; heat them together and add 4 oz. of boiled oil and 5 oz. of spirits of turpentine. (3) The name is sometimes given to a mixture of 1 oz. of white or yellow wax, with 4 oz. of oil of turpentine.—Trade " Secrets." 375 Good Paste for Paper-hanging is made of old flour, mixed to a milk-like consistency with water. When put in the saucepan to boil, a little size or glue may be added, which will increase its tenacity. A little alum may also be added to paste in order to cause it to spread more freely. This ingredient has the property of keeping paste sweet and wholesome, and it is generally used in the thicker kinds of paste (such as shoemakers' paste) partly for this purpose. The paste when boiled should be of the thickness of ordinary gruel, and must be laid on the paper smoothly and equally with backward and forward strokes of the brush.—General Building Art and Practice. Harness Dressing.—The English Government harness dress- ing is said to be prepared as follows; i gall, of neatsfoot oil, 2 lbs. of bayberry tallow, 2 lbs. of beeswax, 2 lbs. of beef tallow. Put the above in a pan over a moderate fire. When thoroughly dissolved, add 2 quarts of castor oil ; then, while on the fire, stir in 1 oz. of lamp black. Mix well, and strain through a fine cloth to remove sediment ; let cool. A composition which not only softens the harness but blackens it at the same time, is made as follows; Put into a glazed pipkin 2 oz. of black resin, place it on a gentle fire; when melted, add 3 oz. of beeswax ; when this is melted, take it off the fire, add \ oz. fine lampblack, and \ dr. of Prussian blue in a fine powder; stir them so as to be perfectly mixed, and add sufficient spirits of turpentine to form a thin paste; let it cool. To use it, apply a coat with a piece of linen rag pretty evenly all over the harness, then take a soft polishing brush and brush it over, so as to obtain a bright surface. Blacking for harness: Molasses, \ lb. ; lampblack, 1 oz. ; yeast, a spoonful ; sugar candy, olive oil, gum tragacanth, and isinglass, of each 1 oz., and the gall of an ox. Mix with 2 pints of stale beer, and let it stand before the fire for an hour.—Trade " Secrets." Killing Quiet Cattle.—A rope being passed over the horns or head of the animal, it is drawn tight to a ring in the floor of the slaughter-pen, or to other strong fixture that may be available. A sack or something else is thrown over the eyes, and a broad, sharp chisel, held in the hand by means of a rope or withe, as a blacksmith holds a swedge, is driven into the vertebrae just behind the skull, and a sudden blow with a maul drives it between the bones and into the spinal cord. This blow instantly paralyses the victim. The throat is then cut clean across, to divide both the vein and artery, and the animal bleeds very quickly. Taking off the Hide and Cutting up.—After it has bled the beef is turned upon its back, and the skin is ripped from the throat over the brisket down to the thighs, and then up the thighs to the hock-joints; it is also ripped up the fore-legs to the knee. These joints are then severed and separated, taking care not to cut the sinew at the back of the hock, by which the carcase is to be hung up. The skin is stripped down as far on the sides as need be. The carcase is then opened, the 376 brisket is sawn through, and a stick put in to hold it apart. The internals are then taken out, received in a large tub, and set aside. The carcase is then hoisted up, the skin wholly stripped off, and the head cut off. The skin is laid on one side for the present. The carcase is then drenched with a few pails of cold water, and is divided down the backbone with a saw, and possibly an axe; unless the axe is very sharp a cleaver is the best thing to use. The sides are then left to cool and set. This is a point which is often neglected, and the meat consequently may not keep, and is tough and hard. When the meat is firm and quite cooled it is cut up, being first divided, as on the line from a to a, figure 1. The fore- quarter is laid on a strong bench, and is divided across on the line b to b. The upper parts may be cut for roasts and the shoulder into steaks, or, with the brisket, into salting pieces. The flanks and belly are suitable for salting, and the loins for roasts and steaks. The three-cornered pieces in the rump make steaks, the thigh is called the round, and makes steaks and a very fine salting piece, and the knuckles are fine for soup pieces. When thus divided, the meat is saleable, and what is not sold can be salted down for corned beef. For domestic use the larger pieces can be divided again, and the most of the pieces can be corned and barrelled. If dried beef is desired, it is taken from the lower part of the leg of the beef, which is a wedge-shaped piece, and is lightly salted, with some sugar and spice added, and then smoked. A sheep is killed by laying it upon a bench, with the head pro- jecting over the edge, and cutting the throat quite through. When it has bled it is hung up, and the skin removed. As soon as the belly is clear, the carcase is opened, and the offal is taken out at 377 once. If this is not done quickly the meat will have what is called a "wool taste," from the absorbtion of the gasses from the intestines. The carcase is divided' into quarters by cutting or saw- ing down the back, and by dividing the halves of line a to a, as in figure. If the saddle is cut out, it is taken before the carcase is divided into halves down the back, this piece being the two loins marked 2, and not separated. This is the choice roast of the mutton. Otherwise the leg is cut oft", as marked by the dotted lines 3, the neck is cut off at 1, and the shoulder at 4; at 5 and 6 are the flanks used for stewing. The neck is regarded as the best piece of the mutton for soup. The mutton ham (3 in the illustration), trimmed nicely, salted and smoked, is good enough for anybody, and they ought to be plentiful in Australia. The English mode of cutting up a carcase of mutton is by many preferable to the Scotch or American. The leg is cut short like a ham, and the shoulder- blade—the scapular region of the anatomist—is removed entire. This piece makes an excellent roast; of the neck piece, the fore- part is fitted for boiling and soup, and the hind-part for roasting and chops. The breast is left bare on removing the shoulder, and the ribs, called spare ribs, are roasted, broiled, or corned along with the brisket. The back end of the breast makes a good roast; but for this purpose the loin is the favorite cut; when removed double, forming the chine or saddle, it may grace the table of a public dinner. The leg is roasted or broiled, but when cut long, taking in the hock-bone, it resembles a haunch of venison, and is roasted accordingly.—McKay's Australian Agriculture. Live and Dressed Weight of Cattle.—Messrs. Swan, of Edinburgh, the well-known cattle dealers, write as follows regard- ing the proportion of beef netted to the live weight of cattle :— "We should say that well-finished two-year-old cattle will yield 60 lbs. to 62 lbs. of beef per 100 lbs. live weight. The primer the quality and the younger the animal the more beef is given. For a finished three-year-old bullock we should say 58 lbs. to 61 lbs. of beef per 100 lbs. live weight. We calculate that fat cattle generally yield 55 lbs. to 58 lbs., according to quality. In weighing them alive, in order to get at the dead weight, they should be fasted twelve hours, or, if weighed full, or after being fed and watered, a reduction of 5 per cent. on this account should be taken from the gross live weight."—Australasian Farmer. Measuring a Hav Stack.—To the height in feet from the ground to the eaves add one-half of the height of the top above the eaves for the mean height. Then multiply the mean height by the breadth, and multiply their product by the length. Divide the gross product by 27, and the dividend will give the number of cubic yards in the stack. The difference between old and new hay is not the only point to be considered. The size of the stack, especi- ally its height, the nature of the crop, and its condition when put together, are important points. The only satisfactory plan is to cut 37» a truss representing an average half or quarter of a cubic yard, weigh it, and from that calculate the total weight.—Australasian Farmer. Making Hop Beer.—The following is a recipe for 10 gallons hop beer: 10 lbs. sugar, 10 gallons water, 4 ozs. hops, a pinch of isinglass, a few rasins, two large bottles of porter, or a pint of yeast! take four gallons of water and boil it with the sugar and hops for one hour, then strain into a tub and put the hops on again in a little more water, and boil for half an hour; then strain into the tub, and then into a cask with a piece of muslin over the funnel to prevent the seeds going through; then fill up with cold water, which will make the 10 gallons. It must be filled up every morning for four days with cold water; and the day before bottling a pinch of isin- glass dissolved in a little of the beer warmed is a great improvement to clear it. Of course you put the yeast or porter in after you fill the cask; then, also, add the rasins. If bottled on the fifth day it is nearly ready for drinking.—Australasian Fanner. Mensuration and Levelling.—Computation of acreage.— Divide the enclosure into convenient triangles; multiply the base (in links) of each triangle by its perpendicular height, and divide by two : this gives area in square links; point off five figures to the right (= div iding by 100,000, the number of square links in an acre), which gives acres and decimal fraction. Repeat the process for each triangle, and add together. Multiply decimal fraction by four, point off five figures, leaves roods; multiply fraction left by 40, point off five figures, leaves poles with decimal fraction. To set off a right angle with a chain only.—Measure off 40 links on the ground along the base-line; then take 30 for the perpendicular, and 50 for the hypothenuse ; by fastening the extremities of these last 80 links at the ends of the base, and pulling the chain tight, we have a right- angle triangle. I ft) 'W d A B'-'.. c / \ B D C Inaccessible Points.—(1). Start from A (exactly opposite to E) and go to B; continue to C, making B C = A B; erect C D perpen- dicular to A C, and find D in a line with B and E : C D = A E. (2). Take B A at right angles to C D; draw A C perpendicular to A D; then AB:BD::CD:BA. 379 Obstacles in Chaining Lines.—(i). If the obstacle can be seen over :—Erect two perpendiculars (A C and B D) of equal length at A and B; then C D = A B. (2). If the obstacle cannot be seen over :—Lay off A C and E F, equal to one another, and at right angles to A F; range the points D and H in line with E C, and set off B D and H G at right angles to E H, and each = E F or C A ; then C D = A B, and B and G are points for ranging the continuation of F A. 0 H W To Measure the Area, where Boundarv Irregular.— Lay off a base line, A G, and measure offsets to the various bends and angles of the boundary line, and at right angles to the base: this divides the enclosed space into approximate triangles and trapezoids. The area of the triangles is calculated in the usual way; for the trapezoids the average of the two sides is taken and multiplied by the base: thus, area B C J H = B H,'CJ X B C; and similarly for the rest: the sum of the whole= area AG M K H.— McConnell's Note Book. Miscellaneous. Weight of Flough Harness. Collar 15 lbs. Haims, iron-plated and straps ... 7 .1 Bridle 4i „ Backhand ... ... ... ... 3! „ Chains ... ... ... ... ... 8 ,, Total 38 lbs. A bricklayer's hod carries 16 bricks, or \ bushel of mortar, or \ cub. feet. 38o A bricklayer should lay from 100 to 150 bricks per hour, according to the nature of the work. Mortar: 100 of lime contains 25 striked bushels = 100 pecks. One ton = 32 bushels. Eighteen heaped = 22 striked bushels = 1 cub. yard = one load of sand. Two and a half to five parts of sharp, clean sand to one of lime for mortar, according to quality of lime. Or, 1 of lime to 2 of sand and i of blacksmith's ashes. Coarse mortar = 1 of lime to 4 of coarse gravelly sand. Concrete = 1 of lime to 4 of gravel and 2 of sand. , One load of mortar = 1 cub. yard. One load of sand = 1 cub. yard. A road of brickwork requires from 1^ to 3 loads of mortar. Portland cement: A bushel of cement weighs 67 lbs., and a barrel is 5 bushels; a bag is 3 bushels, and a sack is 5 bushels. Equal parts of cement and sand are used for building purposes. Portland cement concrete for floors or walls: 1 of cement to 6 or 7 of broken stone, mill cinders, burnt ballast, shingle, gravel, or slag; must be from loam, mud, fine sand or dirt of any kind; moulds to be soaped. Roman cement, only one-third the strength of the above. Mastic cement is 1 of red lead to 5 of whiting and 10 of sharp sand, mixed with boiled linseed oil. One yard of reduced brickwork requires about 2\ bushels of equal parts of Portland cement and sand. One square yard of plastering with cement requires three- fourths of a bushel. Concrete walls should be raised only 18 in. per day. Plastering: 1 cub. yard of lime, 2 yards of sand, and 3 bushels of hair will cover 75 sup. yards on brick, or 70 yards on lath. One bundle laths and 500 nails will cover 4^ yards sup. —McConnelPs Note Book. Mortar—Lime, as used for building purposes, is obtained from several of the varieties of stone, marble, and chalk, termed lime- stones. It is prepared by burning or calcining the stone, thus draw- ing off the carbonic acid in which it abounds. After calcination it is reduced to a white powdery material, which greedily takes up the water; it is then known as quick-lime. In making mortar, fresh burned lime is taken from the kiln, and laid in a heap in a convenient place, and, sprinkling a quantity of water on it, the lime begins immediately to crack and fall down, steam issuing from the heap in considerable quantities, a high degree of heat being at the same time induced. On the completion of the process of de- composition, the lime is reduced to an impalpable powder, which goes by the name of 'slacked' or ' slaked ' lime. The slacked lime thus obtained is next to be well mixed with water, forming a paste, and, afterwards, have the proper proportion of sand added—two- 381 thirds sand to one-third of lime. The sand used in mortar-making is of three kinds—pit sand, river, and sea. The first is obtained in pits; the latter from rivers and sea-shore. River water is the best to use for mortar, but all waters known as mineral are to be avoided, The sea sand should never be used, if it can be at all avoided, as walls built with mortar prepared.from it are very likely to be damp. Mortar thus prepared sets very soon on being exposed to the atmosphere, but it is by no means calculated to stand under water, for such work, hydraulic mortar or hydraulic cement must be used. Clay, burned and mixed with lime, will enable the lime to withstand, to a certain extent, the action of the water. Where a rich lime is obtainable, a hydraulic lime may be made by mixing twenty parts of dried clay to eighty of the lime. Coal cinders ground to a powder and mixed with lime make a mortar which will be useful in wet or damp situations.—Handbook of the Mechanical Arts. Pickling Eggs.—Take a bushel of lime, 2 lb. of salt, \ lb. of cream of tartar, and water sufficient to form a solution strong enough to float an egg. It is claimed that eggs may be preserved in this liquid for two years. The following has had strong claims made for it : The fresh eggs are carefully placed in a mixture of 5 kilogrammes of alum, dissolved in 5 litres of water, heated to from 45 to 50 deg. C., and left in that liquid for from 30 to 40 minutes; the eggs are next drained, and in the meantime the solu- tion of alum is heated to a boiling point. The eggs are again immersed in the liquid, and kept therein for from 10 to 15 seconds; after having been drained and cooled, they are packed in either dry bran, sawdust, corkdust, sifted ashes, or cotton wool. We give the following as one that will satisfy the most exacting stickler for a complicated formula: Dissolve in 1 gall, of water 12 oz. of quick- lime, 6 oz. common salt, 1 dr. soda, \ dr. saltpetre, \ dr. tarter, and 1\ dr. borax. The fluid is brought into a barrel, and a sufficient quantity of quicklime to cover the bottom is then poured in. Upon this is placed a layer of eggs ; quicklime is again thrown in, and so on until the barrel is filled, so that the liquor stands about ten inches deep over the last layer of eggs. The barrel is then covered with a cloth, upon which is also scattered some lime.—Trade "Seerets." Paints.—Hit is of importance that the paint should dry quickly, and still have a bright appearance, it should be mixed with turpen- tine, and some gold size added when mixed. If it is wished to make a paint to dry in twenty minutes or half an hour, it must be mixed with turpentine, and without oil. When dry this paint will have a very dead, lustreless appearance, and requires a coat of varnish afterwards to make it look as it ought. This is a method very often adopted for iron-work. When about to re-paint old work, all dirt and projecting pieces must be carefully removed, and if the paint appears greasy it should be washed with turpentine. Where mortar is required 3»2 Sometimes a good washing with weak tea water, made by pouring boiling water on tea leaves that have been already used for making tea, will prove effectual. Whenever pieces of paint have come away through sun blisters, or other causes, the patches must be painted over with a coat of priming. All the effects must be stopped and made good with putty, when the new coat may be applied. Table of compound colors produced by mixing simple colors.—Straw color: Chrome yellow and white lead. Lemon color: Chrome yellow and white lead ; more of the first than in straw color. Orange: Chrome yellow and vermilion (bright), yellow ochre and red lead (duller). Buff: White lead and yellow ochre. Cream color: Same as for buff, but with more white. Gold color: Chrome yellow, with a little vermilion and white lead ; or Naples yellow and realgar. Stone color: White lead and vellow ochre, with a little burnt or raw umber. Stone color (grey): White lead and a small quantity of black. Drab: White lead, burnt umber, and a little yellow ochre (warm) ; white lead, raw umber, and a little black (cool). Flesh color: Lake, white lead, and a little vermilion. Fawn color: Same as for flesh color, with stone ochre instead of lake. Peach color: White lead, with vermilion, Indian red, or purple brown. White lead: Prussian blue, and a little lake. Olive: Black, yellow, and a little blue; or yellow, pink, lamp black, and a little verdigris. Chestnut: Light red, and black. Salmon color: Venetian red, and white lead. Chocolate: Black, with Spanish brown, or Venetian red. Sage green: Prussian blue, raw umber, and a little ochre, with a little white. Olive green: Raw umber, and Prussian blue. Pea green : White lead, and Brunswick green; or white lead, Prussian blue, and some chrome yellow. Pearl grey: White lead, with a little black, and a little Prussian blue, or indigo. Silver grey: Same as for pearl grey. Grey (common): White lead,and a little black. Lead color: White lead, with blackorindigo. Violet: Vermilion, white lead, and indigo, or black. Purple : Violet, as above, with the addition of a rich, dark red, or colors for French grey- French grey : White lead, with Prussian blue and a little lake. Lilac : Same as for French grey, but with less white. Oak color: White lead, with yellow ochre and burnt umber. Mahogany color: A little black, with purple brown or Venetian red. Operations in Process of Staining Wood. The process con- sists of three distinct operations: first, staining; second, sizing; third, varnishing. The wood should be rendered as smooth and even as possible with the plane, and all knots covered, and nail holes filled, by mixing a little of the stain with plaster of Paris till it assumes the consistency of paste ; sappy portions of the wood should be damped with water. The stain may then be laid on plentifully with a brush along the grain of the wood. When the wood is thoroughly dry, it must be twice sized, using each time a very strong solution of size. The size must be dissolved 3«3 in hot water, in the proportion of i lb. to a gallon of water. The amateur is cautioned against using size stronger than this, and he must remember not to work his brush up and down when charged with size, for this, when the size is too strong, often produces a lather on the wood. The best way to apply size is to use it warm, and work the brush in one direction only, namely, from top to bottom or from one side to the other, as may be necessary. If an interval of twenty-four hours be left after staining, before sizing, the color is softer and richer. As the beauty of the result depends mainly upon the grain of the wood, well-seasoned wood of beautiful figure and variety in the grain should be selected for choice work. When the second coat of size is thoroughly dry, the work must be varnished. When the wood is to be French polished, it should be only sized once before applying the polish. Ex- terior work should be sized once, and varnished twice; and for rough work, boiled oil may be used instead of varnish.—General Building Art and Practice. Points in Judging an Engine. (High. Soc.) Points. Price ... ... ... ... 20 Simplicity of construction, and fewness of working parts 25 Economy of fuel ... ... ... ... 20 Rapidity of raising steam ... ... ... 5 Facility of erection and cheapness of foundations ... 5 Economy of water ... ... ... 5 Steadiness and regularity in running ... ... 15 Economy of lubricant ... ... ... 5 McConnelPs Note Book.'] Total: 100 Poisoning Wild Dogs or Dingoes.—A bonus of 10s. per tail is paid by the Western Australian Government for the destruction of wild dogs. The tails must be produced before a justice of the peace, who will certify to the number. The usual method of destroying the dogs is by laying poisoned baits. Strychnine is the poison generally used, and the dogs always prefer freshly killed meat. The bait should be handled as little as possible, and where ground vermin are not troublesome, the bait should be dropped from a buggy or horseback without dismounting. Where boodies and kangaroo rats are plentiful the bait should be stuck in a forked stick eighteen inches or two feet from the ground. A drop or so of oil of aniseed or oil of rhodium on the bait serves to attract the dogs. Wherever poison is laid notices should be put up on the gates to this effect. Phosphorised Grain.—Fifty lb. grain, 5 gallons water, \ lb. phosphorus, and 7 lb. dark brown sugar. Bring water to a boil in a copper; take out a bucketful of the hot water with which to mix the phosphorus, and throw the sugar into the copper ; stir contents 384 of bucket well for about ten minutes, keeping water as near boiling point as possible, then pour into the copper and keep stirring for a quarter of an hour; let the contents of copper gradually cool, but keep ell agitated, and then add the grain'gradually. The complete soaking of the grain with the liquor is of the utmost im- portance and takes a considerable time. While the mass is cooling keep it covered with bags to retain the steam. Stir well after it has cooled oft-. Cyanide of potassium, strychnine, and arsenic may be mixed in this way with grain, or the former may be dissolved in vinegar and then mixed. Phosphorised Pollard.—Dark sugar, 3 lbs.; phosphorus, half to 1 stick; bi-sulphide of carbon, 1 tablespoonful; pollard, half bushel. Take two vessels, one containing half pint, and the other about 2 quarts of cold water. Mix the phosphorus and bi- sulphide of carbon in the smaller quantity, and the 3 lbs. sugar in the other. When ingredients in both vessels are dissolved mix contents together, and gradually pour upon the pollard, stirring well all the time with a wooden stick. After mixing well spread the mass out flat on a board, making a cake about ^ in. thick, sub- divide into inch squares with a wooden straight-edge, and cover with a damp sack, so that it may dry slowly. When handling phosphorus do so with wooden tongs; if with the fingers, keep them well wet with cold water. Phosphorus sticks must be always kept in bottles filled with water. To Find the Number of Gallons of Water Raised bv a Pump.—To find the number of gallons or fraction of gallons that will be raised at each stroke of a pump, first ascertain the diameter of the pump cvlinder; secondly, the length of stroke. Square the dia- meter and multiply by the length of stroke, and divide by 353. Thus, if the diameter is three inches: 3x3 = 9; and the length of the stroke 12 inches, 9X12= 108. 108 th 353 = '3005, or roughly, £ of a gallon at each stroke. Pumps.—Ordinary dimensions, wells under 30 ft.—Diameter of barrel, 4 ins.; length of stroke, 10 ins.; quantity of water per minute, 20 ft. well, 24 gallons. This is the size best suited for one man, and for general use. Wells from 30 to 70 ft.—Diameter of barrel, 3.V ins.; stroke, 9 ins.; quantity of water per minute, 50 ft. well, length of 16 gals. To be worked by fly-wheel and crank. Soap for Removing Corns and Warts.—For removing corns and warts this salve never fails. Caustic potash, r lb.; extract bell- adona, ^ oz.; peroxide maganese, 2 oz. Mix, and make into a salve with a little lard. Apply to the corn or wart, and in three minutes it will come off.—Trade " Seerets" Home-Made Soap.—The following, being of general interest to country readers, are quoted from a pamphlet on making soap without boiling, by Mr. W. J. Menzies, Liverpool :—Potash wool-scouring soap.—A pure potash wool-scouring soap can best be produced in the following manner: Take a 20 lb. can of pure caustic potash 385 (Greenbank), cut open the lid and put the whole can into an iron or earthenware vessel, with two gallons of water. The potash will soon dissolve out, itself heating the water; the empty can then being removed, allow the liquid potash (or lye) thus obtained to cool until warm to the hand (say 90 deg. F.). In a large iron pan or boiler melt 80 lbs. of tallow, free from salt, until dissolved, and of a heat feeling fairly hot to the hand (say 120 deg. F.) Into the melted tallow now pour the potash lye in a small stream, with constant stirring with a flat wooden stirrer about three inches broad, and continue to stir until the mixture is smooth and appears well-com- bined—a few minutes is all that is necessary. This mixing operation may be done in the melting-pan itself, or often, what is more convenient, an old watertight barrel can be used. Now pour off the mixture into any convenient square box for a mould, damping the sides with whitewash, or better still, lining it with a calico cloth, to prevent the soap from sticking. Wrap up the box well with sheep- skins (to keep in the heat by the mixture itself turning into soap), put in a warm place, and leave it for four or five days. The box will then be found to contain 120 lbs. of hard potash soap, which if cut up into bars, and kept for a week or two, will be further improved in quality. If the soap has been mixed in a barrel, and required only t >r sheep-washing or dipping, it can remain in the barrel instead of being poured off. But it must be well wrapped up, and left standing in a warm place for a week or two.—Austral- asian Farmer. Hapd Soda Soap.—Put the contents of a 10 tb. can of Green- bank double refined 89 per cent caustic soda into an iron or earthen- ware vessel, with four gallons (40 lbs.) of soft water. The pure powdered 98 per cent, caustic soda dissolves instantly, heating the water. Let it stand a few minutes untiljust warm to the hand (say 80 deg. F.). Melt about 75 lbs. of clean grease or tallow, free from salt. Skim and let it settle out any impurities. Weigh off, and put in any convenient vessel for mixing exactly 70 lbs. of the liquid tallow or grease, allowing it to cool until fairly warm to the hand (say 120 deg. F.); a wooden tub, old barrel, or a copper will do for this purpose. Now pour the caustic soda lye in a small continuous stream into the liquid tallow, at the same time stirring with a flat wooden stirrer about 3m. broad. Continue stirring for a few minutes, until lye and liquid tallow are thoroughly mixed and smooth in appearance. Take any convenient square-sided box, line it with damp calico, to prevent the soap from sticking, and pour in the mixture, wrapping it well up, and putting into a warm place, to keep in the heat caused by the mixture slowly combining and turning into soap. After three days turn out the block of hard soap from the box used for a mould, and which will weigh 120 lbs.; cut the soap up with a wire or string into bars, and put them away for a month in a warm room. The soap is much improved by keeping, lathers more freely, becomes quite hard, and is altogether 386 better. It, therefore, never should be used immediately after cutting up. The chief points in the foregoing directions are—the quantities given must be taken exactly. Lye poured into the grease, not grease into the lye. The lye and liquid grease must be well stirred until the mixture is complete and uniform, but not longer. The mould containing the soap must be well wrapped up. The soap, after cutting up, must be kept for a time. The grease used must not contain any salt, which would completely prevent the soap from forming.—Australasian Farmer. Soldering.—Soldering is very useful for joining copper and copper, copper and brass, copper and iron, brass and brass, brass and iron, tin and tin, and tin and any other metal. If the joint has to stand a rather high degree of heat, such, for instance, as the seams of a small copper steam boiler, a hard solder must be used. By hard solder is meant one that only fuses at a high temperature; a soft solder, on the contrary, fuses at a low degree of heat. The following are the compositions of some of the most useful of solders and alloys, with the degrees of heat required to melt each :— Tin. Lead. Bismuth. Mercury. Melts at 1 part 25 parts — — 5580 Fahr. 2 parts 1 part — — 3400 „ 3 ,, 2 parts 1 part — 292,, „ 5 >. 3 , , 3 P^ts — 202,, „ 5 , , 3 >- 3 , , 3 parts 122^ „ We must see with what tools and appliances soldering is effected, and the way in which this operation is performed. First, the surfaces to be united must be thoroughly cleaned and brightened ; without this the metal will not adhere. The solder- ing iron must be warmed sufficiently to melt the solder; it must not be made red-hot, because the solder will not "hold to it." Whilst the iron is warming, tin the surfaces by brushing them over with muriatic acid, dipping them into the melted solder, and quickly rubbing off the adherent metal. This, if done well, will leave a thin coat of solder. When it cannot be done thus, the sur- faces must be tinned by means of the soldering iron. In this case they must be coated or washed with the acid as before, but the solder must be melted on the places required with the hot iron. When tinned, the surfaces must be brought close together, a little acid rubbed along the joints, and the iron dipped in the acid and put against some solder, so that the melted solder will stick to the iron The iron must now be applied to the joints, and drawn slowly along in such a manner that the metal between the joints is melted, and the joints filled up. A little practice will soon make the amateur tolerably skilful in doing this. The muriatic acid, or spirit of salt, as it is sometimes called, must be killed, or rendered neutral, before it is used, and this is done by putting one or two 3»7 small pieces of zinc into it, and allowing it to expend all its energy on this. Killed acid is much more effective than the raw pure acid. Sometimes resin is used instead of the acid; but the neutralised acid is preferable, because it does not leave the work in such a mess as resin. The soldering-iron, or copper-bit, as it is sometimes called, it is a forked piece of iron put into a handle and having between the prongs of the fork a piece of copper, pointed. It can be made wholly of iron, but copper is generally used because it does not oxidise or waste away so quickly when heated, as iron does, and it also retains its neat longer than iron. The copper tongue should be rubbed against a piece of brick, or something of the sort, immediately it comes from the fire and before it is used. This is done to remove any dirt that may happen to have got about it, and which, if allowed to remain, would prevent the solder from sticking to the copper—thus, in all probability, spoiling the operation. Besides the soldering iron, or copper bit, which may be bought for about is. 6d. or 2s., but little else is wanting for soldering, and that little comprises an old knife for scraping clean the metal that is to be soldered, and a bottle con- taining a little muriatic, or spirits of salt, killed in the manner described. In brazing, the pieces to be united are cleansed from grease, etc., in the same manner as for soldering. The pieces are bound firmly together with fine wire, or held together with a pair of tongs, and put into a clear fire. When just red hot, they must be taken out of the fire and a few bits of soft brass and a little powdered borax put on the joint, which is then returned to the fire and kept there until the brass is thoroughly melted. One can hardly imagine it so, but however close the joint, if the operation is performed with a little care, the brass will penetrate quite through the seam, and, indeed, through the pores of the iron itself. The brass used for brazing should be tolerably soft, and in small pieces. Braziers generally use what is called granulated brass, which is nothing more than melted brass dropped whilst liquid into water. When granulated brass is not obtainable, or not at hand, brass filings will answer almost as well. In addition to the solders already given, it may be useful for the amateur to know that the lining of tea-chests makes a good solder for tin-plate goods, being made of tin and lead in the proper proportions, that is to say, two parts of tin to cne part of lead. For soldering pewter, from one to three parts of bismuth should be added to solder for tin. Plumber's solder is made of equal parts of lead and tin. Equal parts of copper and zinc melted together make a good solder for brass. Glazier's solder, for joining strips of lead to form lead casements, is made of three parts of lead to one part of tin.—General Building Art and Practice. Soft Puttv.—The following recipes for making soft putty, and for softening hard putty, are taken from Spon's Workshop Recipes, a 3§8 very useful book, for which a place should be found on the shelves of all amateur artisans. Recipe (soft putty): Mix 10 lbs. of whiting and i lb. of white lead with the necessary quantity of boiled linseed oil, adding it to half a gill of the best salad oil. The salad oil pre- vents the white lead from hardening, and preserves the putty in a state sufficiently soft to adhere at all times, not suffering the wet to enter by getting hard and cracking off, as is often the case with ordinary hard putty. The best way to preserve ordinary putty from cracking is to paint it as soon after it is put on as possible; and when putty has dried and cracked to such an extent that it allows the wet to enter, it is best to remove it and substitute fresh putty, or to run a brush charged with priming over the putty, work- ing the bristles well into the cracks, and then to rub soft putty into the cracks to fill them up, after which the work should receive at least two coats of paint. The following is an excellent way to soften putty :—" Take i lb. of American pearlash and 3 lbs. of quick-stone lime, slake the lime in water, then add the pearlash and make the whole about the consistence of paint. Apply it to both sides of the glass, and let it remain for twelve hours, whea the putty will be so softened that the glass may be taken out of the frame with the greatest facility."—General Building Art and Practice. Stove Polish.—Mix two parts of copperas (evidently sulphate of copper or blue copperas), one of bone black, one of black lead, with sufficient water to form a creamy paste. This will produce a very enduring polish on a stove or other iron article, and after two applications it will not require polishing again for a long time, as the copperas will produce jet black enamel, and cause the black lead to permanently adhere to the iron.—Trade " Seerets." Tanning Kangaroo Skins.—Collect some wattle bark and make a strong decoction, either by boiling or steeping. If you have a tannery near you it will be easier to buy a bushel of crushed bark. Before you steep the skins, scrape off all the fleshy parts. A large square watertight case is preferable to a hogshead, for it is best not to double the skins up more than can be helped. Look at the skins once a week, and not only scrape them over again, but change the liquor. The same liquor will do if you boil and skin it. It will take six weeks to tan large skins. For 'possum skins a month will be long enough.—Australasian Farmers' Guide. Tar Pavement.—Although making it is a very dirty and un- pleasant piece of work, and best left to practical hands, it may be easily laid by the amateur. The surface of the walk should be re- moved to the depth of three or four inches, and well beaten. Some thick coal tar should then be poured over a heap of shingle or coarse gravel, and the whole worked together with a spade, or crooked fork, until the gravel is thoroughly impregnated with the tar. This composition must be spread over the surface of the walk, and rolled down with a heavy roller. Another mixture must now be made of tar and finer gravel, or sifted ashes from the dust-bin, and a thin layer 3«9 spread over the layer of rougher stuff first put on. Fine sand or gravel must then be sprinkled freely over the top of this, and the whole once more rolled, or beaten flat with the back of the blade of a spade, if no roller be available.—General Building Art and Practice. Concrete Pavement—This is far cleaner to work than tar pavement, and is put down in the following manner: The earth is first taken off the surface of the path to a depth of 8 in. or 9 in., and the shallow trench thus made is filled up to about two-thirds or three- fourths of its whole depth with stones, broken brickbats, and coarse gravel, well rammed together so as to present a level surface. The Portland cement must now be mixed in a tub with water until it is of the consistence of thick cream or custard, and poured over the gravel. This must be spread about with a bast-broom to level the surface and send it into the interstices of the first rough coat of stones and gravel. On this a coating of Portland cement and gravel, mixed with water, must be spread, bringing the service very nearly up to the height of the path; and when this has hardened, a finishing coat must be put on of clean, sharp sand and Portland cement in equal parts, and brought, when mixed with water, to the consistence of mortar. The surface must be rounded and brought to smoothness by the aid of a float, a piece of wood with a handle at the back, something like a laundress's iron, but longer, with which plasterers finish the surface of walls and ceilings. No one should be allowed to tread on the surfaces thus made until it is perfectly dry and hard.—General Building Art and Practice. Tractive Force of Horses. Rate in miles per hour 2 2\ 3 3! 4 4^ 5 Tractive force exerted in lbs. ... 166 150 125 104 83 62 41 Force of traction required for carriages of one ton on a level road: Description of road. Force of traction per ton. 1 On rails 8 lbs. 2 Well made pavement ... ... ... ... 33 ,, 3 Macadamised road ... ... ... 44 to 67 ,, 4 Turnpike, hard and dry ... ... ... 68 „ 5 „ dirty 88 „ 6 Hard compact loam ... ... ... ... 119 ,, 7 Gravel 150 „ 8 Sandy and gravelly ... ... ... ... 210 „ 9 Ordinary bye-road ... ... ... ... 237 ,, 10 Turnpike, newly gravelled ... ... ... 320 ,, it Loose sandy road 457 „ A horse produces his greatest mechanical effect in drawing a load at 2^ miles per hour with a tractive force of 150 lbs. 390 Draught of Horses. At 8 hours per day, i\ miles per hour, and tractive force of 150 lbs.: On level hard road 3 tons. On inferior or hilly road ... ... ... ... 1 ,, On rails ... ... ... ... ... ... 16 ,, On a canal 60 to 90 „ Carrying on his back ... ... ... ... 300 lbs. Lifting over a pulley no „ Length of furrow: 250 yards long is the best average suited to the strength of horses. Speed of horses: From ij^ to 2 miles per hour while in the plough. Distance travelled per acre : At a width of 8 in., 12-3 miles; at a width of 9 in., n miles; at a width of 10 in., 9-9 miles; at a width of 12 in., 8-2 miles. Average time to turn : Three quarters of a minute. Time lost in turning: For 250 yards length of furrow, the loss is 1 hour 30 minutes every 10 hours. 39i If a field has 50 turns to the acre, the loss will be 37^ minutes; if 100 turns per acre, 1 hour 15 minutes; if 200 turns per acre, 2 hours 30 minutes ; and to these must be added time taken up in resting. Limit of draught: 7 cwt. per furrow. Ordinary ploughing varies from 3 to 5 cwt., or 170 to 280 lbs. per horse, depending on nature of soil, etc. Steam plough equals 6\ cwt. per furrow (25 cwt. in all) at 100 yards per minute ; depth, 6 inches. —McConnell's Note Hook. Vinegar.—Ordinary vinegar is made by the fermentation and acetification of cider, wine, molasses, etc., and the management requires no great skill. All that is wanted is a temperature above 50 deg. F. and plenty of air, and the process will proceed of its own accord. Vinegar from sugar.—Put 9 lbs. of brown sugar to every six gallons of water; boil it for a quarter of an hour, and then pour it in a tub in a lukewarm state; put to it a pint of good yeast, let it work four or five days, stir it up three or four times a day, then turn it into a clean barrel, iron-hooped, and set full in the sun.—Trade "Seerets." Waggon Jack for Light Waggons.—The illustration depicts a very convenient and easily constructed waggon jack. The base or main piece is a 2 by 4 in. scantling 4 ft. long. The top or notched stick is 2 ins. by 3 ins. of about the same length. At each end of the base and on each side, bolt pieces 2ins. by i£ ins. Let one set be about 18 ins. or 20 ins. high and the other 26 ins. or 30. ins. Fasten the short pair so it will be stationary, but the other pair must be so it will move backward and forward. Arrange the lever so that when in the position shown at A, the notched stick will be nearly horizontal. Then place the jack under the axle of the wag- gon. Bring the lever to the position shown in B. This will lift the wheel off the ground, and if the jack has been properly constructed the lever will remain in position while the wheel is being taken off and the axle greased. Make the top and upright pieces of some kind of hard, strong wood—the lighter the better. The bottom can be of pine. Weight of Cattle bv Measurement.—A correspondent of the Agricultural Gazette gives his plan, which he was taught by a gentleman who had had great experience with the tape, and had, moreover, the great advantage of being able to see his bullocks weighed afterwards in a butcher's shop (a relative's). For the girth find the smallest place just behind the shoulder, and for the length measure from the point of the shoulder where the neck appears to be set on to a point square with the hind quarters. Multiply the square of the girth by the length, and the result by 42, and divide the product by 100, the result of which division will be the weight of the animal in 8-lb. stones. Example : Girth, 6 ft. 4 in. ; length, 4 ft. 7 in. :— 39* 6.4 6.4 38. 2.1.4- 4o.r.4- 47 160.5.4 23494 183.10.1.4 6 1103.-8t 7 77.21.4.8t Answer : 77 sione. With any sort of measurement it is necessary to know, if possible, how long the beast has been " up," and how he has got on, and to add to or deduct from the result of the measurement accordingly. —Australasian Farmer. Yeast Cakes.— Put into three pints of water a handful of hops and nearly a quart of pared potatoes, cut into small pieces. Boil for half an hour, and stram, while scalding hot, into sufficient flour to make a stiff batter. Stir it well, adding one teaspoonful of fresh yeast, and set it in a warm place to rise. When light, mix it stiff with Indian meal, roll out thin, and cut into round cakes or square pieces, about 2\ inches in diameter. Dry these thoroughly, and they will remain good for months if kept in a moderately dry place.—Trade " Seerets." Yeast.—This is another important ingredient in bread making. A simple and thoroughly good way of making it is to put one ounce of hops into two quarts of water, boil until the water is reduced by one-third ; strain this, and add to the water two tablespoonfuls of sugar; when the mixture is cool add two tablespoonfuls of flour, and bottle it. This gives about three pints of yeast, and what is wanted first for use should be put into a bottle that contained yeast before. If no such bottle is handy, a few drops of vinegar or a bit of dough will cause it to ferment. It is ready for use as soon as fermentation sets in, or, in moderately warm weather, about 24 hours after the fresh yeast is made. It keeps for weeks when corked tight and put away in a cool place. One pint of this yeast is sufficient for 12 lb. of bread. 393 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. Area in Acres for One Statute Chain in Length of a Given- Breadth in Feet. Breadth Acres per Breadth Acres per in feet. chain in length. in feet. chain in length. 1 '001515 6 -00909 2 -00303 7 -010606 3 '0O4545 8 -OI2I2I 4 -ooooo 9 -013636 5 '007575 i» -015151 Tables for Converting Keet into Links and Links into Feet. Links. i-5I5I 30303 4-5454 60606 7-5757 90909 10-6060 I2-I2I2 136363 15-1515 Links. Feet. Feet. 1 = •66 I = 2 = 1-32 2 = 3 = I-MS 3 = 4 = 2 64 4 = 5 3'3o 5 — 6 = 396 6 = 7 = 462 7 = X = 5-28 8 = 9 = 594 9 = 10 660 10 = Timber Measurement. Take the average girth in inches, divide by 4, deduct 1 inch for bark for each foot of circumference, and square the result: this gives mean sectional-area. Multiply this by length of tree in feet and divide by 144: the quotient = contents in cubic feet. Timber less than 26 inches round the bark is not included in the length. Imperial Trov Weight. 003961 cub. inch I Brajn (Vr) 20 PennJrweights I ounce (oz.) of water j 12 ounces - 1 pound (lb ) 3-17 grains - 1 carat I ounce - 480 grains 24 grains - I pennyweight (dwt.) 1 pound - 5,760 grains The weight of a grain of wheat taken from the middle of the ear, well dried, is " 1 grain." Imperial Avoirdupois Weight. 27 34 grains (grs.) ... ... ... 1 drachm (dr.) 16 drachms ... ... ... ... 1 ounce (oz.) 16 ounces ... ... ... ... 1 pound (lb.) 14 pounds ... ... ... ... I stone (st.) 28 pounds ... ... ... ... 1 quarter (qr.) 4 quarters ... ... ... ... 1 hundredweight 112 pounds ... ... ... ... I cwt. [ (cwt.) 20 huudredweight . ... ... ... 1 ton I ounce ... ... ... ... 4734 grains I pound ... ... ... ... 7,000 grains. 394 5 ounces of water 4 gills ... 2 pints 4 quarts 2 gallons 4 pecks... 8 bushels Imperial Measure ok Capacitv. i gill I pint (pt.) r quart (qt.) I gallon (gal.) I peck (pk.) i bushel (bus.) I quarter (qr.) These measures are used up to the gallon for liquids, and from the peck upwards for dry goods. 4 gills 2 pints 4 quarts 10 gallons ... 18 gallons 3i4 gallons ... 42 gallons 2 tierces 63 gallons 2 hogsheads 2 pipes Imperial Wine Measure. (For all Wines and Liquids.) pint (pt.) quart (qt.) gallon (gal.) anker (ank.) runlet (run.) barrel (bar.) tierce (tier.) puncheon (pun.) hogshead (hhd.) pipe (pipe) tun (tun). Imperial Ale and Beer Measure. (For Malt Liquors and Water.) 2 pints 4 quarts 8 gallons ... 9 gallons 18 gallons ... 36 gallons I 4 barrels (54 gals) 72 gallons 2 hogsheads 2 butts I quart (qt.) gallon (gal.) firkin (fir.) (ale) firkin (fir.) (beer) kilderkin (kil.) barrel (bar.) hogshead (hhd.) puncheon (pun.) butt (butt) tun (tun). Imperial Corn Measure. 2 quarts 2 pottles 2 gallons 4 pecks ... . 2 bushels 4 bushels 4 bushels 2. coombs or 8 bushels . 4 quarters 5 quarters ... 2 loads or 10 qrs. pottle (pot.) gallon (gal.) peck (pk.) bushel (bus.) strike (str.) coomb (coomb) sack quarter (qr.) chaldron load (load) last (last). 395 The gallon has the same capacity in all Imperial measures, i.e., 277J cubic inches, or = 10 lbs. of distilled water at 620 F., and barometer at 30 inches. The bushel is 1-28 cubic feet: 19 inches diameter, and 8J- inches deep. Foreign Liquid Measures. Name of measure. Contents in gallons. Britain Gallon 10 America Gallon 0833 Austria Eimer 12449 Denmark Anker France Litre 022 Holland Anker 8406 Portugal Almude 3750 Prussia Eimer I5'i47 Russia Veddras 2712 Spain Arroba .V527 Sweden Eimer 17-289 Imperial Lineal Measure. 72 points ... ... ... ... 1 inch (in.) 3 barleycorns (in length) ... ... I inch (in.) 12 lines ... ... ... ... 1 inch (in.) 12 inches ... ... ... 1 foot (ft.) 3 feet ... ... ... ... I yard (yd.) 6 feet ... ... ... I fathom (fth.) 54 yards ... ... ... ... 1 rod, perch, or pole (po.) 40 poles ... ... ... 1 furlong (fur.) 8 furlongs ... ... ... 1 mile 3 miles ... ... ... 1 league 69 and one-ninth miles ... ... ... 1 degree (deg. or °) The chain used for measuring land is 4 poles, or 22 yds., long, and consists of 100 links, each link being yd., or 7-92 in., long. 10,000 sq. Iks. = a sq. chain; 25,000 sq. Iks. = sq. rood; 100,000 sq. Iks. or 10 sq. chains = 1 acre. Foreign Lineal Measures. Country. Name. Number equal to loo feet English. Length in inches English. Britain Foot 1000 I2'0 America 11 lOO'O I20 Austria M 964 12-45 Denmark M 972 12-35 France Metre 3947 3937 Holland Foot 1077 11-14 Portugal 927 1206 Prussia " 971 1236 Russia II 87-2 1375 Spain 1080 11-03 Sweden 11 1027 11 -69 396 Imperial Square Measure. 144 sq. inches 9 sq. feet 30* sq. yards 40 sq. poles roods ... acres ... sq. feet sq. yards sq. rods sq. chains 4 640 43.560 4,840 160 10 1 sq. foot (sq. ft.) I sq. vard (sq. yd.) I sq. pole (sq. po.) 1 rood (rd.) 1 acre (ac.) 1 sq. mile (sq. m.) 1 acre 1 acre 1 acre 1 acre. Solid Measure. 1,728 cubic in. 27 cubic ft. A barrel bulk ... A load of rough timber ... A load of squared timber... A ton of timber, shipping A ton of freight, shipping... A stack of wood A cord I cubic foot (cub. ft.) 1 cubic yard (cub. yd.) 5 cubic feet 40 cubic feet 50 „ 42 ., 40 .. 108 „ 128 „ Fluid Measure. 60 minims (m.) 8 drachms 20 ounces 8 pints 20 grams 3 scruples 8 drachms 12 ounces I fluid drachm I ounce 1 pint I gallon. Old Apothecaries' Weight. Superseded in 1864. New Apothecaries' Weight I scruple 1 drachm I ounce 1 pound (lb. Troy). Ounce Pound (16 oz.) 437J grains 7,000 „ Same as avoirdupois. Svmbols used in Prescriptions. 1 ij iij, etc. s.s. gtt one two three, etc. one-half drop a.a. F. ft. ft. R. Q.S. of each mix make take of sufficient quantity. Bread and Flour Weight. 4 lbs. oz. Imp. 8 lbs. 11 oz. Imp. 17 lbs. 6 oz. Imp. I quarter loaf I half-peck loaf 1 peck. A peck or stone of flour is 14 lbs.; a bushel of flour is 56 lbs.; a boll is 140 lbs.; and a sack of 5 bushels is 280 lbs., or 2\ cwt. 397 20 lbs. = frequently Wool Weight. 7 lbs. avordupois or 2 cloves or 2 stones or tods or 2 weys or 12 sacks 14 28 182 364 4,368 1 score, and 240 sold in Scotland 1 clove 1 stone 1 tod 1 wey I sack 1 last.' lbs. or 12 scores = 1 pack. Wool by the stone of 24 lbs. Imp. In actice, wool buyers frequently reckon 30 lbs. to the tod. Various Monevs. Country. Name of Coin. Value in £i English. Britain ... Shilling 20 America Dollar 4-84 Austria ... Florin 9'»3 Buenos Ayres Patacon 48 Denmark Dollar 4897 Egypt ... Pound 0-979 France ... Franc... 2557 Holland... Florin 11-97 India Rupee 1078 Italy ... Lira ... 25263 Portugal Milreis 4285 Prussia ... Dollar 69 Russia ... Rouble 64 Spain ... Dollar 48 Sweden .. Ducat 1... 2-182 A halfpenny is 1 inch diameter, and i£d. = 1 oz. in weight. Metric/ Long '. Metres. Inches. Millimetre 001 '03937 Centimetre 01 '3937 Decimetre 'i 3'937 Metre - 1 3937079 Decametrei 10 — Hectometre 100 — Kilometre 1,000 — Myriametre 10,000 — , Svstem. easure. Feet. Yards. Miles. •00328 -00109 — •0328 -0109 — ,328 -1093 -00006 32809 10936 -00062 32809 IO9363 -0062 32809 IO9363 -06213 ;,28o-9 1,09363 -62138 — — 621382 Milliare •Centiare - Deciare - Are Decare - Hectare - Square Measure. Square Square Square Square Metres. Inches. Feet. Yards. Acres ,I 155 1-076 •119 — I 1,550 I0764 119 •00O25 10 15,501 107-64 11-96 •0025 IOO — 1,076-4 1196 ,0247 I.OOO — — 1,196 •2471 I,O0O0 — — II,96o •2-4711 398 Cubic Metres. Millistere -ooi Centistere "01 Decistere 'I Stere, or cubic metre I Solid Measure. Cubic Inches. 61028 61028 6,102-8 61,028 Cubic Feet. Cubic Yards. Decastere Hectostere Milligramme Centigramme Decigramme Gramme Decagramme Hectogramme Kilogramme Myriagramme Quintal Millier or bar Millilitre Centilitre Decilitre Litre Decalitre Hectolitre Kilolitre Myrialitre The 10 100 Grammes. •O0I •01 ,I I 10 IOO I,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 Weights. Avoir, oz. Avoir, lb. 353 3 531 35317 Cwts. •13 I 308 1308 130802 Tons. •035 ,352 3-527 35-274 •0022 •022 •2204 2'2046 22,O46 220-462 2,204-62 Oi9 I96 i)08 684 Grains Troy. •015 ,154 I-543 I5-432 O0098 00984 0984 9842 Dry and Fluid •001 ,01 •1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 metrical system Inches. ,061 •6l 6-i 6l -02 6IO-28 Measure. Feet. .o353 •353 3-53 35-.V7 Gallons. .00022 •0022 •022 •22 2-2 22 220-09 2,200-9 Bushels. •0027 •0275 •275 2-751 27-5I2 275-121 is based on the metre (39-3709 inches)r which is the ten-millionth part of the quadrant of a terrestrial meridian. The litre is the cube of the tenth part of a metre ; the weight of a litre of distilled water at its greatest density is a kilo- gramme, and one-thousandth of this is a gramme, the are is ico square metres, and the stere one cubic metre. Specific Gravities of a few common and useful things. Distilled water - rooo Garden Mould 2'33* Rain water - 10013 Humus - 1 37o Sea water - 1027 Flint, dark - , 2542 Common earth - - 1-48 Flint, white - - 2741 Rough sand , 1-92 Lime, unslaked • 1-842- Earth and gravel - 202 Chalk - 2-62 Moist sand - 2.C5 Granite 2.5 to 2-66 Gravelly sand - 207 Limestone 2-64 „ 2.72 Clay - 215 Quartz 2-56 27s Clay and gravel - - 248 Stones for building, various 1■66 4, 2-62 Silicious sand - 2653 Brick l'4I „ 186 Sandy clay 2601 Iron, cast Iron, wrought 723 Loamy clay - 2581 Lead, flattened - 7-888- Brick clay - 2560 - 11388 Pure grey clay - - 2-533 Zinc, rolled - - 7-I9I Pipe clay • 2540 Rock salt - 2257 Arable soil - 2401 PART III. THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLEE'S GlUIDE . . . AND . . . FAEMEE'S HANDBOOK Native Grasses and Salt Bushes. Fodder and Forage Plants. Special Products of the Farm. Tobacco, Sugar Beet, Rape, Potatoes. Laving Down Land to Grass. Noxious Weeds. Native Poison Plants. Issued by direction of the Bureau of Agriculture. Edited bv L. LINDLEY-COWEN, Secretarv. 1897. E. S. W«3G & Son, Printers, Hav Street, Perth. Advertisement. Colonial Produce. LISHED 894. Theo. R. Lowe 5 Co., \ Queen Street, Perth, W.A. Commission Merchants, Auctioneers. DAILY SALES OF ALL KINDS OF FARM PRODUCE. Ilanhers: Bank of New South Wales. Telephone 198. Advertisement. W.A. General Produce Co. Importers Merchants and . . Commission Agents. ALSO AT— QUEEN STREET. • Agencies at ADELAIDE. MELBOURNE, and SYDNEY, Also NEW ZEALAND and LONDON. 245 Murray Street, Perth. BUY and SELL All kinds of Farm and Dairy Produce, Fruit, Vegetables, Eggs, Poultry, &c, also General Groceries, and in particular, Homesteads, Farm Lands, or Orchards. H^HIS Company offers Special Advantages, to Producers of any of the above .*. goods consigned to than for sale. They hold no Auction Sales—thus saerificing the goods of the producer to the highest bidder—but sell privately only, securing the highest market price. They either Buy Goods right out or Sell on Commission. Account Sales Rendered Promptly. Correspondence Invited. Trial Solicited. References: Hank of New South Wales. All Communications must be addressed to the Manager. WILL SUPPLY Coops, Cases, or Bags on application. Will a(so procure for their clients and cus- tomers any kind of goods which may not be stocked by them, at most reasonable rates. Write for an>thing and everyth.ng and quotation will be furnished by return of post gratuitously. „ INDEX. PAGE. African purslane - - 488 Agrostis alba - - 529 „ vulgaris - - 526 Agrostocrinum stypandroides 589, 590 Alexandrine clover - - 476 Alfalfa - - 459 Alfilaria - 444 Alfilarilla - - 444 Allionia incarnata - - 432 Alopecurus pratensis - 526 Alpine clover - - 476 Alsace clover - - 477 Alsike clover - - 477 Alsyke - - 531 Amaranthus - - 432 Anagallis arvensis - - 554 „ coerulans - - 554 Andropogon bombycinus - 405 Annual cat's ear - 551 Anthisitiria avenacea - 405 „ ciliata - - 405 ,, membranacea - 409 Anthoxanthum odoratum - 529 Anfhyllis vulneraria - - 432 Apios tuberosa - - 432 Apple of Sodom - - 559 Arabian snail clover - 459 Arachis hypogoea - - 433 Area suited for potato cultivation 510 Argemone Mexicana - 535 Arrow grass - - 483 Artichoke - - 449 Artichokes, Jerusalem - 494 Articum majus - - 543 „ minus - - 543 Artificial pasturage - - 524 Asparset - - 462 Astragalus - - 434 Astrebla pectinata - - 409 Atriplex canescens - - 435 „ ciuerea - - 421 confertifolium - 436 „ halimoides - - 421 „ hortensis - - 539 „ semibaccata - 423 stipitata - - 423 ir- vesicaria - - 423 Australian fodder plant for arid land - - - 488 Australian millett - - 414 Avena elatior - - 527 Banana field pea • - 444 „ stock pea - - 444 Bastard alkanet - - 559 „ clover - - 477 Bathurst burr - - 554 Beans - 496 Bear grass Beckwith's clover Beggar weed Bell fountain Beet, manures for PAGE. - 485 - 47o - 442 - 471 5 509 509 507 506 537 434 404 48o, 531 528 4«3 483 479 554 5o3 480 526 483 482 428 430 407, 525. 554 467 538 471 506 467 577 563 543 527 472 54" 483 483 4*5 468 Saghalin polygonum - Sainfoin Saleratus weed' Salicornia herbacea - Saltbushes Saltbush, broadtwinged „ coastal as feed grey „ halftberried „ halimustlike ,, kidneytfruited „ nodding propagation of „ silky Samphire Sand clover Sandplain poison Sand spurrey „ vetch Sapling clover Sarcobatus vermicularis Sarcostemma Australe Scarlet clover Scotch broom thistle Screw bean Seaside arrow grass - Seed beds, tobacco Seeds, germination of beet Seed potatoes, preparing „ preparation, beet Senecio vulgaris Senadella Seven seed Shad scale Shamrock „ clover Sheep's fescue Shepherd's purse „ weather glass Shore thistle Sida elliottii „ rhombifolia Silene gallica Silky head grass „ saltbunh Silver-hull buckwheat Size of paddocks Slender clover „ panick grass - „ stalked clover „ thistle Small burdock „ flowered clover 1. 1. galinsoga „ nettle „ red clover Smooth milk pea Soil, preparation of for beet „ suited for tobacco - 468 462, 408 - 472 - 472 - 418 - 420 - 428 - 414 - 421 - 423 - 422 - 423 - 43o 4io - 428 - 472 432, 479 - 5»i - 473 485 479 472 . 489 478 - 447 - 551 - 470 483 - 519 - 5o4 - 512 - 53 Soola clover . 449 „ grass - 414 Sorghum halapense • „ saccharatum - 497 Sulla , 449 - 498 Sulphur clover , 479 Sorrell 540 Sunflower 449, 502 Sotol • 442 Sun hemp - 440 Sour dock - 54o „ spurge Swamp horn clover - , 538 Southern cow pea - 485 - 453 Sow thistle, common - 552 Swedes - 49* Soy bean - 447 Swedish clover 477 Spanish bayonet • 4»5 Sweet briar , 543 „ clover • 471 „ cassava , 45<> pea nut 433 „ potato - 439 „ radish . 537 sage - 4-15 „ sanfoin - 449 „ scented vernal - 529 „ trefoil . 459 Symphytum asperrimum - 474 Spear thistle • 544 Symptoms produced by poison Special products of the farm - 492 Tagetes glandulifera - plants - 583 Species of grasses - 402 553 Spekboom - 488 Tall meadow oat grass • 5-27 Sptrgula arvensis 473, 539 „ oat grass - 405 „ maxima 474. 498 „ fescue Tamarix gallica , 520 Spinach, New Zealand • 475 - 48a Spotted medick - 459 Tanner's curse - 540 „ thistle • 544 Taraxacum dens leonis 475, 553 Spring vetch . 485 Tares . 4«5 Spurred butterfly pea • 439 Teosinte • 497 Spurrey • 473 Tetragonia expansa - , 475 Square pod pea • 452 Thorn apple - 55" St. Barnaby's thistle - 547 Thousand headed kale - 500 „ John's bread - 439 Thread clover - 476 „ Mawe's clover Stachys arvensis • 459 Three cornered jack 540 - 559 Tick trefoil 442 Stacking beet - 500 Timothy grass - 529 Stagger weed • 559 Tagasaste 516, 517 • 441 Star thistle - 545 Tobacco cultivation - Saucy sack - 546 curing - 522 Stinging nettle • 538 „ harvesting planting , 521 Stinking goose foot - • 54o „ seed beds • 520 „ roger Stinkweed - 553 „ soil suitable - - 519 • 556 - 5i7 Stinkwort • 55i „ varieties suitable - 5»8 Stockpea - 485 Tolerance of poisons - - $86 Stock, and poison plants - 584 Toothed medick 457, 541 „ treatment of poisoned - 584 Treatment for zamia poisoning 588 „ zamia palm poisonous - 588 Treatment of poisoned stock - §8 „ „ poisoning, treatment 588 Tree tobacco - Stone clover 476, 482 Trefoil - 530 Storksbill - 444 Trifolium agrarium - „ alexandrinum - 475 Straight bean • 440 476, 531 Strawberry clover • 476 „ alpinum - 476 „ headed trefoil Stypandra glauca - 47" „ amphianthum - 476 588, 589 „ arvense 476 Suckling clover - 476 „ badium 476 Sugar beet • 502 ,, beckwithii - - 476 „ early redskin • 5o3 „ carolinianum 476 „ French - 5o3 „ filiforme - 476 PAGE. Trifolium fragiferum - - 476 „l furcatum - - 477 hybridum - 477, 531 „ imarnatum 478, 531 „ involucratum - 479 „ medium - - 479 ., megacephalum • 479 „ microcephalum - 479 „ minus • 479 „ ochroleucum - 479 „ pannonicum - 479 „ pratense - 480, 531 „ pratense perenne - 531 „ procumbens - 481 „ reflexum - - 482 rcpens - 482,531 „ resupinatum - 482 „ rubens - - 483 ,; sabrotundum • 483 „ stoloniferum - 483 „ tridentatum - 483 Trigonel - • 483 Trigonella fa:numtgra;cum - 483 Triglochin maritimum • 483 Tripteris clandestina - - 553 Tula grass - 441 Tule - • 44r Tumble weed - 432 Turnips - - 492 Ulex Europsens • 483, 543 Undesirable grasses - - 402 Upright knotweed - 467 Urtica dioica - - 538 „ arens - - 539 Uses and cultivation of rape - 506 „ of rape - - 507 Variegated thistle - 544 Varieties of tobacco - - 518 Various leafed fescue - - 528 Vetch - 485,496 „ bird - - 485 „ chicken - • 485 Velvet bean - - 444 Vicia Americana - - 484 „ cracca - - 484 „ saliva - 485 „ sylvatica - - 485 „ tetrasperma - - 485 „ villosa - - 485 Vigna catjang - - 485 Vilmorin, white improved, beet 502 Wallaby grass - 409 Water meadow grass 529 „ parsley . 47! Wavystemmed clover • 479 Weeds and their distribution • 535 11 ii „ destruction • 533 Weeds development of „ introduced in forage Welsh clover West India honeysuckle Western Australian poison plants Whin - 483 White clover - 482 „ Dutch clover • „ goose foot „ improved Vilmorin sugar beet White lupine Wild marigold White mustard „ praii ie clover - „ red top, sugar beet n sage „ sharlock „ Swedish clover „ trefoil Wild kidney bean ,, laburnum „ radish „ vetch Winter fat „ lentil Winged thistle Winter flat pea ,, rape ., vetch Wire grass Wood meadow grass „ vetch Woolly soft grass „ thistle Wound clover „ wort Xaiithium spinosum „ strumarium Yam Yellow clover „ hop clover „ lucerne „ meadow trefoil „ moon trefoil „ sand trefoil „ star thistle ,. suckling clover „ sweet clover York read poison Yorkshire fog Yucca baccata Zamia palm „ poisoning, treatment for „ poisonous to stock Zigzag clover PAGE. 533 534 476 +4-' 573 543 531 483 539 502 . 453 - 553 - 502 . 467 - 5o3 43 445 . 537 - 477 - 482 - 467 - 461 . 537 - 45i - 445 . 445 - 544 • 451 - 436 - 452 - 54o - 527 . 485 - 526 - 55i • 432 - 432 - 554 - 553 444 458.475,479-481 475 458 475 458 432 547 4-0 401 520 487 587 5N8 587 479 THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLER'S GUIDE «4 AND FARMER'S HANDBOOK. INTRODUCTION. BY THE EDITOR. HE third part of the Settler's Guide, as will be seen on perusal, deals with fodder and forage plants; with what may be termed special pro- ducts of the farm; the native poison plants, and noxious weeds. The information conveyed in the following pages, though written primarily for the new settler who contemplates pursuing mixed farming, should not be without interest to the pastoralist. Mr. F. Turner, F.L.S., author of "Australian Grasses " and other works, who, since the death of the much lamented Baron von Mueller, has done a great deal of valuable botanical work for the Bureau of Agriculture, contributes articles on the West Australian grasses and salt bushes, and it is to be hoped his remarks on the conservation of natural grasses will be read with attention, and acted upon. The chapter on fodder and forage plants, exclusive of grasses, is compiled principally from a bulletin by Mr. Jared G. Smith, assistant agrostologist to the United States Department of Agriculture, and issued by the department last year. Mr. Samson-Scrivner, chief of division of agrostology, in introducing the work of his assistant, says :— 400 "The work is popular in its character, and is as free from technicalities as possible. The descriptions are brief, and the remarks under each species, while brief, include what has been regarded as most important, and afford such information as the farmer and others interested would be most likely to wish to know- Besides the cultivated forage plants which are already more or less widely known, native species which have never yet been cultivated are included in the enumeration. There are in the United States over 200 native or wild species of this class which are recognised locally as excellent forage plants. More attention should be given these natives, tor there is every reason to believe that among them are many kinds fully equal in productiveness and feeding value to any of those now under cultivation, and possibly many superior to anything we have now in their adaptibility to certain soils or climates or in their value for special uses." The concluding obser- vation applies quite as forciblv to Australia as to the United States, and on pastoral holdings there is infinitely more profit to be derived from conserving the best of our natural grasses than in attempting to introduce new species. On small holdings where cultivation is carried on it is different. The object should be to secure the greatest quantity of fodder from the smallest area, and introduced plants under intense cultivation will be found to pay handsomely, especially in the southern districts. The native poison plants have been catalogued and described with a view to making them known to the new settler. When there is any doubt specimens should at once be forwarded to the Bureau of Agriculture for identification. There is no doubt that the wide dispersion of poison plants in Western Australia is a decided detri- ment to rapid settlement, but, as indicated in the descriptive chapters of Part i of the Guide, it will be seen that experience has shewn the difficulty of overcoming the poison plants is not insuperable, and the danger is easily and cheaply removed. The concluding notes of this part are on noxious weeds. Mr. Helms, in introducing the subject, gives ample reasons for the sup- pression of objectionable weeds; and the Bureau regrets that at present there is no legislative power which enables one to deal 40i with any of the weeds except the-Spanish radish and Scotch thistle, by no means two of the worst weeds which have invaded the colony. It is hoped, however, that during the present session of Parliament a Bill will be introduced which will remedy this defect in our statute book, and enable those settlers who are anxious to prevent the spread of noxious weeds to invoke the authority of Government in doing so. CHAPTER I. WEST AUSTRALIAN GRASSES. Bv Fred. Turner, F.L.S., F.R.H.S., etc. There are about three hundred and sixty species of grass indigenous to Australia, and they are fairly well distributed over the continent. Of the total recorded, one hundred and nineteen species, arranged under forty-nine genera, are found in Western Australia. All these, of course, are not good forage plants, but amongst the most valuable and nutritious, from a pastoral point of view, the following may be taken as examples. Six species of Aiuirof>ogon, including the famous " blue," and other excellent grasses. Three of Anthistiria, which are commonly known as the "kangaroo," "tall oat" (this yields a good sized grain'1, and "landsborough" grasses respectively. Three of Chloris, including the " star " or " windmill," and "spider" grasses. Five of Danthonia, including the widely and favourably known "wallaby" grass. All the species of this genus have a high reputation as forage for stock. Two of Diplachne, one of which is a very good grass for moist situations. Eight of Eragiostis, some of which are very good forage grasses, and others are remarkable for their drought-enduring qualities. Eight of Panicuin, all of which are excellent forage grasses, and include the widely and favourably known "Australian millet," the seeds of which at one time formed an important article of food for the aborigines. Six of Poa, which include some good pasture grasses. There are also several species of the following genera. Amphibromus (" marsh brome" grass), Asticbla (the famous "Mitchell" grass), Chrysopogon, Cynodon (" couch" grass), Deyeuxia (" bent" grass), Dichelachne ("plume" grass), Eleusine ("finger" grass), Eriochloa ("early spring" grass), Microlwna ("meadow rice" grass), Pappophorum ("black heads"), Paspalum ("water couch"), Pollinia ("sugar" grass), Setaria (" millet '), Sporobolus, and Sorghum. The most undesirable grasses found in Western Australia belong to the genera Aristida (" three-awned spear" grass), Hcteropogon ("spear" grass), Stipa ("spear," "corkscrew," or "wire" grass), and Triodia (" porcupine" or "spinifex" grass), the latter term, however, is a generic one given to a quite distinct grass, there- fore, must not be confounded with it.) Whilst young, some of these grasses are really good pasture plants, but when the seeds of Aristida, Hcteropogon, and Stipa are ripe, they are irritating and 4o3 dangerous to the eyes of sheep, often causing blindness. More- over, the seeds, with their adherent awns, not only become entangled in the wool, which somewhat depreciates its value, but they sometimes enter the vital parts and cause death. Unfortu- nately, when the grasses that bear these long seed-awns become old, cattle and sheep seldom or never eat them, consequently they grow and produce seed almost undisturbed. The two species of Triodia are dreaded on account of their sharp-pointed leaves. Although the total number of undesirable grasses does not amount to more than a dozen, still they are of sufficient importance to make their position felt and somewhat disliked by pastoralists. It would increase the grazing capabilities of those parts of the country where these undesirable grasses very largely predominate in the pastures, if they were occasionally burned off. The operation should be performed when the grasses are in seed, for at this period of their growth both the harsh stems and the objectionable seed awns would be destroyed. In favorable weather new growth is soon made after burning, but it is not advisable to allow animals to graze on this succulent herbage until considerable growth has been made, otherwise it might give them what is commonly termed the scours, or diarrhoea, which sometimes becomes chronic, and, of course, has a weakening effect upon them. The burning-off of the more luable pasture grasses is not to be recommended unless they become diseased, or grow into objectionable tussocks of harsh, dry herbage. When good pasture is burned, millions of valuable grass seeds are destroyed, which are, of course, their only natural means of reproduction. Should the more valuable pasture be accidentally set on fire, sheep should never be turned into the paddocks until the herbage has made considerable growth, though cattle may be turned in without any serious damage being done, for thev never eat grasses so close as do sheep. I may here mention the fact that sheep destroy the natural grasses and other herbage in much less time than horses, and the latter much sooner than cattle. From the above synoptical review of the indigenous grasses of Western Australia, it will be gathered that there is some good material to conserve and cultivate. As a preliminary undertaking towards the conservation of the indigenous grasses and other herbage, reserves should be established in various part of the country for the purpose of raising seeds to be disseminated in places where the herbage may have been eaten out. Such reserves need not occupy large areas. It is astonishmg the quantity of seed that can be harvested from a few acres. It would be a wise thing for the Governments of the Australian colonies to make grass reserves a compulsory undertaking when granting new leases for Crown lands. That such reserves would have a most beneficial effect upon the pastoral areas in this country cannot be gainsaid by thinking persons. In fact, there are already valuable data to work 404 upon. All the railway enclosures throughout the continent are excellent reserves for the preservation of the indigenous grasses and other herbage, and the most superficial observer cannot fail to have seen the amount of seed that is matured and distributed on the adjacent land by winds and other agencies. When this seed germinates it cannot fail to enhance the grazing capabilities of the pastures for miles around. The small paddock system is the best to adopt for grazing large areas in country that is suitable for pasturing sheep, and where the herbage is plentiful. For those areas that have deteriorated so much that animals have a difficulty to eke out an existence on them, it would be a wise thing to rest them for a period, until the better kinds of herbage recuperate. It may not be generally known, but it is an almost invariable fact, that where horses are constantly allowed to graze in pastures where the undesirable "spear" and "three-awned spear" grasses grow, these plants are not nearly so plentiful as they are on those areas from which these animals are excluded ; sheep, on the contrary, that are allowed to roam over large areas, eat out the very best grasses and other herbage, and it is not until they become pressed with hunger that they will eat the coarser vegetation. It would depend upon the size of the pastoral holding and the number of sheep that is grazed upon it, as to the size of the pad- docks to be adopted, but any larger than 2,000 acres are not to be recommended, smaller areas being preferable. The paddocks should be so arranged that each one should have at least from three to four months' rest in a year. This would give the herbage an opportunity to produce seed, which in time would germmate, and new plants would spring up and cover the ground. Unless the paddocks were in a very bad state before the system was adopted, it is astonishing how quickly some of the herbage would recuperate, drought time, of course, excepted. Another very great advantage to be taken into consideration by adopting the close paddocking system, is that sheep could be kept, if not near shearing time, a little longer than usual in any paddock which might have a number of noxious plants growing in it, during which time they would trample most of them down. This would give a better chance for the superior grasses and other herbage to grow when that particular paddock was resting. By adopting the close- paddocking system, it would also be found that fine crops of grass could be cut in some of the paddocks in propitious seasons, which could be made either into hay or ensilage to provide feed for stock during drought time. With the appliances in the shape of labor- saving machinery that are now obtainable at a moderate cost, thousands of tons of fodder could be saved in times of plentv. Whether the grass or other herbage is turned into hay or ensilage it would be advisable to make the stores of fodder some distance apart, so that when it became necessary to artificially feed stock 4»5 the animals would not be congregated in very large numbers at any particular point. It is easy to imagine, if such a thing did take place, that scores of the weaker ones would be trampled to death. The stacks should, of course, be protected with fencing, in order to keep the animals off during the time that herbage was plentiful in the pastures. Following are the descriptions of those illustrations which accompany this chapter :— Andropogon bombycinus (R. Br. "Silky heads.")—This erect- growing perennial grass, which attains a height of from one and a half to three feet, is found all over Australia, but principally on the plains in the far interior. It generally grows on the richest of soils, though the writer has occasionally seen it growing on stony ridges. It will withstand a phenomenal amount of dry weather in any situa- tion where its strong, wiry roots can penetrate easily into the earth. Like many other species of the genus Andropogon, the base of the stems on being bruised emit a strong aromatic perfume. During the early summer, and sometimes in the autumn months, this grass makes a quantity of succulent, leafy herbage which stock are fond of. When the grass becomes old, however, the herbage is some- what harsh, and then it is seldom, or never eaten unless other feed is scarce. The writer has had this species under experimental cultivation, where it proved a very prolific grass, and the herbage lost that harshness, even when it was old, that characterises it when grown on uncultivated land. The seeds usually ripen during November, December, and January, though occasionally in the autumn months. Anthistiria avenacea (F.V.M." Tall oat grass ").—This perennial grass is found all over Australia, from the coastal districts to the far interior, but principally in the latter portion of the continent. It is only found on the richest of soils, and often in a good season may be seen growing five feet high. It generally grows in tussocks, and produces a quantity of leafy herbage at the base, which, when young, cattle are remarkably fond of and fatten on. After the flower stems have developed, however, they become hard and cane- like, and when in this state cattle will leave the plant for more tender herbage. Under ordinary conditions it produces a great amount of seed, which usually ripens during October, November, December, and January, though occasionally in the autumn months. The seeds are large, and in appearance somewhat resemble oats (Avena iatira, Linn.). Anthistiria ciliata (Linn. " Kangaroo" grass).—This is one of the most widely-distributed grasses on the Australian continent, and at one time was supposed to be exclusively Australian. It is, however, found in many countries, including New Guinea. In the tropical parts of Australia it grows more or less all the year round. In the southern portion of the continent it is essentially a summer- growing grass, for it seldom starts into growth before October or November. On good soils it is an excellent pasture grass, which Andropogon coinbycinus (R. Br. "Silky heads.") Reference to Plate —A, showing the arrangement of Hie two spikes and sheathing bract: B, showing the arrangement of the sessile and pedicellate spikelets on the rhachis wers (lessihan natural size); B, flowerhead lmuch enlarged) ; C. seed with pappus attached Igreatly magnified); • D, piece of a bristle of pappus showing shape of spicules (very highly magnified). Sonchus oleraccus (Common sow thistle).—Indigenous to Europe. An annual growing to over 3 feet, with a hollow, smooth stem, containing a milky juice; leaves stalked, lobed, broadly 553 triangular at tip, margined irregularly with weak prickles; prickles also on leaf stalk; flowers, citron yellow, set in irregular clusters; seed with pappus. A prolific seeder, and found abundantly in many cultivated localities. Unless where this weed becomes obnoxious to cultivated plants it cannot be regarded as very objectionable, as it produces excellent food to all domesticated animals. It is an excellent tonic for horses. Tagetes glandulifera (Stinking Roger; wild marigold).— Indigenous to South America. A tall annual, growing sometimes over 6 feet high; leaves simple, and sometimes pinnate, bright green; flowers yellow, in large bunches; seeds with pappus. The foliage is covered with glands containing a strong smelling oil. The plant rapidly occupies cultivated ground, and is very exhausting, but also thrives in other places. Milch cows browsing upon it get their milk contaminated with the odour of the plant, which is also imparted to the butter or cheese made from it. Taraxacum Dens-leonis (Dandelion; children's clock).— Indigenous to Europe. A perennial plant, with thick taproot descending to a considerable depth in the soil and containing a milky juice; leaves close to the ground, forming a shallow funnel, rather variable in shape, but generally more or less incised near the base, and ending in a broad, lanceolate or rounded lobe; flowers large, yellow, rising from the centre on hollow tubes; seeds numerous, attached to a large pappus. Generally found in grassy places, and abundant in cultivated soil. Tripteris claudestina.—Indigenous to South Africa. An erect herbaceous annual, branching towards the upper part, and reaching a height of over two feet. Stems almost smooth, or sparingly covered with short soft hairs; leaves elongate, moderately dentate and emarginate, lightly pilose, at the base often clasping the stem; flowers brownish to purple in centre, and yellow on outer margin, terminal in clusters; seed-heads resembling a bur-tool; seeds, three-winged. The plant secretes a sticky substance, particularly near the flowers and on the young shoots, and has a strong unpleasant smell. A useless and very aggressive plant. Xanthium strumarium (Small burdock; ditch burr; burweed; Noogoora burr, Queensl., clot or cockle burr, Am.)—Indigenous to Europe. A tall bushy plant, with broad irregularly toothed leaves, producing numerous burrs; these are larger than those of the Bathurst burr, more denselv covered with hooklets, and with a couple of larger ones at the apex. In Queensland the plant reaches a height of from six to eight feet. It was introduced to Queensland with cotton from America, and to New Zealand it is supposed to have been brought with ballast. A useless and dangerous plant, for besides producing objectionable burrs it is poisonous. The young shoots are eaten by cattle, in which it produces paralysis of the heart, according to Chief Inspector 554 Gordon's report. Dr. Bancroft confirmed the poisonous nature of the plant from experiments made by him. At Noogoora the first case of poisoning stock was authenticated, whence it received its local name. Xanthium spinosiim (Bathurst burr).—Indigenous to Chili, but has long been widely distributed over the warmer parts of the globe. An annual ^probably at times biennial in Australia) assuming a bushy spreading growth, and sometimes ascending to over 3 ft. Stem stout, becoming woody near base ; branchlets covered with a silvery bloom, armed with sharp prickles at the nodes; leaves three- lobed, lance-shaped, the central lobe much longer than those at the side, green above and silvery below; flowers situated in the axils of the leaves, where they form clusters of burrs; burrs elliptical, crowded with hooked bristles. The hard nut is too chambered, containing each a long greyish olive colored seed. A pernicious introduction and especially objectionable on sheep runs. By no other burr is produced an-equal deterioration of the wool as by that of A', spinosiim. The loss may amount to 2d. per pound, which, at the price of wool ruling at present, means upwards of one-third of its value. Plantago lanceolata (Rib grass).—Indigenous to Europe. A perennial herb with a thick woody rootstock; leaves erect, lan- ceolate, sometimes over six inches long, but varying much in size, stalked, longitudinally ribbed ; flowers small, crowding at the apex of long slender stalks. Abundant in meadows, pastures and waste lands. The plant makes fairly good fodder. Plantago major (Broad-leaved plantain).—Indigenous to Europe and Central Asia. A perennial plant with large leaves growing from a rootstock; leaves erect or spreading, sometimes over five inches long and nearly as broad, stalked, ovate, generally smooth but some- times downy underneath, with a number of ribs converging towards the stalks; flowers numerous, crowded round a stalk growing from the centre of the plants, and forming a long spike. In culti- vated land, waste lands and pastures. Anagallis arvensis (Red pimpernell; shepherd's or poor man's weather glass).—Indigenous to Central and Southern Europe. A succulent procumbent annual from six inches to one foot ; leaves small, ovate, closely set to stems, entire ; flower bright red. In cultivated and waste places this seed spreads rapidly. Its feeding qualities are small, and it is not readily eaten by stock. Anagallis coerulans.—This weed is by most botanists considered merely a variety of the former. It has very handsome dark blue flowers, and generally grows more robustly. In Western Australia I have met this plant in cultivation, growing with extraordinary luxuriance, and becoming very obnoxious. Gomphocarpus fmticosus (Cape cotton).—Indigenous to South Africa. This annual is an entirely useless weed and very aggres- sive. On account of its handsome appearance it is sometimes 555 cultivated in gardens. It reaches a height of over four feet ; growth branching; stems containing a milky juice; leaves bright green, slender, entire ; Howers white, in umbels near tips of branches; fructification bright green, sometimes over an inch long, covered with soft prickles (superficially resembling the "thorn-apple "); seeds numerous, bearing a profusion of long white cottony fila- Xanthium spinosum (" Bathurst burr"). Referenxe to Plate.—A, branchlet of plant (natural size); B, fruit (enlarged); C, leaf, fruit and spines; D, one of the hooks growing on the fruit (much enlarged). ments. The organisation of the attachment of the seed fits this for wide and rapid distribution. Besides being easily carried by the wind, the many fine and flexid hairs allow it to adhere to almost anything, and when blown against railway carriages may be carried for hundreds of miles in this manner. The seed capsules should not be allowed to break, and be burnt to prevent the spread of the plant. 556 Ciiscuta Trifolii (Dodder).—Indigenous to Europe and tem- perate Asia. A leafless annual parasitic on lucerne and clover. This remarkable plant sends its reddish or whitish silk-like filiform stems up the host plant and ultimately completely covers it. It supports itself by developing small warts near the nodes of the stem, and by means of these it also depletes its host. The flowers are developed at the nodes and form small headlets. The parasite is very destructive to the fodder plants mentioned, and besides is aggressive to hops and nettles. When buying clover or lucerne seed care should be taken not to have dodder seed mixed with them. Datura stramonium (Thorn apple; mad apple; devil's apple; devil's trumpet; stinkweed. In some ports of North America known as "Jimson weed," a corruption of Jamestown weed.—T. W. Kirk). —Indigenous to Western Asia and Europe. It is a common tradi- tion in Europe that the gipsies introduced this plant for clandestine purposes. A succulent tall annual, with bright leaves and hand- some flowers; height up to four feet, with a strong irregularly branching stem ; leaves, dark-green above and paler below, irregu- larly and sometimes deeply cut, and attached by slender stalks; flower white, tubular, and five-lobed ; fruit sometimes over an inch long and three-quarters in diameter, green, egg-shaped, covered with cone-like prickles; when ripe, the fruit splits in four parts and exposes the closely-set dark-brown seeds bedded upon the central pulp. The plant produces a nauseous smell when bruised. It is poisonous, and, although its odour is offensive, it is some- times eaten by cattle in times of dearth. Mr. P. R. Gordon, Chief Inspector of Stock, Queensland, reported a number of in- stances where cattle have been poisoned by this weed. The alkaloid daturia extracted from this plant is a powerful poison, but also a valuable medicine against several diseases. Datura tatula (Blue flowering thorn apple).—This plant differs mainly from the above in producing blue or violet-blue flowers. It is frequently cultivated as a garden plant. Both species of the thorn apple seem to spread readily when once they are introduced. Probably no plants range over a greater area on the face of the earth. The seeds are heavy and do not possess organs for self- distribution; it can scarcely be doubted, howev-er, that birds are the means of disseminating them, although I have never observed any to eat these poisonous grains. This plant is considered to possess stronger toxic qualities than the common stramonium. Nicotiana glanca (Tree tobacco).—Indigenous to South America. Attaining sometimes a height of over 20 feeet with a stem of over six feet in diameter. A rapid grower, and used on this account as a shelter plant. Leaves stalked, fleshy, smooth, ovate heart-shaped, covered with a whitish bloom, the larger upwards of six inches long and three inches wide, much smaller towards the tips of the Stachys arvensis (" Stagger weed," " Hedge nettle," &c.) Reference to Plate.—A, side view of a flower; B, flower opened out to shew the arrangement of the stamens ; C, fruit enclosed in the calyx; D, showing different views of the seed-like nuts. All variously magnified. 559 branches; flowers yellow, tubular, about inches long, clustered; seeds in oval capsules. The plant is decidedly poisonous to stock, a reason why its spread should be checked. Solaiium nigrum (Black-berried nightshade; black currant).— Indigenous to the greater part of the globe, and considered a native of Australia as well. A well-known common weed, generally found in cultivated soil, waste lands, and newly-broken ground, growing to a height of sometimes 3 feet. A succulent annual poisonous in all its parts. Leaves dark green, ovate, and irregularly toothed; flowers white, small; fruit black, soft, enclosed in a tough skin. Children frequently eat the berries without harm to them, although they are distinctly poisonous and will cause nausea. Pigs seem to be particularly sensitive to the poison of this weed and its berries. They are said to die through eating it, and in consequence the plant is known in certain parts of Germany as "Sautod " (sowdeath). A correspondent from Deniliquin, in New South Wales, writes in the Agricultural Gazette, vol. vi., p. 293 :— "Supposed to be the cause of blindness in horses, particularly young animals, who unknowingly eat the plant." Solaiium sodomaeitm (Apple of Sodom).—Indigenous to South Africa. A shrubby plant of a spreading habit from three to five feet high, armed with strong prickles at the base of the leaf stalks. Leaves large, deeply lobed and covered on the underside with short white hairs set starlike; flowers violet, upwards of an inch across, growing in small clusters; berries globular, often over an inch in diameter, green, variegated with yellowish white. Generally found on the sides of roads, and often in rocky soil. A perfectly useless plant with poisonous berries. Lithospermum arvense (Corn gromwell; bastard alkanet).— Indigenous to Europe and Western and Central Asia. An erect annual, growing over a foot high, with a hoary stem branching towards the top. Leaves lanceolate, dark-green and hairy; flowers small, white, closely attached to the stem, or terminal; seeds blackish, wrinkled, very hard. Often very trouble- some in cornfields, and also found in waste places. The root of this noxious weed is red externally and stains the skin if rubbed with it. Peasant girls may probably use it at times to paint their cheeks, for in Germany it is known as " Bauernschminke." Mentha pulegiuin (Pennyroyal).—Indigenous to the countries surrounding the Mediterranean; extending over Europe and Western Asia. A prostrate branching perennial; strongly scented; leaves small, narrow; flowers small, in clusters. In waste places and damp situations. Stachys atvensis (Hedge nettle; stagger weed).—Indigenous to Europe and Central Asia. A slender, hairy annual with branched stems, erect or slightly decumbent, sometimes over one foot high; leaves small ovate; flowers small, of pale purple color. In cultivated or broken lands and waste places. A proline seeder and 56o an aggressive and useless weed which is by many considered dangerous and supposed to give cattle the staggers, hence its trivial name. When green it is not readily eaten by domesticated animals, but when mixed with hay, or particularly in chaff, it cannot be avoided bv them, and then is claimed to produce the affection called " staggers." Although much doubt exists on this point, it is as well to obviate even a presumed danger, it such it only were, by vigorously suppressing this useless weed upon its first appearance. Lantana camera (Lantana).—Indigenous to sub-tropical and tropical America. A perennial shrub attaining in rich soil a height of upwards of 20 feet; much branched and densely matted, it Homeria lineata. suppresses, where it becomes established, all other vegetation except strong trees. Foliage dark green, and strong smelling; leaves lan- ceolate ovate, rough on the upper surface, regularly bluntly toothed round the margin; flowers in clusters, pink, and later vellow; berries with a thin blackish pulp. The plant is very ornamental and originally has been introduced for decorative purposes. Its profuse production of seeds, however, has caused it to become widely dis- tributed in many places through the agency of birds. In the north- ern parts of New South Wales it has destroyed thousands of acres of the most valuable land, and since its introduction into Efate the southern island of the New Hebrides, about ten years ago, it has 56i become in several places very troublesome. In the islands it goes by the name of the " curse of New Caledonia," probably because it was first distributed from the last named island to those adjacent. In Mauritius it is a terrible pest, where it was also introduced as an ornamental plant more than forty years ago. It can only be eradi- cated with the greatest trouble, as the smallest particle of its roots may throw out suckers after the plant has been cut down and the stalks grubbed up. The only way I know to deal with it suc- cessfully is by cutting it down close to the ground and letting the plants lie over the stocks till the following'year. This will smother the stocks and roots, and if, after a twelve months, the dead brush is burnt the land may then be ploughed, and rarely any of the roots will sprout again. Reference to Plate—A, plant (much reduced); B, flower; C, bulb with bulbils; D, airial bulbils at node of stem; K, a single bulbil. (B, C, D, and E, approximately natural size.) Homeria lineata.—Indigenous to South Africa. A perennial plant with a bulb of considerable size ; leaves rigid, moderately strongly ribbed; and with a whitish band along the mid rib, often over a foot long; stem sometimes over 18 inches long, bearing the flowers on stalks at the head; flowers, copper red, the segments sometimes an inch long and three-eighths to half an inch broad, with a small Homeria lineala. 502 Romulca rosea ("Guildford grass"). Refenence to Plate.—A. plant with seed capsule; B, plant showing flower and the growth of a new bulb; C, flower laid open to show the fertilising organs ; D, seed capsule, with part of covering removed to show seeds. A, reduced by half ; B and C natural size; D, reduced one third. 5^3 yellow-dotted blotch inside at the base. A rapidly spreading plant, multiplying itself not only by seeds and bulbs, but in addition also by bulbiles growing round the bulb and at the axis of the leaves which partly sheath the stem. The plant is malignantly poisonous to stock. It has escaped from deserted gardens where it had been cultivated for its flowers. Some years back a large number of stock were poisoned by it near Melbourne. The late Baron von Mueller was deeply impressed with the dangerous nature of this plant, and did all in his power to make those engaged in rural pursuits acquainted with the appearance of this plant. A coloured figure of it appeared in the Journal of the Bureau on the nth December, 1894, reproduced from a drawing sent by that eminent scientist, who never lost sight of the practical side of the rural interests. Romulea rosea (Guildford grass).—Indigenous to South Africa. A perennial bulbous plant. Leaves narrow, faintly ribbed and lined, glossy, erect, sometimes over a foot long; flowers pink, with five petals, about £-inch across, on stalks rising from centre of plant; seeds numerous, yellow, almost spherical, about the size of a mustard seed, arranged in six rows; seed-capsules nearly £-inch long, splitting when dry into three divisions, each of which is composed of a double compartment. The plant spreads rapidly and soon becomes the almost sole occupier of the ground wherever it establishes it- self, as it multiplies by its bulbs as well as the numerously produced seeds. Any kind of soil seems to suit it, although it prefers damp localities. It is a veritable destroyer of good pasture. Although eaten —what are the poor brutes to do when there is nothing else growing ?—it is extremely innutritious and when it gets old may become dangerous to stock. Its danger lies not in possessing toxic qualities, but in the toughness of the leaves, which, being very indigestible, will frequently pack into a solid ball within the stomach. Some specimens of enormous size have been taken from horses who died of internal inflammation, probably caused, but certainly intensified and accelerated by these solid accumulations. This objectionable plant is becoming very common in several parts of the old settled districts of Western Australia. Care should be exercised to prevent it getting established in new localities. On account of its grass-like leaves it may easily escape observation, as it is not readily recognised by anyone previously unacquainted with it. When flowering the pink blossoms betray its presence, and when dug up at any other time the brownish bulbs reveal the true nature of this noxious weed. APPENDIX. A list of Foreign Plants known to occur in Australia. The greater number of the plants included in the following list have been accidentally introduced through impure seeds of cereals or other plants of cultivation, with forage, with packing consisting of hay, straw, moss, &c., or soil attached to living plants. A number have strayed from cultivation, and a few have been deliberately introduced. Those marked with an • occur in Western Australia; but many more besides very probably have found their way to this colony, as only those are marked which were observed during the spring of 1897, and which in most instances were found within 20 miles from Perth. Ranunculaceae. Ranunculus bulbosus; Buttercup. Eu. Ranunculus muricatus. Mediterranean region Papaveraecae. Argemone Mexicana; Mexican poppy. Mexico. Papaver hybridum ; Wild poppy. Eu., As., Afr. Papaver Rhoeas. Eu., As., Afr. Fumariaceae. •Fumaria officinalis ; Common fumitory. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. Cniciferae. Alyssum maritimum. S.Eu. •Barbarea vulgaris; Winter cress; yellow rocket. Eu., As., Am., Tas., Vict., N.S.W., N.Z. Brassica campestris. Eu. Brassica oleracea. Eu., As., Afr. Brassica Sinapistrum. Eu., As., N.Afr. Camelina dentata. S.Eu. "Capsella Bursa-pastoris ; Shepherd's purse. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. Lepidium Draba. Eu., As., Afr. 'Nasturtium aquaticum ; Water cress. Eu., As., Afr. •Nasturtium officinale; Water cress. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. • (?) Raphanus Raphanistrum ; Wild radish ; Spanish radish. Eu., As., N.Afr. •Raphanus sativus. Eu., As., N.Afr. Senebiera coronopus. Eu., As., Afr. Senebiera didyma; Pepper-wort. Eu., As., Afr. Sisymbrium officinale; Wild mustard. Eu., W.As. 565 Polygaleae. Muraltia Heisteria. S.Afr. Polygala myrtifolia. S.Afr. Polygala virgata. S.Afr. Lineae. Linum gallicum. S.Eu., N.Afr. Geraniaceae. •Erodium cicutarium; Storks bill. Eu., As., Afr. •Erodium moschatum ; Musky storksbill. Eu., W. As., W. Afr. •Oxalis cernua; Sour grass. S. Afr. •Oxalis versicolor. S. Afr. Oxalis purpurata. S. Afr. Pelargonium sp.; Garden geranium. S. Afr. Malvaceae. Malva parviflora; Small-flowered mallow. S. Eu. Malva rotundifolia; Dwarf mallow. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. •Malva silvestris; Marsh mallow. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. Modiola Caroliniana Modiola multifida. S. Am. Sida rhombifolia; Paddy's lucerne. Warm regions of both hemispheres. Enphorbiaceae. Euphorbia Helioscopia; Sun spurge. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. Euphorbia Lathyris. S. Eu. •Euphorbia Peplus; Common spurge. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. •Ricinus communis; Castor-oil plant. As., Afr. Urticaceae. Urtica dioica; Perennial nettle. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. •Urtica urens; Small nettle. Eu., As., Afr. Ficoideae. Mesembryanthemum crystallinum; Ice plant. Eu., As., Afr. •Mesembryanthemum edule; Hottentot fig. S. Afr. Mesembryanthemum pomeridianum. S' Afr. Poilulaceae. Claytonia caulescens. Am. Catyophylleae. Arenaria serpyllifolia. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. •Cerastium vulgatum ; Mouse ear chick weed. North, hem. Dianthus prolifer; Pink. Eu., W. As. Lychnis Githago ; Corn cockle. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. Saponaria Vaccaria ; Cow soap-wort. S. Eu., As., N. Afr. Silene cucubalus. Eu., As. Afr. •Silene Gallica; Catchfly. S. Eu. •Spergula arvensis ; Spurry. Eu., W.As., N. Afr. Spergula pentandra. Eu., As., Afr. Stellaria media ; Chickweed. Temperate Northern hemisphere. 566 Amarantaceae. Amarantus albus. Am. Amarantus Blitum. S. Eu., W. As., N Am. •Amarantus paniculatus; Red leg. As. Amarantus spinosus. As., Afr., Am. Amarantus viridis ; Green amaranth. As. Salsolaceae. Atriplex hortense; Garden orache. N.E.Eu., \'. As. Atriplex patulum ; Wild orache. Temperate North, hem. Chenopodium album ; White goosefoot. Eu., As. •Chenopodium ambrosioides; Stinking g foot. Am. 'Chenopodium glaucum; Oak-leaved g. foot. W. As., N. Am. •Chenopodium murale; Nettle-leaved g. foot. W. As., N. Afr. "Chenopodium olidum. Eu. Polygonaceae. •Emex australis. S. Afr. 'Polygonum aviculare; Knot-weed. Eu , N. and VV. As. Polygonum convolvulus; Black bindweed. Temp, north, hem. Polygonum lapathifolium ; Smart weed. Eu. •Rumex acetosella ; Sorrell. Temp, north hem. Rumex conglomeratus; Clustered dock. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. •Rumex crispus ; Curled dock. Temp. As., N. Afr. Rumex pulcher; Fiddle dock. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. •Rumex sp. (probably R. vesicarius. S. Afr.) Phytolaccaccae. Phytolacca Americana. Am. Phytolacca decandra; Red ink plant. Am. Phytolacca octandra; Ink plant. Am. Legiuninosa. Arachis hypog&a; Peanut. West Ind. Argyrolobium Andrewsianum. S.Afr. Cajanus bicolor. Trop. As. Cytisus scoparius; Broom. Eu., N.As. Genista canadensis. Eu., N.Afr. Indigofera atropurpurea. Himalaya. Lathyrus Aphaca. Eu. Lotus tetragonolobus. Eu., As., Afr. •Lupinus spp. Am. •Medicago denticulata ; Burr medick. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. Medicago lupulina; Black medick. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. Medicago maculata; Spotted medick. Eu., N.Afr. Medicago minima; Burr medick. Eu., W.A., N.Afr. Medicago orbicularis. S.Eu. Medicago sativa; Lucerne. Eu. N.Afr. Medicago scutellata. S.Eu. Melilotus alba; White melilot. Eu., N. and W. As. 567 •Melilotus parviflora; Scented melilot. S.Eu., W.As., N.Afr Ononis natrix; Goatroot. Eu. Psoralea pinnata. S.Afr. Trifolium agrarium; Hop trefoil. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. Trifolium arvense; Hare's-foot trefoil. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. Trifolium glomeratum. Eu., N.Afr. •Trifoiium pratense; Red clover. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. •Trifolium procumbens. Eu., As., Afr. 'Trifolium repens; White clover. Temp. Northern Hem. Trifolium resupinatum. Eu., As., Afr. Trifolium subterraneum. Eu., As., Afr. •Trifolium tomentosum. S. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. Ulex Europeans; Furze. Eu., Afr. Vicia angustifolia. Eu., As., Afr. Vicia hirsuta; Hairy vetch. S.Eu., SW.As., N.Afr. •Vicia sativa; Common vetch. S.Eu., SW.As., N.Afr. Vicia tetrasperma. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. Rosacea: Alchemilla arvensis; Lady's mantle. Eu. W.As., N.Afr. •Rosa rubiginosa; Sweet briar. Eu., N. and W. As. •Rubus fruticosus; Bramble. Eu., N. and W. As., N. Afr. Sanguisorba minor; Salad burnet. Eu., N.As., N.Afr. Sanguisorba polygama. Eu., As. Onagrcae. Epilobium roseum. Temperate Northern Hemisphere. •CEnothera biennis; Evening primrose. N.Am. CEnothera tetraptera. Mexico. Cacteae. Opuntia Brasiliensis; Prickly pear. Brazil. Opuntia Dillenii ,, Am. Opuntia ficus indica „ India, Trop. Am. Opuntia Tuna ,, Mexico. •Opuntia vulgaris ,, Mexico. L'mbcllijerae. Ammi majus; Bull-wort. Eu.. W.As., W.Afr. Bupleuium rotundifolium; Hare's ear. S.Eu., W.As. Carum Petroselinum ; Parsley. Eu., As., Afr. Crithmum maritimum; Real samphire. Eu., As., Afr. Daucus Carota; Common carrot. Eu., N. and W. As., N.Afr. •Foeniculum vulgare; Fennel. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. Peucedanum sativum; Parsnip. Eu., N.As. Cucurbitaccae. Cucumis myriocarpus; Wild melon. S.Afr. Rubiaceae. Galium Aparine ; Cleavers. Temp. North. Hem. Richardsonia humistrata. S.Am. Sherardia arvensis; Field madder. Eu., N. and W. As., N.Afr. 568 Dipsaceae. Scabiosa maritima. Eu., As., Afr. Passijioreae. Passiflora alba. Brazil. Passiflora coerulea. Brazil and Peru. Passiflora edulis; Common passion fruit. Brazil. Compositae. Ageratum conyzoides ; Billy goat weed. Anthemis cotula; Spurious chamomile. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. Anthemis nobilis ; True chamomile. Eu., As., Afr Arctium majus ; Giant burdock. Eu., W.A. Arnoseris pusilla ; Lamb's lettuce. Eu. Aster dumosus. N. Am. Bidens pilosa; Cowage. Warm parts of the North Hem. Carduus acaulis ; Stemless thistle. Eu., N. and W. As. Carduus arvensis; Perrenial th. Eu., N. and W. As., N.Afr. Carduus crispus. •Carduus lanceolatus ; Black thistle. Eu., N. As., N. Afr. 'Carduus Marianus ; Spotted thistle. Eu. Carduus pycuocephalus; Slender th. Eu., N. and W. As., N.Afr. Cathamus tinctorius ; Safflower. S. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. Centaurea calcitrapa; Star thistle. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. 'Centaurea melitensis ; Cockspur. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. Centaurea solstitialis. Eu., N. W. As. Chrysanthemum parthenium. S. Eu., N. Afr. Chrysanthemum segetum; Corn marigold. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. Chichorium Intybus ; Chicory. Eu., N. and W. As., N. Afr. • Cryptostemma calendulacea ; Cape weed. S. Afr. Cynara Scolymus ; Artichoke. S. Eu., S. W. As., N. Afr. Erigeron Canadensis ; Canadian fleabane. N. Am. •Erigeron linifolius ; Cobblers peg. Tropics. Euryops abrotanifolius. S. Afr. •Galinsoga parviflora. Peru. •Hypochoeris glabra ; Annual cat's ear. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. Hypochoeris radicata, Perennial cat's-ear. Eu., N. Afr. •Inula graveolens. Mediteranean region. Kentrophyllum Ianatum ; Woolly thistle. S. Eu. Leontodon hirtus; Hairy hankbit. Eu. Madia sativa ; Pitch weed. Am. •Onopordon Acanthium ; Scotch thistle. Eu., N.As. Osteospermum moniliferum. S.Afr. Picris echioides. Eu., As., Afr. Picris hieracioides. Senecio scandens; Cape ivy. S.Afr. •Senecio vulgaris; Groundsel. Eu., N.Afr. Soliva anthemidifolia. Brazil. 569 •Sonchus arvensis; Sow thistle. Eu., N. and W. As., N.Afr. •Sonchus oleraceus; Sow thistle. Eu., N. and W. As., N.Afr. Tagetes glandulifera; Stinking roger. S.Am. Tanacetum vulgare ; Tansy. N.Eu., N.As., N.W.Am. Taraxacum Dens-leonis; Dandelion. Temp. North. Hem. Tolpis barbata. S.Eu., N.Afr. •Tripteris clandestina. S.Afr. Tragopogon porrifolius; Salsify. Eu., N.As. Wedelia hispida. N.Am. "Xanthium spinosum ; Bathurst burr. Chili. Xanthium strumarium; Ditch burr. Eu., N.As., N.Afr. Zinnia pauciflora. N.Am. Ccurtpamilacece. Lobelia debilis. S.Afr. Lobelia Erinus. Afr. Polemaniacece, Navarretia squarrosa. Am. Plantaginece. Plantago coronopus. Eu., As., Afr. •Plantago lanceolata; Rib-herb. Eu., N. and W. As., Afr. •Plantago major; Large rib-herb. Eu., N. and W. Asia., Afr. Primulacear, Anagallis arvensis; Pimpernel. Eu., N. and W. As., N.Afr. •Anagallis arvensis, var. coerulea. S.Eu., N. and W. Asia., N.Afr. Apocyncce. Vinea rosea; Pink periwinkle. W.Indies. Asclepiadcae. Asclepias curassavica; Red flower. W. Indies. •Gomphocarpus fruticosus; Wild cotton plant. S.Afr. Convolvulaccae. •Cuscuta trifolii ; Dodder. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. Solanaceae. •Datura Stramonium; Thorn apple. As. Datura fastuosa. •Datura tatula; Blue-flowered thorn apple. Lycium Chinense. China. Nicandra physaloides; Apple of Peru. S.Am. •Nicotiana glauca ; Tree tobacco. S.Am. Nicotiana tabacutn; Common tobacco. Am. Physalis Peruviana. S.Am. Solanum aculeatissimum. S.Am. Solanum auriculatum. E. India. •Solanum nigrum. 57o Solanum Pseudo-capsicum. S.Am. "Solanum Sodomaeum; Apple ot Sodom. S.Afr. Solanum pyracanthum. Madagascar. Serophularieae. Antirrhinum Orontium ; Snapdragon. Eu., temp. As., N.Afr. •Bartsia latifolia. Eu., As., Afr. Celsia Cretica; Cretan mullein. S.Eu., N.Afr. Linaria elatine ; Toad flax. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. Linaria genistifolia. S.E.Eu. Linaria vulgaris. Eu. Vesbascum Blattaria; Spurious mullein. Eu., W.As., N.Afr. Vesbascum Creticum. Eu. Vesbascum Thapsus; Mullein. Eu., N. and W. As. Asperifoliae. Anchusa officinale; Common alkanet. Eu., W.A. Echium violaceum; Purple bugloss. S.Eu., N.Afr. •Lithospermum arvense; Common gromwell. Eu., N. and W. As. Labiatac. Leonotus leonurus; Lion's tail. N. Afr. Marrubium vulgare ; White horehound. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. Melissa officinallis; Common balm. Eu., W. As. •Mentha pulegium ; Pennyroyal. G. Eu., W. As. Mentha viridis; Spear Mint. N. & W. As., N. Afr. Molucella laevis; Molucca balm. Medit. region. Nepeta Cataria; Cat mint. N. & W. As. Origanum vulgare; Marjoram. Eu., N. & W. As., N. Afr. Rosmarinus officinalis; Rosemary. Eu., As., Afr. Salvia pratensis; Common sage. Eu., W. As. Salvia verbenaca; Vervain sage. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. "Stachys arvensis; Stagger weed. Eu., N. and W. As., N. Air. Stachys palustris; Swamp betony. Eu., N. As., N. Am. "Stachys sp.? Verbenaceae. •Lantana camara ; Common lantana. S. Am. Lantana Sellowiana; Sellow's lantana. S. Am. Stachytarpeta Jamaicensis. S. Am. Verbena Bonariensis ; Vervain. S. Am. Verbena hispida; Vervain. S. Am. Verbena venosa; Vervain. S. Am. Irnieae. •Hesperantha falcata. S.Afr. •Homeria lineata. S. Afr. *Ixia sp. p. S. Afr. •Lapeyrousia sp. S. Afr. •Romulea rosea. S. Afr. S7i Sisyrinchium Bermudiana. N. Am. Sisyrinchium micranthum. N. Am. Sparaxis grandiflora. Afr. Trichonema Bulbocodium. S. and W. Eu. Watsonia angulata. S. Am. Amaryllideae. .Agave Americana; American aloe. S. Am. Zephyrantes Atamasco. Am. Zephyrantes Candida. S. Am. Liliaceae. Allium fragrans ; Sweet scented garlic. S. Eu. Aphodelus fistulosus. S. Eu. •Bulbinella caudata. S. Afr. Commelincae. Commelina Africana. S. Afr. Poiitederaceae. Pontederia cordata. Am. A ro'uicae. Colocasia antiquorum ; Tars. Tropical. Richardia Africana; Trumpet Lily. S. Afr. Junceae. •Juncus butonius. Eu., As., Afr., Am. Gramincae. Agrostis palustris; Fiorin grass. Eu., As., Afr., Am. Aira caryophyllea. Eu., As., Afr. Aira praecox. Eu., As., Afr. Alopecurus agrestis. Eu., As., Afr. Alopecurus pratensis ; Foxtail grass. Eu., As , Afr. Andropogon Halepensis ; Haleppo grass. Eu., As., Afr. Anthoxanthum odoratum; Scented vernal grass. Eu., As., Afr. Avena elatior ; Meadow oat grass. Eu., As., Afr. Avena fatua ; Wild oat. Eu., As., Afr. *Briza maxima ; Large quaking grass. Eu., As., Afr. •Briza minor ; Small quaking grass. Eu., As., Afr. •Bromus mollis ; Soft brome grass. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. •Bromus sterilis ; Barren brome grass. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. •Bromus unioloides ; Prairie grass. Am. Cynosurus cristatus ; Dogtail grass. Eu., As., Afr. Dactylis glomerata ; Cocks foot grass. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. •Ehrharta longiflora. Afr. Festuca bromoides ; Barren fescue grass. Eu., N. Afr. •Holcus lanatus ; Yorkshire fog grass. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. Holcus mollis ; Creeping velvet grass. Eu., As. Afr. •Hordeum murinum ; Barley grass. Eu., As., N. Afr. 572 Hordeum nodosum. Eu., As., Afr. Koeleria cristata; Crested hair grass. Eu., N. and W. As. N. Afr. Koeleria phleoides. G. Eu. Lamarckia aurea. G. Eu. •Lolium perenne; Rye grass. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. Lolium temulentum; Darnel grass. Eu., W. As., N. Afr. •Panicum spectabile. Paspalum distichum ; Silt grass. Am. Pennisetum longistylum. Abyssinia. •Phalaris Canadensis; Canary-seed grass. Eu., As., Afr. Phalaris minor. Eu., As., Afr. Phleum pratense ; Timothy grass. Eu., As., Afr. *Poa annua; Annual poa. Eu., X. and W. As., N. Afr. Poa pratensis; Common poa. Eu., As., Afr., Am. Poa trivialis. Eu., As., Afr. Polypogon Monspeliensis; Beard grass. Eu., As., Afr. "Stenotaphrum Americanum; Buffalo grass. Am. CHAPTER VIII. THE POISON-PLANTS OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA. (Bv Dr. Alex. Morrison, Botanist, Bureau of Agriculture.) The colony of Western Australia has been known from its earliest days, and even from a time prior to actual settlement, to include in its flora a number of plants having properties dangerous to animal life. Some of these grow in such quantity, and over so large an area of the colony, as to have materially hindered the progress of settlement on its soil, by making the rearing of stock impracticable. The recent impulse towards agricultural settlement has brought the subject of poison-plants into greater prominence than before, and settlers have agitated for assistance in dealing with the pest. The loss sustained by the colony through the poisons, and the detriment thev cause to its progress, are of a magnitude not easily realised. The Hon. C. H. Piesse, M.L.C., in speaking of his own personal experience of their effects, has stated that on one occasion he had seen a flock of 900 sheep in a fresh- burnt patch of York Road poison, and that half an hour afterwards 522 were found poisoned. He also expressed his opinion that the south-western portion of the colony would carry 10,000 sheep where it now carries only 100, were it not for these plants. The Bureau of Agriculture, recognising the necessity for Governmental action in the matter, made the following statement in its Second Annual Report, for the year ending June 30th, 1895 (Journal of the Bureau of Agriculture, 6th August, 1895, vol. ii., p. 514): —" The Bureau is of opinion that the poison question is one of the greatest importance, and that every effort should be made to ascertain the nature of the alkaloids in those plants, which infest so large an area of the colony, with a view to discovering whether there are any simple, cheap, and effective antidotes, and whether the alkaloids have any commercial value. The investigation should be botanical, chemical, and veterinary, and the Bureau proposes, if funds are forthcoming, to undertake the botanical and veterinary branches of the investigation." In the year 1892 Mr. Bernard H. Woodward, curator of the Perth Museum, had been authorised to collect information from settlers and others regarding the poison plants of the colony, and he accordingly issued circulars, of which a copy is given below, request- ing information on the subject. "I am authorised by the honorable the Colonial Secretary to make a report upon the poison plants of this colony. To this end I 574 shall esteem it a favor if you will kindly fill in the blank spaces in the annexed form as far as you can, and also answer the questions asked thereunder. The points I hope to settle, if possible, are as follows :— ist. The botanical classification of the plants. 2nd. The nature of the poisons. 3rd. Their effects. 4th. The proper antidotes. 5th. The commercial or medical value of these poisons. The popular and botanical names of the following plants were given :—York road—Gastrolobium grandiflora, G. calycinum (Bentham). Heart-leaved—G. bilobum (R. Brown), G. largijolium. Narrow-leaved—G. longifolium. Berry—G. pannfolium (Bentham). Rock—G. Callistachys (Meissner). Bloom—G. ovalifolium (Henfrey), Oxylobium rclusum (Brown). Box—G. parviftorum, 0. oxylobioides (Bentham). Sand plain, blue, Candyup, prickly, bullock. The following information was sought—Locality and nature of the soil on which it grows; month of flowering; usual height of plant; when dangerous, if all the year or only at flowering or other season ; to what stock it is hurtful, and in what manner it affects them. The questions asked were—" Do you consider that there are two varieties of York road, viz., a large and a small, and if so, which do you consider the more dangerous? Will you be willing to send me specimens of the plants in flower, and also seeds later on, if requested? Do you know of any other poisonous plants?" Replies were sent in from 30 of those to whom the schedules of enquiries had been forwarded, and a quantity of useful information on the prevalence, mode of growth, and injurious effects of the various kinds of poison was obtained by this means. On these returns the following account of the poison plants has been to a large extent based. The information obtained from them may, in some particulars, require correction, and criticism from those interested will be welcome. It is not always clear whether the facts stated in these returns have been acquired in the writer's own experience, or are of a hearsay character. Facts correctly described by the person who has actually observed them are on a different foot- ing from statements derived from others, who on their part may also have got the information on hearsay. The statements may be correct, but there is always a risk of them becoming modified as they are passed from one to another, if not easily confirmed by each person for himself. It is also difficult to distinguish between statements of what has actually occurred and guesses, inferences, beliefs, or opinions,—many, in place of stating the facts themselves, giving what are really the impressions made on their minds by 575 what they had seen or heard. If an animal is found to show symptoms like those produced by poison-plants, it is desirable to ascertain, if possible, that it had been seen to eat a certain plant, or that portions of it had been found in its stomach after death. Failing this, the beast's illness might as reasonably be supposed to have been due to some other cause. A knowledge of the various poison-plants would enable anyone to decide, from their presence or absence in the neighborhood, whether the animal's sickness might be put down to one of those plants or not ; and a knowledge of the way in which they affect animals would be equally useful. So many plants have been suspected of poisoning stock that simple facts, correctly stated, are much needed for fixing their character as injurious, or clearing them of suspicion ; and it is to be hoped that those having the opportunity will communicate such definite facts to the Bureau of Agriculture, in order that they may be utilised and placed on record. It will be understood, from what has been said, that the following notes, imperfect and fragmentary as they are, are not put forward as a complete account of the poison-plants, but rather that they are meant as a step towards an enquiry into the subject, with a view to elucidating their nature and properties. Before discovering antidotes, or devising means for the prevention of poisoning of stock, or putting the poisons to useful purposes, it is necessary first of all to gather all the informa- tion possible about the plants, and to follow that up with systematic observation and experiment on the action of the poisons, the effect of antidotes, and other means of treatment. Notes of the symptoms of poisoning, the order of their incidence, and the post-mortem appearances, may be made by those under whose observation the occurrence may have happened ; and if these are written down on the spot, and forwarded with specimens of the plant found to have caused the accident, our knowledge of the poisons and their effects may be materially advanced. The first requirement in discussing any question is to have a clear understanding about the identity of the objects spoken of. In the case of a plant it is necessary to know its name, and if con- fusion is to be avoided that name must be one having a strictly defined application and be generally adopted by the world at large. Such a name is Oxylobium pannjlorttm, definitely associated with a species of plant having certain botanical characters, but known to colonists under a number of different English names, as box, nar- row-leaf, sandplain. In order to be sure of the identity of a plant called by any of these names it is necessary to refer to its scientific description as given in an authoritative work on the subject ; and while a resident of one part of the colony may call it box, another in a different district narrow-leaf, and a third may pronounce it sandplain, the botanist has one name for the three, namely, Oxylo- bium pannflorum. While it is desirable to know a plant by a well- defined name, applicable to that species alone, it is, on the other 576 hand, equally necesssry to those who have to study and discuss reference a collection of specimens of those plants from different localities and showing all the variations in their growth. The name is the key to the information accumulated in books, and a herbarium, as a collection of dried specimens of plants is called, is necessary, as are books, for the acquirement of information regard- ing all those natural objects referable to the vegetable kingdom. Hitherto it has been the custom to send specimens of plants suspected of being poisonous to other colonies, where libraries and herbaria are in existence, in order to have their identity estab- lished, but it is to be hoped that before long this course will not in ordinary cases be necessary. It is one of the objects of this account of the poison plants of the colony to supply readers with the means of identifying for themselves such of the known species as they may meet with. A description of each is given, copied, with verbal modifications, from the second and seventh volumes of Bentham and Mueller's Flora Australiensis, so that any one on finding a plant supposed to be poisonous may compare it with the description here given. If it shows the characters defined in the printed description, its identity may be considered established, but any material disagree- ment will show that the specimen does not belong to the species described. The most important of the poison-plants of this colony belong to the natural order Lcgumiiiosae, which is characterised, in its prin- cipal division, by flowers having the form well-known to all as "pea- blossoms," and by the seeds being contained in a " pod." They bear the botanical names of the genera Gastrolobium and Oxylobium, which agree with one another in having their stamens all fiee, or not united to one another, and in their leaves being simple, or not composed of more than one blade or leaflet. The main point of difference between the Oxylobiums and the Gastrolobiums, taking each genus as a whole, lies in the number of seeds in the pod—that of Gastrolobium containing onlv two, while Oxylobium may have four or more. In Oxylobium parvijlorum and O. retusum, however, the number of seeds does not exceed four, and, in the former, it is often only one or two, probably from failure of the seeds to set. The pod may be stalked or not in either genus, but in Gastrolobium it is rarely without a stalk, and is shorter than in Oxylobium, which produces usually a greater number of seeds. The bunches of flowers in the poisonous species of Gastrolobium are commonly longer than in Oxylobium, and more frequently form the terminal points of the branches, instead of springing from the angles between the upper leaves and the stem. It is sometimes difficult to deter- mine to which of the two genera a given plant may belong, but if more than two seeds are found in the pod it may be set down as Oxylobium. Plants closely allied to one another, may, however, be plants and their natural history 577 sometimes easily discriminated by their general aspect as they grow, although their characters as given in books may, bv them- selves, appear inadequate. Heart-leaved Poison. Gastrolobiitnt bilobum.—A tall shrub, the young branches angular, and usually silky; leaves mostly in circles of 3 or 4 round the branches, from oval to narrow-oblong, always more or less wedge shaped, broad at the end or notched, with two short rounded lobes, and with a minute short point, f to 1 ^ in. long or rarely smaller, veined and hairless above, pale and often minutely silky underneath. Flowers numerous, in very short flat-topped bunches rarely exceeding the leaves. Calyx silky, two to four lines long, the two upper points broader and blunter than the others, and united to about the middle. Upper petal about twice as long as the calyx; lower ones rather shorter, the lowermost deeply coloured. Pod stalked, oval or oblong, rather sharply pointed, two, three, and even four lines long. Var. angustifolium.—Leaves narrow wedge-shaped, but not otherwise differing from the common form. The botanical and the common names of this plant both have reference to the two-lobedor heart shape of the leaf. It is reported as found from York southwards to Albany and the Blackwood River, in sandy, rocky, clayey, or loamy soil. The height to which the shrub grows is very variable, like the nature of the soil, the average being about six to ten feet, but the extremes are given as 6 inches to 20, or even 25 feet. It begins to flower in August or September, continuing till December or January. It is most dan- gerous to stock when the young shoots come up after bush fires, at flowering and at seeding time, and all kinds of stock are liable to bs poisoned by it. Rock Poison. Gastrolobium callistachys.—An erect shrub of 2 or 3 feet, with twiggy branches, minutely and closely silky-hairy ; leaves scattered or in irregular circles on the branches, very narrow, blunt or some- times even indented at the end, which is tipped with a minute point, 1 to 2 inches long, flat or with recurved edges, hairless or silky-hairy underneath; flowers rather large, in terminal racemes of 3 to 4 inches; calyx silky, fully 3 lines long, the two upper lobes broadly scimitar-shaped, but scarcely united together; upper petal nearly twice as long as the calyx ; the others about as long; pod about 4 lines long, broadly oval, scarcely acute, on a stalk of i£ lines. Bentham adds to his description: "This is sent as one of the Swan river poison-plants." Found in hilly and rocky country in the north and north- eastern districts of the colony, from the Murchison to the Kalgan, but not plentiful. Grows to a height of 1 foot to 3, 5, or 7 feet, and flowers between September and December. 578 York Road Poison. Gastrolobium calycinum.—An erect shrub, nearly allied to G. oxylobioides, but quite destitute of hairs; leaves opposite or in threes, oblong-elliptical or, more frequently, lancet-shaped, with a pungent point, one to two inches long, rigid, net-veined, and often glaucous; flower racemes tipping the branches or in the angles formed by the upper leaves with the branch ; Howers few and large in distant pairs or threes; calyx five to nearly six lines long, the points or lobes rather linger than the lower part, the two upper ones broad, rounded at the end and united above the middle; upper petal about three-quarters of an inch in diameter; lowermost deeply colored, rather shorter than the side ones; pod on a very short stalk. The well-known " York-road " occurs as a small shrub, varying in height from one to three or four feet, growing, according to the reports received, in any soil, from barren sand to rich, but evidently quite at home in soils of the poorest quality. Its period of Howermg is from September to December. According to Mr. E. R. Parker, "this plant is very general over all the south-western division of the colony, and took its name from the fact that it destroyed sheep, cattle and goats at different places on the York Road, all the way from Guildford to York, from 1834 to 1884." It prevails much more, he says, in some other parts than in the eastern districts. All kinds of stock are subjects to its poisonous effects—cattle, sheep, goats, and also horses—and it is dangerous at all times, but especially so while young and tender, Howering or seeding. It is often noted as particularly deadly after bush fires, when the suc- culent young shoots or seedlings spring up and offer a tempting morsel to stock. At a later stage, the flowers are probably as attractive ; and the seeds, later still, are likely to furnish the poison in a more concentrated and deadly form, while, at the same time, the leaves have become harsher and drier and less palatable. According to one report, the old plant will not poison in February or March. Some believe there are two varieties of York Road poison, but others think there Is only one. It is not unlikely that some other plant may occasionally be mistaken for the true Gastivlobtum caly- cinum, or that variations in growth, according to soil, season, or other surroundings, may so alter it as to give it the appearance of a distinct species. In such a case, specimens forwarded to the Bureau of Agriculture may settle the point. Desert Poison. Gastrolobium grandiflorum.—Young branches and flowers softly silky, the full-grown foliage almost without hairs and glaucous; leaves opposite, or the upper ones scattered, from oval to oblong, blunt or notched at the tip, 1^ to 3 inches long, flat, leathery; racemes short, loose, in angles of leaves, and terminating the 579 branches, with few large flowers on stalklets; calyx softly hairy, 4 to 5 lines long, the lobes or points much shorter than the lower part, the two upper ones broad, scythe-shaped, and united nearly to the middle; upper petal fully J of an inch diameter, lower petals rather shorter, the lowermost much incurved and deeply colored ; pod stalked, hairy, about \ of an inch long, oval, pointed, swollen. According to the late Baron von Mueller this tall shrub is a tropic species only, growing in the Nickol Bay district, and also in the tropical portions of South Australia, New South Wales, and Queensland. He has recorded that it poisoned large numbers of cattle and sheep on the Cape river in 1863-64. According to Bailey and Gordon it is a virulent poison; but drivers and teamsters state that it ceases to be poisonous after the flower appears. Analysis of dried specimens by Mr. Staiger failed to show the poisonous constituent. It is called the "wallflower" poison-bush, and is also known as the "Australian " and " desert" poison.• Gastrolobium ovaIifotium.— -A low shrub, its young branches hairy, leaves mostly opposite, ovate, rounded or broadly oblong, often notched at the end, ^ to 1 inch long, margins thickened and nerve-like, not wavy, leathery, hairless above, net-veined and hairy, or at length deprived of hairs underneath; bunches of flowers scarcely stalked, rather slender, 1 to 3 in. long ; flowers nearly stalk- less; calyx hairy, 2\ to nearly 3 lines long; lower petals deeply coloured; pod with a very short stalk, ovoid, pointed, about 3 lines long. Referred to by Maiden (Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., v. 141) as the "Broom " poison bush. See under Oxylobium retusum p. 582. Gastrolobium oxylobioides.—An erect shrub of 1 to 2 feet— nearly allied to G. calycinum, which, however, is quite hairless— not much branched, without hairs or the young shoots and flower stalks slightly silky-hoary; leaves opposite or in threes, elliptical- oblong, broad or narrow, tapering to a pungent point, 1 to i&, or rarely 2 inches long, leathery, rigid, net-veined, and often folded lengthwise ; bunches of flowers terminating the branches, or situated in the angles of the upper leaves, consisting of few flowers in dis- tant pairs or threes; stalklets of flowers short; calyx about 3 lines long, silky-hairy, the lobes or points broad, the 2 upper ones united * Since the above was written a specimen of this plant has been received by the Bureau from Mr. James Isdell, of Nullagine. He obtained it from .Mr. F. H, Haim, an old explorer, who recognised it as identical with a bush he had often seen killing stock in Queensland. Mr. Isdell says it is a bushy shrub, reaching a height of five feet, and grows in what is generally known as Warburton's Desert, in the country where the remains of the late Messrs. Wells and Jones were found, and it may possibly account for the death of both Messrs. Wells' and Rudall's camels. 58o to above the middle; upper petals about twice as long as the calyx, the lowermost rather shorter than the side ones ; pod about 3 lines long, on a stalk very much shorter than the calyx. Noted in the Flora Australiensis is one of the poison-plants, and bracketed with Oxylobium patvillorum as the box poison in Mr. Woodward's circular. Specimens and authentic notes of poisonous effects caused by it, are required to settle identity and properties. Berry Poison. Gastrolobium parvifolium.—A rigid spreading heath-like shrub, the branches hairy. Leaves crowded, in irregular circles round the branches, narrow-oblong, blunt, with a minute point, under ^-inch long, thick and leathery, convex underneath, hairless and net- veined, the midrib scarcely conspicuous. Bunches of flowers ter- minating the branches, rather dense, rarely longer than one inch when in flower, often two inches in fruit, the stalk and stalkJets softly and densely hairy. Calyx veinless and without hairs, broadly bell-shaped, about two lines long, the two upper divisions almost completely united into a blunt upper lip, the three lower ones much shorter. Upper petal twice as long as the calyx; side ones shorter, almost as broad as long, all narrowed near their attachment. Pod stalked, compressed-globular, oblique, very blunt, hairless. Reported from the eastern and south-western districts, grow- ing mostly in sandy and gravelly soils, height one to two or three feet, and flowering between September and January. There is a consensus of opinion as to the greater virulence of this poison during the flowering and specially the seeding stages, some believ- ing it is not dangerous to stock at other times. Mr. E. R. Parker says "it is seldom that any mischief befalls a flock from this poison till October, November, or December, when it is in flower or pod." Pricklv Poison. Gastrolobium spinosum.—A shrub of two to four feet, usually quite hairless, but sometimes the young shoots clothed with a very evanescent wool, and the calyx and stalklets with a more persistent down ; leaves mostly opposite, broadly heart-shaped, ending in a pungent point, and bordered with prickly teeth, or rarely almost or quite even-edged, three-quarters to one and a half inches long, often as broad as long, rigid and often glaucous; bunches of tlowers loose, stalked, one to one and a half inches long ; calyx broad, about two lines long, the points much shorter than the lower portion, the two upper ones united nearly to the top; upper petal streaked, half inch diameter, side ones rather shorter and scarcely exceeding the lowermost, which is broad and deeply coloured; pod stalked, hairless, bent-oval, four to five lines long, with a narrow point. Variety, triangulate ; leaves triangular heart-shaped, with pun- gent points only at the angles; flowers smaller, the bunches looser and more stalked. 58x This plant, which is easily recognised from its prickly holly-like leaves, is reported from the south-west, central, and north-east districts, and is found in rough scrub and rocky places, or on clay plains. Its height is from two to four feet, and it flowers in Sep- tember and October. Like the others, it is hurtful when in flower or in pod, or after fires; and it may be assumed that when its spiny leaves are old and dry, it is less likely to be eaten, whether in that state its leaves are equally poisono us or less so than when young and tender. Box Poison. Oxylobium parviflorum.—A tall spreading shrub, the young shoots hoary with a minute silky pubescence; leaves alternate, opposite or in threes, narrow oblong, slightly wedge-shaped or linear, blunt or notched, mostly about i inch long, leathery, hairless above, minutely silky pubescent underneath, the margins usually recurved; flowers small, orange-yellow and purple, in slender bunches, terminal or in the angles of the upper leaves, often 2 to 3 inches long; calyx about 2 lines long, minutely pubescent, the points acute, and scarcely so long as the lower part, the two upper ones broader curved and united nearly to the top into a square upper lip; uppermost petal nearly 4 lines diameter, the lower ones rather shorter ; pod on a rather long stalk, 4 to 6 lines long, hairy, with a narrow point ; seeds only one or two, instead of four, without any outgrowth near their attachment, embedded in a pithy substance lining the cell. The box poison is found in the central, eastern, south-west and southern districts of the colony, and grows in all qualities of soil—sand, gravel, clay, rocky, or good land. Some believe it to be specially associated with the white gum, so that when that tiee is met with the box poison may be looked for. It flowers between August and December, and attains a height of six or eight feet, the minimum reported being one foot. It is a virulent poison and pro- duces a large quantity of seed, according to Mr. E. R. Parker, who states that he has known the flesh of pigeons that have been feeding on box-poison seeds kill dogs and cats. Sandplain poison appears—judging from the only scrap of the plant available—to be referable to Oxylobium parviflorum, and is therefore a variety of box, modified by the particular conditions under which it has grown. It is reported from the sandplains in districts to the north and north-east of Perth, and also from iron- stone gravel ridges at the Kalgan River. It is found from six inches to two, three, or four feet in height, and flowers between August and December, and, like the other poison plants, is most dangerous when in flower or in seed, or when sending up young shoots. 582 Narrow-leaved Poison.—This is another variety of Oxylobium parvifloium, reported from the southern districts, from York south- wards; growing in various kinds of soil it ranges in height from 9 inches to 3 or 4, or even 5 feet, and is in flower from September to December or January. Dangerous at all seasons, and very little of it is required to kill any animal. Box, sandplain, narrow leaf and marlock poison bushes small to be varieties of the one species of Oxylobium. In the box ihe leaf is short and very like that of the true box from which presum- ably it has derived its name. In narrow-leaf, on the other hand, the leaves are sometimes to be seen 2 inches in length, and arranged in clusters of 5 to 7 at one level round the branches, instead of being scattered over them. Bloom Poison. Oxylobium rctusum.—A much-branched, rigid shrub, the young branches angular and hoary or pubscent ; leaves mostly opposite, stalked, ovate or oblong, blunt, square or notched at the end, usually one to two inches long, rigidly coriaceous, hairless and net- veined above, silky or rarely hairless underneath ; flowers reddish- yellow, in dense, almost stalkless, terminal clusters, or rarely also in the angles of the upper leaves; calvx very hairy, about three or rarely nearly four lines long, divided to about the middle into broadly lance-shaped lobes ; petals about half as long again as the calyx ; pod on a very short stalk, oval, pointed, about four lines long, very hairy; seeds with an outgrowth near their attach- ment. Variety minus.—Leaves smaller; flowers mostly terminal ; calyx less villous. Found apparently only in the southern districts, where it grows in poor rocky or gravelly soil, flowering between August and December, and of any height between six inches and six feet. It is by most considered dangerous to stock only when in flower or in pod. Two species of plants are set down as corresponding to that popularly known as bloom poison, namely, Oxylobium rctusum and Gastrolobium ovalifolium; but from the fact that the former species is recorded in Bentham and Mueller's Flora only from the southern districts of Western Australia, while bloom poison is similarly reported from the same parts, the presumption is that 0. rctiisuin and the bloom poison are the same thing. Besides, Gastrolobium ovalifolium, at the date of the Flora Australiensis (1864), was only known from the specimens of one collector (Drummond) and was originally described by Henfrey from a culti- vated plant. These facts seem to imply that the latter species is an uncommon one, and therefore less likely to have had its identity or poisonous properties recognised. 5«4 stihient to be dissolved out of the tissues of the plant before it can be absorbed by the stomach and enter the circulation of the animal. The diffusion of the poison throughout the body of one animal, so that the Hesh may be similarly poisonous to another devouring it, thus escaping neutralisation on being subjected to the various vital processes in the animal economv, is in contrast with its destruction by the operations of roasting or boiling, which, accord- ing to Drummond and others, render the Ilesh quite wholesome. Notes on the post mortem appearances observable after poisoning by these plants are somewhat scanty. A change in the blood is said to take place, becoming darker than natural according to Drummond, who also notes that the stomach assumes a brown colour, and becomes more tender than usual. Mr. H. Lukin observes that "the rough inner coating of the paunch will always strip readily on being touched, and this applies in all cases of poisoning with the above poisons." Excessive swelling takes place immediately after death, and is due no doubt to rapid decomposi- tion giving rise to the production of gases that distend the relaxed intestines of the animal. Mr. E. R. Parker observes: "When sheep, horses or cattle die from eating this poison (York Road) decompo- sition immediately after death takes place so rapidly that in a few days the carcase has so decidedly disappeared that one would almost believe that quicklime had been used with that desire. If this was caused by some peculiar properties in the poison, it would be well to know it." Treatment. As might be expected in the case of sickness caused by poisons so powerful and rapid in their action, treatment does not appear to have been satisfactory, as regards any beneficial result. Removal of the poisonous material from the stomach and intestines is not mentioned, and in all probability cannot safely be done by the administration of medicines in liquid form, owing to the danger of dissolving out more of the poison, and thus promoting its absorption into the system of the animal. Common soda in solution, and bleeding, have been tried, but without benefit; indeed, either might rather hasten the death of the animals. No antidote is known to the correspondents who have sent information about the poison plants, but all seem to be in agreement in recommending that the affected animals should not be allowed to drink or to move about, much less to be driven, which is likely to bring about sudden death. Mr. Maiden quotes T.R.C. Walter, who says, "With sheep which have eaten the herb the best treatment has been found to fold them, or shut them up in a yard, so closely packed that they can hardly move, and to keep them thus without food for 36 hours." By having recourse to this method, which seems to be generally approved, the danger of over-exertion and that connected with the drinking of water are avoided, and nature is given a chance to get rid of the poison before it has had time to bring about a fatal result. 5«5 The means thus taken to save the lives of poisoned animals are preventive rather than curative, and though remedies in the form of antidotes, that would neutralise the poison in the blood, or before it has had time to be absorbed into the blood, would be most desirable, yet in the long run prevention is better than cure, and is the wisest method of coping with the evil. Keeping the sick beasts at perfect rest, and denying them water, hinders the process of poisoning, and may be considered preventive, but evacuation of the stomach and bowels of their contents would stay its further action. An antidote that would kill the poison would be of the greatest value, but it would be better still to prevent stock feeding on the plants. In taking stock through country in which poison plants grow, means should be adopted to prevent them browsing on these bushes. Mr. C. R. Fenwick says :—" Sheep and stock may be taken through growing poison without harm, if proper precautions are taken. Some shepherds lose no sheep from the poisons, others lose lose large numbers. It will be found that many of the greatest losses of sheep and stock have been occasioned through neglect and inattention on the part of the shepherds. Various devices and remedies are adopted, full particulars of which should be ascertained." Eradication. More effective still would be the eradication of the poison- plants. This would literally strike at the root of the evil, and when accomplished would save all further trouble. Those who have given their opinions regarding their extermination do not express any doubt as to its feasibility, and it seems to be only a question ot labor, which has its money equivalent in so much per acre. The plants grow in the form of shrubs, mostly of small size, or herbs, and pulling them up by the root, chopping them down, or grubbing, is simple enough and effectual. These operations should, of course, be carried out at such time and season as will most effectually kill the plants with the least expenditure of labor. Chopping down soon after the growth of the young shoots or seedlings, and before the formation of the seed, may be very effectual; if not, grubbing may be carried out. Exposure of the uprooted plants to the sun in dry or hot weather would help in their destruction, but, to make sure, all should be removed and burned, especially if any seed is likely to have formed. The constant turning over of the soil in culti- vation will secure their extermination, but the land so treated would only be a fractional part of the infested area. The soil in which the poison-plants naturally grow is mostly of a poor character and unlikely to give a proportionate return for labor expended on it, so that their eradication is likely to be slow and imperfect, unless special efforts are made with that end in view. 586 Tolerance of Poisons. It is a well-known fact that certain substances, poisonous under ordinary circumstances, become less so when partaken of frequently in moderate and gradually increasing doses, so that the longer the habit is kept up, larger and larger quantities may be taken without the ordinary poisonous effects appearing. A tolerance of the poison is thus established, as in the case of opium-eaters, who by taking this drug habitually for special purposes become so used to it that they find it necessary to continually increase the dose in order to attain the same result. At length a dose that would have been fatal at the commencement may be taken without any immediately serious consequences. There is no lack of evidence tending to show that such a tolerance of the bush poisons may be acquired by animals feeding on them. By nibbling at these bushes while grazing on their ordinary food, they may advance from a small quantity to a larger, especially if their proper food becomes less plentiful; and their systems may be gradually inured to the poison, and a tolerance of it at length reached. Whether, like the opium-eater, the domestic or wild animals derive special enjoyment from their consumption 01 the poison-plants, or acquire such an inordinate craving for them as to tempt them to take more and more till their health is ruined, is not so evident. The following facts support the view that animals may acquire an immunity from the effects of the bush poisons :— (1) . Travelling or imported stock, new to the district. are more frequently poisoned than those stationed near the poison plants; (2) . Wild horses and some cattle mav graze amongst poison without any ill effects ; (3). The flesh of wild animals when killed and eaten by dogs and cats sometimes poisons them, though not when cooked. Before accepting these statements as conclusive, however, the sagacity of animals in avoiding the poison, and the possibility of some portion of the plants themselves, contained in the stomachs of those eaten, being consumed along with the flesh, have to be taken into consideration. Differences in the degree of virulence of poisonous plants are also known to exist in other countries according to locality and season. A striking illustration ot tolerance, as narrated by the Hon. A. R. Richardson, if correctly observed, would appear to show that some forms of animal life may be indifferent to the poisonous principles. The carcase of a poisoned goat was buried, and as it decomposed the maggots creeping from it were devoured by fowls, that sickened and died in consequence. In this case the maggots, being born and bred among the poison, seemed to have acquired a tolerance of it, and at the same time to have been so saturated with it as to convey a fatal dose into the system of the fowls. Mr. E. R. Parker, in referring to the eradication of the box poison, says : " If fed off by sheep when first it springs up it will never shoot again." The suggestion that sheep should be turned in to feed on the young shoots of this virulent 587 poison bush indicates at the least a firm belief in the presumably acquired immunity or freedom of those sheep from the effects ordinarily produced by it on animals. That the immunity of the maggots must have been acquired seems to be supported by the in- teresting fact that some of the poisons are effective against such lowlv animal organisms as that of scab. Mr. C. S. Brockman says: "The rock poison has been used as a dip for scab, and proved very effective." Palm Poison. The Macrozamia Fraseri, sometimes also called Encephalartos Fraseri, and incorrectly spoken of as zamia—is a native plant having much of the aspect of a palm or of a tree fern. It belongs, however, to the natural order Cycadacae, which has relationship with the Coniferae or pine tree family, both having their flowers arranged in cones, and their seeds naked instead of being enclosed in a seed vessel. Other members of the same family, belonging to the genera Maerozamia or Encephalartos, Cycas and Bowenia, are natives of Queensland and New South Wales, but the species found there are different from the West Australian plant, though possessing similar noxious properties. The macrozamia is a palm-like plant having a thick stem globose underground, and growing in time to a considerable height, erect and cylindrical, bearing at its summit a crown of thick and leathery pinnate leaves, which, as they become old, bend down- wards and drop off, leaving scars on the surface of the stem. The seeds are in the form of hard nuts, produced in cones that spring up at the base of the leaves, and, like the stem of the plant itself, are very tenacious of life. The plant has long been known to possess deleterious properties, due partly to indigestibility, but more from the poisonous constituents that bring on in the animals feeding on them a series of symptoms ending in partial paralysis of their hind quarters. The disease is known by the names "rickets" and "wobbles," from the "wobbling" character of the gait of the animal affected by it. In New South Wales and Queensland the same complaint affects stock, and has been found to be due to their feeding on the cycadaceous plants native to those parts. Mr. H. H. Edwards, Government Veterinary Surgeon, has made experiments with this plant proving conclusively that it is poisonous to animals fed on it. As described by him in his paper on the sub- ject,' a yearling calf was fed with 6 lbs. of chaffed macrozamia leaves each day, and symptoms of poisoning made their appearance on the seventh day. On the eighth, or second day of poisoning, blood appeared in the urine, but this symptom usually passes off again, seldom lasting longer than twenty-four hours. Between the third and ninth day walking becomes more difficult, the beast wobbles * Report of the Government Veterinary Surgeon, Mr. H. H. Edwards, on the disease known as " Rickets " or " Wobbles " (Journal of the Bureau of Agriculture of Western Australia, 1894, I., 225-234). 588 and may fall to the ground; there is constipation, but the appetite continues good, and there is no thirst; incontinence of urine comes on, and the animal is short of breath on making any exertion. "On the tenth day, what might be called the minor symptoms pass off, leaving the animal partially paralysed, generally for life." Mac- rozamia poisoning, though serious, is "not a direct cause of death; animals dying, as a rule, simply from starvation, through inabilitv to move about and procure food." Poisoned animals fatten readily when well fed, and their flesh, as well as the milk of cows, retain their wholesome qualities. Post mortem examinations showed that the poison had taken effect on the smaller arteries of the body, causing thrombosis or blocking of the tubes, thus interfering with the blood supply of different organs, and leading to incurable disease. The effects are similar to those produced by ergot of rye, one of the most valuable and important drugs in the Pharmacopoeia. No abnormal appear- ances were found in the digestive canal, but the liver was studded with patches of congestion and the kidneys were congested. Thrombosis of the smallest arteries, and of those passing through the bones of the spine to the spinal marrow, was found, with pale- ness of the muscles, exudation between them and blood-stained patches in the neighbourhood of the small arteries; occlusion of the capillary vessels at the tips of the ears, at the coronets and at the tip of the tail, associated with loss of hair at those parts, leaving the skin bare and shiny. In cases of old standing the horns soften, bend downwards and even drop off. The brain was found to be normal, but reddish watery fluid was found in the spinal column, the spinal membranes were injected, and in old- standing cases the arachnoid was thickened with a fatty albuminous substance under it, while the spinal cord had undergone white softening from the middle of the loins backwards. According to Mr. Edwards, no form of treatment is of any use after the second week. A laxative—not a powerful purgative— should be given first of all to clear away the poisonous material from the digestive canal, relaxation of the constricted arteries throughout the system is to be sought, and absorption of the exudation to be promoted. He recommends the following hypo- dermic injection to be made :—Eserine, i£ gr., dissolved in 2 dr. rect. spirit of wine, mixed with pilocarpine, ijrgr., in 2 dr. water. These form a strong dose, taking effect in a few minutes, producing salivation and purging, with some constitutional disturbance. Ac- cording to Mr. Edwards, it acts as a certain antidote when admini- stered within two weeks of the attack. Blind Poison. Slypandra plauca.—A leafy perennial, with stems on a creeping rootstock; under one foot, and sometimes two or three feet high; woody and branched at the bases; leaves in two opposite rows, 5«9 usually concealing the stem, somewhat flattened or almost round, the blade erect and spreading, linear or lancet-shaped, usually three to four inches long, but sometimes twice that length, and varying from two to four lines in breadth; flowers, in a loose terminal forked cluster, usually leafy at the base, the branches very spreading, the thin stalklets recurved, varying from a half to one inch long; flowers blue, often turning red in drying; the segments very acute, five-nerved, about a half inch long; stamens very much shorter; filaments threadlike and twisted in the lower half, with a dense oblong tow-like tuft of hairs under the anther ; anther shorter than the filament, almost spiral after shedding the pollen ; capsule oblong, 3 to 4 lines long, seeds several in each cell, smooth, but not shining. The Candyup poison, or blind grass, has been identified with Stvpandra glanca, a liliaceous plant met with from King George's Sound to the Swan and Murchison. It is herbaceous, and grows to the height of one foot or more, on rocky and sandy lands, and flowers between September and January. Though a native of the eastern colonies, from Queensland to Victoria, the plant has not been suspected there of possessing poisonous properties. Mr. Maiden says of it—" This plant is common in the neighborhood of Sydney, the Blue Mountains, and many other parts of this colony, but I have never heard of it having been reported as a poison plant here."—(Agricultural Gazelle, N.S.W., 1894., v., 142). In Western Australia, however, its evil reputation in that respect appears to have been long established. The name of blind poison has been given on account of the characteristic effect it produces on the eyesight, causing the animal, according to Mr. Ash, as quoted by Maiden, to go "apparently blind and run into any sort of object." Mr. Ash adds that it seems to be the least fatal of all the poison plants, and slower in taking effect. What its precise action is on the eyes, or on the nervous system or other organs, appears to be as yet unknowm. Mr. A. R. Richardson says—'i It is very injurious to horses and other stock, causing extreme paralysis, sometimes blindness, and sometimes death." The absence of any reports from the other colonies of symptoms of poisoning attributable to Stypandra glanca, coupled with the fact that it is often found growing side by side with Agrostocrinum stypandroides, a purely West Australian plant, suggests a doubt as to which of these two is really possessed of the pernicious qualities that occasion so marked an effect on the stock devouring it. Failing systematic experiments on animals fed with the plant, or subjected to the poisonous principle extracted from it by chemical means, the aid of settlers would be of great service in clearing up the matter, both as regards the identity of the plant causing the symptoms, and the symptoms themselves, particularly the effect on the pupil of the eye. A description is given below of Agrostocrinum stypandroides, which is easily distinguished from the other on close inspection. 59o Agrostocrinum stypandroides.—Stems erect, simple, often 2 to 3 feet high; leaves narrow linear, with rather long sheaths quite closed round the stem and flattened; flowers blue and showy, the raceme simple or once branched, stalklets thread-like, often above 1 inch long, usually rough as well as the flower stem; staens six, shorter than the petals, filaments short and hairless, anthers linear longer than the filaments; petals 6 to 8 lines long, all five-nerved and equal in length, spirally twisted after flowering, then dropping off, but leaving a bell-shaped base attached below the seed vessel, which is nearly globular and about two lines diameter; seeds 1 or 2 in each cell, black, smooth and shining. To this description Bentham appends the following note :— "Sent by F. Bailee, with a long leafy .form of Slypandra glaucomas the plant called blind grass, because it is supposed to cause blindness in cattle and sheep that eat of it." It is easily distinguished on close examination from Slypandra glauca by the petals becoming twisted after flowering and afterwards falling off, leaving the lower part still attached below the swelling seed vessel. This species may be the blue poison, classed by some in addition to the Candyup, which also is blue, and reported by Mr. J. F. T. Hassell as growing on granite hills between Cape Lecuwin and Mount Manypeaks, reaching two feet in height, and flowering from August to November. Additional List of West Australian Plants said to be Poisonous. Anthocercis sp. All the species of this genus are poisonous to stock, according to the late Baron von Mueller. Beyeria viscosa, Miq. Reported poisonous in New South Wales. Bulbine semibarbata, Haw. A "native onion " or "native leek." A strong poison. Cassia Sturtii, R.Br. Suspected in Queensland. Centipeda orbicularis,(Lour. (= Myriogyne minula, Less.) Sus- pected in New South Wales. Datura Leichanltil, F.v.M. Reported poisonous in Queensland. Didiscus piiosus, Benth. "Wild, or poison parsnip." Duboisia Hopwoodii, F.v.M. Used in medicine. Dysphania littoralis, R.Br. Suspected in Queensland. Eremophila tnaculata, F.v.M. Often suspected in New South Wales, and believed to be poisonous in Queensland. Euphorbia Drummondii, Boiss. Has an old and apparently well-established reputation as a poisonous plant, but lately shown by Mr. E. Stanley and others to be sometimes harmless and good feed for stock. E eremophila, A. Cunn. Suspected in New South Wales. Exocarpus cupressiformis, B.Br. "Native cherry." According to Woolls, as quoted by Maiden, suspected of causing cerebral symptoms similar to those brought on by certain leguminous plants. 591 Gompholobium sp. Species of this genus have been suspected. Goodia medicaginea, F.v.M. Blamed for the death of twenty- five cattle in West Australia, and believed by Baron Mueller to be poisonous. Gratiola Peruviana, Rupp. Considered poisonous by F. von M ueller. Indigo/era australis, Willd. Poisonous according to F. von Mueller. Isotoma Brownii, G.Don. Suspected by Drummond, of having poisoned sheep. Isotropic juncea, Turcz. "Lamb poison." Suspected. Lotus australis, Andr. Deadly, according to Baron von Mueller, but doubted by others. Myoporum deserti, A. Cunn. "Ellangowan" poison bush of Queensland ; "Dogwood " of New South Wales. Considered most dangerous when in fruit. Nicotiana suaveolens, Lehm. Native tobacco. Poisonous, containing nicotin. Sarcostemtna australe, R.Br. "Caustic bush" or "vine." "Gaoloowurrah " of natives at Port Darwin. Reported poisonous in Queensland, but sometimes found harmless. Solaiium nigrum, Linne. Has an old reputation for being poisonous, but fruit sometimes eaten by children, and made into jam. Strychnos lucida, R.Br. Reported by Mr. R. S. Ranford from Wyndham, and believed by Baron von Mueller to be poisonous. Swainsonia sp. Some species have been found in other colonies to be virulent poisons, affecting the brains of sheep, turning them mad, and making them slaves to the poison. Tcmplctoma egena, Benth. Very poisonous according to Baron von Mueller. 7' retusa, R.Br. Both this and the foregoing species, according to Maiden, produce spasm and paralysis in stock. Tephrosia purpurea, Pers. This and other species of Tephrosia reputed poisonous. Xanthorrhaa sp. Young shoots of a species growing at Jervis Bay, N.S.W., reported poisonous. Since the foregoing was written, Mr. H. H. Edwards has published an account of experiments made by him with the Box poison on various animals, in the Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau oj Agriculture, October, 1897. In this paper he states that the wild pigeon, being immune, lives entirely on the seeds of the box, and that a dog after eating its flesh will very speedily die in con- vulsions. At the same time the seeds will poison domestic pigeons, and their flesh is found to be poisonous. An aged bay mare was fed with \ pound of box leaves, and the following day symptoms of 592 poisoning appeared—profuse sweating, head hung low, forehead against manger, hind legs wide apart, body unsteady, pupils dilated, pulse soft and slow, temp, 10i" Far., mucous lining of mouth, &c., bloodshot and spotted. On the second day the breathing was tremo- rous, the muscles relaxed, excepting those of the jaw, which were spasmodically contracted. The nervous functions became more and more disturbed, till on the third day of poisoning the mare became unconscious and died. Four hours pass after eating the box plant before the horse shows symptoms of poisoning, and he is doubled up with severe pain in the abdomen before the brain becomes affected. Mr. Edwards finds that dogs and carnivorous animals generally are more sensitive than herbivora to the action of the box, as of other vegetable poisons, and that they suffer more severely and disproportionately in their nervous system. The horse is more sus- ceptible than trre sheep, sheep more than goats, and these more than cattle. Post mortem examination shows engorgement of the blood- vessels with dark blood, which coagulates only feebly, lungs en- gorged, and cavities of heart full of blood. Besides a distended condition of the blood-vessels of the abdominal organs generally, with small petechial spots, the mucous lining of the stomach and small intestines of the horse shows patches of inflammation. The results of treatment have been found satisfactory by Mr. Edwards, who also recommends, as a preventive of poisoning, that stock should be travelled slowly through poison-infested country, so that the animals will have time to discriminate in the selection of their food as they go along. Advertisement. Griffiths Bros., Tea, Coffee AND Cocoa flerchants, and riELBOURNE, SYDNEY, ADELAIDE. William $ Henderson Sts., Q_ FREMANTLE. np CEYLON, INDIAN, CHINA, & BLENDED § GciS • t0 suit a11 tastes at prices from Is. per per lb. upwards. Supplied in NET WEIGHT TINS of 10, 12,14, 20, 28 lbs. Half Chests, 38 to 60 lbs. Chests, 80 to 100 lbs. of unsurpassable quality. Fresh ^^OTTwCS and invigorating. ^^__=__- FULL WEIGHT PACKAGES ONLY Prices for— Coffee with Chicory, from Is 2d per lb. Pure Coffees, Is lOd and upwards. Homoeopathic, lib tins at Is 3d, Is wOCOciS» 6d, and Is 8d per lb. Cocoa Extract (equal to best im- ported), 3s per lb. Chocolate Essence (a delicious beverage), 3s 3d per lb. GRIFFITHS BROS., WTREZ™EETS. APPENDIX IL LAND LAWS. CONDITIONAL PURCHASES. There are several modes of obtaining land under conditional purchase, at prescribed by the following clauses of the Land Regulations and Homesteads Act :— SELECTION WITH RESIDENCE INSIDE A SURVEYED AGRICULTURAL AREA. Section 35 of the Homesteads Act takes the place of Clause 46 of the Land Regulations— This section is only applicable to land within a surveyed agricultural area. The maximum area allowed to one person is 1000 acres, and the minimum 100 acres. The price is 10s. per acre, payable as rent at the rate of 6d. per acre per annum for 20 years ; application must be accompanied by the rent due for the first year, or part of a year, as prescribed by Clause 101 of the L; d Regulations. The lessee must, within six months from the date of approval of his application, take personal possession of the land, and must reside upon portion of it, as pre- scribed by the Act. The improvements required are that within two years one-tenth of the land shall be fenced, the whole within five years, and within ten years a sum equal to 10s. an acre shall be expended in prescribed improvements, in addition to the cost of the exterior fencing. At the expiration of the lease, or at any time after five years from the date of commencement of the lease, provided that all conditions have been complied with, and the fencing and improvements maintained, a Crown grant may be obtained on payment of the balance of purchase money and prescribed fee of 30s. A statutory declaration, in the form prescribed by Schedule No. 16 of the Land Regulations, shall be furnished to the Minister on or before the 1st of March in each of the first iive years of the lease, and at the end of the tenth year, and also when applying for the Crown grant, setting forth that the required conditions d residence, fencing, and improvement have been fulfilled. PERSONS NOW HOLDING LAND IN FEE SIMPLE OR UNDER SPECIAL OCCUPATION LICENSE WISHING TO TAKE MORE LAND. Section 54 of the Homesteads Act lakes the place of Clause 47 of the Land Regulations. This section is intended for those who possess land in fee simple or special occupation under the present or any former Land Regulations, or who may be the holder of a lease of such land from the owner, and reside upon a portion of such land, and is applicable either within an agricultural area or outside of it. Under this section a person can take up from 100 to 1000 acres anywhere from land available for selection within 10 miles of his homestead. The rent and conditions, excepting residence, are the same as under Section 33; but if the land is not surveyed, the conditions shall date from the date of survey instead of from the commencement of the lease. 3 FREE SELECTION WITH RESIDENCE. Clause 48 of the Land Regulations— This clause is intended for those who wish to apply for land oufside an agricultural area, and intend to reside upon it. The rent and conditions are the same as under Section 33 of the Homesteads Act ; the only difference being that Section 33 is intended for a surveyed agricultural area ; and Clause 48 for land outside of an agricultural area; but if the land is not surveyed, the conditions shall date from the date of survey instead of from the commencement of the lease. SELECTION WITHOUT RESIDENCE EITHER IN A SURVEYED AREA OR BY FREE SELECTION. Clause 49 of the Land Regulations— This clause is intended for those who do not reside upon their own land, and who do not wish to reside upon the land taken up. This clause is equally available for land within an agricultural area and land outside of an area. The rent and conditions, excepting residence, are the same under this clause as under Section 33 of the Homesteads Act, but double the expenditure on im- provements is required in lieu of residence ; and if the land is not surveyed, the conditions shall date from the date of survey instead of from the commencement of the lease. SELECTION BY PASTORAL LEASEHOLDERS INSIDE THEIR LEASES. Clause so of the Land Regulations— Any pastoral lessee in the South-west Division, at any time within 14 yean from the 2nd March, 1887, may select land within his lease (not in an agricultural area) in one block adjoining his homestead, not exceeding 5 per cent, of the area held by him on lease within such division. The minimum area shall be 500 acres, and the maximum 3000 acres. The rent ami conditions, excepting residence, are the same as under Section 33 of the Homesteads Act; but if the land is not sur- veyed, the conditions shall date from the date of survey instead of from the com- mencement of the lease. DIRECT PURCHASE. Clause 54 of the Land Regulations— The price of land under this clause is not less than ten shillings an acre, payable as follows, viz. :—Ten per cent. on application, and the balance within one month after the application has been approved. This clause is equally available for land within an agricultural area and land outside of an area, and residence is not required under it. From 100 to 5000 acres can be held outside of an agricultural area, and from 100 to 1000 within an agricultural area by one person, but in either case only three separate selections can be made. The improvements required >re that the land shall be fenced in within three years from the date of survey, and 5s. an acre expended upon it in improvements within seven years from suih dale, out if the land is suiveyed at the time it is applied for, the conditions sh ill date froir. the commencement of the license. The foregoing clauses refer only to the South-west Division of the colony, or to lands in the Eastern and fcucla divisions set apart under Section 31 of the Homesteads Act. GARDEN BLOCKS—FIVE TO TWENTY ACRES. Clause 55 of the Land Regulations— The price of land under this clause is not less than £ 1 per acre, payable on application. It is intended for those persons who require land for vineyards, orchards, and gardens in small blocks of from 5 to 20 acres, either within an agricultural area, if small blocks have been surveyed in it, or outside of an area. 4 Residence is not required, and not more than 20 acres can be obtained under this clause by any one person. The improvements required are that the land shall be fenced, and one-tentn part shall be planted with vines or fruit trees, or otherwise be cultivated as a vegetable garden, within three years from the date of survey. If the land required is outside the South-west Division, it must be within a special area, or within ten miles of a town site. SELECTION IN SPECIAL AREAS OUTSIDE THE SOUTH-WEST DIVISION. Clause 52 of the Land Regulations— This clause is applicable only to land within a surveyed special area. The price is 10s. per acre, payable at the rate of is. per annum for ten years, and application must be accompanied by the rent due for the year or part of the year, as prescribed by clause 101 of the Land Regulations of 1887. The maximum area allowed to one person is 5C00 acres, and the minimum is 100 acres, and not more than five applications shall be entertained from one person. The improvements required are that within two years the whole of the land shall be fenced on the surveyed boundaries, and that before the expiration of the lease an amount equal to 10s. per acre shall be expended on the land in prescribed improvements, in addition to the cost of the exterior fencing. At the expiration of the lease, or at any time during its currency, provided all the conditions have been complied with, a Crown grant may be obtained on payment of the balance of purchase money, and the prescribed fee of 30s. PASTORAL LEASKHOLDERS OUTSIDE THE SOUTH-WEST DIVISION MAY SELECT UNDER CERTAIN CONDITIONS. Clause S3 0/ the Land Regulations— Under this clause any pastoral lessee in the Kimberley, North-West, Gascoyne, and Eucla divisions, who, at any time within fourteen years after the isl March, 1887, shall have stocked his land in accordance with the regulations, may obl.iin, for the purpose of a homestead, a block of land within his lease not exceeding one per cent. of the total quantity held, on the same terms and conditions prescribed for purchase under Clause 52 of the regulations. The minimum area shall be 500 acres, and the maximum 5000 acres. In any case on failure to comply with the conditions, the land shall be forfeited and revert to the Crown, with any improvements that may be upon it, and any purchase money paid shall be forfeited. No person under eighteen years of age can hold land under conditional purchase. PASTORAL LEASES. Leases of pastoral lands within the several divisions are granted on the following terms :—In the South-West Division, in blocks not less than 3000 acres, at a rental of £1 per thousand per annum. In the Gascoyne and North- West Divisions, in blocks of not less than 20,000 acres, at a rental of 10s. per thousand per annum ; in the Eucla Division, in blocks of not less than 20,000 acres, at a rental of 10s. per thousand per annum for all that portion of the division situated to the west ward of a north line from Point Culver, and 5s. per thousand per annum for the remaining portion of the division ; in the Eastern Division, in blocks of not less than 20,000 acres, at a rental of 2s. 6d. per thousand per annum for the first seven years, and 15s. for each of the remaming years of the lease; in the Kimberley Division, in blocks of not less than 50,000 acres when on a frontage, and not less than 20,000 acres when no p.u t of the boundary is on a frontage, at a rental of 10s. per thousand per annum. In any case where land applied for is shut in by o'her 1 o dings, and does not contain the minimum area fixed by the regulations, a lease may be granted foi a lesser quantity. 5 A pastoral lease gives no right to the soil or to the timber, except for fencing or other improvements on the lands leased, and the lands may be reserved, sold, or otherwise disposed of by the Crown during the lease. Any pastoral lessee upon being deprived by the Commissioner of the use of any land held under pastoral lease shall, subject to the provisions of the Land Regulations, receive fair value for all improvements on the land of which he has been deprived ; in the event of the land being selected from his lease under con- ditional »urchase, he is entitled to claim from the conditional purchaser fair value of any lawful improvements on or appertaining to the land applied for, and for severance ; the value of the improvements to be ascertained by arbitration as pre- scribed by Clause 108 of the Land Regulations. All pastoral leases expire on 31st December, 1907. Reduction of Ren'for Slocking—Any lessee in the Kimberley Division, or in that part of the Eucla Division westward of a north line from Point Culver, may have a reduction of one-half the rental due under the regulations, if within fourteen years from the 1st day of January, 1887, he have in his possession, within the division, 10 head of sheep or one head of larger stock for every thousand acres leased. Penalty for Non-Stocking—A penalty of double rental for the remaining portion of the lease is imposed, except in the South-West Division, if the lessee has not, within seven years, complied with the conditions as to stocking. 160 ACRES GRANTED FREE. Free Homestead Farms. Under "The Homesteads Act, 1893," and Amending Act, 1894, any person who is the sole head of a family, or a male 18 years of age or over, and who does not already hold over 100 acres of land, may apply for any Crown land which has been surveyed and thrown open for selection in the South-Western Division of the colony, or in the Eastern and Eucla Divisions, if situated within 40 miles of a railway, as a free homestead farm, subject to the undermentioned condi- tions :— Application in either case must be made on the prescribed form, accompanied by a fee of £1. On approval an occupation certificate is issued, within six months from the date of which the selector shall take personal possession of the land, and shall reside thereon for at least six months during each of the first five years of occupancy. In certain cases, of illness or for other valid reasons, absence may be allowed, and forfeiture waived. Within two years a habitable house must be erected of not less than £30 value ; or £30 expended in clearing and cropping ; or two acres of orchard or vineyard properly prepared and planted. Within five years one-fourth of the land must be substantially fenced, and one-eighth cleared and cropped. Within seven years the whole must be fenced, and at least one-fourth cleared and cropped. At the end of seven years, if all the conditions have been fulfilled, a Crown grant may be obtained on payment of survey and Crown grant fees, but if the conditions are not carried out, the land is forfeited. The Crown grant may be obtained after twelve months' residence if the required improvements have been made, and on payment of 5s. per acre, together with the fees referred to in preceding paragraph. A homestead farm cannot be mortgaged or transferred until all conditions entitling the holder to a Crown Grant have been fulfilled. The holder of a homestead farm may hold other land under existing Land Regulations. Any person holding land, not exceeding ho acres, and residing upon such land, may obtain a homestead farm from any Crown lands adjoining his holding, subject to all the preceding conditions except that of residence, which in »se mav be performed upon his former holding in lieu of on the homestead arm. 6 SECOND AND THIRD CLASS LAND MAY BE SELECTED AS HOMESTEAD LEASES. Homestead Leases. Under Part II. of "The Homesteads Act, 1X93," leases of second or third class land are granted, called homestead leases, but which are really another form of conditional purchases. The area of a homestead lease shall not be less than 1 000 acres, or more than 3,000 acres in second class land, nor less than 1,000 acres, nor more than 5,000 acres in third class land. The lease is for a term of 30 years, dating from the 1st January preceding the date of application. The rent for third class lands is id. per acre per annum for the first 15 years of the lease, and 2d. per acre per annum for the remaining period of 15 years, and for second class lands 2d. and 3d. per acre per annum respectively. The conditions are as follows :—The lessee shall pay one half the cost of survey, in five yearly instalments ; within six months from the date of the approval of his application, he shall take possession of the land either by himself or by an agent, and for the next five years, for at least nine months in every year, resirk upon the land. Within two years from the 1st January or July, as the case may be, preceding the date of the approval of his application, he shall fence in at least half of the land, and within the next two years shall fence in the remainder. During every year of his lease, from the sixth to the fifteenth year, both inclusive, he is required to expend in improvements on the land comprised in his lease, if second class land, an amount equal to 8d. per acre, and if third class land, an amount equal to 5d. per acre for the whole area comprised in his lease. Any excess of moneys expended during one year shall be carried forward to the credit of the sum required to be expended in the succeeding year or years. The following shall be deemed improvements :—Sub-division, clearing, cultivating, grubbing, draining, ringbarking, tanks, dams, wells, and any other work upon the land which increases or improves its agricultural or pastoral capabilities If the land is not surveyed, the conditions shall date from the date of survey, instead of from the date of the lease. At the expiration of his lease, if all the conditions have been complied with, the Crown grant of the land may be obtained on payment of the prescribed fee. If at any time during the continuance of the lease, on proof that he has paid the prescribed rent and survey fees, and that he has complied with the conditions of residence, and that he has fenced the land on the surveyed boundaries, and has expended on prescribed improvements, in addition to the cost of such fencing, a sum equal to the aggregate rents payable in respect of the lease for the last 2J years of the term, and that the improvements so made are in good order and con- dition, and has paid to the Minister the difference between the aggregate amount of rents then already paid in respect of the lease and the value ot all the lands comprised therein, calculated at the rate of 6s. 3d. per acre, if the land is second class, and 3s. ad. if third class, the lessee shall, upon payment of the prescribed fee, be entitled to a Crown grant of the land comprised in his lease. No transfer of a homestead lease shall be approved until the lease has been in existence for five years. RENTS All land rents are calculated from 1st January to 31st December, and are payable in advance to the Collector of Land Revenue, Perth, or at the various resident magistrates' offices throughout the colony, on or before the 1st March. The rent on leases and licenses applied for during the year shall be calculated from the 1st day of the quarter preceding the application (except in the case of poison leases and homestead leases, for which a full year's rent must always be paid). In the event of the lessee not paying his rent on the 1st day of March, he is subject to a fine of 5 per cent, for the first month, 10 per cent, for the second, 15 7 per cent. for the third, and 20 per cent. for the fourth month, after which, if the rent and fine be still unpaid, the lease or license shall be forfeited. During the month of January in each year a complete list is published of all leases and licenses, show ing the rents or instalments and purchase money due for the current year, and after the 31st of March another list is published, giving particulars of all those on which the rents have not been paid. APPENDIX III. i AGRICULTURAL BANK ACT, 1894, AMENDMENT ACT/1896. Under these Acts advances can be made to holders of land in fee simple special occupation lease, conditional purchase license, or under the provisions of "The Homesteads Act, 1893." Advances.—Advances are only made for the purpose of effecting improve- ments, and no advance will be made upon any land which is otherwise em-um- bered, nor will any security over fee simple lands other than a firs! mortgage be accepted as sufficient. When the proposed security consists of lands held under special occupation lease or conditional purchase, the applicant will he required to execute an absolute transfer of all his right. title, and interest in ihe land, together with all improvements thereon, to the manager of the bank ; and when the security consists of land held under the provisions of " The Homestead! Act, 1893," the applicant will be required to transfer his interest to the Crown. Form of improvement's.—Advances are made for the purpose of effecting either one or more of the following improvements :—Clearing, cultivating if ploughing, ringbarking, fencing, draining, wells of fresh water, reservoirs, buildings, and any other form of improvement which, in the opinion of the manager, will increase the agricultural or pastoral capabilities of the land. Proportion of value of proposed improvements to be advanced.—In cases where, in the opinion of the manager, ample security is offered, three-fourths of the fair estimated value of the proposed improvements may be advanced, but one-half is the proportion generally allowed. Mode of payment of advances.—All advances are paid proportionately as the improvements are effected, i.e., applicants can have " draws " while the work is proceeding. Rate of interest.—Interest at the rate of five pounds per centum per annum will be charged upon all advances, and must be paid half-yearly, on the 30th June and 31st December in each year. Interest is only charged on the actual amount of the advance made, or such proportion of the loan or loans as the applicant may have drawn. Fees payable.—All applications must be accompanied by a valuator's fee equivalent to 1 per cent of the amount applied for. No charge is made for the purpose of drawing any mortgage or transfer. Repayment of loans.—All loans have a currency of thirty years. During the first iive years simple interest only is payable. At the expiration of five years from the 1st day of January or the 1st day of July, as the case may be, following the dale of every advance, the borrower shall begin to repay the principal sum at the rate of one-fiftieth of the amount half-yearly, until the whole has been paid. Provided always, that the advance may be repaid sooner than is herein provided, and in larger instalments, at the option of the borrower. All applications must be for one or more of the following sums, viz.:—£50, £"75, £100, and extending up to £,Hoo. Further particulars and application forms may be had on application to the Manager, Agricultural Bank, Perth. PART IV THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLER'S GUIDE . . . AM) . . FARMER'S HANDBOOK Sheep Husbandrv. By " Bruni " (Geo. A. Brown) of The Australasian. The Flock, Tvpe of Breeds, Foundation of the Flock, Breeding. Lambing, Management of the Flock, Conservation of. Fodder and Water, Yarding, Draughting, Shearing, the VVooi.shed, Branding and Marking, Dentition, Diseases of Sheep, Terms used bv Sheep Farmers, Preparing Skins, &c, for Market. Issued by direction of the Bureau of Agriculture. Edited bv L. L1NDLEY-COWEN, Secretarv. 1897. E. S. Wigg & Son, Printers, Hav Street, Perth. Advertisement. Colonial # * Produce. Theo. R. Lowe 5 Co.,"° Commission Merchants, Auctioneers. ® ® $ DAILY SALES OF ALL KINDS OF FARM PRODUCE. ^anhers: Bank of New South Wales. Telephone 198. Queen Street, Perth, W.A. Advertisement. W.A. General Produce Importers Merchants and . . Commission Agents. ALSO AT QUEEN STREET. • Agencies at ADELAIDE, MELBOURNE, and SYDNEY, Also NEW ZEALAND and LONDON. 245 Murray Street, Perth. BUY and SELL All kinds of Farm and Dairy Produce, Fruit, Vegetables, Eggs, Poultry, &c, also General Groceries, and in particular, Homesteads, Farm Lands, or Orchards. J~H1S Company offers Special Advantages to Producers of any of the above ,*• goods consigned to them for sale. They hold no Auction Sales—thus sacrificing the goods of the producer to the highest bidder—but sell privately only, securing the highest market price. eg- They either Buy Goods right out or Sell on Commission. Account Sales Rendered Promptlv. Correspondence Invited. Trial Solicited References: Bank'of New South Wales. All Communications must be addressed to the Manager. WILL SUPLY Coops, Cases, or Bags on application. Will also procure for their clients and cus- tomers any kind of goods which may not be stocked by them, at most reasonable rates. Write for anj thing and everyth.ng and quotation will be furnished by return of post gratuitously. INDEX. PAGE. Adaptation of sheep to natural surroundings - - 608 Advantages of silage - - 623 Advice to buyers - - 608 Age for breeding - - 618 Anthrax - - 647 „ inoculation for - 647 „ symptoms of - 647 Art of breeding - - 614 Australian millet - - 628 Bad fences - - 630 Barn and woolshed - - 637 Benefit of salt licks - - 644 Border Leicester sheep - 600 Branched panic grass - 628 Branding sheep - - 638 Breeding - - (k>9 „ art of - - 614 Bush fires - - 630 „ hay - - 622 Calculating contents of tank - 626 Care during lambing - 642 „ necessary during post mor- tem - - 641 Castration - - 642 Castrating lambs - - 640 Cheviot sheep - - 607 Classing wool - - 613 Coast disease - - 648 Conditions of life - - 607 Conservation oi fodder - 620 „ of water - 624 Contents of tank, calculating - 626 Cotswold sheep - - 600 Cotton grass - - 628 Crossbreeding - • 615 Culling flock - - 612 „ hints - - 613 Cure for footrot - - 645 ,. for scab - - 651 „ of fluke doubtful - 646 Cuts, dressing for - - 635 Cutting the lambs - - 640 Dam - - 624 Difficulties to contend with - 606 Dishley sheep - 607 Dishorning rams - - 609 Dentition - - 631J Devil's grip in wool - - 613 Dipping for lice, trough for Diseases of sheep Dog and sheep Downs sheep Droving, use of dog in Draughting sheep „ yard, plan Dressing for cuts „ for footrot - Earmarking Easily made dip English Leicester sheep Environment Essential points in a sheep Evils of overstocking Ewes „ age for breeding „ when lambing, good feed for Excellence, standard of Feed for sheep, native Feeding sheep on straw Fences Fibre of wool Fighting rams Fire branding Fire breaks Fleece of ram how to roll „ treatment of - Flies Flock, foundation of - „ management of Fluke „ cure of, doubtful „ lick for cure of - „ life history „ symptoms of Fodder, conservation of Footrot „ remedies for - „ treatment „ trough for dressing Foundation of the flock Gestation, period of - Good feed for lambing ewes „ points in the ram „ qualities of merinos Hampshire down sheep PAGE. •648 643 632 601 6}2 631 632 635 645 637 648 600 607 596 620 612 618 640 614 627 624 629 635 611 639 630 610 635 635 649 605 621 646 646 646 646 647 620 644 644 "44 644 605 619 640 609 596 601 PAGE. PAGE. Healthy sheep, pulse of - 643 Hides for market, preparing - 653 Hints on culling - - 613 „ 011 founding a flock - 605 How to tell the sire - - 618 Hydatids - - 652 Immature animals as rams - 610 Improving the pasture - 627 Inbreeding - - 617 Influencing the sex - - 619 Ink marking - - 639 Inoculation for anthrax - 647 Johnson grass for sheep - 628 Lambs, castrating - - 640 „ cutting - - 640 „ at marking time - 642 Lambing - 617, 640 „ shelter during - 618 „ time - • 617 „ „ troubles - 642 Leicester sheep - - 600 „ „ border - 600 „ „ in K ranee - 607 Lice - - 648 „ remedy for - - 648 Lick for fluke - - 646 Life history, fluke - - 646 Lincoln merino cross - 615 „ sheep - - 600 Liver rot - - 646 Locality to be studied - 596 Longwools - - 600 Lung worm, remedy for - 650 Machine shearing - - 634 Management of ewes and lambs 640 „ of the flock - 620 Market, preparing wood, etc. - 653 Marking the lambs - - - 642 Merino, good qualities of 50 „ sheep - - 596 „ wool - - 596 Mutton, sheep good for - 601 Native fodder plants - - 627 „ grasses - - 622 Natural surroundings, adapta- tion to - 608 Overstocking - - 620 Pasture, improving - 627 Pedigree - - 611 Period of gestation - - 619 Plan of draughting yard - 632 „ of woolshed - - 636 Post mortem examinations - 643 Preparing wood, skins, etc., for market - - 653 Press for wool - - 636 Prevention of weevil 111 skins - 631 Prickly pear as fodder - 628 Pulse of healthy sheep - 643 Qualities of merinos - - 596 Ram, dishorning the - - 609 Ram good points of - - 609 „ breeding, etc. - - 611 „ immature, as stock-getter - 610 „ selection of - - 60c) „ stags - - 042 „ quality of fleece - - 610 Rams, to prevent fighting - 611 Recipe for brands - - 638 Remedies for footrot - - 644 Remedy for lice - - 648 ,, for lungworm - 650 „ suggested for worm - 650 Rickets - - 649 Riverina and sheepfanning - 606 Rolling the fleece - - 63; Romney Marsh and Leicester cross - - 607 Romney Marsh sheep - 600 Salt licks beneficial - - 644 Scab - - 651 „ cure for - - 651 Selection of types of sheep - 595 Sex, influencing the - - 619 Shearing . - - 634 „ proper season - 634 Season for shearing - - 634 Sheep and their diseases - 643 „ branding - - 638 „ draughting - - 631 „ farmers, terms used by - 652 „ farming in Riverina - 606 „ feeding on straw - 624 for home use - - 631 „ good mutton - - 601 „ native feed for - 627 „ to skin properly - 631 „ types of - - 595 „ yarding - - 631 Shelter ewes during lambing - 618 Show rains - - 610 Shropshire sheep - - 601 Skinning sheep - - 631 Skins for market, preparing - 653 „ prevention of weevil - 631 Silage - - 622 „ advantage of - - 623 Silkyheads - - 628 Sire, how to tell the - - 618 „ size of - - 612 Size of sire - - 612 Southdowns - - 601 Spider grass - - 628 Stags - - 642 Standard of excellence - 614 Stomach worms, symptoms of - 650 Straw, feeding sheep on - 624 Stud ram - - 612 Study the locality - - $0 Suggested remedies for worms- 650 Symptoms of anthrax- - 647 of fluke - - 647 PAGE. PAGE. Symptoms stomach worms - 650 Tank - - 625 ., calculating contents of - 626 Tape worm - - 652 Tar brands injurious - - 638 Teeth, positions, diagram - 639 Terms used by sheep farmers - 652 Ticks - -, 648 Time for lambing - - 617 Treatment for footrot - - 644 „ of the fleece 635 Trough for dipping - - 648 „ for footrot remedy - 645 Type of sheep - - 595 Umbrella grass - - 628 Uniformity - - 605 Vermont sheep - - 610 Wash for weevil - - 631 Water conservation - - 624 Waterproof marking for sheep - 638 Weevil, wash for - - 6n Wells - - 626 Wire fences - 629 Wool classing - - 613 „ fibre - - 635 „ merino - - 506 preparing for market - 653 „ press - - 636 „ shed - - 637 ,, shed, plan of - - 636 „ spoiled by devil's grip - 613 „ spoilt by tar branding - 638 „ washing - - 635 Worm, remedy suggested - 650 „ in sheep - - 649 Yarding sheep - - 631 X»ART IV. THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLER'S GUIDE o< AND FARMER'S HANDBOOK. t» SHEEP HUSBANDRY. Bv "Bruni" (Geo. A. Brown) of the "Australasian." Written speciallv for the Settler's Guide. AUSTRALIA has been happily named " The Land of the Golden Fleece," for since the first British pioneers landed on these shores, the wealth of the colonists has mainly consisted in their flocks of sheep. The future shows the promise of a still further development of this great industry, and we may confidently look forward to a not far distant time, when every portion of our island-continent will be beneficially occupied by the bearers of the golden fleece. With a land covering such a large extent of the world's surface, there is a great diversity of climate, aspect and pasture, and it naturally follows that each division of the country will require a different type of sheep to thoroughly develop its resources. The art of the husbandman will be employed in developing these varying types of sheep, and the more successfully this is done, the more profitable will the industry prove. It is the business of the husbandman to closely watch the tendency of the flock towards any new development of type, and, where such divergence from the general are beneficial, to make use of them. 594 The occupation of a husbandman has been an attractive one from time immemorial, and in all countries where the inhabitants have attained a high degree of civilisation, the breeding and treat- ment of the domestic animals have always occupied a high position in the estimation of the leading citizens. Those who wish to achieve success in the art of live stock husbandry, must put their whole heart into- the business. An indifferent or careless sheep- farmer very rarely succeeds. In the remarks I am about to make on the subject of sheep-breeding, I act on the supposition that my readers have little or no knowledge of the subject, consequently much of what I have to say will not be new to the practical sheep- farmer. CHAPTER I. THE FLOCK. Tvpe of Sheep. Australia is such a new land that the husbandman has to make his own experience. He has not the records, written and unwritten, of many previous centuries of practical work to assist him, as is the case with the European husbandman. It is, therefore, all the more necessary that he should exercise great care and judgment in selecting the breed of sheep he intends to cultivate, for upon this selection much of the success of the business will depend. Over the greater portion of c;ur island continent the climate, soil, and pasture are better adapted to the breeding of merinos than any other variety of our domestic sheep. Some of the coastal districts, particularly those of the south and east, are too humid, and the rich soil carries too heavy a pasture for the golden-footed merino to retain his health, and in these localities the heavier-bodied British breeds of sheep will be found the more profitable sheep to raise. In the inter- mediate districts, between the coast country and the hot plains of central Australia, and throughout the highlands that occupy such a large area along the eastern part of the continent, the various cross- breds and downs may be raised with advantage. But throughout the whole of central Australia the merino will always be king. True, the Lincolns have invaded this home of the merino, their use being to raise freezers for exportation, but the main body of the breeding sheep are, and I believe always will be, merinos. As far as my experience goes in sheep-breeding in Australia the only sheep that have been bred with success (except merinos) in the hot dry plains of the interior, are the Shropshires. Hampshire downs have succeeded well for crossbreeding in Riverina, but how the pure breed will stand the climate has yet to be learned. An experiment is now being made with Dorset horns, which promise to become admirable farmers' sheep, particularly where lambs are raised for market. Before commencing to establish a flock, the farmer should have a clear idea of what description of sheep he wishes to breed, and he should be satisfied, before embarking in the business, that his country is well adapted for raising such sheep. If he undertakes to breed a variety of sheep that his country is not able to develop thoroughly the undertaking will not likely be successful. 596 Tvpes of the Breeds. Merinos. For size of carcase the sheep owner must study his locality, for though by giving a deal of room to each individual, large framed sheep may be raised, it is often done at a disadvantage. It must be borne in mind that it is not the return per individual that leaves the profit, but the return per acre. It may occur that a medium sized, or a sheep on the small side, will show a better profit on the area occupied than where large and more attractive sheep are raised. Much depends on the shape of the sheep. Hitherto it has been the general opinion that the merino is an unshapely animal, as com- pared with what are known as the mutton breeds, but this is not necessarily so. Though the merino will in all probability never get the shape of the South-down or Shropshire, they can be raised showing excellent points for mutton. Chief among these is a good back and shoulder; a narrow shoulder and ridge back should be as much avoided in a merino as in any other sheep. These points are often accompanied with good wool growing qualities, aud a good backed merino with a well sprung rib is less likely to become open-woolled under a hot sun than a sheep that has a narrow ridge along the back. The points of a merino sheep are usually drawn up relating almost purely to the fleece, but now-a-days the carcase is of no small importance. A good backed and chested sheep is more likely to have a good strong constitution and to be a better doer than a narrow-chested, ridge backed one. The merino, particularly the ram, should have large pronounced folds of skin on his neck, with good wool on them and between them. The wool on the back should be close, not falling open. A broad thigh down to the hock, and the arm well woolled; the merino should be woolled to the fetlocks, not for the value of the wool grown thereon, but as a sign of breeding. A long staple should be avoided in a hot climate. Length of staple gives wool no extra value, and it has a strong tendency to become open and let in dirt. A medium staple if bred for density will give a heavier weight of fleece and as good a price per pound. The first thing is to get merinos with good backs, both in form and fleece, and work up the other good points after by careful breeding. It is well to have the under parts of the sheep well woolled, but the shape of the body and the other parts of the fleece should be attended to first. Very fine wool, once so much admired by the owners of merino sheep, is now seldom seen, even in Tasmania, formerly the home of fine woolled sheep. A robust description of wool has been found more profitable than very fine wool, but the robust wool should have character, i.e., the crimps or waves in the fibre should be well marked, even, and extend from the skin to the tip. Straight, wiry wool is an abomination in a merino. The fleece throughout should be free from kemps, that MERINO RAM, The accompanying illustration is from a portrait of the famous merino ram, President, a champion himself, and the sire of champions. He was sold at Sydney, July ", 1896, for 1,600 guineas, the purchasers being Messrs. C. B. Orubb and Lawrence, of Tasmania. BORDER LEICESTER RAM. The above is the portrait of a Border Leicester ram champion at the Border Union Show at Kelso. 1895. 6oo is, white hairs among the wool. The bone should be fairly strong; very fine bone is very frequently associated with a tendency to de- generacy. It is the fashion to decrv the merinos as a mutton sheep, but this is a great error. It is superior to the longwool, and second to the southdown and the Shropshire. The prejudice against it has been caused by its dark colour, and not to any lack of quality in the mutton. The Longwools. The Lincoln is conspicious for the beautiful lustre of its wool. The staple is long, extending in many instances to 10 inches. The old Lincoln was a very ill-shaped sheep, with a large plain head, and very slow in maturing. All that has been altered, and the shape has been improved by a judicious cross with the English Leicester, and the large head has been greatly reduced in size by selection in breeding. Though not as large in frame as of old, the modern Lincoln is yet considerably larger than the Leicester, and he is now marked by almost as early maturity. English Leicesters. These are very handsome sheep, and they fatten readily, indeed their tendency to take on fat, and their well-shaped bodies, have led to theii being employed in the amelioration of most of the British breeds of longwool sheep. In Australia the Leicester takes on too much fat to the proportion of lean meat. Leicester wool is now almost as lustrous as Lincoln wool, but the fleeces are lighter. The border Leicester is a more robust animal than the English representative of the breed; its rleece is heavier; it gives more lean meat in proportion to the fat. and is consequently preferred by sheep breeders in most parts of the world to the old English type; but neither breed is as much fancied by flock masters as the Lincoln. The Cotswoi.d is a very shapely sheep, a good doer, yields a fine carcase of meat, and its fleece is about as valuable as that of the border Leicester. It is used for raising crossbreds in a few districts of Victoria, but has never been much fancied by the general run of sheep-breeders. The Romnev Marsh is a most use.ul sheep. It is not as attractive in appearance as any of the longwools previously mentioned, and its wool lacks lustre and is of a much coarser type than any other. But in a severe climate, where other sheep are apt to suffer from foot rot and die from fluke, it can hold its own. This has been proved in a wet piece of coast country in Victoria. Romneys have been bred on this land for the last thirty years, and no other breed of sheep will last over two generations, and the merinos not as long. 6oi The Romney gives a large carcase of excellent mutton, and the breed is largely employed in New Zealand in raising freezers for export. The Romney is not the sheep for a hot, dry country in which the pasture is very scanty, consequently they have made very little way in Victoria and New South Wales. The Downs. Of the Down breeds of sheep I place the handsome and useful Shropshires at the head of the list. It is essentially a farmer's sheep, and is very frequently the sheep of the small flock. It is of quiet disposition, yields a good fleece that realises a tair price per pound; it develops early, and reaches a good weight, and its mutton is excelled only by the South-down. It has spread over a large area of England; it is a favorite with the thrifty farmers of the United States, and is largely used in Argentina for raising freezers. It is only within the last few years that this sheep has attracted the notice of Australian farmers. In South Australia there are several studs of the breed, the originals of which were selected regardless of price from among the finest flocks in the old country. In Tasmania they are spreading, and there is every appearance that they will become the farmer's sheep of Victoria and New South Wales. A sheep that has attracted the favorable notice of farmers over so wide and varied an area of the world's surface must have excep- tionally good qualities. That this is so is acknowledged by all who have raised them. In addition to their good frame, handsome shape, heavy lleece, and excellency of mutton, they are remarkably healthy sheep and can scarcely be excelled as foragers. The South-down. This is the original of all the breeds of British down sheep. It is a very handsome sheep possessing all the good qualites of the Shropshire, but with a smaller frame and a lighter fleece that is not quite as valuable per pound. The admirers of this breed contend, and with good reason, that South-down mutton is of higher quality and realises more per pound than the mutton of any other down breed. It is much in their favor that all who have raised them become extremely fond of them. Both the Shropshire and the South-down are perfect specimens of mutton sheep, their legs and backs are equalled by no other breed. The Hampshire down is larger than the Shropshire and not quite as well shaped. Its fleece shows the influence of the long- wool blood in its pedigree. It has been used in Victoria and River ina for raising lambs for market, and for this purpose it has no superior. The head of the Hampshire is larger than that of the Shropshire, but it is not thick, and in cross-breeding with merinos fewer ewes are lost than when longwool rams are used. Still, it is deemed advisable to put the Hampshire ram to comeback ewes. The Shropshires. A SHROPSHIRE EWE. This ewe look the champion prize at the New South Wales Sheep Breeders' Show, Sydney, 1896, HAMPSHIRE DOWN RAM. Our sketch is that of a young Hampshire down ram, winner of first prizes at the Bath and West of England, Royal Counties, Wiltshire, and Royal Agricultural Society, England, shows, 1895. 604 The Hampshire is a good mutton sheep, but his greatest recommendation is his early maturity. Up to twelve months old the Hampshire is said to make more rapid progress than any other breed of sheep. It is this quality that renders them so valuable for raising lambs for market. The wool of the down sheep having less yolk than either that of the merino or the longwool is said to surfer when the stock are raised in a very hot and dry climate. Against this the example is quoted where Shropshires are raised in hot dry localities, that are as well covered as a merino and yield a heavier fleece of almost as valuable wool. CHAPTER II. THE FOUNDATION OF THE FLOCK. Having decided on the variety of sheep he thinks is most likely to thrive in his country, the farmer must be careful to secure for his breeding flock animals of sound, robust constitution. This is far more important than a reputation for heavy fleeces, a high value of wool per pouud, or a large carcase. A robust constitution is the foundation on which all future excellence may be most surely raised, and it is the only safe and sure foundation. Sheep that are raised in similar country should be preferred, and if possible the originals should be selected from a flock the history of which the farmer may learn somewhat. In a new country it is often difficult to obtain the description of sheep that is desired, and in that case one must be satisfied with the best ewes that are within reach, and make future advances by means of the rams. It is better to commence with young sheep, as nearly as pos- sible of the one type, and drawn from the one flock. I am, of course, supposing that it is the intention of the farmer to found a permanent flock. Many flock masters purchase ewes cast for age from a first-class flock, and often pay a good price for them. Such a plan has much to recommend it, for the old ewes are kept in the breeder's flock because they are of great excellence, and often the young sheep are sold because they are not up to the standard. But the old ewes can scarcely be relied on to yield more than one or two lambs, and after that they are useless for any purpose but boiling down. At times one can obtain from good flocks a small draught of young sheep that are not culls. I know of a stud flock of the highest standing, the originals of which were very old ewes, but the flock they came from was one of the best, and the man who bought them was a thorough expert. Uniformitv. The ewes should not only be all of the one age, but they should be of the one type of form and fleece. Uniformity is one of the greatest recommendations a permanent flock can possess. The butcher values it highly, and the wool buyers soon find it out, and will give a higher price for such a clip than for one that promises more but is irregular in the character of wool. The character of uniformity is much more easily given to the small flock of the farmer than to the larger one of the squatter, and yet the large flocks are more noted for this quality than the small 6o6 ones. This defect may be started with the foundation of the flock, and kept up by careless breeding and neglect in the culling of the ewes. With a flock ranging from a few hundreds to a few thousands the breeding should be as carefully managed as in a stud flock. I have found that where the farmer can raise the breed o1 sheep he most fancies, the flock is always better managed and more profitable, than where, from the nature of the soil and climate, he is obliged to raise a variety for which he has no liking. The most hopeless of all flocks is that of the man who bought a lot of cheap culls to commence with and breeds regularly from rams for which he pays a few shillings per head. Such a flock in a few years has no type, but possesses in a high degree every bad quality that a flock should not have. Difficulties to Contend With. There is practically no limit to the enterprise of the Australian sheep farmer, but this business, like every other, is not without its trials and difficulties. In taking up new country, and in entering into the business of a sheep farmer for the first time, many difficul- ties will be encountered; but, as in the past we have seen these difficulties overcome, so it will in the future, particularly when resolute men put their hearts into the business. Will is power. I have seen a man go straight from the shop to the sheep walk, without the slightest knowledge of the business of sheep farming, and without any apprenticeship in the new walk of life, and yet make a success, simply because he put his whole heart and intelli- gence into the work, and was determined to carrv it out to the best of his ability. The difficulties the sheep farmer has to contend with are always more formidable when the climate is hot and dry and the soil poor, though an excess of moisture, on the other hand, is often very unfavourable to the business. I can remember when sheep farming was first undertaken in Riverina. The merino grew to a much larger size than in Victoria, but the fleece was of the very worst description. The staple was short and coarse, of very little strength, and full of kemps. The sheep farmers of the western district of Victoria (the Australia Felix of the early settlers) used to predict most sagely that it was an impossibility to grow wool on the northern side of the Murray river. At the present day the province of Rivernia produces wool of the highest class, longer in staple than that of Victoria, stronger in fibre, and of equal lustre, and the fleeces weigh heavier. This is the experience that has been gone through with nearly every advance the sheep farmers have made into the great thirst land of central Australia. Districts that twenty-five years ago were regarded as almost desert, are now stocked with sheep that yield fleeces of an excellent and profitable description of wool. 607 The Conditions of Life. The conditions of life, or, as some writers call it, the environ- ment, require to be carefully studied before selecting the breed of sheep with which to form the flock. The influence the natural surroundings exert upon the domestic animals has been known to husbandmen from the dawn of civilisation. In his writings, Columella shows that he fully understood the matter, and the subject is referred to by many old English writers. The experience of an old Lammermuir shepherd, as quoted by Yonatt, furnishes a good illustration of the loss that may possibly follow by neglecting this important matter. He says, " I occupied a farm that had been rented by our family for nearly half a century. On entering it the Cheviot stock was the object of our choice, and so long as we continued in possession of this breed everything pro- ceeded with considerable success; but the Dishley sheep came into fashion, and we, influenced by the general mania, cleared our farm of the Cheviots and procured the favorite stock. Our coarse, lean pastures, however, were unequal to the task of supporting such heavy-bidied sheep, and they gradually dwindled away into less and less bulk; each generation was inferior to the preceding one, and when the spring was severe seldom more than two-thirds of the lambs could survive the ravages of the storm." Another still more striking illustration of the effects of the con- ditions of life upon sheep is given in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England (1865). Mr. T. Ellman sent sixty ewes and three rams of the English Leicester breed to a French farmer. These sheep were heavily woolled, the ewes cutting ten pounds each. On the French farm the sheep were treated in the same manner as the native race (the Norman), and each year the wool on the original sheep and their progeny became lighter and lighter, till in six years time they clipped only three pounds each of very indifferent wool. In the fourth generation they became very long legged, and in their bodies bore a considerable resem- blance to the ordinary Norman sheep, with which they had not the least relationship. An instance of the folly of attempting to work against nature was shown when several years ago the Romney Marsh sheep were "improved " by introducing the Leicester blood. The result was an improvement in the shape of the young stock, but they had lost the extraordinary hardiness of the Marsh race, and were unable to live in the bleak, exposed country inhabited for centuries by the Romneys. In Victoria attempts have been made to breed high-class merinos in wet, cold lowlands, but in every instance the attempt has met with pronounced failure. In one instance it was attempted to form a stud in such a locality, and the original sheep were of the highest merit. Though the greatest care was exhibited in the 6o8 breeding and management of the flock, they dwindled rapidly, and in a few generations became worthless, of small size, poorly clad, and weak of constitution. Already the conditions of life are producing quite different types of sheep of the same breed. The most marked instances of this occur with our merinos. So pronounced is the difference between the merinos from different colonies that the veriest tyro in sheep husbandry can distinguish at a glance between those bred in Tasmania and those raised in Victoria. Riverina has another type, and Mudgee another. Experts can readily distinguish between the sheep raised in many of the districts in each colony. The farmer who deals in sheep must have a keen eye as to the adaptation of the sheep he purchases to the natural surroundings on his farm. Master Fitzherbert, in his "Boke of Husbandry" (1532), clearly recognised this, for he gives the following shrewd advice :—" And take hede where thou byest any lean cattel or fat, and of whom and where it was bred. For if thou bye out of a better grounde than thou haste thy selfe, that cattel wyll not lvke with the." To the man who regularly deals in sheep I have nothing to say. If he does not know more about the business than can be lear .ed from any treatise he has been premature in going into the business. To the farmer who purchases a lot of sheep to fatten oft when he happens to have a self-sown crop to utilise, I would sav, "Go where you will get sound, healthy stock, and pay a fair market price for them." The sheep that are put on to a farmer's hands as a great bargain at a low price are generally the last sheep he should have on his place. CHAPTER III. BREEDING. The Ram. In the selecting and mating of the breeders, the flock- master must bear in mind that the ram is half the flock. Therefore, if the farmer is not able to secure ewes of the very highest type of the breed of sheep he desires to raise, all advance toward that standard must be made by means of the rams used in the fleck. To use scrub rams means to go backward, and to save money by pur- chasing moderate animals is false economv. It is money lost and not money saved to adopt such a practice, and he who follows that course will never make a good sheep farmer or raise a profitable flock. The ram should be of robust constitution, this is the main point, and come of sound stock. He should be well shaped, showing a good back; well sprung ribs; stand squarely on his legs; have a strong neck, and a good masculine head showing character and breeding. In all breeds there should be no weakness in the fleece on the top of the shoulder and along the back. In merinos the wool should be well supplied with yolk and there should be a pro- nounced black tip to the wool. This tip is not valuable in itself, save that it helps to preserve the wool from the withering effects of the hot sun. A small lock of wool is not a recommendation to a merino ram, and the Lincoln should have a heavy lock with a blunt tip, not a pointed one. The merinos and Lincolns should have' wool on the head; a bald-faced merino ram has some bad blood in his pedigree. The hair on the face of a merino should be soft, not hard and coarse. The ears should be thick and have a soft feel. A thin eared merino ram has bad blood in his pedigree. The eye should be soft, not prominent and fiery. The horn should be of fair size, with a double and spiral curve, not close to the head, or standing wide out. A polled ram is not objectionable on that account. The celebrated flocks bred by Messrs. T. and G. Pass- more, Tasmania, were greatly in-bred to a polled ram used in the flock over half a century ago. The merino ram is a horned animal certainly, but I can see no more use for horns on our sheep than for horns on our cattle. It would be the saving of many a good ram's life if all the horns were off our merino sheep. 610 The ram's fleece should be slightly stronger than that of the ewe, and I do not dislike a little strength of wool on the thigh, particularly if such strength is free from kemps. In referring to the loose rolls of skin on the neck of a merino ram the question as to the value of the Vermont naturally crops up. The excessive folds of the skin seen on some Vermont sheep are to my mind objectionable in the farmer's flock. Indeed, until lately I disliked the Vermont cross altogether, but the facts are so much in their favor that I cannot shut my eyes to them. The Vermont cross has done so much good by adding to the weight of fleece of some very large flocks raised in Central Australia that it is rapidly coming into favor with sheep breeders in all the colo- nies, except Tasmania. In a dry, hot climate a dash of Vermont blood in the sire will do good by thickening the wool, and by giving it more yolk will preserve it from being withered by the sun Show Rams. The sheep farmer should never purchase a ram that has been "got up" for show. In newly settled districts there is seldom much danger to be apprehended from show sheep being pampered and coddled, but in older settled districts much harm is done in this way. The training the show sheep undergoes to fit him for taking a prize unfits him for "rustling " on the pastures. When a housed and clothed ram is turned out among the ewes and left on the grass for several months, he looks a pitiable object. The beautifully fine wool that won such praises in the show-yard changes to a poorly grown fleece of withered staple. The owner finds fault with the ram, whereas it is he who is to blame. It is better to select the rams from a well- known flock that possesses the qualities it is desired to impress on the produce. They should be taken off the grass, though they may not be as attractive as show prize-takers. Many sheep-breeders, and among them men of large experience, habituallv use two-tooth rams, and though they point to large droppings of lambs and a high class of sheep, I do not like the practice. Using such an immature animal as a two-tooth ram must, in the end, have a deleterious effect on the stock. Where the climate is a hard one, it is much better to wait till the rams are four-tooth before using them as sires. With longwools there is not so much objection to the practice, as they are earlier maturing animals than merinos, and they are raised on more abundant pasture than is usually seen on country suitable only for the merinos. The small flock-owner cannot breed his own rams—that may be taken for granted. How, then, is he to obtain them, and whence? He may swap with a neighbour, provided his neighbour's stock are suitable for his purpose. This is a thing that does not often happen, and when it does the rams are getting on in years before his neigh- bour wants to part with them. 6ri When rams from a stud flock prove good sires it is an excellent plan to keep to that line of blood. This style of breeding gives great uniformity to the stock. Changing from one stud to another and getting a different type of ram every year invariably leads to disappointment. For many years I used rams drawn from the one stock, and by careful culling I got the sheep at last to be as uniform as if they had been cast in the same mould. Of course, if the breeding in the stud tails off a change should be made, and even if there is no falling off a change is sometimes advisable if rams better calculated to improve the sheep can be obtained. The sheep-breeder should have a standard of excellence in his mmd, and all his efforts should be directed to breeding up towards that standard. Fighting Rams. As the season for coupling approaches merino rams are much given to fighting, and the contests are so severe that a ram is occasionally killed. The Americans have adopted an excellent plan for preventing fighting among rams. This consists in fixing a broad piece of stout leather to the animal's horns in front of his face in the following manner :—A visor of stiff leather (or if that is not handy, bullock's hide will do) is shaped to extend from the horns to a little below the eyes, and broad enough to cover the face. In one top corner a hole is made sufficiently large to slip over one horn, while at the other top corner a piece is cut out to fit the horn ; ties of leather or string hold this firmly to the horn and the visor is fixed. The ram can see to graze and walk about, he can see the other sheep by slightly raising his head, but directly he lowers his head to fight the view of his opponent is lost to him, and the fight does not take place. This plan is now generally adopted by the owners of stud sheep in Tasmania. A very ancient means of preventing a ram from fighting was to bore a hole through the horn near the head with a gimlet. I have never known this plan tried, but it must be a painful operation for the ram. Pedigree. No matter what breed of sheep is raised, the ram should always be pure bred. I am no worshipper of pedigree merely because it is pedigree, but experience has shown me, in every variety of stock, that breeding from a pure sire is always advan- tageous. The pure bred sire is more prepotent than the mongrel, consequently the sheep-breeder who uses pure bred stock can make a pretty fair estimate of what the produce will be like. It is not so with the mongrel, who has no type to confer on his offspring. But while I recommend the use of pure bred sires in all cases, that purity of breeding must be accompanied by the high qualities of form and fleece which it is intended to impress on the flock. 6l2 There is considerable diversity of opinion among flock breeders as to what is the best size of sire to employ. Some are all for size of frame, while as many pin their faith to quality. Some of the most successful stock breeders in England have obtained their best results by means of moderately-sized sires. For myself, I do not object to a ram if he is a trifle on the small side, and for this reason: It is much more easy to obtain a ram on the small side, of excellent proportions, than it is to get a perfectly shaped large ram. With roomy ewes, the medium-sized well-shaped ram will throw better stock than will a large-framed ram not so well shaped. The height a ram stands is not a proof of size, indeed, a tall animal is often lighter than one that is short on the leg, but of better proportions. All leggy stock should be avoided, no matter what breed of our domestic animals are raised. There is a great variety of opinion as to the number of ewes a ram should serve, and some of the greatest mistakes are made by experienced sheep farmers on this point. When a verv large sum is paid for a stud ram the new owner (with the view of recouping himself for his expenditure) often puts the ram to far too large a number of ewes. I have known such a ram serve several hundreds of ewes in a year, and to keep up his strength he was fed on the most stimulating food. That he did not do himself justice as a sire is not surprising. When cock fighting was practised it was found that where a game cock was allowed a dozen or fourteen hens, he got fewer really good birds than when he was given four or five hens. The late Mr. James White was the most successful breeder of racehorses in Australia, and he seldom gave a stallion more than half a dozen mares. Panic (a great sire) was given as many mares as were sent to him, and the result was that many of his stock showed temper, though he himself had a fine disposition. If the sheep farmer can afford to limit his rams to fifty ewes he will find it pay him well in the end. Though I have recommended the use of pure rams it is not necessary that the sheep farmer should pay a fancy price for his sires. Utility, and not fancy points, are to be studied when the farmer goes to market to purchase rams. The Ewes. Culling.—In a new country there is generally a strong inclina- tion manifested to breed from every ewe in the flock, so as to stock up as as quickly as possible ; but in this case it is better to make haste slowly. The ewes should be carefully gone through before shearing, and all inferior sheep rejected from the breeding flock. That man who goes through his ewes after shearing also, makes assurance doubly sure. The flock will not grow as rapidly as that of the man who breeds from "all and sundry," but the smaller flock will often yield a higher profit than the large one, while individually the returns are generally in favor of the smaller flock. 613 The well culled flock is steadily and surely advancing to a higher standard of excellence, while the flock where culling is neglected is almost invariably deteriorating. It is when the stock from these flocks are for sale that the advantage of strict culling is seen. There are ready purchasers for the well bred sheep at the highest market value, while purchasers for the badly bred flock are few, and prices always rule very low. When the sheep farmer has attained sufficient knowledge of his business, it is always better for him to do the culling himself. Having the sheep always under his eye, he has the advantage of a thorough knowledge of the flock, and if he takes a keen interest in his business he will soon gain sufficient knowledge to do the work of selecting his breeding flock. Perhaps, for a year or two, if the flock owner has had no previous ex- perience of sheep husbandry, it might be advisable to secure the services of a thoroughlv skilful sheep-classer. This will be a sufficient lesson to any intelligent man who has gone into sheep farming in earnest. When little more than a lad I came into possession of a flock of sheep in which there were some really good ewes and a considerable number of inferior ones. I culled out the very best for breeding, and though it took me four years to work up the breeding flock to its full size, I was a great gainer in the end by the superiority of the sheep. For years I topped the market in Victoria in the price of wool, and I always got a high price for my fat sheep. Directions for classing the wool at shearing time are often given. In my opinion the wool classing should be done when the sheep are bred. The farmer's flock should be of one type, and when I hear of many classes of wool from one small flock I am dubious of the system of breeding. In selecting merino rams and ewes for breeding purposes there is one defect that must be closely watched for, and that is a peculiar growth of the wool known to flock masters as "devil's grip." It consists of a patch of badly grown wool, usually situated on each side of the body just behind the shoulder blade and well up towards the back. Sometimes it runs right across the back. On these spots the wool grows in an unwholesome condition. It is divided into small twisted locks, and the yolk has a different appearance and feel to that on the rest of the body. It gives one the impression that glue has been mixed with the yolk. The cause of this defect I do not know, but sheep showing any indication towards it are avoided by all experienced husbandmen. The general impression among sheep breeders is that "devil's grip" is an indication of weakness of constitution. No matter how good such sheep may be otherwise, they should be promptly cast out of the breeding flock. A ram with "devil's grip " is worse than useless, he is harmful. The sheep breeder in culling his ewes should always have in his mind a certain standard of excellence which in time he hopes 614 to arrive at. The late Mr. John Murray, of Mount Crawford, South Australia, who from not very promising originals raised one of the finest flocks of merinos in Australia, said before he died that he had never attained his standard of excellence in a merino sheep. For half a century he had patiently and skilfully raised the character of his flock, and had he lived another year I fancy he would have seen his ideal fully realised. This is the way great flocks are formed, not by running after each change of fashion, but by select- ing a high standard, and following the course marked out, never for a moment losing sight of the end, no matter how far away it may seem to be. He who tries to achieve this end will make a good sheep farmer ; he who succeeds will be a master in the art of sheep husbandry. In breeding sheep, as in breeding all other pasture animals, too much stress must not be laid on individual records, either for weight of fleece or weight of carcase. A heavy fleece and heavy carcase do not always represent the most profitable animal to raise. The conditions of life in the district must be carefully studied, and an estimate made as to what combination of frame and fleece the country will best produce. This matter seldom receives that attention at the hands of Australian sheep farmers which its importance deserves. Because one district, which possesses many natural advantages, will produce highly profitable sheep of a certain type, it by no means follows that a neighboring district, similar in many respects, but not possessing so many natural advantages, will do the same. In this respect we must go with nature, for we cannot contend against her. Herein lies the benefit of an intelfigent and close observation of the flock, and this is why the sheep farmer who sees his sheep every day is better fitted to cull the breeding ewes than a man who sees them but once a year. There is a great attraction in sheep breeding, but it is a business like any other, and is followed for gain and not for sentiment; therefore, the object of the farmer should be to raise the description of sheep which his country is best adapted to produce, and that sheep is the one that will give the greatest amount of profit per acre. As a modern writer puts it—" The art of breeding may be epitomised in the one word, 'selection,' which involves the applica- tion of every established principle of practice and a consideration of the influence of every peculiarity of form." Selection of the breeders has ever been the guiding principle of the leading stock- breeders of England, the most skilful husbandmen in the world. In culling the ewes it is advisable to take out of the flock all small-framed weedy animals ; a ewe should be roomy to carry a lamb. In some stud flocks in which close attention is paid to the individual members of the flock, small ewes are sometimes retained among the breeders because the owner knows that they produce good sized, well-shaped stock; but such ewes are exceptional, and one cannot have any knowledge of them in a general flock. There- 6iS fore it is safer to reject all puny ewes. Culling is nearly always performed while the sheep are in full fleece ; but the wool is not everything, and to ensure a really good flock the sheep-farmer would do well to go through his flock after shearing, when any defects of form can be seen at a glance. In all breeds of sheep it is well to breed for rounded ribs, good shoulders and quarters, and a moderate length of leg. These points are of almost equal importance with weight of fleece. Cross Breeding. In what has gone before, my remarks have been directed towards the establishment and maintenance of a permanent flock, and to do this it is necessary to keep only sheep of one breed. Where cross breeding is kept up, the closest attention must be paid to the breeding, as with a crossbred flock there is no such thing as stability or uniformity. The type of the flock is always oscillating towards the one breed or the other that are employed in the cross. The skill of the breeder is shown in preventing either type from becoming to > pronounced, indeed he must labour to ke p the sheep about midway between the breeds employed. The crossbred sheep generally raised in Victoria are between the Lincoln and the merino, and with such widely differing types it may be readily imagined that such a thing as an intermediate breed is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to establish. Crossbreds raised from these varieties, though they have no type, are extremely profitable both for carcase and fleece. They mature earlier than the merino, they give a much heavier carcase, and their fleece is considerably heavier than that of the merino. The wool is of a character that finds ready purchasers at prices little, if anything, below those paid for merino wool. In choosing Lincoln rams the great point is to get them well shaped, with good brisket, and well sprung ribs. The fleece must be of long staple, and with a heavy lock, not a thin pointed one. The wool should be lustrous so that the crossbred may have bright attractive wool. All Lincoln sheep should have the characteristic forelock of the breed. In raising sheep of the Lincoln-merino cross, rams of the former breed are put to ewes of the latter breed. This is done because merinoes are so much more numerous than Lincolns. When the Lincoln rams are large headed a good many ewes are lost at lambing time. To avoid these losses many sheepbreeders use ewes for crossing that have bred several times, but experience shows that there are fewer losses in the cross with young ewes than with old ones. For a good many years the attention of the breeders of Lincoln studs has been directed to reducing the size of the head, and careful selection has effected a marked change in this respect. The general run of the heads of Lincoln sheep is much smaller than they were a score of years ago. 6i6 Cross breeding is also practised with border and English Leicesters and with Cotswolds, and each cross has its admirers. One of the best and oldest flocks of crossbreds in Victoria is that raised at Bolinda Vale under the management of Mr. Robt. Clarke, and owned for many years by the late Sir W. J. Clarke. The flock has been in existence for nearly 40 years, and has no superior in Australia. Pure sires of both breeds are used, and to secure rams of sufficiently high class two studs are maintained on the estate. Another cross much liked by those who raise lambs for market is between the merino ewe and the down ram. The Southdown has been used for this purpose for years, and has given very satis- factory results. The lambs are of the very best quality, and though smaller than those of other cross are in great favor with many owners of small flocks. Hampshire downs make a fine cross with the merino or the comeback ewe. They give a heavy weight of carcase, a good fleece, and they mature rapidly. The Shopshire is said to be extremely valuable for lamb raising. They have been in use for this purpose for some time past in South Australia, and the results have been all that could be desired. Many sheep farmers are of opinion that a crossbred flock cannot be maintained, for the reason that after the first cross there is too great deterioration in the stock raised But this we have seen in the Bolinda Vale flock and others is not the case. A crossbred flock can be kept up, and very valuable animals raised, both for carcase and fleece, but it can be done only by using good rams of. pure breed on each side. Many attempts have been made to establish a variety midway between the longwool and the merino, but all the sheep so raised have, to my mind, been inferior to the crossbred raised from pure sires of the two breeds. He who would raise good crossbreds must use good rams on a well-selected lot of breeding ewes. It seems to be a fixed idea with many owners of small flocks that a crossbred is necessarily a mongrel, in the worst sense of the term. So they are on many an Australian farm, but there is no necessity for it. Often when a farmer starts sheep breeding he buys far too many sheep, and he buys cheap, I should say, low-priced sheep. With these sheep he uses rams of whose breeding not even the most experienced sheep breeder would hazard a guess. They would have made bad wethers, and should never have been kept as rams. Such a flock, with the rams among the ewes all the year, half-starved and neglected, wandering about the roads to pick up a precarious living, is the mnst hopeless spectacle one could look at. If sheep breeding is worth going into at all it is worth doing well. Good sheep are pleasant to look upon ; they cost no more to feed than bad ones, and they give a much higher profit. It is bad husbandry to keep good sheep badly, and it is still worse husbandry to keep bad sheep at all. On the large farm sheep are 617 necessary to its full development; on the small one they are always useful. In raising sheep of the Lincoln-merino cross the pasture should be ample to fully develop the good points of the animal. A lighter grassed country will suit the cross between the Shropshire and Hampshire downs and merino, and a still lighter country can be utilised for the Southdown-merino cross. An old objection to the down herds is that they do not yield a good fleece of wool, but that objection does not hold good with the Shropshire, which is as well covered as a merino; the Hamp- shire down has a larger staple of wool than the merino, while the fleece of the Southdown has been greatly improved during the last decade. In-Breeding. The practice of in-breeding, or breeding from closely related animals, is one that the tyro in sheep husbandry should never attempt. It is invaluable in the hands of a master of the art of sheep husbandry, to fix a type and give prepotency to a stud, but it must be remembered that it confers equal prepotency to fix bad qualities in a race. Where closely related animals have any weakness of constitution, breeding from them renders the produce extremely liable to contract the defects of the parents in an exaggerated degree. It is not wise to draw rams from an unbred flock, unless the sheep composing it are noted for strength of constitution. The Murray merinos in South Australia have been in-bred for over half a century, not a single infusion of outside blood having been intro- duced in that time, and yet the sheep in that flock are of the most robust constitution of any sheep in Australia. In that case, however, the founder of the flock, and his sons, who now own it, are among the most skilful sheep breeders in Australia. Lambing. The Time for Lambing.—With merinos it is the general custom to lamb the ewes in autumn, when the rains have started the young grass. The advantage of bringing into the shed at shearing time fine grown five-months-old lambs has induced the majority of Australian sheep farmers to advance the lambing time to the earliest possible limit, and as the autumnal rains in these colonies are extremely uncertain, it has often happened that the lambing has commenced befcre there is a blade of green grass for the ewes, and the result has often been disastrous. Over a very large area of Australia the lambing for the last two years has been a failure, mainly owing to this cause. If one could be sure of a good rainfall towards the end of March, about the middle of May would be a good time to lamb; but our autumn rains are-so often late that it is by no means a safe plan to arrange for the ewes to lamb in the warmer districts of Australia till June. In Queensland spring lambing is a common practice, but in that colony most of the 6i8 grasses are summer plants, which is in favor of the practice. A late lambing has this disadvantage, that the young lambs are exposed to the cold blasts of winter directly they are born ; but it is better to risk this than to lose the bulk of the lambs, because owing to want of pasture the ewes have no milk. When early lambing can be practised it is not advisable to put the rams and ewes together immediately after shearing, as by doing so there will be a large number of misses. This peculiarity in sheep breeding has been observed in many parts of Australia. The ex- planation is generally believed to be that when the fleece is taken off a sheep the rapid growth of wool that follows for a few weeks is a strong drain on the constitution of the animal, and this weakens the generative organs. Ewes may be bred from until they are nine years old, but this must be left to the judgment of the flockmaster. In some districts the ewes last much better than in others, and one ewe at eight years old may be in excellent form, while on another pasture a ewe of the same age may be broken down. The flock should be so managed that the ewes are cast for breeding after rearing their third or fourth lamb. Sheep have been known to breed up to twenty years of age, but these are very exceptional cases. Weaning the lambs will depend much on the season, but the lambs should not be left too long on the ewes, as the latter will have too short an interval to recuperate before being put to the ram. Cross weaning, that is, putting the lambs of one half the flock with the ewes of the other, and vice versa, is a good plan to adopt, as it makes the lambs more contented. Where the weaned lambs are put by themselves they often run off all their condition and do not begin to mend for a month at least. Lambs may be weaned after four months old. It may happen that the sheep farmer wishes to know for future guidance what ram is the sire of each lamb, and an excellent plan for accomplishing this was given in the Field some years ago. Before putting each ram to the ewes selected for him, his breast was marked with red, blue, or green, which was daily renewed as it was rubbed off. At the end of a week the ewes served were drawn off and put in another enclosure with a ram marked with a different colour, so that if any of the ewes returned they would show it. The ewes were marked with a dot of paint of the same colour as the ram. At lambing time each lamb was marked with the colour of his sire, so that at weaning time the flock master could form a very good idea of the value of his different sires. In cold, wet, or exposed situations, where the country is open, there should be some shelter provided for the lambing ewes. Breakwinds are easily and rapidly constructed, and in a severe season would save the lives of many lambs. There is no better return obtained from the money spent on the sheep walk than that employed in the formation of hedges or plantations. Wherever 619 these have been grown in the older settled districts of Australia, they have proved of very great value. I know of one property that was naturally a bare plain, and on which, so keen was the force of the winter gale, it was impossible to lamb ewes. Since then exten- sive plantations have been grown on this country, and ewes lamb comfortably under the shelter of thick belts of timber. In a newly taken up country the farmer may not cate to go to the trouble of forming plantations, but he can run up a breakwind with brush wood or branches of trees that will be of great benefit to his ewes at lambing time. To find the percentage of lambs in a flock multiply the number of lambs by 100, and divide by the number of ewes. Period of Gestation. The period of gestation appears to bear some relation to the size of the animal. It is approximately as follows :—Elephants, twenty to twenty-three months ; giraffe, fourteen months; drome- dary, twelve months ; buffalo, from ten to twelve months ; mare, eleven months; cow, 285 days; bear, six months; reindeer, eight months ; sheep and goat, five months ; sow, four months; dog, fox and wolf, sixty-two days; rabbit and hare, thirty days ; squirrel, twenty-eight days ; guinea-pig, twenty-one days. Mr. Darwin states (Animals and Plants under Domestication) that it has been observed in Germany that the period of ges- tation is longer in large sized than in small sized breeds of cattle. In sheep the period varies from 143 to 156 days, but in the reports that have been made on the subject the bulk of the ewes lambed in 149 to 153 days. The period of the Southdown is shorter than that of the merino by nearly six days. It is believed by some practical sheep breeders that the period of gestation is shorter in the breeds that mature early, which may explain the difference between the Southdown and the merino. It is also the general opinion that the ewe goes longer with a ram lamb than with a ewe lamb. It is a safe thing for the sheep farmer to reckon the period of gestation in the sheep at 150 days. Influencing the Sex. It is a fad with many sheep farmers that they can influence the number of ram or ewe lambs at will. This has been a hobby with some sheep farmers for many centuries, and numberless experiments have been made with the view of proving the theories held. As a rule these experiments have been made on such a small scale and extending over such a brief period of time, that they are practically worthless. From what is known on this subject, it seems highly probable that there is generally a small percentage of males in excess of females. Some writers assert that the changes in the relative numbers of the sexes run in cycles, but as to what influences the sex of the offspring of sheep, or, indeed, of any other animal, man included, we are quite in the dark. Scientists know nothing CHAPTER IV. MANAGEMENT OF THE FLOCK. Over-stocking. This is worse than a blunder, it is almost a crime There is no sadder spectacle for the pastoralist than for his sheep to be slowly but surely dying of starvation, and to have the knowledge that his own act in keeping too many sheep on his land is the main cause of the trouble. The loss is not confined to the reduction of the flock by deaths. The survivors have their con- stitutions enfeebled by the severe trial to which they have been subjected, and the effect is seen in the produce for several generations. The pastures are seriously injured by overstocking, as all the wholesome and nutritious plants are eaten out, and in many cases completely destroyed. This is the opportunity for the unwholesome and innutritious plants, which are enabled to take complete possession of the soil. Though the evils resulting from over-stocking have been demonstrated time after time in Australia, it is nevertheless the most common fault committed by our flockmasters. When seasons are fairly good the temptation to "stock up "—which means to put on as many sheep as the land will carry under the most favorable circumstances—seems to be irresistible. All former experiences are neglected and the flock is increased, till a drought (for which no preparation has been made) occurs, and the injury done to the flock is far greater than any profit that accrued during the good time. Conservation of Fodder. There are few districts in Australia in which there cannot be some preparation made in good seasons to conserve fodder to help the stock over a bad time. This fodder in the back country, where cultivation is seldom or never practised, may take the form of bush hay or silage. It does not matter much what plants are used so long as a sufficient quantity of rough food be saved to prevent the sheep from dying of starvation. In the hottest and driest localities of our island-continent there occur seasons when there is an abun- dant vegetation. The wise sheep-breeder will be ready to take advantage of such opportunities, and put into hay and silage stacks as much fodder as his means will permit. Where the natural grasses are scanty much may be done by fencing in a block of land and either sowing the seeds of the best grasses, or, if they already exist on the land, permitting them to seed 622 and reproduce themselves. Such a block of land, if kept alwavs understocked, will serve the same purpose as the cultivated paddocks of the localities in which the climate and soil are of a more genial nature. The full use of the land thus reserved will not be obtained for grazing, but that is a small insurance to pay for meeting a time of scarcity. Bush Hav. The native grasses of Australia are easily made into hay, little labor being required to perform the work beyond cutting and stacking. On a small property on the Liverpool Plains, New South Wales, I saw, some years ago, the plain dotted over with stacks of hay and silage. A good season gave a very heavy crop of grass, and the proprietor decided to make an experiment in conserving fodder. The grass was cut with mowing machines and run into central points (where stacks were erected), with hay sweeps. The stacks were of moderate size, and I was informed that the total cost of putting the hay and silage into stack was scarcely 2s. 6d. per ton. When I saw these stacks they had been up a little over a year and both kinds of fodder were excellent, indeed, the manager had to put fences around the silage stacks to preserve them from cattle and horses. From the nature of our Australian grasses they require very little manipulation in being made into hay, indeed the trouble is to get the fodder into stack before it becomes too dry. I have seen bush hay made in Queensland, New South Wales and Victoria, and it has always turned out a most useful fodder for stock. The sheep may not care for it while they can get the growing pasture, but when a drought occurs and the pastures are bare, they are not par- ticular, and will eat bush hay and hold their condition well on it. Silage. This, I believe, is the coming fodder of Australia. It is a most useful stand-by for the dairyman in the coastal districts, where the soil is rich and the rainfall generally ample, but in the interior it is invaluable for all kinds of stock. With a moderate supply of silage the sheep are safe from that accompaniment of a time of drought—impaction of the stomach—which kills almost as many in such a time as starvation. From what I have learned of experiments made in Australia there seems to be scarcely a limit to the time this fodder will retain its value. Many years ago, during a season of luxuriant growth, a stack of silage was made on the Mt. Abundance estate, Queensland. The stack was left for over seven years, and much of the sides fell away, almost in dust. It was so dried up that the men who went occa- sionally to that part of the run used to camp on it. Then came a very bad year, when feed was very scanty. The stock gained access to the stack, and every particle of the silage was eaten, even the dry dust the men used to camp in. 623 The idea that silage to be kept for any length of time must be conserved in pits, is now completely exploded. In Australia very few silage pits are now made, and it has been found that the stack silage is much better for pasture animals than that made in pits. Silage that has undergone a thorough fermentation in stack turns out of a dark colour with a sweet aromatic flavor, while pit silage in which the fermentation is checked by heavy pressure is usually of a green color, and quite sour. Sheep do not take kindly to this sour fodder. In the experiment in stack ensilage made on the Liverpool Plains the stacks were weighted with about a foot of earth placed on the top, but on several Victorian farms weighting stack silage is entirely done away with, and the stock eat every bit of the fodder. One of the largest makers of silage in Australia is Mr. C. H. Lyon, of Ballanee, Victoria. He uses neither silage pit nor pressure. As a result of his experience no pressure is necessary, and the silage to be good should be subjected to a thorough fermentation. If a large stack of silage is built up rapidly, the great pressure on the lower portion of the fodder prevents this fermentation, and the result is sour silage that cattle will eat if pressed for food, but that sheep will not touch. In a pamphlet which Mr. Lyon published some time back, he gives the following results of his experiment in feeding sheep on silage :—" Within the last year and a half I have fed 14,000 sheep on silage, and all these, with the exception of 1300, were Riverina wethers. In two stacks of silage I had about 1700 tons. It cost me is. 6d. a ton. and saved a loss of .£2000. In one instance I was enabled to hold on 8000 sheep until rain came. I then sold them well. This last winter I kept nearly 4000 sheep, fed principally on silage. I will get more for the wool of these sheep than I could have got for the sheep themselves four months ago." Mr. Lyon's stacks were made 40 feet square, and carried to a good height, but there is no occasion to make stacks of such large size; indeed for the purposes of the pastoralist, smaller stacks scattered over the run would be more beneficial. They are safe against bush-fires and with a slight covering of earth might be left for years until required. Silage may be made in any weather. Mr. Lyon states that during the making of a large stack, 274 tons of water fell on each acre of land on which he was working, and yet he made 1000 tons of excellent silage when it would have been impossible to make a ton of good hay. The stack was 44 x 38 feet and 22 feet to the eaves, and was left entirely without pressure. I do not think it is necessary to advocate the making of silage on the sheep-walk as a reserve of excellent food during a period of drought. The experiments already made in most of the Australian colonies have fully demonstrated the value of this description of fodder. It has proved as useful in the districts of ample rainfall as in the great thirst land of Central Australia. 624 Feeding Sheep on Straw. About two years ago I described the means adopted by a Victorian sheep farmer to help his sheep over a bad time. The paddocks were as bare as a road, and he saw that he must provide some fodder for his sheep or lose them all. He had a number of old straw stacks on the place, and he set to work to cut this straw into chaff. To each bag of chaff he added about a pint of molasses mixed with water and sprinkled over the chaff by means of a watering can. The sheep took to this fodder at once and held their condition well on it. Bagging fastened to four strained wires formed the troughs at which the sheep fed. During the present season this plan of feeding sheep has been adopted on many Victorian farms, and many of the owners of large flocks in Riverina have also made use of it. With a large flock, cutting the straw into chaff is found expensive, and the plan has been adopted of sprinkling the straw in layers as it is placed in the wagon, and a more liberal allowance of molasses is generally given than that previously stated. The straw thus treated is carted into the paddocks and scattered in long lines, and every particle is picked up. It is no exaggeration to say that the lives of many thousands of sheep have been saved this year in Victoria and Riverina by straw and molasses. Conservation of Water. Second only in importance to the securing of an ample store of fodder is the conservation of a good water supply. The means of securing this end vary so greatly in different parts of Australia that it is impossible to give directions as to the mode of procedure that will cover every instance. The usual modes of watering stock in the warmer districts of Australia are by erecting dams on water- courses or by excavating tanks. Over a large area the latter practice has been generally followed. The Dam. A dam on a watercourse is a less expensive mode of conserving water than excavating a tank. The main thing is to put up the dam on a good site, and where the soil is holding. But Australian streams are liable to remain waterless during long periods and often suddenly become raging torrents. In making a dam both conditions must be studied. The site of the dam should be chosen below a good-sized water hole, if possible, or where a considerable extent of level country will give a good length of back water. In Queensland, where the watercourses are frequently empty for considerable periods and heavy floods suddenly occur, it is the practice to construct the dam with a hollow curve in the centre. These dams are faced with large stones, where they can be obtained, and floods pass over them, often doing very little harm. I have seen dams made in this way that had stood several very heavy floods and still held good. An Australian Saltbush (Atriplex semibaccatum). This saltbush was recommended by Baron von Mueller for cultivation in the dry alkali country in America. It is worthy a trial in dry countrv in Australia. 625 Sometimes the soil where a dam is made is not retentive, but the puddling it receives from the cattle and sheep coming to drink as the water recedes makes the dam perfectly watertight. If possible sites where the soil is not retentive should be avoided, and to make sure a trench should be cut into the subsoil along the course of the proposed dam. Puddling the centre of the dam should not be neglected, and for this purpose there is nothing better than a team of bullocks driven backwards and forwards. If water can- not be had to puddle the centre of the dam the clay may be dry puddled by breaking it up as fine as possible, and working it well with the bullocks. The Tank. The modern practice in Rivernia and central Australia is to make large tanks. The early settlers in those localities fell into the natural mistake that a tank which held an ample supply of water during fair seasons would hold out during a severe drought. Often instead of enlarging the tank to double or treble its original size, a second small tank was made in the hope that the extra supply would serve all requirements. Sheep farmers have found out by bitter experience that when a long, hot and dry summer follows a dry winter and spring, small tanks are not of the least use, that they are certain to fail long before the dry season is over. If it is necessary to examine the sub-soil well in making a dam it is doubly so when a tank is to be excavated. Even when the greatest care is exercised the result is at times a disappointment. Many a sheep farmer in central Australia has found when excavat- ing a large tank that he has gone through the clay and come upon a drift, through which the water will run almost as fast as it enters the tank in wet weather. Though the tank is often the only way in which a store of water can be conserved, it is nevertheless a wasteful mode of watering stock. To my mind economising the water is of almost as great importance as conserving it in the first instance. The sheep going to a tank to drink naturally pollute the water, and as they often go right into the tank much water is carried away in the wool of the under part of the body. This water is lost, and it serves to rot the wool that is saturated by it. Mr. Thos. F. Cumming told me that on a station he once held in central Australia he divided 16,000 sheep into two equal portions, which were placed in adjacent paddocks. In one paddock the sheep were watered from troughs pumped from tanks, and in the other they had access to the tanks. At shearing time there was a difference of 7 oz. of wool per head in favor of the sheep watered at the troughs, while the water lasted much longer, and was much cleaner than where the sheep drank at the tank. 627 Improving the Pasture. Australian sheep farmers seldom take much notice of the grasses beyond noting those of which the stock are most fond. Such a thing as endeavouring to cultivate the best of the native grasses was never heard of until within the last half dozen years. Curiously enough, the general opinion was that the native grasses could not be cultivated. This is a great error; the greatest number of our best grasses lend themselves readily to cultivation. By watching the time the plants shed their seeds, and reserving the land sown with the seeds from stock, in order to let the young plants get established, the pasture in a paddock may be greatly improved. The native grasses of Australia are not so well known that one can say which should be grown in each locality. The sheep farmer, if he is an observant man, should be the best authority as to the grasses to cultivate in his district. The evils of over-stocking are seen in the deterioration of large areas of Queensland. The best pasture plants are eaten out, and their places are taken by grasses that the sheep will eat readily only when they are young, and will not eat when dry until they are forced to it by starvation. I have travelled over many hundreds of miles of fine country in Queensland, in which nearly all the wholesome and nutritious herbs and grasses have long since disappeared, owing to being eaten out by over-stocking. The country was covered with a coarse, poor grass that when dry was no more fit to keep stock alive than so much shavings. Lightly stocking and burning the country is being practised to improve such pasture. There are a great many native bushes on which sheep will browse and thrive admirably. The best of these bushes are the various forms of salt-bush, of which the large, or "old man," salt- bush is the best known. Nearly all the forms of this plant are worthy of cultivation, and no plants can be found that will with- stand heat and drought better. The salt-bushes can be readily cultivated from seed, and in a good season it is said they will grow freely from cuttings. Blue bush, cotton bush, grey bush, and many other bushes may be grown with advantage. The growing of these bushes is of the greatest importance in districts where the rainfall is scanty, and it takes a good many acres to support a sheep. Where these native bushes form the principal support of the sheep portions of the run must be given a periodical rest, or what has happened in Rivernia will be repeated—the bushes will be destroyed. In Riverina the salt and other bushes have been followed by a good sward of grass, but in warmer and drier districts, where the soil is not of a fertile description, it has been found that when the bushes were destroyed there was scarcely anything left for the sheep to eat. In such country it is useless to attempt to introduce exotic grasses. Nothing will serve the purpose as well as the native 628 plants, and once the latter are destroyed by close feeding, it will take a considerable amount of time and trouble to re-stock the land with them. Of the introduced grasses the Johnson grass will stand heat best, but to give a good return it requires a free, deep soil. Lucerne will stand heat well, but to thrive, its roots must penetrate to mois- ture. A free deep soil in which lime is plentiful is suitable to this plant. In coastal country the buffalo grass and the various couch grasses may answer. Buffalo grass has been used in Victoria on sandy hills near the coast to prevent the strong prevailing winds blowing the soil awav, and it has answered the purpose admirably. It is extremely doubtful if it would grow with anything like the same vigour in a hot district with inferior soil and scanty rainfall. The prickly pear thrives in the poorest and driest country. Its leaves are succulent and provide both water and food for stock, but the spines with which they are covered render them worse than useless. Often in Queensland the stock are driven by hunger to eat the leaves of the prickly pear, but they generally die from their stomachs being lacerated by the spines they swallow. If a practical mode of ridding the leaves of the spines could be discovered, the prickly pear, instead of being a curse, would prove a blessing to the pastoralists in the hot dry regions of Australia. Many attempts have been made to accom- plish this end, but as yet no plan has been hit upon to utilise this fodder. Mr. F. Turner in his work, Australian Grasses, mentions the following as growing in the arid interior of the continent:— Silkyheads (Andropogon bombycinus).—Grows principally on the plains of the interior. Will withstand a phenomenal amount of dry weather. It produces a large quantity of seed and the herbage becomes harsh when old, but it may serve as a standby for a bad year. It may be recognised by the stem when crushed emitting an aromatic perfume. The white woolly spikelets give this plant a singular appearance. Cottongrass (Panicum leucopha-um).— A good pasture grass noticed by the Elder exploring t xpedition in Western Australia. It is easily distinguished by the spikelets being covered with long silky purple hairs. A good pasture grass and easily cultivated. Branched panic grass (Panicum effusum).—Grows all over Australia. Makes considerable growth before developing flower panicles, which renders it a good grass to cultivate for hay. Australian millet (Panicum decompositum).—This grass was collected by the Elder expedition. The natives grind the seeds to make a sort of cake. Umbrella or spider grass (Chloris acicularis).—Grows throughout the interior of the continent. A good pasture grass, growing on sandy or light loamy soils. It seeds freely, and stock like it. The famous Mitchell grasses of Queensland are regarded as the best 629 pasture plants in northern Australia. Horses prefer hay made from these grasses to any other. They should be preserved wherever found growing, and increased as much as possible. Fences. Where it is possible the runs should be fenced in, if only with a ring fence The more the run is divided into paddocks the more advantageously it can be worked. By dividing into paddocks parts of the run may be given a spell, and this is a great help towards preserving the best pasture. Where rabbits are plentiful there is but one fence that is of any use, and that is rabbit-proof wire- netting i^-inch mesh, sunk 6 inches in the ground. It is usual to employ i££-inch mesh, but if the netting is not very well made voung rabbits that can do for themselves will get through. I have known this occur on many occasions. Longwools are notorious breakers of bounds, indeed it is doubtful if a wire fenc; can be con- structed that will keep them in. The best of wire fences is one in which the posts are set wide apart and between which two or three laths or gauges, made of light battens or iron, are stapled to the wires. This keeps the wires in place, and the gauges, being free of the ground, permit the fence to give a little when a sheep comes against it. Where the guages are used, the posts may be set double the ordinary distance apart. Iron gauges are made for use in such a fence, which are much valued. They are light of carriage and hold the wires in position more securely than wooden laths. One of the best fences for enclosing longwool sheep that I have seen was on the Yandilla estate, Queensland. It consisted of a 2 ft. broad wire netting, 16-gauge wire and 4-in. mesh. The posts were set 12 ft. apart and a wire was run along the top and another along the bottom of the netting, which was set at 5 in. from the ground on the lower edge. A plain wire above and a barbed wire over all made it a perfectly safe cattle fence. This netting costs about £y per mile. Where top rails are preferred, and timber of a sufficient size is somewhat scarce, the plan patented by a Victorian resident is worthy of adoption. To save weakening a light post, the tops of the posts on each side are smoothed with an adze and the rails are fitted one on one side and one on the other. Holes are bored through all three and they are firmly bound together diagonally with a stout wire, which is tightened with a twitch. Light posts will answer for this purpose, and if the wire is well tightened it is stronger than a mortice, as the wire acts as a binder on the post and prevents it from splitting. In putting up the rails they are fastened to the outside of one post and the inside of the next. Where it is deemed advisable to run a barbed wire along the top of a line of posts, it is a good plan to fasten it in the following manner. A small hole is bored with a brace and bit two or three 630 inches below the top of 'the post in the centre. The barbed wire is placed in position and strained, then small wires are passed through the holes made in the posts and twisted round the barbed wire, thus retaining it firmly in position. This plan is much to be preferred to the old practice of stapling the wire to the top of the post. All descriptions ot log, chock and log, and brush fences are merely makeshifts. They serve to keep merino sheep within bounds, but are next to useless to retain longwools, and they do not last long. Whatever fence be used the sheep should never be left with- out supervision. They should be accustomed to the sight of men on horseback and on foot. It is when going through a mob of sheep in a large paddock that a good dog is found useful. Sheep left too much to themselves are apt to become wild, and if disturbed by the sudden appearance of a horseman or footman will run for miles. With a dog they can be rounded up, gone among quietly, and left standing in a mob. Good fences, though costing more than bad or indifferent ones, are the cheapest in the end. The sheep do better in well fenced paddocks than in badly fenced ones, as there is less draughting to do. Bush Fires. When all vegetation is dried up to the condition of so much shavings, as is but too frequently the condition of the country towards the end of an Australian summer, bush fires often do an immense amount of harm. In thinly grassed country there is not only the loss of the fodder and the seed of the grasses, but the plants are greatly weakened, if not killed outright. In thickly grassed countries a fire often does a deal of good by destroying the germs of disease ; but where the grass is scanty a bush fire is the very worst thing that can happen. If it is deemed advisable to burn a paddock, the best plan is to do it after the first rains have fallen in autumn, as there is less danger then of the roots being killed than if the fire takes place in summer. If the country will permit it, fire breaks should be made round the run, taking in all wire fences. These breaks should be made as soon as the grass will burn in summer. On the open countrv in Victoria I found the night the best time to burn, as the progress made, though slower than in the day time, was much more effectual. Whether or no the burning of firebreaks is possible, patches on dry banks should be burned early in the season. Should a great fire occur these patches can be utilised as safe harbors of refuge for the sheep. In settled country it is the custom to run ploughed furrows round the fences and burn between, but this plan is not practicable in back country. These furrows render the work of burning the firebreaks more easily accomplished, and with fewer men than where no furrows are used. A boundary firebreak should be at least 80 yards wide, and with a strong gale of wind even that is not a certain protection. 633 smaller one leading to the race is quite enough for the farmer's small flock. From the race a couple of yards will be sufficient for the farmer's purposes. An elaborate system of yards where the sheep may be draughted into five or more lots, mav be required on large runs where much work is done among the sheep, but the small flock-owner has no occasion for such yards. Ewes that are to lamb soon should not be run through the draughting yard if it can be avoided. A framework should be erected over the race and covered with sheets of bark, thatch, or corrugated iron, to give some protection to those working among the sheep. Thk Draughting Yard. When it is considered desirable to erect a draughting yard it is well toihave them planned so as to work easily, and tocost as little s possible. The draughting yards shown in the above sketch have been in use for several years by a Victorian sheep breeder, and he recom- mends them for owners of small flocks. The measurements are all given in the plan, but they may be modified to suit local circum- stances. The erection of these yards will require the following material: 15 gates 6 ft. wide (except the draughting gate), 30 round posts for corners and gates, 420 split rails, and 150 split posts. The branding race may be shortened by omitting the one along the out- side fence. Sometimes the outside fences are made with wire instead of rails, and in that case the posts may be lighter, but must be put close together (sav about 5ft. apart). Of course smooth wires must be used. The following gauge might suit :—The lower three wires 4 in. apart, and 4 in. from the ground, then two wires 5 in. apart, and above that two other wires 6 in. apart. It is a good plan to substitute boards instead of rails in the yard leading to the race, and in the race itself. They can be made of ordinary hardwood boards securely nailed on the inside of the posts. CHAPTER V. SHEARING. On large pastoral properties there are always proper conveniences for the shearing of the sheep. The owner of a small flock is often placed at a disadvantage. He naturally thinks that it will not pay him to erect a special building for the purpose to be used for two or three weeks at the outside once a year and remain idle for the rest of the time and constantly in danger of fire. A building that will serve as a barn and shed for vehicles and machinery may be easily utilised as a shearing shed, all that is necessary being to clean it up thoroughly before commencing to shear. Such buildings are now coming into use on many Victorian farms. I am a great believer in the shearing machine patented by Mr. Wolseley, but few sheds on smail sheepwalks are strong enough to stand the strain of their use. In a few years time all the sheep in Australia will be shorn by electric machines. I have seen one in Melbourne which worked in a verv satisfactory manner, much more so than did the Wolseley machine for a considerable time after it first came into use. With the electric shearer, any shanty can be utilised, as there is no vibration, the power being conveyed to the cutters by means of insulated wires twisted into a cord. The power can be provided in a very easy way. The tread power, which has htely come into so much favor with American farmers, is the one for the purpose. To work this tread power what can be better than a couple of heavy bullocks. I believe this tread power requires only to be known to Australian farmers and pas- toralists to come into general use. It is the cheapest, the most avail- able, and the most effective power that can be applied for cutting chaff, pumping water, cutting firewood, shearing the sheep, working the separator, threshing, grinding and crushing grain, etc., and a thousand and one other purposes. In putting sheep under cover, no more should be kept in than can be shorn by ten o'clock the next day. Sometimes in bad weather the flock-owner is apt to crowd as many sheep under cover as will last nearly all next day, but when newly shorn sheep are turned out with empty bellies they are ill fitted to stand exposure, and empty sheep are generally badly shorn. Early shearing is generally practised, as most sheep farmers are anxious to get their clip to market as soon as possible. I have seen great mistakes made by early shearmg in the capricious climate of western Victoria. Shorn sheep exposed to one of the cold storms and heavy rains that at times occur in spring, suffer great hardship, and at times manv deaths are the result. In shearing the - 635 sheep all double cuts by the shearer should be avoided. Where an over-thickness of wool has been left on the skin at the first cut, it is almost better to leave the wool on the sheep than take it off with a second cut. Such short lengths of fibre as these second cuts give are a detriment to the fleece, and when noticed by the buyer are apt to cause a reduction in the value of the wool. Cuts in the sheep's skin are frequent with careless shearers, anxious only to make a tally. The old practice was to dress these cuts with tar, but of late Little's dip has come into general use for this purpose. Carbolic oil in the proportion of one to fifteen of olive oil is sometimes used. Treatment of the Fleece. The fleece on being taken up from the shearing floor should be kept well together and spread out on the wool table with the cut end down. The belly should be taken off and thrown into a separate receptacle with the skirtings. These are the lower portions of the arms and thighs. Overskirting is a waste, as good wool is taken from the fleece and put into the pieces, which sell at a lower price. All discolored pieces and wool full of seeds should be removed from the fleece and put with the bellies or the locks, according to their condition. The locks are the heavily stained and very seedy pieces of wool. All dags should be thrown into a manure heap. On no account should they be put into the locks. It occasionally happens from the effect of disease, or a very bad season, that some of the wool has a weak spot in the fibre. This the person who rolls up the fleece can readily tell by removing a small piece from each fleece and trying its strength with the fingers. If there is a decided break in the fibre all such fleeces should be put together, and if a bale or bales of them are made they should be marked "broken fleece." If there is less than a bale of these fleeces the bale should be made up of bellies and pieces, and marked "broken fleece and pieces." To roll up the fleece, fold up the sides so as to leave it from to 2 ft. broad. Roll from the tail end, and it may be fastened by thrusting the twisted neck into the body of the fleece. The general usage is to tie with string, smooth white string being pre- ferred, as it does not leave any fibres in the wool, but the tying may be omitted if the fleece is carefully handled. Black and spotted wool should be packed by itself. If it is in small quantity it may be packed with pieces, and the bale marked to show the contents. The wool from a well managed flock has a very attractive appear- ance, while that from sheep that have done badly and been fre- quently yarded is dull and not as well grown. Washing wool on the sheep's back is now very seldom practised in Australia. Shearing in the grease is a saving of time and money, and a great benefit to the sheep. 636 The Press. In the early days of sheep farming in Australia, the great trouble in the back country was the wool press. A lever made of the trunk of a good-sized tree was often used, and many thousands of bales of wool have been pressed by such means. The agricul- tural machinery firms in Sydney and Melbourne now turn out excellent wool presses that are within the reach of the smallest flock owner. They are strongly made, easily worked, and of suffi- ciently light construction that their carriage is easily managed. The screw is absent from these presses, which is a great advantage. ±Ojeet. f 1 6-ccfte7ter h officer*- for- /Tool fiend c ! ^ hfiol tcU>€t ) In most of the colonies there are regularly established wool sales, at which representatives from the great European and American wool firms are present. It is better for the owner of a small or moderate sized flock to sell his wool at the nearest of these 638 are sufficient. As an illustration, say, the small half circular mark is chosen (it is usually called " half-hapeny "). For the first year it may be placed on the back of the near ear; for the second year on the back of the off ear ; for the third year on the front of the near ear; for the fourth year on the front of the off ear; and for the fifth year a double mark on the back of the near ear. The mark for age can then go back to the first year's mark. This virtually gives marks for six years, as there is no mistaking the weaners for the old ewes. Then comes the mark for the flock, which may be called the owner's or station mark. The station or flock mark and the marks for age should be in opposite ears to mark ewes from wethers. It may consist of a square, round, or diamond punch-hole in the centre of the ear. I have seen a Maltese cross punched out of the body of the ear look very well. Punches of any pattern the owner may fancy may be obtained with the ear-markers supplied by the leading ironmongers. There is an elaborate system of marking recommended for stud sheep by which each individual sheep may be identified, but I have never seen it in practice. The usual custom with stud stock is to tattoo with Indian ink a number on the inside of one ear, and the flock mark on the other. The metal loop having letter or mark and number is often used with stud sheep, but never with a general flock. Sheep Branding. A perfect sheep brand—one that can be clearly distinguished, and will yet do no harm to the wool—has yet to be discovered. The European manufacturers are loud in their complaints of the mischief wrought to the weaving machinery by tar brands, and strongly recommend their disuse. The substance sold for sheep branding, known as "tattoo oil," is said to be much superior to tar. It is not high priced, and it is mixed ready for use. Lamp black and boiled oil are frequently used for sheep marking in the proportion of I lb of lamp black to three quarters of a gallon of boiled oil. Some years ago I saw in the Scientific American the following recommended as a waterproof marking for sheep :—" Shellac 2 oz., borax 2 oz., water 25 oz., gum arabic 2 oz., lamp black suffi- cient. Boil the shellac and borax together in water till they are dissolved and withdraw from the fire. When the solution has become cold complete 25 oz. with water and add lamp black enough to bring the preparation to suitable consistency. For red marking substitute Venetian red; for blue, ultramarine ; and for green a mixture of ultramarine and yellow." This plan might be used for stud sheep where it was desirable to have a distinct brand. 639 Fire Branding. This plan of marking sheep is not now commonly practised, but with some studowners it is still employed. The brand consists of sometimes a letter branded on the side of the face, but more frequently it is one or more strokes on the side of the face or across the nose. One well known brand is down the centre of the nose. Fire brands should be carefully put on or they cause a great dis- figurement. The usual plan is to put the sheep's neck into a fork, made by sinking a forked branch of a tree to a convenient height for the sheep to stand; an auger hole is bored through both branches of the fork and a peg run through to keep the sheep's head firmly fixed during the operation. Ink Marking. Where a small stud is kept it is a wise precaution to mark the members of the flock with Indian ink. This is done in the following way :—A small die, with steel points forming the letter required, can be bought in Melbourne and Sydney, and with this the inside of the ear is punctured. As soon as the points are withdrawn Indian ink, or a substance made for the purpose, is rubbed into the punctures and a permanent mark is established. Besides the letter, figures are marked in the same way. These figures may be the individual number of the animal (this is done where a record of the breeding of each animal is kept), or it may represent the year of its birth. Dentition. The age of sheep is determined by the incisor or front teeth. At a month old a lamb has eight incisors or milk teeth, which are temporary. At from ten to twelve months the centre pair of incisors give place to two larger teeth, which are permanent. At from fifteen to twenty months old the second pair of incisors are replaced by permanent teeth. The third pair of milk teeth are replaced by permanent teeth at about two years and three months, and the fourth pair of permanent teeth begin to show at about 3^ years. Though the age of sheep is generally taken from the teeth, it is by no means an infallable guide, as the changes in the dentition are greatly influenced by the nature of the country on which the sheep are grazed. With a dry country and hard pasture the changes in the dentition will be advanced, and where the pasture is of a succulent nature they will be later. With sheep farmers, when the two permanent teeth are well up the sheep is regarded as a yearling; with four permanent teeth fully grown he is regarded as a two- year-old; with six permanent teeth, a three-year-old; and with eight, a four-year-old. The following diagram shows the relative positions of the various pairs of permanent teeth in the order of their growth :— 640 i i are the central permanent incisors, or pincers ; 2 2 are the second pair of pincers ; 3 3 are the third pair of pincers; 4 4 are the fourth pair of pincers, or corners. When the eight permanent incisors are developed the sheep is said to be full-mouthed. After the fourth year the teeth begin to give way, and the sheep is then said to be broken-mouthed. With fair treatment sheep will last for several years after their eight permanent teeth are fully grown, and will hold tljeir condition well ; indeed, it is often found that broken- mouthed ewes when kept in good condition give the best lambs. Cutting the Lambs. This is usually done when the lambs are about six weeks old, but if the lambs are stout and healthy it may be done earlier in the small flock with advantage. At an early age lhe lambs bleed less and suffer less pain, consequently they are not likely to loose con- dition as a result of the operation. The tail is generallv cut off about 2^ to 3 inches from the body. The knives should be very sharp, and perfectly clean. Many a lamb has died from blood poisoning through a dirty knife having been used in cutting its tail off. The old plan of castrating the lambs was to cut the end of the purse off, press out the testicles with the fingers, and draw them away with the teeth. Many sheep farmers now-a-days prefer to make a slit down the purse to the tip, just sufficiently long to per- mit the testicles to be pressed out. Lambs cut this way are said to heal more quickly than when the end of the scrotum is cut off, and to present a better appearance when the butcher handles them as fat wethers. Lambing. Every effort must be made to reserve a paddock with good feed for the lambing ewes. One that has plenty of shelter from the prevailing winds is best adapted to the purpose. With large flocks ot ewes, the best plan to adopt is to secure them from being disturbed in any way, and then let them alone. Some owners of small flocks draw off every day the ewes that give signs of being about to lamb. This work must be done very gently and quietly or there will be a loss of lambs. Sometimes young ewes with their first lambs are inclined to run away from their lambs, and in this case it is usual to confine the ewe in a small space, generally made with four hurdles, until she allows the lamb to suck, after which she may be put with the other ewes. When a lamb dies it is the custom, in small and stud flocks, to skin the lamb and put the skin on a twin from another ewe. A very short confinement with the lamb thus treated will make the ewe take to it. It requires a deal of patience, close attention, and no mean amount of skill to manage the breeding ewes in this way, but the percentage of lambs is sometimes (in case of very severe weather) largely increased by it. Where the locality is subject to severe storms at the time for lambing, a few rough windbreaks or shelter sheds come in very SHEEP INCISORS TEM' PER- M O L. A R S. Table of Dentition. The above table of dentition was arranged by Mr. E. L. Stroud, V.S., and published by Messrs. Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent, and Co., London. On the left hand side are shown the temporary incisors and on the right the permanent. The line of appearance of the molars is shown underneath. 642 useful. Merinos are excellent mothers, though at times a little flighty over the first lamb. All the down breeds are good mothers and the longwools are also fairly good in this respect. At times a ewe will hide her lamb, and in a bushy country they are sometimes lost. A close supervision of the flock will prevent these losses without knocking the sheep about by unnecessary interference. Where cross-breeding is practised on merinos, lambing ewes sometimes have a difficulty in giving birth to the lamb ; a little assistance at such a time will save the lives of both lamb and ewe. The large heads of the crossbred lambs (particularly where Lincoln rams of the old large-headed type are used) annually kill a consider- able number of ewes from difficulties at lambing time. Even where no cross-breeding is employed, the ewe occasionally finds a diffi- culty in giving birth to the lamb, owing to the head and sometimes the shoulders of the lamb being large. A little assistance given at the right moment, with gentleness, will save many a ewe's life. In bringing the ewes and lambs up to the yards for lamb- marking, a deal of trouble is often experienced if the work is not gone about in the right way. The flock should be gently brought together and edged quietly towards the yard without using a dog. Have a good wing of hurdles on one side. If there is any trouble in getting the flock to enter the yard, cut off a small lot and drive into an inner yard. These will form a decoy to bring in the others. Lambs that are excited by dogs and men shouting as they are brought into the yard often become quite frantic, and will run till they drop from exhaustion. A lamb will not recover from such a gallop for months. Stags (or ram stags). Rams that are no longer wanted for use in the flock, and for which a purchaser cannot be found, are a trouble if kept as rams, and it seems a waste to destroy them. The usual plan is to castrate them, and use them for food next season when in good condition, or send them to market fat. The castration is performed in various ways. Some sheep farmers merely use the knife, .and lose very few. A rough edged table knife to rub the cord through by scraping up and down is used to castrate horses, and should answer well with rams. Some tie a string round the cord outside the scrotum and above the testicles; this is twitched very tight, and kept in position by securely tying. By this means the testicles gradually wither away. In other cases what is called blocking or knocking is employed. The cord is placed between two blocks of wood, and the top one is struck heavily with a mallet. This destroys the spermatic cord, and the testicles wither. Ram stags when fattened make excellent mutton, though some people have a prejudice against it. CHAPTER VI. DISEASES OF SHEEP. Throughout the greater portion of Australia sheep, particularly in the newly settled districts, are singularly free from disease. Indeed it would be safe to say that the sheep in Australia (with the exception of the coastal districts) suffer from no ailment , but such as have been introduced into the country. The pioneer sheep farmers in central Australia used to say that their sheep suffered from no disease save starvation in a season of drought. It is a proof of the healthy condition of our sheep that over the greater portion of our island continent such a thing as a remedy for disease in the sheep is almost unknown on the sheep walks. The usual course on a run when a sheep is attacked by disease is to let him take his chance. Where a number of sheep die from some unknown cause, it is usually ascribed to poison plant. It has been noticed, however, in the older settled districts that the sheep are beginning to be attacked by a number of diseases which, until lately, were unknown in the land. Many of these diseases have caused serious losses during seasons that have been favorable to their development and dispersion. Some diseases that are now established in the old settled districts are not amen- able to treatment, while others yield to remedies but very slowly. The pulse of the sheep at rest beats at the rate of from sixty to eighty beats per minute. It is usually examined by placing the hand on the left side, where the beating of the heart may be felt. Any material deviation from the rate given may be taken as an indication of disease. If rapid, hard and full, it is a symptom of high fever or inflammation. If rapid, small and weak, it is an indication of low fever, loss of blood and weakness. If slow, the probabilities are that the trouble is in the brain ; if irregular, the heart is probably affected. The great point in attempting a cure is first to ascertain the real nature of the disease, and not to rush to violent remedies on a mere supposition. When sheep die from some unknown cause a careful post- mortem examination should be made, in order to locate the trouble. In making this post-mortem examination the hands should be free from any cuts or wounds, or the operator may suffer seriously from blood poisoning. It is well to have a supply of carbolic acid tc apply in a strong solution to the hands, after being well washed 644 Flockmasters have found salt licks extremely useful in keeping their sheep healthy. At first rock salt was generally used for this purpose, but of late Liverpool salt, sea salt, and salt from salt lakes have come into use, and are generally preferred. In some cases sulphate of iron and lime are added to the salt with great advantage. I know of a flock of sheep in a decomposed granite country (which is generally regarded as not healthy), which has been kept in excellent health for many years through the sheep being constantly supplied with a lick composed of the following :— Sulphate of iron, 6 lb.; lime, 6 lb.; crushed salt, i cwt. The whole is thoroughly mixed, and supplied to the sheep in troughs, which are protected from the rain by a small roof. Many licks are used, but the one given has stood the test of a long experience in doubtful country, and can therefore be confi- dently recommended. Sheep should always have the opportunity of taking salt. From the very earliest times salt has been regarded by husbandmen as a great factor in keeping sheep and cattle healthy; therefore, it is advisable to keep sheep and cattle always well supplied with salt. Foot Rot. This disease is very common among merino sheep when kept on a rich soil country with abundant pasture. Of old it was common in the richer coastal districts of western Victoria, but that part of the country has long since been given up to the longwooi breeds, which are not so susceptible to the disease. When the sheep were shepherded it was common, but in Victoria it readily yielded to treatment. A strong solution of bluestone is an excellent remedy. When sheep were dipped in arsenic for scab it was found that the dipping cured those sheep that were suffering from foot rot. This led to the use of troughs to run the foot rot sheep through a strong solution of arsenic. The strength used was about ^ oz. of arsenic to a gallon of water. Some sheep farmers use double the quantity of arsenic. In treating the sheep for foot rot it is necessary to pare away every portion of the diseased hoof, so as to expose the disease thoroughly to the action of the remedv. Sharp knives must be used to avoid wrenching the sheep's foot and causing unnecessary pain to the animal. A little knowledge of the anatomy of the sheep's foot is necessary to make good work; but this is soon acquired by an intelligent man who wishes to learn. Cutting the large vein of the toe must be carefully avoided, as the bleeding is difficult to stop, and the slightest blow will cause it to break out afresh. When sheep have been left'with long hoofs till the heat has hardened the horn they should be shortened by using the powerful seccateurs made for the purpose, and sold in most of the leading ironmongers' shops in Australia. During the last ten years foot-rot has invaded Riverina, and in that district, particularly on the rich lands bordering the river Murray, it has proved very mtractable. The ordinary remedies. 645 such as bluestone and arsenic, have failed to effect a cure in many instances. In Riverina the disease has assumed a much more virulent shape than in the western district of Victoria. It frequent- ly extends to the joints of the fetlock and in a very short time the sheep becomes a complete wreck. This form of foot-rot has been attributed to the Vermont merinos, to whom its introduction into the country is ascribed by some pastoralists. This I believe to be an error, for I have known the very worst form of foot-rot in a flock that had no Vermont blood in their veins and had never been brought into contact with Vermont sheep. In the country where this virulent form of foot- rot has appeared the merinos are rapidly giving way to longwools and crossbreds, and much of the land is being cultivated for wheat- growing on the share system. A pastoralist in New South Wales has kept his sheep sound in their feet by the use of the following dressing :—i oz. arsenic to each gulion of water, with a handful of salt to each gallon; boil four hours. When the sheep display symptoms of foot-rot they are run through the mixture twice a week. A Victorian grazier says he has found the following treatment very effective :—Pass the sheep through a trough 14 or 15 feet long and as many inches wide with three or four inches of water in it, with which a small quantity of lime has been mixed. The lime-water should not be made so caustic as to harden the hoof or mjure a healthy skin. It can be used frequently. A Vermont sheep farmer claims to have found a cure for foot- rot. He dips his sheep's feet into kerosene and puts a pinch of sulphur between the hoofs. One repetition of the treatment at the end of two weeks, he claims, will effect a cure. The trough for running sheep through can easily be made. It should be about 14 inches broad, as many feet long, and about 10 inches deep. Sometimes planks or pieces of sheet iron are placed on each side of the trough to save the splash. I believe I was the first person in Victoria to use a trough for foot-rot, and not having any planks at hand, I morticed out a straight tree trunk, which answered the purpose well and was used for some time. Where the sheep are liable to foot-rot, they should be run through the trough directly they scald in the feet. Young lambs are often saved from a bad attack of foot-rot by being run through directly they show a scald in the feet. I think a half ounce of arsenic to the gallon of water the best remedy. That foot-rot is contagious I am convinced, as I have known it introduced to healthy flocks by bringing foot-rot sheep on to the run. Unless the conditions of soil and climate are suitable to the development of the disease, foot-rot will never give much trouble. Fluke. Also known as rot, liver-rot, and by other names, is a parasitic disease caused by the presence in the bile ducts of the 646 sheep's liver of a flat parasite, generally known as the fluke, the Fasciola hepatica of zoologists. It is shaped like a flounder, hence its common name. It is of a light-brown color, changing some- times to flesh-color, and ranges in size up to half an inch in length, though specimens are sometimes found much larger. This disease is known over the greater part of the earth's surface where sheep are raised. In wet seasons it occasions very serious losses among the European flocks. The life history of this parasite is now fully known, consequently measures may be taken to control it. As yet no means of destroying the fluke in the sheep have been discovered. The fluke deposits an immense number of eggs, as many as seven millions having been obtained from the gall bladder of a single sheep. The eggs are voided bv the sheep, and under favourable circumstances (the presence of moisture) they are hatched, and the larval flukes find a host in small snails. Should this host not be forthcoming the larval flukes die. On quitting the intermediate host the parasite, in another intermediate stage, attaches itself to the stems of grass, when it is taken up by the sheep, after which it bores through the internal organs to the liver, where it develops into the mature fluke. In the case of fluke it is apparently useless to attempt a cure, consequently the best thing to do is to adopt preventive measures. These are draining marshy, low-lying lands, and if possible top dressing with lime or salt, or both. These kill the small snails, and thus cut off one link in the chain of changes the larval flukes undergo. With most of the internal parasites that trouble the domestic animals the parents die after laying their eggs, but the fluke is an exception. I know of a case in point. A number of flukey sheep were brought on tu a property which, though containing several nasty spots, was always free from fluke. The sheep were kept on the place for four years, and experiments made showed that they voided fluke eggs all that time. Owing probably to the marshy land being almost a lime bed there were no intermediate hosts for the larval fluke, and consequently they must have died, as sound sheep brought into the place did not become flukey. This shows the danger of bringing flukey sheep into sound country, as there is apparently no end to the mature flukes as long as the sheep lives. Where the country is such that the larval flukes mav develop, great care should be exercised in selecting the sheep that are brought on to the place, as the flukes multiply with such nmazing rapidity that one infected animal is sufficient to infest the run. Various licks are recommended as preventives of fluke. Most of them would improve the health of the sheep and might possibly prove injurious to the fluke when first taken up with the grass. One favorite lick is 8 lb. sulphur to 100 lb. Liverpool salt. The lick described in another place, composed of lime, sulphate of iron and salt, is excellent. Where the soil is at all favorable to the develop- 647 ment of the larval fluke, one of these licks should be constantly kept within reach of the sheep. The symptoms of fluke are easily recognised. The eyes lose their brightness and the whites assume the hue of bad tallow. The skin becomes moist and has a dull appearance, quite different to the bright hue of a healthy skin, and the wool is easily detached from it. As the disease progresses, dropsy sets in, and the sheep dies almost in a state of rottenness. Fluke is seldom, if ever, seen in the hot plains of central Australia, and what is known as salt country is also free from it. One of the best preventives of fluke is to burn the pastures every now and again. This kills the snails that form the intermediate host of the larval fluke. Heavy stocking greatly assists in spreading the disease. Anthrax. Also known as carbuncular murrain and splenetic apoplexy in England, is one of the most fatal of the diseases to which the sheep are liable. Like the fluke, it has a very wide range and is dreaded by sheep farmers all over the world. It is a blood disease, and is caused by a microbe which is capable of leading an independ- ent existence for years in the soil. It has the character of an acute inflammatory fever and is communicated by contagion from one animal to another. It thrives best in rich, deep soil, such as that usually bordering the margins of rivers and creeks. Warm, rainy weather is favorable to its developments. There are few, if any, premonitory symptoms and it is difficult to say whether the animal attacked is diseased or not until it is dead. The symptoms usually noticed are, the animal is dull and lan- guid, the back is arched, and shortly before death a bloody, slimy matter is, in most instances, ejected from the nostrils and the anus. The post inor'.em examination shows all the internal organs to be discolored and almost decomposed. It is dangerous to make a post mortem examination of a sheep that has died of anthrax if there should be any cuts or sores on the hands. Anthrax is communicable to human beings, the well known wool-sorter's disease being a form of it. Where anthrax is suspected as the cause of death in sheep, the best plan is to burn the body as soon after death as possible. Anthrax is seldom met with in sandy calcareous country, and frost at once arrests its destructive tendency. There is no cure for sheep attacked by anthrax, indeed, the first intimation the flock-master has that the disease is in his sheep, is the finding of the dead animals, usuallv the best conditioned ones in the flock. Fortunately there is a safe and certain preventive of this fatal disease, the discovery of which we owe to the great French scientist, M. Pasteur. He discovered that the attenuated virus of the disease gave immunity to the sheep, and annually many millions of sheep are now inoculated in Europe. The inoculation of 648 sheep with the attenuated virus of anthrax has been successfully practised in New South Wales and Victoria since 1888. It gives immunity to the animal, certainly for two years, and, it is generally believed, for life. Inoculation with the virus of anthrax requires a skilful operator, and the preparation of the virus is a matter the sheep farmer cannot undertake. The inoculation of sheep in New South Wales and Victoria is performed by experts at a charge of so much per 1,000 head of sheep. Ticks and Lice. Badly bred and badly managed flocks are a nuisance to all the adjoining sheep farms, as such flocks are usually infected with ticks and lice, which spread rapidly in every direction Though sheep troubled with these pests can scarcely be described as diseased, they nevertheless give the flock master almost as much trouble as any of the diseases to which sheep are liable. The remedy is a simple one, easily applied, and should be made compulsory. Many dips for killing ticks and lice are put on the market, all of which are probably effective, and some of the best known ones have been specially recommended by the most careful sheep farmers in Aus- tralia. The remedy for ticks and lice is to dip the sheep soon after shearing in a dilution of some well known "dip." In the older colonies small dips are made of iron suitable for the farmer's flock. These dips can be obtained at a moderate cost, and are easily shifted from place to place, which is a great advantage. When a farmer cannot obtain one of these dips, he can readily construct one that will serve his turn by making a framework of hardwood and lining it with tongued and grooved inch pine boards. The size is not material, but if it is to be a permanency, the dimen- sions may be 2\ ft. broad, 10 ft. long, and 4 ft. deep at one end, with a battened slope at the other end to allow the sheep to walk out easily. This dip should be well puddled at the back. With a small flock the half of a large cask can be utilised if the materials to construct a permanent dip are wanting. In such a receptacle a good many sheep can be got through in a day. Before dips were made for curing scab, such means were employed for dressing the diseased animals. A stout fiame about the size of a dining table was covered with bullock hide, and on this the scabby sheep used to be saturated with some scab-killing compound. Any means that will rid the sheep of these troublesome pests is better than waiting till a properly-constructed dip can be erected. Coast Disease. Over a considerable portion of the littoral of southern Australia the sheep are subject to a disease which, for want of a better name, is generally described as the "coast disease." As the districts liable to this disease are limited, and generally not good growing country, the nature of the disease has not attracted much attention. It is the general opinion of those having any experience of coast disease 649 that there is no cure for pasture animals attacked by it as long as they remain in the coast country, but removal to a sound pasture further inland almost invariably effects a cure. This disease is often described as rickets, but the two complaints are dissimilar. Rickets. The disease is more frequently seen in cattle than in sheep. It is prevalent in some portions of the coast country where the soil is a sandy loam that has in it scarcely any lime. The animals raised in such country grow weak and stunted, their bones are extremely brittle, and without strength, the slightest fall occasioning a fracture. No stock should be bred on such country, and any animals kept on it should have access to a lime lick. Flies. The common-blow fly frequently causes much mischief by depositing its eggs about the tails of sheep that have been scouring. Unless the sheep are attended to at once the maggots soon effect so much mischief that the animal dies. This trouble generally occurs in autumn, when the growth of young grass causes a slight scour in the sheep. It is much worse in Tasmania than in any part of the mainland of Australia. The remedy is to clear away the soiled wool, and rub in a strong solution of one of the ordinary dips. When a sheep is struck by flies it makes sudden, short movements, and con- stantlv works its tail with a quick motion. The Worm. Under this description are included all the worm-like internal parasites that affect the sheep. There are in reality many forms of these worms. There are at le:ist three distinct forms of strongylus that inhabit the lungs and air passages of sheep, and probably as many inhabit the stomach and intestinal organs. The most common of the worms inhabiting the air passages is the strongylus filaria, a white-colored worm which is found blocking up the air passages of the bronchial tubes. The disease known in the old country as husk in calves and lambs is occasioned by this worm. Its presence is easily recognised by the attempts of the animal to dislodge them by coughing. The life history of these lung and stomach worms is not clearly known, but that they produce an immense number of eggs is certain. Though these eggs often contain living embryos while in the sheep it is doubtful if they ever advance to maturity while they remain there. It is supposed they are expelled from the sheep and undergo some changes before they seek a host in the sheep. Scientists have as yet discovered no remedy for this disease. The practice among sheepowners has been to subject the infected sheep to the fumes of certain drugs in a close building. This is said to have had a bene- ficial effect in many instances, but the slightest mismanagement often causes serious losses by the sheep being choked by the fumes. The introduction of drugs into the windpipe by means of a specially made 650 syringe is also said to have given good results, but the operation is not as easily performed as one would think at first sight, and often the windpipe is not punctured and the operation is consequently useless. The latest scientific statement in reference to a remedy for lung worm is that injection into the windpipe or, indeed, anv other form of treatment, may bs looked upon as nearly useless. The embryos of the worm have been found alive in a portion of lung which had been kept for several hours in a strong solution of corrosive sublimate. It is doubted that any drug which could be introduced would kill these worms, even if it killed the sheep. Top dressing of lime and salt, sufficient draining to prevent the formation of marshy spots, is recommsnded, but probably the best remedy is to remove the sheep to a different pasture. Stomach and intestinal worms are usually found in countrv that is infested with lung worms. The most prominent symptom is scouring, accompanied by loss of appetite and wasting. Abnormal thirst is often shown, and a strong tendency to lick sand or earth. These worms, like those of the lungs, are more severe on lambs than on older sheep. In a worm infested country, when a season favourable to their development occurs, the losses of lambs, or rather weaners, are very heavy. In such seasons the worms are not confined to the rich soil and heavily grassed districts, which are known to be "wormy," but are spread over the soundest and healthiest districts. Such a season occurred about ten years ago in a portion of Victoria, and healthy, lightly grassed plains, on which the sheep never knew disease, were affected, and considerable losses among the weaners occurred. As many of the flocks affected were permanent ones, the sheep of which never left the place till they left it for good, and no fresh sheep were introduced, it is difficult to account for the rapid spread of the disease. As in the case of the lung worm, veterinary science has not yet discovered a remedy for this disease. Turpentine has given the hint its action is not to be depended on, though repeated doses are said to have a good effect by killing the young worms. Lysol (a watery solution of tar oil) is regarded as likely to prove the best agent for the destruction of these parasites of the sheep. In the present state of our knowledge, prevention, in the way suggested for lung worms, is about all that can be done, though there are in Australia, in America, and in Britain many so-called cures for the disease. The advice given by those veterinary surgeons who have carefully studied the subject, to keep up the strength of the young stock by good feeding and changing them from old, low-lying pastures to newer and higher ones, is, doubtless, the best that can be given. Some years ago, in a neighboring colony, in a district that was badly infected with worms, an experiment was tried by the manager of a large flock of high-class sheep. On weaning the lambs, instead of putting the young sheep on the pasture, he put them on turnips which he had grown for the purpose. Instead of taking the worm, as was usually the case on that property, the 651 young sheep throve remarkably well and came into the shed as two-tooths fully as large as ordinary four-tooths. It was generally believed in the district that there must be some principle in the turnip that gave the weaners immunity from the disease, but it is much more probable that the food gave the sheep sufficient strength to resisjt it. The cultivation of the land may have the effect of destroying the larval worms. The sheep farmer should, if possible, avoid bringing any sheep infected with worms on to his run, and in this lies the advantage of breeding up the flock from thoroughly healthy originals and drawing the same from flocks that are known to be sound. I give the following remedies that have been tried and recommended by Australian pastoralists. On the Jimbour estate, salt and chloride of potassium, in the proportion of ten of the former to one of the latter, is said to have given relief. An American remedy is, a tablespoonful of turpentine in four times as much oil. Of this mixture a tablespoonful is a dose for a sheep. The remedy generally used in Queensland some years ago, when the worm was very bad, was i oz. arsenic, i oz. washing soda, i oz. carbonate of soda, boiled in two quarts of water for an hour and kept well stirred. Add ten gallons of cold water, and of the mixture a gill is a dose for a grown sheep. This remedy was strongly recommended, but I fancy many of the lambs died from it. A Victorian remedy is, i quart of turpentine and n quarts of milk, well mixed. Of this mixture 3 oz. is a dose. It must be kept well stirred or the turpentine will separate from the milk. Running turpentine along the back from the withers to the rump 'is said to kill the internal worms, but it is a very severe remedy. Scab. This is a skin disease caused by a minute insect, which is very difficult to distinguish without the aid of a powerful magnifying glass. The^e insects multiply in warm, moist weather, when there is a rush of green grass. The disease has not been seen in Aus- tralian flocks for many years, and as all imported sheep are care- fully examined there is not much danger of its being again intro- duced into our flocks. The old idea that scab was generated by low conditioned sheep bjing exposed to severe weather without sufficient food has long since been exploded. The insect {Acorns) must be present, or the sheep will never take scab. Arsenic was used ns a cure in the propoition of from \ to \ oz. to the gdlon of water. It killed the scab insect, but it occasionally k lied a good many of the sheep, particularly when asuddt n change from warm to cold wet weather occurred immediately after dipping. Some of the dips for tick are used for scab in countries where it still exists, and they are said to be very effective. Tobacco is a safe and effective cure in the proportion of 1 lb cf tobacco to 8 f>52 gallons of water. The strong, c arse, "knock-me-down" tobacco grown formerly in Victoria and Tasmania, was a goid cure for scab, but it has not been seen in these colonies for many years. Hvdatids. This disease is known in almost every country where sheep are raised. It is caused by the larval state of a species of tape worm [Tan a echinococcus) infesting the dog and wolf. It is not frequently met with, fortunately, as it is difficult to treat, a cure being rarely effected. The mature parasite is about £ to ^ of an inch long. It reproduces itself by ova, which dogs intested with the tapeworm are continually throwing off in the faxes. This ova will float in the air, and if it settles in water may be taken up by sheep when drinking. When an animal swallows the ova of the tapeworm the walls that enclose it are broken down and minute embryos of a spherical shape are set free. These find their way into the blood vessels and are carried to various organs, principally the liver, lungs, and brain. Here they become encysted—that is, surrounded by a sac formed of the tissues of the host. The fluid in this sac is of a milky hue, and in the centre is a membrane surrounding a central granular mass. This disease is communicable to human beings principally through the drinking water. Well-cooked mutton is quite safe. The cure for human beings affected with hydatids is to tap the sac and draw off the contents, but this remedy is seldom, if ever, employed with sheep. The number of sheep that die of this disease is not large, but it may be said to be ever present in some part or other of the country. Terms Used bv Sheep Farmers. Lamb.—A sheep is called a lamb until it is weaned from its mother. Weaner.—This term is used to describe young sheep just weaned. Hogget.—The term hogget is applied to wethers and ewes till they are shorn as two-tooths, though some people apply the terra for a few months longer. Ewes and wether hoggets off the shears are often spoken of. For the ages above this see " Dentition." Wether.—A male sheep castrated when a lamb. Broken mouth.—A term used to describe sheep whose permanent incisors have decayed. Full mouth.—A term applied to a sheep that has its full com- plement of eight permanent incisors fully developed. See "Dentition." Stores are sheep, both male and female, in low condition, generally purchased for fattening for the market. Cull is a sheep rejected from the breeding flock for old age, or some defect of form or fleece. 653 Comeback.—This term is applied to a sheep raised from across- bred ewe from a ram of one of the original breeds. It is sometimes described as a Lincoln comeback or a merino comeback. Crossbred.—Sheep bred from two distinct varieties, such as merino and any of the longwool breeds, and merino and any of the down breeds. Slag, or ram stag, is a ram emasculated after being used as a sire. Yolk.—The natural grease or oily matter in the wool of sheep. Black tip.—This is the formation of the yolk into a hard black spot on the outer edge of the fibres of wool. Staph.—The length of the wool fibre. A long staple of merino wool may reach 5 inches, a short one be just over 1^ inches. Combing wool is merino wool that is sufficiently long in the fibre to be worked by the combing machine. Anything over 1^ inches is now called combing wool. Formerly it was required to be longer. Clothing viool is any merino wool that is under 1\ inches in length of fibre. Kemps are white hairs seen in badly bred merino wool. These are objectionable, as they do not take the dye like true wool, and their presence reduces the value of the wool per lb. Lock.—This term is applied to the way the wool grows on the sheep's body. Thus, the Lincoln wool has a heavy blunt lock. Small pointed locks are not liked by sheep farmers. Such fleeces do not weigh well. Locks.—The stained wool and coarse pieces sometimes growing low down on the thighs of merino sheep; in fact, all dirty coarse or badly seeded parts of the fleece are termed locks. Pieces.—These are the parts of the fleece not sufficientlv coarse, stained or seedy as to go with the locks, and yet not good enough to go with the fleece. Break in wool.—This is a weak spot in the fibre caused by deficient growth during a period of illness, starvation, or exposure to very severe storms. Where the break occurs the wool is much weaker than elsewhere. . Dags.—This term is applied to the lumps of manure formed on the wool under the sheep's tail, owing to the animal having scoured through a rush of young grass or other cause. Longwools are apt to have dags. Preparing Wool, Hides, etc., for Market. The following directions for preparing wool, hides, sheep skins, furred skins, etc., for market, have been compiled by Messrs. Connor, Doherty and Durack, Limited :— 6S4 Wool.—After separating the stained pieces and locks, the fleeces should be skirted well (especially if the bellies are burry) and then rolled tightly and pressed into bales. The pieces, bellies, stained pieces, and locks may then be baled separately, or if there is not sufficient of either to be packed in bales, sacks may be used. On no account should fleeces be tied with string. Sheepskins.—Immediately after being taken off, the skins should be hung out lengthways on wires or rails (wool side down), if possible under trees or other shade, until dry ; the trotters should then be cut off, and the skins painted with anti-weevil composition. They may then be stored in a dry place until sufficient have accumulated to make a consignment. On no account should skins be allowed to hang out exposed to the weather after they are once dry. Hides.—When flaying, i.e., skinning the beast, care should be taken that the hide is not cut or scored with the knife, as this takes off, at the least, a third of the value. The head of the beast should not be skinned, as that portion of the hide is of no value. As soon as flayed the hide should be spread out under shade and well salted; after a day or two the blood should be drained off, and the hide rolled up with the hair side out, and plenty of salt inside. When rolled the hide may be tied with binding twine, but on no account should wire be used. Calf skins should be treated in the same manner. Kangaroo skins should be pegged out in the shade (all shanks, scalps, and tails cut oft closely). After drying the skins should be painted with anti-weevil composition and packed quite flat in bundles. Care should be taken that each skin is thoroughly dry" befofe being packed. Opossum skins.—When the body is cold strip off the skin, leaving the tail on, and peg out as squarely as possible. When dry paint with anti-weevil composition, and pack flat, fur to fur. Opossums should be trapped or snared, as shooting them or hunting them with dogs destroys the fur. The proper time for opossum catching is from May to end of August, as during that time the fur, which constitutes the value, is thicker and better. Recipe for anti-weevil composition.—Take six lbs. arsenic and five lbs. common washing soda. Dissolve the soda in ten gallons of water in a copper or boiler. When dissolved add the arsenic and boil until the latter is thoroughly dissolved. To every gallon of this preparation add three gallons of cold water; mix thoroughly and apply to the flesh side of the skin with a whitewash or other suitable brush. As this preparation is extremely poisonous, care should be taken to keep it where children or animals cannot get access to it. 655 All consignments sent to market should be distinctly branded or marked (stencil plates should be used for branding wool, and labels for skins, hides, etc.) and each consignment should be fully advised by letter to the consignees. PART V. THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLER'S GUIDE . . . AND . . , FARMER'S HANDBOOK. Soils and Manures. Manures and Manuring. Soils and how thev are made. Different classes of Soils and their values. Manures and how to applv them. By S. S. Dougall, F.I.C., Agricultural Chemist to the liuienii of Agriculture. Issued by direction of the Bureau of Agriculture. Edited bv L. LINDLEY-COWEN', Secretarv. 1898. |:, S, Wigo & Son, Printers, Hav Street, Perth, INDEX. PAGE. Absorption of gasses by soils - 665 Absorption of water - - 663 Absorption of water, per centage 663 Absorptive power of soils 685 Ammonia - - 673 Analyses, field - - 670 Analyses of soils - 667 Animal guano - - 699 Artificial manure - - 702 Artificial manures, protection against adulteration - 730 Ascertain condition of soil - 678 Ash of plants - - 681 Average composition of lattle foods - - 692 Bacteria in the soil - - 672 Barley - - 743 Basic slag - - 701; Beans and peas - - 747 Beetroot - - 745 Biological action of lime - 729 Blood manures - - 699 Bone ash - - 705 Bonedust - - 704 Bonemeal - - 704 Bones raw - - 703 Cattle foods, composition of - 692 PAGE. Chemical action of lime - 728 Chemical composition of soils - 666 Clay soil, to make porous • 674 Clover crop - - 724 Composition of farmyard manure, per cent. - - 688 Composition of soil, chemical - 666 Condition of soil, to ascertain from crops - - 678 Constituents of plant foods - 680 Coprolites - - 705 Cover the manure heap - 691 Crop requirements - - 679 Crops and manures - - 737 Crops, rotation of - - 734 Decomposed granite - - 662 Denitrification - - 685 Derivation of organic matter - 684 Derivation of phosphates - 683 Device for manure tank - 697 Dissolved mineral phosphates - 706 Draining the soil - - 675 Effect of water on rape - 664 Estimate of original manure value - - 694 Evaporation in the soil 664, 685 Excreta . . 688 PAGE. PAGE Experiments, field plot - 749 „ plan of blocks - 677 „ with manures 712 Farmyard manure - - 687 Feed Stuffs and Fertilisers Act - 730 Felspars - - 669 Fertilisers - - 687 Fertilisers and Feeding Stuffs Act 730 Fertility of soils, indications - 661 Field analyses - - 676 Field plot experiments • 749 Fish manures - - 700 Formation of soils - - 658 Gases in the soils, absorption - 665 Geology of the soil - • 659 Granite, decomposed - - 662 Green manuring - 674, 702 Guanos - 700, 717 Guano, animal - - 699 „" meat meal - - 699 Gypsum - 722,729 Hair as manure, value of - 699 Hides etc., value as manure 699 Horn, hides etc., value as manure 699 Humus - - 674 Indications of fertile soils - 661 Irrigation with liquid manure - 606 Judging the value of soils - 661 Land, lime an improvement to - 676 Leather clippings - - 699 Leguminous crops - - 746 Light colored loam - - 662 „ soils, to improve - 686 Likings of plants - - 686 Lime „ chemical action of „ improves land - Litter Liquid manure "727 - 728 - 676 - 691 689 ,, „ irrigation with - 696 Loam, light colored - - 662 Mangolds - - 745 Manure, artificial - - 702 „ blood - 699 Manures, experiments with - 712 Manure for wheat - - 737 „ investigations - 679 „ irrigation with liquid - 696 Manures, nitrogenous - 718 Manure, poisoned - - 696 „ tank, device for - 697 „ trials, records of • 750 „ keep under cover - 691 ,, value, estimate of - 695 Manures - 679,687 for crops - - 737 Manuring green - - 702 „ methods of - 693 Meat meal guano - - 699 Methods of manuring - 693 Mineral constituents • - 671 Mineral phosphates - - 705 „ „ dissolved - 706 Mixing soils - - 675 Necessity of manuring - 752 Nitrate, potassium - . 720 Nitrification - 672 Nitrogenous manures - 718 Oats - . 743 Oil cakes - - 702 Organic matter, derivation of - 685 Organic substances in soils - 672 Percentage composition of farm- yard manure - - 688 Percentage of ash - - 681 „ of water absorbed - 663 Phosphates - - 671 „ derivation of - 683 „ dissolved mineral - 706 Plan of experimental blocks - 677 Plant foods • - 679 „ „ constituents of - 680 „ their special likings - 6S6 Poisoned manure - - 696 Porous, to make clay soil - 674 Potash - - 670 „ manures - - 726 Potassium nitrate - 720, 725 Potatoes - - 745 Power of soils, absorptive - 685 „ „ retentive 663 Produce per acre, of wheat - 742 Properties of soils - - 658 Protection of Farmers, Act for - 730 Poudrette as manure - - 747 Rape, effect of water on - 664 Rawbones - • 703 Records of manure trials - 750 Requirements of soils - 670 Results of investigations, manures 679 Retentive power of soils - 663 Root crops - - 744 Rotation of crops - - 734 Sandv soils - - 662 Sewage as manure - - 74S Slag, basic - - 70U Sodium - - 720 Soils, absorptive power of - 6S5 Soil, chemical composition - 666 „ clay, to make porous - 675 ,, condition of, to ascertain - 67S „ draining - - 675 Soils, evaporative power - 685 „ judging the value - 661 Soil, production of - - 658 „ properties - - 658 Soils, retentive power - 663 „ to improve light • 686 Solid excreta - - 688 Special likings of plants - 686 „ manures - - 7211 Superphosphates • • 706 PART V. THE WEST AUSTRALIAN SETTLER'S GUIDE SOILS AND MANURES. Part V. of the Settler's Glide and Farmer's Handbook is devoted to a description of the various kinds of soils, and of the science and practice of manuring. Every effort has been made by the author to keep the work as free from technicalities and scientific names, and to write in such a style as to make his observations readily understood. It is, however, a very difficult matter, well nigh impossible, to treat a scientific subject properly and fully with- out using scientific terms, but it is to be hoped that the readers of the Guide will profit by the knowledge conveyed in these pages, and when they are in doubt upon any particular point, or desire further information, they have only to apply to the Bureau of Agriculture and it will be freely accorded. CHAPTER I. SOILS. Bv S. S. Dougall, F.I.C., Agricultural Chemist to the Bureau of Agriculture. Earth, or soil, acts as the holder or conveyor of nourishment necessary to the growth of plants, and also gives support to their roots in enabling them to maintain a position best adapted to their growth. Soils are the results of the disintegration, weathering, or denudation of rocks. The forces that are concerned in the formation of soils are both of a physical and a chemical nature. The alternate action of heat and cold on rocks produces expansion and contraction, creating small cracks and fissures which, by the further actio 1 of water, are enlarged, and small fragments of the rock are consequently disengaged. This action may go on until large pieces of the rock are disengaged, which, in their downward course, grind away part of the surface of he rock, which goes to make up the soil. The water not only acts mechanically, but also chemically. A'l rocks contain something in their mineral composition that is liable to chemical decomposition by the action of oxygen and carbonic acid. The rain falling to the earth takes up oxvgen and carbonic acid from the atmosphere. The oxygen acting on the sulphides oxidizes them into sulphates, which are dissolved in the water and carried away, leaving the rock a porous mass which eventuallv is broken up into fragments. Carbonic acid exerts a greater action on the rocks than oxygen, even the hardest granite crumbling under its agency It converts the alkalies—potash and soda—and alkaline earths—lime and magnesia—into carbonates and bi-carbonates, which, being soluble in water, are carried away in solution with the separated silica, leaving, in the case of a felspathic rock, a deposit of kaolin. The rain falling on these decomposed rocks carries away small particles which are deposited on the lower levels, or in the nearest stream or river, to be again deposited at some distance, or finally carried out to sea. Soils are also formed in loco by the weathering or disintegra- tion of the surface of rocks which underlie the soil. Being com- posed of particles of the rock from which they are derived they are precisely of the same nature, or very little modified. When the rock under the soil is a shale or slate, a clay soil will be found on the surface ; sandy when overlying a sandstone rock; calcarerous when overlying limestone ; and overlying granite a soil composed of clay and sand, rich in potash, and modified in its other mineral constituents, according to the nature of the granite- it is derived 659 from. From the trap rocks is derived a rich, fertile soil, well pro- portioned in clay, sand, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, and rich in potash. With a knowledge of the rocks which went to form a soil, we are in a position to say whether it is likely to be a soil that will grow any particular crop. The soils derived from rocks of the same age are the same in character in one part of the world as in another. Geologists divide the rocks into two classes—stratified and unstratified. This division is quite suitable to the requirements of the agriculturist. The unstratified rocks are called chrystalline or igneous rocks, and for agricultural purposes may be divided into two classes—granite an(^ traP rocks. The stratified or sedimentary rocks cover the greater portion of the earth's surface, and go to form the greater part of the soils. They lie over each other in hori- zontal layers, like the leaves of a book when laid on its side, and always in a definite position, no matter in what part of the world they are found. Granite consists of quartz, felspar and mica in varying propor- tions, and when hornblende replaces the mica it is called a syenite. The fertility of a granite soil is governed by the felspar. It is principally the felspar that goes to make a fine soil, and its fertility will greatly depend on whether the felsite is a potash or magnesia felsite. Granites generally form mountain ridges. The rains wash out the fine felsite clay or kaolin, carrying the clay down into the low flats, forming a cold, impervious, clayey soil, and leaving only the barren quartz on the mountain side, more especially on the side exposed to the prevailing wind and rain, while on the other side may be a comparatively fertile slope, not having been denuded of its fine clay. It is evident that a granite soil to be fertile must lie over a granite, and be derived from a granite containing a potash felsite. The trap rocks consist of felspar, hornblende, or augite, and comprise basalt and the greenstones generally. The felspar and hornblende in the trap rocks are both reduced in the weathering to form a soil. By a glance at the composition of these two sub- stances it will be quite evident why trap rocks produce some of the most fertile soils :— Felspar. Hornblende. Silica 6o-oo 52-00 Alumina ... 18-00 I2-00 Potash and soda 17-00 Trace Lime Trace 10-oo Magnesia ... ii 1500 Oxide of iron ii 10-50 Oxide of magnesia ... ii ,50 ioo-oo 10o-oo 66o Such a soil must naturally be rich. It also shows how a trap rock soil is .very little benefited by an application of lime, except on first breaking it up into arable land. The rain having washed the lime down into the soil, it is brought up again by continual ploughing. I have said that the stratified rocks lie over each other m hori- zontal layers. It might be supposed that only the later layers of the sedimentary rocks would be exposed on the surface of the earth. However, the upheavals that have taken place from time to time have tilted up extensi e ridges of the lower rocks and exposed them on the surface. Also the denudation of the upper strata have exposed large tracts of the older strata, forming a variety of soils. Of these soils, where one finds a soil produced from the new or old red sandstone, or the millstone grits, it is almost always naturally productive. When the soils from the different strata intermingle there is generally produced a productive soil, even though each of the strata from which it is composed is individually of a poor nature. Thus the intermingling of a sandy and calcareous soil will generally produce a good barley soil, and when a clay and lime- stone mix there is generally produced a soil good for growing wheat. Soils are generally uniform in their mineral constitution in the same district; but it not infrequently happens that a great differ- ence occurs within a very short distance. This is accounted for by some physical characteristic of the land, or the manner in which one rock lies on another. The following sketch will explain to some extent how the different soils are formed, and how there may be a variation within a comparatively short distance :— A is an unstratified rock; I is a limes-tone ; 2, a sandstone ; and 3 a slate. Supposing that the points A and B are some miles apart, it is quite evident that there will be a diversity of soils between these points. By the denudation that has taken place on 1, and to a greater extent on 2, an undulation is caused which has exposed 3 at D and C, and the soils at C and D will be similar. That 011 the rise on 3 up to A will be different to C and D; 1 and 2 will be different to either of these; there will still be a different soil at the place where 1 and 2 intermix. Further, if we say that 1, 2, and 3 in themselves are compara- tively poor soils, it will generally be found that where 1 and 2 mix, 661 and at C and D, the soils are fairly good. Thus, by a knowledge of the underlying rocks, we can judge of the fertility of the soil. Yet this knowledge is not without its disturbing elements, as in the case of rocks which are covered by alluvial deposits that may have been carried from some distance. These cases are few, and at any rate the soil generally contains a large proportion of the rock it overlies, or those in close proximity to it. On the coast line there are to be found some places where a deposit of arenaceous sand has taken place, where the soil has no relation to the underlying rocks. These deposits of sand are carried by the winds from the sea shore inland, and deposited in greater quantities in some places than in others, owing to some physical contour of the land. But these do not disturb the general conclusions of judging the fertility of the soils by the rocks they are formed from. There is another method of judging the value of soils and their adaptibility to certain crops, which I may call that of natural selection. It is a well-known fact that certain plants are only found growing in certain soils, but these selections are modified by climatic influences. The selection may be extended to more than one class of soil, owing probably to these soils containing some element of food conducive to the growth of the plant, but generally other plants are found growing with it that point to an alteration in the nature of the soil from that in which it is generally found. The following is taken from Mr. A. Despeissis', M.R.A.C., Handbook of Horticulture and Viticulture, first edition :— "In the ironstone gravel soils are to be found the following trees giving indications of soils of various degrees of fertility. Underneath the ironstone gravel soil is to be found a clay at various depths, which is generally indicated by the growth of the following trees:—Gravelly ironstone is indicated by jarrah, but where there is a certain depth of brown loam the jarrah is associated with grass trees or blackboys. Pockets of deep loam amongst the ironstone gravel are indicated by red gum trees, and wherever jarrah, red gum and blackboys grow together and attain large proportions, there the soil is c rtain to be deep, well-drained, and fertile. Pipe-clay is revealed by the presence of white gum trees. White gum alone is an indication of the predominance of pipe-clay, or of a cold retentive clay and gritty sand soil. Small blackbovs growing amongst white gums are evidence of the presence of this stratum of loam on the surface. Jarrah and white gum growing together are indicativ of a mixture of ironstone gravel and pipe-clay. Flooded gums are often associated with blackboys alongside brooks and on alluvial soils bordering water courses, and mark out fertile strips of land rich in potash. In the south-west district the yate tree grows on such soil. Chocolate loam, sometimes of great depth, varying in texture from a heavy loam, is characterised by a greater or smaller admixture of the York gum tree, to the wattle or jam tree. Such land marks splendid corn 662 land, and is generally found on the slopes of the undulating country which constitutes its home. On the flats the soil is often of a lighter character, there the wattle or jam bush predominates. A lighter loam still is found on the river banks, and is generally overgrown with the above named trees, in company with the banksia and at times with the sheoak. The chocolate loam, or wattle and jam, or York gum land, is considered one of the best balanced in the elements of plant food in the south-west district of this colony. Fields not long cleared and well cultivated, yield in average seasons from 16 to 26 bushels of wheat to the acre, and from one and a half to two tons of hay. Rich patches of land occur in this country, and are found where the manna gum tree grows." Light Colored Loam and Decomposed Granite. Vast areas of land extend beyond the jam country from the Midland railway line in an eastward direction towards Meckering, covered mostly with salmon bark gum tree, with which is associated the gimlet wood or fluted gum tree. By ringbarking, the soil is easily brought under cultivation. The soil consists of a dun colored loam, rich in potash. A corn growing area. Sandv Soils. This country supports shrubs of different growth, such as banksia and, in places where it is not deep, either white or red gums with, at times, blackboys, and near the coast the willow myrtle or peppermint tree, and on the limestone coast ranges east of the Darling ranges, the tooart. Where limestone or a loam sub-soil underlays the sand at a shallow depth, there vines and stone fruit trees grow with great luxuriance. While these conclusions are correct in the main part. thev are not to be taken in any way as po-itive. In fact, so far as the white gums are concerned, the analyses of soils I have made latelv where the white gum tree was the only or principal timber, are the richest in potash, with the exception of No. 8 (see analyses, page 668). Thev are not only to be found on clay soils, but also on calcareous clays, where the limestone and clay juncture with each other, and which will be general y found to be rich in potash, and good land for wheat. From the analyses of soils the white gums and morrell gums would seem to indicate a soil rich in potash. I have only given a few of the analyses of soils Wiiich I have made, but thev point to the jarrah and redgum soils as poor in potash. It would be rash to come to any definite conclusion from the few analvses I have made up to the present, that is, few when we consider the extent and variety of soils that are to be found in this colonv. With a more extended series of analyses of the soils, together with analyses of the ashes of the indigenous trees of the colony, we shall have much more light thrown on the subject, which will enable us to come to more definite conclusions as to what soils we are to 663 expect from the indications given by the varieties of trees that grow on tlie land. Soils are divided into two parts, the surface soil, which is the most fertile, and composed of the finer parts of the s il, and the subsoil, which may be composed of similar substances to the surface, or it may be a coarse gravelly sand or even a stiff clay. Soils are mainly composed of four constituents, clay, sand, lime and organic matter, and generally derive their name from which- ever of these constituents predominates. There is a good deal of vagueness in the terms applied to soils by different persons. They are variously called heavy, light, stiff, cold, damp, sandy, clayey, peaty, calcareous, or loamy, none of these terms meaning anything definite. Professor Johnstone gives the following classifications :— Soil, not peaty, that contains no more than 10 per cent. of clay is called a sandy soil; 10 to 40 per cent., a sandy loam ; 40 to 70 per cent., a loamy soil; 70 to 85 percent., a clay loam; and 85 to 95 per cent., a strong clay. The fertility of a soil depends mostly on its chemical, physical and biological properties. Absorbtion of Water. This is a very important property of the soil. Much depends, for its fertilitv, on its power to absorb moisture, to take in and retain water that may fall on it in the form of rain. This depends greatly on the constitution of the soil, and also on the fineness of its particles. Sandy soils possess this power in the lowest degree, then clay, limestone, and humus in their order. Schiibler gives the following powers of different soils to absorb water :— Per Cent, of Water Absorbed bv 100 Parts of Earth. Silicious sand ... ... 25 Gypsum ... ... ... 27 Calcareous sand ... ... 29 Sandy clay ... ... ... 40 Strong clay 50 Arable soil 152 Fine calcareous earth ... 85 Garden earth 89 Humus ... ... ... 190 It is necessary that the soil should hold sufficient water for the nourishment of the plants, as they require water in order to assimilate their food. The capillary action of a soil depends greatly on the fineness of the particles. The finer the particles, up to a certain degree, the more water is the soil enabled to draw from the deep sub-soil for the benefit of the plants, hence the necessity of a good tilth. The Retentive Power of Soils. This power is very much allied to that of the power of absorbtion. As the rain falls only at intervals in some places, as in this colony, the periods between the showers of rain being often of 664 long duration, it is necessary that the soil should be able to retain a sufficiency of moisture to enable the plant to take up an adequate supply of food in order to attain maturity. It has been shown that silicious sand has the lowest power of ab-sorbtion, and consequently the lowest power of retention, and that humus has the highest power of retention. Hence the great benefit of green manuring a sandy soil, which means the addition of a certain amount of organic matter, or humus. It is also evident that drain- age is of the utmost necessity in clay and peaty soils. Too much moisture in a soil is just as bad, il not worse, than too little. Maerker gives the effect of different proportions of water in the soil upon the growth of summer rape as follows :— Produce 1Six plants in each case). Water in soil in per cent, of total water-holding capacity. Number uf I'ods. Weight of Plants 1air driedl. Seeds. Straw. Chaff. Total. Grains. Grains. Grains Grains. IO 1-4 28 1'4 20 6l 24 4'4 2 fa 97 40' 142 69 104 67 ?4-o DO 97 4'3 81 44 168 So 95 39 7 3 3 9 15 1 100 19 o'3 20 o-6 2-I It will be seen that from 40 to 80 per cent. is the amount of water a soil can hold in the best proportions. When less or more the results are not so favorable, as it affects the plant growth in every part. When too much water is in the soil it becomes cold, and a free circulation of air, absolutely necessary to healthv growth, is prevented. A dry soil develops the plant quicker than a damp one. The amount of evaporation that takes place in any soil is gre iter when under cultivation than when bare. It also depends on the openness of the soil. An open soil does not lose water so quickly as a close compact one, owing to the capillary power being less. The addition of clay to sandy soils greatly increases iheir retentive powers. On the other hand, clayey and peatv soils are more liable to contract when dried than sand or limestone. The result of this shrinking of clay and peat is to compress the roots of the plants and form such a hard compact mass that air is not allowed to enter into the soil. Sand does not contract on drying. When sand is mixed with clay it keeps it in a porous state, so that the air can always pass through it. 665 Soils have the power of absorbing moisture from the air when not exposed to a hot sun, as at night time. This is a matter of the highest importance in a hot climate, and the value of a soil is greatly dependent on its power of absorbing and retaining moisture. The more power it has of absorbing and retaining water, the more hygroscopic will be the soil. Peat will absorb in one night one twelfth of its weight in moisture, clay one-thirtieth of its weight, while sand absorbs none, or, at most, a mere trace. It will thus be seen that the absorbing, retentive, and hygroscopic powers of a soil are directly dependent on the amount of organic matter or clay that enters into its composition, and that the power can be increased by the judicious addition of clay and organic matter to a sandy soil. In a hot climate, such as we have in this colony, these various powers of a soil necessary to their profitable cultivation should be maintained at their best and improved as far as possible where they are deficient. The physical properties of a soil are just as impor- tant as the chemical properties for keeping a soil in a fertile state. We have seen that clayey and peaty soils contract when they dry, and do not allow of the passage of oxygen and other gases necessary for the plant growth. In the wet state thev are so satur- ated with stagnant water that oxvgen cannot enter them, hence the great necessity for drainage in these soils, which also prevents sourness of the land, and enables them to absorb oxvgen, carbonic acid and ammonia in the form of gases. The Absorbtion of Gases bv Soils. Soils have the power of absorbing gases from the air, both direct and from rain, which takes up oxygen, carbonic acid and ammonia in its passage through the air to the earth. The soil also receives carbonic acid from the decomposition of organic matter in the earth, and in larger proportions than fro.n the atmosphere. The atmosphere is prmcipally composed of oxygen and nitrogen, both of which gases aie absorbed by the soil, more especially oxvgen, for which it makes a greater demand than for nitrogen. To enable the soil to receive sufficient of these gases it is necessary that it should be open so as to allow of the free access of air; this is accomplished bv tillage and drainage. It is a well known fact, first proven by de Sausaure, that plants absorb oxvgen directly through their roots. The amount any plant absorbs varies at different periods of its growth, and if not supplied freely at that time the growth of the plant is delaved or stopped altogether. When seeds are germinating they require a good supplv of oxvgen to enable them to sprout vigorously, and the young plants require a plentiful supply, as thev have not the strength or roots to stretch out in search of supplies at a distance. Hence the great necessitv of a good seed bed, and not burying the feed too deep in the soil. The soil absorbs nitrogen from the atmosphere, 666 although not in such large quantities as oxygen ; yet it does absorb it, more especially when it is sown with leguminous plants. The method by which the plant absorbs the nitrogen from the soil was firstly clearly defined by Schloesing and Muntz, who showed that it was through the agency of micro-organisms. Carbonic acid and ammonia are partly obtained from the atmosphere being carried into the soil by rain. Soils absorb ammonia direct from the atmosphere, but damp soil? have a greater power of absorbmg ammonia than dry soils. Soils greatly differ in their powers of absorb- ing gases. Soils that are rich in organic matter absorb gases to a much greater extent than those poor in organic matter. It will now be seen that the improvement of a soil in any one of its physical aspects has also the power of improving it in that of others. The addition of sand and lime to a clayey soil, in conjunc- tion with drainage, improves it; while the addition of lime and clay, along with drainage, to a peaty soil improves it and brings it within cultivation. The Chemical Composition of Soils. We have stated that soils are composed principally of sand, clav, lime and vegetable, or organic, matter. They contain, besides these principal constituents, several others in smaller proportions, such as oxides of iron, alumina, potash, soda, magnesia, phosphoric acid, chlorine and sulphuric acid. The first group of constituents, with the exception of vegetable matter, acts mostly as a support to the plant, enabling it to maintain itself in an upright position. The second group, with vegetable matter and lime, supplies food to the growing plants. The combined action of both groups of constituents is that of holder, or fixer, of the plant food, as well as the medium whereby the chemical changes take place that are necessary for the proper preparation of the food of the plants. The principal elements of the soil that enter into the plant food are nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid, and these are most likely to be deficient in the soil, or in a state in wh ch they are inert, or not immediately available to the plant. Lime, magnesia and other elements of plant food, with the exception of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid, are generally to be found in soils m sufficient quantities for the requirements of a crop. The sufficiency or deficiency of the three principal constituents of plant food, in a state fit for the plant to absorb them within the time required for its growth, will generally measure the fertility or barrenness of a soil, so far as its chemical constituents are concerned. The climate, as well as the physical state of a soil, has a great deal to do with the fertility of any soil. The following analyses of some soils of Scotland, England, and Western Australia will give some idea of the chemical constitution of soils. The late Professor T. Anderson gave the following result of analyses :— 667 1 a Soil. Subsoil. Soil. Subsoil. Silica 74-5529 82-5874 6ri954 616358 Peroxide of iron 51730 34820 4-8700 6-2303 Alumina 69350 53250 I40400 I42470 Lime I'2290 9392 •8300 1-2756 Magnesia ... I 0827 '8366 1 0200 1-3938 Potash •3544 .1687 28001 2-1761 Soda •4335 •0649 1-4392 10450 Sulphuric acid •0443 •0970 •0911 0396 Phosphoric acid •4300 •1970 2400 •2680 Chlorine Trace Trace 0098 0200 Organic matter 101981 4-8358 85508 68270 Water 2-6840 17670 27000 4-575o No. 1 is a soil on the sandstone of the coal measure under the brow of the Corstorphine Hill, Midlothian. No. 2 is a soil from the Carse of Gowrie, Perthshire. Both of these soils are wheat soils and very rich in potash, especially No. 2. The following are the results of some analyses of soils from different parts of England :— No. 1 is a sandy soil from Staffordshire; No. 2 is a clay soil from Cambridgeshire ; No. 3 is a loam soil from Kent (a hop soil); No. 4 is a chalk soil from Norfolk; No. 5 is a peaty soil from Devonshire. 1 2 3 4 5 * Organic matter and water 2 82 7-21 507 313 6466 Oxide of iron 92 577 363 1-52 I ivn6 Alumina •88 4 45 3-5i 163 1 M vo Carbonate of lime •18 226 1-68 28-84 I-80 Magnesia 12 ,79 •42 •36 Potash ... •07 76 30 ,18 Soda ,06 •06 01 •I I •98 Phosphoric acid 10 •16 •10 •15 Sulphuric acid •01 10 14 II Insoluble silica 9484 7844 8514 6397 i860 10000 100 00 100 00 100 00 10ooc * Containing nitrogen ... •12 16 •h; •18 2'47 Equal to ammonia •15 •19 •23 •21 209 The following are analyses that I have made recently of some soils from different parts of Western Australia :— 668 2 3 4 5 6 Moisture •8286 1-66X4 2\395o 2'0000 1-950o 7'>54o * Organic matter 3 '4449 3'i54o 39044 56829 5'43*7 9 <>862 Insoluble silica 90-3924 88-1200 717496 827640 785160 71 2940 Soluble silica •1312 •2744 l 024 I68i •1360 1600 Phosphoric acid 0332 •0599 •0447 035« •0052 0460 Oxide of iron and alumina ... 4-7908 6-1081 46512 9-1721 132028 109520 Carbonate of lime •4160 ,8000 16-9080 •6966 1 0160 -6880 Potash 0310 •0079 •1117 ,1134 ,1.394 09S2 * Containing nitrogen ... ,0275 0435 0442 •042 084 1918 Equal to ammonia ... •0334 ,0576 •0537 051 102 •2329 No. 1, from Midland railway, 183 miles, York gum and scrub country.; No. 2, from Midland railway, 183 miles, morrel gum, 3 feet over limestone; No. 3, from Midland railway, 183 miles, sub-soil from No. 2; No. 4, from Armadale, slope of hill, white gum chiefly; No. 5, from Armadale, slope of hill, white gum chiefly; No. 6, from Armadale, alluvial soil, flooded gum, ti-tree, bracken, reeds. 7 8 9 10 11 12 Moisture 17820 17120 -5160 10160 -5060 lOOOO * Organic matter S-0475 6 1444 6-8940 42240 19940 19040 Insoluble silica ... 72-8360 85-4200 «9'475o 90-6250 93975u 93-2000 Soluble silica •2800 •2900 0700 •2000 •179o •1500 Phosphoric acid i445 •0606 0321 0322 0971 -0307 Oxide of iron and alumina 16-5035 5'6254 26779 36078 2-4231 2-3803 Carbonate of lime •3160 -6280 ,9200 '735o 11400 '94°3 Potash "1356 ,0238 0267 •0433' 0578 0466 "Containing nitro- gen ,006 •008 •119 .070 •042 '"7" Equal to ammonia ,008 ,010 •144 085 051 085 No. 7, from Mooraloo district, mahogany; No. 8, from Mooraloo district, white gum; No. 9, from Coolup, near river, red gum and jarrah ; No. 10, from four miles inland from Busselton, red gum, paper-bark, and peppermint; No. 11, from Mooranoppin, s-and plain; No. 12, from Mooranoppin, salmon gum. It will be seen from the analyses that soils contain some pro- portion of all the elements that enter into the plant food. In the analyses of the soils of this colony the magnesia and sulphuric acid 669 were not determined, although they were present in small quantities. Good fertile soils in Europe contain fronri to "43 per cent. of phos- phoric acid, and from "i to "2 per cent, of potash. These soils are more liable to be depleted of their phosphoric acid than their potash. In the soils of this colony the potash appears to be less in quantity than the phosphoric acid; except in such places where the white gum and morrell gum are found growing, there the potash is from one to three times the amount of the phosphoric acid. It will also be noted that where the iron, alumina and potash are in large propor- tions in these soils, the lime decreases. No. 3 might appear to be an exception, but it is not, it is a limestone subsoil which has had some of the potash from No. 2 washed into it. That the lime should be low when the potash is high, and the potash high when the lime decreases, will appear natural, when we consider the composition of the rocks that the soils are formed from. The soils are chiefly made up from the granite or the trap rocks, or a mixture of both. Granites are mainly composed of quartz and felspar. The soil from granite will depend for its fertility on the class of felspar the granite con- tains; whether it is a potash felspar (orthoclase), a soda felspar (albitc) or a magnesia felspar (oligoclase). The late Professor Anderson gives the following analyses of these felspars :— 1 Orthoclase. Albite. Oligoclase. I 2 I 2 I 2 Silica 6572 65-00 6799 68-23 6270 6351 Alumina I8-57 1^64 1901 18-30 23'8o 23-09 Peroxide of iron trace '83 70 roi •62 none Oxide of manganese ... trace •13 none none none none Lime •34 123 66 V26 4-60 • 2-44 Magnesia ,Io 103 none ,51 02 77 Potash 1402 912 none 2-53 105 2-19 Soda 1-25 349 1112 7 99 800 937 10000 IOOOO IOOOO IOOOO IOOOO 10000 The trap rocks are composed of felspar and hornblende. Sometimes augite replaces the hornblende. No matter which of these is in combination with the felsite, it will be seen from the following analyses that a soil made from the decomposition of such a rock would naturally be a complete and fertile soil, so far as its mineral constituents are concerned. 670 Felspar. Hornblende. Silica Alumina Oxide of iron Oxide of manganese Lime Magnesia ... Potash and soda 520 I2'0 10-5 ,5 100 150 trace 1000 ioo-o It would appear as if in a soil made from the disintegration of a trap rock the potash would be found in greater proportions than the lime, but it is not so, for the reason that, in the process of denudation, the potash is carried away in larger proportions, by the action of water and carbonic acid, either to a lower depth than the soil, or into water courses, where it is lost to the soil. It will be quite evident from the above analysis that it will be very seldom found that lime will benefit to any great extent soils made from the disintegration of trap rocks after they have been brought into cultivation. That is what has been found in practice. These soils derive a certain amount of phosphoric acid from the rocks that they are formed from, and it is less easily washed out of the soil than potash or lime, being more insoluble and not so easily acted upon by carbonic acid. The granites, including syenite, gneiss, and trachyte contain from -2 to i-5 per cent. of phosphoric acid. Trap rocks and red sandstone from "5 to 1■5 per cent. of phosphoric acid. Limestones and marl from r2 to 3-5 per cent. We have seen how soils obtain their potash and phosphoric acid. The analysis of soils that I have given show the amount of these plant foods. It is not only necessary to know the amount, but also what is available. A soil containing -i per cent, of potash or phosphoric acid will contain from 3,500 to 3,800 lbs. per acre in a soil 12 inches deep. Yet that soil may be barren to a crop owing to the potash or phos- phoric acid not being in a soluble enough state for the plant to ab- sorb it in the time that it requires to mature in the soil. These analysis show potential power in the soil. Although we cannot imitate the action of the plants on the fertilisers, as we do not fully understand the process at the present time, we can approximate it so closely by treating the soil with very dilute acid that the results of such an analysis are correct for all practical purposes. Such an analysis is sometimes called a fertility analysis. The field analysis is probably the best for practical purposes, and will be treated with further on. It must not be understood that I place no value on these analyses; on the contrary, I place a high value on them with regard to 671 the application of manures. The amount of those plant foods that are soluble in water is very small. Potash is more soluble than phos- phoric acid, the amount of potash that is soluble in a soil varying from -ooi to -o10 per cent. Suppose the soil to be cropped con- tains -ooi per cent of potash, soluble and immediately available, and the total potash amounted to -i per cent., or 3,500 lbs. per acre of 12 inch soil, then the available potash is only 35lbs. per acre for the same depth. If no potash were added, and the soil cropped with mangels, you could not get a full crop, as that would require the soil to give up about 180 lbs. of potash. Although the soil con- tained 3,=;oo lbs. of potash, and a full crop required only 180 lbs. per acre, there would be either no crop or a very poor one, as the 35 lbs. of potash would be so diluted, being spread over so much soil, that the plants would not obtain enough nourishment to maintain their growth. Or if a crop of potatoes were planted in that soil the same thing would happen. A full crop of 6 tons would take 76 Ins. of potash from the soil. The potash in the soil is brought into an available state by various agencies, such as the action of water and carbonic acid. Gypsum also acts on the insoluble potash compounds and frees the potash. Tillage has a great influence in liberating the constituents of the soil by breaking it up and exposing new surfaces to the action of water and carbonic acid, as well as to the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere. There are other influences at work which increase the fertility of a soil, such as the earth worms, but these will be treated more fully in dealing with the biology of the soil. Phosphoric acid, like the potash, must be in an available state and in sufficient quantities for the requirements of the plants. Phosphates are very insoluble in water, and plants cannot assimi- late solid mineral matter. It must be dissolved in water before the plant can take it up into its system. The plants have a power in their roots of dissolving phosphates by the action of the acids they contain acting on the phosphates and dissolving the phosphoric acid. For this to take place the phosphates must be within the reach of the roots. As the acids that are exuded from the roots are not very strong in their action, for them to have full power the phos- phates should be in a fine state in the soil. Inorganic salts, sul- phates and nitrates, especially the nitrates, have the power, to some extent, of decomposing natural phosphates, but natural humic compounds, in the state they occur in arable soils or peaty earth, do not decompose natural phosphates. The humoid products of the decomposition of farmyard manure have scarcely any effect on natural phosphates; nor has carbonic acid from the decomposition of organic compounds any effect in accelerating the disintegration of the natural phosphates, at least not to any practical degree. I have been treating only of the mineral constituents of the soil, but no less necessarv is the organic matter of the soil to its fertility. If the organic nitrogen was not in the soil in sufficient quantity and readily available, although the potash and phosphoric acid were there in the best proportions, the soil would be either barren or produce but very small crops. The nitrogen, before it can be absorbed by the plant, must be converted into nitric acid or a nitrate. This is accomplished through the agency of micro-organ- isms in the soil. This brings us now to the consideration of the biological properties of soils. Every cultivated or fertile soil has within it an enormous number of bacteria ; in fact, the soil is generallv said to be teeming with them. The number that is estimated to be contained in 15 grains of soil is variously stated to be from one half to a million. These micro-organisms are the silent workers in the soil that pre- pare the necessary food for the plants, as the plants themselves are not capable of absorbing nitrogen in the state in which it is found in organic matter. The importance of these micro-organ- isms to the agriculturist is very great. The soils should be kept in a condition most suitable for these micro-organisms to fullv carry out their proper functions. If the soil is not kept in a condition suitable for the nitrification of the organic nitrogen, the very opposite effect may be produced, and loss may take place in the soil by another class of bacteria, which causes the dentrification of the nitrates in the soil with liberations of free nitrogen. Our knowledge of the nitrification of the organic nitrogen in the soil is of recent date. The first to discover that it w.is caused by the action of bacteria in the soil were the two French chemists, Schloesing and Muntz, who announced their discovery in 1877. It was not till 1890 that we knew the true action of the bacteria on nitrogen in the process of nitrification, when R. Warington and Professor P. Frankland discovered and isolated two different bacteria or micro-organisms that take part in the process of nitrifi- cation. One of these bacteria acts by converting the nitrogen into nitrites, and the other converts the nitrites into nitrates, in which state the plants can absorb it. They appear to be able to obtain their carbon from a purely mineral source when no organic matter is present—a fact that is opposed to our previous ideas of those micro-organisms, as it has always been held that micro-organisms must obtain their carbon from a vegetable source. The conditions necessary, or favorable, to- nitrification are that phosphoric acid must be present for nitrifica- tion to take place; it requires the presence of an alkaline base such as carbonate of lime for the nitric acid to combine with as it is formed. The presence of carbonate of soda, except in minute quantities, has a prejudicial effect, or may stop the process entirely. Gypsum has been found to have a good effect. It probably acts by neutralizing the excess of alkalinity, which stops the process. 674 freely along their passages. By the combined action of the freely admitted air and water large quantities of mineral and organic matter are converted into plant food. The soil is made up of organic and inorganic matter. The inorganic matter is the result of the decomposition of rocks, and the organic matter, or humus, from the decomposition of vegetable or animal matter. There is a certain amount of vegetable m itter in the soil derived from leaves, branches, and roots of previous crops, which decay by oxidation, or slow combustion from the action of oxygen on the vegetable matter, or from the combined action of oxygen and the micro-organisms in the soil. The organic matter, or humus, is converted into nitrates and carbonic acid, which acts on the mineral matter in the soil by converting some of the inert food in the soil into active food for the plants. The percentage of organic matter, or humus, in a soil is, to a great extent, a measure of that soil's fertility. The amount found in a good soil is from 5 to 10 per cent. Humus is not directly a plant food, but the product of its decomposition is a very rich source of plant food. Humus is very insoluble in water, but has a very high power of absorbing and retaining moisture. Humus has also the power of absorbing or fixing ammonia. The humates have the power of fixing bases, such as potash, soda, lime, magnesia, carbonates, or, in other words, they combine with these bases to form insoluble humic salts. When a soil contains too much humus, as in a wet peaty soil, it is very liable to contain free humic acid, which is poisonous to plants. The best cure is drainage and a liberal dressing of lime, which neutralizes the free acid. Light sandy soils are very light in humus. Most of the soils of this colony are low in humus, therefore they are greatly benefited by the application of farmyard manure, which adds a large amount of humus, or organic matter. Green manuring is valuable for the same reason, and improves the soils physically as well as chemically. If such crops as mustard, lupins, vetches, or peas are grown and ploughed in when they come to flower, they not only enrich the soil with organic matter, but they bring up mineral matter fit for plant food from a lower depth by virtue of the length of their roots, which go down into the soil in search of food. They return not only all they took from the soil, but also what they obtained from the nitrogen of the atmosphere. Burning some of the surface clay on . a heavy clay soil is a means of rendering that class of soil more porous. Clay is a hydrated silicate of alumina. When wet it forms a stiff plastic mass impervious to water and difficult to work. When clay is burned it loses its power of hydration and is no longer plastic when mixed with water. The clay is made into a heap on some timber, which is then fired. It is burned until it assumes a red color. It is then scattered on the land, which by this means is made more porous. 676 available plant food. Nitrification is more active when there is a good tilth. The roots fmd their food more easily, as well as an abundant supply of oxygen for the further preparation of supplies. Soils lose their water by two means—transpiration, that is, through the leaves of plants, and evaporation from the surface of the soil. The soil draws to the surface water from its deeper store by capillary attraction. Ploughing and surface cultivation by widen- ing the capillary tubes and breaking their continuity, lessens the loss bv capillary attraction. A well-tilled soil enables more plants to grow on the same space of land, as the roots do not require to spread themselves in search of supplies, but can go down deeper for them. Hoeing and scarifying not only destroys the weeds but prevents too great an evaporation from the surface of the soil by breaking up the con- tinuity of the capillary tubes, and more air enters bv the loosening of the surface soil. A good tilth is necessary for the preparation of a good seed bed. Lime improves land and increases its fertility by acting on the insoluble potash compounds in the soil and liberating the potash. It decomposes organic matter and promotes nitrification. It fixes phosphoric acid in the soil. It neutralises the acidity in peaty soils, and in soils that are deep and heavily charged with organic matter. It specially improves clay soils by precipitating the fine tloculent particles of the clay, and prevents it from puddling, thereby making it easier to till. Lime should not be put into the land at the same time as ammonia salts or nitrogenous organic matter, as this would cause a great loss of nitrogen. Lime does no good in poor or sandy soils; in fact, it does them more harm than good, as these soils, being poor in organic matter, the action of lime would be, by reason of its rapid action on the organic matter, to make them poorer still. If it is necessary that these poor soils should have lime, it is best added as phosphate of lime or as gypsum. The best method of improving the soil is by a judicious appli- cation of manure in conjunction with good tillage. The judicious application of manure pie-supposes a knowledge of what elements of the plant food are deficient in the soil. That information can be obtained bv a chemical analyses, or by the field or plot analyses of the soil. There is no soil, no matter how poor it may be, but can be made fertile by the proper addition of manure. I have already spoken of the chemical analyses of the soil, and will now describe the method of conducting the field or plot analyses. Under manures and manuring I describe the methods of analysing the soil bv field or plot experiments for one class of crops. It is better and more thorough to test the soil with two classes of crops, a deep rooted one and a surface feeder, such as wheat and potatoes. It would show at once whether the s il was deficient in anv of the plant foods for surface and deep-rooted feeders. The experiments are made in the following manner :—Each plot to be 677 the same size, say about one-tenth of an acre, and may be either square or rectangular. A small path divides each plot, and a stake must be placed at each corner of the several plots to mark their boundaries. The following is a plan of the blocks :— B E i to 5 are sown with wheat. Xo. i gets no manure; Xo. 2, a complete wheat manure; Xo. 3, the same manure as Xo. 2, with potash left out; No. 4, the same manure as Xo. 2, with nitrogen left out; Xo. 5, the same manure as Xo. 2, with phosphoric acid left out. In each of these plots the straw and grain are to be weighed separately. A to E are planted with potatoes. E gets no manure; D gets a complete potato manure; C, the same manure as D, with the exception of phosphoric acid; B, the same manure as D, with the exception of potash ; A, the same manure as D, with the exception of nitrogen. In the case of the wheat plots, Xos. 1 to 5, if the soil required no manure, then Xo. 1 would be as good, or nearly so. as Xos. 2, 3, 4 and 5; but if the soil needed manure then No. 2 would be much better than No. 1. If 2 was much better than 3, 4 or 5, then a complete manure was required. If either 3, 4 or 5 was as good as 2, that part of the complete manure was not required and could be left out. In the case of the potatoes the same reasoning will apply to them as to the wheat, but the results may not come out the same. The wheat might show enough of potash and the potatoes a deficiency, then the surface was short ot potash, while there was enough at a depth, or in the subsoil. Or the potatoes might show a good supply of phosphoric acid, while the wheat was deficient, showing that there was not enough for deep-rooted crops. Some- thing of the same kind might happen with the nitrogen. After the exact condition of the soil is known, then you are in a position to say what manure should be used for any given crop. After the crop has been gathered and weight is known, then, by reckoning from the table of the ash of different crops given under 678 manures and manuring, you will find out how much the crop has taken from the soil of nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. Deduct that from the different amounts in the manure used, the condition will give you the condition of your soil for the next crop, and so on from year to year. It must be remembered that ammonical salts or nitrates cannot be reckoned beyond one year, but if leguminous crops have been sown, they enrich the soil in nitrogen. CHAPTER II. MANURES AND MANURING. There are many systems of farming in different countries. While some of these are governed by the differences in soils and climate, others are the results of the investigations of scientists into the requirements of the soils and plants in order to ensure a healthy growth. What is best suited to one country is not always the best for others with differing soils or climate. It cannot be expected that a system of farming which would suit the cold climate and damp soils of England would in every way suit the warm climate and light soils of Western Australia. Each country has, in a measure, to investigate the matter for itself, that is, so far as to the method and time of applving manures to the maintenance of its soils in a fertile state, and also as to the class and quantity of manures it is best to apply. The food that is required by anv particular plant in one country is just the food that will be required by the s.ime kind of plant in another country; so we are not called upon to investigate the actual food required by any given plant. as we have plenty of records of a large number of practical and scientific investigations on this subject from a great many parts of the world; but what we are called upon to investigate is how best to apply the plant food required by the crops in this climate so as to produce a good and profitable crop to the producer. It is the first principle of husbandry to produce at a profit. To do so the farmer must first know what is the food required for the plant he intends to grow; then to ascertain if the soil contains that food in sufficient quantity to maintain the plant during its growth ; and not only to know if it is there in sufficient quantity, but whether it is in a state that the plant can easilv assimilate. If the soil does not contain sufficient food for the plant, or it is in such an insoluble state that the plant cannot assimilate it in sufficient quantities for its requirements, it will be necessary for the farmer to supply what is deficient in the soil to maintain the plants, and to supply it in such a state that the plants can easily absorb it. The foods that are required by plants in varying quantities are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime, magnesia, soda, silica, oxide of iron, sulphuric acid and chlorine. Most soils contain these in sufficient quantities for all the requirements of any crop, 682 Table II.—The average amount of ash, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash per cent. and per ton in some plants :— Wheat grain Wheal straw ., Barley grain Barley straw Oats grain Oats straw Beans grain B*ans straw Peas grain Peas straw Indian corn .. Clover hay Meadow hay .. Turnips, yellow Turnips, white Turnip*, Swedish Potatoes Mangel wurzel Cat rots Parsnips Per cent IV 1 8 ,85 53 4032 19'04 | 1 1187 42 ,* 5'° '45 '24 •S.) 1008 5 38 17 112 CO 2 2 '''5 ho7^ -55 3696 1680 12 32 49 28 4 5 4° ,8 roo Ko6 4°3 22 40 100 80 1-8 2 1 '0 •22 19 ,30 4 26 .'...- 22 40 Pounds per Ton. c i In table 1. we see the actual components in 100 parts of the ash or mineral matter taken from the soil by various plants. No. 11. gives the amount of ash, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in 100 parts of the different crops mentioned. They are also reckoned out to lbs. per ton of the crops. It would seem from table 11. that the leguminous plants re- quire a larger supply of nitrogenous manures than the cereals, as they contain more nitrogen. They do not require more, in fact. they are more benefited by potash. The reason for them containing more nitrogen than the cereals is that they have the power of absorbing nitrogen from the air, a power not possessed by other plants, in fact, they are considered to enrich the soil with nitrogen. Thus it is that cereals which require a good supply of nitrogen, should follow leguminous crops in the rotation. To show how severe some crops are on the fertility of the soil we will take the case of wheat and potatoes. Suppose we had a crop of, say 30 bushels of grain and 3,100 lbs. of straw per acre. If the grain alone was sold off the farm it would carry away 34} lbs. of mineral matter, containing 15^ His. of phosphoric acid, equal to 113 lbs. of superphosphate of 30 per cent. tricalcic phosphate made soluble ; q\ lbs. of potash, equal to 68 lbs. of kainit and nitrogen, 32^ lbs., equal to 162 lbs. of a 97 per cent. sulphate of ammonia. If the straw was also sold, as in the case of chaff, it would take away 189-2 lbs. of mineral matterr containing 2i£ lbs. of phosphoric acid, equal to 153 lbs. of super- 683 phosphate; 34^ lbs. of potash, equal to 245 lbs. of kainit; and 46^ lbs. of nitrogen, equal to 232 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia. In the case of potatoes, a crop of six tons per acre would abstract 134I lbs. of mineral matter, containing 20 lbs. of phos- phoric acid equal to 145J* lbs. of superphosphate; 74 lbs. of potash, equal to 528^ lbs. of kainit; and 33^ lbs. of nitrogen, equal to 167^ lbs. of sulphate of ammonia. Thus it would not be advisable to follow a wheat crop with another nitrogen-loving crop without giving it a liberal supply of a nitrogenous manure; nor to follow potatoes with a crop that needs potash and phosphoric acid without giving a good supply of both. I have already stated that a soil may contain twenty times more of a certain plant food than any plant requires, and yet that soil may be barren. The reason for this is, that it is in combination with other substances that are very insoluble, such as potash in combin- ation with silicates. The plant has not sufficient power in itself to decompose them, and the actions of the disintegrating agents, such as carbonic acid, water, etc., are too slow for the immediate requirement of the plants. If it were not so, the whole, or nearly the whole of the potash and phosphoric acid would be lost to the soil in one year. Ploughing the land assists greatly in the disintegration of the soil and in freeing the potash and phos- phoric acid by exposing fresh surfaces to the action of oxygen, carbonic acid and water. A manure may also be in such a physical state as to be of no use to the plant. A bone manure is a good manure when the bones are ground fine or are dissolved. If bones in pieces were put into a soil with a crop of wheat that is entirely dependent on the bones for its supply of phosphates, it would simply die off, as it could not obtain enough phosphoric acid from the bones to allow it to live. Or another case which may be more to the point, if raw mineral phosphates were used in a tolerably fine state, the result would be that there would be either no crop, or one not worth cutting. This does not include Thomas' phos- phate manure. The mineral phosphates to be of any good would require to be ground extremely fine, so that the different solvent agencies could have a greater surface to act on. At the best they would prove unsatisfactory. It is false economy to manure the ground, the crop is what should be manured in high class farming. Manuring the ground is not only costly and wasteful, but requires a very long purse and a great deal of patience, and in the end is unprovable. Give to the crop what it needs so that it can make a rapid and healthy growth, and let next year's crop look out for itself. Xo crop can take all out of the soil, so there is bound to be some left for next year. The soils derive their phosphoric acid and potash as well as the other mineral constituents, from the rocks from which they originated, by a process of disintegration and denudation. The different rocks contain different amounts of mineral matter fit for 684 plant food. Those soils derived from the green sandstone, trap- rocks, lavas and millstone grits are generally considered the most fertile. It is, then, quite evident that the phosphoric acid and potash is inert to plant life until they are freed from their silicates by some decomposing agency. The organic matter is derived from the dead vegetables and animals that lived on the land. The most of our knowledge of how plants absorb the organic matter they contain has been obtained within the last fifty years. The carbon is generally con- sidered to be absorbed from the soil and from the atmosphere. The manner in which the plant absorbs its nitrogen has in the last half century given rise to a good manv theories and occasioned no small amount of contention between scientists until twenty vears ago, when a solution of the problem was given by the discovery in 1877 of the two eminent French chemists, Schloesing and Miintz, that soils were teeming with micro-organisms, or bacteria, converting ammonia salts and nitrogenous matter into nitrates, in which state the plants absorb their nitrogen. This has been inves- tigated by a great many chemists, but the investigations of the two English chemists, R. Warington and Prof. P. Frankland, fully explained the real action that takes place in the soil. They found that there are two different bacteria at work in the soil in the process of converting the nitrogen into nitrates. The one converts the ammonia salts and nitrogenous matter into nitrites, and the other converts the nitrites into nitrates, in which state the plains absorb the most of their nitrogen. In the case of the leguminous plants thev have a power of absorbing nitrogen from the atmos- phere which is not possessed by other plants. This power of absorbing nitrogen direct from the atmosphere is obtained through the agency of another micro-organism; but the manner of their actions on the leguminous plants is at present not known. This process of converting nitrogen into nitrates is called nitri- fication, and is of the utmost importance to farmers. Every farmer should know the conditions under which nitrification takes place. There isstill another micro-organism which, under certain conditions, acts the very reverse of nitrification, and causes a loss of nitrogen. R. Warington gives the following conditions for nitrification to take place :—First, in moist soil; second, when the soil is sufficiently porous to admit air; third, the process is most active in summer, and ceases at the freezing point of water; fourth, gypsum, carbonate of lime, potash and soda compounds promote nitrilication; fifth, the nitrifying • bacterium cannot liv • in presence of light; sixth, the bacterium of nitrification can only live at certain depths in the soil, it is not generallv found in the subso 1. He found no nitrification going on at a depth of seven feet; seventh, ammonia is always one of the products formed when dung is decomposed. The bacterium is supposed to be capable of converting this ammonia into nitric acid. 68s Nitrification will not commence if the alkalinity of the ammonia solution exceeds four hundred parts of nitrogen per million, and an alkalinity far below this figure retards nitrification. Nitrification is more vigorous in the autumn than in the spring. If the land is allowed to be bare in the autumn there is liable to be a great loss of nitrogenous matter. It would be best to put in a catch crop and plough it in as it begins to flower. Denitrification is the reverse of nitrification. It is the result of the action of a micro-organism or bacterium on the nitrates, which it decomposes and sets the nitrogen free, which escapes into the air, causing a loss of nitrogen. It occurs in soils that are water-logged, or in soils with a large amount of organic matter, such as peaty soils, that oxygen cannot enter. There not being enough oxvgen in the soil to allow nitrification to take place, the denitrifying bacteria become active. It cannot take place in free open soils. A plant not only requires nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid, and the other constituents that are found in the ash for its maintenance; it requires water just as much as any of the other parts of its food, and in greater proportions. If the plant cannot get enough for its requirements, it sickens and shrivels up. Different soils have different powers of absorbing and retaining water. Soils with a large amount of humus, or decayed vegetable matter, have the power in the highest degree; light sandy soils possess it in the lowest degree; clay, not much less than those with a large amount of vegetable matter. Schubler gives the following table as the absorptive power of the different soils at 60 deg. Fahr. :— Schubler in the following table gives the rate of evaporation in different soils at 60 deg. Fahr. :— Per cent. of water absorbed by 100 parts of earth. Silicious sand Gypsum Calcareous sand Sandy clay Strong clay ... Arable soil Fine calcareous earth Garden earth... Humus 25 27 29 4» 5° 52 85 89 190 In four hours. Per cent. Time required to evaporate go per cent. Quartz SS 76 52 46 46 4hrs. 4min. Limestone ... Sandy clay... Stiffish clay Loamy clay 4 44 1. 5 .. 1 , , 6 ,, 55 , , 7 11 52 11 686 In four hours. Time required lo evaporate Pure grey clay Loam Fine calcium carbonate Humus Magnesium carbonate... Light soils are not able to stand a drought or a dry season. To improve light soils, dressing with clay, a liberal use of well- rotted farmyard manure, also ploughing in green crops, makes them more retentive. Carbonateof lime (ground limestone), and magnesium salts assist both the absorptive and retentive powers of a soil. Plants not only have special likings for certain kinds of food, but they have also special likings for certain soils, at least the% thrive best on certain soils. Wheat thrives best in a clay soil. Oats and clover in heavy and compact soil. Barley and turnips in open and free loam. Maize in open, free and even sandy soil. Potatoes in open rich sandy' soil. Rye in sandy soil. Rice in a stiff, wet, impervious soil. Beans and peas in stiff, well drained clay. Cocoa tree in a sandy soil of the coast. Cotton in dry open alluvial, dry and porous uplands, hot, drv. and somewhat droughty climate. Tea plant on warm sloping banks, or light dry loam, free from clay. Earth nut in light sandy soil. Oil palms in moist sea sand. Cinnamon tree in almost pure sand. Hops in fat and fruitful land, open, rich, and calcareous loam. Date in sandv but well watered places. Coffee in rich dry soils and warm situations. Although they do best in these classes of soils the most of them can adapt themselves to other soils, but generally with a change as to quality and quantity. It is well known to farmers that different districts, or in other words, different soils, influence not only the quantity of a crop, but also the quality. Oats grown on a clay are of the best quality. Barley on a clay land mav give a good crop, but the quality is not so good for malting as that grown on sandy marls. Potatoes grown on clay soils are generally waxy, and those on sandy soils mealy. The late Prof. T. Anderson investigated the influence of different soils on turnips, as to their quality tor feeding stock. He examined those grown on heavy clay land. Second. Those grown on the black land between the clay land and the hill land. Third. Those grown on the hill land or light loam. He found that those grown on the light 688 The nitrogen in farmyard manure is not half so valuable as the nitrogen in ammonia sulphate, as it is so very slowly available. Its composition varies greatly from several causes. The food used, the class of animal, the age of the animals from which it was obtained, the treatment of the animal, the amount of litter used, and the method employed in making it, all act on it so as to alter its composition. Solid Excreta. The value of the solid excreta of animals as a manure depends on the nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash it con- tains, and these depend on various circumstances. The excreta from horses, cows, sheep and pigs differ from each other in com- position and physical properties. Solid excreta is composed of the undigested food, therefore the class of food taken has the greatest influence on the composition of the excreta. If an animal feeds on a poor diet, the excreta will also be poor. As alreadv stated, the class, age, condition and treatment of the animal will alter it. Young animals use more nitrogen and mineral matter for their growth than adults. Cows in calf, or giving milk, will use more nitrogen than dry animals. A horse in the stall assimilates more of its food than when at work. Under these conditions less nitrogen and potash will pass oft' in the dung and more in the urine. As the composition of the solid excreta varies under so many conditions any analysis will only represent that individual sample. By taking the average of a large number of analyses we can get in close proximity to its composition. The following analyses will give some idea of the composition of solid excreta :— Percentage Composition of Farmvard Manure. Water i Organic 'Ash Matter 1 Cont'ng Nitrogen ',, Potash 3 „ Phosphoric acid I.awes 0 Vnelcker. Cameron. s> a 1 and V 1 3 Wolff. I Long — Gilbert. a < & M Fresh. Rotten. Fresh. exposed 1 | to rain. 70 00 7248 7930 66-17 7542 75-00 69-14 7.V22 2723 1394 14-08 2824 16-53 18 09 | 2421 , 21-17 277 1.V58 667 559 805 6-91 | 665 1 5*1 10000 ioo'oo lOO'oO ioo'oo 10o'oo 10o'oo IOO 00 10000 064 ,3» •410 •64 •71 -53 5'-' 12 o-53 ,32 — •67 49 •68 1 - — 0-23 •31 . •31 •45 — ! Stoeckhardt found the following percentages of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and alkalies in the fresh solid excreta of horses, cows, pigs, and sheep :— 690 balanced in the case of a large quantity of water being drunk, by the large quantitv of urine voided. As the quantitv of urine passed by the different animals differs greatly, naturally-its composition will also. A horse passes about 12 lbs. a day, a cow about 70 lbs. per day. Urine is richer in nitrogen and potash than the solid excreta, but poorer in phosphoric acid, in fact it contains very little phosphoric acid. The liquid excreta has a higher manural value than the solid. Stoeckhardt found the following percentages of water, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and alkalies in the urine of different animals. • Water, per cent. Nitrogen, per cent. Phosphonc Add per cent Alkalies, per cent Sheep (2 lbs. hay per day) Pigs (winter feed) Horses (hay and oats) ... Cows (hay and potatoes)... 86-5 1-4 •3 •C50 2'0 •2 97-5 8yo 92-0 I'2 •8 125 1 5 14 The above table shows that phosphoric acid is only in small quantities in the urine of farm animals, in fact we might sav that it is absent, except in the case of pigs. Taking the dried urine we pet the following results :— Nitrogen. Phosphoric Acid. Alkalies. per eent. per cent. per cent. fig' 120 1 s 8 Horses IO 9 trace I.VO Sheep 10'4 37 14-9 Cows 100 trace 175 The urine of t ie pig is richest in nitrogen and phosphoric acid, and poorest in alkalies. The horse comes next in nitrogen, and the cow lowest, but it is highest in potash. If we compare Wolff's investigation of urine in the same way as for the solid excreta, we get the following results. From 100 parts of the organic matter, nitrogen and mineral matter dried and free from water, the percentages passed in the liquid excreta are :— Cow. Ox. Sheep. Horse. Average. Organic matter 4-0 4'4 2 0 3'3 -V4 Nitrogen 310 54-8 423 607 47-2 Mineral matter 43-1 34'3 41'0 37 5 390 691 It will now be evident from what has been said, that the solid and liquid excreta should be used in conjunction with each other to make anything like a complete manure. The solid excreta con- tains about all the phosphoric acid, lime and magnesia; the liquid excreta almost all the potash. Litter. The litter that is generally used is one of the straws. For the composition and quantity of the ash in straw see tables 1 and 2 (n;iges 681 to 682). The litter is used principally as a bedding for the animals, but it has other values as regards the manure. It prevents too rapid a fermentation in the manure, increases the bulk of the manure so that it can be spread over the soil more evenly; it binds light soils and enables them to retain more moisture; it loosens heavy clay soils if put in fresh ; it greatly helps to prevent the loss of the liquid portion by absorbing it. Peat has also been used as a litter; it not only absorbs more of the urine than straw, but it fixes the ammonia to a greater extent. Peat has not only a greater power for absorbing and retaining moisture, but it has a higher manurial value. The common bracken has been used as a litter, more especially when young. It is more valuable as a manure, and contains more nitrogen, potash and lime than straw. Rushes and sawdust are frequently used in this colony, the former particularly. Horse manure contains less moisture than that from either cows or pigs, and, being drier, ferments quicker than the other two, and is called a hot manure. That from cows and pigs containing so much moisture, the fermentation is slow, and consequently they are called cold manures. The hot and cold manures are best mixed, as the former assists the latter in setting up active fermen- tation, while the addition of the cold manure to the hot prevents too rapid fermentative action and consequent loss of ammonia, which is volatilized. To prevent this to some extent fixers have been used, such as gypsum, which is spread over the bedding. Munro recom- mends ground peat. These fixers act by absorbing the ammonia. In making farmyard manure the pit should be so constructed that the liquid portion cannot drain away, otherwise it will carry away the most valuable constituents of the manure and consider- ably reduce its value. Manure made under cover is far more valu- able than that made in the open, more especially in a hot climate like Western Australia, where there is a long season of dry weather. Continued exposure to the heat of the sun deteriorates it. Lord Kinnaird experimented with the manure from an equal number of animals of the same kind and age, and similarly fed. One lot of animals was kept under cover, also the manure ; the others were kept in an open yard. The following are the results of the experiments:— 693 Average Composition of Cattle Foods Freed from Water. (Continued.) Per cent. Foods. Dry Matter. Nitrogen. Phos. Acid. Potash. Mall combs yooo .V90 2 0<1 200 Fine pollard 8600 2-45 2 1)0 I 46 Coarse pollard ... 8600 250 3-5o 1-50 Bran 86-oq 250 3'60 1'45 Clover hay 83'oo 2'40 o-57 150 Meadow hay ... 8400 1 "5" 040 POO Pea straw 82-50 POO o'35 100 Oat straw 83-00 0-50 0-24 roo Wheat straw ... 84-00 045 0-24 080 Barley straw ... 8500 0-40 018 roo Bean straw 82'5o 090 0-30 rooi Potatoes 2500 0-25 015 o-55 Carrots 1400 0'20 0-09 028 Parsnips 1600 022 019 0-36 Swedish turnips II-oo 0-25 006 0 22 Mangel-wurzels 12-50 0-22 007 040 Yellow turnips... 9 00 O'20 (006) 022 White turnips ... 8-oo Ol8 0-05 030 While there is not much value placed on farmyard manure in Europe, I am inclined to place a much higher value on its use in Western Australia, not only as a fertilizer, but also for the physical or mechanical effect it has on the light soil, which, unfortunately, we have too much of in some parts of this colony. These light soils are easily depleted of their plant food and their moisture, as they are not sufficiently retentive. Farmyard manure adds a large amount of organic matter to the soil, thereby making it more retentive of moisture for subsequent use of the crop. This is a matter that is of the highest importance to the farmer and should be looked after as much as possible in a hot climate like this, where the intervals between the falling of rain are very long and droughts are not of unfrequent occurrence. Two methods of putting farmvard manure into the land are generally followed. The first is by depositing the manure on the land in small heaps some time before it is ploughed in. This plan is unsatisfactory, as a large quantity of the soluble plant food is absorbed into the soil, so that the remainder of the heap is impoverished. Under these circumstances one part of the land receives an extra supply of plant food and the other very little. This accounts to some extent for some fields being very patchy. It is considered best to cart the manure direct from the pits on to the ground, spreading it out on the land, and ploughing it in as soon as possible, so that every part of the land will be equally enriched. 694 Estimate of the Showing the data, the method and the results of the estimation of Description of Food. Fattening in- crease in live weight. oxen or sheep. r — Nitr.k,kx. In food. In fattening increase, at 127 per cent. -- "3 c; o - w Z In manure. U 1 iU = e 1 • = s w = 1 - - t > 15 lb. lb. p. c. lb. lb p. C. lb. lb. i Linseed 50 448 3 6 80-64 5"9 706 7495 91-0 2 5 - Linseed cake 60 3733 4 75 106-40 47J 4'45 101 06 .234 1 ; , Decorticated cotton Pahu-nut cake cake 6-5 34' ° 66 14784 4 ,1s 296 •434" 1742 . J Undecoi ticated cot- 70 3200 2-5 5600 4-06 7 25 5'94 63-1 1 1 l - ton cake ... So 280-0 375 8400 3-5° 4 24 8044 977 -, « Cocoanut cake 80 2800 3 4" 76-16 .15" 467 7260 88 2 : 4 i Rape cake ... (10l (224) 4'iJO 10976 284 259 lo(A)2 1298 1 i 1 1 Peas 70 3200 36- 80-64 4'o6 5 "3 7«-58 030 1 < 6 Beans 70 3200 4 00 8960 406 4 53 8554 >oiV .- 1; 11 Lentils 70 3200 420 9408 4-06 432 90 02 1093 2 i4 Tarts 1seedsj 7'0 3200 4-20 94-08 406 432 C.002 ",93 2 ,,' < Indian corn 72 3111 1-70 3808 3 95 I<>37 341.1 414 ! c ,' Wheat 7-2 3H-1 180 4"32 .195 980 36-37 44 2 1 -- ; Malt 70 3200 170 38-08 4 06 1066 34 "2 4' .1 1 0 Barlev 72 3iri i"5 36-96 395 1069 33"l 40 1 ; 1 Oats' ... , ... 75 2987 200 4480 379 846 41-01 49S I 4 1: Rice meal .. 75 21/17 1 90 42-56 3 79 891 3877 4"'" I -. Locust beans 1)0 2489 T20 2688 3'" 1176 2372 28S " '4 ? Malt combs So 2800 39U 87"16 3 5° 4 08 8380 1088 : 10 i: Fine pollard 75 29K 7 2-45 54 ,«« 3 79 691 51-09 620 1 11 0 Coarse pollard 80 2K0 0 250 56 00 .156 ",.15 5244 "3 7 1 11 :a Bran 90 2480 250 56 00 316 5 64 5<«4 642 1 I -• 1 Clover hay ... 14-0 1600 2 40 537'' 203 378 5'73 62 8 1 11 Meadow hay 150 1493 150 3.1-6" I90 5*5 31 70 .18 5 1 19 s Pea straw ... 16-0 140-0 1 00 22-40 178 795 20*>2 25" " I 6 Oat straw ... 180 1244 050 11 20 1 58 1 4 11 962 li7 1 -> 5 .0 Wheat straw no 1007 "45 1008 136 "3 49 «72 106 n s 4 Barley straw 2.1 0 974 0-40 8,)6 I 24 '.184 772 94 0 4 s Btan straw... 22'0 lol-« O9O 2OI0 I 29 6 39 1887 229 1 , 1 1 " Potatoes ... fio-o 373 025 5-60 "•47 839 5.3 6-2 | > 1 Cariots 857 2fV 1 448 o'.1.1 737 4'"5 5-" 1 0 .- 6 Parsnips 75° 2' l) O 22 4 9.1 0-J8 771 4-55 55 , 0 .- 9 Swedish turnips IOO I 205 O 25 560 026 464 534 "5 | 0 -• .4 Manuel wutzels 9fYo 23 "3 0'22 4 9.1 0 30 600 463 56 0 to Yellow turnips I33'J 1-8 O 20 448 O 21 4'69 4'27 52; 2 7 White tin nips ISOO 140 0'l8 403 O 19 471 384 47 1 0 .- 4 ^95 Original Manure Value. the original manure value of cattle foods after consumption :— Phosphoric Acid. In food In fattening increase, at o S6 per cent. In manure. Potash. In food. In fattening increase, at I lo i i per cent j In manure. u "7 11 n lb. p.c. lb. s. d. p. 0 lb. lb. p.C. lb n. d. £ s. d. 3«5 I ri6 3°-«5 7 s 1-37 3069 04cJ 1 fto 30-20 ft 3 2 19 5 321 7 17 4" 59 10 5 140 313" 041 i'3i 30 95 , 1 5 3 18 6 296 4-26 6648 i'i K 2-00 4480 038 085 44 42 '1 i 5 13 0 275 10 23 24'3 1, u 050 11 20 035 313 IO85 2 3 1 19 10 241 53" 4239 n 7 200 44 80 "31 o69 4449 5 1 3 5 4 241 7(* 2«V5 7 2 OO 4480 "3< "69 44'49 3 3 0 7 1 93 345 5407 i 3 150 33<» 0-25 "74 33 35 ft 11 4 5 4 2 75 '444 lft-29 4 0'Qfi 21 50 0-35 I°3 21 15 4 5 2 15 0 2 75 1 ill) 21 89 5 1 '30 291 2 0-35 120 2877 6 ft 3 3 5 2/5 1*37 14 05 3 6 070 1508 "35 2 23 15 33 3 • 3 1 4 2 75 15 35 15'7 .1 " 080 1792 "35 1 95 17 57 3 8 3 2 I 2-6X 19 94 I0'76 -1 8 037 829 "34 4'10 7 95 1 8 1 5 I 2 68 1408 I ft 16 4 1 0 53 11 87 "34 2 8ft 1' 53 5 I 8 7 275 I5'35 15 17 ; 'i 0'5o 11 20 ".15 3 13 1085 3 1 6 8 2 IS* 15 95 14 12 3 ft 055 12 32 "34 - 7' 1T98 ft 1 ft I 257 fill 121 IO87 .■ 8 ' IT20 "33 294 1087 -i 3 I 9 10 2 57 (IV 12) 1IO87) 1 1 s. <" 37) 1829) "33 <400) 17 >,<>> 81 11 7 10l 2 14 027 2-4I 5 3" 42 39 !, 7 200 4480 031 llfti) 44 49 ,I 3 3'" 9 2 57 3'/' 62 39 15 7 1-46 32 7° "•33 1 01 32 37 6 'i 2 13 4 2 4' 3'o7 75'99 IM 0 i 50 33 5 3' 6 64 1 8 TOO 22 40 015 ""67 2 2-25 4 8 0 18 10 'r'7 I., Hi, 431 1 1 I 00 22-40 0-14 061 22 :ft 4 8 0 11 7 11 J 1710 44ft 1 I 080 1792 ",12 067 it80 3 8 » 10 1 h o x4 2084 3 19 O 9 rco 22 40 O 1 1 9'4'J 22 29 1 S 11 in 1 13 10 584 I 5 TOO 22 40 O'l I "49 2229 1 8 0 17 7 ft !.' 9 52 304 0 9 055 1232 ""4 032 12 28 2 7 "65 10 89 r8o 0 5 0-28 627 0 04 ,,48 ft 24 1 : "43 IT-'ft 610 4 00 1 , 036 806 ",03 "37 8 "3 1 8 "55 ft IS 13 43 Mil 0 1 0 22 4 93 0 02 041 4 9' 1 "47 • ho.'' 12 74 «37 4 0 40 896 003 0-34 893 1 I.. "5 0 ft 1 4 (1078) (1 20) to 4 (0 22) 1493) 002 1034) (4 9> 1 1 1 " (" 3") 0 13 11 01 n 3 0.(0 6 72 002 030 ft'7" 1 5 <> 4 0 696 Poisoned Manure. Manure made from straw that has been affected by rust. mildew, smut and bunt, should not be mixed with the general manure. The spores of the fungi that cause these diseases are in the straw as well as in the grain. They hibernate well until the spring in farmyard manure, and are then ready for active life. Such a manure should not be used to manure cereals, otherwise one is sure to have another attack of these diseases in the next crop. The land from which the diseased crop has been removed should not be used for cereals or the same class of crop at least for two years following. It is very possible that some of the failures of rust-proof wheats that have occurred have been due to the application of infected manures, or through being sown in land where fungoid spores were lying dormant until the time of the growth of the crop commenced. The haulms and diseased tubers of potatoes that have been attacked by the potato disease should not be thrown on the manure heap. If they are mixed with the manure the fungus of the potato disease is introduced into the whole of the dung. The diseased tubers and haulms should be burnt. For manure made from straw affected by the fungi of either rust, mildew, smut, or bunt, Griffiths recommends an application of ferrous sulphate, one pound to the gallon of water, to be applied to the manure before pimghing it into the land. He also recommends a top dressing of half a cwt. of ferrous sulphate per acre to wheat likely to be attacked by the fungi, shortly after it has appeared above ground. Farmyard manure is estimated to contain from 13 to 14 per cent, of organic matter containing -4 to "65 per cent. of nitrogen. The mineral matter from 4 to 6 5 per cent., containing 4 to 7 per cent. of potash and -2 to '4 per cent. of phosphoric acid. From these figures Warington has calculated that one ton of farmvard manure contains from 9 to 15 lbs. of nitrogen and potash, and 4 to 9 lbs. of phosphoric acid. These quantities of nitrogen and phosphoric acid calculated to (95 per cent.) nitrate of soda (97 per cent.) sulphate of ammonia, and (25 p r cent.) superphosphate, give respectively equal to 96 lbs. of nitrate of soda, 45 to 75 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia and 35 to 79 lbs. of superphosphate. A light dressing of farmyard manure is from 7 to 10 ton; per acre, medium or ordinary from 12 to 18 tons, heavy 20 to 28 tons, and very heavy 30 tons. Farmyard manure should always be used in conjunction with artificial manures. Irrigation with Liquid Manure. It is held by not a few practical market gardeners that it is an economical method to apply the liquid portion of farmyard manure, by irrigation, as a top dressing to the voung crop. It not only supplies moisture, but also a large amount of soluble plant food easily assimilated by the young crop, which will enable 697 it to maintain a healthy and rapid growth at the most critical period. By the filtration of the liquid into the soil, carrying with it the soluble manure to the roots of the plants, they have an imme- diate supply of food and are not placed under the necessity—to the same extent—to expand in all directions in search of food; and in the later stages of their growth they will be better able to take up supplies from the more insoluble manures. A healthy and rapid growth in the early stages will better enable the crops to resist the attacks of the various pests that they are liable to. This is pure and simple a method of top dressing. The great benefits to be derived from top dressing will be treated later on. Liquid manure should be applied in a very dilute state. It is too concentrated as it runs from the stable or barn drains or from the manure heap ; it should be diluted with a large addition of water. If the liquid manure is applied in a concentrated form it is liable to do more harm than good. Liquid manure is not a complete manure. We have seen that the liquid excreta of cows, horses, sheep, and pigs contams a large percentage of nitrogen, and most of the potash and the solid excreta contains all the phosphoric acid. To convert the liquid portion into a more complete manure the tank for the reception of the liquid manure should be placed at the end of the manure heap. The heap should be drenched occasionally with water to dissolve out as much as possible of the mineral and organic matter which is allowed to run into the tank. The following device taken from Stewart's Irrigation for the Farm and Garden for a cheap and simple manure tank, of which a section is shown in the accompanying woodcut, may be made as follows :—A pit or vat, n, is dug and cemented with water-lime, or lined with plank, so as to be perfectly water-tight. This vat is covered with a plank floor, through which a wooden pump passes, and rests upon the bottom of the tank. The size of the vat, of course, will correspond with what is required of it. A useful size for a market garden, or for a farm where a few acres of soiling crops are raised each year, will be 16 feet square and 8 feet deep. At the end of the \ at another excavation is made sufficiently large to con- tain the pile of manure or materials for a compost that can be gathered and used. This excavation, seen at B, may be 24 to 30 feet long, as wide as the vat, and gradually increasing in depth from 3 or 4 feet at the further end, to 6 or 8 inches more at the end connecting with the vat. The excavation should be floored with double boards, with a coating of ..sphalt or tar between them, and the sides cemented. A coarse grating of stout poles or timbers are laid across this shallow portion of the vat, and is supported in the centre by blocks or short posts placed at intervals beneath it. Smaller poles or rails are laid upon these timbers not more than 6 or 8 inches apart. 6o8 Upon these poles the manure is piled in a flat heap, made hollow or dishing at the top, so as to collect all the water that may fall upon it. The heap need not be more than five feet high, which is sufficient to cause an active fermentation to be kept up through the whole of it. The materials of which this heap is composed will include evervthing of a mineral or organic character useful for manure, that can be procured—stable manure, straw, rushes, weeds sawdust, peat muck, leaves, wood, earth, night soil, leather scraps, tanner's waste, butcher's offal, ashes, plaster, and bone dust—and the skilful operator will add from time to time such chemical sub- stances as he needs to enrich the compost. The water in the vat should be frequently pumped out for use and a fresh supplv poured upon the heap. A pump that will not readily be choked should be used. One with a collapsing bucket, with leathern sides, and of a conical form, is the most useful. The waste water from the roofs might be discharged upon the heap by a simple arrangement of spouts. The object desired, viz., to gather every soluble part of the manure into the vat, should be forwarded by every possible means. The distribution of the liquid manure may be done bv horse or hand cart distributors, or bv pipe and nozzle, according to whichever is most suitable. 699 Blood Manures. Blood in the natural state contains from 2"5 to 5 per cent. of nitrogen and about 7 per cent of ash. Dried blood contains 6 to 16 per cent. of nitrogen. The commercial article seldom contains more than 12 per cent. nitrogen and a little over 1 per cent. of phosphoric acid. Blood dried by means of hot water or steam does not char and is easily ground to a powder. Acid clotted blood is made by adding sulphuric acid to the blood to prevent its decom- position, and then drying it by steam. It contains 6 to 7 per cent. nitrogen. It is generally in small semi-dried pieces. Mixed with ground bones, bone ash, or mineral phosphates, it makes a dark coloured manure with a very strong smell, something like a guano. Lean flesh has a composition nearly similar to that of blood. The carcases of diseased horses, cows, dogs, etc., are treated with sulphuric acid and dried by means of steam. The mixture is generally mixed with superphosphates to give them nitrogen. Blood and flesh manures are principally valuable as nitrogenous manures. The nitrogen is not so valuable in these manures as in sulphate of ammonia, it is not soluble enough for many crops. The crops that are most benefited by blood and flesh manures are wheat, hops, turnips and fruit trees. These manures are best adapted to light soils. Whether these manures can be compared in any way with nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, so far as economy is concerned, will depend on circumstances. If they have to be carted long distances, the charges will preclude the use of them as manures, as they are very bulky. One thing against the use of them to any great extent in Western Australia will be the ash, which, although small in amount, contains about 70 per cent. of chlorides, which is not an element that it is advisable to introduce into the soils here, as in a great many cases they are already too highly charged with them. Horn, Hides, Leather Clippings, and Hair. These contain nitrogen from 14 to 17 per cent., and ash about 1 percent. They are only valuable for the nitrogen they contain. Although they contain so much nitrogen they are of very little value as a manure, as their action is too slow in the soil, taking from two to four years for complete decomposition. They are mostly used in manure works for mixing with mineral phosphates and sulphuric acid in the making of superphosphates. It is a cheaper method of adding nitrogen to these superphosphates than using ammonium sulphate. Woollen waste or shoddy contains about four to ten per cent. of nitrogen. It is principally used as a cheap method of addng nitrogen in manufacturing superphosphates, and after treat- ment with sulphuric acid it is used as a manure for hops. Animal, or Meat-meal Guano. This is made from the refuse after treating the carcases of cattle by the Liebig's process for the making of the extract sold 70 r T. Fairley gives the following analysis of a sample :— Moisture ... ... ... 16-46 Organic matter and salts of ammonia 58' 10 Phosphate of lime, magnesia, etc. I5'20 Calcium sulphate ... ... 0-96 Alkaline salts ... ... ... 6-55 Insoluble silicious matter ... 273 10000 Containing nitrogen ... ... 7^87 Equal to ammonia ... ... 9/55 These manures should be used at a rate of 5 cwt. per acre in conjunction with potash and a small quantity of soluble phos- phates and some ammonium sulphate. They should be placed in the ground some weeks before the seed in autumn to allow them plenty of time to ferment. Fish guanos are made in Norway with a large percentage of potash. One firm manufactures two kinds of these manures—cod and potash, and herring and potash. The first is branded C.P. on the bags, the other S.P. on the bags. The following are analyses of the two brands :— C.P. Brand. S.P. Brand. Nitrogen (equal to ammonia) ... 7-o 7-5 Phosphates (fish bone) ... 20'o 8-o Potash sulphate ... ... 15 0 15 0 Magnesia ... ... ... ico 10-o Sand ... ... ... 10 ro Water ... ... ... 5-0 50 They are recommended for cereals, roots and leguminous crops, spread broadcast on the land and harrowed in. They are also recom- mended for vegetables, using 7 cwt. to the acre. There is no doubt that the fish manures are valuable, although slow in their action in the ground. They are cheap manures, and to be compared with the high class manures, they must be cheap to come into general use. With so much fish all along our coast, and the amount of waste, not only from those fish that are not saleable, but also from those that are saleable, I am surprised that something has not been done to convert these valuable waste products into readily saleable manures. I am sure it would prove a remunerative business to any company or firm undertaking the making of them. These manures are sometimes used by unscrupulous manufacturers to mix with superphosphates with the view of adding nitrogen to their superphosphates. The analysis would not show whether the nitrogen was from bones or fish. The nitrogen in fish is not so valuable as that in bones. 702 Grhen Manuring. This system of manuring, like most others, has its drawbacks as well as its benefits. It is not so much used now as formerly in the older countries, on account of the more general supplies of artificial manures, and their soils are not so much benefited by green manur- ing as those we have here will be. The soils generally in Western Australia are of a light nature, anl low in humus matter, which gives them a low retentive and absorbtive power, and are more rapidlv depleted of their mineral plant food. They are, then, in a state of not being able to fix the manures added to them so well as those with plenty of organic matter and mineral matter. One of the great benefits to the soils here by growing a catch crop, of say mustard, rye, lupin, rape, buckwheat, vetches, clover or turnips, is that by ploughing in the crop just as it flowers, the soil receives a large amount of organic matter, also the large amount of mineral matter which the crop brings up from the sub-soil to the surface is returned to the soil, binding the particles more compactly together, the soil becomes more tenacious, and being better able to retain more moisture and increasing its power to fix ammonia and the inorganic plant food. This is only one of the means that can be used for increasing the tenacity of the soil. It would be more beneficial still if before ploughing in the green crop, it had a good heavy dressing of clay, and the two would act much better than if used singly. Another reason for its use in this colony is that so much of the crops that are grown are made into chaff and sent away from the farm, so that the entire amount of organic and inorganic matter taken from the soil by the crop is lost for ever to that soil, and artificial manures cannot make the humus good, at least to any great extent. Were it not for the particular benefits to be derived from it in this hot climate, no one would care to advocate green manuring while we have so many cheap artificial manures, which are much better by far as manures. Oil Cakes. The several oil cakes that are to be found in the market have a very high value as manures. Although they have a high manure value, they are too high priced to be used as manures direct. They are best used as feeding stuffs, and the manure obtained from the dung of the animals. The values of the manures from the different feeding stuffs will be found in Lawes and Gilbert's table of values (pages 694 and 695). Artificial Manure. We have already seen that farmyard manure is not in itself cap- able of maintaining the soil in a fertile condition, even where the straw is used on the farm. Where the whole or part of the straw is sent away, as when chaff is made and sold off the farm, the soil will be brought to an impoverished condition in a much shorter time. By the employment of artificial manure, we are enabled to 7o3 maintain the conditions of complete fertility, if we use them in a judicious manner. They supply large quantities of the mineral and organic matter necessary for the crop, and that in small bulk. They act as direct carriers of food to the plant. They act both chemi- callv and mechanically on the soil, by stimulating and aiding the disintegration of the inert mineral matter, and rendering active the process of nitrification, they enable the soil t i attract a larger amount of moisture as well as act in the capacity of fixers of plant food in the soil. It has been said that artificial manures are exhausted in a year, and this is used as an argument against them, but it has been proved that with the exception, perhaps, of nitrate of soda, which is liable to be washed out of the soil, they are not exhausted in the first year; even if we were to acknowledge that thev are exhausted so speedily, it is always more econ mical to manure the crop than the ground. Some scientists harp on the point that we are still in the dark as to the aciion of manv of these manures in the soil. Granted this is so, we have still sufficient light to guide us to an intelligent and profitable use of them. Rather than sit down in our partial darkness doing nothing it is better we should march on with the light we have, hoping that science will still further enlighten us some day on the dark points. Of course no single simple manure would be of any good to a crop unless the other elements required were in sufficient quantities in the soil. The farmer ag iin may have taken it for granted that the merchant has supplied him with the manure he ordered. Unfortunately in too many cases these manures are not what they are intended to represent. Further, the soil may not be suited to the crops, and climatic influences may have something to do with failures as well as the manures. To apply them with economic success the farmer must know the requirements of his soil and the action of the individual manures upon them. The first of these manures that we will consider will be the bones in their various states. Raw Bones. Bones in a coarse state of i and J inch were at one time used largely for pasture land. To a great extent this use of coarse bones has been abandoned and the more economical bone dust or bone meal has taken its place. Bones are a rich phosphatic manure con- taining nitrogen equal to 4 to 5 per cent. of ammonia and 45 to 54 per cent. of phosphate of lime. The Royal Agricultural Society of England's standard requires a guarantee of nitrogen equal to 4 per cent, of ammonia and 45 to 48 per cent, of phosphatic lime. The following are analyses of bones :— 704 No. i. No. 2. Moisture 1202 I2'3I Organic matter 2871 30-73 Phosphate of lime 4928 4972 Carbonate of lime 437 4't'5 Alkaline salts 4-55 278 Sand 107 021 10000 10000 I. Nitrogen ... 344 373 Equal to ammonia ... 4-17 4'53 Bone Dust, or Bone Meal. Bones ground to a very fine state are far more active in the soil than when coarse. In the fine state a larger surface is exposed to the action of oxygen and other agencies which cause the bones to ferment and render them more easily soluble. Bone dust is a slow manure. That made from steamed bones is more soluble than that made from raw bones. Bone dust is much more valuable than mineral phosphates or the phosphatic guanos, not only because it contains a fair percentage of nitrogen, but also because it is more soluble in the soil than either of these other phosphatic manures. It is beneficial as a top dressing for pasture land if 7 to 10 cwt. per acre is given. The crops that are most benefited by it, however, are turnips, potatoes, hops, vines, and tobacco, giving from 5 to 6 cwt. per acre as a dressing in conjunction with potash. It is best adapted for light soils. I must protest against the mixtures sold in Western Australia under the name of bone dust, which are merelv composts of dried blood, llesh, and some bones, with either bone ash or mineral phosphates. Bone ash and mineral phosphates have not an agricultural value equal to bone dust. They are not so easilv rendered soluble in the soil. A compost, or any other substance, should be sold only under the name that would designate its com- position, and not under the name of something entirely different from it. 1 understand the merchants are not entirely to blame for this state of things, the farmer being in a great measure culpable. When speaking to a merchant about this, he informed me that he could not sell pure bone dust. P'armers would not have it. What they want is something that stinks. If smell is the farmer's criterion of a manure, in these composts they certainly get all they want. If manures are bought and applied to the soil on the basis of smell, one need not be surprised that the results are not so satisfactory as are often anticipated. Fermented bones are prepared by mixing the bones with heavv soil or clay. The heap is then drenched with urine and covered with peatv soil or clav and allowed to ferment for two or three weeks. Fermented bones are more soluble and quicker in their action than raw bones. 705 Boiled bones are prepared by boiling the bones or by treating them with steam under a high pressure, which extracts a large pro- portion of the fat and gelatine they contain. The bones are ren- dered more porous and brittle. They contain from i£ to 2 per cent. of nitrogen and from 54 to 63 per cent. of phosphate of lime. They are of less value, as far as the nitrogen is concerned, than raw bones, but they are more valuable in the phosphates, which are not only higher but more soluble. Konig found that raw bones did not disappear before four years from the soil, while boiled bones disappeared in ten months. Dissolved bones are prepared by treating them with sulphuric acid to convert part of the insoluble phosphate of lime into a soluble state. This is the most valuable bone manure, and one of the best soluble phosphatic manures. There is not so much of this manure made now as formerly, the cheaper superphosphates made from mineral phosphates, phospho-guanos, bone ash, and bone charcoal taking its place. Bone Ash. By burning bones the organic matter and moisture is burned out of them, leaving a white ash which contains from 64 to 86 per cent. of phosphate of lime, but no nitrogen. It is principally used for the manufacturing of superphosphates. It is sometimes used to adulterate bone manures, or when dissolved, sold as dissolved bones, which it has no right to be called, as it is no more bones than mineral phosphates are. It is certainly inferior to bones in its action in the soil. Bone black or bone charcoal is made by burning bones in closed retorts or kilns. The nitrogen distills over as ammonia, and is collected in sulphuric acid. The black charred mass is taken out of the retorts and cooled. Bone black is principally used in sugar refining. After some time it loses its power of claiifying the sugar solution from coloring matter, and it is then used to make superphosphates. It is slightly superior to bone ash, but very much inferior to bones as a manure. The use of these two phosphates in the soil will be best dealt with when we come to superphosphates, as they are generally made into these. COPKOLITKS, OR MINERAL PHOSPHATES. Coprolites have been found in a great many parts of the world. Those found in the sedimentary rocks are generally in an amorphous or non-crystalline state, and called coprolites. Those found in the older rocks are crystalline, are called apatite, and the non-crystalline, phosphorite. Those that are sent into the market contain from 60 to 88 per cent. of tricalcic phosphate. As a manure they are of very little value in the raw state, although there are some people who hold a different opinion. For them to be of any value in the raw state they must be ground to a very fine powder and used on soils deficient in lime. They must be used in large quantities to do any 706 good, 10 cwt. per acre, and even more than that. They are mixed and sold in enormous quantities every year for making super- phosphate, which is the principal use they are put to. Superphosphates, or Dissolved Mineral Phosphates. These manures are made from coprolites, bone ash, bone charcoal, and phosphatic or mineral guanos. They are made in very large quantities in almost every part of the world. So great is the demand for these manures that about 600,o00 tons are made annually in England alone. This will give an idea of the great faith the farmers in England have in superphosphates, and that not without good reason, as the results derived from the use of them fully justifies anything that has been said in their favor. They are made by mixing ground coprolites, apatite, bone ash, bone black, or phosphatic guanos, with sulphuric acid, sped fic gravity i-6oto 170. The mixing is done by machinery constructed for the pur- pose, and the mass is then run into a closed pit which is connected with a flume that carries the fumes or gases (fluorine, carbonic acid, etc.) to a condensing tower, or otherwise they would be very annoying to the workmen, as well as dangerous to their health. After the mass has spent itself in the pit, when it becomes some- what dry it is thrown out by workmen with wooden shovels. It is then ground in a roller mill for the purpose of more thoroughly mixing and breaking up the lumps into a state fit for the market. The action of the sulphuric acid on the phosphates is to convert the insoluble tricalcic phosphate into soluble mono- calcic phosphate. The sulphuric acid does this by com- bining with the lime that is in combination with the phosphoric acid. Thev are made in two qualities or quantities of phos- phate of lime made soluble. The lower class contains about 25 per cent. soluble phosphates, and the high class 30 to 40 per cent. soluble phosphates. This does not mean, as might appear, that there is 25, 30, or 40 per cent. of the soluble mono- calcic phosphate in the manure, but that these are the percentages of tricalcic phosphate made soluble. There are also the concen- trated or double superphosphates, containing from 60 to 85 per cent. of soluble phosphates. These concenti ated manures are very costly to make and necessarily are dear. Whether it is any benefit to use them will greatly depend on whether they have to be con- veyed long distances where the carriage is high, otherwise there is no special benefit from them over the ordinarv superphosphates. By using them you lose the benefit of the sulphate of lime that is in the ordinary manure, which might necessitate the use of gvpsum or sulphate of lime. The enormous extent to which the manure is used in every country proves it is the universal method of applying phosphates to the soil to obtain a quick and increased return for the money invested. 707 The superphosphate, when applied, being soluble in water, is dissolved by rain and the moisture in the soil, and thoroughly per- meates the soil, where the lime, iron, and alumina salts decompose it, rendering it insoluble and depositing or fixing it in the soil in such a fine impalpable state that the plants can easily assimilate it and have no difficulty in obtaining a good supply. By being in this very fine state equal dissemination through the soil is secured, and the micro-organisms can obtain an unlimited supply of food for their growth and activity in order to supply the plants; whereas if the manure had been placed in the soil in an insoluble state, even if in a fine powder, its uneven distribution through the soil would limit the action and numbers of the active micro-organisms. By reason of the great activity of this manure a quick and healthy growth is secured to the young plant, which is consequently better able to cope with any attack from the pests that plants are liable to. Although superphosphate is one of the most valuable manures, it is not in itself a complete manure. It is simply a supplier of phosphoric acid and lime. It has to be used in conjunction with either a potash or nitrogenous manure, or both, according to the requirements of the crop. A great many manufacturers make super- phosphates with either potash or nitrogen, or both, in them. These superphosphates are generally sold under special names, such as tur- nip manure, potato manure, sc., &c. As a rule these special manures are not worth the high prices asked for them. They are very often made up of some nitrogenous substance that is of very little value in the soil as a manure, such as ground, steamed or vitrolised leather, ground spent tan bark, shoddy, etc. The farmer who supplies himself with these, generally from reading some glowing advertisement or handbill, will have more of sorrow and vexation of spirit to trouble him at harvest time than the burden of his crops. The chemist is not able to discriminate, by mere analysis, between the almost valueless nitrogen in leather and the highly valuable nitrogen in bones when mixed with superphosphates. Although there are a great many special manures made, for which a high price is charged, this has no relation to their value. There are also a good many firms who manufacture special manures that contain all they say, and which are made of the best materials. Those who buy them generally get full satisfaction, as far as this class of manures can give satisfaction. Even if they should be genuine, why buy them? They are made for whoever will buy them, the same to all round. Surely the requirements of every soil are not the same. The farmer should know the requirements of his soil for any given crop better than the manu- facturer. This unintelligent manner of buying manure has had much to do with the failure in the use of superphosphates in the hands of some farmers. It will prove more satisfactory and cheaper for the farmer to buy superphosphates, potash salts, and nitrogenous manures separately, and mix them on the farm according to the 709 Mineral Disolved. Superphospates. Bones. Sulphate of lime and alkaline salts ... 49'01 18 87 Insoluble ... ... 4-68 1-41 10000 10000 1 Containing nitrogen ... ... 3 c9 Equal to ammonia ... ... 375 It will he as well to delay making a comparison between superphosphates as a fertiliser and other phosphatic manures, until we get t) the basic slag or Thomas's fertiliser, which I intend to take next. Thomas s Phosphates, or Basic Slag. In the year 1879 Thomas and Gilchrist patented their process for the dephosphorising of iron in the making of steel. Before that time the process i.i use was that known as the Bessemer, which fai'ed so far as to be ineffectual in reducing the amount of phosphorous in the pig iron made from iron ore, which contained too large a percentage of phosphorous to make steel. The Bessemer process, known a; the acid process, had a fire-brick lining in the converter. The Thomas-Gilchris process is the reverse, or basic process. The converter is lined with a dolomite limestone; the molten pig-iron is poured into the converter, a quantity of lime equal to about 20 per cent, of the iron in the converter is added, a hot blast of air, under pressure, is injected through the molten mass, oxidising the phosphorus, which in turn combines with the lime in the slag to form phosphate of lime. The basic slag was first made in England, but it was in Germany that it was first used as manure. To bring the slag into a fit state to be used as a fertiliser, the molten slag is treated with super-heated steam or poured into hot water to break it up into small fragments and make it more easy to grind into the fine powder which is necessary before it can be profitably applied to the land. Many patents have been taken out to make or improve the slag as manure. These have all been abandoned, as they were founded on illcon- ceived notions of how the slag would act on plant life. The great desideratum with the basic slag as a manure is that it should be in a very fine powder, and if not in this state it should not be bought. It contains from 14 to 20 per cent, of phosphoric acid, equal to 30 to 42 per cent, of tricalcic phosphate. The phosphoric acid in the slag is not in the tricalcic state as in all other animal and mineral phosphates, but it is in the tetracalcic form. So far I have avoided, as much as possible, the use of scientific terms, but in this case I must resort to ^ientific formula to explain the difference between these two kinds of phosphates in order to enable the reader the better to understand how the phosphates in the slag are more soluble than those in natural phosphates. 710 Tricalcic or insoluble lime phosphate has the formula 3 Ca O, P,Os. Basic slag has the formula 4 Ca O, P, Os. To put this more graphically, although less scientifically, the insoluble phosphate would be composed thus :— Lime ) Lime [ Phosphoric acid. Lime ) Basic slag. Lime ] Lime 1 Phosphoric acid. Lime ) It is a well-known fact that the more lime there is in combina- tion with phosphoric acid the more insoluble the compound is. Basic slag is an exception; it is more soluble than the tricalcic phosphate in any other mineral or animal phosphate. Before we explain the reason for the basic slag being more soluble, we will show the formula of two other phosphates. Soluble or mono-calcic phosphate Ca O, 2 (H2 O), P, Os.obtained by treating the tricalcic phosphate with an acid thus :—3 Ca O, P2 05 + 2 H, S04 = Ca O, 2 (H, O), P, Os + 2 Ca S0V the soluble phosphate may be shown thus :— Lime ] Water [ Phosphoric acid. Water J The other phosphate called dicalcic or precipitated phosphate of lime and reverted phosphates 2 Ca O, H, O, P2 Os or Lime I Lime Phosphoric acid. Water I The mono-calcic or soluble has 56 par s of lime for every 142 parts of phosphoric acid and is ihe most soluble. The dicalcic phosphate has 112 parts of lime for every 142 points of phosphoric acid, it is far less soluble than the mono-calcic, but more soluble than the tricalcic. The tricalcic phosphate has 168 parts of lime for everv 142 parts of phosphoric acid, it is the most insoluble of phosphates. The basic slag h;is 224 parts cf lime for every 142 parts of phosphoric acid. Although it has more lime than the tricalcic it is much more soluble than and differs little from the dicalcic. The reason for this is, that the tetrabasic phosphate is a super- saturated salt. It has less chemical affinity to resist decomposition when brought in contact with any substance or agency that can cause decomposition. Professor Wagner has experimented with basic slag, super- phosphates and other manures, as to the amount of phosphoric acid 712 Basic slag is speciallv suited to clay, peat and sandy soils, also moor-land and wet meadows. Maercker has found that for barley, potatoes, oats and sugar beets on moor-1 ind soil, basic slag is better than superphosphates and precipitated phosphates. He recom- mends when sown in the spring 2 cwt. of basic slag and 1 cwt. of superphosphates as being the most profitable. They can be mixed and sown with potash and nitrate of soda. The mixture should be made just before sowing, as if it is allowed to stand for a week or two it sets. It cannot be sown or mixed with sulphate of ammonia, as it contains free lime, and would cause a loss of ammonia. The ammonia must be applied some time after the slag. It will be found very advantageous to sour land by neutrahzing the acidity, as well as acting as a manure. The phosphoric acid in basic slag has only half the effect that the phosphoric acid in superphosphate has; that is, 100 lbs. of phosphoric acid in superphosphates will have the same effect as 200 lbs. of that in basic slag will have. The results of the following experiments by Wagner will show this, and also the difference between basic slag and superphosphates and Peruvian guano, bone-meal, and ground coprolites on the same crops. Nitrogen and potash were added to the superphosphates, slag, bone-meal, and coprolites, so as to make them equal in other respects to the Peruvian guano, and so that the test should be con- fmed to the phosphoric acid. The crops experimented on were barley, wheat, and flax. The amount of crops obtained by the use of superphosphate Warner called 100, the other amount of crops by the different manure shows the percentages, as compared with superphosphates, as 100. This will give the manurial values of the other phosphates ;— Manure, per acre. Bailey. Wheat. Flax. Superphosphate ... 3 cwt. IOO 100 IOO Peruvian guano ... 4" 33 29 32 Bone-meal 5i 11 10 8 IO Coprolite (ground) 5$ ,- 9 9 9 Basic slag (finest) 4| .. 65 61 57 (fine) ... 4 .. 59 61 55 „ (coarse) n ,. 13 12 1 10 As basic slag generally contains about 80 per cent. of fine and 20 per cent. of coarse phosphates, its value compared with super- phosphates will be 50 or one-half, that of Peruvian guano one-third, 7^3 bone meal and coprolite one-twelfth. The after effects of the basic slag are superior to those of superphosphate, and it is again superior to superphosphates in soils deficient in lime. Liechti and Vogt experimented with oats by the pot-culture method as carried out by Wagner. They used a meadow soil, poor in phosphoric acid and which had never received any manure. The same quantities of nitrogen and potash were added to each of the mineral manures so that they should equal the bone manures in that respect. The following are the results :— Amount of phosphoric acid applied. Weight of crop, grain and straw. None ... Manure M'3 •35 Superphosphate ... 1670 I 00 3259 .35 Basic slag I7I-5 TOO Phosphorite >> — 318-4 I 00 151 421 Raw bone meal ... „ 14-0 '35 159 I CO }t 1> '■• Glue free bone meal (fine) ... 184 •35 166 •35 (coarse) 160 These experiments of Liechti and Vogt's confirm what has been discovered by others, that basic slag is equal to superphosphates in some soils. We have seen that, as far as after effects in the soil are concerned, bone meal compares very badly with basic slag or superphosphates, although formerly the reverse opinion was held. More information on this subject can be gained by reference to some of Professor Maercker's experiments, undertaken at the request of the Association of Bone-meal Manufacturers of Saxony» The experiments were conducted i i the same manner as Wagner's, by pot culture, which gave corresponding results in the field. They proved the conclusions of Wagner and others as to the immediate and after effects of the manure. Working with barley in a sandy soil, which is considered favourable to bonemeal, each pot, in addition to the manure, to be operated on, received an equal quantity of ammonium nitrate, sulphate of potash, chloride of potash, sulphate of magnesia and carbonate of lime. 7i4 The following are the results :— Amount of Phosphoric Acid applied. Manure. Weight of Crop. Grain and Straw. .6 Superphosphate. IOI56 IS 11438 •6 Bone Meal. 5 96 i-5 ii ii I2l8 These experiments were carried on for several years with practically the same results. Another set of experiments was carried out with a mixture of superphosphates and bonemeal to see how far the one would assist the other. The same class of soil and barley was used as in the previous experiments, and the following are the results :— Amount of phosphoric acid | applied. ,6 •3 1 Manure, •9 I '3 I .6 I ,6} ,6 I 12 I Superphosphate Superphosphate ) Bone Meal j Superphosphate I Bone Meal f Superphosphate I Bone Meal j Superphosphate | Bone Meal Superphosphate Bone Meal Increase of yield over nnmanured pot. 16729 9097 104- 67 105- 91 I5274 I5605 Increase due to hone meal. + 7"3t' + 21-02 + 22-26 -H55 — 11 -24 this shows that the addition of bone-meal to superphosphate gives little or no advantage to the crop, in fact, when the superphosphate is given in sufficient quantities for the requirements of the crop, the addition of bone-meal is injurious and causes a loss. The next set of experiments will show the after-effects of the manures on oats sown in the soil in which wheat has been grown the previous year. There was only a nitrogenous manure added the second year. The following are the results :— 7iS Amount of phosphoric acid added first year. Manure. •6 ,6 •6 I'2 I "2 V2 i-8 i-8 i-8 Superphosphate Raw bone meal Glue free bone meal Superphosphate Raw bone meal Glue free bone meal Superphosphate Rnw bone meal Glue free bone meal Increase of yield of oats second year. r474 12 36 1614 434r 13-58 22- ?4 65 57 35 40 26-11 The results in the above experiments show that where only enough superphosphate was applied for the previous year's crop, the results are about equal, but where more manure is applied than is required for the first crop, the effects on the second crop are more marked in the case of superphosphate than bone-meal. To carry the ex- periments still further the same pots after the oats were gathered, with only the addition of some nitrogenous manure, were compared with the pot that had not received any manure. The crop that was chosen was mustard. The following are the results :— Amount of phosphoric acid added first year. •6 •6 •6 V2 V2 1■2 1-8 1-8 18 Manure. Superphosphate Raw bone meal Glue free bone meal Superphosphate I- aw bone meal Glue free bone meal Superphosphate Raw bone meal Glue free bone meal Increase in third crop [mustard) over un- manured pots. + 5^9 — 03 + 342 + 173 9 — 4'9 + 152 + I06-Q + 85t' + 339 Professor Maercker further experimented with superphosphates, dissolved raw bone meal, dissolved glue free bone meal. The copy of the results of these experiments with dissolved bones, which I have, does not say whether he added nitrogen to the super- phosphates to equalize it with the nitrogen in the bones. From the results it is almost evident he must have done so, otherwise we could not expect the results he obtained. He says that dissolved bone meal is almost equal in value as a fertilizer to superphosphate. I should be inclined to place a higher value on dissolved bones as they contain a certain percentage of nitrogen, and the insoluble phos- 7i8 The best guanos that have been found are those on the west coast of South America and the south-west coast of Africa, most of which have long ago been worked out. It is scarcely within the scope of this book to give a historical account of these earlier deposits, or even to enter into any lengthy account of those in existence at the present time. Some of these are nitro-phosphatic, containing from 3 to 13 per cent, of ammonia, and some of them contain as much as 3 per cent. of potash. Other very large deposits are purely phosphatic, containing no nitrogen, or at most a fraction of a per cent. Guanos of the nitrogenous class that are imported into England at the present time contain from 3 to 6 per cent. of ammonia, and 20 to 45 or even 50 per cent, of phosphatic lime, excepting those from the Ichaboe islands, on the south-west coast of Africa, and Angamos Island, in Peru, which contain from 8 to 14 per cent. of ammonia, and 12 to 30 pcv cent, of phosphates. These islands annually furnish only small quantities of guano, which con- sists of the fresh excreta of birds, and is gathered every year by the natives. The nitro-phosphatic guanos are scarcely to be found in the market of Western Australia, nor are they likelv to be so for some time to come, unless fresh discoveries are made near at hand. The chief supply of guanos sent to the markets of the world is purely phosphatic, and is used for the purpose of making super- phosphates. Of this class there are some enormousdepositsin various parts of the world. The guano deposits found on the coast of Western Australia are of this class and are best suited to the making of superphosphates. As a manure, direct. this class of guano, even if used in conjunction with potash and nitrogenous matter, is slow in its action and inferior to bone-meal and not much better, if any, than coprohte mineral phosphate. This guano should be applied in a very fine state to give the best results. At the best these guanos are not the most profitable manures that can be used. The phos- phatic guanos may -be applied at the rate of 3 to 9 cwt. per acre, according to the percentage of phosphoric acid they contain and give the best results on soils low in lime. Nitrogenous Manures. The two best nitrogenous manures are sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda. They are by far the richest in nitrogen and also the quickest and most certain in their action on crops. Some time back the most favoured method of applying nitrogen to the soil by means of artificial manures, was by the use of guanos rich in ammonia. Since these rich guanos have become more scarce in the market, sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda have taken their place. Sulphate of ammonia is the most concentrated form of nitrogen as a manure, and one of the most active and readily available plant foods. It is much quicker in its action than any form of organic- 719 nitrogenous matter. Ammonia is principally obtained from the destructive distillation of some organic matter, as in the manufac- ture of gas from coal, when it is obtained as a by-product in the water used to purify the gas. The gas liquor contains from f >ur to eight ounces of ammonia per gallon. The crude gas liquor is placed in a large boiler with some burnt lime, and heated by means of steam to drive off the ammonia gas, which is passed into a tank containing sulphuric acid. The ammonia combines with the sul- phuric acid to form sulphate of ammonia, which crystallises out, the crystals being ladled out of the tank on to a shelf to drain, where they are dried, and the mass is then ready for the market. Large quantities are also obtained in the process of manufacturing shale oil by the Beilby-Young furnace; from blast furnaces, coke ovens, and also in the process of manufacturing bone charcoal. Sulphate of ammonia, when pure, contains 25 per cent. of ammonia. The best sulphate of ammonia found in commerce contains only 98 per cent., equal to 24 5 per cent. of ammonia. Sulphate of ammonia is a whitish crystalline powder, some samples being colored grey to a dirty brown. These latter samples should be tested for impurities, such as ammonium sulpho-cyanate, which is very poisonous to plants. This can be easily detected in a sample by dissolving a little in water, then adding one or two drops of ferric chloride, when, it the sulpho-cyanate is present it will give a deep red color to the solution of ammonium sulphate. It has its best action on clay and loam soils, but should not be used on soils rich in lime or otherwise, there will be a loss of ammonia through its being set free by the lime. It should not be used in a mixture with basic slag or Thomas's phosphates for the same reason. The ammonia in the sulphate is not absorbed directly by the plants. It is first converted into nitric acid in the process of nitrification by the micro-organisms in the soil, in which state it is absorbed by the plant. It is more easily converted into nitrates than any other organic compound of nitrogen. In about six months the most of the ammonia will be converted into nitrates. It is easily fixed in the soil, which prevents the loss by drainage that takes place in the case of nitrates, nor is it carried down into the sub-soil out of the reach of the crops, as happens with nitrates. Its application to cereals, potatoes, and other root crops has been very successful, but not so with rye, lupins, or leguminous • crops. Sulphate of ammonia is very seldom used by itself, being generally employed in conjunction with phosphates and potash. For cereals 1 to ii cwt., and for root crops from 1^ to 2^ cwt. per acre should be applied. It is best to use one-half at the time of sowing and to use the other half as a top dressing when the young crop is a short length up, and the application should be made in wet weather when possible. When sowing it alone as a top dressing, it should be thoroughly mixed with six or seven times its bulk of soil to ensure an equal distribution. It has the effect of increasing the grain yield without any detriment to the straw. It is stated by some authorities that by steeping seeds in a solution of sulphate of ammonia the crop is greatly increased, more especiallv with potatoes, which are said to have given phenomenal crops. This action is said to hasten germination, to supply readily available nourishment to the embryo plant and hasten a healthy growth to the young plant when it is most liable to disease, thus enabling it to resist and overcome the attack of pests. The best solution to use is i lb. of ammonium sulphate, i lb. potassium nitrate, and 5 galls, of water. There are other authorities who either deny or doubt any such benefit from the steeping of seed in a solution of ammonia. At the present time the matter is so much in dispute that, until further investigations are made, the value of the solution must remain a matter of opinion. Until we have dealt with nitrate of soda and potash we will postpone any comparison between ammonium sulphate and the nitrates. SODIL'M AND POTASSIl'M NlTRATE. Nitrate of soda is principally obtained from the west coast of Southern America, Peru, Chili, and Bolivia. It is sometimes called Chili nitre and Chili saltpetre. It is found in the desert or barren sand that stretches from north to south for over 600 miles along the foot of the Cordilleras. The sand is lixiviated with water to extract the nitre, the solution is then evaporated. The crude salt obtained is called caliche. It has the following composition, according to Roscoe and Schorlemmer :— I. II Sodium nitrate ... ... 64-98 ... .. 27 85 ,, sulphate ... 3-00 ... ... 43 20 ,, chloride . . 2869 ... ... 18 30 ,, iodide ... ... 0■63 ... ... — Calcium sulphate ... — ... ... -68 Magnesium sulphate ... — ... ... 4 20 Insoluble matter ... 2 70 ... ... C32 Moisture ... ... — ... ... 6-oo 100 00 .. The caliche sand does not rise to the surface, and is generallv covered with two layers. The top laver or chuca consists of sand and gypsum, while the intervening layer called costra is a con- glomerate of clay and breccia or small fragments of rocks. The caliche when purified generally contains from 95 to 98 per cent. of nitrate of soda. The purified salt is greatly used for the manu- facturing of sulphuric and nitric acids, also for making nitrate of 722 the best results. Part may be put in at the same time as the artificial or farmyard manure and the remainder in one or two dress- ings. This saves it from being lost by being washed out by rain or the moisture in the soil. The usual amount applied is from I to 2 cwt. per acre, and the part used as top-dressing should be mixed with some soil to ensure uniform distribution of it over the land. The relative manurial values of nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia are dependent on several circumstances. In some cases the nitrate of soda is superior to the sulphate of ammonia and in others the reverse is the case. Sulphate of ammonia cannot be used in calcareous or chalky soils and is injurious to beet-root, rye, and lupines, more especially when the plants are young. In the case of barley, Prof. Tanner says, "that sulphate of ammonia im- proves, and nitrate of soda invariably injures the malting character of barley." But nitrate of soda gives the highest yield of albuminoids, therefore, barley grown with nitrate of soda has a higher teedirg value than that grown with sulphate of ammonia. Tobacco appears to be most benefited by sulphate of ammonia, and Lawes and Gilbert prefer it for their wheat experiments at Rothamstead. Most soils can easily convert the ammonia into nitrates and also fix it in the soil. When nitrates are applied to wet soils, or after rain, they are liable to be washed from the soil or out of the reach of the crops. Owing to their extreme solubility no result can be expected from nitrates after the first crop, for the reason, if the crop does not use up all the nitrates put into the soil, they are beyond the reach of the next year's crop. Even granting that nitrates are more rapid in their actions on plant growth than the ammonium sulphate, there are other things to take into considera- tion that may counterbalance any superiority nitrates may have. In this colony nitrate of soda is much dearer thnn sulphate of ammonia, and, further, 100 lbs. of the sulphate contains as much nitrogen as 125 lbs. of nitrate of soda. The price of nitrate of soda is from £16 to £1j per ton, while sulphate of ammonia is from £12 to .£12 10s. per ton. The sulphate of ammonia is by far the cheapest, as it is only about 75 per cent of the price of the nitrate and it contains 25 per cent. more nitrogen. Where it can be applied in place of the nitrate of soda, it will be the cheapest and verv nearly as effective. The following experiments by Griffiths will show to some extent the agricultural value of various nitro- genous manures and the importance of top dressing :— Gvpsum. The crops taken for the experiments were wheat, potatoes, and clover. Twenty-one plots of land of one acre each were taken. The first seven consisted of good quality clay land, and grew wheat, the second seven consisted of sandy loam, and grew potatoes; the third seven plots were laid down with clover. 726 potatoes, that require both nitrogen and potash as a manure, nitrate of soda gives quite as good results and is much cheaper. Nitrate of potash is too dear to be used much as a manure. Potash Manures. Potash is one of three main elements that enter into the food of almost all plants. It is found in large quantities in the ash of root and leguminous crops; more than the half of the ash of potatoes is potash, varying from 55 to 60 per cent. The crops that are most benefited by the application of potash are legumes, which require a liberal supply. Potash for agricultural purposes is principally obtained from the deposits at Stassfurt, in Germany. The chief potash salts used as manures are kainit and the double sulphate of potash and magnesia. Kainit contains from 12 to 14 per cent. of potash. The following is an analysis of a fair sample :— Moisture 321 Water of combination ... 10-41 Potassium sulphate 2443 (equal potash 13-20) Calcium sulphate 313 Magnesium sulphate 13-83 Magnesium chloride H'54 Sodium chloride 29-59 Insoluble •86 10o-oo The double sulphate contains about 50 per cent. of potash. Most soils contain a good percentage of potash from t to 3-0 per cent. and will average about 2 per cent. Most of the sods that I have analysed in Western Australia cont un less than 1 per cent. and very few over 2 per cent. of potash. The soils in this country being lower than most other countries in potash, this should be taken into account when applving manure, and more especiallv where potatoes are grown and chaff sold off the farm, or otherwise the land willbecome too poorinpotashtoproducegoodcrop?. Potash is easily fixed in the soil, and various soils have different powers of retaining or fixing it. The clay soils have the greatest power, peaty soils less, and sandv soils the least. This fixing is accomplished by chemical double decomposition, whereby the soil forms insoluble compounds with potash. Professor Way found from 00003 *° 00031 per cent. of potash in drainage from arable land. Potash is not a manure that should be applied alone, but in conjunction with some other manure, such as superphosphates or farmyard manure, and will then give sur- prisingly large crops. The quantity generally used is from one to two cwt. of the sulphate of potash and five to seven cwt. of kainit per acre. 728 Lime, as applied to the soil, is in three different states :—Car- bonate of lime, a compound of lime and carbonic acid, such as limestone or chalk, and sometimes called mild lime. Also as burnt or caustic lime obtained by burning the carbonate to drive off the carbonic acid, and sometimes called quicklime. As gypsum, a compound of lime and sulphuric acid obtained as a by-product in several manufactures; having a manurial value differing from the carbonate and the caustic lime. The mechanical actions of the carbonate and the caustic lime are much the same, only the caustic is much quicker than the carbonate. Heavy or clayey soils when they get wet puddle and become sticky, so that they are difficult to handle. This puddling is owing to the particles of the soil being in a very fine state, and getting into what may be called a semi-state of suspension. The clay when it dries contracts and gets caked or packed, which makes it difficult to work. The effect of lime on such a soil is to precipitate or coagulate the fine particles of clay, something in the manner in which sewage is purified by lime, which causes the suspended solid matter to be precipitated and leaving the water clear. The soil is also made more open and pervious, thereby allowing the water to drain away. It also makes the soil more friable and easy to work. The lime does not contract when it gets dry, as the clay does, thus making the soil more porous, friable and easy to break up. Lime, while thus acting on clayey soils, curiously enough, has a reverse action on light sandy soils. It assists to bind the soil, making it more retentive of moisture and giving it a greater capacity for absorbing moisture from a depth by increasing its capillary power. When caustic or burnt lime is used, it should be first slacked by allowing it to absorb moisture or pouring wati r over it. Caustic lime is best for clayey and peaty soils and soils rich in organic matter. The rules are :— For heavy soils use caustic lime. For light soils use carbonate of lime. For soils rich in organic matter use caustic lime. For soils poor in organic matter use carbonate of lime. Chemical Action of Lime. Lime acts more powerfully chemically than mechanically. It acts directly as a plant food. It acts by liberating potash from its insoluble and inert compounds, and bringing it into a state fit for the plants to absorb. It also promotes the formation of hydrated double silicates, which fix or retain in the soil the ammonia and potash supplied by manure and in a state fit for the plants to absorb them. Soils rich in organic matter, such as peaty soil or rich meadows, generally give rise to an excessive amount of organic acids, which cause sourness in the soil and act as a poison upon plants. The herbage that grows on these is 729 generally coarse, and with very little value as a feeding stuff. The action of lime on tnese soils is to neutralise these organic acids and prevent their formation, to sweeten the soil and promote the growth of the fine and nutritive grasses and to kill the coarse scrub. It decomposes organic matter in the soil, bringing it into a more soluble state and fit for the plants to absorb. Biological Action of Lime. This is one of the most important actions in the soil of lime, which is one of the most active agents in the process of nitrifica- tion. Its presence enables the micro-organisms in the soil to decompose and convert the nitrogenous compounds into nitric acid, which combines with the lime, the lime holding the nitric acid in readiness for the use of the plants. I have already shown that aicidity stops the process of nitrification, and may even cause the reverse process of denitrification. I have also stated that too great an alkalinity will also stop nitrification, and care must be taken that not too great an alkalinity is created in the soil. In the case of over liming the best cure is farmyard manure. Gvpsum. This salt of lime acts much in the same way as lime. It de- composes the insoluble compounds of potash, setting them free and making them available to the plants. It absorbs and fixes ammonia in the soil. It promotes nitrification. When super- phosphates are used, the soil alwavs receives a certain amount of gypsum, as it is one of the largest component parts of superphos- phates. The crops that are most benefited by lime are the cereals, more especially barley, and clover, potatoes, turnips and mangolds. The quantity that it was usual to apply unde the old method of liming was from four to six tons per acre every 12 to 14 years. It is now, h >wever, considered more economical to apply one to two tons every three or four years. Lime should be lightly harrowed in. Special Manures. These will be best treated upon when specifying the manures for the different crops. Special manures should contain potash, phosphoric acid and nitrogen in some form. There are a great many special manures made and sold as such. Some of these, I am afraid, are onlv special in name, with very little speciality in their 'nature. There are certainly some special manures ihat are all it is professed for them, made by firms who not only make manures, but wish to make a name for themselves also ; while there are others, and those in large numbers, whose sole aim is how to make, and how to increase their profits at the expense of farmers. Why buy these special manures? The farmer who does so trusts blindly to what the manufacturer tells him, and throws over his own judgment. 73o The prices paid for these special manures are as a rule far beyond their agricultural value. The chemist by ordinary analysis is not able to help the farmer to discriminate between the valuable nitrogen in bones and the almost valueless nitrogen of leather. The manufacturer very often sells the manures through merchants who know nothing of the constitution of the manure and less of the requirements of the farmer, and the merchant's traveller will almost go as far in his praises of these manures as to declare that one can grow potatoes on a bare boulder of granite with only a dose of their extra-special potato manure. The farmer knows, or ought to know, more about h s land and its requirements than either the manufacturer or the merchant, then why should he not use that knowledge and buy the d-tterent substances he requires, and mix them as required. He i ,n have them analysed to see what theyeontain and that theyarewh.it they were sold to him for. He may, if he is unwise, take it for granted that their substances are as they are stated, but if he does the crop will not. Should the analvsis prove them to be different to wha- it was intended to purchase, the farmer should either refuse to take them, or insist upon reduction in the price, which no right-minded merchant will ever object to. I do n^t intendtorefer to any of these special preparations in detail, but will give the requiremen(s of the different crops as foun I by practical experience. The farmer can then, from his own knowledge of what his land requires, use his own discretion as to the class of manures he purchases. In order to show that the purchaser of artificial manures is fully protected against fraud on the part of the vendor, the Feed Stuffs and Fertilizers Act of Western Australia, with its regulations, is here introduced. A perusal of this will show that it is entirely the farmer's own fault if he is victimised. An Act to Regulate the Sale of Agricultural Fertilisers ash Feeding Stuffs. I Assented /i>, ntlt September. iSqy] BF. it enacted by the Queen's Most Excellent Maje-ty, by and with the advice and consent of the Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly of Western Australia, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows :— 1. (I.) F.very person who sells for use as a fertiliser of the soil any aiticle manufactured or found in the said Colony, or imported from abroad, shall sign and give to the purchaser an invoice slating the name of the article and whether it is an artificially compounded article Qr not. and what is at least the percentage of the nitrogen, sohrble and insoluble phosphates, and potash, if any, contained in the article ; and this invoice shall have effect as a warranty by the seller of the statements contained therein. (2.) For the purposes of this section an article shall he deemed to be manu- factured if it has been subjected in any artificial process. 73i 2. (1.) Every person who sells, for use as food for cattle, any article which has been artificially prepared, shall give to the purchaser an invoice stating the name of the article and whether it has been prepared from one substance or seed, or from more than one substance or seed, and this invoice shall have effect as a warranty by the seller of the statements contained therein. (2.) Where any article sold for use as food for cattle is sold under a name or description implying that it is prepared from any particular substance, or from two or more particular substances, or is the product of any particular seed, or of two or more particular seeds, and without any indication that it is mixed or compounded with any other substance or seed, there shall be an implied warranty by the seller that it is pure, that is to say, is prepared from that substance or those substances only, or is a product of that seed or those seeds only. (3.) On the sale of any article for use as food for cattle, there shall be implied a warranty by the seller that the article is suitable for feeding purposes. (4.) Any statement by the seller of the percentages of nutritive or other ingredients contained in any article sold for use as food for cattle, made after the commencement of this Act, in an invoice of such article, or in any circular or adver- tisement descriptive of such article, shall have effect as a warranty by the seller. 3. (I.) If any person w ho sells any article for use as a fertiliser of the soil or as food for cattle commits any of the following offences, namely :— (a.) Fails without reasonable excuse to give, on or before, or as soon as possible after the delivery of the article, the invoice required by this Act ; or (b.) Causes or permits any invoice or description of the article sold by him to be false in any material particular to the prejudice of the purchaser; or (c.) Sells for use as food for cattle any article which contains any ingredient deleterious to cattle, or to which has been added any ingredient worthless for feeding purposes and not disclosed ;tt the time of the sale: he shall, without prejudice to any civil liability, be liable, on summary conviction, for a first offence, to a fine not exceeding Twenty pounds, and for any subsequent offence to a fine not exceeding Fifty pounds. (2.} In any proceeding for an offence under this section it shall be no defence to allege that the buyer, having bought only (or analysis, was not prejudiced by the sale, or that the article sold, though deficient in one or more constituents, was not defective in other constituents. (3.) A person alleged to have committed an offence under this section in respect of an article sold by him shall be entitled to the same rights and remedies, civil or criminal, against the person from whom he bought the article as are available to the person to whom he sold the article, and anv damages recovered by him may, if the circumstances justify it, include the amount of any fine and costs paid by him on conviction under this section, and the costs of and incidental to his defence on such conviction. 4. The Governor may appoint an agricultural analyst (hereafter referred to as the analyst), and may, from lime to time repeal or alter regulations for carrying this Act into effect. Such regulations shall be published in the Government Gazette, and shall be laid before both Houses of Parliament within fourteen days after such publication, if Parliament be then sitting, and if Parliament be not then sitting, within fourteen days aftei its next meeting; and all such regulations, when so published, shall have the force of law, and shall continue in force, unless repealed as aforesaid, or disallowed by both Houses of Parliament. 6. Every seller and every buyer (if any article used for fertilising the soil or as food for cattle shall be entitled, on pavment to the analyst of a fee in accordance with the regulations, to have the article analysed by the analyst and to receive from him a certificate of the result of his analysis. The certificate of the analyst as regards fertilisers shall be in the form and contain the particulars mentioned in the Schedule hereto or as near thereto as circumstances permit. and every analyst shall report to the Minister as he directs the result of any analysis made by him in pursuance of this Act. 734 5. The buyer, on receiving delivery of any fertiliser or feeding stuff, and before otherwise breaking the bulk thereof, shall, in the presence of the analyst, a Justice of the Peace or a police constable, take three samples of the article and cause them to be marked with the date and place of sampling, the names of the persons present, the figures or trade mark on each package, sealed, and fastened up, and shall deliver or send by post (prepaid), one sample with the invoice or a copy thereof to the analyst, and shall deliver or send by post as aforesaid another sample to the seller, and retain the third sample for future comparison. 6. On the request of the buyer or seller of any fertiliser or feeding stuff, and on payment of the fee prescribed by Regulations Nos. I and 2, the analyst. ot some person appointed by him in that behalf, before or at the delivery of the article, shall take the samples on behalf of the buyer. L. LINDLEY-COWEN, 4th June, 1 896. Secretary, Bureau of Agriculture. Rotation of Crops. The best results from soil and manure are obtained by following some system of rotation of crops. The method of growing the same crop year after year on the same land tends to give weak crops, which are more liable to be attacked by insect and fungoid diseases. By using a system of rotation, the crops are more vigorous in their growth and are therefore better able to resist these attacks. The pests that attack one class of crops do not generally attack that of another. The pests attacking one class die out for the want of the nourishment they require before the time recurs for the crop upon which they thrive to be replanted in that soil. Again, a system of rotation economises manure. One class of crops require more of one kind of plant food than another. By varying the crops accord- ing to requirements of each, the best immediate ;md after results are obtained from the manure, and at the same time the soil is maintained in a fertile condition. Whatever system of rotation is followed will be dependent greatly on the soil and the climate. A rotation that suits well in one district does not necessarily suit so well in another. The laws of supply and demand for certain crops will also govern to a certain extent what is best to grow, for it is no use growing a crop that one cannot sell at a profit. M. Ville's system of manuring is so much quoted by different authorities that I think it will be best to give it in his own words, and then suggest such modifications of it as I think will be more suited to the requirements of this colony. This distinguished French chemist, as already stated, places a very low opinion on farmyard manure as a manure, and states distinctly that a soil can be maintained in a high state of fertility by the use of artifical manures only. In all his formulas he gives potash, phosphoric 735 acid, lime, an! nitrogen as the only substances which it is necessary to add to the soil, all the others being contained in the soil in sufficient quantities for the requirements of the crop. The following table gives the composition of the chemical manures according to Ville's formulae :— Normal Manure No. 1. For colza, hemp, wheat, b.trley, oats, rye, and meadow land, 528 lbs. per acre only. Strength per cent, in fer- tilizing matter. Per cent. Per acre. Nitrogen ... 65 Phosphoric acid 5 0 Amnionic sulphate ... Calcic sulphate Calcic superphosphate Potassic nitrate 2083 2917 lbs. 22C 308 Potash 8-o 3334 16-60 352 176 Lime ... •.• 17o 100 00 1056 Normal Homologous Manure No. ia. Used for the same purposes and in the same quantity as No. 1. Strength per cent, in fer- tilizing matters. Per cent. Per acre. lbs. Nitrogen ... 6-6 Phosphoric acid 5 00 Calcic superphosphate Potassic chloride at 800 0 Amnionic sulphate ... Calcic sulphate 3334 1066 352 176 Potash 833 3250 1750 343 185 Lime 1300 1 10o-oo 1056 1 Normal Manure No. 2. For cabbages, beetroots, carrots and garden stuff. Nitrogen ... 6-5 Phosphoric acid 5 00 Calcic superphosphate Potassic nitrate Sodic nitrate ... Calcic sulphate 3334 1666 352 176 264 264 Potash 8 00 2500 Lime 1500 25-00 1 1 10o-oo 1056 736 Normal Homologous Manure No. 2 a. Used for the same purpose and in the same quantity as No. 2. Nitrogen ... 6-5 Phosphoric acid 5'oo Potash 833 Lime ... ... 1400 Calcic superphosphate 33'33 Potassic chloride at 800 (. i6-66 Amnionic sulphate ... > n-66 Sodic nitrate ... ... 25-00 Calcic sulphate ... . 1335 35-' 176 1-'3 264 141 IOOOO 10;6 Normal Manure No. 3. For potatoes, tobacco, llax and vines. Nitrogen ... 4-00 Phosphoric acid 6 00 Potash 1400 Lime ... ... 10/00 Calcic superphosphate Potassic nitrate Calcic sulphate 40-00 30 00 30-00 35-' 264 264 IOO'OO 880 Normal Manure No. 4. For vines, tobacco, fruit trees and ornamental plants. Nitrogen 460 Calcic superphosphate 4000 528 Phosphoric acid 600 Potassic nitrate 3334 440 Potash 15'5 Calcic sulphate 26-66 35-' Lime 1700 IOO'OO 1320 Normal Manure No. 5. For maize, Jerusalem artichokes, sorghum, turnips, sugar-cane. Strength per cent, in fertilizing mutters. Per Cent. Per Acre Nitrogen ... 2-50 Phosphoric acid 7 5 Potash 800 Lime 2200 Calcic superphosphate Potassic nitrate Calcic sulphate 5000 1666 3334 lh>. 176 352 10000 105^ 738 Normal Stimulating Manure No. 2. Calcic superphosphate Potassic nitrate ... Sodic nitrate Calcic sulphate ... 1144 For potatoes he used normal manure No. 3, 880 lbs. per acre. With exhausted soil 1056 lbs. per acre of normal No. 2 should be used. Vines and fruit trees, he uses 1320 lbs. of normal, No. 4. Turnips, swedes, Jerusalem artichokes, sorghum, sugar-cane and maize, 1056 lbs. per acre of normal, No. 5. For beans, horse beans, haricot, clover, sainfoin, tares and lucerne, he uses 880 lbs. of incomplete manure, No. 6. For a rotation of crops for two years of colza and wheat. First year, 1056 lbs. of normal manure, No. 1. Second year, wheat, only ammonium sulphate, 264 lbs. per acre. A rotation of maize and wheat. For the first year maize gives 1056 lbs. per acre normal manure, No. 5. Second year, wheat, only ammonium sulphate, 264 lbs. per acre. With a rotation of four vears Potatoes, wheat, clover and wheat. First year, potatoes, 880 lbs. per acre of normal manure, No. 3. Second year, wheat, ammonium sulphate, 264 lbs. per acre. Third year, clover, 880 lbs. per acre of incomplete manure, No. 6. Fourth vear, wheat, ammonium sulphate, 264 lbs. Rotation for five years. Potatoes, wheat, clover, colza and wheat. First vear, potatoes, 880 lbs. of normal manure, No. 3. Second vear, wheat, 264 lbs. of ammonium sulphate. Third year, clover, 880 lbs. of incomplete manure, No. 6. Fourth year, colza, 352 lbs. of ammonium sulphate. Fifth year, wheat, 264 lbs. of ammonium sulphate. With the use of farmvard manure in a five-year rotation of potatoes, wheat, clover, wheat and oats, he uses the following mix- tures :—First year, potatoes, farmyard manure 44 tons per acre and 440 lbs of normal manure, No. 6. Second year, wheat, 176 lbs. of ammonium sulphate. Third year, clover, 880 lbs. of incomplete manure, N'o. 6. Fourth year, wheat, 176 lbs. of ammonium sul- phate. Fifth vear, oats, 244 lbs. of ammonium sulphate. It will be seen from the above that Ville has two standard elements in all his manures, that of superphosphate and sulphate of lirrife, and that they vary only in the nitrate of potash, chlotide of potash, nitr ite of soda and sulphate of ammonia. This is narrow- ing the manure elements, or sources of manure, down to an unnecessary limit to the exclusion of other valuable manures. It was seen From Drs. Liechti and Vogt's experiments that as good results were obtained from basic slag as that from superphosphates. 352 lbs. per acre 176 „ 396 220 „ 740 Normal Manure, No. 3. When kainit is used in place of sulphate of potash. lhs. per acre. Superphosphate of lime... 350 350 Sulphate of potash, 500n 176 Kainit ... 628 Nitrate of soda ... ... 235 235 761 1213 Normal Manure, No. 4. When kainit is used in place of sulphate of poiash. lbs, per acre. Superphosphate of lime... 528 Sulphate of potash, 50 0 „ 200 Nitrate of soda 350 538 Kainit ... 700 350 1078 1578 Normal Manure, No. 5. When kainit is used in place of sulphate of potash. lbs. per acre. Superphosphate of lime... 528 Sulphate of potash, 50 0 „ 140 Ammonium sulphate ... 112 528 Kainit ... 525 112 780 1165 Normal Manure, No. 6. When kainit is used in place of sulphate of potash. lbs. per acre. Superphosphate of lime... 350 Sulphate of potash, 50 0 „ 148 Ammonium sulphate ... 112 350 Kainit ... 148 112 610 987 In the above formuke I have taken out the chloride and nitrate of potash. In the first place, I consider the chloride of potash is not a desirable manure to use in this colony; and the nitrate of potash is too dear and does not give any better results than the nitrate of soda. When sulphate of ammonia is intended 74i to be used in place of nitrate of soda, a fifth less of the sulphate will be required. When nitrate of soda is to be used in place of sulphate of ammonia one fourth more will be required than of the sulphate. It must be remembered that the nitrate of soda is much dearer than sulphate of ammonia ; and that Pearson in Victoria obtained better results with the latter than the former, as it is better adapted to the soils and climate there, which will most probably be the case here.• When farmyard manure is used less quantities than those mentioned by Ville can be used. The quantities laid down must not be considered as hard and fast lines in any case, as one soil differs from another. A great deal also depends on the previous manuring and crop that has been taken off. The cereals generally require a rich nitrogenous manure. When wheat is grown in a rotation after roots or a leguminous crop, it is considered economical to have sufficient mineral manure left in the soil for the wheat from the previous crop, and only to supply a rich nitrogenous manure, such as sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda. In the case of a light soil it is also advisable to add some superphosphate or bone-meal, 2 cwt. of the former and 3 cwt. of the latter. Lawes and Gilbert have grown year after year wheat on the same land with the following mixture added annually :— Potassium sulphate ... 20olbs. Sodium sulphate ... 10olbs. Magnesium sulphate ... 10olbs. Superphosphates ... 3-^cwts. Ammonium sulphate ... 2oolbs. The yield per acre during the thirty-seventh season was 35} bushels and 40 cwts. of straw. Land continuously unmanured gave in the thirty-seventh season 11^ bushels and loj cwts. of straw. The following experiments were made by Lawes and Gilbert with wheat and different manures, and extending over a period of 40 years (1852-91). They show the difference between the mineral manure and the nitrogenous, and the mixture of mineral and nitrogenous. The mineral manure in itself gives very little over the unmanured land; the nitrogenous manures give a very decided increase, but the combination of the two gives a very large increase. * Since calculating out these formula■, I have been informed that several large deposits of gypsum are said to exist near the Midland and Yilgarn railways, and also in a smaller degree in the Swan district. The gypsum or calcic sulphate was omitted, as I did not know it could be obtained at a sufficiently low rate to allow of its being used as a manure. By adding the amount of calcic sulphate given in Ville's formula; to those I have calculated out, a more extended use of superphosphates can be employed on soils poor in lime. At present I have no knowledge of the purity of these deposits of gypsum, but there is every possibility that they are not pure, so it would be advisable to use at least 25 per cent, more than that stated by Ville. Wheat grown co'ftnuously wftth .illftncta. ftanures, falftyard ftanure afti untnaftilcd.—Average of folty years, 1R53-91:— Produce per acre -Average per annuft. Mineral manure, 3I cwt. supeuh.ph.e, 400 lb. of ammonium salts, 3^ cwt. super- 40f t lb. of ammonium salts every year since 3ft3 lb. nitr.e of soda Mixed mineral manure, 3^ cwt. of super- ph.ph.es aph 3ft3 lb. nitr.e of soda Mixed mineral manure, 3^ cwt. of super- Mixed mineral manure, 3^ cwt. of super- (1) Mixed mineral manure and 3^ cwt. of Unmanured .ntinuously Farmyard manure, 14 tons per annum since 40f t lb. of ammonium salts in autumn ... ph.ph.e 3-43 ph.ph.es aph ftf t lb. ammonium salts ph.ph.es aph 3. lb. ammonium salts supeuh.ph.es 3-43 Manure per acre per annuft. 33 - 32^ ft 3ft5 3«i ft^ 1f t 333 Hi bushl 1852-71. 20 years. 3a\ 33\ 3a 3 343 ™\ 3 \ 3i bushl. 1872-71 20 years, Quantity. 3ftA 33i 3ft-2 23\ 35f 36i 3±± 33 33 33 bushl. 1852-91. 40 vears. Dressed grain. -i ft1 3- 3&§ &l - -i 3-5 ftft ft lb. 1852 71, 20 years, Weftfiht per bushel. • ft 3- ft1 3ftft -ft ft ft - 6oj lb 1872-01. 20 vears -l 33 ftft 3ftft - -i -ft 3-^ 5-} ftJ lb. 18J2HJ1 40 years 3>i 3ft% 34I -| 4ri 4»l 34* i3 13 33 cwt. l«5*-7i #0 Years, Total straw. -| 3 16J 1-4 3fti 3aft 3a3 a\ -ft 3'ff cwt. IH72 91. ao vears, 3a? 23l 30^ 33i 3aft 4°£ 33 I3§ 3 oft 33ft cwt. 1852-01 40 vears. (i) By the terf t "ftftxed ftftneral ftanures "fts fteant a ftixture of ftineral fertftlisers not includftng phosphates. 743 Oats. Oats, like a 1 cereals, require a good supply of readily available nitrogenous manure. It is a shallow rooted crop, deriving all its food from near the surface. It is generally sown in spring in England, requiring a much shorter time for its growth than wheat. For these reasons it requires a more soluble and readily available manure than wheat. Farmyard manure is not considered a suitable manure for oats, as it is too slow and insoluble for the requirements of the qu ck growing crop. If it is intended to use farmyard manure for the crop it should be put in with the previous crop in sufficient quantities to leave plenty for the oat crop. Even then, to get any good results superphosphates or steamed bonedust with a :-oluble nitrogenous manure should be sown with the crop, and a top-dressing of either nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia after the crop is well through the ground. It is wonderful the results of the top-dressing with either of these nitrogenous manures on a backward crop. Lawes and Gilbert used the same manure in their experiments on the continuous growing of oats on the same land as they used for wheat, with the exception that they used 400 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia for the oat crop, and 2CO lbs. for the wheat. Stockhardt experimenting with oats found that they greedily absorb nitrogen during nearly the whole of the period of their growth, therefore sulphate of ammonia should prove the better manure than nitrate of soda. The experiments show how several top-dressings of the crop act beneficially. Barlev. Barley, like all cereals, requires a liberal supply of nitrogen, although it is scarcely so greedy in this respect as wheat and oats. It is in a great many respects like oats, and in England is generally sown in the spring. It is also a shallow rooted and quick growing crop, drawing its food from the surface soil, necessarily the manure used must be easily assimilated and within ready access of the roots, as they have to absorb all they require during a very short period of growth. The same remarks in reference to oats apply, also to barley, regarding th': unsuitableness of farmyard manure, which can only be profitably used under the same conditions. Greater care is required in the manuring of barley than oats, so that the distribution is equal all over the field, in order to obtain a uniform sample, more especially if it is int.nded for malting purposes. Lawes and Gilbert, for the continuous growth of barley on the same land, use the following mixture :t 275 1 s. of nitrate of soda 200 ,, sulphate of potash 100 lbs. of sulphate of so la 100 „ ,, magnesia 3^ cwt. of superphosphates. This produced in the twenty-ninth season, on the same plot of land, 744. a crop of 59g bushels of grain and 32 J cwts. of straw per acre. The land continuously unmanured for twenty-nine years gave only 18J bushels of grain and 9$ cwts. of straw. Cooke from his experiments recommends the use of 1 cwt. of nitrate of soda, 2 cwt. of superphosphate, and ^ to 1 cwt. ot sul- phate of potash; these quantities to be maintained or lowered according to the previous treatment of the soil. Professor Tanner, in his investigations in the growth and qualities of barley, found that for malting purposes, that grown with ammonium sulphate was much superior to that grown with nitrate of soda, so if the barley is meant for malting purposes the nitrate of soda in the above mixtures should be changed to 210 lbs. of sulphate of ammonia in the first, and 90 lbs. sulphate of ammonia in the second The barley grown with nitrate of soda was highest in albuminoids, con- sequently the best for feeding purposes. To grow barley for malt, use sulphatr of ammonia; to grow it for feeding, use nitrate of soda. Phosphates alone give very poor results, in fact no better than no manure, unless the soil is very rich in nitrogenous matter. Root Crops. Root crops demand a liberal supply of manure, which they use in large quantities. They require more manure than any other crop and give a larger proportionate return per acre than other crops. Phosphates may be said to be the prime essential manure for all root crops, but a general manure containing nitrogen and potash, as well as phosphates, must also be applied if a maximum crop is desired. The varieties of root crops differ somewhat from each other as to their actual requirements beyond phosphates. Potatoes require and assimilate a large amount of potash, while mangolds and beet roots are more greedy of nitrogen. The different reqirements of each variety should be attended to very closely in the manuring of root crops, as they are so liable to diseases, more especially in the early stages of their growth. By supplying proper nourishment they are more able to resist the attacks of the pests that are apt to prey upon them. Root crops are grown in a great many places entirely with farmyard manure, enormous quantities are scarcely profitable, as the root crops do not appear to be able to assimilate their food readily from farmyard manure. Some of the benefits thev derive from this manure appear to be of a mechanical rather than chemical nature, its action on the soil being more in the direction of keeping it open, creating warmth, retaining moisture. The best effects have been produced with not more than ten tons per acre of farmyard manure ploughed in some months before sowing, with an addition of mineral manures at the time of sowing. Turnips. Turnips have a peculiarity of absorbing a large amount of sulphuric acid, and this may account for the opinion held by some 747 Beans and Peas. Farmyard manure was at one time considered to be the necessary manure for peas and beans, and is still held by some to be the best manure for them. But it has been proven that they can be grown even more successfullv with artificial manures than farm- yard manure. The manure must have potash in it to be of any use. Phosphates and nitrogen, either singly or together, have very little effect on the crop when potash is absent. Gvpsum is said to have a good effect on them, but the only action it appears to have is to influence the decomposition of the insoluble compounds of potash, thus setting the potash free for the use of the crop. It will be found cheaper to add potash ready for the crop than adding gypsum to hasten the decomposition of combined potash. Beans and peas may be manured with success with the follow- ing mixture :—Eight to 10 tons of farmyard manure and 2 cwts. of superphosphates, or 4 cwts. of Thomas's phosphates, and 1 cwt. of sulphate of potash, or 2\ cwts. of kainit. If no farmyard manure is used, then 3 cwts. of superphosphates, 2 cwts. sulphate of potash, or 6 cwts. kainit and \ cwt. nitrate of soda, mixed with the phosphates and potash, but not to be used as a top-dressing. Clover may be treated with farmyard manure, or 6 cwt. of Thomas's phosphates and 2 cwt. sulphate of potash per acre. PoUDRE'lTE AS A MANURE. This manure is made from nightsoil by drying the collected excreta, either by itself or with the addition of some chemical. It contains sometimes as much as 2 per cent. of nitrogen, but more often not more than 1 per cent., about 3 per cent. of calcium phosphate and 15 per cent of potash. It s very seldom worth the price asked for it. Sometimes it is enriched by the addition of superphosphate. It is too bulky to allow it to be used except near to where it is made. Poudrette, made from earth-closets, Gilbert and Voelcker have shown to be of very little value. Sewage also is of very little value to the farmer. Sanitary authorities use it from a hvgenic point of view, irrespective of cost, rather than from an agricultural standpoint. It is very variable in its composition, being governed by the refuse from which it is made. Scott and Morton state that London sewage contains 3 lbs. of solid matter per ton, consisting of 1 lb. of organic matter containing nitrogen equal to 3 ozs. of-ammonia ; and 2 lbs. of mineral matter yielding \ oz. of phosphoric acid and 1^ ozs. of potash, equal to 5 ozs. of fertilizing matter. If this is valued at the same price per unit as an ammoniacal guano, it would be worth only 2d. per ton of sewage. One ton of guano contains as much fertilizing matter as 12c0 tons of sewage. Sir C. A. Cameron gives the value of Dublin sewage at per ton. If the sewage is passed on to land for 74« irrigation purposes the whole of the fertilizing matter is received into the land. If some of the precipitation methods are used to purify the sewage, the sludges obtained contain almost all the phosphoric acic", very little of the ammonia, and almost none of the potash. The late Prof. Way gives the following analyses of sewage before and after treating it with lime. It is evident very little can be expected from sewage-sludges, except from the phosphoric acid. Sewage irrigation farms have been most successful in growing grass and green fodders for feed- ing milch-cows, but both the milk and butter are liable to be tainted. Vegetables have also been grown successfully with sewage. In the buying of manures too much must not be taken for granted. It does not follow that because so-and-so used a particu- lar manure last year or the year before, and had a good crop by using so much of it per acre, that the same results will be secured on the land in another season. The farmer may have seen his neighbor's good crop which was obtained by using so many hundred pounds per acre of a particular manure, and he comes to the conclusion this is just what he wants to give him a good crop on his land. But he arrives at this conclusion without a proper knowledge of the constituents of the manure, as well as without knowing what is required by his soil for a particular crop. His neighbour's soil may contain a sufficiency of potash. The manure may contain little or none, but he gets a good crop, because the soil already contains all the potash required, and the manure con- tains all the other elements of food for that crop, while his neigh- bour's soil contained sufficient potash his might be deficient in this constituent, and no matter how much nitrogen and phosphoric acid he gives to the crop which requires a liberal supply of potash, the result will, in most cases, be little better than if he applied no manure. What he wants to know, when he has decided what he intends to grow, is, what is his land deficient in that the crop requires. This knowledge can be obtained by chemical analysis and also by the use of experimental plots. This latter method should be undertaken by all farmers so that they may know in what respects their soils are deficient, and thus be able to maintain them always in a fertile state. Further reference will be made to these experimental plots. The farmer is now supposed to know what his crop will require, and also the constituents of fertility his soil is deficient in. He must then see that the manure he proposes to buy Grains per gallon. Before. Afterwards. Phosphoric acid Potash Ammonia 2-63 45 366 380 748 7-50 749 contains all the plant food necessary for the crop and is in such a state that it can be easily assimilated by the crop. He should not accept the word of the vendor in too great faith, for the majority of the mer- chants who sell manures, though honest enough, know nothing about their composition themselves, and have to accept the statements of the manufacturers. The former should have the manure analysed, and find out definitely whether it does or does not contain all that is said to be in it. No merchant can object to have his merchandise analysed and give a guarantee of its composition. Very often the percentage is given from so much to so much, and one may safely reckon on the lowest percentage when calculating out the value. It is the experience of almost every agricultural chemist that there is scarcely any class of goods so much adulterated and sold under so much misrepresentation as manures. Supposing the manure does possess the good qualities claimed for it, are the different elements of plant food combined in sufficient quantities and in the best proportions? This should be ascertained before purchas- ing. What I have already stated in these pages I will reiterate: That unless one knows thoroughly what a compound manure is composed of, it is best to buy the different elements of food for the crops separately, and mix them on the farm; one has then some definite idea of what is going into the ground, and can expect a return from it. When one buys sulphate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, phosphates or potash salts, one should always obtain a guarantee of the percentages and have them analysed. It generally pays to do so. I have said that every farmer should find out what plant food his land has in sufficiency, and what it is deficient in. Chemical analysis will tell a great deal about the soil, but it will not tell all, as there are a great many things regarding the assimilation of the food by the plants that the chemist has not yet solved. By field experiments or analysis we can obtain the knowledge of what the soil is deficient in and what it has sufficient of. Every farmer should not only be able to analyse his land by field-plot experi- ments, but should make a point of doing it, and thus acquire the knowledge as to how to get his land into a complete fertile state, and then maintain it in that state. Until he does so, it is generally a process of plough, harrow, and guess. Guess stands for manuring. These field-plot experiments are conducted in the following manner :—In the field, whether rich or poor land, that is to be tested, a spot should be chosen as nearly level as can be found, with as uniform a depth and qualitv of soil as possible. The plots may be six in number, one-tenth of an acre each, with a small path dividing each, as shown in the sketch. At every corner of each plot a post is placed to mark the boundary. The plots are best square, but they may be parallelograms, but it is absolutely necessary they 75o i. should all be exactly of the same size. All the plots are to be ploughed in the one day, and also sown and manured on the same day. If we take, say, wheat as the test crop, each plot must be sown with the same quantity and same variety of wheat. No. i receives no manure; No. 2 receives one-tenth of what is required for an acre, of normal manure No. I ; No. 3 plot receives the same manure, with the nitrogen omitted ; No. 4 receives the same manure without the phosphates; No. 5 plot receives the same manure without the potash; No. 6 plot no manure. The crop from each plot should be gathered the same day, and the grain and straw weighed separately. This completes the analysis of the soil, and we have only to calculate the results from the figures obtained ; and to show how this is done we will take a series of experiments made by G. Ville, at Vincennes, on wheat, with the following results :— Crop per acre, bushels. No. 2 plot, normal manure ... 43 „ 3 ,, manure without nitrogen 14 „ 4 „ „ „ phosphates 26^ „ 5 „ „ „ potash ... 31 ,, 1 and 6 plots, no manure, averaged 12 The conclusions are evident. This soil requires, above all, nitrogenous matter, it is also insufficiently supplied with potash and phosphates of lime. From the above results we are in a position to say what quantity and class of manure is required for any given crop. But we have still another thing to consider, how to maintain the soil in a fertile condition, and to know when it is getting deficient in any of the plant foods. To accomplish this the amounts of phosphoric acid, potash, and nitrogen added in manure from the commencement of the year in which the test has been made, must be kept account of in a book for the purpose and for every succeeding year, thus, the amounts per acre, were, say :— 75i per acre. 176 lbs. superphosphate containing 20 0 „ phosphoric acid 352 lbs. 74 lbs. sulphate of potash containing 50 0 0 potash ... 37 0 lbs. 165 lbs sulphate of ammonia containing 20 0 0 nitrogen 35^0 lbs. Then, from the weight of the crops the amounts of these plant foods which are annually carried away can be calculated from the tables on pages 681 to 682. That carried away by the crops, subtracted from the amounts added in the manure, will leave either a plus or a minus quantity for each of the plant foods. Where a minus quantity occurrs it must be made good in the next year's manuring, and where a plus quantity occurs it can be credited to next year's manuring, thereby keeping a constant balance of plant food in the soil. It must be remembered that leguminous crops take little or no nitrogen from the soil, on the contrary, they generally enrich the soil with nitrogen. Anyone wishing to commence these tests and desiring fuller information on any point can have it on applving to the Secretary of the Bureau of Agriculture ; and after having conducted his experi- ments can, by sending the full data of the seeds and manures used, with the complete we ght of the crops removed, have the conclusions to be arrived at from the data sent, forwarded to them. The great aim of manuring is to produce a full crop by supplving food readily available to the plant. Once more I repeat it is more economical to manure the plant than the soil, giving in unstinted quantities where required; when the requirements of the soil are not known it is always best and cheapest to supply a complete manure containing phosphoric acid, potash and nitrogen, excepting the last in the case of leguminous crops. Manuring should be done with discretion, a judicious but not too large a supply of any of the elements of plant food that may be required must necessarily increase the profits of the farmer. Too heavy an application of manures does not produce sufficient increase in the crop to compensate for the extra cost, in some cases it may be actually injurious. In manuring it would be as well to remember :— 1. That wheat and oats require more nitrogen than rye and barley. 2. That a dry light soil requires more nitrogen and potash than a damp, heavy one. 3. That organic soils or those rich in humus, require more phosphoric acid and less nitrogen (nitrate) than soils poor in organic matter. 4. That if the previous crop was a nitrogen gatherer, that is, a leguminous crop, a less quantity of nitrogen is required for the next crop. 5. That if the previous crop was a nitrogen consumer, that is, cereals, potatoes, etc., a large quantity of nitrogenous manure is required to keep the soil in a fertile condition. 752 6. That seed drilled in requires more nitrogen than that sown broadcast. 7. That soil rich in lime requires more superphosphate than one poor in lime. I have been writing these pages for farmers who not only admit the necessity of manuring their land but actually do manure it. There are not, it is to be hoped for the credit of the colonies, any farmers who will deny the benefits to be derived from manuring ; vet there is, I am sorry to say, a large number who never give their land any manure but that derived from stocking. Cropping takes a large amount of the plant food from the soil, and this must be returned in some way or other if the soil is to maintain its fertility. Stock only enrich the land to less than the extent of what they take off it. The droppings do not necessarily return all that is taken from the soil. In the case of milch cows, for instance, a large amount of fertilizers is carried away in the milk, and fat stock also remove all that has been eaten into their systems to make up the flesh and bone. Within the last few days I have heard of a man who has followed the course of cultivation without manuring for forty years. His land now produces, when cropped, the remarkable amount of four bushels of wheat to the acre. Does it seem surprising that that man should be in pecuniary difficulties? It is scarcely worth while attempting to follow the reasons, or absolute want of them, of this ruinous method of farming. The excuse a great many farmers make is that they are going to take one more crop and then manure the next, but the next never appears to be any better treated. These are the men who rail most about farming being unprofitable, the bad markets, bad government and bad seasons. Sometimes they will tell one all they need is a good shower of rain in order to secure a good crop. This reminds me very much of a gentleman farmer in Scotland who was too mean to pay for manure. His land got so poor that he thought it advisable to sell the estate. A certain wealthy Scotch iron manufacturer, who had been brought up on a farm in his young days, went to see the estate with the view of buying it. After examining the land the following colloquy took place between Mr. Ironmaster and Mr. Want-to-sell-an-estate:— Mr.- Ironmaster: "Your land seems to be very barren." Mr. Want-to-sell-an-estate : " Not at all sir, not at all; it only wants a good shower of rain to make everything spring up and show that it is exceedingly fertile." Mr. Ironmaster : '' What is that you say, a shower of rain, did you say! a shower of dung would do it more good." PAGE. PAGE. Infection, sources of - - 789 Keep a stack of silage - 780 Kerry and Dexter kerries - 776 Kinds of dairying - - 773 Laving out the dairy farm - 764 Live stock on the farm - 772 Loss in churning - - 803 Making cheese - - 814 Making the silage - - 786 Material in churns - - 804 Merit and uniformity of butter - 762 Method of weighting the stack - 787 Methods, old and new - 760 Milk, composition - - 788 „ constituents - • 788 „ cooler - - 701 „ and cream - - 788 „ records ,- - 774 „ specific gravity - - 792 „ tainted by ensilage - 784 Milking, cleanliness, etc. - 794 Necessity of artificial feed - 769 New methods of dairying - 762 Notable qualities of Channel Island cattle - - 775 Old and new methods - 760 Operation of milking - - 794 Packing butter - - 811 Percentage of cream for churn- ing - - 696 Pit for silage, advantages of - 786 Plant for cheese making - 814 Pressing the cheese - 816, 818 Printing butter - - 811 Process of butter working - 807 Quality of milk and food - 779 Rate to churn - - 805 Records of milk yields - 774 Rennet and its uses - - 814 Ripeness of cream, test for - 817 Roofing the dairy building - 768 Salt for use on the farm - 782 Salting butter - - 808 the curd - 815,818 Scalding the milk - - 796 Seasons and feeding - - 780 Separator in the dairy - 704 Silage always a standby - 787 crops suitable for - 7S4 „ making - - 7S-6 ,, and milk taint - - 784 „ ration - - 785 ., in stacks - - 786 „ weight of - - 787 Silo, its benefits - - 707 Simple test for ripeness of cream 817 Sources of infection - - 7«q Specific gravity of milk - 792 Speed of churn - - 805 Stacks for silage - - 786 Stage of ripeness for cream - 795 Supply of water - - 771 Tainted butter, probable cause - 761 Temperature of cream - 761 of curing room - 816 ,, required to scald milk Testing curd 11 milk Thermometer, use of, essential - Treatment of butter in churn - „ of new cheese ,, of new milk Types of butter worker Underground dairy - Uniformity and merit of butter Use of silage Use the thermometer - Various breeds and their charac- teristics Washing the butter Water supply essential When to stop churning Weight of silage Weighting the stack - Working butter - 761 Ventilation in the dairy Yield of Holstein-Fresian cattle 796 815, 818 792 7<>; Sin 7"! >os 7 DAIRYING. Bv Alex. Crawford, (Consulting Dairy Expert to the Bureau of Agriculture.) INTRODUCTION. Western Australia there is probably no branch of agricultural industry offering so good an open- ing to the investment of capital, nor one promising such immediate success, as dairying. At the present time, and for some years to come, the bulk of the butter consumed here comes, and will come, from the Eastern colonies; but before it can reach here and be put on the retail market it has to undergo the many vicissi- tudes of climate and carriage, and is generally three weeks old at the least. By this time the delicate aromatic flavor so desirable in fresh butter is nearly always gone, and although the butter may be sound and sweet, it is almost flavorless and fails to tempt the appetite in the way that freshly made butter does. The result is that really first class dairy butter made in the colony commands almost double the price that the imported article brings, and the demand is far beyond the supply, and still growing. At the present time there are very few dairy farms in Western Australia, and still fewer where really good butter is made. This is not the fault of either the climate, the land, or the cattle. In many districts of the colony no one need ask nor seek for better soil to 754 dairy on, and the terms upon which the land can be obtained from the Government are such that a very small capital indeed is required to secure an area large enough to keep in comfort a family able and willing to work, and not only in comfort, but allowing a fair sum to be put by each year for a rainy day. Probably in no r.ther part of the world at the present time can an independence be secured with less capital and less hard work in agricultural pursuits than in Western Australia. While the goldfields are attracting thousands from far and near, and the influx of people continues in a steadv flood, it is to be feared that many are forsaking the solid substance when thev set their faces towards the great gold-centres eastwards, only to grasp at the shadow, leaving a competence and the fertile districts of the south-west behind to still await the plough of the husbandman and the cheering sound of happy and successful industry The Government of Western Australia, being fully alive to the fact that the small farmers are the back-bone of a country, is offering induce- ments sufficient to tempt settlers from all parts of the world. Under the Homesteads Act of 1893 any person who is the head of a family, or a male over 18 years of age, and who does not already hold over one hundred acres of land, may apply for a free grant of land on simple conditions, which are briefly :— That after the application for the land has been approved he shall, within six months, take personal possession of the land, and reside upon it for at least six months out of each year for the first five years. This opens up a prospect to the working man such as can be had nowhere else in Australia. For six months in the year he can go—say at harvest and shearing or ploughing time—and earn money sufficient to keep himself and family in actual necessities that cannot be raised on the farm, while the other six months can be spent in improving the farm and preparing it for crops or pasture. 755 On his holding the farmer can have his home and family, who, while he is away, can keep the household going by rearing pigs, poultry and bees, and by cultivating a small garden that will grow vegetables sufficient for themselves, and if there is any surplus it can be sold or fed to the poultry and pigs. If money is available to purchase a cow or two, the returns will probably be at least £10 a year from each cow, and in a climate like this the necessities outside those which can be raised on the farm are few, and will require a very small outlay of ready money. That the first condition is not meant to be oppressive is found by the land not being forfeited if the residential clause is not complied with in case of sickness or other valid reason. The next condition is that within two years a habitable house of not less value than ^30 be erected, or .£30 value be expended in clearing or cropping. This does not mean that ^30 cash must be laid out, but improvements worth that amount must be effected, which can be done by the owner's own labour. Or two acres of orchard or vineyard, properly prepared and planted, can be substituted. Within five years one- fourth of the land must be substantially fenced, and one-eighth cleared and cropped. At the end of seven years, if the conditions are fulfilled, a Crown grant may be obtained on payment of the Survey and Crown grant fees, which in most instances would not exceed £7 7s. If it is desired to obtain the freehold of the land earlier, this can be done after twelve months residence, putting on all the required improvements, and paying five shillings per acre in addition to the fees already mentioned. In what is known as the south-western portion of the colony certain areas have been selected that are suitable for homestead farms, the quality of the soils and the rainfall having been taken into consideration. But if dairying is the object in view, the areas to the south and south-east of Perth are the most suitable. Here they are nearly all within a reasonable dis- tance of the railway, the soil is rich, water is easily obtained, and the rainfall is good. 758 of the land here is taken up, being very fertile and especially well watered. About 18 or 20 miles distant is the Boyanup area, on which there is a large proportion of really good land. It is situated on the line of railway running between Bunbury and Donnybrook, and about 12 miles distant from the former. Much of the land here is admirably adapted for dairying. The Preston agricultural area is distant about 25 miles from Bunbury, and not far from Donnybrook railway station. Much of this area is first-class land, consisting of deep alluvial deposits, and water is easily obtainable. The flats are well adapted for lucerne growing or intense cultivation. The best of the land is rather heavily timbered, and it is worth up to ten pounds per acre to clear the densest of it. There are many creeks and small rivers running through it, and in many places irrigation could be carried out at a very little outlay. The rainfall is over 30 inches per annum. The Tweed agricultural area, although the most distant from Perth, is perhaps the most suitable for dairying. It is about 35 miles from Donnybrook and close to the town of Bridgetown, on the Blackwood river. The railway is now being constructed close to it. The physical features are quite distinct from any of the others already mentioned, the country being very undulating, and consisting of in some places rich chocolate soil, and in others of ironstone gravelly soil. The timber in places is very hea%y. The rainfall is over 30 inches and in places almost 40 inches per annum. The cost of clearing is considerable, but as a cheese and butter district it is scarcely to be surpassed in the colony, and will be a very important agricultural centre shortly after the rail- way is completed. Water in most places is obtainable at from 60 to 100 feet. There are many more agricultural areas, all, as well as those I have alluded to briefly, fully described in Part I. of the Guide, but most of them are more adapted for cereal, or fruit or wine growing, than for dairying, being in warmer districts, with a much smaller rainfall. In various districts many kinds of poison bushes are found, buthoon the areas mentioned little or none grows. When speaking 759 of dairying it is taken as including poultry and pig rearing, so as to get the best returns from the waste products, and in order to give some idea of the profits that may be obtained in these lines, the following are the wholesale quotations for dairy produce at the date of writing, January, 1898 :— Bacon, 10d. to is. per lb. ; rolls, is. ; flitches, 10£d.; hams, is. to is 2d. ; butter, in bulk, is. 2d., in half pounds, is. 4d. to is. 7&. if the brand is favourably known; cheese, c;d. to o^d. ; eggs, 2s. 6d. to 2s. 9d. per doz. ; fowls, 6.. 6d. to 7s. 6d. per pair; ducks, 7s. to 8s. per pair; turkeys, 14s. to 25s. per couple. From the foregoing it will be seen that there is a large margin for profit, and that the rearing and selling of a few pigs and poultry alone would keep the household expenses going. CHAPTER I. OLD AND NEW METHODS. The dairying industry within the past seven years has advanced from being a comparatively small and insignificant branch of farm work to a position of importance second to none in the eastern colonies, not only on account of the amount of money that it brings in, but also because of the quickness of the returns. Monthly accounts are the general rule, but among some farmers, who make their own butter instead of sending their milk to the creamery or factory, the terms are cash weekly from the agents. In fact, until of late years dairying was looked down upon, at least by the male portion of the community, and if any of them were asked about how the cows were milking, the reply would be, "Ask the old woman! She attends to the butter-making.' On their part, the women folk were not slow to recognise, to a certain extent, the advantages of this state of affairs, and they claimed as their perquisite the money obtained from the sale of the dairy produce. When the factory system came to be introduced, this was one of the principal objections that was urged against it by the women—that they would not get money then as in the past, and in many cases it was hard work to overcome it. It was not difficult to show that under the new method of working women were the most benefitted by the change, and we would ask to day : What is the position of a woman who attends to a moderate-sized dairy, run on the old-fashioned lines? With many it is a drudgery that few of the negroes in the old slave days were subjected to. It may seem a simple matter to attend to a dairy under the old system, to those who have never tried it, but the work is not only much of it hard, but it is continuous, com- mencing early in the morning and continuing on until often all hours of the night. The following is about the routine :—Up early in the morning milking, when that is over, straining and setting the milk, then washing and scalding all the milking utensils. After breakfast, skimming the dishes, then feeding the calves with skim milk, again washing and scalding dishes—no mere "wipe round," as every good dairy woman knows, but a thorough good scrubbing. Then comes the churn, washing it out, scalding and cooling it ; then the churning, in the cold weather keeping at it hour after hour, and the butter will not break, or in the hot weather the cream swells up and fills the churn with froth, and when the butter does come it is so soft and oily that the buttermilk cannot be worked out of it, and it has to be put away to harden, which means getting up next morning perhaps about three or four o'clock to salt it and get it printed in time to send to market. 762 detected. Again, unless a proper place has been built for keeping the milk or cream the probabilities are that taints of many kinds will be absorbed by the cream while waiting for churning; while at the factory suitable arrangements are made for the care of the cream from the time it comes in to the factory until it is packed ready for the market in the form of butter. Much discussion has arisen at times as to the comparative merit of first-class home-made butter and first-class factory. All things considered, the home-made butter will probably satisfy the taste of a connoisseur better than the factory, for the reason that more delicate flavors are to be found in it at times. All the cattle supplying milk on the farm are probably grazing on the same pasture, and if it be rich in clover or particular kinds of grasses which give a flavor to butter, it will be much more distinct than where the milk is mixed up with that of other cattle that are on different pastures. But however the home-made butter may at times surpass the factorv, it can never compete with it for regular and uniform quality. Under the old system a considerable amount of skill was required to make passable butter, and as no rules were laid down that people could go by, every one was a law unto him or herself, and this deterred very many trom going into dairying, not knowing how to make good butter, and not having the means of learning at their disposal. A considerable amount of expense is required under the home system, as it is not much use trying to make good butter without having a convenient dairy and the requisite dairy utensils. But here comes in the great advantage of the modern method. Anyone with ordinary common sense can start dairying with a fair chance uf doing well at it. The milking is perhaps the hardest work attached to it, and even that after some practice becomes comparatively easy. With a factory near at hand, all the dairy work can be done with a few milk tins and milking buckets. Many persons who have been brought up in the towns, and who have longed to go out into the country, have been deterred therefrom on account of not knowing anything about farming. If they can onlv secure a piece of fairly good grass country they need not fear to commence dairying with a few cows, and as they gain experience with the few they can be improving their land and increasing their herds at the same time, and feel assured of at least a good living and a healthv life. It opens up the way for those to go on to the land who could never have done so before, because with a few cows to start with they have an assured income that will keep the house going, while it leaves time for them to improve their land or grow other crops, the returns of which will be so much clear profit. In the other colonies to-day there are hundreds on the land doing well notwithstanding the bad times—the agricultural depression and low prices—who, were it not for dairying, would to-day be simply CHAPTER II. LAYING OUT THE DAIRY FARM. The ultimate success of dairy work will depend to a great extent on the farm and how it is laid out, the soil, the rainfall and the water supply. It is quite possible to make a living on a poor farm badly attended to, but every dairy farmer wants to make something more than a mere existence. There is an old saying, and a very true one, " Poor land makes poor farmers," and it keeps them poor too. If a person can afford it, it is better to pay a fair price for good land than get bad land for nothing. It is most discouraging for the worker on a poor farm to see his neighbour, who does not work nearly so hard as he does, always having better crops, his cattle always in better condition, and the whole family in better circumstances. Of course, there will alwavs be some farms that are better than others, but while land is so plentiful and cheap there is really no excuse for a man going on bad land when there is so much good available at the present time. Those who are intending to settle on the land should not be in too great a hurry to do so without having a good look round to see which are the best districts. If dairying is to be the sole or main industry, secure land in a district with a good rainfall and as temperate a climate as possible, with good natural water, if available, and good drainage. If a good flat or two can be secured, so much the better. The advantage of this will be felt in growing summer fodder. The farm should be undulating, but the hills not too steep. Although a temperate climate is the best adapted for dairying, if the factory system is at work it will not matter mtich if it is rather on the warmer side, provided the rainfall is good and there is plenty of water available. Some of the most successful dairies are in hot districts, where water is plentiful and green feed is grown all the summer through by means of irrigation. The soils in this colonv differ so much from those of the eastern colonies that a new-comer is apt to judge by appearances, and neglect land that is sandy and think it is valueless. Anyone who has not actually seen the results obtained from some of the sandy l^ams here could not credit the amount of crop that is grown upon them. Make inquiries from those who have been in thedistrict fora consider- able time as to what the capabilities of the land are. When a farm has been secured and the improvements been gone on with, do not ring all the timber. Leave some growing here and there for shelter as well as for appearance. It is often said that stock do not need any shelter in this or that district. They may do well runnmg 765 about without it, but they will do much better with it and amply repay any attention in this direction. Milch cows require shelter from the heat of the summer's sun and from the cold, bleak winds of winter, and they should never be put into a paddock that is not provided with it. If the trees are such as do not afford a good protection, plant some quick growing ones in clumps that will. In commencing dairying, attention should be given as to the means of getting milk to a creamery or cream to a factory. It is not much use starting to dairy if the farm is so far away, or the roads so bad that it is impossible to send the cream either to the railway station or butter factory, unless the farmer is prepared to invest a fair amount of capital in dairy appliances. If the dairy is a large one, it will pay well to do that, especially if cheese-making is gone in for. Where it is possible, it is well to have the milking yards nearly in the centre of the farm, so that all the paddocks may be available for the cattle with as little exertion as possible. Above all things, if you wish to live at peace with your neigh- bours, see that your fences are thoroughly sound; even if they cost you a little more to put up, the money is well spent, and will be repaid to ynu a hundredfold in days to come. Do not go in for large paddocks, as cattle like a change of pasture frequently and do much better if they are moved from paddock to paddock without being kept in one until every- thing is eaten out of it. If the cattle are treated thus they will fall off in their milk, and although it may increase again when they are put on better feed, still they will never do as well as if they had not been allowed to fall away. More feeding value will be obtained from the small paddocks when they are not allowed to be eaten down too close and the cattle are continually walking over them. The various grasses that come in at different periods of the year will have a chance of coming forward and providing food that would otherwise have been nipped off at the start. Land treated in this fashion will carry nearly half has much more stock as it would in large paddocks. Try and arrange that your yards shall be on the slope of a hill, so that they may be well drained and all surface moisture be readily got away. If there are any large trees growing on the proposed site, if they can be used for shelter from the sun, by all means let them remain. The difference in the behaviour of cattle in the summer time in a sheltered yard and one without it, needs only to be seen to be appreciated. In the one where shade is available the cows may be seen contentedly either standing or lying down chew- ing their cud; in the other, exposed to the sun's rays, they are restless, whisking their tails about, tossing their heads, and every now and again rushing one another, and all the time uneasy and out of temper, which means that when they come to be milked the milkers will get of temper also, to the great loss of the dairyman. 766 Have the milking bails well under cover, so that when being milked the cows may be protected from the weather, and if possible have the milking sheds darkened, then in the summer the flies will not be nearly so troublesome, and thus save much irritation to both man and beast. See that the bails are securely erected, so that when young cattle are being broken in they may not break away and thus give more trouble afterwards. In fact, let everything about your farm that cattle have anything to do with be substantial and solid. Do not encourage your cattle in bad habits, they learn them soon and easily enough. For instance, do not put a crop for fodder in with only an apology for a fence round it. Some of the cows will soon see that if the fence is not ornamental, neither is it useful, and will fmd a weak spot and get through. If one gets in others will soon follow, and when they are discovered there will be the usual shouting and chasing and the cattle rushing through the fence without looking for the place they came in. Much damage will probably be done to the crop, the cattle be worried and excited, and worse still, they know the fence is weak and whenever they are near there again they will break in. Nor is this the worst feature, they have learned to break fences and they will break down or through fairly good fences by keeping at it, pushing and pulling with their horns until something gives way. Many cows, old in the knowledge of fences, will walk round one ana pick the weakest parts with as much certainty as a man would. If the fences are good, so that stock cannot get through them, they will soon cease to try, and much petty annoyance will be saved. I wish to speak strongly on this subject of substantial fences, for only those who have kept quiet milch cows, or have lived among neighbours who do, can have any idea of the amount of ill-feeling they continue to create among neighbours who would otherwise be on most friendly terms. An outlay of a tew pounds, or a few davs' extra work at the beginning, would have saved the trouble. In a country like this, one may think it docs not matter much, as the feed outside is not much better than the feed inside. Quite true at present, but it will not be always so. The agricultural people have scarcely awakened in many districts yet to the possibilities around them; but this will not long continue, and where only native grasses and scrub are now growing, in a few years or less will be cultivated land, and the good fences will be needed then, and remember that once a fence is up, if it is not the right kind, there is but a small likelihood of its ever being made right until a new one is needed in its place through its days of usefulness having expired, and this may only be expected about once in a lifetime. Do not use slip-rails; lazy people coming into a paddock are apt to leave them down or not put all of them up, or put them up carelessly, and cattle soon learn how to take them down themselves. Of course they can be made fast—pegged or locked—but as boys are often CHAPTER III. DAIRY BUILDINGS. Owing to the scattered population in the farming districts of this colony, for some years to come most of the milk will be separated on the farm, and either the cream churned there or sent to a factory. This being so, it will be necessary to have a dairy of some kind to keep the cream in, and the cooler the dairy can be kept in summer the better will be the result in making the butter. Many expensive plans have been recommended, but none I have seen answer better than those I will describe, and the buildings are cheap and easily constructed. One kind is built above ground of either weather-boards, slabs, stone or sun-dried bricks. A verv convenient size for the produce of a small herd is 12 feet by 12 feet, which leaves plenty of room to store the cream and move about. The walls eight feet high, and the roof should have a good pitch, the length of the rafters being, say, three-fourths the width of the building. The dairy should be ceiled with tongued and grooved soft wood if available, if not, hard wood can be used, but it should be lined with calico to prevent dust dropping down. In both gables, above the ceiling, there should be louvre windows or shutters that can be opened or shut at will, so that after a hot day, if a cool breeze comes at night, the cool air may be allowed to circulate over the ceiling. In the dairy there should be two windows, and these lined with wire gauze to keep out insects. If the windows are hinged, so much the better, as when required to be opened they will allow the greater draught. The windows should be of such a size as will allow the light to get in and keep the dairy bright and cheery. Sunlight is a splendid disinfectant, and no dairy should be kept dark. Another reason for having the dairy bright is, that dirt and all kinds of offensive matter may be seen at once. If the dairy is dark it will rarely be kept as clean as it ought to be. The floor, where possible, should be of stone, concrete or bricks, with a fall in one direction, so that it may be thoroughly washed and easily dried. A small gutter running along the low side with an exit through the wall will be found to answer well, as then plenty of water can be used and get away freely. The roof should be of shingles, or if they are not available and good bark can be obtained, it will answer the purpose. A verandah all round the dairy will add much towards keeping it cool. A building erected as above would not of itself keep cool in the hot weather, but to obtain that result quick growing creeping plants should be planted all around and trained right up over the 769 roof. Amongst those that may be used are dolichus and lacsonia cvoniensis. The common passion vine (passifiora edulis) may be grown with other creepers, and will give good returns from its fruit, bearing heavily after the first season. Once the creepers cover the dairy right over, it will keep cool even in the hottest weather. The other kind of dairy is one that is either under ground 01 partly so. An economical one is made by excavating, say, to a depth of four feet and putting a wall four feet high above that, the earth that is taken out being packed up against the walls nearly level with the top. The eaves of the roof should be carried at least a foot below the wall plate. The roof should be made as described in the first-mentioned. If the ground is such that it is difficult to get a drain from the floor of the dairy, a hole, say a foot or 18 inches square and 1 foot deep, should be made at the lower corner, so that all the washing water may run there, when it can be taken out and carried away. A concrete or brick floor will be the best for this. Creepers should be grown over the roof of this dairy ; also, when- ever it is at all possible, water should be laid on to the dairy. The dairv should always be at a considerable distance from the milking-yard, or any other place that gives off unpleasant smells. It should not be near the fowl-house or stable, neither should the fowls, pigs, or calves be allowed about the building. If a separator is used it should never be worked in the dairy during the summer, afor the separator gives off a continual current of heated air. A separate building, or part of the dairy verandah, may be used for separating, and the cream cooled before taking it into the dairy. On large dairv farms a little forethought in laying out the milking yards and dairy may save a great deal of labor, such as arranging that the milk may run from the milking yards by gravitation to the separator, and from there again to the calf pens or pig troughs. If dairying is to be carried on successfully it will be necessary in most districts that a supply of artificial feed should be produced for both winter and summer use. Green feed, such as maize, sorghum, etc., may be used with advantage in the summer, but in the winter, when the weather is cold and bleak, the cattle will require something not so cold and watery as these, and nothing answers better than good ensilage, fresh from the pit or stack, for it is not only appetising but warm, and cattle milk well on it in winter. To have this always available it will be necessary to cultivate to a certain extent, and for this purpose some of the best land should be set apart. After the first few crops are taken off the best of land it will begin to need manure, for it is the height of folly to cultivate two acres of land if the same quantity of produce can be obtained from one; and yet this is being constantly done. Year after year the same land is cultivated and nothing put into it to compensate for all that 770 has been taken away, consequently new land has to be cleared and broken up so as to obtain the same amount of forage; and peopl: complain about the land and grumble because it is not like what it used to be. [Part V. of the Settler's Guide is devoted to the manuring of lands, and those who contemplate dairying in the most profitable manner cannot do better than thoroughlv study this part.] Manure the land heavily, and do not be afraid to demand big returns. Take two, three, or even four crops off the land in the year. It can be done if you look after it well. Wherever possible sow all crops in drills, s<> that the land between the drills may be cultivated and kept stirred and open as long as may be without damage to the growing crops. Keep the weeds down and the soil loose and open, and even in a dry season fair crops mav be looked for, and not in vain. What is wanted is not large areas of poor land under cultivation, but small areas of rich land, and if not naturally rich, made rich—thoroughly well cultivated and forced to yield heavy crops. A dairy farmer has other work to do than to spend half his time in ploughing and working poor land. It is a waste of time, so much extra work on the horses, so much extra wear and tear on the implements, and the results unsatisfactory. If you think it is not possible, try one acre, or even half an acre. You can get in, say, barley or rape early and have one good cutting, probablv two, then a crop of turnips r>r peas, and then maize, or sorghum, in the one twelve months, and see what returns you get from it as compared with the other land in proportion to the time and labor expended on it. One fair trial will convince you that there is money in it. As to the matter of what crops should be grown and how they should be treated, I will not go into that now, but will deal with it later on. As to the permanent pastures in some parts of this colony, many of the better class of English grasses might be grown with great advantage instead of couch grass, which, in nearly all other parts of Australia, is looke 1 upon as little better than a weed, and steps taken to eradicate it and stop it spreading. Of course, the grasses that are suitable to one district are often not suitable to other districts, and experiments will have to be made. These experi- ments will be of the greatest value to the agriculturist and dairy farmer, as he will then have reliable information to go upon and save himself years of fruitless endeavour. In districts where there are good native grasses it would be well worth the time and labor to gather the seeds of the best of them, sow in pots and then cut for seed to be sown on the farm. Many of these grasses stand our climate much better than any of the so-called artificial grasses will, and not only so, but in the other colonies some of the best flavored and best keeping butter comes off the pastures where the cattle are fed entirely on native grasses. With a very little trouble in a couple of years enough seed could be saved to sow a number of acres, and would amply repay the small expense. 77i As before mentioned, a good water supply is essential for dairying successfully, and so far as I have seen this is to be found principally in the hilly country. Most of the hilly country is fairly heavily timbered and has a good rainfall, but would not pay to clear, and in its present state does not grow much grass suitable for pasture for cattle. Judging from my experience in other countries, I should say that if most of the timber was rung and all the scrub cut and burnt, and on top of the burnt ground cocksfoot and English rye grasses with clover were sown, in a very short time, if not too heavily stocked, there would be a magnificent pasture where the rainfall is adequate. On some of the loamy hill sides where the rainfall is 40 inches or over, other grasses might be used, such as meadow foxtail, prairie, timothy, and both white and red clovers. The first year the grasses should not be allowed to seed, but cattle should not be put on them until they have a firm root in the ground. In obtaining grass seeds, farmers should be careful to see that they are reliable. Poor seed is dear at any price. On rich fiats that are not wanted for cultivation lucerne and prairie grass may be grown to advantage. When lucerne is sown it should always be sown in drills and kept cultivated between the rows until it is well up. On no account sow Italian rye grass, as it is not perennial, and will probably not be seen after the first season. When sowing grasses a very calm day should be chosen. When laving out the dairy farm, fence off a piece of the best land you have and sow the grasses that will thrive best in it, and reserve this for your calves and never overstock it. A good paddock for calves will be a wonderful help to them, and even when milk is scarce they will often thrive well in it. See that there is good, warm shelter in it for winter and good shade for summer. 775 to impress upon each and all is, to use only pure bred bulls in their herds, and see that the bull is from a good milking strain, even if one has to give a seemingly big price for him. His cost will be nothing compared to the herd when the heifers begin to come in. Let no one think when he commences dairying that he can go and buy a good dairy herd right off. It may happen that a fair herd can be purchased at a bona-fidc clearing sale, but that is only a chance in a lifetime. The probabilities are that if you are a fair judge of cattle about one out of every four you buv will be fit to keep and rear calves from. The only sure way to get together a really good herd is to breed it. You will have to buy the best you can yet to start with, then pick out your cows according to how they turn out, and have the heifer calves from the best, and making sure the bull is from a milking strain and pure bred. By doing this, in a few years you can get together a really good herd, and, bv judicious culling, every year it wili be improving and th»: average yield graduallv rising. The best investment that can be made for the dairy farm is a good bull. Even with poor cows to start with, no man need despair of getting a fair herd together if he can -only obtain a milking strain on the sire's side. It is then only a matter of time and careful selection. The Channel Islands Cattle. Of these we have thn. e sub-varieties, viz.,the Jerseys, Guernseys, and Alderneys; but they are often indiscriminately spoken of, and in many shows are all shown under the name of Alderney. There is a difference in them, more as regards colour in the case of Jerseys and Alderneys, as in size and form they are the same, but the Guernsey is a larger framed beast, and coarser in all its points, and is seldom self-coloured, being generally fawn coloured, or yellow, with patches of white. They get the credit of being heavier milkers than the others, the mik being equally rich. They are not often found outside the Island of (in2rnsey at present, as mostly all breeders have gone in for the more graceful types found in the other islands. For a great number of y\ ars these cattle have been noted for the richness of their milk and the fine quality of their butter, and have been particular favorites for families keeping a cow for their own use, not only for their milking qualities, but also on account of their quiet habits and h indsome appearance. It is a strange fact, that of all cattle the cows of this breed are the most docile, and the bulls the most wicked and uncertain in their tempers. Of late years many herds have been established and kept pure both in the United Kingdom and the United States for dairy purposes only, and have returned very good results. The one great objection to them is that as a rule they are more delicate and require more care and attention than any of the other breeds. In Australia when on good pasture they thrive and do well, and in manv places are used for crossing purposes to improve the qualitv of milk, and the young 776 stock seem hardy and much better able to thrive on coarse food than the pure bred animals. The milk of this breed i< more adapted to butter making than for cheese, being rich in butter fat, and the fat globules so large that the cream rapidly rises to the surface, and when the milk is used for cheese-making there is generally a considerable loss of butter fat. While on the subject of Channel Island cattle mention may be made of the Brittany, as a number of them have been imported at one time and another into the Australian colonies, but never seem to have taken well with the public generally. They would be admirably suited to many of the hilly and colder districts, being small and active, very hardy and good foragers, yielding large milk returns for their size, and of good quality. They do not stand nearly so high as the Jerseys, and have very short legs and are of much thicker build. Their color is either black, or black and white. The Holstein-Fresians. Of late vears these cattle have become remarkably popular in Amrrica, and for quantity of milk given in twelve months, and best return of butter for the same time, held the world's records. They were originally Dutch cattle, and have been bred with great care a d attention in America until they far surpass the original stock both in appearance and milking qualities. Thev are very striking in appea anci, having largi frames and a ^lo-sy black color with white patches. The steers are >iud to make very good beef. In the United Kingdom thev have never obtained a footing, being con- sidered delicate and subject to all the diseases that cow flesh is heir to. At one time thev, or closely allied stock, were largely kept in the dairies around London, but the death rate was so high that the dairy people gave up keeping them. This has not been the experience of Amer can breeders, nor of those who have kept them in Australia, and at the present time they are very largely used for crossing by many of the most experienced dairymen in Victoria. Their milk is not very rich, but is quite equal to the average quality, and the amount given in one day frequently reaches over 20 quarts, and sometimes 25 and 27 quarts. They have, as a rule, good teats and are easily milked, are quiet and docile, and bear house feeding well. Not many have been imported into the colonies. Young bulls bring good prices, and are well worth the money paid for them, manv of the half-bred cattle almost equalling the pure in quantitv and often excelling them in quality. To be kept success- fullv thev must be well fed and not have to wander far m order to fill themselves. Their milk is well suited for cheese-making. The last of the dairy breeds that we have are the Kerrv and Dexter Kerries. These are a purelv Irish production, and are about the smallest cattle known. In height they are frequently not more than 36 or XI inches, and their udder reaches so near the ground that sometimes CHAPTER V. FEEDING DAIRY CATTLE. One of the most important things for a dairyman to remember is, that the returns he gets from his cattle are greatly dependent on the food provided for them and the treatment they are subjected to. If cows are neglected in the winter time and kept in cold, bleak paddocks, without shelter, they will not yield anything like the returns they would if properly cared for. In fact, they would thrive much better if they had less food and more warmth. It is very poor policy to starve or neglect a cow in winter, thinking she can make it up in the spring, for in the first place the cow has to make up flesh again before she can be expected to come to her full milk, and that is a tedious and wasteful process. It is much easier to keep a cow in good condition than to get one into it. Again, if the cow is dry she will probably be in calf, so that a great deal of extra nourish- ment is required ; or it may be that she is in calf and milking also, and in that case the strain upon her system is very great, and unless properly looked after, the cow, the calf and the milk returns will suffer. It will pay much better to keep fewer cows, and see that they are properly attended to and have plenty to eat, than to keep more that are continually on short rations. There is one mistake that many dairy farmers make, and that is, they think that the quality of the milk can be greatly improved by feeding very rich foods. As a matter of fact experiment has shown that the food has very little effect on the quantity of butter fat in the milk. A cow, by good and judicious feeding, may be made to increase the quantity of her milk up to 50 per cent. or over, but if the milk is tested the percentage of butter fat will be found to have changed but little. Some years since the writer made the experiment as follows :— Three good milking cows about two months calved were taken, each averaging 12 quarts of milk a day on ordinary grass feed. They were put into a small paddock and in the mornings given a large bucket of bran that had been steamed, with about four pounds of treacle added to it. They then had as much chaffed green maize as they would eat ; at noon they had a bran and treacle mas 1 again, and chaffed oaten hay mixed with chaff d maize; at night they had a mash of maize meal and treacle and chaffed oaten hay and maize. One cow steadily increased in quantity for nine days, and from twelve quarts per day went up to The amount of butter fat in her milk, as shown by a Babcock milk tester before she was put on extra rations, was 3 8 per cent.; at the end of two weeks the milk went only one per cent. higher, giving 3 9 per cent. 782 comes from the cow. If milk is allowed to remain for some time in the cow-shed, and ensilage is lying about, it will certainly absorb some of the taint from it. If, however, it is taken away from the milking-yard or shed immediately beyond the smell of the silage there will be no taint from it, and the butter made from the milk resembles that made from spring grass. If the district where cows are kept for dairy purposes is devoid of salt naturally, it ought to be always kept in troughs within easy reach of all the cattle. Rock-salt is not so good as the ordinary salt, and the cattle will take just as much as their systems require and will thrive and milk much better than if kept without it. Before leaving the matter of feeding, it may of be some advantage to give a few hints on ensilage-making, both in pit and stack. CHAPTER VI. ENSILAGE. If the average fartner a few years ago had been asked, " What is ensilage, or silage?" very few could have given an intelligent answer, but now probably ninety per cent. would have a very good idea of not only what it is but also how it is prepared. It is unfortunate that the knowledge thus possessed is not put into more general practice, and the loss to dairy farmers more especially converted into gain by a free use of ensilage. If dairy farmers generally could only be induced to try the making of ensilage for one season, and compare the returns obtained from their cattle for that time as against the results of previous years, by comparison with the outlay in capital and labor, very few of them would ever be without a supply on the farm again. Silage comes in useful for feeding nearly all the live stock about the farm. The milch cattle—the young stock—the calves, horses, pigs, sheep, and even poultry and geese, seem after a time to like it, especially if it is green and juicy. Brood sows while suckling their young do very well on it with other food as well, for if that is not supplied they get thin, as the ordinary silage is deficient in the fat-producing constituents, although this can be overcome by growing proper crops. At the present time probably those who suffer most from not using silage are the milk producers who sell milk in the cities. As a rule there is no good pasture near enough for the cows to go out to daily, and where they are allowed to graze on the commons the feed is rough and not at all calculated to cause a good flow of milk, or even keep the cattle in good condition. Consequently other food has to be bought, mainly chaff and bran, and at the present prices (/8 a ton for chaff and £6 to £7 for bran) the margin left for profit is very small indeed. An objection may be raised by those engaged in the trade that they have no farms on which to grow crops, but it does not require a farm to grow sufficient ensilage to feed twenty or thirty head of cattle. Three or four acres of land could easily be rented close to our large towns that would grow enough to do away at least with the use of chaff and to reduce the bran ration by at least one-half. At all the urban and subutban dairies there is always a good supply of manure, and this could be carted to the cultivation paddock and ploughed in in due time. Maize could be sown in the proper season, or, if the land is naturally damp, amber cane or some other of the various varieties of sorghum. The reason for suggesting the latter is that 784 a second or even a third cutting may often be obtained and may be used as green feed, or cut for silage as desired. Maize will yield a heavier crop, if well manured, than a single cutting of sorghum. but if more than one cutting of the latter be secured it may more than make up the difference. In sowing the maize it is always well to put it in in drills and cultivate afterwards, as long as it is possible without injury to the plants. The seeds should be sown close together in the drill so as to have the stalks thin and easily cut and eaten. Treated thus, and well manured, a return of at least twenty tons of green fodder per acre nrght be looked for and if this is made into ensilage, that amount of feeding matter, less a very small percentage of loss, may be looked fo . That means that twenty cows getting between thirty and forty pounds of silage per day could be fed for two months, or giving them fifty-six pounds per day, it would last them forty days. Six acres properly looked after and well manured could be made to keep twenty cows for a year, and only a small quantity of bran or maize meal would have to be purchased. Notwithstanding all that has been written about the use of silage, there are manv still who refuse to believe in it. A gentle- man in England some little time ago made the following experi- ment. He had a 26-acre paddock of English rye grass, ,one half of which he made into hay, the other into silage. Twenty cows in full milk were then taken, and to ten he fed as much of the hay as they would eat. The other ten got as much of the silage as t'hev wanted. The experiment was carried on for some months and the silage was found to last quite three times as long as the hay. Dur- ing the time of the experiment the silage-fed cattle gave much more milk, and kept up the quality, than those fed on hay. Out- side persons were asked to compare the conditions of the cattle and they all gave it in favor of the silage-fed. They were in better condition and their skin softer than the hay-fed animals. The result, therefore, was that the silage-fed beasts gave more milk, were in better condition, and were fed three times as long from 13 acres of land as those that were fed on hay produced from the same area. With some, thinking that ensilage taints the milk, there is still a prejudice against it, and there is no doubt that milk sometimes is tainted by ensilage, but that is not through the cow eating it, but through carelessness on the part of the milkers. Some time since a farmer who had invested a considerable amount of capital in making silos wrote to me saying that he had gone to all this expense on my recommendation, and the result was that he had only lost his time and money and all his crops he had put into the silos, but the creamery he sent his milk to refused to take it, as the milk smelt of the ensilage and spoilt the butter. I wrote telling him it was a matter of impossibility, and in replv I was asked to come and see for myself. I gladly availed myself of the invitation and arrived late at night. Next morning I went out 79o Milk should never be kept after it has been drawn from the cow, in the cow-shed or milking yard, or in rooms not properly constructed, or in badly ventilated dwelling-houses ; or in places opening off the dwelling-rooms. The sources of infection are from germs or bacteria, but in addition to these many extraneous . substances are found in milk for which there is no excuse, such as manure particles, fungoid growths, cow hair, human hair, particles of skin (cattle and human), insects, threads of various kinds, earthy matter, etc. These are often the result of improper straining, not cleaning the cattle, or washing their udders or teats when they are dirty before milking. All this want of care, atten- Fig. 2.—Apparatus for weighing milk immediately after milking. tion, and cleanliness is not only injurious to the consumer, but tells heavily against the suppliers, as milk in a condition like this will not keep half the time that it would if it were properly looked after. Neither will the butter or cheese have as good a flavor or bring nearly as good a price; so that, outside all reasons of health, the pocket alone should make people more careful in all things pertaining to dairv matters. When the milk is just fresh from the cow, it has a considerable amount of animal flavor in it, and if kept without being thoroughlv exposed to the air, this llavour remains, and its presence deteriorates the quality of the butter and cheese made from it, while the milk 795 cream forms on the top, and this sometimes will not break up in the churning, and thus leaving lumps of cream in the butter, which will spoil its appearance and prevent its keeping. In hot weather, if the cream is not cooled and put into a per- fectly sweet vessel, a rapid fermentation will sometimes occur, and the cream swell up to several times its original bulk. When such a change as this occurs it is a very difficult matter afterwards to churn it, and the resultant butter will be of very little value. Where the number ot cows warrant it, cream of the same age should only be churned, as the result is more satisfactory, but of course in small dairies this cannot be done, so particular care should be taken to have all the cream at the same stage of ripeness. Kig, 8.—Simple arrangement for driving separator by horse works. On no account should fresh cream be mixed with matured cream just before churning. If it is desired to churn the cream of a late milking it should be mixed with the matured cream at least 12 hours previously and thoroughly stirred several times. If fresh cream is mixed with matured or ripened cream and churned at once we have the following result :—If the churning is stopped immediately the butter breaks, as it should be, there will be a great loss of butter in the butter-milk, as it takes longer to churn tresh cream than ripened ; or if the churning is continued until all the butter has come, that of the matured cream will lose in quality and become greasy through over churning. In either case there is a waste. 799 milk, and if the churning was accomplished in an hour and a half or two hours the dairyman or maid was quite satisfied. It was hard work and slow, but the butter thus obtained, if the milk wis properly ripened, was of good keeping quality. After a time it was seen that to swing the barrel horizontally, and have a moveable beater in the churn would save labor, and this was the next form. Then someone thought it would be belter to have the churn revolving and fixed beaters inside, and for a long time this form of churn was very popular, but there was always one verv great objection to it—the difficulty in cleaning—and the impossibility of being able to see if the churn was properly clean through the necessarily small opening in the side. The next step was back to the churn in vertical position, but instead of the old splasher, beaters were put in that were attached to cog-wheels, so that they could be turned with a crank handle, or have a pulley attached and be driven by horse power. From this time forward the shape of the churn began to change to oblong,, square, round at the bottom and square at the top, and many forms of beaters were used, some so fixed as to be revolving in opposite directions at the same time were once fashionable as they churned quickly, but the results were not satisfactory, some of the butter being invariably over churned and its keeping qualities spoilt. At the present time the churn most used in small dairies is that shown in figure 9, and is known throughout Australia as the Cherry churn. It is a beater churn, which is a point against it, but in all others it has much to recommend it, being well-made, easily cleaned, and well ventilated all through the churning process. It is made in many sizes, but where a large machine is required a con- cussi >n churn would give better results, both as to the quantity and quality of butter obtained. Fig. 9.—Cherry's Churn. 804 cent.) ; while with badly-constructed churns it is not uncommon to find from 2 to 5 per cent. of butter fat in the buttermilk, and in this case the loss to the dairvman is very great. and in even a small- sized dairy will run into pounds in the course of a single season, and may make all the difference between a profit and a loss in the dairy accounts. Many kinds of material have been tried for making churns, but none give such good results as wood. Oak is probablv the best, but it is heavy and expensive, and in these colonies the best churns are made out of well-seasoned kauri pine, and these, if properlv looked after, will last a lifetime or longer. After churning, when washing the churn do not put boiling water into it first. If that is done it hardens the casein in the cracks and corners and makes it almost impossible to remove. Tepid water should first be used to thoroughly rinse the churn, and after that boiling water, quickly emptied out and the churn allowed to drv. The churn should always be kept in as cool a place as possible, with plentv of fresh air about it, and left open so as to keep it sweet. 8o8 available, on a board that has been carefully scalded and cooled, and allow it to drain for a few minutes. Turn the worker a few times so as to squeeze out most of the water remaining, then add salt according to taste, at the rate of from a quarter of an ounce to one ounce to the pound of butter. The salt should be rolled out and all lumps well broken and then dusted in the butter through a fine sieve. Then give the worker a few turns slowly and put the butter away in a cool place for a few hours. This allows the salt to get thoroughlv dissolved and mixed with the butter, and will save over-working. When the salt has thus been thoroughly dissolved '"'g- 1S'—Butter Worker. the butter is again put on the worker, and a few turns will extract all the surplus moisture and leave the butter with a perfect grain, and not a trace of streakiness. If a butter worker is not available a very fair substitute can be used by having the board already spoken of and a wooden flour roller, the latter should be well scalded and cooled, and used for no other purpose. When the butter has been placed on the board and allowed to drain the roller is slowly passed over it, up and down and across, the salt sprinkled 01 as before described, and then the butter turned up into a lump with the pats, and slowly rolled again. About one-half the salt should only be put on at first, and the rest after the second salting. 8i7 until it is all a uniform colour, and the rennet then added, the milk being kept well stirred all the time and for about five minutes afterwards; then allow it to settle. The surface of the milk can be kept in very gentle motion until it shows signs of thickening, which ought to be in about twelve minutes. By so doing it pre- vents the cream rising to the surface, much of which would be lost in the whey. Up to the present we have supposed that the milk has been of exactly the right degree of ripeness, but should the milk in the tea cup not thicken within the time mentioned, 14 to 17 seconds, as will often be the case in cold weather, often taking from 20 to 30 seconds to thicken, then the milk must be kept up in temperature in the vat for some little time longer and heated up to 88 or 89 degrees Fah., and the tea cup test tried every now and again until the correct result is obtainable. Unless a person has had a considerable amount of practice it is often difficult to tell the exact time when the milk begins to thicken, and the following simple test may be of use :—When the milk is put in the tea cup put a small piece of wood into it, half a wooden match will answer very well, then add the rennet and stir rapidly and the moment the milk begins to thicken the match will cease revolving •nd come to a standstill. The milk when set is covered over with a cheese cloth and allowed to remain until the proper time for cutting the curd arrives, and the way to know when the curd is ready for cutting is as follows :—The milk took 12 minutes to thicken after the rennet was added, or should have done so, if it was exactly ripe. The exact time should always be noted by the watch and a note taken of it. Twice and a half times the time taken to thicken will give the time when the curd should be cut; for instance, if the milk thickened in 12 minutes the curd would be ready for cutting in 30 minutes, that is, twice 12= 24, and the half of 12 six, that is 30 minutes from the time of thickening, or 42 minutes from the time of setting. The curd is now ready for cutting and for this purpose two knives with many blades are used, one of which has the blades hori- zontal, the other vertical. The knife with the horizontal blades is the one most used, and great care should be exercised to see that the cutting is done sharp and clean and that the curd is not bruised and broken during the process. The horizontal knife cuts the curd into layers by using it up and down the whole length of the vat, then the vertical knife is used in the same direction and this cuts the curd into long strips, but cutting them across the vat the curd is cut into cubes of the required size. When the curd is thus cut heat is added so as to raise the temperature up to 100 degrees Fah., the curd all the time being kept gently in motion, care being taken not to break it or bruise it; a special kind of rake is used for the purpose; about three-quarters of