NEDL TRANSFER HN 3 TDF E SPES BONA PEOFGOOD DOPE OFFICIAL HANDBOOK 18867 PUBLISHED BY AUTHORITY SAUL SOLOMON & G CAPE TOWN, S. AFRICA KPE 2027 Durat BYARNS VARDIAS ET VERI ISTO scoles VIETOS TAS VONN CHRI SIA 'BURGH. barvard College Library FROM Ir Hassia Keune hay... CER 1S, DEALER IN GUNPOWDER, SHOT, PERCUSSION CAPS, CARTRIDGES, AND SPORTSMEN'S IMPLEMENTS, OF EVERY KIND, ALWAYS ON HAND. +SPECIAL + NOTICE* TO GENTLEMEN PROCEEDING TO THE COLONY.-At this Establishment will be found Guns, Rifles and Ammunition, suitable for General Sportiv minta the Interior and Hunters can be fitted ou J&c., at London Prices. DESIGNED & LITIOGRAPNCD BY SAUL O'CALLAGHAN'S INTERNATIONAL HOTEL, THE GARDENS ("THE MOST SELECT HOTEL IN CAPE TOWN."-Vide Press.) YEARLIN EVERY HALF HOUR. TRAM CARS TO AND FRO bu PATRONIZED BY THE LEADING COLONISTS AND DISTINGUISHED VISITORS FROM EUROPE. INT e This newly established Hotel, with the adjoining Premises as Private Apartments, is situ- ated in the healthiest part of the City, and in a most commanding position. It is only 8 or 10 minutes' walk from the Public Offices, and being surrounded by the Gardens and Frivate Villas of the leading Citizens, is entirely free from the Heat, Noise and Dust of the Town. W. T. O'CALLAGHAN, Proprietor. SAUL SOLOMON AND CO. PUBLISHERS, CAPE TOWN. London, England Lock, ILLUSTRATIONS PRINTED, BOUND AND PUBLISHED UNDER CONTRACT FOR THE CAPE CENTRAL COMMITTEE, COLONIAL & INDIAN EXHIBITION, BY SAUL SOLOMON & CO., CAPE TOWN. HISTORY APE PRIN OFFICIAL HANDBOOK. HISTORY, PRODUCTIONS, AND RESOURCES OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, EDITED BY JOHN NOBLE, CLERK OF THE HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY; Author of " South Africa, Past and Present, &c.” CAPE TOWN: PRINTED FOR THE COLONIAL AND INDIAN EXHIBITION COMMITTEE, BY W. A. RICHARDS & SONS, GOVERNMENT PRINTERS. 1886. KPE 2027 HARVARD COLLEGE ( Sep 17.1931) LIBRARY Dr Harris kinnedy | DISCOVI TEMPOE THE CA PHYSIC. CITIES POLITIC ROADS, GA CAPE W THE CA CAL Entered and registered under the Copyright Act. All rights reserved. GR. --------- СР. DIAMON M. LAND A WOOL. OSTRIC VITICU Ph MANUE SKETC F. STATIS cu CONTENTS. 158 PAGE. DISCOVERY AND EARLY HISTORY OF THE CAPE........ 1 TEMPORARY OCCUPATION BY GREAT BRITAIN.......... 26 THE CAPE UNDER BRITISH DOMINION.................... PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF THE COLONY ........... CITIES AND TOWNS OF THE COLONY......... ..... POLITICAL AND CIVIL INSTITUTIONS OF THE COLONY 107 ROADS, TELEGRAPHS, RAILWAYS, HARBOURS, AND IRRI- GATION WORKS....... ........................... 121 CAPE WOODS AND FORESTS. BY A. W. HEYWOOD......... 139 THE CAPE AS A HEALTH RESORT- CAPE PENINSULA. BY DR. HERMAN ....... ...... 154 GRAHAM'S TOWN AND THE EASTERN DISTRICTS. By Hon. Dr. ATHERSTONE, M.L.C.......... CENTRAL KARROO DISTRICTS. BY DR. SAUNDERS 161 UPPER KARROO DISTRICTS. BY DR. BAIRD.... . 169 DIAMOND MINING AT THE CAPE. BY THEODORE REUNERT, M.I.M.E................................. .......... 177 LAND AND AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL OCCUPATIONS 220 WOOL. By W. SPILHAUS ....... ........................ 244 OSTRICH FARMING. BY A. DOUGLASS, M.L.A................. 256 VITICULTURE OF THE COLONY. BY PROFESSOR HAHN, Ph.D., M.A. ................... ...................... 263 MANUFACTORIES, MINES, MINERALS, &c. ................. 279 SKETCH OF THE FLORA OF SOUTH AFRICA. BY H. BOLUS, F.L.S......... 286 STATISTICS-POPULATION, REVENUE, COMMERCE, AND CUSTOMS TARIFF .. ........... 318 . ... LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. : : : : : : : : : PAGE. City of Cape Town and Table Bay in 1886 Frontispiece General Map of Colony, shewing Railways, Telegraphs and extent of Viticulture and Plantations .. Landing of Governor Van Riebeek in 1652 .. .. to face page Arrival of the British Settlers in 1820 .. Wild Game on the Plains (From painting by T. Baines) Reach on the St. John's River .. .. Tsitza Waterfall .. .. The Gates of St. John's River .. Queen's Town, with Snow on the Hills .. Oak Avenue, Government Gardens, Cape Town .. Standard Bank Buildings .. .. .. .. Port Elizabeth in 1886 (From photo by R. Harris) 100% Parliament Houses, Cape Town (From photo by E. H. Allis) Bridge over the Great Kei River .. 121 er . . .. Plan of Table Bay Docks .. 127 East London Harbour Works, Mouth of Buffalo River .. 131 Map of Rainfall in South Africa ... 158 Kimberley Diamond Mine (From sketch by Mr. Dennis Edwards) 177 Underground Working of Kimberley Mine 199 Section of De Beer's Mine .. .. .. . 204 Plan of Fencing on Tafelberg Hall Estate 242 Farm on the Karroo Plains, Nieuweld (From photo by Mr. Fripp),, Ostriches near Graaff-Reinet (From photo by Mr. Roe).. 259 Great Constantia Wine Farm (From photo by E. H. Allis) Botanical Outline Map .. .. .. .. .. : 107 252 263 286 INDEX TO CHAPTERS. I. Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese-Occupation by the Dutch East India Company-First Settlement in 1652–The Land - ing of Van Riebeek-Reception by the Natives--The First Colonial War-Cause of Hostilities-Purchase of Native Territory- The First Colonists—Treatment of their Petition of Right--Enlargement of the settlement- Arrival of the Huguenot Refugees-- Suppression of the French Language- Struggle between the Burghers and the Company - Dispersion of the Colonists Inland-Boundaries fixed-Encounter with Bushmen and Kafirs - Clamour against the Officials-Disaffection in Graaff-Reinet-Change of Sovereignty • II. 1 to 2% Temporary Occupation by Great Britain-Monopolies and Restrictions on Trade Abolished-Sir George Yonge's Administration-His Corrupt Surroundings-Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet again-The Van Jaars- veld Rebellion-Hottentot and Kafir Confederacy--How Peace was Made-Attack on Graaff-Reinet Drostdy-Release of Boer Prisoners -Restoration of Colony to Batavian Government, Relations with the Kafirs .. .. .. 26 to 36 III. Surrender of the Cape to British Forces in 1806–Population Commis- sions of Circuit-Slave Insurrection-Expulsion of Kafirs from the Zuurveldt-Col. Graham's Expedition-Improvement of the Land Tenure—The Bezuidenhout Rebellion-Slaughters Nek-Lord Charles Somerset's Kafir Policy-Col. Brereton's Expedition-Attack on Graham's Town-New Kafir Boundary-Lord Somerset's account of the Vacant Lands—The Immigration of 1820–Naming of Port Eliza- beth-Landing of the British Settlers-Beginning of the Albany Settlement-Liberty of Public Meeting Denied-Freedom of the Press-Commission of Inquiry-Kafirs saved from the Fetcani-Magna Charta of the Aborigines-Kafir Invasion of 1834 – Reversal of Governor Durban's Policy-Stockenstrom Treaties–Kafir Wars of 1846 and 1850-53—The Anti-Convict Agitation-First Parliament- Sir George Grey-Kafir Cattle-Killing Delusion-Annexation of British Kaffraria-Responsible Government-War of 1877-78— Basuto Rebellion-German Protectorate-Area and Population .. 37 to 7€» IV. Physical Aspects—Mountain Ranges-Wild Game-Geology-The Cango Caves—Carboniferous Formation-Mesozoic, Jurassic, and Tertiary -Cape Scenery-Bain's Pass-Michell's Pass-Zuurberg Pass- Katberg-Kafirland–Tsitza Falls-St. John's River-The Climate Rainfall— Temperature-Hail and Thunder Storms .. .. .. 77 to !! Cape Town-Government Gardens-Parliament Houses-Standard Bank - The Suburbs-Port Elizabeth --Graham's Town-King William's Town-Graaff-Reinet-Kimberley— Tuwns and Villages .. ..95 to 106 VI. Political and Civil Institutions—The Cabinet-Change of Ministries, The Legislature-Law Courts-Transfer of Land and Debt Registry- The Master's Office-Local Boards-Defence-Religion and Missions- System of Public Education Public Libraries and Museums-Savings Bank-Postal and Ocean Mail Service . . . 107 to 120 INDEX TO CHAPTERS. VII. Ioads-Bridges-- Telegraphs-Railways-Cost and Earnings -- Colonial Coal-Harbours-Table Bay Breakwater and Docks-Graving Dock -Simon's Bay-Mossel Bay-Algoa Bay-Port Alfred-East London - Irrigation Department-Irrigation Works ---Waterworks .. 121 to 138 VIII. Woods and Forests-Management-Knysna and Tzitzikamma-Yellow- wood ---Creosoting Apparatus-Stinkwood-Olivewood and Ironwood --Wood for Engraving Purposes--Eastern Forests-Sneezewood- Boxwood-Western Forests--Drift Sauds--Plantations .. 139 to 153 IX. The Cape as a Health Resort-The Cape Peninsula-Graham's Town and the Eastern Districts-The Central Karroo—The Upper Karroo 154 to 176 X. Diamond Mining-Indian, Brazilian, and other Mines-First discovery in South Africa-Rush to the Vaal in 1869-70-Du Toit's Pan and Colesberg Kopje-History of Griqualand West--Annexed to Cape Colony-Share Mania--Opening of the KIMBERLEY Mine - The Road- ways-- Primitive Hauling-Dry-sorting-Reef Difficulty---Geological Features-Area and Shape-Main Shafts, 1855-Underground Working-Profit and Loss Accounts-- DE BEER'S MINE-BULT- FONTEIN MINE-Du Tort's Pan MINE-Largest Diamond Found- Gross Production-Capital, Labour, and Machinery-THE RIVER DIGGINGS-Diamond Sorting-Large Finds .. .. .. 177 to 219 XI. Land and Land Laws-Agriculture in the West-Wheat-growing in the Eastern Districts-Tobacco Cultivation--Water Finding-Grain- growing in the Karroo--Sundays River Irrigation-Pastoral Re- sources—Horses and Cattle-Angora Goats and Merino Sheop-Old and New Ways of Farming-Fencing--Tafelbery Hall Estate 220 to 243 XII. Wool-Gold-The Markets-Exports from 1850 to 1885-Wool-Washeries -The History of the Merino Sheep at the Cape - The Wool-pro- ducing Districts, and Character of the Wool .. .. .. 244 to 255 XIII. Ostrich-Farming-First Domestication of the Ostrich--Artificial Hatching - Visit to an Ostrich Farm--The Camps--Value of Feathers.. 256 to 262 XIV. Viticulture-First Vine Sticks brought into the Colony-Principal Wine Districts-Nature of Soils--Method of Cultivation-Digging and Pruning-Sulphuring-Manuring-Production-Large Yield of Cape Vineyards--Quality of the Vintages of 1883-84- The Great Constantia Wine Farm-Wine Manufacture-Raisins and Grapes 203 to 278 XV. Industries and Manufactories—Breweries, and Hop-growing—Milling Establishments-Furniture-Carriage and Wagonmaking-Woollen Blanket Factory-Leather and Boots and Shoes--Soap-making-Cape Jams and Preserves-Mineral Waters---Medicinal Plants-Fishing- Salt Pans-Guano Islands-Copper Mines of Namaqualand-Coal Deposits of the Stormberg--Ornamental Stones and Minerals - 279 to 285 XVI. The Flora of South Africa 286 to 317 XVII. Statistics—Population, Revenue, Commerce, and Customs Tariffs .. 318 to 328 PREFACE. This volume on the History, Productions, and Resources of the Cape of Good Hope has been undertaken and prepared at the request of the Committee appointed by the Government for the representation of the Colony at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition to be held in London cluing the present year. Eleven years ago, I published, at the request of the Government, the first Descriptive Handbook of the Cape Colony; and, looking retrospectively at the stage of progress then recorded, and the changes and material improvements which have since taken place, one cannot fail to recognise the great advance that marks the past decade, espe- cially in the opening up of interior communications. The transition now effected from the old bullock-wagon mode of pro- gression to that of the iron-horse and the railway, is suggestive of a potentiality of wealth and prosperity, only awaiting the application of intelligence, enterprise, and energy to the development of the vast natural resources of the country. . Interruptions to our progress may occur, as at the present time, from long-continued and severe droughts, from changes in the world's markets, or from neglect of our staple products for more alluring but illusive investments. Such apparently-disastrous checks, how- ever, leave a legacy of valuable experience, and generally stimulate to greater effort and more careful industry. Certain it is, that when- ever the flowing tide of our prosperity has been stopped by these or other repressing circumstances, the Colony has always, with marvellous recuperative power, sprung up again and bounded forward at an increased pace. Our present position may accordingly be regarded as but a temporary panse to concentrate fresh energy for a new stage of production and development. PREFACE. In writing and editing this volume, the object kept in vie been to supply useful, instructive, and reliable information legard to the condition and resources of the Colony of the Ca Good Hope alone; all reference to the aspects, conditions, or po relations of other colonies, States, or Territories of South Africa therefore, been excluded. To the gentlemen who have assisted with their special contribut I beg to acknowledge my obligations, as well as to those who in various ways aided me with information for the Handbook, umong whom I take the liberty of mentioning Mr. Hampden Wi Under-colonial Secretary, and the officers of his department; Mr. -ile Smidt, Surveyor-General, and the officers of his department; Langhain Dale, Superintendent-General of Education; Mr.) Štewart, As. M.I.E., of the Hydraulic Engineer's Department; Messrs. R. Hare, P. Ryan, E. J. Dunn, and the Rev. G. Stegmann. I may add with pleasure, that this volume is in every respect Colonial production, the printing of the letter press having bee performed by Messrs. Richards & Sons, the Government Printers ; th naps and plans prepared and put upon the stone in the office o the Surveyor-General ; and the lithographic illustrations and binding executed by the old-established firm of Saul Solomon & Co., to whose artist, Mr. Graham Winch, a meed of praise is due. JOHN NOBLE. Parliament Houses, Cape Town, February 24th, 1886. mar sert uplu in view matim the Cape 1, or polit h Africa ontributio se who k dbook, pden Wil it; Mr. tment; DE Mr. ment; V. G. respect a ving been ters; the office of 3 binding to whose 1 BLE. CAPE COLONY. Alway & Telegraph Lines egraph Lines only watcnt of present Viticulture tent of possible Viticulture fernment Plantations fests . . . . Scale of English Miles 40 50 20 30 100 150 faphed u the Sun. Generals Departonu. Printed by Soui Solomon de O Cape Town PREFACE. viii In writing and editing this voluine, the object kept in view has been to supply useful, instructive, and reliable information with regard to the condition and resources of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope alone; all reference to the aspects, conditions, or political relations of other colonies, States, or Territories of South Africa has, therefore, been excluded. To the gentlemen who have assisted with their special contributions, I beg to acknowledge my obligations, as well as to those who have in various ways aided me with information for the Handbook, and among whom I take the liberty of mentioning Mr. Hampden Willis, Under-colonial Secretary, and the officers of his department; Mr. A. ile Smidt, Surveyor-General, and the officers of his department; Dr. Langham Dale, Superintendent-General of Education; Mr. T. :Stewart, As. M.I.E., of the Hydraulic Engineer's Department; and Messrs. R. Hare, P. Ryan, E. J. Dunn, and the Rev. G. W. Stegmann. I may add with pleasure, that this volume is in every respect a Colonial production, the printing of the letter press having been performed by Messrs. Richards & Sons, the Government Printers; the maps and plans prepared and put upon the stone in the office of the Surveyor-General; and the lithographic illustrations and binding •executed by the old-established firm of Saul Solomon & Co., to whose artist, Mr. Graham Winch, a meed of praise is due. JOHN NOBLE. Parliament Houses, Cape Town, February 24th, 1886. vill t in view hai rmation with the Cape of B, or political h Africa has, ontributions se who have idbook, and oden Willis, t; Mr. A. ment; Dr. Mr. T. ient; and : G. W. respect & ng been ers; the Office of binding . whose CAPE COLONY. A lway & Telegraph Lines fgraph Lines only fent of present Viuculture ent of possible Viticulture Fernment Plantations . dfests. Wenn .... Scale of English Miles. 20 30 40 50 100 150 raphed in the fura Generais Denvereni. Printed by Samui Solomon de Co, Cape Town, DISCOVERY AND EARLY HISTORY OF THE CAPE. The world is indebted to the Portuguese navigators of the fifteenth century for the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. Some traditions of Phoenician voyagers having circumnavigated Africa in earlier times have been handed down to us by ancient writers; but the first unquestionable bistorical record we have of any explorers sailing round the southern extremity of this con- tinent is that relating to the voyage of Bartholomew Diaz and Joa Infanta in 1486. Towards the end of August in that year, the King of Portugal, John II., sent out two ships of fifty tons each, and a tender laden with surplus supplies of food, to proceed along the coast of Africa, beyond the points which had already been explored, in the hope that they might reach its further extremity and ultimately discover a seaway to India. The navigators carried with them stone pillars, each in the form of a cross, which they erected at such capes, bays and headlands as they discovered; and amongst other points selected for this purpose was the mouth of the Orange River (now the north-western boundary of the Cape Colony), which they named Cape Voltas, owing to the many tacks (voltas) they had to make from adverse winds at that place. Steering thence seawards, they were compelled to run for thirteen days with sails shortened, encountering seas which, as their vessels were small, they considered highly dangerous. However, the tempest which lashed the waves with fury having abated, they tried to reach the land by shaping their course east- wards, thinking the coast line still extended north and south. But, finding that they sailed several days without sighting it, they took a northerly course until they came to a bay which they named “Los Vaquiros," or the Bay of Cowherds (the present Vleesch Bay, near Gouritz River), on account of the number of cattle they saw on land tended by native herdsmen. Proceeding further along the coast, on their new course, they came to an indent (now known as Algoa Bay) where they landed on a small Island, and Diaz set up a pillar named “Santa Cruz,”. but, as there were two springs on the island, some called it the DISCOVERY OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. “ Fountain Rock," and by both terms the island is still known. This was the first land, beyond the Cape, which was trodden by European feet. The crews of the ships at this point began to complain; they were worn out with fatigue and alarmed at the great seas they had passed, and protested against going further, saying that quite enough had been discovered; that they were sure the land trended more and more eastward, whence it would seem there was behind them some great Cape, and that it would be a better plan to turn back for the purpose of seeking it. Iliaz greatly desired to prosecute the voyage, but by way of compromise proposed that they should proceed two or three days further along the coast, and should they not by that time make any discovery which might induce them to continue, they would be at liberty to turn back. This was agreed to. At the end of the time mentioned, however, they had only reached a river some twenty-five leagues eastward, and as Joa Infanta, the Captain of the second ship, was the first to land there, the river was called Rio de Infanta. It was the estuary now known as the Great Fish River mouth On the return voyage, the navigators sighted the remarkable mountain range of the Cape Peninsula; and Diaz and his com- panions named its southern extremity “Cabo Tormentos," or Stormy Cape, in remembrance of the rough seas they had passed through in doubling it; but upon their arrival in Portugal, when they made report of their discovery, the King, on account of the promise it gave of the much longed-for ocean-route to India, be- stowed upon it the name by which the southern land of Africa has ever since been known, “Cabo de Boa Esperança”—THE CAPE OF Good HOPE. After an interval of ten years, another fleet was sent out from Portugal, in confident expectation of reaching India by the Cape route. The command was given to Vasco da Gama, who doubled the Cape of Good Hope on the 20th of March, 1497, and, after touching at Natal and Mozambique, successfully reached India in the following month of May. In rounding the Cape he touched at Mossel Bay (which Diaz had named San Bras), and there he was the first to hold intercourse with the Hottentots of South Africa. He describes them as “negroes with frizzly hair; they value their flocks of cattle very highly, and some of them our men saw were very fat and clean, and women rode upon them, on pack saddles of reed. Our crews were much entertained by these natives, as they are a pleasure-loving people, given to playing on musical instruments and dancing; and among them were some who played upon a kind of pastoral reed, which seemed good after its fashion.” The incidents of Da Gama's voyage furnished material to the Portuguese poet Camoens for his great national epic, the “Lusiad,” OCCUPATION BY THE DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY. in which he thus romantically describes the Cape and its aboriginal. inhabitants : As from the wave the chariot of the day, Whirl'd by the fiery coursers, springs away, There, full in view, the giant Cape appears, Wide spread its limbs, and high its shoulders rears. Behind us, now, it curves the bending side, And our bold vessels plough the eastern tide. Nor long excursive off at sea we stand, A cultur'd shore invites us to the land. Here their sweet scenes the rural joys bestow, And give our wearied limbs a lively glow, The tenants of the coast, a festive band, With dances meet us on the yellow sand ; Their brides on slow-pac'd oxen rode behind ; The spreading horns with flow'ry garlands twin'd, Bespoke the dew-lapp'd beeves their proudest boast, Of all their bestial store they valued most. By turns the husbands, and the brides, prolong The various measures of the rural song. Now, to the dance the rustic reeds resound; The dancer's heels, light quivering, beat the ground; And now, the lambs around them bleating stray, Feed from their hands, or round them frisking play. Methought I saw the sylvan reign of Pan, And heard the music of the Mantuan swan: With smiles we hail them, and with joy behold The blissful manners of the age of gold. During the century and a half succeeding these discoveries, the Cape was used as a temporary place of call by the Portu-- guese, English, and Dutch, respectively, who engaged in the Eastern ocean-trade. Their ships resorted to Table Bay for water and live-stock, which they obtained from the natives. They also , made it a means of postal communication : outward-bound vessels - buried their letters or despatches and European news at certain spots, indicated by square stones, on which were engraved the names. of the ships ; and the return fleets carefully searched for these to obtain intelligence from their homes or of their countrymen. But 20 permanent settlement was attempted by any of the maritime powers of Europe until 1652, when the Dutch East India Com-- pany, under charter gradited by the States-General of the United Provinces of Holland, took possession of Table Bay, establishing a fort, and occupying the lands skirting the foot of Table Mcuntain, chiefly with the object of having always in readiness supplies for · the refreshment of their passing ships. Jan Anthony van Riebeek, a surgeon and merchant in the service: of the Company, who in one of its return fleets had spent a few weeks at the Cape, and had previously voyaged to China, Japan, the West Indies and Greenland, was chosen the first Commander, or Governor, of the new settlement. He left the Texel on the 24th December, 1651, with three ships, the Dromedaris (which carried his flag), the Reijger, and the Goede IIope, aud anchored in Table Bay on the 6th of April, 1652. He was accompanied by his family, and was provided with necessary materials and mer-- B 2 THE FIRST SETTLEMENT. chandize, and authorized to land from the ships about a hundred men to form a garrison, erect a residence and defensive works, and .constitute the embryo colony In accordance with instructions, they erected near the beach on what is now the Military Parade-ground, Cape Town, a small .earthenwork fort, “as a stronghold against any attempts of the savages," and, under protection of its eight-pounder cannon, the first inhabitants laid out their gardens and pastures. They first iraised vegetables and grew corn. They afterwards introduced and propagated the vine, the orange, the olive and other fruit trees. They bartered brass, beads, brandy and tobacco for the cattle :and sheep of the Hottentots. And from time to time they sent out small expeditions, to penetrate into the Interior, with a view to make search for more profitable commodities for trade, and to learn “ more and more of the secrets of Africa,” and especially to try and find a way inland to the auriferous lands of Monomo- tapa and Sofala, which even in those days were believed to be the true Ophir whence King Solomon had imported his gold. The daily life and progress of the little garrison of the Fort de Goede Hope are minutely detailed in the quaint and interesting .“ journals” and “despatches” of Van Riebeek and his successors, still preserved in the Archives of the Colony. The first act of the founder of the settlement, immediately :after his arrival in Table Bay, was to hold a council of his officers .on board the principal ship, the Dromedaris. The proceedings were solemnly opened by supplicating the blessings of Heaven upon the important work in which they were about to engage. They prayed that “as they were called to the government of the affairs of the Cape of Good Hope,-to advise and take such measures as might best tend to promote the interests of the East India. Company—to maintain justice, and, if possible, to implant and propagate the true Reformed Christian doctrine amongst the wild and savage inhabitants, for the praise and honour of God and the benefit of their employers,—it might please the Almighty Father to preside at their assembly, and with heavenly wisdom .enlighten their hearts, and remove all perverse passions, misunder- standings and other defects and human weaknesses, that their minds might be so composed, that in all their deliberations they should not resolve anything which would not tend to the praise and glory of His holy name and the benefit of their masters, with- out considering in the least their own personal advantage or profit." This form of prayer was in use at every succeeding meeting of the Council, and on every Sabbath day service was held, and a sermon read either by the Commander, or by Willian Barends Wylandt, the Chaplain, or “sick comforter" as he was called, who, although mot ordained discharged minor clerical functions. after he first"ed in the spatches met LANDING OF GOVERNOR VAN RIEBEEK IN 1652. (FROM PAINTING BY O. D. BELL.) THE LANDING OF VAN RIEBEEK. The Council at their first meeting resolved that the Commander Jan van Riebeek, accompanied by the Captains of the ships, David Connick, Johan Hoegsat, and Simon Turver, should land with some armed soldiers, to inspect and measure a place fitted for a fort, and that the carpenter and men of the ships with all speed should erect, within the boundaries of the fort, a convenient store and dwelling house according to a plan furnished to them. The landing of Van Riebeek to select the site of the fort, and his interview with the Hottentots, “making use of signs and many broken Dutch and English words," has furnished a subject for one- of the few historical paintings to be found in the Colony. The accompanying illustration is a copy of an admirable picture, executed by the late Charles Davidson Bell, formerly Colonial. Surveyor-General, which was originally in the possession of the Hon. William Porter, and was by him presented in 1861 to the South African Public Library. On the 10th of April, work was commenced on the fort; but a number of the men landed from the ships proved to be so unskilful, weak, sea-worn, and scorbutic, as to render compara-- tively little aid; and the Commander had to set to work himself as engineer, excavator, carpenter, mason and blacksmith. He and his family took up their quarters in a leaky hut on shore until better accommodation could be provided for them. By his con- tinual presence, however, the work advanced. The end of the following month saw the Residency sufficiently completed for occupation; and on the 6th of June, within its walls the Chaplain's. wife was delivered of a child, the first of European stock born at the Cape. Meanwhile, the Commander made several excursions. to acquaint himself with the surrounding country. In the klooſs or ravines of Table Mountain he found fine, thick and fairly long trees, fit for masts for ships, but difficult to remove. On some of them the dates 1604, 1620, and 1622 were found carved. Harts, elands, steenbuck and other game were plentiful; but so wild that they could not be approached. The hippopotamus and rhinoceros were in near neighbourhood ; and one evening a lion killed the cattle of a Hottentot quite close to the fort. A day or two afterwards, says the Journal: “ The Commander while walking in the garden (where the Parliament Houses now stand] found traces of wild animals all over it, and soon after a large lion sprung up from the outside of the ground, forty or fifty paces off, and walked slowly towards the mountain. We therefore sent after him a sergeant, a hunter, and four or five soldiers with firelocks; upon which fully two hundred Hottentots instantly pursued with all their sheep and cattle and surrounded the lion ini a deep kloof on the side of the mountain, so that he could turn in no direction without forcing his way through the sheep, whichi • 6 RECEPTION BY THE NATIVES. they opposed to the lion as their breast work, while he lay under a stump. They stood outside of the flock of sheep, and between them and the cattle, and whenever the lion gave a spring and a roar, and seized a sheep, they threw their assegais over the sheep with loud cries, on which the lion retreated. It was a very singular spectacle; but as they could not well hit him, the · sergeant, standing with the rest eight or ten yards from the lion, fired but without effect, when the hunter fired and shot him dead with three balls through the head. The Hottentots then showed themselves brave men, and would have stabbed him a hundred times after he was dead, but they were prevented lest they should injure the skin which, when stuffed, will be hung in the great hall used as a church. The lion weighed four hundred and twenty-six pounds Dutch weight. The lioness was, the following night -seeking her mate near the gate, and also ate part of his carcase.” The winter of 1652, from July to August, was an exception- ally severe one; part of Table Mountain was white with snow, : and so much rain fell that the land resembled a sea. There was much sickness and several deaths among the garrison. But all the privations and discomforts of these months were forgotten with the advent of the Cape spring, in September, when the verdure of the hills and the valleys afforded pleasure to the eye ; and the Commander had the satisfaction of enjoying some of the products of his own garden--" giving a parting dinner to the officers of the yacht Goede Hope, entirely of chickens reared at the Cape, shell- less peas, spinach, chervil, pot-herbs, asparagus as thick as the finger, and salad as compact as a cabbage, weighing fully a pound and a quarter.” The natives appear to have received the Europeans in a friendly manner. The skipper, Captain Hoegsat, on first landing, 'met nine of them at the Salt River; "they were handsome active men of particularly good stature, dressed in ox-hides, tolerably prepared and carried gracefully on one arm, with an air as courageous as any brave in Holland could carry his cloak on arm or shoulder. When they heard that he commanded one of the ships, they clasped him round the neck with great joy, intimating that for copper and tobacco they would bring cattle · enough.” Other officers of the garrison, upon visiting neighbouring kraals, were likewise courteously received. “Upon arriving at the residence of the chief or captain they found him very polite. He welcomed them and led them round to see his riches in kuts- fifteen in number—and in cattle and sheep, in all 1,500 or 1,600 in number; after which he let them enter and rest and sit in his house of mats, very handsomely made and rather large, and having desired some women to bring milk entertained them in a very kind : and friendly manner. Here they saw the children sucked at the to have comptain Hoogenety were handides, e, men of them at the Sal Captain Hoegsat Europeans A HOTTENTOT EMBRACE. udders of the sheep, which the mothers gave them. The chief seemed much respected, and understood also very well how to maintain his dignity.” Van Riebeek himself met with an equally demonstrative welcome on the occasion of his visit to a kraal or encampment on the eastern side of Table Mountain. The camp, which numbered 100 inhabitants, including women and children, consisted of sixteen tolerably large mat houses, neatly disposed in a circle and enclosed with brushwood fastened together as a breastwork, with two open- ings or passages for the cattle to be driven out or in, morning or evening. This passage was occupied by about thirty young fellows, their skins and cloaks thrown off, entirely naked, but well provided with assagais, bows and arrows. On approaching, the Governor held out his hand to them with a friendly gesture, and “instantly they kissed their hands and came on joining hands with him and embracing with great fervour like the greatest friends in the world.” The Governor, however, had occasion to lament these amicable embraces, for he says, “ We had again a suit of clothes destroyed from the greasiness of the oil and filth with which they, and par- ticularly the greatest amongst them, had so besmeared themselves, that they shone like loooking-glasses in the sun, the fat trickling down from their heads and along their whole bodies, which appeared to be their greatest mark of distinction.” As the object of the settlement, at the beginning, was to furnish supplies to the outward and homeward bound ships, and as the principal supplies in the shape of sheep and cattle were only to be obtained from the Hottentot tribes, special directions were given to treat them with all kindness and favour, so as to gain their affection and confidence. Anyone found abusing, ill-treating or pushing any of them, whether he was in the right or in the wrong, was liable to be punished with lashes in their presence. The beach-rangers and watermen occupying Table Valley frequently manifested a pilfering and thievish disposition, and on one occasion some of them treacherously murdered a European youth who was herding cattle near the Lion's Hill; but the Commander forbad all reprisals; and indeed ordered that the people should be treated with greater kindness than before, lest by indiscriminate vengeance the innocent should suffer for the guilty. For a few years, the intercourse between the new and the ancient occupants of the country was carried on in an amicable and humane spirit. Van Riebeek having suggested to his masters that their original plan of settlement might be extended and some free men allowed to take up their residence at the Cape as “ boers” or farmers, but subject to the Company, authority was given in 1656, that the cultivation of the lands might be enlarged, for the promotion of agriculture and the growth of all kinds of garden THE FIRST COLONIAL WAR. ntry, an and to " dishet producereed to go arou fruits. Nine soldiers and sailors at this time received their dis- charge, and were granted the privilege of free men and burghers, and located near Rondebosch. When the tribe known as “Caep- mans” saw these white men ploughing the ground where they were wont to dig out roots for their winter food, and their cattle had been accustomed to graze from time immemorial, they became alarmed. It looked as if the Europeans intended to take permanent posses- sion of their country, and according to the words of one of them, they resolved to prevent and to “dishearten the colonists by taking away their cattle, and if that did not produce the effect, then to burn their houses and corn until they were forced to go away." They called the tribe of the Gorachouquas to their aid, and swept off a number of the colonists' cattle. Thus commenced the first colonial war, which occurred in 1659. The colonists and garrison at the time were few in number, but they were fortunately reinforced by the crews of some vessels which had put into Table Bay. Hostilities continued for many months; and after two engagements, in which seven natives were killed and one of their leaders wounded, they came to the Company's Fort, sueing for peace, which was at once concluded, and both parties engaged not to molest each other in future. How they smoked the calumet of peace is thus told in the Journal of van Riebeek :- 1660. April 6. This day peace was renewed at the Fort with the Captain and chief of the Caepmans, Herry and all the principal and oldest of the tribe. . . . They dwelt long upon our taking every day for our own use more of the land, which had belonged to them from all ages and on which they were accustomed to depasture their cattle, &c. They also asked, whether, if they were to come into Hol- land, they would be permitted to act in a similar manner, saying, “What would it signify if you remained here at the Fort, but you come quite into the interior, selecting the best for yourselves, and never once asking whether we like it, or whether it will put us to any incon- venience." They therefore insisted very strenuously that they should be again allowed free access to the pasture. It was at first objected that there was not grass enough for their cattle and for ours also. They said in reply, “Have we then no cause to prevent you from procuring any cattle ? for if you get many cattle, you come and occupy our pasture with them, and then say the land is not wide enough for us both. Who then can be required, with the greatest degree of justice, to give way, the natural owner or the foreign invaders ?” They in- sisted much upon their natural right of property, &c., and that they should at least be at liberty to gather for their winter food the bitter almonds and roots which grew there naturally; but this also could not be acceded to, because, on the one hand, it would give them too many opportunities to injure the colonists, and on the other, because we this year had need of the bitter almonds ourselves, for the purpose of planting the projected hedge or live fence (a reason which THE CAUSE OF HOSTILITIES. was not stated to them), but they insisted so much on this point, that our word must out at last: That they had now lost that land in war and therefore could only expect to be henceforth entirely deprived of it, the rather because they could not be induced to restore the cattle which they had, wrongfully and without cause, stolen from us; that their country had thus fallen to our lot, being justly won by the sword in defensive warfare, and that it was our intention to retain it. In opposition to this, they complained mueh that the colonists and others living in the country had given them much annoyance, with now and then perhaps stealing a sheep or a calf, &c., taking from them their beads, earrings, and bracelets, and giving them to their slaves, also with beating and pushing, &c., without the Commander knowing exactly about it all (in which there is some truth), and that they there- fore, not being able to bear this any longer, had resolved to take re- venge by stealing the cattle; and thus they roundly maintained that they had cause enough. In reply to this, we reminded them of the numerous instances of punishments enacted by us against those of whom they were accustomed to complain, for these and similar annoyances, &c., and that if they were not to be satisfied thus but were always to revenge themselves by robbery and theft, peace could never be maintained betwixt us, and they would lose still more of their land by the right of conquest, unless indeed they had the courage to expel us, in which case they would become, by virtue of the same right, owners of the Fort and all, and would continue such as long as they could hold it, and if they were dis- posed to try that, we should consider of what we must do. On this they said that this was a recital of past events, and that they were contented henceforth never to think of molesting any of our people, but to complain to us of any that molested them in order that they might, after due enquiry, be punished by us according to their deserts, as they also would do upon their side; and that they would wait for some day when the Commander went out, that he might point out to them the roads they must take and the limits beyond which they must remain, &c.; this was postponed until the departure of the ships now in the roads. The peace was then concluded, and the chief Gogosoa, Herry and all the principal people, about 40 in number, received presents of brass, beads and tobacco, and were so well entertained with food and brandy that they were all well fuddled, and if we had chosen we could have easily kept them in our power, but for many weighty reasons this was not deemed expedient, as we can do that at any time, and meanwhile their disposition can be still further sounded. The authorities in Holland, on receipt of news of the war, were very uneasy. Their hopes of a peaceful occupation of the Cape were rudely dispelled by these hostilities with the Hottentots; and they feared such conflicts would be continually repeated with one or other of the more inland tribes. They wrote, “ The discontent shewn by these people in consequence of our appropriating to our- selves and to their exclusion—the land which they have used for 10 PURCHASE OF NATIVE TERRITORY. their cattle from time immemorial is neither surprising nor ground- less, and we therefore should be glad to see that we could purchase it from them, or otherwise satisfy them.” This suggestion of purchasing territory was carried into effect a few years afterwards. A purchase was made in 1672 from two of the Hottentot Chiefs, who claimed to be hereditary sovereigns, of all the country from the Cape Peninsula to Saldanha Bay, "lands, rivers, creeks, forests, and pastures inclusive," but with the condi- tion that where the colonists did not occupy the arable lands or pastures, the natives might erect their kraals and graze their cattle freely. The purchase amount of this cession was paid for in brandy, tobacco, beads, and merchandize of the value of little more than one hundred florins, or not quite ten pounds sterling. The handful of men who, under the title of “Free Burghers," took their discharge from the garrison and the Company's service, may be termed the first colonists of the Cape of Good Hope. They were natives of Holland and Germany, the latter country furnishing the Dutch East India Company with a large proportion of its servants. They were well supplied by the Company, on credit, with cattle, implements, and seed, with which to carry on their farming operations. As no servants could be got on hire from the Hottentots, slaves were imported for them, and in some cases the services of a few of the single men forming the garrison were lent to them. They were allowed as much land as they could bring under cultivation, and were exempted from the payment of taxes for three years, but subsequently were made liable to an assessment, which was fixed at one-tenth of all produce raised from their lands, and also a tenth of all stock from the pasture lands they were allowed to occupy. The Chamber of Seventeen directed that they were to be encouraged as much as might be without injury to the Company; and so far they were treated with all the liberality of which its system was susceptible. Care was taken, however, that the Company should be lords and masters of the settlement in every way, monopolising the impor- tations, productions, and trade of the inhabitants altogether for its own advantage. The free burghers might not buy anything but what came from the Company's store and at the Company's price, and they were bound to deliver all their produce to the Company on terms to be fixed at the discretion of its officers. Traffic with the natives was strictly forbidden, lest prices should become too high for the Company when inclined to purchase. This rule for a short time was so far relaxed as to allow them to buy breeding cattle, provided that the articles employed in barter, such as brass and tobacco, had been previously bought from the Company. Afterwards the privilege was withdrawn, and trade with natives and foreigners stringently prohibited. There were also restrictions then for the Corso far, he articles eny n THE FIRST COLOXISTS—" FREE BURGHERS." 11 on the variety of crops they raised, and on their intercourse with the crews of ships visiting the port; and the value of imported goods they recceived on credit from the Company was secured by special mortgages upon their estates. When the burghers, after expending their toil and labour on their lands, found that they were thus trammelled, and a fair price for their produce denied them, they naturally became discontented, and at length, in 1658, gave vent to their grievances in a petition signed by all the burghers and freemen, "no one excepted,” with which they waited upon the Commander. In this petition they set forth that they became free on certain conditions, in order to support themselves by agriculture, and also to have free trade in cattle and with the Hottentots; but now after they had slaved on their lands, trade was forbidden them. That the cattle given them to work their lands, instead of being the best, were of the worst description-some being oxen no larger than mastiffs, and thin cadaverous-looking cows. They had reaped and thrashed, and brought in their harvest, but they wanted to know before delivering their corn what they were to get for it; their price was ten guilders per muid, and if they did not get their price they should not cultivate any land, and would bring back all the stores and cattle and everything they had in hand, for they did not work to be slaves of the Company nor to be ordered in their farm- ing arrangements. They requested to be allowed to barter cattle freely : also to go on board the ships in the roadsteads without being prosecuted by the Fiscal. They further represented that they suffered damage and loss from the Hottentots, and that they were the defenders of the country; and they concluded, “ We have too long been paid in words. We are not the slaves of the Company. We are the protectors of the land."'* To this, the Commander and Council replied by reading to them the papers and conditions they had signed when they became freemen-and particularly the condition that they would submit to all rules existing and still to be made by the Governor. Their threats to compel the Company to give a certain price for their corn, or to do one thing or another, were characterised as seditious and rebellious, and they were reminded that they had been fed and supported, and raised from a low condition, at great expense and under serious difficulties. That the Directors had already made the calculation that, as the burghers had the land for nothing, they could get on with less than six guilders per muid for corn ; but the Commander hoped to get more for them, as he himself * Of the 16 or 17 who signed the petition seven only made their marks: the signatures included those of Steven Jansen, Casper Branckman, Frans Gerrits, Herman Rama- guene, Jan Martens, Johannes Rietvleit, and Jacob Cloeten. Johannes Reitvleit was said to have written the petition,"with too sharp a pen," says Van Riebeek. 12 TREATMENT OF THEIR PETITION OF RIGHT. was allowed to carry on agriculture, and like the burghers would like to get the highest price. They were further told that the Company had forbidden barter with the Hottentots, as it neces- sarily raised the price of cattle, and moreover by making expeditions inland they neglected their work on the farms, for which alone they had been made free. The Commander added, that as regarded himself, he could overlook the matter ; but in the threats they had offered against the Company, they had run their head against a wall, and he re- minded them of the reply of Commander Goens to a previous memorial of the freemen—viz., those who would not cultivate for themselves would be compelled to do so for the Company, and other freemen were ready to take their grounds should it be confiscated by the rebellious conduct of the present owners. He therefore cautioned them to take care of what they were about, and hereafter “do their best with the plough and keep the thresh- ing-floor warm.” When this reply and reprimand was read publicly in the Coun- cil-room to the petitioners, their representatives confessed their faults, and begged the Commander would not be too much offended, as they now found that he had all along been in their favour, and endeavoured to help them. They promised in the future to do their best. After these words, each received a bokaal, or goblet of wine, from the Commander. Peace and quiet were restored (says the chronicle), and every one went home with a smiling face, the one making merry with the other because every one had got his due. Van Riebeek took credit to himself for having promptly re- duced the burghers to subjection and due submission. Writing to the Chamber of Seventeen, he says :-“We trust it may afford you satisfaction, and be worth the perusal, to see how quickly we made them hide their heads and submit to the orders issued and to be issued by your Honours, in accordance with their letters of freedom and with their freeholds.” How the matter was regarded by the Chamber may be in- ferred from their despatch in icply: “We have carefully ex- amined the substance of the petition presented to you by the free- men and burghers, which we find to be full of sedition and mutiny; you ought not to have received it, but torn it up and thrown it away in their presence ; and we hereby warn them not to present or transmit such papers in future, otherwise we shall be compelled to provide against the same by severe measures.” At the same time it was intimated that the freemen should be somewhat assisted, in particular at the outset, so that they might be able to maintain themselves, and not acquire a distaste for labour; and, further, that care should be taken that every contract entered hich we lination presented have carefull be in- ENLARGEMENT OF THE SETTLEMENT. 13 into, and every promise made them, should be observed and ful- filled. It is noticeable that in the expressed aims and intentions of the Company there was much that appears good and beneficial; yet, practically, in all that affected the encouragement or even the toleration of free trade or industry amongst its subjects, every- thing was held secondary to immediate profit. After nearly eleven years of service, Van Riebeek was rewarded by promotion to the Eastern possessions of the Dutch East India Company. The main object for which he had laboured was successfully accomplished. He had converted the Cape from a barren waste into a desirable place for the refresh- ment of the out-ward and homeward bound fleets. Thirty-two tons of grain, the produce of one harvest, were stored in the granaries, and cattle were regularly supplied by the Hottentots with whom he was in amity. His zeal, industry and devotion to the Company were acknowledged by his appointment to the government of Malacca, and he afterwards filled the office of Secretary to the Council of Batavia. His son, born at the Cape in 1653, rose to the high position of Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. Among the Commanders who succeeded van Riebeek, the most able and conspicuously active was Simon Van der Stell, who was Governor from 1679 to 1699. Immediately upon his arrival, he made excursions into the country, and established a government farm (now in the possession of the Theunissen family at Hot- tentots Holland), and laid out a village on the Eerste River at Stellenbosch, and new farms on the Dwars River at Drakenstein. By this time the number of colonial burghers had considerably increased, new men (Germans, Danes, Flemings and Dutch) taking their discharge year after year, to try their fortune as colonial proprietors. Including the Company's servants and the burghers with their wives and children, the European population in 1680 amounted to about six hundred souls. In Table Valley and about the Castle there were thirty families, chiefly subsisting by lodging houses or taverns and keeping gardens and a few cattle. From Table Valley to Steenberg, there were twenty-four houses, the owners subsisting by farms and vineyards. In Stellenbosch there were ninety-nine families, all betaking themselves to farming. Van der Stell did not rest satisfied with the Cape being a mere refreshment station, and urged that something more should be made of the country, as there was land of excellent character in abundance awaiting labourers to till it. “The Colony is now," he wrote, “ by God's blessing, brought so far that we have weathered the Cape of want of brear, wine, beer, flesh, fish, fruit and vege- tables; and as our colonists chiefly consist of strong, gallant and industrious bachelors, who for the solace of their cares and for 14 ARRIVAL CF THE HUGUENOT REFUGEES. managing of domestic concerns would most gladly be married ; and as such bonds would establish the Colony on an immovab.e basis, we request that thirty or forty respectable young women te sent out, all of whom will be well disposed of in this place.” The Directors of the Company received the suggestion for an exten- sion of the Colony very favourably. They considered that the enlargement of the Cape settlement might eventually afford the Company, as sovereigns and patrons of the territory, a revenue for the payment and maintenance of their garrisons. They therefore determined to comply with Van der Stell's requisition as regards the young women, and also to reinforce the Colony with a number of settlers of the agricultural class. It happened that Holland at this time was receiving with sympathy and kindness the Protestant refugees who were driven from France on the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The East India Company offered these “ exiles for conscience sake” a home in their African possessions, and a number of them, amounting in all to about three hundred men, women and children, accepted the offer. In 1687 the Chambers of Amsterdam and of Delft informed Van der Stell that in addition to other freemen, some French and Piedmontese refugees were willing to emigrate to the Cape. “ Among them,” says the despatch, " are persons who understand the culture of the vine, who will in time be able to benefit the Company and themselves. We consider that as these people know how to manage with very little, they will without difficulty be able to accommodate themselves to their work at the Cape, also especially as they feel themselves safe under a mild Government and freed from the persecution which they suffered. It will be your duty, as they are destitute of everything, on their arrival to furnish them with what they may require for their subsistence, until they are settled and can earn their own liveli- hood. Further you will have to deal with them, as we have on former occasions directed you to do, in regard to freemen of our nation." These refugees arrived in the Colony in 1688 and 1689; anil the public records contain a register of the names of nearly all of them. Among them are those of Du Plessis, Malherbe, Rosseau, Fouche, De Villiers, Du Toit, Malan, Marais, Jourdan, Mesnard, Du Pré, Notier, Le Febre, Cordier, Retief, Theron, Hugo, Joubert, Le Roux, La Grange, Labuscagne and others, whose descendants are now widely scattered over the whole of South Africa. The greater number of them upon their arrival, were placed on the lands along the Berg River Valley, where they soon taught the waste to yield them daily bread, and within a few years became a self-supporting community. Besides cultivating “ the SUPPRESSION OF THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 15 cornfields green and sunny vines,” with which they had been familiar from childhood, they planted French names throughout the district; and the titles of such estates as Le Parais, Lamotte, Cabrier, Normandy, Rhone, Champagne, Languedoc, and the like, which frequently occur in the neighbourhood of the Paarl, Fransche Hoek (La Petite Rochelle), Stellenbosch, and Wellington, remain memorials of the localities where they fixed their abodes. A Minister of the Walloon Church, the Rev. Pierre Simond, accompanied and remained with them for a few years, holding religious sevices for them in the French language, on alternate Sundays at Stellenbosch and Drakenstein. An application to be permitted to form their own congregation at the latter place, and to elect their Vestry, was sternly refused them by Van der Stell. They were only for a very short time permitted to exercise their worship apart and unconnected with the Dutch Reformed Church, and were soon after, as Calvinists, merged in it and placed on the same footing, the authorities not allowing, for nearly a century afterwards, the least semblance of any other ecclesiastical establishment or worship in the settlement. The refugees also endeavoured to preserve their language, and taught it to their children ; but this was discouraged by order of the Company, who directed that “French should, in time, entirely die out, and nothing but Dutch should be taught to the young to read and write.” In 1709, the use of French in addressing the Govern- ment upon official matters was publicly prohibited ; and in 1724, the reading of the lessons at the church service in the French language took place for the last time. The French astronomer, the Abbé la Caille, who visited the Cape in 1752, refers in his “ Journal,” to the condition of his fellow- countrymen, and notes the gradual extinction of the language amongst their children. He says—" With respect to the refugees, they have preserved the French language and have taught it to their children ; but the latter, partly because they trade with the Dutch and Germans who speak the Dutch language, and have married or become connected with the Dutch and Germans, have not taught French to their children. There are no longer any of the old refugees of 1680 to 1690 at the Cape, only their children remain who speak French, and they are very old. I did not meet any person under forty years of age who spoke French, unless he had just arrived from France. I cannot, however, be sure that this is altogether general ; but I have heard those who speak French say that in twenty years there would not be any one in Drakenstein who would know how to speak it.” Le Vaillant, the French naturalist, wbo visited the Colony in 1780, states that he found but one old man who understood French. Before the close of last century, the language had quite ceased to be spoken. 16 TROUBLOUS TIMES. Wrated estate an Adrian vans to have abusevous disconte In 1699 Simon van der Stell retired from office to live upon the wine farm which he himself had laid out and planted,—the cele- brated estate of Constantia. He was succeeded, as Governor, by his son, William Adrian van der Stell, who during the five years of his administration appears to have abused the privileges of his position in such a manner as to create grievous discontent among the burghers. The main cause of this discontent was that he s attempted to play the master over all,” and it was charged against him that he had, in an underhand manner, enriched him- self by barter with the natives, and acquired an immoderately large estate at Hottentots Holland where he employed the Company's slaves for his own interests. Corn farmers complained that when they delivered the tenth of their produce as a tax at the Company's store, he compelled them to load their wagons on returning with requisites for his farm ; and that in the name of his brother and other friends, he furnished the Company's magazine with large quantities of wheat at higher prices than he paid the farmers. Wine farmers complained that they had to deliver their vintage at ten to twenty rix-dollars per leaguer, while it was sold to ship captains at 150 rix-dollars. Grantees of land, who wanted their title-deeds, said they could not obtain them unless the solicitation was accompanied with the necessary douceur, “ for the Governor listened readily to reasons that jingle.” Coupled with these charges against the Governor, there were complaints against his brother and other functionaries, including the second officer Samuel Elzevier, and the clergyman Petrus Kalden, who it was said “occupied himself far more with agricultural operations than with the pulpit.” A memorial setting forth these complaints was signed by sixty- one burghers and secretly conveyed by one of the outward-bound ships to the Government at Batavia. When Van der Stell received intelligence of this from Java, he was furious, and commenced a .course of persecution against all whom he suspected of being dis- affected. Amongst them were several of the refugees. Some secreted themselves in the inland parts of the country until the storm blew over. Others were seized, banished to Robben Island, Mauritius, Batavia, or ordered to Holland in the return ships. Three of the burghers thus expelled, Messrs. Van der Byl, Hussing, and Van der Heiden, on their arrival in Holland were instrumental in obtaining attention to the case of the colonists, and at length secured the recall of the Governor. In 1707, the Chamber of Seventeen wrote:-“ We have had the dissatisfaction to perceive that grave commotions and differences exist between a great number of the colonists and the Cape Govern- ment. Much paper hath been covered with complaints and refu- tations which have occupied much of our time and given us much STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE BURGHERS AND THE COMPANY. 17 trouble. Of all this we say no more than that we expect that such like matters will not again arise ; and for the conservation of the public peace and for other good reasons, we have resolved and do now order that the Governor W. A. van der Stell, Samuel Elzevier, as well as the clergyman Petrus Kalden and the Landdrost Johan Starreberg, shall be removed and sent hither, retaining their rank and pay, but without any authority or office.” At the same time a new Governor (Van Assenberg) was appointed, and it was an- nounced that “all the colonists sent away and detained on the ground of alleged conspiracy and rebellion are restored to their former position and honours.” This, as the despatch set forth, was done for the restoration of tranquillity, but no change what- ever was made in the policy of the Company, which was avowed to be the enrichment of itself and not of the colonists. The history of the country under the Dutch East India Company's rule during the remaining portion of the eighteenth century, shews that there was a continuous but vain struggle on the part of the free burghers to obtain some relaxation of the capricious and oppressive enactments of the Government, which not only excluded them from participation in foreign trade, but hampered them in all their transactions. In 1719, representations were made to the Directors that, unless some alteration of the system was conceded, the inhabitants would no longer be able to find subsistence, and would be compelled to ask the Company to take them back again into their service. The concession they prayed for was the liberty of free trade along the coast, and to Sofala, Mozambique, and Madagascar. By means of such trade, it was urged, the poor inhabitants, who were only versed in agriculture, would find a living in the various occupations connected with navigation; the corn, wine and other produce raised in the Colony might with greater convenience and profit be sold ; and, if the coast traffic were to succeed, a good lot of merchandize would be bought from the Company to traffic with, so that the latter would also be greatly benefited. To gain this object, they added that they would be prepared to pay a reasonable import and export duty. Foreign trade in any form, except in their own hands, was not acceptable to the East India Company, and the application of the burghers met with no favourable response. They were assured, however, that the Company would receive all the produce they could deliver so long as there was sufficient consumption, and that the surplus of such articles as the Company did not need might be sold by the owners to foreign ships in Table Bay upon the pay- ment of a small duty in the shape of a fee or perquisite to a high judicial functionary—the Fiscal. This privilege gave some impulse to production on the occasional arrival of foreign shipping, in the haships in Panay, did not option, and then 18 THE GOLDEN AGE OF THE CAPE. and when the French and English fleets victualled there, the period was considered “the golden age of the Cape.” There was an in- creased consumption of produce, and the facility of earning and obtaining money enabled the residents in and around Cape Town to enlarge their houses and extend their farming operations. But when, in consequence of European wars, foreign fleets no longer touched at Table Bay, the colonists again keenly felt the want of a market, and were reduced to an impoverished state by the absence of such an outlet. In most of the Company's possessions, and especially at Batavia, at this time, distinctions of precedency and rank were punctiliously attended to. When the Governor rode out, every one meeting him had to pay him homage, and persons happening to be in a carriage must stop and get out of it till the Governor rode by. When His Excellency entered church, all persons, both men and women, stood up in token of respect; and his lady received the same honours. Likewise, when a member of the Council of Policy, or his lady, entered church, all the men stood up in the same manner as for the Governor, but the women remained sitting. Some of these regulations were adopted at the Cape; and in the days of William Adrian van der Stell, in 1705, a septuagenarian burgher, named Rotterdam, was publicly threatened with expulsion from the Colony for not standing up in church on the entrance of the Governor. Not only at church and other public gatherings and assemblies, but also in private intercourse, every individual was as stiff and formal and as keenly alive to any infraction of his privilege as if his happiness or misery depended upon it. The ladies too were particularly prone to insist upon every prerogative attached to the position of their husbands, and the records of the Council gravely chronicle the decisions come to, on the com- plaint of high officials as to the places given to their wives' chairs in church. Governor Ryk van Tulbagh, in addition to those rules, promulgated, in 1755, certain sumptuary laws, entering into detail as to the rank of those who should or should not use umbrellas, or wear silk dresses, embroidery, or other ornaments; the number of servants and horses that each rank might have; the costume of the coachman and footmen; the dresses of brides and their friends at wedding ceremonies; even the style of mourning and of burial, in case of death,—all were minutely laid down, and larger or smaller fines were the penalties attached to the infraction of these regulations. Many of the inhabitants, unable to endure the system of government and the monopoly of the market which prevailed, moved away from the neighbourhood of the Company's garrison. They crossed the mountain ranges and passed into the inland DISPERSION OF THE COLONISTS INLAND. 19 plains, where they obtained a subsistence by imitating the native mode of life, killing game and depasturing cattle. Others soon followed their example. The authorities, although at first opposed to the movement, after a time discovered it to be of some advantage, inasmuch as it “would add to their revenue, and increase the food supplies of the settlement.” In 1705, they give their formal sanction to the extension of the territory by issuing “ loan leases,” or revocable squatting licences, to such as preferred a re- quest for them, but always subject to the condition of resumption of the property at any time by the Company. Wherever there was vacant or disposable land, whoever chose to do so might apply for it; and if after temporary occupation, he found difficulty in securing permanent waters, or in grazing his cattle, he immedi- ately enlarged his range, and moved further into the interior. It was in this manner that the early Cape “Boers” or farmers adopted the nomad habit of “trekking," which has been continued by their descendants along the border of the European settlements until the present time. The dispersion of the European population, however, was in many ways detrimental alike to themselves and their descendants. In the inland districts, then designated “ (verberg” (beyond the mountains), they were confined to an isolated world of their own, where any energy or industry was cramped by the obstacles of travel to, or the impossibility of getting, a market for their produce, and they and their children were compelled to endure an unpro- gressive mode of existence, without any available means of advancement. Among them for many months in the year, bread was a luxury scarcely attainable,-biltong, the dried flesh of game or oxen, taking its place. Rarely could they gladden their hearts with a glass of wine. The most wealthy farmer was considered as well-dressed in a jacket of cloth, breeches of undressed leather, woollen stockings, a cotton handkerchief about his neck, a coarse calico shirt, Hottentot veldt-schoen, or else leather shoes with brass buckles, and a coarse hat. A plain close cap, and a coarse cotton gown, virtue, and good house-wifery were: looked upon by the fair sex as sufficient adornments for their person. They had neither church nor school within one or two hundred miles of them; but every morning and evening the patriarch of the family offered up prayer and praise, and read from the cherished family Bible, whose simple teachings served to maintain the principles as well as the forms of morality and civilization amongst them. Governor-General Imhoff, who touched at the Cape in 1743, reported that the state of the farmers in the remote districts was most lamentable, and he represented that if their children were further neglected they would lapse into barbarians. As a remedy, 0 2 -20 TERRITORIAL BOUNDARIES FIXED. a magistracy and church were established at Swellendam in 1745, the Gamtoos River being then declared the farthest limit of the settlement. But when the colonists spread to the Bruintjes Hoogte, Camdeboo, and the Sneeuwberg mountains, a magistracy was established in 1786, at Graaff-Reinet“ to prevent hostilities with the natives, and any foreign power settling at Algoa Bay;" and the Great Fish River was proclaimed as the territorial boundary of the Company's prosessions. Although measures had, from time to time, been taken to confine the inhabitants within the limits of the old districts, the Govern- ment were never really able to control or restrain them. From the Castle at Cape Town proclamations and placaats were issued for- bidding any burgher to leave his loan-farm, without permission, on any pretext whatever, “or to proceed into the interior on pain of corporal or capital punishment, aye, even to the death, and the confiscation of all property.” But these orders were treated with indifference and contempt, and the border farmers moved from one place to another as their fancy led them, some as elephant hunters crossing the boundary after the large game, and others as “togt- gangers” or traders, bartering goods with the natives around or beyond them. Under these circumstances, collisions and conflicts with the native races were inevitable. Within one or two hundred miles of the capital, the early pioneers found excellent tracts of land unoccupied, except by remnants of the weak and scattered Hottentot tribes,—the Khoi Khoin, or “men of men” as they termed themselves,—who peaceably accepted service with them in return for food and protection. But the colonists passing further inward, through the Karoo plains, encountered the hostility of the Bushmen, who were widely spread over the country from the Nieuwveldt and Camdeboo mountains to the Orange River. The white man destroyed their game, and they retaliated by taking the white man's cattle. Then followed reprisals and acts of violence and revenge; and the miseries which fell to the lot of both colonists and aborigines at this time form one of the saddest pages in the annals of the country. In the absence of military protection, the farmers, who almost from their youth were expert in the use of firearms, assembled for mutual defence, and proceeded in pursuit of depredators, or attacked those by whom they were threatened or disturbed. These armed assemblages were called “Commandoes,” and the system was recognised by Government, who appointed a Field-Commandant to each district and a Field-cornet to each sub-division of a district. The Government, however, owing to its distance from the common scene of hostilities, and also from the want of a true knowledge of the state of things there, exercised but little control over them. series whicheprisals and by taking ENCOUNTERS WITH BUSHMEN AND KAFIRS. 21 There was continual fighting with the Bushmen for nearly thirty years, apparently producing no other effect than to render them the implacable enemy of the white man, and finally resulting in what was virtually a war of extermination. The official records of Graaff-Reinet show that between 1786 and 1794, upwards of two hundred persons were murdered by the Bushmen, and that the number of the latter killed by “Commandoes” was not far short of two thousand five hundred. Those of the pioneers advancing eastward encountered the formidable Kafirs of the Amakosa nation. Some of the latter had been, for years previously, steadily encroaching upon and conquering the Gonaqua Hottentots, westwards of the Great Kei River. About the time of their first conflict with the colonists, they appear to have been engaged in an intertribal war with their neighbours, the Ama-Tembus, by whom they were signally defeated, their chief Khahabe being killed and their cattle becoming the prize of the victors. Being impoverished by these losses, à considerable number of them crossed the Fish River and commenced plundering the Europeans, their mischief and rapacity being often accompanied by cruel murders. Amicable means were tried to induce them to retire, but without success. The border inhabitants then determined to do them- selves justice by the law of force. They assembled a Commando, under Commandant van Jansveld, and successfully repulsed the Kafirs in several actions, capturing 5,300 head of their cattle, a good portion of which was recognised as cattle stolen from the colonists. This, the first rupture between the two races, took place in 1781 and 1782. Afterwards it was agreed between some Chiefs of the tribes and Governor Van Plettenberg, on his journey to the interior in 1778, that in order to avoid all disputes in the future, the Fish River from its source to the sea should be mutually recognised as the boundary between the Kafirs and the European inhabitants. In the meantime, the struggle between England and her American Colonies had been some time in progress, and Holland became allied with France and the armed Neutrality Powers, and an active enemy against England. In 1780, war with Holland was declared, and the British Government planned an expedition in the following year to seize the Cape of Good Hope. This intention became known through a spy named De la Motte, and a French fleet, under Admiral Suffren, was without delay despatched for the protection of the Dutch Company's possessions at the Cape. On its way out, off the Cape Verde islands, it accidentally met with the fleet of English ships of war, under Commodore Johnstone, equipped for the capture of the Cape. After a severe engagement, in which the English ships were more or less disabled for a time, the 22 CLAMOUR AGAINST THE OFFICIALS OF THE COMPANY. French Admiral pursued his way to Simon's Bay, where he landed his troops, some two or three thousand in number. The presence of this force preserved Cape Town against any attack upon the part of the English fleet, and at the same time prevented the colonists from attempting to imitate the conduct of the Americans in their struggle for independence. During the war, however supplies of specie from Holland were stopped, and to meet the exigencies of the Government a colonial paper currency, was thrown into circulation by Governor Van Plettenberg to the amount of nearly one million rix-dollars (then cf the value of four shillings each), with a promise that the same would be redeemed at par on the arrival of ships from Fatherland. On the resumption of peace in 1783, this pledge was only partially fulfilled. When the French troops took their departure, the defects of the monopolising system under which the settlement had grown up were again keenly felt, and discontent generally prevailed amongst the burghers. Two or three years before (in 1779), they had sent to Holland four delegates-Messrs. Jacob van Reenen, Barend J. Artoys, Tielman Roos, and N. G. Heyns,—with a list of accusations against Governor Plettenberg and other functionaries, and a petition for redress of their grievances. They complained of the corruption and exactions of the officials of the Company; and of the arbitrary power exercised by the Governor and the independent fiscal Boers, especially in the compulsory removal from the Colony of persons whom they thought fit to designate as “ useless ” or “ dangerous” subjects. They asked for a reform of the Court of Justice, for a definition of burgher rights and privileges, and for the establish- ment of a printing press, or at least, that the members of the community should be able to obtain copies of the laws in force. And, as in every previous petition, they prayed for the concession of a limited export trade. Some of these demands were met, and regulations promulgated to check the abuses on the part of officials which were com- plained of. But, with regard to the aspirations for civil and commercial privileges, the petitioners were reminded that they had been only permitted “as a matter of grace to have a residence in the land” and gain a livelihood as tillers of the earth, and that the settlement was planted not for their commercial advantage, but for the welfare of the Company. This did not serve to allay the dissatisfaction so generally preva- lent, and in 1785 other delegates, named Redlinghuys, Bergh, Roos, and Bresler were sent to Holland, to obtain, if possible, redress from the Company, and failing in that to appeal to the States-General of the Provinces, for a reform of the evils which were at the root of the Company's unpopularity. The burghers bne land” and was planted company. afaction so gener DISAFFECTION IN SWELLENDAM AND GRAAFF-REINET. 23 in their memorial demanded the right to sell their produce to who- ever they chose—“that all that commerce introduces into the country shall be freely landed, and all that the country produces shall be freely exported; it being an established rule that the farmer cannot maintain himself without a sufficient vent for what- ever his labour may produce from the land; and a Colony like this, composed of farmers alone, can have no durable means of supporting itself without a steady demand for produce propor- tioned to its quantity; nor without facilitating internal communi- ation as much as possible, as the difficulties of transport must otherwise neutralise all the efforts of the farmers by diminishing their profits.” The long-continued prosperity of the Dutch East India Company was at this period on the decline. Its finances were in confusion, and there were complaints of misgovernment in other of its posses- sions besides the Cape of Good Hope. The Stadtholder of the Netherlands, in 1791, appointed two Commissioners, Messrs. Neder- berg and Frekenius, to inquire into the affairs of all the settlements. On their arrival at the Cape in 1793, there was great expectation of the redress of abuses, and of reform in the system of adminis- tration; but nothing was immediately done, excepting establishing a bank of loans (called the Lombard Bank), to assist the inhabi- tants by enabling them to get advances on mortage bonds and other securities. They also issued a proclamation warning the inhabi- tants not to live beyond their means, and not to keep costly equipages and establishments; but to cultivate silk, wool, cotton, oil, wax, and indigo. They then proceeded on to Batavia, leaving the Cape in charge of Commissary-General Sluysken and the chief officers of the Company as a Council of Regency. Internal troubles had meanwhile been accumulating. In the border districts, the absence of any power of control on the part of the Government produced its natural effect upon the colonists -evoking a restless independence, which resented any mandate or interference on the part of the authorities. Hostilities between the colonists and Kafirs were frequent; and it was charged against the former, by the first magistrate placed at Graaff-Reinet, that these disturbances were stimulated by covetousness for their neighbour's cattle. The Government instructed their officers to inculcate amongst them principles of humanity and the policy of living in harmony with the Kafir tribes; but that course was characterised “as working the destruction of the land,” and distur- bances rose to such a height that the authorities found themselves under the necessity of giving their sanction to “ Commandoes” as before. Afterwards, when called upon to contribute their share of the taxes for the support of Government, the border men of Graaff- Reinet repudiated their obligation to pay anything "for places 24 END OF THE COMPANY'S RULE. which they had been obliged to defend at their own expense.” They at the same time complained of the restrictions on the sale of their produce, and the inconvenience and loss occasioned to them by the depreciation of the paper currency, which it had been promised would have been redeemed after the arrival of ships from Holland, but of which a considerable amount was still in circulation, Several disbanded soldiers had prior to this been allowed to settle in the country, and almost every Boer of any consideration had one of them employed as a schoolmaster to his children. Those men diffused the principles of Jacobinism and Republican- ism, which at this time had spread even to the Cape. Parties of what were termed “Loyalists” and “Nationalists” were or- ganized, and “Liberty, equality and fraternity " became a cry even in the remote country districts. The proceedings of these parties -although very ridiculous—were then considered very formidable, simply because of the weakness of the Government, which had no garrison outside of Cape Town to support its authority. At length, on the 6th of February, 1795, the inhabitants of Swellendam and Graaff-Reinet assembled in arms, and made—as they termed it—"a revolution ”; expelling the Magistrates from their offices; and declaring themselves " unwilling to obey the Dutch East India Company any longer; and that they would be independent.” A general spirit of diseffection against the Company's rule existed throughout the length and breadth of the land; but at this very juncture, when the disagreement between the people and the Government threatened the tranquillity of the country, an unexpected solution of the internal difficulty was brought about by the course of political events in Europe. The occupation of Holland by the French Revolutionists made the Prince of Orange (the Stadtholder) a refugee in England; and the English Government, with the concurrence of the Prince, sent out a fleet and troops under Admiral Elphinstone and Generals Clarke and Craig, who forcibly took possession of the Colony in the name of His Majesty the King of Great Britain on the 16th September, 1795. An effort for the recapture of the Cape was made in the follow- ing year, but the Dutch squadron, which was fitted out for the pur- pose, numbering nine vessels of war, with 342 guns and 2,000 troops, under command of Rear-Admiral Lucas, was captured by Admiral Elphinstone, without any resistance, in the harbour of Saldanha Bay in August, 1796. At the peace of Amiens, the Cape of Good Hope was again * By a proclamation of April, 1790, a fine of 1,000 rix-dollars was imposed on persons who would not accept the Government paper money, except at a discount of 8 to 10 per cent. CHANGE OF SOVEREIGNTY. 2.1 restored to Holland, in 1803; but the East India Company was then replaced by the Batavian Republic, who sent out, as their repre- sentatives to the Colony, the Governor-General Janssen and Commissioner-General De Mist, who at once set about establishing a new and efficient administration upon just and liberal principles- “no longer dependent upon any commercial body,” but such as might tend to reconcile the burghers who had rebelled against the unpopular Company, and soothe the continued animosities between them and the Aborigines. Scarcely three years had passed, however, when the sovereignty of the country was changed once more. On the renewal of the war in Europe, England determined upon the recapture of the Cape of Good Hope, and sent out a well-appointed force under General Sir David Baird. After a brief but honourable struggie, Governor-General Janssen, on the 19th January, 1806, surren- dered the Colony, his troops being embarked and sent to Holland by the English Government. * At the peace which followed, in 1815, the King of the Nether- lands, by convention, and in consideration of a payment of between two and three millions sterling, towards the settlement of the Low Countries, finally ceded the Cape, along with other possessions, in perpetuity to the British Crown. TEMPORARY OCCUPATION BY GREAT BRITAIN. From 1795 to 1803, the British Government held the Cape temporarily as a possession by conquest. Their principal reason for doing so was its importance as a military station, and its being considered the key to India and the East, which the leading naval power of the world must hold possession of in all contingencies. A considerable armed force was maintained at Cape Town, defensive works were constructed, and there was a liberal expenditure of money. In the seven years of their occupancy it was estimated that more than a million and a half sterling of English money was spent in the Colony, whose exports at that time did not exceed £15,000 per annum, and whose European population af all ages and sexes was not above 25,000 in number. By the terms of capitulation, the inhabitants were guaranteed the preservation of all the prerogatives they enjoyed, and the protection of all private property, whether belonging to individuals, churches, orpbans or public institutions; the free exercise of their public worship without alteration ; that no new taxes should be intro- duced, and those existing should be modified as much as possible in consideration of the decay of the Colony; and that the paper currency then in existence should be continued at its then current value, and all the lands and houses, the property of the Dutch East India Company, taken over by the new Government were bound security for the paper-money in circulation. The British Commanders, Elphinstone and Craig, adopted every measure calculated to promote the prosperity of the settlement. They at once announced that the monopolies and restrictions on the internal trade of the Colony, hitherto in force for the benefit of the Dutch East India Company, were now at an end ; that internal trade was entirely free and unrestricted ; that every person might sell his produce to whom, and in what manner, he pleased, as best suited his interests; and that all inhabitants so disposed were at liberty to exercise any trade or profession which might suit their inclination; that the navigation of the coast from harbour to harbour was also free, and that there existed no restraint in regard to the possession of boats or vessels of any sort by which the produce of any part of the Colony might be conveyed to a market. Major-General Craig assumed the reins of Government for a year or two, until the arrival of his successor, Earl Macartney, who as a civilian of high rank and character was chosen for the office of Governor. He endeavoured to soften the national feelings and MONOPOLIES AND RESTRICTIONS ON TRADE ABOLISHED. 27 lonice many of thise of sover with individid enlightener prejudices of the inhabitants by a conciliatory and enlightened policy, dealing kindly and liberally with individuals who had sustained losses by the change of sovereignty of the country; re- taining in office many of the former functionaries, and largely em- ploying colonial-born persons in places of trust in the administra- tion. Among other reforms he took steps for putting an end to the practice of proceeding by torture against persons suspected of crime, and of punishment after conviction by breaking on the wheel. Capital punishment—especially of slaves and natives—was, according to the Dutch law, carried out by the executioner, who, in the terms of the sentence, had to see that the criminals were s bound to a cross and broken thereon alive, from under upwards with the coup de grace"; or laid upon a wheel or hung on the gallows, s there to remain a prey to the air and the birds of the heavens. Reports from the Courts of Justice relative to the subject were obtained by Craig, who urged upon the Home Government to authorise a stop being put to the inhuman procedure. In the Commission issued to his successor, Earl Macartney, the necessary instruction was given by the King's command. The racks, wheels, and other instruments of torture were destroyed, and for capital crimes the cord was made the instrument of death as in England. Earl Macartney's governorship only extended over twelve months. In accepting office he made it a condition that should his health give way he would be authorised to transfer his duties to the officer next in command, Lieut.-General Francis Dundas. The emoluments allowed the Governor at this time were a salary of £10,000 per annum and £2,000 table money; the Secretary to the Governor received £3,000; and it was provided that in case the revenue of the Colony fell short of the cost of the establish- ments, the deficiency was to be made up by the Home Government. Before his departure, Earl Macartney proclaimed the boundary of the Colony to be, on the eastern frontier, the Great Fish River, on the north the Zekoe River, behind the Sneeuwberg, and the Caree or Roodeberg behind Camdeboo ; and the Zak River, the Roggeveld and the Hantam, forming a semi-circle from the east to the western limits, the Koussie River. He also issued a procla- mation with regard to commerce and navigation. When the settlement was under the Dutch East India Company, it ws usual to admit vessels of countries in amity with Holland into the ports; so now it was announced that British ships, or those of countries in amity with Great Britain only were permitted to do the same, and to import or export free of any duty; but no goods from the East could be imported except by English East India Company's vessels. Sir George Yonge was sent out as successor to Macartney, but his term of office was also of short duration. During it, however, 28 SIR GEORGE YONGE'S ADMINISTRATION. a printing press was established for the first time-Messrs. Walker and Robinson being authorised to this effect by Proclamation of 1st July, 1800; but the privilege was accompanied with the con- dition that no paper, book or pamphlet was to be put to press until the same had been approved by the Government. Much discontent prevailed during Sir George Yonge's adminis- tration, and many complaints having reached England, he was suddenly and unexpectedly recalled, and a Commission appointed to enquire into the abuses charged against his government. The first of his acts, which gave a great degree of offence and dissatisfaction, was the shutting up of the public gardens in Cape Town. This happened almost immediately after his arrival in the Colony, and at a season of the year (the middle of summer), when the inhabitants were accustomed to enjoy the refreshing coolness of the shady walks—then the only avenues of the kind in the vicinity of the town. In consequence of complaints, an order was issued by the Governor stating that his object was to put the avenues in re- pair, and all respectable persons were permitted to enter on writing down their names at the entrance-gate; but very few would accept as an indulgence what they had always considered as a right. Another matter complained of was that, in direct violation of the articles of Capitulation, which expressly stated that no new taxes wouid be imposed, the Governor had augmented thuse already established by issuing proclamations requiring licences to be taken out for keeping billiard tables, holding clubs or societies, and for the killing of game. The regulations respecting licences for billiard tables and clubs wero considered to be of little harm, as they tended to check disorderly meetings, gambling, and dissipation, and were meant also to suppress Jacobin gatherings ; but the laws enforced with regard to the killing of game, and the taking out of an annual licence for that purpose, created very general discontent. At that time, game, both large and small, was so abundant in the colony, that the prohibition inflicted an injury on the farmers, especially those in the remote parts, many of them having been in the habit of killing game for the maintenance of their families, and others to protect their fields from destruction. The complaints on this point at length produced an amendment of the law on the 6th November, 1800, modifying the restrictions laid down. The discontent occasioned by the foregoing acts was increased by a proclamation of the 14th August, 1800, imposing additional charges on colonial produce—brandy being increased from three to six rixdollars per leaguer, when brought into town: also by a proclamation ordering the establishment of the office of wine-taster, to which the Governor's own private secretary was appointed. It was further complained of that he attempted to grant in perpetuity HIS CORRUPT SURROUNDINGS. 29 ty was in i sround mehrer Senato introducciones vith ted in commoned through part of the pra the public lands mortgaged for the paper currency, by giving a grant of land to Mr. Duckitt, who had been sent out by the Secre- tary of State as a model agriculturist, to teach and introduce im- proved modes of husbandry; the Burgher Senate (who had to report upon all alienations of ground) holding that so long as the Capitulation treaty was in force, Government had no power to alienate by permanent grant any of the lands mortgaged for the redemption of the paper currency circulating in the colony. But there were other and graver charges, to the effect that the aide-de-camp, private secretary, and others around the Governor, were in the habit of exacting a part of the profits accruing to indi- viduals, who obtained through their means certain privileges not granted in common-in other words, “ for facilitating their affairs with the Government." The evidence before the Commission fully established the fact that a practice prevailed of taking douceurs or bribes for obtaining or granting certain privileges or contracts, although there was nothing whatever to show that the Governor was cognisant of or shared in these. The prevailing opinion (says the Commission appointed to examine into these abuses) was that the most effectual way of carrying a point with the Governor was by pecuniary offices to those about his person. An instance of the depravity and profligacy of those imme- diately connected with the representative of the Sovereign, was given in the case of an official, who wanted one-half, but afterwards agreed to take one-third, of the profits on the importa- tion of a cargo of slaves. A Mr. Hogan was one of those for whom this official “ facilitated affairs." He had a vessel named the Collector, which he employed as a privateer ; she was remark- able for the number of prize slave cargoes which she brought into port, having ostensibly captured them from prizes off the coast of Madagascar. But the Captain and officers of a Danish ship which arrived at the Cape while the Collector was in harbour, identified her as well known in the slave trade. They declared the Collector had never captured any prize, but that the slaves were purchased and put on board the vessel at Mozambique. This case was investigated by the Court of Justice, and it was proved that the Court of Vice-Admiralty had been grossly imposed upon by false witnesses and false log-books; and Hogan seems to have been the person who planned the whole of it. Sentence was given against the Captain of the Collector, who bore the name of Smart, but he fled the Colony, and was declared an outlaw. Governor Yonge was exonerated from all knowledge of these affairs; but a despatch from Downing-street, dated 14th January, 1801, directed him to resign his government into the hands of Lieut-General Dundas, without waiting the arrival of Lord Glen- 30 SWELLENDAM AND GRAAFF-REINET AGAIN. burvie, who was appointed his successor, but who accepted the appointment of Paymaster to the Forces instead. The condition of the country districts in the meanwhile called for the serious attention of each successive Governor. At Swellen- dam, after the capitulation, the former Landdrost, Mr. Faure, was reinstated; and the people received him to his satisfaction. At Graaff-Reinet the burghers were apprehensive that their conduct might be represented in a very bad light by some one or other of the old servants of the Company, and they addressed a communi- cation to Governor Craig, setting forth the reasons of their dis- content and their grievances; at the same time requesting that he would be pleased to appoint a proper magistrate over them; provide a clergyman to fill the vacant pulpit of their Church, and furnish the district with the necessary gunpowder and lead for its requirements. It was deemed undesirable to re-appoint the former Landdrost, Mr. Maynier, to the magistracy, and one was selected for the office who was likely to be acceptable to the people. He was accompanied by a clergyman who was known to many of the inhab- itants. On their arrival at Graaff-Reinet, they found there was no person disposed to come forward to take the oath of allegiance ; but the people made a representation of their views, for the infor- mation of the Governor, setting forth that “they were willing to bring to Cape Town all their produce; that they would observe all reasonable orders and laws provided the Government furnished them with what the country was in want of; that they would not take the sword against the English, and that they only refused to take the oath, because when their High Mightinesses of the Netherlands should re-take the country they would not be able to justify themselves for so doing.” After a short stay, and finding themselves surrounded by an insubordinate people, who showed as little respect for the magistrate and clergyman as they did for what they termed the “aristocrats of the old Company,” whom they had previously sent about their business,—the magistrate, Mr. Bresler, and the clergyman, the Rev. Mr. Manger, took their departure and returned to Cape Town. General Craig ordered a military force into the country to subdue the burghers and to secure obedience to authority. But meanwhile a change came over the representatives of Graaff-Reinet. At a public meeting held in August, 1796, they resolved to throw themselves on the protection of the British, and submit to the order of the Governor. By this time Earl Macartney had arrived at Cape Town, and he sent Mr. Bresler back as Landdrost to Graaff-Reinet, accompanied by his own private secretary, Mr. Barrow-afterwards widely known as Sir John Barrow. They were amicably received by the inhabitants, and for a while peace and tranquillity was restored. THE VAN JAARSVELD REBELLION. 31 Hile was four drinn Graafted the per the farmen, undera be de Follow Two years afterwards, however, disturbances again occurred, which led to most unfortunate and disastrous results. The Court of Justice had issued a decree for the apprehension of Comman- dant Adrian van Jaarsveld, on a charge of falsifying a receipt with the object of defrauding the Orphan Chamber of an amount of arrear interest due on a mortgage on the building of his loan-place named “De Vreede” at the foot of the Nieuweld Mountains. He was arrested and sent from Graaff-Reinet to Cape Town in charge of four dragoons and the Secretary to the Landdrost. A short distance from Graaff-Reinet, the escort was met by an armed body of Boers, who rescued the prisoner. They then strengthened their number by summoning all the farmers between the Lange Kloof and Bushman's River to join them, under threat of being considered as “traitors to the country, who would be dealt with after the affair was over.” The ringleaders and their followers took an oath to be faithful to each other to the last drop of their blood. The inhabitants of Bruintjes Hoogte were most prominent amongst them. The Sneeuwberg farmers appear to have kept aloof from the rising. This force marched on Graaff-Reinet, and on arrival at the Sunday's River Drift, lay there encamped for about a month, prescribing rules how the Kafirs should be treated, and threatening to hang the Landdrost and exterminate the garrison, which consisted only of a sergeant and seven Dragoons. The new clergyman of Graaff-Reinet, the Rev. Mr. Ballot, repeatedly went out to interview the insurgents, and endeavoured to persuade them of their folly; and he succeeded so far as to retard their plans and prevent acts of personal violence. Meanwhile, news of the revolt having reached the authorities in Cape Town, the Acting Governor, General Dundas, at once dispatched two divisions of troops, one overland and the other by sea, to Algca Bay, for the relief of Graaff-Reinet. Major McNab, with a detatchment of Dragoons and Hottentots, proceeded overland, and as it was known the insurgents had sent emissaries to induce the people to come to their assistance, along his route, he issued proclamations exhorting and ordering the inhabitants to remain quietly at their homes. General Vandeleur had command of the troops landed at Algoa Bay. He at once proceeded inland, but met with no opposition on the road. On his arrival at Graaff-Reinet, he found that the insurgents had retired to Bruintjes Hoogte, and had sent in two of their number submissively applying for pardon. Van- deleur then followed them to Bruintjes Hoogte, where the people laid down their arms. The leaders, Marthinus Prinsloo, van Jaarsveld, and others, who were considered more culpable, were apprehended and sent on to Cape Town to await their trial, and the rest were pardoned on their paying a fine to Government 32 HOTTENTOT AND KAFIR CONFEDERACY. of one or two horses for the cavalry, according to their means. A few of them, who refused to surrender, retired as fugitives into Kafirland. During these movements of the British troops, crowds of Hotten- tots flocked after them. Some came from their kraals; others availed themselves of the prevailing disturbances to abandon the service of the farmers, which they complained had been cruel and oppressive to them. When the insurgents surrendered, these Hottentots took advantage of the opportunity of possessing themselves of some of their weapons; but the general tranquillity of the country demanded their being disarmed, and this was accordingly done. Their dis- armament made them suspicious of the intentions of the English towards them, and when, upon order being restored in the district, they saw the troops being withdrawn, they dreaded the probability of having to return to the service of the Boer masters from whom they had fled, and to whose anger and ill-will they feared they would fall a sacrifice. Some of them asked the authorities to point out some means for their subsistence, and to allot them certain un- occupied lands. Their appeal did not receive immediate attention ; and, with characteristic imprudence and fickleness, a considerable number of them joined their barbarous neighbours, the Kafirs, who were then investing the bushy country from the Bushman's to the Sunday's River, and aggressively advancing on the Europeans. The Kafirs welcomed the Hottentot reinforcement to their side, as several of them were well accustomed to the use of firearms. Immediately upon this union, they set about plundering and burning the farmers' houses, in many cases murdering the defence- less inhabitants on the thresholds of their dwellings, and desolating the whole country from the Bushman's and Sunday's Rivers west- ward even to Langekloof and Knysna. The border farmers were confounded by this unexpected insur- rection of the Hottentots, and panic-stricken at their first successes. The confederacy was a formidable one, and consisted of seven hundred men who had already with them more than three hundred horses and one hundred and fifty fire-locks, and the Hottentots who still remained under the farmers were suspected of not being well disposed but rather inclined to join them on the first opportunity. A commando of burghers was formed under Com- mandant Tjart van der Walt, and a detachment of troops under Major Sherlock took the field, to suppress these plundering bands, the latter checking their advance westward at Langekloof. Un- fortunately Van der Walt,--one who is described as "inspiring con- fidence into his own people and striking terror into his oppo- nents,”—was struck down by a musket ball, when penetrating the woods near the Gamtoos River. Deprived, of his services, the Boer Commando broke up, without accomplishing any favourable result. HOW PEACE WAS MADE. 33 While the country districts were in this deplorable state, General Dundas sent for the former Landrost of Graaff-Reinet, Mr. Maynier, and commissioned him to use his efforts for the restora- tion of peace. Dundas, remembering the unfortunate events at San Domingo, Hayti, in 1791, feared the most serious consequences would follow from a war of races, if the anarchy which prevailed was not suppressed. He counselled that the Hottentots should be appeased by all fair means. The question was, how to enter into negotiations with them. Mr. Maynier tendered his services, and went unarmed into the territory between the Sunday's and Bushman's River, where the confederacy was assembled. After much trouble, he concluded a peace with the Hottentots, the terms of which were “that Government should protect them against the ill-treatment of the Boers in the most efficacious manner, and should provide that when they served the Boers they should be well paid and well treated.” He then returned to the General, bringing with him the principal chiefs of the confederacy, Klaas Stuurman, Boezak, and Bovelander, with whom the General ratified this peace. A similar plan was adopted with regard to the chiefs of the Kafirs, to whom presents were forwarded, and with whom the General also agreed on terms of peace. Mr. Maynier was then appointed Resident Commissioner at Graaff-Reinet, charged with superintending and carrying out the regulations necessary to give effect to the agreement made with the Hottentots, and to restore order in the district. The plan he adopted was to open a register of the time, wages, and other terms upon which each Hottentot entered the service of any European master; so as, in case of dispute, reference could be had thereto as to their mutual engagements. He urged the farmers, now re- covering from the panic and apprehension which had seized them, to return and take possession of their farms, as the only way of restoring confidence and tranquillity. But a state of unrest continued throughout the country owing to the circulation of mischievous reports, which were in many cases believed by the inhabitants, who were extremely credulous and easily imposed upon. A number of Boers assembled in arms at Zwager's Hoek, as it was rumoured the Kafirs and Hottentots were preparing to extirpate the farmers at Bruintjes Hoogte. Their leaders, Commandant Rens- burg and Field-cornet Erasmus, said they were unable to restrain the people at their places, and were obliged to go with them. They marched to Graaff-Reinet, wbere they requested ammunition and leave to go on commando; at the same time complaining of the privi- leges granted to the Hottentots, and especially their being permitted to use the Church, thus placing them on an equal footing with the Christians; and, finally, demanding that those Hottentots who had murdered their relations should be given up into their hands. D . 34 ATTACK ON GRAAFF-REINET DROSTDF. try, but he or their frien to the aws of thithout any ar pieces, in At this time, there were a large number of Hottentots in the town; many of them alarmed by the movements of the farmers, having fled from their kraals, or from their masters' service, to the Drostdy for protection. They were received and provided for by the Commissioner, as a temporary measure, it being considered prudent to have them under supervision and control there, lest they might form roaming bands and renew the system of plunder and depredation which had previously prevailed. The Commis- sioner, parleying with the insurgents, consented that the Hottentots should be kept out of the Church, where the Missionary Dr. Van der Kemp had been ministering to them, and that the use of that building should be left entirely to the Europeans; that such of the Hottentots as were accused of murder should be arrested and tried according to the laws of the country, but not delivered into the hands of their accusers without any proof of their crimes. A small body of dragoons, with four field pieces, in addition to the Hottentots, were prepared to defend the town; the other inhabitants having laid down their arms, refusing to use them against their countrymen. The insurgents threatened that if the Hottentots were not delivered up, they would destroy the place. The Commissioner received this challenge with firmness, and after their refusal to lay down arms, or retire, opened fire upon them. The fire was returned on the side of Van Rensburg and his party, and was continued from morning until sunset, but they at length retired and dispersed to their farms, without subduing the Drostdy, and happily even without any bloodshed on either side. Mr. Maynier continued his efforts to restore order, and endeavoured to get the Hottentots to enter, for the second time, into the service of their masters; but his firmness and occasional severity in carrying out his plans, in conformity with the principles he had laid down, made him exceedingly unpopular with the farmers. Reports to his discredit were circulated all over the country; amongst others, that one of the best and most respectable of the inhabitants of the Camdeboo, a Mr. Naude, had been cruelly murdered by a band of Kafirs, and that he had in some way connived at this atrocity. The general dissatisfaction amongst the Graaff-Reinet colonista was such as to force General Dundas, much against his will, to recall Mr. Maynier; and upon the return of the latter to Cape Town, a commission was appointed by the Government to enquire into the accusations brought against him. These charges were :- Delaying to acquaint the Government with the turbulent state of the country ; obtaining cattle from the Kafirs and Hottentots for beads and other trifles, inadequate to their value; sending emissaries among the Hottentots to dissuade them from entering the British service; refusing to bring certain Hottentots to RELEASE OF THE BOER PRISONERS. 35 tiomination of moral Francignment reachable early Graaff-Reinet accused of murder, and permitting them with, impunity to escape ; injustice and cruelty in the matter of the murder of Naude, and also in delivering into the hands of the Boers a number of Hottentots who fled to him for protection. The Commission, after a lengthened investigation, reported that Mr. Maynier was “ entirely innocent of all and every of the charges preferred against him, and that some of the evidence- was such as to merit the most serious reprobation.” He was at once re-appointed to office, as a member of the Court of Justice. Meanwhile, an intimation of the probable early restoration of the Cape to the Dutch Government reached the Colony; and the Governor, General Francis Dundas, made arrangements for the termination of his administration. He shewed a generous inten- tion towards the Hottentots who had taken refuge at Graaff-Reinet and were indisposed to re-enter the service of their former masters. He proposed to the Rev. Dr. Van der Kemp to locate them, under his charge, on a farm-place near Algoa Bay, where they would have the protection of the Military detachment stationed at Fort Frederick. The proposal was accepted, and Van der Kemp left Graaff-Reinet with 300 Hottentots, men, women, and children, and founded the mission institution of Bethelsdorp, which became- an asylum for numbers of the race who left their kraals and hiding-places in the woods, and settled down as peaceful subjects. The Boer prisoners who had surrendered to General Vandeleur in 1799, had been all this time in custody within the Castle of Cape Town. Their trial took place in 1800, before the Court of Justice, consisting of Messrs. 0. G. de Wet, A. Fleck, C. Matthiessen, H. A. Truter, J. P. Baumgardt and J. A. Truter, Secretary. The leaders, Prinsloo and Van Jaarsveld, were condemned to death; others were ordered “ to be delivered to the executioner blind-folded, and having kneeled down upon a heap of sand, to have the sword waved over their head for punishment, and then to be banished for the remainder of their lives from the settlement;" and some were recommended to mercy and set at liberty. Owing to the change of Governors, and the disturbances in the country, the execution of the sentence of the Court of Justice was postponed from time to time; and Governor Dundas, in December, 1801, recommended that, in consideration of these circumstances, clemency should be shewn to the prisoners by some modification of the capital part of their punishment, if not by a full remission of their sentence, “thereby demonstrating the mild spirit of the English, and the placable forbearing system actuating the Government.” Shortly after this, information of the Treaty of Amiens, restoring the Cape to the Batavian Government, was received, and on the evacuation of the Colony by Great Britain in February, 1803, the prisoners D 2 :36 RELATIONS WITH THE KAFIRS. were free to leave the Castle under the amnesty granted by the Batavian Commissioners. During the short interregnum from 1803 to 1806, while the Cape was under the Batavian Government, Governor Janssen, and his colleague, Commissioner de Mist, gave their earnest attention to the condition of the frontier districts. They visited the Border, and personally interviewed the Hottentots and the Kafir chiefs, with the object of re-establishing a good under- standing between them and the Colonists. In the course of their journey, they witnessed the deplorable results of the disturbances which had occurred-houses in ruins, fields desolated, and numerous families impoverished, wandering about homeless, and living scantily upon the small remnants of cattle they had been able to save from the hands of their invaders. A number of the farmers were induced to return to their old habitations and commence life anew. At Graaff-Reinet, a new Landdrost, Mr. Stockenstrom, was appointed, under whom tranquillity was restored; and the district was sub-divided, another Magistracy being formed at the Zwartkops River Valley, to which the name of “ Uitenhage " was given. Between the Sundays and Fish Rivers, however, the country was still occupied by Kafirs under the chiefs T’Slambie, Congo and others, who were then in revolt against their paramount chief, Gaika. They acknowledged that the Great Fish River was the boundary of the Kafir territory, and promised to return there as soon as they had conquered or were reconciled to their chief, with whom they were at war. But these promises were never fulfilled. All the endeavours of the Dutch Border Commissioner, Capt. Alberti, to induce them to quit the Colony and retire to their own country, were in vain. The Government had no force to compel their retirement, and was therefore obliged to content itself with being on a half friendly footing with them. In this situa- tion relations with the Kafirs remained, until the Colony was again taken under British dominion. boundarhey had come to But the che Bordery and ratine force cele somon they Weavours there to quithe Govore obliged to in the THE CAPE UNDER BRITISH DOMINION. From the date of the surrender of the Cape to the British forces under General Sir David Baird, in 1806, the country may be said to bave entered upon a new era. It then virtually became a British Colony. By the articles of capitulation, however, the burghers and inhabitants were guaranteed all the rights and privileges including their form of public worship, which they had hitherto enjoyed. The paper money actually in circulation was continued current as before, until the pleasure of His Britannic Majesty should be known. All bona fide private property re- mained free and untouched. Public lands and houses, the property of the Batavian Republic, were delivered up and remained as security for such of the paper money as was not already secured by mortgage upon the estates of individuals, without prejudice, how- ever, to free use being made of the said lands and houses for public purposes. The total population of the Colony at this period, was 73,663 souls, of whom 26,720 were of European descent; and the lands in occupation of individuals consisted of 96 places, measuring 26,136 morgen held in freehold; 355 morgen held in quitrent; and 1,739 places held on “loan-leases.” The population was distributed as follows:- EUROPEAN INHABITANTS. HOTTENTOTS. SLAVES. Men. Women. Men Women. Men. Women. Cape Town ...... 3,263 3,034 233 202 5,513 3,322 Cape District .... 802 630 3 43 244 3,154 1,139 Stellenbosch ...... 2,613 2,286 1,221 1,2395,728 2,986. Swellendam ...... 2,551 2,235 2,108 2,174 1,795 1,064 Graaff-Reinet .... 2,394 2,103 2,239 2,491 899 483 Uitenhage........ 1,257 1,094 1.047 1.278 346 245 Tulbagh ........ 1,289 1,169 1,416 1,422 1,621 991 Total ........14,169 12,551 8,607 9,050 19,056 10,230 The general character of the policy adopted by Sir David Baird, and the several British Governors who succeeded him, partook in some measure of the liberal principles of administration introduced under the auspices of the Batavian Government. The Colonists were free to dispose of their produce upon the most advantageous. terms, and a profitable market was at once provided by the large Naval and Military expenditure within the Colony itself, and at a. later period by the establishment and supply of a garrison and squadron at St. Helena. auspices of their produce upone provided by the data :38 SLAVE INSURRECTION. Earl Caledon, who was Governor from 1807 to 1811, established a system of postal communication between Cape Town and the country districts by relays of post-riders. He also instituted .“ Circuit Courts," appointing Commissioners from the Court of Justice to proceed once a year or oftener throughout the whole of the Colony and administer the laws among all classes of the in- habitants with the same power and authority as was exercised by the Court in Cape Town. He likewise sought to ameliorate the condition of the Hottentots by issuing regulations requiring that they should have a fixed place of abode, or otherwise be treated as vagabonds; and that all contracts entered into by them should be registered with the conditions as to wages, time of payment, and date of termination of contract, so that no master could act unfairly to them, or detain them, their wives, or children after the expiry of such term of contract. The object of these regulations was to protect the Hottentots, and encourage them to prefer entering the service of the inhabitants io leading an indolent life, by which they were rendered useless to themselves and the com- munity at large. The abolition of the slave trade and the discontinuance of the importation of slaves, at this time, were not without a beneficial influence on domestic life and the habits, manners and morals of the inhabitants. But considerable alarm was created in the western districts by an attempted insurrection of a number of the regroes in servitude. The plot originated with a slave named Louis, and two Irishmen, Hooper and Kelly. Their plan was to incite the slaves in the inland districts to rebel, and having armed them with such weapons as they could procure in the country, to march them to Cape Town, seize the batteries, and despatch a letter to the Governor demanding the liberty of the slaves of the Colony; and in case of this being refused, they were to make themselves masters of the magazines, force the prisons, release the prisoners, and fight for their liberty. Louis, Hopper and Kelly, dressed in grotesque uniform with gold and silver epaulettes, and the first wearing a large sword, drove to the farm of a Mr. P. G. Louw, of Zwart- land, and passed themselves off as Spanish officers. The master being absent, the mistress did her best to provide a good supper and entertain them properly. Next morning they took possession of Louw's wagons and horses, and proceeded to the residence of his neighbour Basson, where they bound the proprietor and made themselves masters of the guns, powder, and ammunition, stating that their instructions were from the Government and the Fiscal, to take all Christians and carry them to Cape Town. Proceeding then from farm to farm, gathering wagons, horses and arms, and inciting the slaves at each place to join them, they formed a considerable cavalcade passing through Koeberg and EXPULSION OF THE KAFIRS. 39 Tygerberg. Some of them plundered the farmers' houses, outraged the farmers' wives, and forced their European masters, tied and bound, into their wagons. News of the outbreak soon reached Cape Town, and a detachment of Infantry and Cavalry were marched out with such promptitude that the insurgents were surrounded and captured, some at Salt River and others at Koeberg. The number of prisoners taken was 326. Those of the slaves who were passive in the affair were returned to their masters, and the wagons, horses, saddles, guns and other property were given back to the owners. The remainder of the prisoners were sent to trial, and the leaders, Louis, Hooper, and Abraham Jepta, were sentenced to death, while Kelly was transported from the Colony. A system of predatory warfare was reported to prevail on the eastern frontier, between the Colonists and the fugitive Kafirs; and complaints were also made of the incursions of Bushmen upon the farmers of the Nieuwveld and Zak River. Earl Caledon felt it desirable to obtain accurate information respecting these matters, and the way to remedy the evils complained of. He appointed an officer on whom he could rely, Colonel Collins of the 83rd Regiment, to visit these territories, and report the result of his observations. The reports furnished by Col. Collins contained very full and interesting information as to the character and history of the two races, the Bushman and Kafir. With regard to the Bushmen, he recommended the establishment of two or three Mission Institutions, around which they might be attracted and induced to settle down, and thus weaned from their predatory and wild life in the plain and mountains. As to the steps necessary to be taken for checking Kafir aggression and securing the permanent tranquillity of the Eastern Districts, his recommendation was to oblige all the Kafirs settled in the Zuurveld to withdraw to their own country across the Fish River, and to oppose innumerable obstacles to their return to the Colony. It fell to the lot of Farl Caledon's successor, Sir John Francis Cradock (afterwards Lord Howden) to carry out this policy of expulsion. The landdrosts of Graaff-Reinet and Uitenhage, in 1811, reported that the country was overrun with Kafirs, and that their depredations were quite without precedent. Several colonists and their herdsmen were murdered, and in one instance the body of a young man, named Jacobus de Winter, was found by his father suspended to a tree by the lash of a wagon-whip, with both hands covering the face, giving reason to imagine that the assegais with which he had been pierced did not occasion instant death, and that he had endured most cruel and barbarous torture. An armed force, composed partly of troops and partly of burghers, from all the districts of the Colony, was called into the 40 COL. GRAHAM'S EXPEDITION. field, and placed under the command of Lieut.-Colonel Graham of the Cape Regiment. In the instructions to that Officer, Sir John Cradock stated that the basis of his action was to secure the undisturbed establishment of the territory surrendered by the Dutch. “It is unneces- sary,” he said, “to expatiate upon a subject of so plain a nature, where the arguments are so fully proved by the repeated aggression of the Kafir nation, who have made such continual inroads into our territories, and have to a great extent, after outrages of the most atrocious kind, banished the peaceable inhabitants from their dwellings and property. As the reasures of passive conciliation and forbearance have proved ineffectual, it is necessary to adopt another mode of proceeding, and their complete expulsion from our Territory must be accomplished. I experience much satisfac- tion, while entering upon a measure of this description, from the general information that His Majesty's subjects have not in any of the late proceedings been the aggressors, but that the Kafir nation have been constantly the depredators and offenders, After this general view, it will be my desire that you take the most effectual measures to clear His Majesty's Territory from the Kafir nation or marauders of any description, and that they be repelled permanently within their own boundaries.” The Amakosa Chief, Gaika, was informed of the intention of the Government, and expressed approval of the steps to be taken for driving the Kafirs into their own territory, as he said they had only occupied the Zuurveld in order to withdraw their allegiance from him, whose vassals they were. The country in which the expeditionary force had to operate was one of the most difficult for military movements which could be conceived. From the Sunday's River to the Bushman's River, there is an extended jungle of high bush, affording cover, even at the present day, to the elephant and the buffalo; and behind this bush there rises a series of broken mountain ridges intersected with thickly wooded ravines, extending for a distance of forty to fifty miles in length and varying from nine to twelve miles in breadth. These ridges are known as the Zuurberg and Rietberg mountains, and the Bushman's River Pass; they are within view of the traveller by railway between Port Elizabeth and Alicedale Junction. In November, 1811, Colonel Graham proceeded with his force, which he divided into three divisions—the right under his own command; the centre under Major Cuyler; and the left under Mr. Stockenstrom, landdrost of Graaff-Reinet. The armed burghers and the Cape Regiment, with some dragoons and artillery formed the advanced column; while the regular troops, including de- tachments of the Cape Regiment, the 83rd and the 60th Regiments, with miles in lengidges are knows River Pas Port F xtending to nine toets and to MASSACRE ON THE ZUURBERG. 41 the main bodwards an adjacent and many of her of it. Next formed the reserve, to guard against the Kafirs penetrating through any of the country to the rear of the commando, and entering the inhabited districts of the Colony. Major Cuyler, with the centre division, went direct to Congo's Kraal; the chief was not visible, but all his troops were drawn up in battle array and ornamented with crane feathers, the emblem of war. By the messages sent, Congo appeared inclined to follow the advice given to him of quietly retiring to his own coun- try, and was therefore allowed till text day to consider of it. Next day, however, the chief T'Slambie and many of his Kafirs were observed going towards an adjacent wood, and it was ascertained that the main body of his and Congo's followers were assembled around him. Col. Graham then united the right and centre forces, and dividing nearly one-half of them into companies of dismounted men, each sixty strong, ordered them to enter the wood and remain there while one of the enemy was to be found. This plan was repeated as other wooded fastnesses were reached, and ultimately proved effectual. The Kafirs had never been attacked on foot or in a wood before, and in the jungle their only arm, at that time the “ assegai,” was a miserable weapon, as room is required to throw it with effect. After several of their number had fallen, they fled from their favourite and hitherto undisturbed haunts—the chief T'Slambie foremost amongst them, with a whole herd of followers and cattle, retiring across the Great Fish River near to its mouth. Their abandoned kraals were burnt and their gardens and fields laid waste; but their women and children were invariably pro- tected and restored to them, together with all captured cattle. The services of the burghers during the campaign were highly spoken of by Col. Graham; and he mentioned the following colonists as having specially distinguished themselves : Comman- dant Jacobus Linde, of Swellendam; Botha, of George; Gabriel Stoltz, Ignatius Muller, William Nel, and John and Isaac van Niekerk of Uitenhage, and Piet Pretorius of Graaff-Reinet. During the early part of these operations, which extended over twelve days, Col. Graham sent orders to Mr. Stockenstrom, whơ was on the north side of the Zuurberg, to join the right division on the south side; and the latter at once left his quarters, accom- panied by twenty-four men, chiefly burgher commandants. When more than half-way across, on the top of the Zuurberg mountain, at a spot known as Doorn Nek, where there was open smooth ground, a number of Kafirs met the party, and Mr. Stockenstrom; placing a fatal confidence in their friendly professions, dismounted and entered into conversation with them. For nearly half an hour the venerable magistrate smoked his pipe with them, and passed the tobacco-bag round amongst them, while the subject of the expulsion was discussed. He did all he could to persuade them 42 IMPROVEMENT OF THE LAND TENURE. to leave, and assured them that not a shot should be fired if they went across the Fish River quietly. While the “ palaver" was proceeding, some other Kafirs arrived, who reported that blood had been shed. The character of the meeting at once changed. The Kafirs, now upwards of one hundred in number, rushed upon Mr. Stockenstrom and those who were next to him, as they were mounting their horses, and instantly murdered the old gentleman, eight of the farmers who were with him, and a Hottentot. The rest of the party managed to effect their escape and brought the sad tidings to Col. Graham. For some time after the expulsion of the Kafirs, the military and burghers continued to guard the boundary along the Great Fish River. Col. Graham urged that the vacated tract should at once be oocupied, and the former residents of the districts invited to return to them; but the Governor resisted this, as he sought to maintain the country as “neutral ground," and only sanctioned a small number of farmers being encouraged to settle there for the convenience of the supply of the troops at the military head- quarters, which received the name of Graham's Town. Sir John Cradock was disposed to think that, to prevent the evils which had to be overcome on the frontier, it was desirable to concentrate the population of the country and secure their attention to agriculture more than to pastoral pursuits, which tended to a roving life, and was the cause of their weakness and occasional troubles. The system of “loan-leases” appeared to him from this point of view to be very injurious, and he was determined not to perpetuate it. The question of land tenure had been under consideration of the Government for some time, and by Imperial as well as Colonial authorities it was considered desir- able that the holders of land should no longer be subject to a revocable lease, but have such a tenure as would enable them to apply capital to the improvement of their estates. In 1812, a proclamation was issued by Sir J. Cradock, allowing the holders of all lands on loan to convert them into perpetual quitrent properties and to hold the same hereditarily for the annual payment of a sum to be prescribed according to the situation, fertility, and other circumstances of the ground. The object of this was, as the pro- clamation states, “a paternal desire to give to the farmers the security of title to their land, without any claim to resumption on the part of Government, so that they might be encouraged to plant timber, and improve and extend agriculture, by having the right to dispose of their places as they chose, by dividing the same among their children, letting, selling, or otherwise alienating it.” In the following year, Cradock resigned the Government, much to the regret of all classes of colonists, who in public addresses testified that his three years' administration of THE BEZUIDENHOUT REBELLION. 43 the Cape had conduced greatly to the happiness and prosperity of the inhabitants. He was succeeded by Lord Charles Somerset, wbo arrived on the 5th April, 1814. He found the troubluus affairs of the border varied by a rebellion among some of the colonists of European descent, of which he gave a detailed account to Earl Bathurst. The circumstances which led to this outbreak arose out of the relations between master and servant. A Hottentot who had been several years in the service of Frederick Bezuidenhout, residing near the border, in what is now known as Glen Lynden (then termed the Baviaan's River), complained of ill-treatment. His complaint was made to Mr. (afterwards Sir Andries) Stockenstrom, who, in succession to his father, filled the office of Landdrost at Graaff-Reinet. The Field-cornet of Baviaan's River, a colonist named Opperman, was directed to inquire into the case, and to see that justice was done to the complainant. Bezuidenhout considered this interference between him and his servant to be an inuovation of his right-an intolerable exhibition of authority; and set both the Field-cornet and the Magistrate at defiance. In consequence of this, application was made to the Commission of Circuit, and a warrant issued for his apprehension. The Under-Sheriff was then dispatched by Mr. Stockenstrom to take Bezuidenhout into custody, and as it was reported he had sworn never to surrender himself, the officer of justice was accom- panied by a military escort, under Lieut. Rosseau, a native of the Colony, with twenty men of the Cape Corps. When they approached Bezuidenhout's dwelling, he called to them not to advance farther, and he himself retreated, accompanied by two others, behind a parapet wall, from whence, after calling to the party to leave his premises, he commenced firing upon them. He fired twelve or fourteen rounds before the party noticed it, after which they returned his fire, and he with the two men with him retired to a cave in a rock, which it subsequently appeared he originally intended to do, as he had lodged there a considerable quantity of ammunition. The mouth of this cave could only be approached by one man at a time, but from the top its occupants could be heard and spoken to. From thence Bezuidenhout was repeatedly summoned to surrender, which he with vehement imprecations refused to do, saying also that they should never arrest him while alive, and that he would shoot many of them before he himself should fall. The sergeant of the party, however, approached near to the mouth of the cave, and while Bezuidenhout was in the act of levelling at him, shot him dead. His companions surrendered and were carried prisoners to Graaff-Reinet. The occurrence created considerable sensation. At the burial of refuse, and. The file cave: him 44 “SLAGHTER'S NEK." them, tbeward and his brotherntion becom the deceased, his brother, in a state of great excitement, called upon all around him to avenge his death; and from that day he and his family connections seem to have set themselves to mature and carry out plans of retaliation upon the civil and military authorities. They sought to call in the aid of the Kafirs to extirpate the “tyrants," promising them the Zuurveld and the cattle of those colonists who would not join them against the Government. Captain Andrews, the officer in command of the nearest military post, obtained information of the movement, and at once arrested one of the most influential of those concerned in it, named Hendrik Prinsloo. This led to the immediate assemblage of an insurgent band, demanding Prinsloo's release. Many were intimidated into joining them by a story being circulated that those who did not assist would be given over to the plunder of the Kafirs. But the chief Gaika, who had been appealed to, could not be induced to move; he gave them clearly to understand that he would not embroil himself in their quarrels. Meanwhile, martial law was proclaimed, and the military were strengthened by the arrival of reinforcements and of many loyal burghers under their field-commandants. In face of the force thus arrayed against them, the rebel leaders fled away, while numbers of their followers came forward and laid down their arms. Bezuidenhout, with some of his family and his brother-in-law Faber, endeavoured to escape into Kafirland, but their intention becoming known a detachment of the Cape regiment under Captain Fraser proceeded to overtake them. They came up to them and demanded their surrender. Bezuidenhout's reply was to raise his gun and fire upon the soldiers. His wife assisted him in re-loading his gun and even fired a shot herself, exclaiming “ Let us never be taken alive! let us die here together.” After this Bezuidenhout fell mortally wounded, and thereupon the others surrendered themselves. The sequel of the affair was that thirty-nine out of the whole of the insurgents were taken as prisoners to Uitenhage on the charge of high treason and waging war against the Crown. A special commission of the Court of Justice was sent to hear the case, and after a lengthened trial in the Drostdy of Uitenhage, five of the prisoners were sentenced to be executed, viz., H. F. Prinsloo, S. C. Bothma, C. J. Faber, T. C. de Klerck, and A. C. Bothma. Others were transported and banished from the border, and the remainder were ordered to witness the execution of their comrades, and then to be released. The fiat executio put in force on this occasion was the first instance of colonists of European stock suffering death for treason against the Crown. Many of the friends of the delinquents hoped to the last that the utmost severity of the law would not be enforced, and the abhorrent circumstances attend- ing it created an excitement and ill-feeling which were not allayed LORD C. SOMERSET'S KAFIR POLICY. 45 for many years after. The spot selected as the place of execution was the hill known as Slaghters Nek, overlooking the valley of the Great Fish River, where the chief act of rebellion had been com- mitted. There the machinery of death was erected. The hang- man was a negro. The halters were insufficient to bear the weight of the unfortunate men, or as some suspected were intentionally cut; and no sooner had the platform been removed than four of the five fell from the gallows. The unfortunate men cried for mercy, and one addressing himself to the bystanders, exclaimed that by this accident it was clearly manifest God would not permit them to be put to death. The officer in charge, Colonel Cuyler, in the stern performance of his duty, had the execution carried out according to the letter of the sentence. The Governor, in his despatch, added that it did not appear from the examinations and confessions of the prisoners that they had any ground of complaint beyond that already mentioned ; but accustomed to consider the Hottentot as an inferior being, they were extremely impatient of the restraint the British regulations put upon them, and it was particularly obnoxious to have the Cape regiment, chiefly composed of Hottentots, among them to enforce these regulations. His Excellency added : “ This feeling is very general, and although the Cape Corps has done its duty on this and on every occasion and merits my warmest acknowledgments, yet, had I a British battalion with which I could replace it, I would withdraw it from the frontier on account of the prejudices of the people" The troops at his disposal, however, were by no means sufficient to maintain the security of the border, and complaints of Kafir depredations became as rife as ever. Lord Somerset then con- ceived the policy of recognising the ascendancy of the chief Gaika over all the Kafir tribes inhabiting the border, and of maintaining pacific relations with them by means of his controlling authority. He repaired to the frontier in 1817, and held an interview with this chieftain, at which T’Slambie and others were present. After some discussion, arrangements were made with them on the basis of the recognition of the supremacy of Gaika over the other tribes west of the Kei River, and it was stipulated that all intercourse with the Colony should be prohibited except through the medium of that chief. It was also agreed on the part of the chiefs to accept the principle of Kafir law known as “collec- tive responsibility," by which the head of a kraal is responsible for the families under him, the headman of a number of kraals for the kraals or villages under him, and so the area of responsibility gradually extending until the supreme authority, the chief, is reached, to which all are answerable. His Excellency told them that he intended in future to send to the kraals to which stolen 46 COL. BRERETON'S EXPEDITION. cattle should be traced, and to call upon such kraal to restore it, and if the people of that kraal should have permitted the stolen cattle to pass through and not have stopped it, that he should then require of the kraal an equal number of Kafir cattle in lieu of that which had been stolen. The agreement thus entered into was adhered to with tolerable good faith for a while; but tribal feuds between Gaika and his uncle T'Slambie, and jealousy of the alliance of the former with the Colony, led to a combination against Gaika by the other chiefs. In November, 1818, he was attacked and defeated by them at Amalinda, near Debe Nek, in the King William's Town district, and compelled to take flight to the Kahaberg, near the sources of the Koonap River. Gaika appealed for aid to the Colonial Government, and it was felt that it was essential his cause should be espoused. The system of Kafir plundering was daily increasing, and with it the usual number of murders, some of which were traced to T'Slambie's people. The officer commanding on the frontier, Lieut.-Col. Brereton, was authorised to call T'Šlambie to account, and in 1819 he entered Kaffraria with a large force of military and mounted burghers. T’Slambie and the minor hostile chiefs, however, evaded him, and retired to the impenetrable fastnesses of the bush, Brereton's force carried off vast herds of cattle from the people's kraals, and returned to Graham's Town, without having effected anything against the chiefs. He restored Gaika to his former residence, and presented him with a large quantity of cattle beyond what he had been plundered of, and also gave to the colonists a number of Kafir cattle equal to what they had been dispossessed of. He then disbanded the burgher commando, which had accompanied him. This gave T'Slambie's followers an opportunity of entering the Colony at a time when the Government had but a small force to repel them. The wholesale capture of their cattle had roused them to a frenzy of revenge against the military and the colonists, and their excited feelings were still more inflamed by the native eloquence of a seer or prophet, named Makanna or Lynx, who claimed to have been sent by the Great Spirit to assist them in battle against the white man. He counselled them to unite their forces for a simultaneous attack upon Graham's Town, the head- quarters of the British troops and the depôt of stores and ammuni- tion. On the 22nd April, 1819, they mustered their army, 10,000 in number, and suddenly made their appearance on the hills above the military cantonment. Lord Somerset, in reporting the event, said :- “The close bushy country which intervenes between Graham's Town and the Kafir Border, had enabled this body to approach very ATTACK UPON AND DEFENCE OF GRAHAM'S TOWN. near the place before they were discovered, and when they were partially so, Lieut.-Colonel Willshire was absent inspecting a part of the Colonial Troop of Cavalry, at some distance from the town. The small garrison, not exceeding altogether 320 men, was ably drawn out and formed by Capt. Trappes, of the 72nd Regiment, for the defence of the place, and 60 men of the R. A. Corps, under Lieut. Cartwright, were detached for the protection of the Barracks, which are situated about 2,000 paces from the town, which itself is straggling and open. As soon as Lieut.-Colonel Willshire was apprised of what was going on, he put himself at the head of his troop and rode towards the enemy to reconnoitre, and found him advancing with a rapidity which had nearly prevented the Lieut.-Colonel's retreat upon the town. How- ever he joined his small force, and made the necessary dispositions for receiving the attack. The Kafirs halted on an eminence to make their last arrangement, and divided their force into three columns, commanded, it is supposed, by the three chiefs who are known to be principally hostile to the Colony, viz.,—T'Slamnbie, Congo, and Lynx. Two of the columns were directed upon the town, the third advanced against the Barracks, while about 1,000 men were posted between Graham's Town and the nearest station from whence relief could come to our troops (Blue Krans). They advanced by signal (at a discharge of musketry from an adjoining hill) and rushed forward with great impetuosity, making the air resound with their appalling shrieks. Lieut.-Colonel Willshire received them with firmiess, and when but within a few paces opened his fire of artillery and musketry upon them with such effect, as very soon to check their progress and evidently to make them waver. Our little band cheered in its turn; and advanced towards the enemy, who very soon retreated, dragging away numbers of his wounded. The attack at the Barracks lasted longer, the enemy having penetrated even into the Barrack Square, but Lieut. Cartwright uefended his post with great intrepidity, and drove back the enemy, after having killed nearly treble his own num- bers, of whom 102 were afterwards counted in the Barrack Square alone. The whole loss of the Kafirs on this occasion, in killed, can- not be estimated at less than between 700 and 800, whilst our loss only consisted in three killed and five wounded. We learn that T'Slambie lost three sons in this affair, and that the Kafirs retreated into their own country with a great number of wounded.”. Not only Graham's Town, but other parts of the district of Uitenhage, suffered from the Kafir inroad at this time. The invading tribes proceeded as far as the Sunday's River, destroying farms, killing thirty inhabitants, including nine unoffending members of the Moravian Mission Institution, and carrying off troops of cattle, horses, and sheep. The burgher forces of the Colony from west and east were again summoned to assemble, and between the 22nd and 31st of July, two thousand of them marched into Kairland, supported by detachments of the regulars and artillery. After protracted and fatiguing movements, to clear the enemy out of the bushy 48 NEW KAFIR BOUNDARY to the lands wondered, declared theiderable portion anderset. The burime fastnesses of the Chumie and Keiskamma valleys, some of the hostile chiefs treated for mercy and peace. Makanna or Lynx voluntarily surrendered himself to Commandant Stockenstrom as a prisoner. Walking into camp, with the magnanimity of a Roman, he said, “ If I have occasioned the war, let me see if delivering myself up to the conquerors will restore peace to my country!” and he begged that the war should not be continued, as all their cattle had been taken by Colonel Brereton, and the people were starving. Congo, Habanna, and others of minor note surrendered to Colonel Willshire. T'Slambie took refuge for a time beyond the Tembu territory. Gaika was permanently restored to the lands whence he had been driven, and the inferior chiefs, who had surrendered, declared themselves subordinate to him. During all this period a considerable portion of the scant population of the Colony was withdrawn from their ordinary avocations, performing the duties of armed burghers, at great personal expense and sacrifice. The Commando called out in 1811 had not been disbanded until 1815. Three years after- wards they were summoned for two months to accompany Col. Brereton in his raid upon T’Slambie. In 1819 they were in the field for seven months, mounted and equipped at their own cost and submitting to fatigue and privation without a murmur. Lord Somerset did not fail to represent the merits and value of the force. “The burghers and their respective Commandants," he said, “have fulfiiled their duties with unexampled perseverance; but no praise which I could bestow would describe the merits of Mr. Landdrost Stockenstrom, who on every occasion has led his men with the greatest dexterity, courage and foresight, and to whose knowledge of the country the Officer Commanding has been greatly indebted.” At the termination of hostilities in October, 1819, the Governor, at a conference with Gaika and other Chiefs, took steps for securing to the Colony some permanent advantages as a result of the recent operations. The occupation of the thickets along the Fish River had exposed the Colony to invasion, and it was stipulated at this conference that the bush country was to be cleared of all Kafirs, the Chief Congo and his adherents who inhabited these fastnesses being compelled to retire behind the Keiskamma. It was further stipulated that the Kafir border should in future be the ridge of the Kat River Hills from the Winterberg to where that ridge joins the River Chumie, the Chumie itself to its junction with the Keiskamma, and thence the Keiskamma to its embouchure. The Colonial boundary was thus extended eastward to the Keiskamma River, and two military posts were to be established in the most commanding situations of the ceded territory. At the same time, missionary agents (the Rev. J. LORD SOMERSET'S ACCOUNT or THE VACANT LANDS, 19 Brownlee and the Rev. W. R. Thomson) were appointed to reside near Gaika, in Kafirland, with instructions to cultivate friendly intercourse with the tribe, and by the influence of example to attempt to diffuse amongst them the principles of the Christian religion and the arts of civilized life. « The country thus ceded,” wrote Lord Somerset, on the 15th October, 1819, from his camp on the Gwanga, to the Secretary of State, “is as fine a portion of ground as is to be found in any part of the world; and, together with the unappropriated lands in the Zuurveld might perhaps be worthy of your Lordship’s considera- tion with the view of systematic colonization.” During his previous visit to the frontier, in 1817, His Excellency had been so favourably impressed with the appearance of the unoccupied country between the Sunday and Fish Rivers that he expressed a wish that it could be settled by many of those who, in England, were anxious to find employment and food in new countries, and to whom it was understood the Home Government was willing to afford facilities for emigration. He then wrote: “Here is, indeed, a very fine country upon which to employ and maintain a multitude of settlers. This tract, particularly healthy for every description of cattle and sleep, well wooded and having very fine springs in it, is nearly uninhabited. The paucity of borderers has been such that they have never been able to settle in quiet. The Kafirs whose territory is on the east side of the Great Fish River, and whose propensity to thieving is similar to that of most other savages, have continually viewed the occupation of this fine country by the colonists with jealousy, and have molested them so systematically by constant depredations upon their lands that insulated settlers have imbibed a great dread of occupying land in the vicinity of these artful marauders. It was found necessary in 1812 to drive them back by military measures, as your lordship is aware, and since that period to keep a military force on the Frontier to check further inroad and to give time for settlers to establish themselves in such strength and numbers as shall supersede the necessity of keeping a military force for their protection. “ This, then, is the situation of that part of this country which I would wish to draw your lordship's attention to the settlement thereof, as a measure of Government; fairly stating to your lordship the disadvantages to which settlers would be at first exposed, and not disguising from you that I am much swayed in recommending the plan by a strong wish to be able eventually to withdraw the military detachments from that quarter, for many reasons which are not at this moment the subject of discussion. "It is just that settlers should be aware that their property will be, in some measure, exposed, in the first instance, to be plundered by their restless neighbours, unless their own vigilance and courage shall considerably aid in protecting it; but it is, at the same time, 50 DISADVANTAGES AND ATTRACTIONS. proper to tell them that vigilance and courage will have the effect of giving their property efficient protection; that the Kafirs do not molest those hamlets where six or seven families unite together for mutual support, and are constantly on the alert for their defence in case of attack. We have several instances of associations of this nature living in perfect security quite on the border of the Fish River, not one hundred yards from the Kafir country. The Kafirs are con- stantly on the watch, and commit their thefts when they discover our settlers to be off their guard. The herds of these families are tended in common by armed watchmen; should.these be indolent or negligent tbey are the victims of their supineness by the loss of their property, and sometimes the sleeping herdsmen lose their lives. It is obvious that increase of population will remedy this evil, and that the Kafirs cannot, from their not using firearms, be any match for Europeans who have such to oppose to them. “Having thus stated the disadvantages to which settlers would be liable in the country we have to offer them, it is now necessary to advert to the more favourable side of the picture, and to say that their reward is to be found in the cultivation of a most fertile soil in the most healthy and temperate climate in the universe, where cold is never so piercing as to congeal water, and where the rays of the sun are never so powerful as to render exposure to them injurious, or to impede the usual labours of the field. . . Upon a most fruitful soil, the same species of cultivation which affords food to man in our country is most likely to be successful here; added to which, that when the immediate wants of the new settlers are supplied, no country yields finer wool than may be here reared ; that the corn of this country has brought in the London market the highest price known there ; that tobacco is an article which might be advantageously cultivated and prepared so as to equal the best American produce ; and that experiments upon the cotton plant have proved that it may be cultivated here to the greatest advantage." Lord Somerset was clear and candid in his statement of the drawbacks as well as of the attractions which the Cape frontier districts then offered to those who were looking for “a new land of promise.” The events happening along the border from 1817 to 1819, must also have kept the Secretary of State well informed of what the new settlers might have to contend with. But no reference to these drawbacks was made when the Chancellor of the Exchequer, in 1819, asked the House of Commons for a vote of £50,000 for the encouragement of emigration to the Cape. The country was glowingly represented as unrivalled in the world for its climate, natural beauty, and fertility; and when the vote was granted, the eagerness and anxiety of individuals to be allowed to emigrate to South Africa were unbounded, there being no fewer than 90,000 applicants while the number accepted amounted altogether to about 5,000. The scheme of emigration was carried out on the lines originally in ise drawbacks was maaye to contend with informed THE EMIGRATION OF 1820. 51 roy una possessed of some means. Naude he victualling ate-third was to be rection of the suggested by Lord Somerset. The emigrants were required to be of good character and possessed of some means. No one was accepted who had not sufficient to carry out, at the least, ten able-- bodied individuals above eighteen years of age, with or without families. And to give security to the Government that they had such means, the leaders of parties had to deposit at the rate of £10 for every family, provided that the family did not consist of more: than one man, one woman, and two children under fourteen years of age. Passages were to be provided for them at the expense of Govern-- ment, and they were to receive a free grant of land at the rate of 100 acres for every person or family taken out. Of the deposit of £10 made to the Government, one-third was to be repaid on landing, when the victualling at the expense of Government ceased; a further proportion of one-third was to be repaid as soon as it was certified that the settlers under the direction of the person taking them out were actually located upon the land assigned to them; and the remainder at the expiration of three months from the date of their location. A supply of agricultural implements was to be sent out, with a view to disposing of them to: such settlers as might require them at prime cost or on credit, and seed corn was to be supplied if necessary on terms equally favour- able. Bibles and Common Prayer Books were also distributed to those who might apply to receive them. In cases where one hundred families went together and asked to carry out with them a minister of their own persuasion, Government was to assign a salary to such a minister, if he should be approved of by the Secretary of State. Subsequently, it was, by the King's pleasure, made a special condition of the several grants in the new settlement, that the lands should be cultivated by means of free labour alone, and that any employment of slaves upon them would render the lands sub- ject to forfeiture. And, later on, the King's commands were given to make provision, by proclamation, that English settlers coming to reside in the Colony should, as long as they remained in the state in which they arrived, enjoy the same rights and powers of devising property which they had under the law of England; and that, in case of entering into the marriage state within the Colony, they might, by an ante-nuptial contract, exclude community of property according to the Colonial law, and retain to themselves the right of free testamentary disposition as in England—such con- tracts, however, not affecting or destroying the rights of children, acquired at their birth, under the common law of the Colony.* * By Act No. 23 of 1874, all restrictions on the freedom of the disposition of property has been removed; but without interference with the Roman Dutch law of community of property, or the laws of inheritance ab intestato. E 2 52 NAMING OF PORT ELIZABETH. In the month of November, 1819, Lord Somerset received inti- mation that the transport ships, with the emigrants, would leave England that month, so as to arrive at the Cape at the commence- ment of the planting season, and he was directed to make the necessary arrangements for their reception in the Colony. He was given a discretionary authority to afford them assistance in every practicable manner so as to enable them to carry their ultimate objects into effect. “But,” wrote Earl Bathurst, “ experience has shown that the settlement and cultivation of waste land is best achieved by the active application of the means which the settlers on it may themselves possess; and your lordship will not give this further assistance, except in cases where it may be essentially necessary to prevent the industrious settler from being over- whelmed by the pressure of unavoidable difficulties. ... And generally it is my duty to convey to you the anxious wish and injunctions of the Prince Regent that in confiding these settlers to your lordship's care, they will not find that they have lost the protection of His Majesty's Paternal Government.” This despatch reached Lord Somerset when he was on the eve of leaving the Cape for England, in consequence of the state of health of one of the members of his family, and the duty of re- ceiving and locating the emigrants devolved upon the Acting Governor, Sir Rufane Shaw Donkin, who was ably assisted by Colonel Bird, the Colonial Secretary, and Mr. Henry Ellis, the deputy Secretary. The first transport ships, the Nautilis, Ocean and Chapman, arrived in Algoa Bay in April, 1820, and during the succeeding months, they were followed by twenty-three other vessels convey- ing the remainder of the emigrant band. The landing place was then unnamed; it consisted of a wave-washed beach, lined by ridges of barren sand-hills, with a small fortification crowning the heights, and a few cottages and huts. The Acting Governor anti- cipated from the introduction of British industry and enterprise the formation of an important commercial town at this place. He named it “Port Elizabeth” after his deceased lady, to whose memory he erected an obelisk on the hill, still known as Donkin's Reserve. Among the emigrants was Thomas Pringle, the Scottish lyric poet, who in his “Narrative of a Residence in South Africa,” has given us a graphic word-picture of the landing of the settlers :- ** It was,” he says, “an animated and interesting scene. Around us in the west corner of the spacious bay were anchored ten or twelve large vessels, which had recently arrived with emigrants, of whom a great proportion was still on board. Directly in front, on a rising ground a few hundred yards from the beach, stood the little forti- fied barrack or block-house, called Fort Frederick, occupied by a ser ARRIVAL OF THE BRITISH BETTLERS IN 1820. (FROM PAINTING BY T. BAINE 8.) LANDING OF THE BRITISH SETTLERS. 53 naval Offimong the parcountrycores and with housalights Boot bettime cotton division of the 72nd regiment, with the tents and pavilions of the officers pitched on the heights around it. At the foot of those heights, nearer the beach, stood three thatched cottages, and one or two wooden houses brought out from England, which now formed the offices of the commissaries and other civil functionaries. appointed to transact the business of the emigration, and to provide the settlers with provisions and other stores, and with carriages for their conveyance up the country. Interspersed among these offices, and among the pavilions of the Government functionaries and naval officers employed on shore, were scattered large depôts of agricultural implements, carpenters' and black- smiths' tools, and ironware of all descriptions, sent out by the home government to be furnished to the settlers at prime cost. About two furlongs to the eastward, on a level spot between the sand-hills on the beach and the stony heights beyond, lay the camp of the emigrants. Nearly a thousand souls on an average were at present lodged there in military tents; but parties were daily moving off in long trains of bullock waggons, to proceed to their appointed places of location in the interior, while their place was immediately occupied by fresh bands, hourly disembarking from the vessels in the bay. A suitable background to this ani- mated picture, as viewed by us from the anchorage, was supplied by the heights over the Zwartkops River, covered with a dense jungle, and by the picturesque peaks of the Winterhoek and the dark masses of the Zuurberg ridge far to the northward, dis- tinctly outlined in the clear blue sky. The whole scene was such as could not fail to impress deeply the most unconcerned spectator. To us—who had embarked all our worldly property and earthly prospects, our own future fortunes and the fate of our posterity, in this enterprise-it was interesting and exciting to an intense degree." The accompanying illustration is from a painting by the late Mr. T. Baines, now in the possession of Reuben Ayliff, Esq., of Graham's Town, a descendant of one of the orginal settlers. A few detached parties of the emigrants were distributed in the Western districts of the Colony; the Scotch settlers under Mr. Pringle were located on the Baviaan's River, in the Somerset district; but the main body, numbering about 3,800 souls, were placed in the country between the Fish and Bushman's Rivers, which received the name of Albany. Among the “heads of parties” were gentlemen of high acquirements and good family connexions, retired military and naval officers, and other persons. of the greatest respectability, while the parties themselves com- prised all kinds of handicraftsmen and husbandmen. Arrived in Albany, in a favourable season, all seemed fair and beautiful. Fine grassy hills and dales, variegated with bush and 54 BEGINNING OF THE ALBANY SETTLEMENT. ettlemen through everoliage of the shelter, forest, everywhere exhibited to the eye the most enchanting views. When all were located in their several parties, the country presented a singular aspect. “At this period,” says the Rev. W. Shaw, who accompanied them from England, “in the discharge of my duties as a minister, I often made the tour of the entire settlement. It was curious to see so many small encampments scattered through every part of the country, the tents contrasting strikingly with the foliage of the copse and brushwood, near which, for convenience of shade and shelter, many of them were pitched. It was interesting in many places to see the first tree felled—the commencement of the first wattle-and-daub house-and the first furrow made by the plough in the virgin soil. And I must bear my humble testimony, that if any people ever began in good earnest the necessary operations for causing mother earth to yield the needful supplies, with which she is wont to bless the industrious, the British Settlers in Albany, with but few exceptions, did so. They seemed resolved that, though they could not ensure success, they would at least strive to deserve it." Wheat was extensively sown in all parts of the settlement, and nothing could be more promising than the crops in the early stage of their growth; but just as the grains formed in the ear, the blight known as “rust” attacked them and the whole became worthless. The wheat crops proved a total failure, not only for the first year, but for two or three succeeding seasons. This calamity was followed by long-continued and heavy floods, which caused serious damage to houses and gardens and stock, and subjected most of the .emigrants to great suffering and privation. Their fellow-colonists and their countrymen in England and in India, on learning of their disasters, generously contributed to their relief. But the liberality of the Government, who through the Commissariat of the frontier army, continued to supply them with rations, removed anything like absolute want; and the settlers themselves shewed a brave determination to endure and make the best of their hardships—notwithstanding their first disappointments, believing firmly in the natural resources of the country. Indian .corn or maize and pumpkins and potatoes supplied the place of wheat; roasted barley, ground into a fine powder, formed a sub- stitute for coffee, and wild honey from the rocks or woods furnished the means of sweetening it; the leaves of wild shrubs and plants were used as a refreshing beverage, instead of tea; well-dressed sheepskins were converted into jackets and trowsers and skirts; and the leaves of the palmiet, growing in some of the streams, formed material for the broad-brimmed hats of the men and children, and even provided trim bonnets for the fair sex. As they became accustomed to the novelty of their situation, several of them realised that it was impossible for families to live 56 LIBERTY OF PUBLIC MEETING DENIED. Town, and the magistrate appointed by Sir Rufane Donkin superseded. These acts created a general distrust in the stability of the measures of the Government, and a number of the principal settlers made arrangements for holding a meeting at Graham's Town to express their opinion, in true British manner, on the state of public affairs. Lord Somerset being informed of their intention, immediately issued a high-handed proclamation, notifying that public meetings for the discussion of public matters and political subjects were contrary to the ancient laws and usages of the Colony, and anyone attempting any assemblage of such nature without his sanction, or that of the local magistrate in distant districts, was guilty of a high misdemeanour, severely punishable. Finding this obstacle in their path, they resolved upon making their position known to His Majesty's Government; and in 1823, they addressed a memorial to the Secretary of State. They prefaced their complaints by stating, “ That whatever may have been the individual disappointments and failures incidental to so numerous an emigration, they do not present themselves to His Majesty's Government with any complaint of the natural disadvantages of the country to which they have been sent; and they have ever been actuated by one undivided feeling of respect and gratitude for the liberal assistance of the British Government, a feeling which future reverses can never efface.” They then set forth their grievances, the most pressing and insupportable being the insecurity of the border, and the depredations of the Kafirs, which they asserted were in a great measure produced by the vacillating policy pursued by the Colo- nial Government in the management of their affairs. They con- cluded, however, by cherishing the hope that their interests would receive due regard and attention, and “ that at no distant period a numerous and flourishing colony might be here governed upon British principles and by British laws.” Not only at Graham's Town, but also in Cape Town, the intro- duction of the British settlers had excited amongst the population a greater spirit of vigilance and attention to the acts of the Government than had existed before, rendering any exercise of official authority objectionable that was not founded upon the law. Mr. Thomas Pringle, the poet, after having resided for two years at Glen Lynden and haviug seen his Scotch party fairly settled and established there, proceeded to Cape Town, where he was joined by a former College-companion, Mr. John Fairbairn. They opened an Academy for the instruction of young men, and commenced the publication of a literary periodical for the diffusion of useful FREEDOM OF THE PRESS. 57 information. At the same time a printing-press was established by Mr. George Greig, who, in January, 1824, issued a newspaper, the South African Commercial Adrertiser, and shortly afterwards solicited and obtained the aid of Fairbairn and Pringle in its editorial management. The new broad sheet was received with delight by the public, as- a medium of communicating general information-the only publication previously existing being the dry-as-dust official Cape Guzette. It was continued for sixteen successive numbers without eliciting any interference from the authorities. But a trial for libel was proceeding in the Court of Justice, in the course of which the defendant, named Edwards, indulged in aspersions on the character of the Governor. Lord Somerset was apprehensive that the proceedings would be published, and under his instruc- tions, the Fiscal (or Crown Prosecutor) made a demand upon Mr. Greig for the proof sheets of the paper which was to appear next day. These were supplied, and the Fiscal returned them with a qualified imprimatur - not approving of the whole contents but allowing the paper to be published. He required of the publisher, however, to give substantial security that nothing offensive should appear in any future number. Mr. Greig, with his friends, Fairbairn and Pringle, at once determined upon the course to be pursued ; and next morning publicly announced that they disdained, as British subjects, to submit to the degradation of a censorship of the press, and therefore discontinued the publication of the paper, pending an appeal to the British Government. This action greatly incensed the Governor, who issued a warrant directing the Fiscal to seal up the printing presses, and notify to Greig that as. “his conduct had proved subversive of due submission to the lawful commands of the constituted authorities,” he was to quit the Colony in one month, in default of which he was to be arrested and sent out of it. The literary periodical—the South African Journal—which had only reached two numbers, was next looked after by the Fiscal, and a warning conveyed to Pringle that criticism of the Colonial Administration might involve a public prosecution. Pringle and Fairbairn at once notified their intention of discontinuing its publication under such circumstances. Meanwhile, Mr. Greig proceeded to England, and, backed upon a strong memorial from the colonists, was successful in his appeal to the home authorities. By order of Earl Bathurst, his press was relieved from the odious incubus of the censorship, and a written authority was given that his license to publish should be liable to be cancelled by the Governor in Council only, and not by the Governor alone. Under this guarantee the publication of the newspaper was resumed, Mr. Fairbairn being its sole editor; but, unfor- 58 COMMISSION OF ENQUIRY. tunately, a year or two afterwards, it again fell under the ban of the Government. The occasion for this act was not the publication of any obnoxious original article, but of an extract copied from the London Times, which Lord Charles Somerset represented as of a calumnious nature. The Cape community felt the suppresion of their favourite paper to be a loss to the colonists generally; and as they were denied the liberty of holding a public meeting in the Colony to take the circumstances into consideration, they resolved upon an appeal to the British Ministry, and failing that, to the British public. Mr. Fairbairn was delegated to undertake this mission, and on his arrival in England he was supported by all the influence of the merchants and others connected with the Colony residing in London. A change of ministry had also taken place, and Mr. Huskisson, who was then at the Colonial Office, frankly conceded to the expressed wishes of the colonists, and on behalf of the Government intimated his determination that “the Press should be placed under the control and the protection of the law, and no arbitrary suppressions should take place in future.” Upon this independent footing, secured for it by the exertions of Mr. Fairbairn, the South African Press has been conducted ever since. The Colonial Office and the British Parliament, prior to this, had their attention repeatedly directed to the condition of the Colony and the unpopularity of Lord Somerset's administration. In 1822, the House of Commons agreed to an address for the appointment of a Royal Commission to enquire into the state of the Colony as far as regards its revenue, its institutions and the conduct of its Governor. Messrs. Bigge, Colebroke, and Blair, formed this Commission, and they were engaged with their labours until 1826 ; but before their reports were finally completed, per- mission was given to Lord Charles Somerset to return to England, ostensibly to rebut some of the charges brought against him, but really to prepare for retirement from office. During the period of his Administration, he exercised an absolute despotism, tem- pered by favouritism, in matters both political and social; but he took an active interest in the material development of the Colony, giving personal encouragement to the improvement of the breed of horses, cattle, and sheep by the importation of the best stock. And if" he who makes two blades of grass grow where only one grew before,” deserves well of a country, Lord Somerset will be grate- fully remembered for having set in motion the emigration scheme of 1820, which introduced a population whose energy has spread out in manifold enterprises throughout all South Africa. The reports of the Commissioners of Enquiry were in due time in the hands of the Imperial Government, and led to the intro- duction of many changes, which went chiefly in the direction of THE KAFIRS SAVED FROM THE “FETCANI." anglicizing the Colony. An Executive Council was appointed to assist the Governor with advice in matters of importance or difficulty. A Supreme Court of Justice, consisting of a Chief Justice and three Puisine Judges, was established by Royal Charter. A Circuit Court, presided over by one of the Judges, was to sit in every district of the Colony once in every six months. Magis- trates were placed in charge of divisions, and to hold court in every district town twice a week, or as often as was necessary,-taking the place of the old courts of landdrost and heemraden, composed chiefly of the burgher inhabitants. Justices of the peace were appointed in some of the towns and hamlets. And, simultaneous with these changes, the English language was ordered to be used in all official proceedings and business. Major-General Bourke, who succeeded Lord Somerset in 1826, was originally selected to exercise the functions of Lieutenant- Governor of the Eastern Districts, as it was then intended to create these districts into a separate and distinct government. This was in accordance with a recommendation of the Royal Commissioners, who urged the importance of applying uniform and consistent principles to the intercourse of the colonists with the Kafir and other tribes. But the plan was afterwards modified; and a Com- missioner-General appointed (Mr. Stockenstrom being chosen for the office) to superintend the affairs of the border. At this time, a state of panic arose among some of the frontier Kafir tribes, owing to their being threatened with invasion by marauding hordes of what were termed the “Fetcani.” The * Fetcani” proved to be a tribe of Zulus known as the Amang- wane, under the chief Matiwane, who, in the native revolutionary wars caused by Chaka, fled southward, overpowering and conquer- ing their neighbours, and finally threatening the destruction of the Tembus and Galekas on the colonial border. Governor Bourke promptly resolved to aid the Kafirs in repelling these invaders, and à force of burghers under Col. Somerset, together with the Kafir chiefs and their people, defeated and dispersed them near the Umtata, in 1828. Among the burgher commando on this occasion were some of the young Albany settlers, to whom the service was as novel as it was unexpected. Many of the dispersed tribes seeking refuge along the border of the Colony, Major-General Bourke deemed it advisable to pass an ordinance to legalise their admission, under certain restrictions, as free labourers, and to regulate the terms of their employment. At the same time he gave attention to the improvement of the condition of the Hottentots, and after consulting with the Rev. Dr. Philip, of the London Missionary Society, and Mr. Stocken- strom, who were acquainted with these people, he framed the Ordinance No. 50, for consolidating and amending the laws 60 MAGNA CHARTA OF THE ABORIGINES. respecting them. Of this enactment, the Governor wrote, “I thought it right to promulgate it immediately after the Ordinance No. 49, lest it should seem that more care was taken for the pro- tection of foreigners than for the welfare of the ancient inhabitants of the Colony.” The enactment was ratified and confirmed by an Order in Council dated from Windsor, the 15th January, 1829, which declared that “ all Hottentots and other free persons of colour law- fully residing within the Colony are in the most full and ample manner entitled to all and every right, benefit and privilege to which any other British subjects are entitled.” This was the Magna Charta of the colonial aboriginal races. In 1828 the Chief TSlambie died, having lived to a great age; and in the following year, the Chief Gaika passed away, having hastened his end by intemperance. His heir, Sandilli, being a minor, the mother, Sutu (who still survives, residing at Umgwali Mission Station, Stutterheim), became Regent, and Macomo and Tyali, elder sons, were appointed to assist her. The ceded territory between the Fish and Keiskamma Rivers, was still in a great measure unoccupied, with the exception of the Kat River Valley, where Macomo and his followers had been allowed during good behaviour to reside. But in 1829 they broke the peace by attacking a tribe of the Ama-Tembus living behind the Katberg, pursuing some of them into the Tarka District, within the Colony, and slaughtering them there. For this outrage, Macomo and his people were re- moved eastward of the Chumie River; but the chief never ceased to look back with covetous eye on the Eden from which he had been expelled. The Commissioner-General, Mr. Stockenstrom, then suggested that the country so vacated should be filled up with the descendants of the Hottentot race, scattered about the country, and sanction was given to the scheme by the Governor, Sir Lowry Cole. The beautiful fertile valleys of the Kat River were laid out in locations, on which the Hottentots were placed, each family receiving a certain number of acres of arable land as their allotment, and the pasturage being reserved as commonage for the community. Early in 1834, Sir Benjamin Durban arrived as Governor. The revenue of the Colony for some time before had been inadequate to meet the charges of the civil establishments, and the Home Government ordered extensive reductions to be made. The Governor's emoluments were fixed at £5,000, without any allowances; the Commissioner-General's office was abolished; and every official's salary, from the Chief Justice down to a junior clerk, was subjected to some reduction. At the same time, the Governor bad to give effect to the Act for the emancipation of the Slaves, which had passed the Imperial Parliament in 1833.* * In 1833, the total pumber of slaves in the British Dominions was 780,000, valued THE KAFIR INVASION OF 1834. 61 they wady He had to initiate the new Legislative Council which had been granted to the Colony. He was also directed to devise new mea- sures for the protection of the border, and to cultivate the good- will of the chiefs, by having qualified men stationed with them as agents. While he was detained in Cape Town, preparing and maturing his plans for giving effect to this policy, the frontier of the Colony was suddenly invaded by hordes of Kafirs. The expulsion of Macomɔ from the Kat River was followed, in 1834, by the ejectment of some of Tyali's people from the Gaga River, and their removal across the Chumie River. Numbers of them, however, persisted in going back and re-occupying the country. The military patrol, charged with the duty of removing them, destroyed their kraals and seized some milch cows; a skirmish ensued, and a brother of Tyali, named Klu-Klu, was slightly wounded. “The blood of a chief had been shed.” Macomo, and Tyali, who were exasperated with the Government, made this a cause of war, and fired the train already laid. Botma and Eno were joined with them, and they were supported and countenanced by the large tribe of Gcalekas, under Hintza. Before the morning of the 23rd of December, 1834, ten thousand Kafirs rushed over the border, like troops of wolves, carrying terror and death into the homes of the astonished and unoffending settlers. The inhabitants, living on widely separated farms, had no warning, and could offer no resistance. Within a week, fifty farmers were slain, hundreds of homesteads were burned down, and loads of spoil, consisting of horses, cattle, goats, sheep, clothes, and whatever could be laid hold of, carried off into Kafirland. The defensive power of the Colony was at the time scanty, but all available forces were mustered under Col. Smith (afterwards Sir Harry Smith), who rode the distance to Graham's Town, about 600 miles, in six days after news of the rising reached Cape Town. The enemy's territory was entered, and after several months' fighting, the Kafirs were subdued. As an indemnity for the past and a security for the future, a proclamation was then issued by Sir Benjamin Durban, declaring British sovereignty to be extended over the territory of the tribes as far as the Kei River. The people were not to be removed from their lands, but governed, restrained and improved upon them, by the gradual introduction of British law and order. At the same time, a num- ber of natives named Fingoes, remnants of the Fetcani refugees, who were in a state of servitude under the Gcaleka Kafirs, and had terror and rushed dig of the tribe and at £45,000,000. The number in the Cape Colony was 35,700, appraised at £3,000,000, und of the grant of £20,000,000 voted by Parliament, for the emancipation of the slaves, the amount apportioned to the Cape was £1.200.000. The first day of December, 1838, witnessed the freedom of all the slave and indentured class in the colony. 62 REVERSAL OF SIR B. DURBAN'S POLICY. kept aloof from the war, were brought out of Kafirland, and located in the country between the Keiskamma and Fish Rivers. But the Governor's proclamation extending the colonial border to the Great Kei River, was unfortunately disapproved of in England, and ordered to be reversed—the allegiance of the chiefs and tribes who had submitted being renounced, and the limits of colonial authority moved back to where it was prior to 1819, along the dense thickets of the Fish River. Against this reversal of his policy, Sir Benjamin Durban stoutly protested; he declared “it is one which so sure as certain causes must produce certain effects, cannot fail to be pregnant with in- security, disorder and danger." His expostulation with the Secre- tary of state (Lord Glenelg) on the subject, caused his dismissal, and brought his public services in the Colony to a close. His retirement from office, however, called forth an universal expression of regret, as well as substantial tokens of affection and gratitude on the part of the colonists. Previous to this time, various causes had contributed to create dissatisfaction in the minds of many of the old Cape Dutch Colonists; and they began “trekking” or moving away into the interior, with the avowed object of getting beyond the control and jurisdiction of the British Government. In 1825, silver coinage was made a legal tender in all the British possessions, the rate of exchange for the paper rix-dollar at the Cape being fixed at ls. 6d. sterling; and this was regarded by many as a breach of the pledge given by Government for the redemption of the colonial paper currency. Soon afterwards, in 1826, the promulgation of the law for ameliorating the condition of slaves created a considerable sensation among them. In Cape Town, the Burgher Senate declined to give publicity to it in the usual form by reading it aloud from the Town-house, and finally it was only read by the President alone (who afterwards tendered his resignation), none of the members of the Senate attending. In the district of Stellenbosch and elsewhere, the same opposition and delay occurred, none of the Heemraden chosing to attend. After- wards, when the Slave Emancipation Act was promulgated, the slave owners bitterly complained that the Government, which for years previously imported and encouraged the sale of that species of property, enjoying the taxes and emoluments therefrom, should now arbitrarily deprive them of it. They also regarded the compensation offered as inadequate and unjust; and some of them refused to take any of the money, of which £5,000 has remained unclaimed to the present day. To these and other causes of dis- content were now added the losses sustained during the wor, and the inadequate protection afforded the border inhabitants against the Kafirs by the policy of the English Government. This THE STOCKENSTROM TREATIES. Werness north, under their encounter they wer Orange intensified the feeling of dislike entertained by many of them to rulers whose nationality differed from their own. During 1835-37 the exodus of these people went on. The num- ber who voluntarily expatriated themselves has been variously estimated at from 5,000 to 10,000. They sold their properties for whatever they could realise-many a good estate being hastily exchanged for a wagon and team of oxen, and some for even less value,—and went off with their wives and children into what was then the wilderness north of the Orange River. The story of their adventures and exploits, under their leaders-Retief, Maritz, Potgieter, Uys and Pretorius; their encounters with the savage hordes of Moselekatze and Dingaan, by whom they were trea- cherously assailed; and their final settlement in Natal, tke Orange Free State and the Transvaal Republic, forms one of the most stirring and romantic chapters of modern history. * But we must revert to events in the Cape Colony. By the policy of Lord Glenelg, the Kafir chiefs were reinstated as masters of the country between the Great Fish and the Kei Rivers, with the exception of the Hottentot settlement at Kat River and the Fingo settlement on the lower course of the Fish River. Mr. Stockenstrom was appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with instruc- tions to establish by treaty the new system of relations with the natives—the rules guiding him being, the abolition of the com- mando and reprisal system of 1817; the acknowledgment of the independence of the tribes within their own territories; the appointment of British Agents to reside near to the chiefs, and all complaints from colonists or natives to be made through them; the chiefs agreeing on their part to find and restore, or give compensation for, any property stolen from the Colony, and to protect traders and Christian Missionaries residing with their leave in Kafirland. Some modifications of these treaties were made by Governor Sir George Napier, who held office until 1844, and also by his successor, Sir Peregrine Maitland, who secured for converts to Christianity in Kafirland the liberty to settle at missionary institu- tions, and freedoin from persecution for non-compliance with Kafir customs. The Chief Sandilli had by this time come of age, and was surrounded by a war party eager to test their strength against the colonists. In 1846 a Kafir of his tribe was being sent from Fort Beaufort to Graham's Town for trial, on a charge of theft of an axe, when he was rescued by some of his countrymen, and another priscner to whom the Kafir was fastened was cruelly * A valuable compilation of the Annals of Natal, for the period A.D. 1497-1845 inclusive, containing almost every available record relating to the Boer Exodus, has just been completed for the Natal Society, Pietermaritzburg, by the Honourable John Bird, late Treasurer-General of that Colony. The Chiefbyaa war partyear of his tribe 64 KAFIR WARS OF 1846 AND 1850—²53. mutilated and murdered. The surrender of the parties concerned in this outrage was refused, and war was declared by the Governor. The military force advancing into Kafirland met with a reverse near Burnshill, having to retire and leave in possession of the Kafirs a lengthy wagon train, containing the baggage of the 7th Dragoon Guards. All the available forces of the Colony were then again called into the field,—Sir Andries Stockenstrom being at the head of the burghers, and Sir John Molteno, Messrs. Onkruydt, Joubert, Pringle, and Du Toit, among his commandants. The Kafirs were routed out of their strongholds in the Amatola Mountains; Sandilli surrendered the parties concerned in the outrage on the Colonial prisoner; and Kreli, the Gcaleka Chief, acknowledged the British right by conquest to all lands west of the Kei River. In 1847, Governor Maitland was super- seded by General Pottinger, and he in turn was relieved by Sir Harry Smith, who, as Governor and High Commissioner, in 1847, proclaimed the boundaries of the Colony to be the Kieskamma River on the east, thence across the Stormberg to the Kraai River, and thence along the Orange River to the sea on the west. He also proclaimed British sovereinty over that portion of Kaffraria between the Keiskamma and Kei Rivers, as had been done twelve years before by Sir Benjamin Durban. The peace of 1847 did not last long. The chiefs, dissatisfied with the loss of their power, supported a witch-doctor, named Umlanjeni, who made his followers believe he had the power to turn the Englishmen's bullets into water. Sandilli was called to account for countenancing this imposture, and failed to appear before the Governor. For this act of contumacy he was, by pro- clamation, deprived from his rank as chief. The Kafirs at once resumed hostilities. On the 24th December, 1850, they attacked a military force in the Boomah Pass; and on the following day massacred a number of military settlers, who had been located in the Chumie Valley, and who, in fancied security, were preparing to celebrate the usual Christmas festivities. The Governor himself was, for several days, surrounded by the enemy, and shut up in Fort Cox, and at last only escaped by dashing out with an escort of Cape Mounted Rifles and vigorously riding on to King William's Town. To add to the difficulties of the position, several natives serving in the Cape Corps, and many of the Kat River Hottentots, who on former occasions sided with the colonists, and helped the colonists against the Kafirs, now revolted and joined the latter, forming marauding bands, attacking the homesteads and properties of their former friends and employers. The war was a protracted and costly one; and in 1852 the Home Government, dissatisfied with its progress, recalled Sir Harry Smith and appointed General Sir George Cathcart as Governor THE ANTI-CONVICT AGITATION. 65 and Commander-in-Chief. He brought hostilities to a close in 1853. The Gaika tribe, under Sandilli, were removed from the Keiskamma and Amatola, and placed eastward of the Thomas River, their former possessions being filled up by a settlement of Fingoes and other natives, who had proved their loyalty to Government during the war; while a portion of the Ama-Tenibu territory was declared forfeited, and created into a new district, named “Queen's Town,” its lands being occupied by a burgher population, under an organisation for mutual support and defence. This long series of Kafir wars contributed to give the Cape a bad name, causing it to be regarded as an undesirable place for settlement, and subjecting the Colonists to the groundless and unjust imputation that they were enriching themselves by the military expenditure incurred at the expense of the Imperial Government. These wars and disturbances were really ruinous to all classes of the inhabitants, and greatly retarded the advance and development of the country itself. The Colonists had not, at this time, any share in the management of their own affairs. The Legislative Council was a nominee body, its constitution being based upon the principle of representation by election of the Crown. The public began to realise that while their interests were often materially affected by its proceedings, they were excluded from all influence upon its action. Petitions for an elected House of Representatives had been presented to the Secretary of State as early as 1827; and applications for the pri- vilege of representation by the people were renewed at various periods after that, until, in 1849, an intimation was received that the Home Government was favourably disposed to entertain the matter. At this time an event occurred which brought the Colony into some prominence, and obtained for it the respect if not the applause and approval of almost every other colony of the British Crown. The Secretary of State, Earl Grey, proposed to turn the Cape into a penal settlement, and directed three hundred convicts, some of whom were Irish political offenders, to be removed from Ber- muda to Cape Town. As soon as this became known, memorials and petitions from all parts of the country, remonstrating and pro- testing against the action, poured in upon the Governor. The Colony from its first settlement was free from the taint of con- victism, and the people were infuriated at the idea of their country being degraded and their characters tarnished by its conversion into a penal station. They also reasonably dreaded the evils which might ensue if felons and bush-rangers once got intermixed with the uncivilized natives along the borders. When the ship Neptune, freighted with the convicts, arrived in Simon's Bay, the spirit of the Colonists was fairly aroused. Meetings were held in into degraded people were ment was fupon the Gia 66 THE FIRST PARLIAMENT. oversed, andistance” –more and the Governme was the the open air ; petitions to the Queen, to the two Houses of Parlia- ment, and to the people of England were adopted; and the com- munity entered into a solemn league and pledge to suspend all business transactions with the Government, in any shape or on any terms, until the order making the Cape a penal station was reversed, and the convict ship was sent away. This method of “ passive resistance"-more recently known as “boycotting”— was soon put into operation, and the Government found nearly all its ordinary channels of supply stopped. Such was the popular feel- ing in favour of the “ pledge,” that even any suspicion of being concerned in dealing with the Government, or rendering it sup- plies in any form, placed a man under the ban of social excom- munication. The struggle was prolonged for fully six months ; but the determined stand made by the Colonists was successful, Earl Grey confessed that he had committed an error; and in February, 1850, an Order in Council was issued revoking the for- mer one by which the Cape was named as a penal settlement, and the ship Neptune with the convicts sailed out of Simon's Bay for Van Dieman's Land. The satisfactory issue of this contest stimulated the desire of the Colonists for Representative Government, and Mr. Fairbairn and Sir A. Stockenstrom were deputed to proceed to England to vindicate the rights and interests of the Colonists before the British Parliament and people. By letters patent, dated 23rd May, 1850, the Governor and Legislative Council were empowered to enact Ordinances for the establishment of a Representative Government, consisting of two elective Chambers; and three years later that form of Government was brought into force. The first Parlia- ment met and was formally opened by Lieutenant-Governor Darling on the 1st July, 1854. In the same year, Sir George Grey, who had previously very successfully administered the affairs of South Australia and New Zealand, was appointed Governor and High Commissioner. He at once asked Great Britain to vote £40,000 per annum, to defray the cost of public works, to subsidise some of the chiefs, and to maintain educational and benevolent institutions, so as to promote civilization amongst the Kafir tribes. He held out the prospect that in eight or ten years' time, the mother country might be relieved from the constant anxiety and expense which the Cape frontier had for a long period entailed. Her Majesty's advisers agreed to the proposal of the expenditure of £40,000 from Imperial funds, and the Cape Parliament voted a sum of about £50,000 for the equipment and maintenance of a police force for the security of the frontier and its inhabitants. A further develop- ment of Sir George Grey's policy was to improve the tenure on which the native people held their lands, giving them a vested THE KAFIR CATTLE-KILLING DELUSION. 67 interest in the soil; and also to open up their country to commerce- by constructing roads, which would be of equal use in peace or war—the Kafirs being employed on these road-works, and thus- acquiring habits of labour which they had formerly never known. Meanwhile a political movement of a most singular character was in progress in Kafirland. A Kafir seer, Umhlagaza, arose- among the Gcalekas, under the patronage of the chief Kreli; and, professing to have held converse with the departed Kafir heroes- and chiefs, he conveyed a niessage from them to all Kafirs to destroy their cattle and corn, and refrain from cultivating the ground, assuring them that when these orders were carried out a. new state of things would follow—the past heroes and all the dead of the Kafirs were to arise, all cattle would also be restored to life, and the white man and Fingoes would be swept from the face of the earth. It is inconceivable the extent to which these predictions- were believed and acted upon. Thousands upon thousands of fine cattle were slaughtered. In the Gcaleka country, Kreli gave the word that the spirit of their ancestors must be obeyed, and such quantities of corn and cattle were destroyed that hunger began to make havoc among the ranks of his followers. This was a critical time for the peace of the frontier. The political aim of the delusion was to incite the people, after they had destroyed their means of subsistence, to make an onslaught on the Colony, but there was not that simultaniety of action among them to ensure success. While the Gaika chief was considering what he should do, the other tribes were broken and starving. It was. thought by many that Government should have interfered and apprehended the prophet and his patrons, but such a step would probably have precipitated war. Every means, however, were: adopted that could be devised to protect life and property in the Colony, and to be prepared for the worst. As soon as the crisis: was passed, those of the natives who survived the delusion were- fed by the Government and private charity; and the Colonists benevolently came forward and co-operated with the authorities in. relieving the sick and suffering, and saving the remnant of the nation, as far as possible, from the consequences of its mad act of self-destruction. It was estimated that 25,000 Kafirs, chiefly women, children and aged persons, perished, and that nearly 100,000 disappeared for a time from the country, driven out by the famine which they had themselves created. One result of this depopulation of the country was that large tracts in British Kaffraria were cleared of their former occupants. The Governor filled up some portions of these with European farmers from the Colony on a system of military tenure. The Anglo-German Legion, disbanded after the close of the Crimean War, were also introduced and located there—the Cape Colony ich ted for perstod thing uences'e rom F 2 168 PEACE AND PROGRESS. .contributing towards the expense of bringing them out. And shortly afterwards a body of agricultural labourers, with their wives and children, to the number of two thousand, from North Germany, were introduced and settled in the neighbourhood of the military villages along the Buffalo River. While these matters of frontier policy more immediately occupied Sir George Grey's attention, he was not neglectful of other interests affecting the welfare and prosperity of the Colony generally. In Australia he had witnessed the extraordinary development which followed from a systematic introduction of immigrants, and from what he had seen of the Cape of Good Hope, he was satisfied that it offered at least equal advantages as a field for the profitable employment of industry, as well as of capital in the occupation of lands. He proposed a scheme to Parliament for raising a loan for immigration purposes, which was sanctioned. He also devised various plans for developing the internal resources of the country. In 1857, authority was given for the construction of the first line of railway from Cape Town to Wellington. Roads and bridges, in various directions, were authorised; and measures were passed for promoting a harbour of refuge in Table Bay, and for the construction of harbour works at the mouths of the Kowie and Buffalo rivers. New divisions were created, additional magistrates appointed, and numerous new villages rapidly sprung up, forming .centres of population throughout the country. The commerce of the Cape, during the ten years following the re-establishment of peace and the first meeting of the Parliament, indicated a remarkable development of its resources. In 1854, its exports were valued at £764,461. In 1864 they were more than trebled, amounting to £2,594,594. The quantity of wool produced increased from 8,567,457 lbs. in 1854, to 36,296,698 lbs. in 1864. The imports of goods in 1854, were £1,548,037, and in 1864 they had advanced to £2,471,339. Sir P. E. Wodehouse succeeded to the Governorship in 1862. An Imperial policy of economy in all expenditure upon the Colonies was then being adopted, and he was instructed to use all means to make British Kaffraria self-supporting, or to incorporate it with the Cape. The Kaffrarians, however, resisted annexation, as they wished to retain their separate government, and the colonists opposed it, from an apprehension that they would be burdened with the expense of the general military defence of the Kaffrarian frontier, of which they could see no precise limit. The Governor suggested to the Secretary of State that if it was desired to unite the two colonies, it had better be done by an Act of the Imperial l'arliament. This suggestion was adopted, and an annexing Bill was introduced into the House of Commons and became law-but it contained a provision that the Cape Parliament might, if so ANNEXATION OF BRITISH KAFFRARIA. 69 disposed, pass another enactment arranging details, before it came- into operation. This proceeding was regarded as a violation of the constitutional rights of the colonists; but the Imperial Act being held in terrorem, the Cape Legislature accepted the position, and, after a severe struggle of parties, in 1865, agreed to a Bill incorporating British Kaffraria with the Colony, and increasing the number of constituencies entitled to representation in the Assembly, as well as enlarging the Legislative Council. The tract of country beyond the Great Kei River was at this time almost unoccupied, having been depopulated during the famine of 1857, and the chief Kreli expelled beyond the Bashee River, as a punishment for the evils he had caused in Kaffraria. Sir G. Grey had filled up a small portion of it with friendly natives, Kafirs and Fingoes, placed under European magistrates ; and he proposed occupying other parts with a European population reared in the Colony, and holding their lands on a system of military tenure, similar to the Cathcart grantee system in Queen's Town. Governor Wodehouse proposed a similar scheme for its settlement, with the addition that an armed force should be organised for the defence of the new frontier. But the Secretary of State, apprehending that such an occupation would increase the risk of further Imperial expenditure, directed British authority to be withdrawn, and the Kei River made the colonial boundary. Sir Philip Wodehouse thereupon granted Kreli permission to return with his followers to a portion of the vacant territory; while the remainder of it was allotted to Fingoes and Tembus, who crowded some of the Frontier districts, and whose excessive population was thus drawn off. The transfer of these natives from within the Colony was finally carried out in 1866, and the fertile country, now known as the Transkei, became peopled with portions of Fingo and other tribes, having no alliance with their Gcaleka neighbours, and believed to be friendly and loyal to the British Government, from a consciousness of benefits received and an appreciation of the peace secured to them by its influence. Some important questions occupied public attention during the administration of Governor Wodehouse. One was the long con- tinued but unsuccessful agitation for a division of the Colony into two separate governments. Another was the unsatisfactory rela- tions between the Executive Government and the Legislature. By the Constitution granted in 1853, the Parliament was composed of representatives elected by the people, while the members of the Executive, who held seats in both Chambers, were appointed by and responsible to the Imperial Government. The remedy for this was a change to the system of responsible or party Govern- ment; but to such a change a majority of the colonists were 70 RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT. opposed, considering it to be premature and unsuited to the country Between 1867 and 1869 the finances showed a marked decline, and to equalise revenue and expenditure, a large scheme of taxation was submitted by Government. The House of Assembly resolved that instead of this taxation there should be considerable retrenchment of the public expenditure. Matters threatened to come to a dead- lock. Sir Philip Wodehouse reported the Constitution to be unworkable. He dissolved Parliament, and, with the approval of the Secretary of State, made an appeal to the country at the elections,—the issue being whether the Legislature should be modi- fied, as Sir Philip proposed, so as to consist of a single chamber of thirty-six members, giving the Executive increased powers; or whether the Colony should have the administration conducted as in England by a Cabinet possessing the confidence of the Legislature. When the new Parliament met, it at once rejected the reactionary proposal of the Governor, and his period of service being completed he left the Colony. Governor Sir Henry Barkly, experienced in the working of con- -stitutional Government in Australia, was then sent out, with authority to press the adoption of full self-government upon the Colony, which he did with success. In 1872, he introduced a measure, which, after five days' debate, was passed in the House of Assembly by a majority of ten votes, and in the Legislative Coun- cil by a bare majority of one. The new constitution thus created was assented to by the Queen and proclaimed on the 29th November, the first Ministry being formed by Sir John Charles Molteno. Following upon the inauguration of Responsible Government there was another marked advance of the prosperity of the Colony. Shortly before there had been a long period of adversity. Abnor- mal seasons and protracted droughts had occasioned great loss of sheep and cattle; the wine farms were devastated with oidium ; and the wine trade itself was universally depressed, as Mr. Gladstone's alcoholic scale of duty excluded it from the English market. Added to this, a war on the border, between the Orange Free State and the Basuto tribe, disastrously affected colonial business. But just at the time when the prospects of the country were most gloomy, a change in its fortunes occurred. Diamonds were found along the banks of the Vaal River; and the success of the first search parties brought numerous others from the neighbouring colonies and republics, as well as from abroad. The rich mines of Griqua- land West,* which were then opened, gave employment to large bodies of men; and this, combined with a return of favourable seasons, reacted upon the agricultural and pastoral classes throughout the whole Colony, producing such beneficial effects that the public re- * An epitome of the History of Griqualand West will be found in the chapter on Diamond Mining at the Cape.” and that the time in its hal Rivers from the rich mi MATERIAL PROGRESS. 71 venue, which had previously exhibited deficits, shewed for several years an uninterrupted annual increase and a handsome surplus over each year's expenditure. In 1874, the exports of the Colony (which in 1854 were only £764,461), amounted in value to £4,233,561, exclusive of a large unregistered exportation of diamonds, estimated in that year at £200,000. The export of wool reached 42,620,481 lbs., of the value of £2,948,571. The imports in the same year advanced to £5,558,215, the greater part of which were from Great Britain, and the public revenus which in 1854 was only £300,000, rose to above one million and a half sterling The census of the Colony taken in 1875, shewed that the total population numbered 720,984 persons, of which the European or whites amounted to 236,783, and the various native and coloured classes to 484,201. The total area of holdings was close upon eighty million acres, of which about sixty millions were held upon quitrent tenure, over eighteen millions on leasehold, and a million were freehold properties. The number of different kinds of live- stock was :—Sheep (woolled), 9,986,240; other sheep, 990,423; horses, 205,985; mules and asses, 29,318; draught cattle, 421,762; other cattle, 689,951; angora goats, 877,988; other goats, 2,187,214; pigs, 116,738; ostriches, 21,751. Twenty years of peace had almost lulled the Colony into forget- fulness of native disturbances and war, when in 1876 rumours began to spread of " looming troubles ” owing to the restless state of some of the Kafir tribes. Although the feeling of insecurity was attributed to groundless “scares," Sir Henry Barkly, with the advice of his ministers, appointed a Commission to consider the question of frontier defence. This Commission, after taking the evidence of military and other officials, brought up a report, stating that “the Colony was living upon a mine that might at any moment be sprung beneath its feet.” Different opinions prevailed as to the extent of the danger, but the Government felt it to be its duty to .strengthen the defensive forces of the country. In 1877, Sir Bartle Frere was appointed Governor, in succession to Sir H. Barkly, and was charged as High Commissioner with the supervision of British interests in Griqualand West, in Natal, and South Africa generally. On his arrival, he loyally co-operated with the ministry of Sir John Molteno, then in office, and made arrangements, after meeting Parliament, for visiting the frontier. Just at this time, the accident of a fight at a wedding feast in the Transkei set the tribes on the border in commotion. Some Firgoes had been beaten and one Gcaleka killed. This revived the old animosity which had existed for many years between these two tribes. The Gcalekas entered Fingoland at four points, sweeping off cattle from the Fingo villages, and one of their armed parties 72 THE WAR OF 1877-78. eers Pantry reteld, and attacked the Mounted Police Force at Gwadana, killing one officer and four men. Measures were at once taken by the Govern- ment for the protection of the Fingoes and the punishment of their enemies. The Colonial Forces and Volunteers from the principal districts and towns, as well as two of H.M.'s infantry regiments, a naval brigade, and artillery, were brought into the field, and Kreli and his forces were defeated and driven over the Bashee River. It was thought the disturbance was then at an end ; but the Gcalekas shortly afterwards reappeared in considerable force, and a body of them crossed the Kei River into the Gaika territory, and induced that tribe, under the chief Sandilli, to engage in hostilities. A portion of the Gaikas, however, remained faithful to the Government, as did many of the smaller tribes. After a few months' fighting, the war was brought to a close by the dispersion of the Gcalekas, the death of the Gaika chief, Sandilli, and the surrender or capture of the minor Gaika and Tembu chiefs who took part in the rebellion. The Gaika territory was declared forfeited, with the exception of the several Christian mission stations; and the remainder of the Gaika tribe was removed across the Kei, into a portion of the fine country left vacant by the dispersion of the Gcalekas. Kreli was outlawed, but took refuge in Bomvanaland; and, after seven years' life “in the bush," he has now been pardoned by the Government, and permitted to settle down as a peaceful subject in a portion of that district. During the course of the war, in the early part of 1878, the Governor and his Ministers unhappily were not in accord—the point of difference between them having reference to the control of the forces in the field, and who should conduct the operations for the suppression of the rebellion. The Governor ultimately dismissed Sir John Molteno and his colleagues from office, and summoned Mr. John Gordon Sprigg to form a ministry, which was at once done. Parliament was assembled shortly afterwards, and the action of the Governor was challenged in the House of Assembly, but after a long debate, the House resolved by a majority of 37 to 22 that, under all the circumstances of the case, the removal of the Ministers was unavoidable. Parliament, before it arose, voted its thanks to the Officers Commanding and to all the forces, regulars and colonial, who had been engaged in the suppression of the rebellion. It also made provision for the self-defence of the Colony in the future, by sanctioning considerable votes for increasing the Cape Mounted Police, and passing laws for the organisation of a Yeomanry Corps, Volunteers, and the Burgher and Levy forces—the latter embracing every able-bcdied man in the Colony between 18 and 50 years of age, with some necessary exceptions. It likewise gave the Govern- Commanding in the suppressz of the Colony the Cape Mor THE BASUTO REBELLION. 73 me parts of trantable etament a Facounted Place and internet to the Imperis held by the of Respole Gore regate med beeritory the introut the inst which com ment the power to proclaim areas, within which it would not be lawful for any persons to have arms or weapons without a licence. Under this Peace Preservation Act, as it was termed, the Kafirs and Fingoes on the Frontier and in the Transkei were disarmed of their guns and assegais, compensation being allowed them for the same; and an intimation was given that the law would also be- extended to the Basuto tribe, occupying the territory of Basuto-- land. This tribe, as already mentioned, had been at war with the Orange Free State in 1868, and were on the point of being entirely subjugated and broken up, when Sir Philip Wodehouse, in his capacity of High Commissioner, stepped in and saved them by proclaiming British sovereignty over them. In the Free State and in some parts of the Colony, at the time, the interference was · regarded as an unwarrantable act, but it was approved of and confirmed by the Imperial Government. For a year or two after-- wards, the territory was held by the Cape Mounted Police Force; and in 1871, before the introduction of Responsible Government, Parliament was induced, at the instance of Governor Sir H. Barkly, to annex it to the Colony, which became responsible for its expenditure and administration. From this period, the- tribe made marked progress in material prosperity and civilization, and their government by European magistrates under Col. Griffith, C.N.G., was deemed to be a success. There were some of the chiefs, however, who chafed under the control of the Magistrates; and in 1879, Moroisi, a Bahputi chief, defied the authorities and went into rebellion. His death and the forfeiture of his lands followed. The Basutos, some of whom had aided in the suppression of the revolt, were troubled about this confiscation of territory; and when the extension to them of the Peace Preservation Act was announced, their chiefs seized the occasion of arousing and influencing the tribe to oppose it. The feeling against the disarmament policy was further encouraged by the statement, made through the ordinary public channels, that the Colonial Ministry was not supported by the Home Government. On the issue of the disarming proclamation, some loyal people obeyed the order, and surrendered their arms;: but the fact of their doing so drew upon them the enmity of the chiefs, who according to native custom “ate them up," threatening their lives and carrying off their cattle. A troop of the Cape Mounted Riflemen then moved up to Basutoland, for the protection of the loyalists. They were met on the border by armed forces of the Basutos, who essayed to resist their entry, and afterwards in great numbers attacked their camps and the magistrates' stations. In: September, 1880, nearly the whole tribe was in revolt; and within a week or two afterwards, there was a rising of the Basutos in East aboo them, zed the feeling age ppose ited by the statement Ministry was disarm 74 THE HIGH COMMISSIONER'S AWARD. Griqualand, followed, by that of the Pondomise, Amaquate, and Tembus, and other tribes east of the Drakensberg. This rising was signalised by the treacherous murder of one of the magistrates, Mr. Hamilton Hope, who was stationed with the Pondomise chief Umhlonhlo. The chief volunteered to go with Mr. Hope to aid the Government; but, when on the way, the Pondomise, forming a semi-circle, began a war dance, supposed to be loyal, the warriors of the tribe making, as is the custom, feints at stabbing, when they suddenly rushed at Mr. Hope and two of his companions, Warrene and Henman, killing them on the spot. At this time, Sir G. C. Strahan was temporarily administering the Government, in succession to Sir Bartle Frere, who had been recalled owing to the divergence between his views and that of Her Majesty's Government on the affairs of South Africa. Sir G. Strahan issued a proclamation, calling out 2,000 of the burgher forces, and these together with Volunteers and auxiliary Corps from all the principal towns, were at once sent to the front, and in a compara- tively short time the outbreak in Griqualand East and Tembu- land was suppressed. Afterwards, strenuous efforts were made to reduce the Basutos to submission by force of arms, but without success. In 1881, Sir Hercules Robinson arrived as Governor and High Commissioner, and he was instructed to offer his services as mediator between the Colonial Government and the Basutos. Both being willing to accept his arbitration, His Excellency gave his award on the 29th of April- the terms being a surrender of guns by the Basutos, and liberal issue of licences to carry arms on payment of a licence fee; restoration of the property taken from the loyals; compensation to traders for loss of property; and payment of a fine of cattle by the tribe. These conditions being complied with, there was to be a complete amnesty, and no con- fiscation of territory. A few days after this, the Hon. Mr. Sprigg and his colleagues resigned office, and a new Ministry was formed under the Premiership of Sir Thomas Scanlen. Although the award of Sir Hercules Robinson was accepted by the Basutos, and some cattle paid as a fine, little was done towards fulfilling its other conditions. After the lapse of about twelve months, the award being still uncomplied with, it was cancelled. A Commission was then appointed to assess the losses sustained by the loyal Basutos, and to compensate them for the same out of funds voted by Parliament; the disarmament proclamation was also withdrawn; and nothing was required of the Basuto tribe than payment of hut-tax and ordinary obedience to the law. Yet all these conciliatory efforts to re-establish the Government of Basutoland on a satisfactory footing proved unsuccessful. There was, meanwhile, a growing colonial feeling in favour of TRANSFER OF BASLTOLAND. 75 the abandonment of the territory; and the Ministry deputed one of their colleagues, the Hon. Mr. Merriman, to visit England and place the whole matter before the Imperial Government. In view of the disastrous effect which the abandonment of Basutoland might produce, the Imperial Government decided to undertake the administration of the country, on certain conditions—one being that the Colony paid towards the cost of its government an equivalent to the amount of customs duties received on goods sent into the territory; the other being that, if the Basutos did not give proof of their appreciation of British intervention, by assisting the administration in every way, the Imperial Govern- ment would not hold themselves bound to continue it. This arrangement, with a slight modification, was accepted by the Colony; and an Act for the Dis-annexation of Basutoland was passed in 1883, making provision for the payment of a sum, not exceeding £20,000, as a contribution towards any deficiency that may arise in the revenue of Basutoland. The territory is now governed by a Resident Commissioner, who is under the direction of Her Majesty's High Commissioner in South Africa. In 1883, the Colonial Parliament expired by effluxion of time, and on the meeting of the new Parliament after the elections, in 1884, the Ministry of Sir Thomas Scanlen intimated their intention of asking the Legislature, by resolution, to cause enquiry to be made whether the Imperial Government would not assume direct control over the Transkeian territories, as well as over Basutoland; but before this could be carried out, they found themselves defeated on à motion respecting the prohibition of the introduction of plants under the Phylloxera Prevention Act. Sir Thomas Scanlen accepted this as a non-confidence vote, and resigned. A new Ministry was then formed under the Premiership of the Hon. Thomas Upington, Q.C., who announced that his Cabinet con- sidered the policy of retrocession of the Transkeian territories unadvisable, and that they were prepared to submit proposals to complete their annexation. They had, however, first to deal with the question, which suddenly arose, of a German Protectorate being established on the border of the Colony north of the Orange River, along the West Coast. Some years before this, Sir Bartle Frere had recommended the annexing of this coast right up to the Portuguese boundary at Cape Frio, but the Imperial Government took no action in the matter, beyond sanctioning the British flag being hoisted at Walwich Bay and a small piece of ground surrounding it. A German subject, Mr. Luderitz, had in the meantime acquired rights of property at Angra Pequina Bay, and his Government, through the German Ambassador in London, enquired of the Secretary of State whether British protection would be extended 76 GERMAN PROTECTORATE. to Mr. Luderitz, intimating that failing British action, Germany would itself take its subjects at Angra Pequina under protection. The Secretary of State communicated with the Colony, enquiring, if the place was declared British, whether the Cape would be prepared to take the responsibility and control of it. When the matter was submitted to the Cape Parliament, it at once passed resolutions in favour of the annexation of the whole coast up to the Portuguese boundary. But in the interval, during which this reference to the Colony was made, a German man-of-war made its appearance and proclaimed a Protectorate over the coast from the Orange River to the twenty-sixth parallel of south latitude, and soon after another German gun-boat took possession of the whole of the rest of the West Coast, Walwich Bay and certain Islands excepted, in the name of the German Emperor. The British Government acquiesced in the action of the German Govern. ment; and this settled the question. Tre Cape Government, how- ever, lost no time in legalising the annexation to the Colony of Walwich Bay, which was done by proclamation of Sir Hercules Robinson under Act 35 of 1884, and at the same time the annexa- tion of the Port of St. John's, at the mouth of the Umzimvubu River on the East Coast, which had been proclaimed British territory in 1878, was completed. The Government then carried through the incorporation of the whole of the Transkeian Territories. The districts of Griqualand East, Idutywa and Fingoland had been annexed by Act in 1877; and in 1885 the territories of Tembuland, Emigrant Tembuland, Gcalekaland and Bomvanaland, were made integral portions of the Cape of Good Hope. The present inland boundaries of the Cape Colony are :-On the Eastern coast, the Umtata River from its mouth to the town of Umtata, and from thence along the line of road separating Griqua- land East from Pondoland, to a point on the Umtamvuna River touching the boundary of Natal, thence to the Umzimkulu River, and north to the Drakensberg range of mountains, following them to the sources of the Telle River, and thence its junction with the Orange River, and along the course of the Orange River to a point named Ramah; then in a northern direction, along the boundary of the Orange Free State to Platberg, on the Vaal River; then following down the Vaal River to its junction with the Orange River, and thence to the mouth of that river on the Western Coast. The total area of the Colony thus described embraces an extent of 213,636 square miles, being nearly double the area of the whole of Great Britain and Ireland. The present population is computed at a total of 1,252,347 persons. …. … . … ---- - WILD GAME ON THE PLAINS. (FROM PAINTING BY DAINES. PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF THE COLONY. The leading features of the physical geography of the Cape Colony, which greatly determine its climate and natural produc- tions, are the several ranges of mountains that cross the country in irregular lines, and, separated from each other by valleys and plains, form a series of terraces rising in successively-increasing altitudes, from the seaboard to the interior. The Cape Peninsula, which is generally the first land sighted by the voyager from England, presents a characteristic specimen of the form and structure of these mountain ranges, its tabular summit and peaks shooting up abruptly from the sea, and standing out bold and high. Table Mountain rises almost perpendicularly to a height of 3,852 feet above Table Bay. It is flanked on the right by the remarkable Lion's Head 2,100 feet high, the slopes on its neck covered by the beautiful satin-leafed Silver Tree, and its long round-backed extremity stretching outward as the Lion's Rump. On the left again there is the picturesque Devil's Peak (or Wind Berg of the old Dutch mariners) 3,315 feet in height; while in the horse-shoe valley between these points, the city of Cape Town is spread out, with its suburbs extending around the mountains for fourteen miles, from Sea Point to Constantia. A heath-covered sandy tract, forming the isthmus between Table Bay and False Bay, connects the Cape Peninsula with the Dra- kenstein and Hottentots Holland mountain range, which is the first high barrier between the coast region and the inland districts. I hese mountains stretch southward to Cape Hanglip at the entrance of False Bay, and northwards in a somewhat irregular series through Clanwilliam and Namaqualand to the Orange River. The vine-growing valleys of Stellenbosch, Drakenstein, Paarl, Wellington, Twenty-four Rivers and the Olifant's River are along the seaward slopes and spurs of these mountains, while the undulating plains reaching from them to the coast are exten- sive grain-producing districts, known as the “granary” of the Colony. The Berg River runs through a portion of this country, from Fransche Hoek to St. Helena Bay, over a course of 63 miles. Immediately behind the first range, is another having its highest point in the Winterhoek 6,840 feet near Tulbagh. This forms the principal watershed of the west ; the drainage on one side running to the Olifant's River, which empties itself into the Atlantic, and on the other to the Breede River, which flows into the Indian Ocean. The Breede River is navigable for small vessels for some distance from it mouth. The fertile valleys of the Wellington, ward slopes, ing from then as the 99 78 THE MOUNTAIN RANGES. Warm Bokkeveld, Worcester, Goudini, Hex River, Robertson, and Montagu, are in this tract. Proceeding eastward, the range is known as the Hex River, Langebergen, Outeniqua and Tzitzikamma mountains, running parallel to the coast, and subsiding near Cape St. Francis. This part of the country has been occupied for several generations by the descendants of the early colonists. There are many towns and villages established in it, such as Caledon, Swellendam, Heidelberg, Riversdale, George, and Mossel Bay, and the lands are occupied as corn farms, vineyards, orchards, tobacco plantations, sheep and cattle pastures, and ostrich enclosures. From George and the Knysna to the Tzitzikamma, near Humansdorp, it is well wooded, the forests running for a distance of 170 miles with a varying depth of from ten to twenty miles from the sea. A third range, known as the Zwarteberg, diverges from the elevated Hex River Heights, and encloses on one side the Ghannaland Karoo, Tradouw and the fertile districts of Ladismith, Oudtshoorn, and Lange Kloof, while on the other it forms the boundary of the “ Great Karoo.” The same range extends east- ward as the Antoniesberg, Elandsberg, and the Cockscomb or Great Winterhock, rising to 5,967 feet in the Uitenhage division, and there joining the hilly ridges of the Zuurberg, which die away some distance beyond Graham's Town, near the mouth of the Great Fish River. The Great “Karoo ”-signifying a dry or arid country, consists of extended undulating plains, dotted over with small bushes, and is characterised by a general absence of shade, of verdure, and of permanent surface waters. Behind this Great Karoo there rises a bold escarpment of flat-topped hills, known on the western side as the Roggeveld and Nieuwveld mountains, and further eastward as the Sneeuwbergen. These form the higher plateau of the Upper Karoo districts, sloping away to the valley of the Orange River. Here the wide-spreading bushy plains are more or less diversified by hills of sandstone and shale, and conical dykes or kopjes of black trap rock. The hills of the Roggeveld reach to 5,150 feet; but the highest point of the Sneeuwbergen (the Compassberg or Spitzkop mountain, in the Richmond district) rises to 7,800 feet above sea level. This constitutes the central water- shed of the Colony ; the drainage on one side running north to the Orange River, and on the other flowing south-eastward to the Indian Ocean. The plains of the Karoo bear no resemblance to the sandy wastes of Sahara. In seasons of drought, the soil is parched and arid, and vegetation scorched and shrivelled; but after rains it is trans- formed into luxuriant pastures, carrying countless flocks of sheep, and herds of cattle and horses, which thrive wonderfully on the GEOLOGY OF THE COLONY. 79 aromatic herbage, and peculiar dryness and salubrity of its climate. In former years, these plains abounded with wild game; and even as late as 1844, the notable Nimrod, Roualeyn Gordon Cumming, of Altyre (whose spoils of the chase from South Africa attracted so much notice in London during the first Great Exhibition of 1851), had his hunting grounds in the neighbourhood of the Thebus Mountain, on the borders of the Middelburg and Cradock districts. Thousands of springboks, interspersed with troops of gnus, or wildebeeste, quaggas, zebras, ostriches and other game, then dotted the immense flats, which are now occupied with flocks of wool- bearing sheep, farmers' dwellings, orchards and gardens. Of the larger game, there are few at present to be found within the boundaries of the Colony; but springboks are generally to be seen quietly grazing or scouring over the plain, and a small troop of zebras still occupy the mountain pastures within five miles of Cradock. In other portions of the Colony, the stately Koodo and the beautiful bontebok are preserved on private properties; and in the Knysna forests and Addo Bush, elephants and buffalo are more numerous than in the Transvaal. From the central range of the Sneeuwbergen, an arm runs eastward under the names of Tandtjesberg, Zwagershoek, and Boschberg, linking on to the Great Winterberg Mountain, over 7,000 feet high, then extending along the grassy heights of the Katberg, Elandsberg, Gaikaskop, the Hogsback and the Amatolas, and terminating with the Buffalo and Kologha ranges, in the division of King William's Town. This grassy plateau stretches further northward to the boundary of the Queen's Town district, rising from there by another step to the Stormberg Mountains, 6,000 to 7,000 feet in height, where are situate the border districts of Wodehouse, Aliwal North and Barkly; and then it joins on to the Drakensberg or Quathlamba Mountains, whose highest peak, 10,000 feet, is on the borders of the adjacent Colony of Natal." The structure of these various mountain ranges and the Geology of the Colony generally, has now been pretty accurately determined; although there are still many important points and details to be worked out by accurate survey. The three classes of formations, primary, secondary and tertiary, have each their representatives in South Africa, and are to be met with under cir- cumstances analagous to those in which they are found on other parts of the earth's crust. The mountains nearest the seaboard, and the rocks forming the littoral of the south and eastern parts of the Colony, consist of the Palæozoic or primary formation, pierced and penetrated by intru- sive rocks. Clay-slate, sometimes broken through and altered by granite, is the underlying formation over the whole of the southern :80 THE CANGO CAVES. wous. ndstone and Lancountain, ed pebbleosit of districts; while on the west coast, from the Oliphants River -northwards and extending into Bushmanland, the prevailing formation is granite and gneiss, passing into metamorphic schists as the Orange River is approached. It is in this tract that the valuable Namaqualand copper mines are situate. Metamorphic rocks similar to che Namaqualand schists also appear on the east side of the colony, at George and Knysna, associated with gneiss, and penetrated by granite veins, and veins and reef of quartz; traces of gold have been found here over a considerable area, but not sufficient to encourage working. Above the clay-slate, is a great sedimentary deposit of quartzose sandstone, with in some places imbedded pebbles, such as forms the upper portion of the Table Mountain, Lion's Head, and also the Hottentots Holland and Langebergen ranges. Both the clay- slate and this sandstone have as yet proved unfossiliferous. Resting conformably on the sandstone, in the second range of mountains, are a series of argillaceous shales and coarse red sand- stones, which contain numerous fossils, chiefly trilobites, brachio- pods, and encrinites, characteristic of the Upper Silurian or Devonian rocks. These fossiliferous deposits extend along the mountains northward from the Gydow, behind Ceres, to the Cedarbergen, and eastward along the Hex River heights and the Great Zwarteberg towards Uitenhage. At the base of the Zwarteberg range, which is considered to be of the Devonian or Old Red Sandstone period, there is a limestone which belongs to the Namaqualand schists formation. In this limestone occurs the famed Cango caves, a series of very curious and interesting stalactite caverns or grottoes, which were visited in 1874 by Sir H. Barkly, accompanied by 300 of the neigh- bouring residents. Although persons have penetrated these caves for more than a mile distance, they have never been explored to the end; and their inner recesses still remain as a field of adventure for any one ambitious of going where man has never been before. The caves have been thus described by Lieut. Shirwell, an Indian visitor, who declared that Elephanta, and other caves of India, did not gratify him so much as these :- “At the mouth of the caves, a stout ladder was lowered down, and we descended to the depth of about 33 or 34 feet, and found ourselves standing in a vast hall of six hundred feet in length, about one hundred in breadth, and from sixty to seventy feet high. In the .centre of this magnificent cave stands a colossal stalactite of seventy feet in height, white as the purest marble, and sparkling as if strewn with diamonds. “ From the roof depend enormous masses of lime, gradually growing into stalactital columns, whilst on the damp ground rising to meet these pendant masses, are huge stalagmites formed by the continual filtration of lime through the superincumbent rocks; some have THE CANGO CAVES. 81 nearly met and formed columns, others are but commencing to form ; in fact the whole floor of the cave is strewed with stalagmites of various growths, and on the roof, opposite to each, hangs a corre- sponding mass. “The work of filtration of calcareous matter is proceeding steadily, and in time this vast hall will become a labyrinth of pure alabaster- like columns. This cave is known by the name of Van Zyl's Flak, after the discoverer, a Dutch Boer, who discovered the caverns whilst hunting in these mountains. “Leaving this hall, we entered a small cavern about forty feet square, and thirty feet high. This is called the Registry, from a practice of visitors writing their names on the pure snow white lime walls. A few more paces brought us to the most beautiful and most wonderful part of the caverns. Whilst writing our names in the registry, all the boers except one, who had delayed us purposely by pointing out various names and superscriptions, had quietly slipped away, but on passing from this spot through a narrow passage and entering the next cave, we soon perceived why they had left us. A sight at once beautiful and astonishing now burst upon our sight. We stood in a vast cave, one hundred and forty feet square, and about fifty in height, the whole of the most dazzling and sparkling whiteness; columns and pillars snow white, and some transparent crystallized lime stood on all sides, the roof covered with innumerable small and delicate icicle looking stalectites, each with a huge drop of pure water hanging from their extremities, and as each drop parted company with its filter and fell to the ground, it had the appearance as if a shower of diamonds was falling from the roof. The boers had all taken up positions with their lights to enable us to see the whole of this fairy-like cavern at one coup d'oeil. I stood bewildered and astonished at this wonderful sight. In the centre of the cavern stands a column as pure and as white as alabaster. It is the height of the hall, fifty feet, and about nine feet in circumference, and worked in the most minute manner. It is of pure crystallized lime, surrounded by horizontal bands or raised divisions at every three or four feet. These divisions are filled up with minute filigree work and vertical lines, in fact the column appears, to use a borrowed simile, as if “raised by a giant, and finished by a jeweller.” At either end of the hall are groups of the same substance, resembling bed curtains and flowery drapery, running into elegant arabesques. All around the sides of the hall the lime has taken the forms of various objects, amongst which fancy may discover a high altar of a Catholic church, decked out with all the paraphernalia of grand mass; stalactites, resembling high and lofty candelabra, cups and goblets, steps and censors; in another corner may be seen a collection of elegant drapery, flowers, trees and animals; one mass in particular bears the exact resemblance to the head of a gigantic bull. “ Being continually saturated with water, the groups appear semi- transparent, the hanging and falling drops of water also reflect the light of the torehes, giving to the whole a dazzling and sparkling appearance. The spar when broken off, dries and loses its trans- 82 CARBONIFEROUS FORMATION. Just been con aqueous distribttributed tomadom parency becoming a dull and opaque body. Leading out of this hall are innumerable passages: where they lead to, or how far they extend no one knows. The walls are pierced in every direction with dark looking openings, each leading into other caverns, thus making the whole mountain one vast network of caves and grottoes. As a speci. men of natural excavation, I much doubt if these caverns are to be equalled by any in the world, both for beauty, height, or extent, for their extent is as yet quite unknown.” The northern slopes of the Zwartberg range consist of sand- stones and quartzite of the same age as the Zuurberg mountain (Carboniferous). Succeeding these is a conglomerate formation whose peculiar characteristic is the number of pebbles and fragments of other rocks, from the size of a pea to several tons in weight, imbedded in it. Various observers have termed this a claystone porphyry, a trap ash, a metamorphic conglomerate, and a boulder clay. Its origin has been attributed to igneous action, to glacial action, and to aqueous distribution. But observations which have just been concluded by Mr. E. J. Dunn, in his recent geological surveys on behalf of the Government, establish the fact that this conglomerate is of glacial origin. Not only are the boulders, blocks, and pebbles striated, scored, and grooved, but they have also flat surfaces ground on them, in some cases. Its outcrop has now been traced from the Vaal River, near Kimberley, through Bushmanland south of the Orange River, down past Calvinia to Karoo Poort, and thence easterly, past Prince Albert and Graham's Town, to the Gulana River mouth. It re-enters the land south of the mouth of St. John's River, crosses the Umzimkulu Drift, entering Natal, and continues past Pietermaritzburg on to the junction of the Tugela and Buffalo Rivers and into Zululand. The whole of the area included by the outcrop is underlaid by this remarkable conglomerate, which extends over a length of 700 miles, with a breadth of about 250 miles. At one point, about a mile from the junction of the Vaal and Orange Rivers, a distinctly glaciated rock surface is laid bare, with the conglomerate, con- taining striated pebbles and boulders, resting upon it. Overlying this conglomerate are carbonaceous shales, forming the Lower Karoo Beds. These beds dip away from the conglomerate on the north side towards the south, and on the south towards the north, forming apparently an immense trough or basin, in which there now appears a probability of coal deposits being found in positions more central and accessible, and of greater value to the country than any hitherto discovered. It is in these carbonaceous shales that the diamond mines are situate at Kimberley. Above the Lower Karoo Beds are the Upper Karoo Beds. These formations together, forming the Karoo plains, cover an immense area, extending from the boundary of the gneiss, in the Calvinia MESOZOIC, JURASSIC, AND TERTIARY. 83 district on the west, to the Zwarteberg and Zuurberg on the east, spreading over the Midland and most of the Eastern Districts, and stretching northwards as far as the Vaal River. In these Karoo beds, a great variety of fossil reptilian verte- brates (Dicynodonts, &c.) are found. They have been described and catalogued by Sir Richard Owen, the eminent palaen- tologist, who, writing of them, says :-“ Before the continent of Africa as it now is existed, these animals lived, died, and propagated their kinds through untold generations. From their jaws and dentition they were herbivorous, and from what is known of their limbs more terrestrial than aquatic. The old lake-basins. represented by these deposits muoh exceed in extent those inland fresh water seas which recent explorers have now discovered for us in the centre of the Continent." As to the age of these Saurians, Sir R. Owen adds, the present phase of evidence is that they are not later in time than the Trias, and probably lived in the Palæozoic periods. The Stormberg Coal Measures, from their characteristic plants and fossils, are considered to be of the secondary or Mesozoic epoch. They measure about 1,000 feet thick and rest immediately and conformably on the Upper Karoo beds, the principal deposits as yet found, and now in course of working, being at from 300 to. 400 feet from the base. Mr. Dunn classes these Stormberg rocks in four groups, rising in succession, viz. :-Coal Measures, Red Beds, Cave Sandstone, and Volcanic rocks. Very grand scenery results from the weathering of these sandstones, and caves of large size occur in them. Representing later geological periods, are the Sunday's River Beds (Jurassic), extending along the course of the Sunday's River, the valley of the Olifant's River, in Oudtshoorn, and from Mossel Bay to Heidelberg; and the Tertiary clays, limestones, and sand- stones found in the Zwartkops River Valley, on the old race-course- at Graham's Town, and on the Cape Flats, and elsewhere. Unmistakeable old volcanoes, which were probably the centre of eruptive activity in the Triassic age, are found in the Stormberg range. Two of them still preserve a crater-like shape—one is locally known as Glatkopjes, and the other as Telemachus Kop. In the middle and eastern portions of the Colony, igneous rocks. occur abundantly, shewing that after the deposit of the Karoo beds. and at the close of the period occupied in the accumulation of the Stormberg beds, volcanic agencies on a grand scale were developer, and vast masses of dolerite introduced through the stratified rocks in all directions; but although passing through, they did not generally disturb their horizontal position. The contours of most of the hills and mountains are thus always marked by bold and massive outlines. G2 84 CAPE SCENERY. To some English readers, it may come as a surprise that South African scenery, instead of being dreary and monotonous, has a fair proportion of grand and majestic as well as wondrously beautiful and picturesque points. The bold, towering mountains of the Eastern districts, of the Stormberg, and the Drakensberg, compare favourably with anything in Wales, the West of Ireland, or the Highlands of Scotland. The combination of hill and lake and woodland in the divisions of George and Knysna, and along the reaches of the St. John's River, bear contrast in some respects with Cumberland and Westmoreland. The jungly ravines and the dense primeval forests, where “Nature reigns supreme in awful loneliness," have a rare wild beauty of their own; in their deep recesses, beneath the shade of majestic yellowwoods, you may wander for hours, so far as the tangled undergrowth will let you, the silence unbroken save by the wind among the trees, the subdued note of a bird, or the chirp of an insect. There is also a great charm in the pure translucent atmosphere of the country; in its strange yet exquisite vegetation, and in the brilliant colouring of mountain slope or forest glade under the purple light of morning, or the rosy glow of sunset- When the sultry summer noon is past, And mellow evening comes at last, With a low and languid breeze Fanning the Mimosa trees. Even the wide-extending pastoral plains of the Karoo have a cer- tain attraction for many—not merely as valuable sheep-walks, or for the herds of wild game occasionaily met with, but from the freedom as well as the exhilarating buoyant air of the desert, and that strange sense of solitude which is realised as one gazes over the unbroken perspective of blue sky and fading distance, When no tree, nor cloud, nor misty mount, Appear to refresh the aching eye; But the barren earth and the burning sky, And the blank horizon round and round, Spread—void of living sight and sound. The traveller who journeys up country, in crossing several of the mountain ranges, may enjoy a diversity of panorama scarcely inferior to that which is obtained along the great Alpine passes. "The Hottentot's Holland Kloof, on the main route from Cape Town to the frontier, is one of these elevations, rising a sheer height of near a thousand feet, and overlooking the whole of the Cape Peninsula from False Bay to Table Bay. Still more attrac- tive, as well as imposing, is the entrance to the interior by Bain's Kloof, Mitchell's Pass, and Karoo Poort. The railway carries you from Cape Town to the pretty village of Wellington, at the foot of the mountain range, where the road winds up with many a Graham Wind REACH OF THE ST. JOHN'S RIVER. BAIN'S PASS. 85 trim mile, to ble Bay Groene bere the fames curve and stretch for seven or eight miles to the crown of Bain's- Pass, commanding a magnificent panorama of the surrounding country. Here the prospecu extends over a distance of forty or fifty miles, yet the atmosphere generally is so clear and trans- parent that every feature stands revealed with the most minute distinctness. The silvery stream of the Berg River, the tree- embowered township of the Paarl, stretching at the base of the immense glistening domes of granite rock which the old colonists named the Pearl and Diamoud; the village of Wellington, with its white-washed houses and brown orchards; and the succession of trim homesteads, vineyards, and corn-fields, spreading out mile- after mile, to the white line of surf which marks the deep blue sea north of Table Bay, are all as plain to the eye as the smooth velvet slopes of the Groeneberg, and the dark green and gold of the orange groves surrounding the farms snugly nestled in the Wagonmaker's Valley many hundreds of feet immediately below. The scene is one of pleasing landscape beauty, such as no other part of the Colony affords; and it contrasts most strikingly with the wild grandeur of the eastern side of the Kloof, a few yards further on. Huge mountain masses there form the portal of the Titanic gorge, through which the Pass gradually descends for about ten miles to the Breede River Valley. Nearly all along this way the road has been blasted and scarped out of a hard quartzose sandstone-in some places being cut through frowning krantzes, leaving gigantic gates, natural arches, and overhanging ledges ; in others crossing abyss-like gaps and fissures, which have been built up with precipitous retaining and parapet walls from 100 to 300 feet high. “Hills upon hills in quick succession rise" as you advance, and new objects of admiration or astonishment are ever presenting themselves. The rock scenery is singularly weird and fantastic-now rising high in majestic buttressed walls, then piled up in craggy pinnacles—here standing in gaunt spectral groups, or there strewn in broken and crumbled confusion. Its scathed and weather-worn character in many places might convey a dreary and perhaps monotonous impression, if it were not for the endless charms. of light and shade arising from the winding course of the road, and the varied colours and forms of the vegetation which fringes the sides of the mountains. Although not so luxuriant nor so. dense as in other places, there is generally a rich display of charac- teristic Cape flora. Heaths of scarlet, purple, and other hues ; bulbs of great variety ; orchids, ferns, and several handsome shrubs and dwarf trees, alternate together with grasses, creepers, and soft mosses; and the stratified formation of the sandstone en- closes many humid recesses whence issue rills and streams which keep these evergreen and fresh all the year round. The flowering season of September, however, is the time to see the Pass to ad- 86 MICHELL'S PASS. vantage; then after the winter rains, there are countless sprays, cascades, and waterfalls, leaping from ledge and precipice, and rushing down to swell the dark tarn-like pools and roaring tor- rent of the Witte River at the bottom of the deep ravine. Emerging from the Kloof at Darling Bridge, the flats forming the Tulbagh and Worcester valley are traversed, and then the Michell's Pass in Mostert's Hoek greets you. This is another mountain scene of great boldness and picturesque beauty. The Breede River, a clear wide stream, is bridged across at the entrance, and the road ascends along the left bank for a length of about six miles, the whole of it being scarped out of the rock, and strength- ened by a retaining wall, from three to forty feet in height. The old road-little more than a cattle track-is still to be seen climb- ing over projecting krantzes, and then descending abruptly to the river bed, and farmers delight to tell of their perilous adventures in crossing it, not many years ago, when waggons and produce had to be carried over piecemeal, or on the backs of oxen, and after- wards put together and re-arranged, when they had managed to scramble through. In this kloof the mountains appear more huddled together, and tower up in grand and wild confusion, the cliffs, and peaks, and crags seeming to topple every way from tho highly inclined stratification of the rocks, while the many grassy hollows and patches of flowering heaths and shrubs clothing their sides give a soft verdant character to the scene. On reaching its summit, which is about 2,000 feet above the sea, the village of Ceres and the District of Warm Bokkeveld are seen stretched out on a circular undulating plain bounded by the heights of the Cold Bokkeveld, which are all snow-clad in winter. From here one road passes over these heights by the Gydow Mountain to the northern parts of the Bokkeveld, and another proceeds by the steep and toilsome ascent of the Hottentot's Kloof to the Karoo Poort, leading to Calvinia and Roggeveld, and Beaufort West and the Interior. From Port Elizabeth, a few hours journey by rail brings you to the Zuurberg Mountain Pass, which is unrivalled in point of beauty of vegetation and novelty of scene. Stopping at the Coerney Station, the approach to the Pass is for some distance through portion of the Addo Bush-a dense jungle consisting chiefly of spekboom and other succulent plants, growing in such rank luxuriance as to be almost impervious unless a path be cut through them. Many parts of the frontier are covered with such thickets, which in the time of war were occupied by the Kafirs as natural strongholds, whence they could suprise their objects of attack or elude their pursuers. At this place the Bush gives shelter to a few herds of elephants, whose foot-prints and tracks are occasionally to be seen crossing the road; and the old Dutch ZUURBERG PASS. colonist who is owner of a farm about half-way to the mountain is sometimes subjected to nocturnal visits from them. “The flies and the elephants,” he says, are the only troubles of his life; the for- mer swarm and tease him during the day, whilst the latter trample the corn-fields at night, and are “ too big to wrestle with.” Their numbers, however, are now fast diminishing, and apparently they are getting more timid and suspicious of man, as they have removed their haunts to the extreme recesses of the * bush.” Nearing the foot of the Pass, the mountain heights in the fore- ground, clothed with the strange, stiff, gaunt forms of the gigantic Euphorbia, have rather a gloomy, sombre effect; but this is soon lightened and improved as the view changes when the first ascent of a quarter of a mile is made, and the grandeur and beauty of the hill and forest scenery is disclosed. Then there are imposing bushy cliffs and weather-stained rocks bristling against the sky overhead, while in the valley outstretched below lofty trees, draped with grey lichens, or festooned with convolvolus, wild vine, or monkey rope parasites stand up like ancient monarchs, as they are, out of the tangled mass of copse, clustering shrubs, flowering plants, grasses, and ferns, which form the undergrowth vegetation. Through this the road rises, cut out of the solid rock on one side, with deep perpendicular precipices on the other, until it passes through a rocky gateway, and emerges at the top, on what is apparently a table-land of grassy downs, but in reality is one of the several hilly ridges, running off into deep furrows and kloofs in every direction. It is in crossing these “necks” or ridges that the peculiar character of the Zuurberg is realised and seen to advantage. The poet Pringle was strikingly impressed with it, as far surpassing anything of the kind he had witnessed elsewhere, or formed a conception of from the accounts of others. He describes it as “ a billowy chaos of naked mountains, rocks, precipices, and yawning abysses, that looked as if hurled together by some prodigious con- vulsion of nature, while over the lower declivities and deep sunk dells a dark impenetrable forest spreads its shaggy skirts, and adds to the whole a still more wild and savage sublimity.” It is indeed a superb scene when looked upon from the summit of the moun- tain which commands a bird's-eye view of all the lower ranges. There you can mark the great arches and deep troughs of the Zuurberg formation, now rising in soft rounded contours, then swelling out in gentle undulations, the emerald grassy slopes con- trasting with the grey precipices and dark foliage of the forest recesses, or the bright silvery gleams of the streams in the inter- vening deep valleys. There is also a splendid prospect of the surrounding country stretching to the coast and the waters of the Indian Ocean, as well as of the fantastic peaks of the Winterhoek 88 THE KATBERG ROAD. mountain (the Cockscomb), which in the clear atmosphere appears much nearer than it actually is. The heights above the city of Graham's Town also command a magnificent view of characteristic frontier scenery—an exquisite landscape of tumbled hills and dales, variegated with verdant slopes. and wooded heights, and backed by massive mountains, whose tops fade into the blue haze on the far distant horizon. Woest Hill on the one side and Botha's Hill on the other, each afford a good prospect, but the culminating point of view is Governor's Kop, an eminence about 2,700 feet high, ten miles east of the city. Directly in front and north-eastward, the gloomy dark valleys of the Great Fish River extend; one can discern the tower of Fort Peddie, and the sand hills between the Fish River and the Beka, and in the distance the mountains of Kaffraria, with the peak of Tabindoda or the Man Mountain. To the right there appear spread out The gardens of Albany with their evergreen parks and rich corn land, Their soft grassy slopes, wooded kloofs and deep vleis, with the broad-leaved lotus Wafting delicious perfume around; while in the distance the white farm-houses of Bathurst and the Kowie are scattered in groups, and the coast line is girded with a beautiful sapphire belt, formed by the Indian Ocean, extend ing as far as the eye can reach, from the Bushman's River to the Keiskamma. On the great northern road, leading from Graham's Town to Queen's Town, there is another mountain pass, the Katberg, of striking grandeur and romantic beauty, and the approach to it through Fort Beaufort and the Kat River district is fittingly picturesque. The mountain, at the point where the road crosses it, cannot be less than 3,000 or 4,000 feet high, and the pass winds up on the ridge of a kloof, through bush and forest and rocky krantzes and over waterfalls and fearfully deep gullies, which make one marvel at the intrepidity and skill of the engineer who laid it out. On the breast of the Katberg there are three distinct belts or zones, the lower consisting of undulating slopes and coombs, some of them of richest emerald green : others, hardly less beautiful, of a ripe russet-yellow tint, which harmonize delightfully with the dark sombre forest foliage in the zone immediately above. This forest covers not merely the ravines, but the whole breadth of the mountain within the limits of elevation to which it extends; and at some points in the Pass nothing can be more striking than to gaze upwards to the forest-clothed heights above you, and then glance down into the yawning depths of still grander forest in the ravines and gullies almost perpendicularly beneath. Above all this again, you have the third zone of magnificently precipitous rock, rising in columnar basalt, and forming a perfect diadem along THE TSITSA WATERFALL KAFIRLAND. 89 the moutar below of the weathewe vi the mountain crest. From the top a magnificent outlook over the valleys far below is to be had, and according to the season of the year or the state of the weather, it changes from the picturesque to the wild and fantastical. We visited it on a bright clear summer's day, but it may be seen under different circumstances, such as in winter, when snow enwraps the heights in its white wreaths, giving it a perfectly Alpine appearance; or in dark storm, when loud thunders echo over the rock peaks, and vivid lightnings illumine the yawning precipices around; and at other times, when the spreading vales below are covered with a sea of silvery mist, out of which the tops of the hills rise up like islands on an expanse of ocean. The whole of what once was Kafirland, but now is more com- monly known as Kaffraria and the Transkeian Territories, is a glorious country, fertile and beautiful, and frequently grandly picturesque. The Drakensberg Mountains, which are more or less snow-clad during the winter months, present many magnificent scenes. Their native name “Quathlamba”—heaped up in a jagged manner—is descriptive of their general appearance. They assume the most fantastic shapes and forms, and it requires but a small stretch of the imagination to see depicted, castles and castellated turrets, spires, and pinnacles, in their rugged heights. Streams without number have their sources in them, and flow onward to the lower plateau, half-way to the sea-coast, where they are joined by many others, and their strength and volume in- creased until they unite and form the larger rivers, such as the Bashee, Umtata, and Umzimvubu. This tract consists of undu- lating plains and open valleys, abounding in rich grassy pasturage and very fertile soil. Dotted here and there over the surface of the country are the numberless huts and kraals of the native inhabitants, with their sleek cattle grazing on the grassy slopes—a picture of real pastoral beauty. Belts of hills and kops rise here and there along the valleys, their sides or crests covered with the dark rich foliage of Kafir forest trees and bush, while glinting out from between their cover may be seen streamlets falling from con. siderable heights in magnificent cascades. In this land waterfalls are numerous, as they may also be said to be along a good portion of the eastern mountain slopes of the Colony. One of the largest and most magnificent is on the Tsitza River, near to Shawbury Mission station, along the main road from Umtata to Kokstad. Below Shawbury the river takes a bend, and after running through some picturesque gorges wooded to the water's ridge, it passes across a flat country until it reaches the edge of a huge precipice, over which it rushes. This rift or chasm is some 150 yards across, and the volumes of seething water make a gigantic leap into the abyss. In heavy floods this is a teau, nove the nacles, in depicted requires They 99 ST. JOHN'S RIVER. grand sight to witness—the whole forming one continuous broad sheet, and each foaming wave seeming to endeavour to overtake its predecessor before reaching the depths below. The falls have been measured, and reach the height of 375 feet, they therefore take pre-eminence as the highest in the Colony. The grandest and most romantic scenery, however, is met with at the St. John's River, which may be reached by road from Umtata through Western Pondoland, or by vessel or steamer along the coast. From seaward, the river mouth is a noticeable object, and so remarkable that any one having once seen it, or even a sketch of it, cannot fail to recognise it again. A lofty table-topped mountain appears to have been cleft to its base, leaving a wedge- shaped gap through which the river flows to the sea. The edges of the cleft which, near the mouth, lie about 2,000 feet asunder, approach each other, until near the top of the first reach they are about 1,500 feet apart. They rise in abrupt forest-clad steeps until they attain a height of six to seven hundred feet. From these edges, on both sides of the river, plateaus extend until, on each side, other precipituous cliffs rise, which culminate about a mile and a half from the sea, where they attain a height of about 1,200 feet, and lie only 4,000 feet apart, considerably less than a mile. These are the well-known “ Gates” of St. John's, or the Umzimvubu River. “Like giant sentinels on either hand, The stately portals of the river stand, Their rugged crests, and headlands bold and free, Rising in silent grandeur o'er the sea, Whose foaming waves engird with silvery showers St. John's grand cliffs and castellated towers. Low at their feet, in deep eternal shade, The river flows past mountain, krantz, and glade, Onward and onward from its distant source, Till, midst this scene sublime, it ends its course.” Inside of the “ Gates” the river partakes more of the character of a lake or lagoon than a stream. There is an expanse of sky- blue water nearly 500 yards wide, between stately mountains and luxuriantly wooded hills. The steep wooded slopes come down close to the edge of the water, and in many places the thick tangled forest overhangs the margin, forming beautiful arcades. To appre- ciate the nature of this river scenery, one must witness the inde- scribable beauties of the spot, and its surroundings—long silent vistas of forest, with the ripple of water sounding through them, tumbled masses of rock covered with mosses, ferns and flowering creepers of all sorts in most bewildering luxuriance twining in heavy clustering masses around majestic old trees, whose every bough and leaf find their reflection as in a mirror in the placid waters, until in some places it is difficult to tell where the reality THE GATES OF ST. JOHN'S RIVER. MOUTH OF THE UMZIMVUBU THE CLIMATE. 91 ends and the shadow begins. The exquisite semi-tropical vegeta- tion, African in its type and almost Brazilian in its beauty; the charms of light and shade over the grand panorama of mountain, wood, and water; and the glimpses of hill and dale, forming the high lands in the extreme distance and seemingly merging into the cobalt sky, furnish a picture of virgin Nature untouched by Art rarely to be met with. The mouth of this river, like most of the rivers on the coast, is obstructed by a bar of shifting sand, the channel contracting, ex- panding, and changing its condition according to the volume of water or floods in the river. It is reported to have been so flooded on one occasion as to have had a width of 900 feet with a depth of 30 feet nearly the whole of the distance across. After the shallows and intricacies of the mouth and first half mile have been passed, the depths and channel are favourable for navigation, but this is not uniformly maintained, for, as the river is ascended, shallow banks, and an average lesser depth, but with alternating deep holes, are met, so that it is necessary that a vessel of over seven feet draft should wait for the high-water tides. The river remains navigable for shallow-draft barges or canoe boats for a total distance of 10 to 12 miles from the sea, at which point the tidal wave and all possible navigation is abruptly stopped by a pebbly steep inclination, down which the river waters flow from their distant drainage area, the rolling uplands of Pondoland and Griqualand East. The verdure of these Eastern coast lands is due to the supplies of moisture carried to them by the trade winds of the Indian Ocean. The vapour-laden clouds are arrested or caught by the high mountain barriers, upon whose summits and sides their refreshing and fertilizing showers descend. And this brings us to a brief notice of the climatic and meteorological conditions of the Colony. The seasons at the Cape it must be remembered come in reverse order to those in the northern hemisphere ;-thus, the Cape sum- mer is from December to February ; Autumn from March to May; Winter from June to August, and Spring from September to November. One circumstance which has an important influence on the climate of the Colony is the existence of two ocean currents on its coasts—the one, the tropical ocean current coming down from the Mozambique channel along the east coast and around Cape L'Agul- has; and the other the cold South Atlantic current on the West Coast. Table Bay and False Bay mark the differences of tem- perature of the two--the waters of the latter at times registering 15° higher than those of the former. Another striking distinction is, that in Autumn and Winter, the equatorial or return winds from the North-west discharge their 92 THE RAINFA'L. moisture in copious rains over the Western districts as far as the boundary of the Karoo and the Gouritz River, while at the same seasons of the year the Midland and Eastern districts are usually dry. In Spring and Summer again, the south-easterly winds laden with moisture from the tropical current of the Indian Ocean precipitate their rains along the mountain-ranges of the Eastern districts and the high plateaux extending to the centre of the Colony, while at this season the Western districts are comparatively dry. Thanks to the labours of the Government Meteorological Commission and of Mr. J. G. Gamble, Hydraulic Engineer, the distribution of rainfall in South Africa is beginning to be fairly understood, as will be seen from the Rainfall Map, which accom- panies this Handbook, prefacing the chapter on the Cape as a Health Resort.” Rain-gauges are placed at every seat of magis- tracy in the Colony and the observations registered are regularly tabulated and published. From these several stations the monthly averages have been taken and diagrams prepared shewing the rainfall at various places during each season of the year. Mr. Gamble thus sums up the result of these observations: “The North-west of the Colony is almost rainless. The south-west has abundant winter rains. The south coast has rain in all months, December and January being the driest time ; in the midlands, as well as in the north and east, the rains occur generally in February and March, though near the coast there is a second maximum in October and November. “Droughts seldom occur all over the Colony in the same year; in fact it seems as if a drought in the interior frequently occurs in the same year as abundant rains on the south-west coast. “The statement is frequently made that South Africa is drying up. If by this is meant that the springs and streams are not so constant as they used to be, the statement is undoubtedly true. If it is meant that less rain falls than in former historic times, the statement has certainly not been proved, and is most probably untrue. The early books of travels speak of droughts in the interior ; Sparrman mentions the great drought of 1775. The forty-five years of rainfall measure- ment at the Royal Observatory give no support to the view that the quantity of rain is diminishing. But the cutting down of trees, and the burning of the veld has affected and is affecting the permanence of springs and streams. Both white men and natives seem to act recklessly in this matter, cutting down bush for kraals and firewood, the natives especially using large quantities of young trees for their huts and game traps. The increased number of flocks has also contributed to this result. Where the grasses and bushes are eaten off the sun bakes the soil, and the rain runs off into the rivers, forming new sluits' as it runs, and is lost in the sea without replenishing the underground supplies.” · The rainfall is variable in amount, as will be seen from the following examples. At Pella, on the north-west border, the 32 Lubiside QUEEN'S TOWN. WITH SNOW ON THE HILLO THE TEMPERATURE. 93 average yearly fall is 21 inches, one-fifth of which falls in May. For five years there has been no rains during November. At the Royal Observatory, near Cape Town, the average is about 25 inches, three-fifths of which falls during the winter months, May, June, and July. August is also one of the rainiest months. At Mossel Bay and Port Elizabeth, as well as at most coast towns the rainfall is irregularly distributed throughout the year. The yearly fall at the former town is 16 inches; at the latter 23 inches. At Mossel Bay the wettest months are February and March, at Port Elizabeth, May and October. January is the driest month at both places. At Carnarvon, a town in the Northern Karroo, and fairly typical of that district, the average rainfall is 8 inches, one-fifth of which falls in March; from June to December, the average for each month is less than half an inch. At Graaff-Reinet, in the east central Karroo, the average is 14] inches, and the wettest month, March. Queen's Town and Aliwal North, towns on the Eastern border, have average yearly falls of 20% inches and 243 inches respectively. Their greatest rains generally occur in February and March, and their droughts in June, July, and August,-in these respects resembling the towns in the Karroo. In the course of the winter season, during some days, the peaks of the Drakenstein and Winterhoek mountains within sight of Cape Town are white with snow; and up-country the mountain ranges such as the Sneeuwbergen and Amatolas are frequently covered; while on the Drakensberg and about Barkly East snow lies for weeks together. The up-country winters are usually very dry, but at intervals of some years, snow sufficient to enable snow- balling to be indulged in, has fallen at Kimberley, Beaufort West and Queen's Town. The accompanying illustration is from a photograph by Mr. Dugmore of Queen's Town, giving a view from the Octagon-square of that place, shewing the surrounding hills enveloped in a snowy mantle. With regard to the temperature of the air, the Cape, generally speaking, is not a hot country. During some days in the month of January the heat is excessive, but it never lasts for more than a short time. The greatest heat of summer is not more than in the hottest parts of Europe; and the prevailing winds and dry atmosphere temper such excesses, rendering the warmest day supportable, while the balmy coolness of the nights are surpass- ingly agreeable and enjoyable. At the Royal Observatory, two miles from the coast, the mean temperature of the air throughout the year is about 61° 26' Fahr. in the shade, the hottest days being in January, with an average temperature of 684 92', the coldest about July, with an average temperature of 54° 03/, Elsewhere, in the Colony, the observations have been rather intermittent and not 94 HAIL AND THUNDER STORMS. min. sea. feet. dog. deg. 55 62 67 80 64 84 66 56 extended over so long a period, but they are sufficiently reliable to serve as an index to the climate. Mr. Gamble has observed that “ places on the coast have a much less range both in the annual and daily period than those in the interior. The summers and the noondays are hotter up-country than by the sea ; and the winters and the early mornings before dawn are milder by the ocean than inland." He gives the following table of temperature means reduced from a series of observations :- Height Winter. Summer. above- mean. max. min. mean. max. deg. deg. deg. deg. Royal Observatory 37 58 68 79 Wynberg ........250 55 57 Simon's Town .. ? 100 64 80 Somerset West.. ? 160 59 Wellington ......360 63 59 Worcester. .......794 65 58 Clanwilliam ......300 Mossel Bay ......105 51 57 63 Port Elizabeth ..181 51 58 63 Nel's Poort ....3,100 41 51 66 Graaff-Reinet ..2,500 Somerset East ..2,500 Graham's Town. .1,800 K. William'sTown1,314 East London ......30 50 58 68 62 65 Aliwal North ..4,300 33 44 60 59 70 88 In some of the Eastern Districts hot winds are occasionally ex- perienced during summer; they come from the north-west, carrying with them waves of heated air from the central plains, blowing as if from a furnace; but, fortunately, they are not of long duration. Hail-storms are rare in the West, but in the Midland, Northern, and Border districts they occur with such violence as to cause considerable damage to vegetation and stock. Thunder- storms are also very rare in the neighbourhood of Cape Town, but more inlard they are frequent in summer, and often very grand- fleecy clouds rising on the horizon, and swelling and darkening until the lightning flashes along them and the thunder peals out with prolonged and increasing reverberation ; it is then a sight to watch the brilliant colours and forms of the electric discharges and their varied track against the inky black sky, now forked, now straight, now zig-zagged, now in quivering rays and horizontal flashes, appearing and disappearing rapidly, in the twinkling of an eye. Such striking exhibitions of Nature's elements, however, do not last long; after them the rain ceases, clouds roll up and disperse, and a delicious cool atmosphere follows. 76 S ER OAK AVENUE, COVERNMENT GARDENS CAPE TOWN. CITIES AND TOWNS OF THE COLONY. - The city of Cape Town is the metropolis of the Cape Colony. It is by far the most populous of the towns scattered throughout South Africa ; and its position as the seat of Government, as the meeting place of the Legislature, and as an important commercial entrepot, together with its many natural attractions and advantages, have contributed to gather around it a comparatively wealthy and stationary community, whose social circles possess all the charms of old established and cultivated European society. The number of inhabitants of the city and suburbs is about 60,000, of whom two-thirds may be said to be residents of the city proper within its municipal boundaries. This embraces both white and coloured races, with all their varieties of nationality and gradations of blood, from fairest Saxon to darkest Ethiopian. The first glimpse of Cape Town from seaward does not impress a stranger with its dimensions. The massive wall of Table Mountain forming the back ground, and the Devil's Peak and Lion's Head enclosing it on either flank, dwarfs the valley where the city is laid out. The houses present a mass of flat-roofed dwellings, a few church towers and some factory or mill chimneys rising up amongst them, with alternate villas, gardens, and vine- yards on the outskirts, joining on to the pine and silver-tree plantations which clothe the base of the mountain. But if anyone takes the trouble to visit the more elevated points of view, such as are afforded by the Garden suburbs, or the drive along the Kloof Road, a perfect bird's-eye picture of the town and circling bay may be had, in many respects comparing favourably with Naples or Rio de Janeiro. The Dutch founders of Cape Town laid out its squares and streets with mathematical preciseness. The main thoroughfares run parallel to each other from the mountain to the sea, and are crossed at right angles by secondary streets of lesser width. The central and principal street is Adderley-street, or the “ Heerengracht," as it was formerly termed. Here, on the left hand are the Railway Station buildings, the Commercial Exchange and Reading-room, the imposing Standard Bank buildings, and, higher up, the capacious Dutch Reformed Church, with its quaint old vane-topped Flemish spire; while on the right hand there stretches a line of mer- chants' stores, the Cape of Good Hope Bank, warehouses, offices and shops—many of them large buildings with decorated exteriors, plate-glass windows, and all the attractions of the modern style of 96 THE GOVERNMENT GARDENS. street architecture. St. George's-street, adjoining Adderley-street, is also a fine open handsome street, in which the Post Office, the City Club, the South African Bank, the Bank of Africa, the Union Bank, the Cape Times and other newspaper offices are situate, and St. George's Cathedral with its Grecian front and ornamented tower stands at its upper end. Westward of these central throughfares, in such streets as Loop, Burg and Bree-streets, the old-fashioned Dutch mansions of the early colonists may be seen. The houses, which are spacious and lofty, have invariably flat roofs, massive white-washed fronts, aumerous windows with small panes, and a stoep or terrace rising from the street at the entrance, while behind them is frequently a small garden or court ornamented with a trelissed vine. Eastward again, the modern part of the town where the English immigrants have settled, is distinctly marked. Rows of semi-detached cottages or pretentious villa residences, with slate roofs and little gardens, are extending with the growth of popu- lation all over the Table Valley and on to the suburbs of Wood- stock, Maitland, and Mowbray. The Government Gardens, at the top of Adderley-street, serve the purposes of a public park. The central walk or Avenue extends for three quarters of a mile through rows of grand old oaks, affording a grateful shade and pleasant place of resort to the inhabitants. The new Parliament Houses and the Public Library and Museum are close to the entrance of this Avenue, and adjoining it is the Fine Arts Gallery in New-street, facing the Botanic Gardens. The Botanic Gardens, although not more than fourteen acres in extent, are laid out with grass plots, shrubberies, and handsome conservatories, and contain upwards of 8,000 varieties of trees and plants, embracing rare exotio productions as well as specimens of the indigenous Flora. An extensive collection of Cape plants, authenticated by Harvey, Sonder, and other authorities, is also available for reference in the Herbarium attached to the institu- tion. Government House, the official residence of Her Majesty's Representative in the Colony, is on the left side of the Gardens, with a public entrance from the top of Grave-street. It is a heavy irregular building, originally commenced by the Dutch Company's officials, more than a century and a half ago, and altered and modernized from time to time. The other public buildings, occupied by the various chief departments of the Civil Govern- ment, and the Courts of Law, form a massive flat-fronted quad- rangle, stretching from the lower end of Grave-street to Adderley- street. There Fre accommodated the Treasury, Audit, Deeds' Registry, Survey, the Attorney-General's, the Judges', and other offices; and the Supreme Court of the Colony. The handsomest public buildings in Cape Town, however, are The Bo Fine Arte close to thrliament Pleasants of THE PARLIAMENT HOUSES. 97 the Parliament Houses, which form a substantial pile of con- siderable architectural beauty between the Government Gardens Avenue and Grave-street. These were completed and opened for public use last year. The principal front of the building faces. Grave-street, and measures 264 feet in length; it is divided, roughly speaking, into a central portico, leading into the grand vestibule, the two debating chambers, and side pavilions. The portico is of massive dimensions, and is approached by a commanding flight of granite steps, which runs round three sides of it. The pavilions are relieved by groups of pilasters with Corinthian capitals, and are surmounted by domes and ventilators. The whole of the ground floor up to the level of the main floor has been built of Paarl granite, which makes a most suitable base. The building above this is of red brick, relieved by pilasters and window dressing of Portland cement, the effect being very pleasing and gratifying to the eye. The interior accommodation, for the business of the two Houses of Parliament is most complete, and arranged with a care- ful view to comfort and convenience. Besides the Debating Chambers, which are sixty-seven feet in length by thirty-six feet in width (only ten feet in length and width less than the House of Commons), there is a lofty hall of stately appearance, with marble pillars and tessellated pavement, which forms the Central Lobby or grand vestibule. Adjoining this is the Parliamentary Library, a beautiful apartment, fifty-three feet by thirty-two, with galleries above each other reaching to the full height of the build- ing. There are a number of Committee rooms and spacious offices. for the President and Speaker and officers of the Legislature. Refreshment and luncheon rooms, as well as smoking and billiard rooms, complete the arrangements for the comfort of members. For the accommodation of the public, there are roomy galleries for strangers, ladies, distinguished visitors, and the press. The lighting is effected by gas as well as electricity; the House of Assembly being illuminated by a tasteful equipment of Edison's incandescent lamps placed in convolvolus-shaped glass cups, on pendant brass electroliers. The ground floor of the building is occupied by the premier department of the Government, that of the Colonial Secretary, and by fire-proof vaults in which the records of Parliament and the Archives of the Colony are deposited. The entire cost of the buildings and grounds, including the furniture (provided by Messrs. Gillow, of London), has been £220,000. The Architect was Mr. H. S. Greaves, of the Colonial Public Works Department; and the Contractors, Messrs. Bull & Sons, of Southampton. Another striking and handsome building is the colonial head- quarter's establishment of our principal banking institution—the Standard Bank of British South Africa. It is situated at the it and buildings of :98 THE SUBURBS. GrAnother camp at the main ple garrisont the .corner of Adderley and Darling-streets. The tellers' room, both in dimensions and finish, would do credit to any of the offices of the rich banking corporations of England or Scotland. The height from floor to ceiling is fifty feet, and the area of space set apart for the bank's customers is about 1,500 square feet. The building, which is surmounted by a marble figure of Britannia, was designed by Mr. Freeman, architect, and built by Mr. Inglesby, contractor, at a cost of about £32,000. The military head-quarters of the Commander of the Forces and his staff are in the Castle—a quaint specimen of the ancient citadel, of pentagonal form, with ravelins, glacis, ditches, gate, sallyport, and all the other paraphernalia of the old fortifications. It was designed and commenced as early as 1672, and the bell on the gate tower bears date 1697, but the greater part of the existing quarters within the Castle appear to have been built or re-built between 1780 and 1785. Some years ago it was offered for sale to the colonial authorities by the Imperial Government. It is of little use for defensive purposes, and the space occupied by it could be very profitably turned to account for the convenience and improvement of the city. Ample garrison accommodation for the troops is provided in the main barracks in Caledon-square, and in the healthy camp at Wynberg. Another possession from the olden time is the Town House in Greenmarket-square, where the Mayor and Town Council carry on the municipal administration. It is a plain but substantial build- ing, with cool, roomy halls and offices. The City has a regular water supply, is well lighted by gas, and a system of drainage and paving is being proceeded with which will improve its sanitary condition. The publio traffic is carried on by omnibuses, tramcars, and cabs. There are spacious markets generally plentifully supplied with fish, vegetables, and fruit; and public sales of produce, wool, feathers, &c., take place weekly. A singular sight is the “Parade sales" held every Saturday, near the Military Parade-ground, where articles of the most miscellaneous character-lands, shares, cattle, horns and skins of wild game, equipages, furniture and “old clo's”-are put up to auction, attracting crowds of citizens of all classes, either as buyers or as loungers and lookers-on. The surroundings of Cape Town are very pleasant. The marine :suburbs of Green Point and Sea Point are connected with the city by a tramway, and at any hour of the day one may exchange the glowing heat and dusty streets for the pretty residences along the sea-shore, or the healthful breeze and magnificent ocean view of Botany or Camp's Bays. But the most populous and fashionable suburban resorts are Rondebosch, the Camp Ground, Newlands, Claremont, and Wynberg on the eastern side of Table Mountain. In such pleasant sylvan retreats nestled among the oak, poplar, 7 H HRAL ENTITETTIITTITYT TUNASI A SALI TIITUSTE 111.3220359 MUME RUN OLMASIKILLER REDOUA Wild - GIRLIE CHARLENERSTONCACAT DNS RLE BURBETEREST ME WWW 93 int TI TITULINIUM SED TO Bukan ASSISTANTAN HINDI 1. Nohants and SONS Printere, Cape Town. THE STANDARD BANK BUILDINGS. 100 PORT ELIZABETH. e nres of the Briand thicketie Homes fir, and gum trees, the city merchants and officials delight to dwell, and there is a great deal to justify their choice; for during the summer months they are cooler, the difference of temperature at Wynberg being as much as ten degrees less than that of Cape Town, owing to its more elevated position and its exposure to the winds coming up from the south. And for those who wish further change of scene and air, there are the beaches of Muizen- berg and the warm waters of Kalk Bay, now connected by rail with Cape Town. Anyone travelling by the railway from the City will be charmed with the green lanes along the line from Mowbray and Rosebank to Claremont, the glimpses of sbaggy wood and mountain precipices above Rondebosch and Newlands, and the open breezy flats stretching from Kenilworth across to the Stellenbosch hills. The drive along the main road in the same direc- tion is even more delightful,—through the glorious avenue of pines and oaks extending onwards from Mowbray ; past the Rondebosch village church and the woods of Westbrook; past the shady groves of Newlands and the slopes of Protea, the episcopal resi- dence of the Bishop of Cape Town; up the Wynberg Hill, with its clumps and thickets of silver trees; and on to Cogill's, Rathfelder's, or the hospitable homesteads and rich vineyards of Constantia. Along this route, the alternate views of hill and dale, dotted with cottages, mansions, and verandahed retreats, with the grand background of mountains, are as charming as can be met with in any part of the Colony. Port Elizabeth, situate on the shores of Algoa Bay, is one of the principal commercial towns of the Colony. Its population is about 18,000, of whom the greater portion are Europeans. The visitor arriving there by any of the mail steamers will find before him all the evidences of an enterprising, energetic, and prosperous place. For two or three miles along the water-side, and up the sloping hill ascending from it, and on the brow of the height above, there rise in succession warehouses, stores, manufactories, shops, offices, dwelling-houses, churches, schools, hospitals, villas, and other buildings of every description and variety of architecture. Close to the principal landing-place, in Jetty-street, is the Railway station, and along the sea-wall skirting the water's edge, the lines of rail are laid connecting Graham's Town, Uitenhage, and Graaff-Reinet as well as Colesberg and Kimberley with the port. Immediately above this is the central and business part of the town, forming what is known as the Main-street, containing the principal banking and mercantile establishments, shops, stores, and places of business, extending from Market-square through Queen's- street and Prince's-street to the Prison-buildings and the Park at the North-end. Among the public buildings are the Town-hall; the capacious GRAHAM's Town. 101 Produce-markets recently erected by the Town Council at a cost of £70,000, and covering an extensive area; the newly completed Government offices, the Post and Telegraph office, and the Hospital. The Town-hall in Market-square is a stately and commodious structure, somewhat in the Italian style, but with a portico of Corinthian columns. The Town Council offices are there, as well as the Chamber of Commerce, the public reading-room and library, and a small museum ; and there is a hall about eighty feet long by forty broad-undoubtedly one of the finest in the colony for public assemblies and entertainments. Standing on the broad flight of steps at the entrance of this building, the Bayonian (as a resident here is termed) may feel proud as he surveys the unmistakable evidences of commercial enterprise and substantial wealth around him—all the growth of little more than sixty-five years' British colonization. The fashionable quarter is on what is termed the “Hill,”—in contradistinction to the “town below”—a flat tableland, on the terraced ground above the Main-street. Its aspect and sur- roundings are very pleasant and enjoyable, as this height is generally fanned by fresh cool breezes from the sea. Many superior mansions and pretty villa residences have been erected here. There are also some handsome churches, such as St. Augustine's Roman Cathclic Church, the Scottish Presbyterian Church, and Trinity Church; an admirably managed Provincial Hospital; a well endowed collegiate establishment, the Grey Institute; and a well regulated Club, where, after the labours of the day, the mercantile class usually congregate for relaxation, and courteously extend their hospitality to visitors. On the open flat beyond the Hill, there is the attractive St. George's Park, laid out and maintained by the Corporation of the town. It has very agreeable walks through avenues of trees, shrubs, and flowering plants, and is ornamented with a fine conservatory, water basins, and grassy plots. The country about Port Elizabeth is very bare and uninviting; but there are some localities such as the Red-house on the banks of the Zwartkop River, and the coast lands of Emerald Hill and Van Staden's River, which afford good suburban retreats; and the pleasant town of Uitenhage is within an hour's reach by railway. Graham's Town is inland about 106 miles by rail from Port Elizabeth, and 43 from Port Alfred. Next to the beautiful environs of the Western metropolis, it is beyond question the most pleasant place of residence in the Colony. Embosomed in green hills—the spurs of the Zuurberg range--at an elevation of 1,760 feet above the sea, the city, with its broad streets lined with trees, and its houses interspersed with gardens, presents a thoroughly English appearance, and is an acknowledged and favourite health- 102 KING WILLIAM's Town. resort. The principal thoroughfare and business place is High street. At its upper end stand the old Drostdy buildings (now a public school) where the Colonial Parliament had its sittings in the session of 1864. Not far from it are the Botanic Gardens, where there is a conservatory erected to the memory of Colonel Fordyce, of H.M's 74th regiment, who fell in the Kafir war of 1851. In the middle of High-street stands the St. George's Cathedral, where in front of the communion table, a monument is erected to the memory of Col. Graham, from whom the city takes its name. Lower down the street is Commemoration Chapel, the principal place of worship of the Wesleyan denomina- tion, erected to commemorate the gratitude of the British immi- grants of 1820 for the blessings enjoyed by them in the Albany settlement. Although much smaller than Port Elizabeth in point of popula- tion (its white inhabitants numbering about 7,000), and the coloured natives 3,000, Graham's Town ranks as the metropolis of the Eastern and Frontier Districts. It is a cathedral city, and the place of residence of the Bishops of the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church, and the Superintendent of the Wesleyan body. It is also the seat of the Eastern Districts Court, with attendant judges, solicitor-general, barristers and members of the side bar. There are among its local institutions a Museum, a Natural History Society, and a Public Library. Formerly the city was the head-quarters of the military, and the residence of the Lieut.- Governor. The extensive military barracks are now appropriated to public uses. There is an excellent Public Hospital and a Provincial Lunatic Asylum. A spacious assembly room, the Albany Hall, is available for meetings and amusements, and there are various Masonic, Odd-fellows, Templars, and other societies, largely patronised by the inhabitants. The city has recently been connected by railway with its port, the Kowie River Mouth (Port Alfred), a favourite watering place. King William's Town, or “King,” as it is sometimes shortly termed, ranks as an important commercial centre, being on the highway from the harbour. of East London to the interior, and from the Eastern Districts to the Transkei and Kafirland. It has also the chief command of the native trade, extending beyond the Border and north to Basutoland. The town itself is pleasantly situated, stretching along the banks of the Buffalo River, and connected by a branch line with the railway from East London to Aliwal North. At the western end is the native location. Next comes the military barracks and officers' quarters. Then there is the business part of the town, with its public buildings, churches, clubs, stores, and private residences; while more to the eastward is the German settlers' town, with its GRAAFF-REINET. 103 thatched verandahed cottages; and beyond that the camp and head- quarters of our colonial defensive force. The Town-hall is a large- and capacious building, reflecting credit on the place. Between it and the river is the Botanic Garden, with an area of about fourteen acres of alluvial soil of the richest description, where everything grows in the greatest luxuriance. On a rise, to the north, are the public offices, on which has been erected a memorial clock tower in remembrance of the Rev. J. Brownlee, who commenced the first mission station in Kaffraria on the site of the present town.. Adjacent to this is the handsome and imposing edifice erected by Sir George Grey (and known as the Grey Native Hospital), for the purpose of breaking the belief of the natives in witch-doctors, by placing skilful medical treatment and maintenance within their reach, free of charge. It has now been established more than a quarter of a century, and the success of the Institution amongst the Natives, is proved by the number who travel hundreds of miles to seek medical and surgical aid, showing that the Kafir people are breaking through their race prejudices and acknowledging the superiority of scientific treatment of ordinary diseases. Graaff-Reinet, the oldest and the largest of the towns in the midland districts, is situated near the centre of the Colony at the base of the hilly range where the Sunday's River leaves the Sneeuwbergen Mountains for the plains. These hills rise behind it to a height of 1,000 or 1,500 feet. The summit of one of them, the Spandeau Kop, has a rough resemblance to a haystack, and adjoining it there is a ridge of loosely-piled trap rock with pillars of columnar basalt, standing out in bold relief to the height of 300 or 400 feet, having a very picturesque effect. This spot is known by the name of the Valley of Desolation. At the foot of these hills, the Sunday's River sweeps round and forms a bend about a mile across, and in this bend the town is laid out, an abundant supply of water being distributed through it by several channels from the bed of the stream. The streets are wide, and many of them are planted with rows of trees on each side. The principal buildings are the Dutch Reformed Church, with its clock tower and spire, a handsome English Church, the Govern- ment Offices, the Town-hall, the College, Masonic Lodge, and the Public Library. There are several large and comfortable private buildings and stores of modern style, but the houses generally are of the old-fashioned type, with thatched roofs, gables and "stoeps," or terraces, the usual form of dwelling of the old colonists. Nearly all have vineyards, gardens, or orchards, or some spot of greenery attached to them. These give the town a very pleasing appearance, and its marked contrast with the surrounding arid Karoo plains obtained for it long ago the appropriate title of the “Gem of the Desert." 104 KIMBERLEY. Kimberley, the inland terminus of the railway system, has advanced from the position of a mushroom camp to that of a permanent mining centre, presenting an industrial activity which compares favourably with any portion of the Colony. The popu- lation of the town and its adjacent mining townships is computed at between 25,000 and 30,000, more than one-half of whom are whites. Of late years considerable improvements have been effected in Kimberley; many of the temporary corrugated iron houses have been removed and given place to substantial and .comfortable dwellings. The Bank of Africa, the Cape of Good Hope and the Standard Banks have each of them erected hand- some and commodious premises; and the Kimberley Club-house, built at a cost of £18,000, is one of the most roomy and well arranged in South Africa. The High Court of Griqualand, the Post and Telegraph Offices, and the Town-hall,' are also very spacious and commodious buildings; and the same may be said of the chief hostelry of the town, the Queen's, which was built at an expense of about £20,000. There are churches belonging to all denominations, and amongst the local institutions is the admirably- managed Carnarvon Hospital, where there is extensive accommo- dation for both European and coloured patients and admirable convalescent wards for the better class of invalids, who can pay for the same. The streets and roads, which extend over a distance of about 20 miles, are well laid out and kept in good order. The jewellers' and drapery establishments are fully as attractive as some of the same class in Regent-street; and there is an air of business and activity all over the place. The drainage of the town has lately been much improved; all sewage is carried outside its limits. There is a plentiful water supply brought in from the Vaal River, and available to the inhabitants for Household and garden purposes, at a charge not exceeding Is. 3d. per hundred gallons. The lighting of the town is effected by 32 electric Brush lights of 2,000 candle-power each. The daily morning market is generally a busy scene, crowded with groups of dealers and wagons, with their long teams of oxen, laden with produce from the Orange Free State, Bechuanaland, the Transvaal, and the far interior up to the Zambesi region. The value of produce sold in the Kimberley market annually is over £231,862 11s., and the number of wagons and other vehicles conveying produce to the market 18,185. On the adjacent Du Toit's Pan (Beaconsfield) market the value of produce is over £163,392, and the number of wagons and other vehicles 20,468. There are several other country towns, such as Stellenbosch, the Paarl, Worcester, Beaufort West, Queen's Town, Cradock, Coles- berg, and Aliwal North, of considerable size and importance. The Colony is now divided for electoral purposes into seven DISTRICTS AND TOWNS. 105 Provinces, and for fiscal and magisterial purposes into seventy divisions or districts. The following is an enumeration of the several provinces and divisions, and the chief towns and villages :- Western Province. Divisions and Districts. Towns and Villages. Cape Town .......... Cape Town and Green Point. Cape Division ...... Woodstock, Maitland, Mowbray, Rondebosch, Wynberg. Newlands, Claremont, Kenilworth, Wyn- Simon's Town. berg, Constantia, Muizenberg, Kalk Bay, Simon's Town, Kuil's River, Blueberg, and Durban. Stellenbosch ........ Stellenbosch, Eerste River, Somerset West, and the Strand. Paarl .............. Paarl, Wellington, Drakenstein, Frenchhoek. North-Western Province. Malmesbury ........ Malmesbury, Darling, Hopefield, St. Helena Bay, Riebeek West, Mamre, Groenekloof. Piquetberg .......... Piquetberg, Porterville, and Goedverwacht. Namaqualand ....... Springbokfontein, Hondeklip Bay, Port Nol- Port Nolloth. *loth, Bowesdorp, and Leliefontein. Clanwilliam ........ Clanwilliam, Troe Troe, Calvinia, Brandvley, Calvinia. and Katkop. Worcester ..... .... Worcester, Ceres, Tulbagh, Steinthal, Gouda, Tulbagh. Bergville, Hermon, Wolseley, and Prince Ceres. Alfred. South-Western Province. Swellendam ........ Swellendam, Heidelberg, Zuurbraak, Malagas, Robertson. Port Beaufort, Robertson, Montagu, and Lady Grey. Riversdale Riversdale, Ladismith, and Amalienstein. Ladismith. Caledon ............ Caledon, Genadendal, Villiersdorp, Greyton, Bredasdorp. Bredasdorp, Elim, and Napier. Oudtshoorn.......... Oudtshoorn, Cango, and Calitzdorp. George ............. George, Blanco, Hopedale, Uniondale, Schoon- Uniondale. berg, Pacaltsdorp, Lyon, Aliwal South, Mossel Bay. Plettenberg's Bay, Melville, Belvidere, Knysna. Newhaven, Redbourne, and Edmundton. Midland Province. Graaff-Reinet........ Graaff-Reinet, Petersburg, Aberdeen, and Murraysburg. Murraysburg. Aberdeen. Beaufort ............ Beaufort, Prince Albert, Petersburg, Willow- Prince Albert. more. Willowmore. 106 DISTRICTS AND TOWNS. Midland Province-continued. Divisions and Districts. Towns and Villages. Victoria West ... ... Victoria West, Prieska, Fraserburg, Onderste Prieska. Doorns, Kenhardt, Upington, Sutherland, Fraserburg and Carnarvon. Sutherland. Carnarvon. Richmond. .......... Richmond, Britz Town, and Hope Town. Hope Town. South-Eastern Province. Albany. ..... Graham's Town, Salem, Sidbury, Riebeek, Bathurst. Bathurst, Port Frances, and Port Alfred. Victoria East ........ Alice, Aberdeen, and Peddie. Peddie. Uitenhage .......... Uitenhage, Jansenville, Humansdorp, Hankey, Jansenville. Alexandria, Paterson. Humansdorp. Alexandria. Port Elizabeth ...... Port Elizabeth, Zwartkops, and Walmer. North-Eastern Province. Fort Beaufort........ Fort Beaufort, Post Retief, Adelaide, Heald Stockenstrom. Town, Elands Post (Seymour), Hertzog, Balfour, and Philip Town. Albert .............. Burghersdorp, Molteno, Sterkstroom, and Ventersberg. Somerset East. ...... Somerset East, Groote Vlakte, Been Leegte, Bedford. Pearston, Bedford, and Glenlynden. Cradock. ............ Cradock, Steynsburg, and Maraisberg. Steynsburg. Colesberg. ..... ..... Colesberg, Phillipstown, Hanover, and Middel. Hanover. Middelburg Eastern Province. King William's Town. King William's Town, Berlin, Breidbach, Stutterheim Braunsweigh, Frankfort, Stutterheim, and Komgha Komgha. East London ........ East London, Panmure, Potsdam, and Maclean. Queen's Town. ...... Queen's Town, Whittlesea, Tarkastad, Lady Cathcart. Frere, Glen Grey, and Cathcart. Tarka. Aliwal North ........ Aliwal North, Lady Grey, James Town, and Herschel nodrochite and Barkly East Wodehouse. ........ Dordrecht and Barkly East. Barkly East. Griqualand West Province. Kimberley .......... Kimberley, De Beer's, Beaconsfield, Du Toit's Herbert. Pan, Herbert, Barkly West, Pniel, Douglas, Barkly West. and Griqua Town. Upper Hay. berg. THE EM OZA POLITICAL AND CIVIL INSTITUTIONS. DURING the occupation of the Cape as a Dependency of the Dutch East India Company from 1652 to 1795, all executive, legislative, and judicial authority was exercised by a Governor and Council, who were appointed by the Company and respon- sible for their proceedings to the directors in Holland. A similar form of administration prevailed from 1803 to 1806, during the time the Colony was transferred to the Batavian Re- public—the Governor and Council, however, being no longer dependent upon a commercial body, but only subject to the supreme power of the State. Under the British Government from 1795 to 1803, and after- wards from 1806, the Governors alone exercised all the power and authority, until, in 1825, an Executive Council was appointed to assist them. Ten years afterwards, in 1835, a Legislative Council, whose proceedings were open to the public, was established by Royal Instructions. The Council consisted of not more than twelve persons, exclusive of the Governor, who was president; and of these, six were persons holding office under the Crown, and the other six were selected from the chief landed proprietors and merchants, and nominated by the Governor. The first persons so nominated to the Council were :-P. L. Cloete, sen., J. B. Ebden, M. van Breda, C. S. Pillans, and J. J. du Toit, J. son. By Letters Patent issued by Her Majesty Queen Victoria in 1850, this Legislative Council was authorised to enact ordinances for the establishment of complete representative Government; and by an Order-in-Council dated 11th March, 1853, what is termed the “Constitution Ordinance," providing for the creation of a Colonial Parliament, consisting of a House of Assembly and Legislative Council, came into force. The Governor was empowered to have an Executive Council to advise and assist him, composed of the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-General, the Auditor-General, the Treasurer-General, and the Collector of Customs—all of whom, with the exception of the last-named, were entitled to sit and take part in the debates and proceedings of Parliament. These officers, however, had no right to vote as members of the Legislature; and, although charged with the conduct of public affairs, were in no way required to enjoy the confidence and support of a majority of the electors or their representatives. Hence there occasionally arose an antagonism in action and policy between the Government of the day and the Parliament. 108 RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT. A change to the British system of Responsible or Party Government was proposed, and continued to be agitated for, at different periods afterwards; but it was not adopted until 1872. In that year an Act was passed by the Legislature, and received the Royal Assent, which provides that the members of the Executive Council may hold seats and vote in either House of Parliament. Under this authority, His Excellency the Governor now selects his advisers or “ Cabinet Ministers ” from among those persons possessing the confidence of the majority of the people's representatives, and who as such are responsible to the Legislature for the acts of the Government. These Ministers, once installed, hold office until they find that they are unable to secure in the Legislature the requisite support of their policy, or the Governor deems it his duty to act on important questions in opposition to their policy and advice,—when they give place to others, in analogy with the usage prevailing in the United Kingdom. While the gifts of Representative and Responsible Government have thus been conceded to the Colony, the Crown has still the prerogative of appointing its own Governors and of exercising a veto on all legislation ; it also remains the supreme fountain of justice, to which ultimate appeals from the Judicatures of the Colony are preferred ; and the Inperial Parliament holds its indisputable omnipotence over this, as over every part of the whole Empire. The Crown, however, exercises no control over any public officer, except the Governor. The direction of internal affairs, the man- agement of departments, and the appointment to all public offices, rest with the Ministers forming the Executive Council. The Ministry or Cabinet, who, together with the Governor and Lieutenant-Governor, form the Executive Council, is composed of: A Colonial Secretary, whose office supervises the Civil Service throughout the various divisions of the Colony, and controls the Post and Telegraph Departments, Deeds Registry, Defence, Education, Hospitals and Asylums, and Police. An Attorney-General, who is the law adviser and public prose- cutor, and controls the Department of the Administration of Justice. A Treasurer-General, who is the Receiver-General and Finance officer, and principal Collector and Controller of Customs and Excise. A Commissioner of Crown Lands and Public Works, charged with the administration of the Land Laws and supervision of Railways and other public works, Diamond and other Mines, Irrigation, Forests, Agriculture, Lighthouses, and Harbours. A Secretary for Native Affairs, who is charged with the man- agement of ail the relations with the aboriginal tribes. All the above Ministers have permanent Under-Secretaries, or assistants, as heads of their several Departments. CHANGE OF MINISTRIES. 109 Frequent change of Ministries was a noticeable characteristic of the Australian Legislatures, after they first entered upon their career of self-government, and it was prophesied that the same liability to frequent political crisis would be experienced at the Cape. But the prediction has not been fulfilled. There have been only four Ministries in office since 1872, and their average duration has been considerably over three years. The following is a list of them :- MOLTENO MINISTRY. From December, 1872, to February, 1878. Premier and Colonial Secretary .. Sir J. C. Molteno, M.L.A. Treasurer of the Colony .. .. H. White, M.L.C. (J. H. de Villiers, M.L.A. Attorneys-General .. .. .. S. Jacobs, M.L.A. ( A. Stockenstrom, M.L.A. Commissioners of Crown Lands , C. A. Smith, M.L.A. and Public Works J. X. Merriman, M.L.A. Secretary for Native Affairs .. C. Brownlee, M.L.A. SPRIGG MINISTRY. From February, 1878, to May, 1881. Premier and Colonial Secretary .. J. Gordon Sprigg, M.L.A. J. Miller, M.L.C. Treasurers of the Colony .. H. W. Pearson, M.L.A. 1 Thos. Upington, M.L.A. Attorneys-General .. or 1 J. W. Leonard, M.L.A. Commissioner of Crown Lands and Public Works.. .. J. Laing, M.L.A. Secretary for Native Affairs .. W. Ayliff, M.L.A. SCANLEN MINISTRY. From May, 1881, to May, 1884. Premier, Attorney-General, and Colonial Secretary.. ... Sir T. C. Scanlen, M.L.A. Colonial Secretaries .. J. C. Molteno, M.L.A. ( C. W. Hutton, M.L.C. Treasurers of the Colony.. " C. J. Rhodes, M.L.A. Attorney-General .. .. . J. W. Leonard, M.L.A. Commissioner of Crown Lands and Public Works.. .. J. X. Merriman, M.L.A. Secretary for Native Affairs . J. W. Sauer, M.L.A. Minister without portfolio .. J. H. Hofmeyr, M.L.A. UPINGTON MINISTRY. Entered on Office 13th May, 1884. Premier and Attorney-General .. Thos. Upington, M.L.A. Colonial Secretaries J. Ayliff, M.L.A. (dec.) . . J. Tudhope, M.L.A. Treasurer of the Colony · J. Gordon Sprigg, M.L.A. Commissioner of Crown Lands and Public Works .. F. Schermbrucker, M.L.C. Secretary for Native Affairs . J. A. de Wet, M.L.A. 110 THE LEGISLATURE. The Legislature consists of two branches. The Lower House, or House of Assembly, numbers seventy-four members, elected to serve for five years, unless Parliament is sooner dissolved. It nominates its own Speaker and officers, and members residing beyond a certain distance from the seat of Government are paid an allowance of £1 per day, in addition to travelling expenses, for attendance during any session for a term of ninety days. With the exception of paid officers under Government (other than members of the Executive Council), any qualified voter may be elected as a member of the House of Assembly. The qualification required of voters is, being a born or naturalized British subject resident in the Colony for twelve months before registration, and an occupier of property of the value of £25, or in receipt of salary or wages of not less than £50 per annum, or not less than £25 with board and lodging. This very liberal franchise-approaching to universal suffrage- gives nearly every colonist the privilege of taking part either as elector or elected representative in the conduct of public affairs and in promotion of the welfare of the community. The Upper House, or Legislative Council, consists of twenty- two members, who are elected by the same voters as the House of Assembly, but a property qualification is required for membership -namely, the possession of immovable property worth £2,000 or of movable property worth £4,000. For the election of members of the Council, the Colony was formerly divided into two constituencies or provinces (West and East); but, by Acts passed in 1874 and 1877, it has been divided into eight electoral circles or provinces, seven of which return three members, and the other (Griqualand West) one. The Chief Justice is ex-officio President of the Council, and the members are designated “Honourable.” The Parliament must meet once in every year, and oftener if necessary. Its sessions are usually held during the months from April to July, in Cape Town. The rules of procedure observed by its members are substantially the same as those adopted by the British Parliament. The journals, entries, and proceedings are made and recorded in the English language; but since 1882, debates and discussions may be conducted either in English or Dutch, but in no other language. The great bulk of the law of the Colony consists of the Roman- Dutch Law, modified by the customs and laws of Holland, by placaats and proclamations up to 1824, and after that by the Ordinances of Council and of the Legislative Council, and by the Acts of the Colonial Parliament. There is also a large body of statute law, scattered throughout the Imperiai statute book, which, has force within it. The highest Court of Judicature in the Colony is the “Supreme Court,” which has its sittings in Cape Town. It has cognizance lated Hoet once held during LAW COURTS. 111 of all pleas, and jurisdiction in all causes, civil, criminal, and mixed, arising in the Colony, over all persons resident and being within the Colony. It has, moreover, full powers to review, correct, or set aside the proceedings of all inferior courts of justice within the Colony, and may order the re-hearing of any im- portant case before five or more judges. The Court consists of one Chief Justice and eight puisne Judges, two forming a quorum. Three of these judges form the “Court of the Eastern Districts " sitting at Graham's Town; and three form the “High Court of Griqualand” sitting at Kimberley, the pre- siding judge in each of these Courts being entitled “ Judge President.” The Court sitting in Cape Town is usually composed of the Chief Justice and two judges. There is also a Court of Appeal for hearing appeals from the Court of the Eastern Districts, or the High Court of Kimberley, or any Circuit Court. This court also sits at Cape Town, and consists of the Chief Justice, the Judge Presidents of the Eastern Districts and High Court respectively, and two other Judges. From the judgment of the Supreme Court an appeal lies to the Queen in Her Privy Council, in case such judgment is given for, or involves, any claim to the value of five hundred pounds sterling, or directly or indirectly affects civil rights,-leave to appeal having been first obtained from the Supreme Court. Circuit Courts are held twice in every year, at such times and places as the Governor directs. Such courts have each in their respective districts the same powers which the Supreme Court has throughout the Colony. The Attorney-General has the right and duty to prosecute all crimes in all courts in the Colony, in person or by deputy; and the right of prosecution is entirely in his own control. He is aided by an assistant law adviser to the Crown. For the Eastern Districts, a Solicitor-General is empowered to exercise the functions of the Attorney-General in regard to all criminal business; and a Crown Prosecutor has similar powers and functions in Griqualand West. There is a Vice-Admiralty Court, the Chief Justice being judge, which sits at Cape Town for the trial of offences committed on the high seas and for the adjudication of maritime disputes. Besides these higher courts, there are courts of Resident Magis- trates held in each town or division of the Colony; also Periodical Courts held in outlying villages; and Courts of special paid Justices of the Peace, who have jurisdiction within certain limits. Justices of the Peace are appointed by the Governor; they keep the public peace, summon offenders, and witnesses, arrest criminals, and take examinations; they likewise take recognizances of men to be on their good behaviour, and attest declarations. -Admine for the tail of maritiurts of 112 TRANSFER OF LAND AND DEBT REGISTRY. Field-cornets are also appointed by the Governor; and are bound to apprehend without warrant and to commit to prison any person who in their presence commits, or whom they have reason- able grounds to suspect of having committed, any crime. They conform to the special instructions of the Resident Magistrate, within whose jurisdiction their ward is situated. In cases of wreck, when their wards adjoin the sea they are bound to repair to the spot where the wreck occurs, and to use every endeavour to save life and property. The Commissioners of Police and members of the constabulary of a district are empowered to arrest persons for any crime or offence, and they are required to suppress all tumults and other breaches of the peace. The Colonial police force numbers 800 men. Among other institutions, there is one connected with the transfer of land, which was established at a very early date by the Dutch East India Company, and is deserving of particular notice. It is the Government Department known as the “ Deeds Registry Office;" which secures in a very simple yet perfect manner the registration of all titles to landed property and mortgages upon the same. The registry extends back to 1685, shortly after the Cape was first occupied by Europeans; and at any moment the purchaser of an estate may refer to and ascertain all the by-gone circumstances, servitudes, encumbrances, and other matters connected with any old property, without the troublesome complexity or enormous expense which attends the same pro- ceeding in England. Titles to land are in the first instance issued by Government, representing the Crown, and registry of such issue is preserved in the Surveyor-General's Office. All subsequent conveyance, transfer, or exchange of any property is required to be recorded at the “ Deeds Registry Office,” where regular entry is made of the description of the property, its extent, the name of the seller, the purchaser, and the amount for which it is sold. A duty of 4 per cent. on the purchase amount is paid to the colonial revenue on the sale of any property, and also a succession duty on properties bequeathed; and certificates of these having been paid are required to be produced before transfer is given. The“ Deeds Office" likewise provides for the registration of hypothecations and mortgages. To have any legal right or title, or to be effectual against creditors, all such bonds are entered in what is termed the “debt registry,” which is indexed, and daily open to public inspection on payment of a small fee. No transfer of land can be obtained until after a settlement of these bonds, either by repayment, or by the mortgagee consenting to continue his loan on the securities of the new purchaser, or by the mort- gagee consenting to transfer of the land. THE MASTER'S OFFICE. 113 umrectiso by tonomical. Yance of ander security i Under this system the most perfect security is given to the capitalist, and the conveyance of landed property is made certain, simple, and economical. The Conveyancers, who are authorised to practise by the Supreme Court, satisfy themselves before passing any deeds that the transferer has a clear title to the property, and not merely a life interest in it; that there are no servitudes or prohibitory conditions in the way of transfer; that there are no mortgages upon it in the“ debt registry;" that the diagrams are correct; and that the proper transfer or succession duties have been paid. Thus the largest, best-conditioned, or most involved estate, may be sold and transferred from one owner to another on a couple of sheets or less of paper; and the facilities are so great that the time occupied in passing any deeds is not more than about seven days. The Department also provides for a registry of all rights secured under the Copyright Act, the Trades Marks Act, and the Friendly Societies' Act. The “ Master's Office” is another very important department, charged with the performance of duties corresponding to those of a Master of Chancery and a Commissioner of Insolvent Estates combined. It rests with the Master to register wills, to control the proceedings of trustees or executors in the administration of estates and properties of minors, lunatics, and absent persons. He also regulates all proceedings in bankruptcy, and assists the Supreme Court in matters which it refers to him for report or opinion. The duties connected with the administration of minors' and absent persons' estates, are of a specially responsible eharacter. The inheritance of minors who have no tutors appointed by their parents, and the moneys in the hands of tutors-dative and curators- dative, after payment of the debts due by the estate and the amount required for the immediate maintenance of the person uuder their guardianship, must be paid into the hands of the Master, by him put out to interest, and the interest, when re- quired, paid for their maintenance and education,—at one per cent. less than the usual rate of interest. The moneys thus paid into his office for account of minors, lunatics, and unknown and foreign heirs having no legal representatives in the Colony, forms what is denominated the "Guardian's Fund.” The capital of this Fund amounts at present to about £600,000, and is invested partly in mortgage bonds under security of landed property, and partly in Government stock and debentures. The yearly interest at present allowed on minors' inheritances is at the rate of four and a half per cent. This ceases on their attaining their majority. Foreign heirs not having legal representatives in the Colony, are allowed at one-half of the legal rate current in the Colony, and for a period not exceeding five years. Their names and residences, where 114 LOCAL BOARDS AND DEFENCE. known, and the amounts due to them, are published twice a year, namely, in July and in October, in the Government Gazette, also in the London Gazette, and other papers. The Government is represented in each division or district by a Civil Commissioner or a Magistrate ; in some cases the two offices being combined in one person. The civil commissioners are charged with the collection of all revenues as well as the administration of justice and other matters. In colonial terms, a “ division” means the territory over which the authority of a civil commissioner extends; a “ district,” the territory in which a resident magistrate has jurisdiction. In all the divisions there are local bodies termed Divisional Councils, elected by the ratepayers. To them is entrusted the repair and maintenance of roads and bridges, and the settlement of questions relating to land boundaries; and they have also to inspect and report upon Crown waste lands proposed to be offered for sale. In most of the towns there are Municipal Councils, elected by the householders, for the management of local affairs. These Divisional Councils and Muncipalities are empowered to raise revenues for their respective purposes, by the levy of rates upon landed properties, by tolls, and by licences. There are also Village Management Boards, and Public Health Boards. The receipts administered by the Divisional Councils amounted, in 1884, to £173,796 per annum ; and by Municipalities to £541,851. The value of the fixed property throughout the Colony, for rateable purpose (exclusive of all the territories of Transkei, Tembuland and Griqualand East) is £37,799,508. The defence of the Colony is provided for by permanent and volunteer forces, consisting of the Care Mounted Riflemen (includ- ing the Cape Field Artillery), numbering 700 officers and men; the Cape Infantry Regiment, numbering 520 officers and men; and Volunteer Corps—artillery, cavalry, engineers and riflemen- numbering 3,223 men. The armament includes fifteen field-guns, and stores of Martini-Henry and Snider rifles and carbines. Besides the above, there is an auxiliary force, composed of the burghers and levies, comprising every able-bodied man in the colony more than eighteen and under fifty years of age (with certain excep- tions), their numbers, according to the list, being computed at 46,000 burghers and 77,000 levies. In case of a call for active service, the first drafts are taken from those between the ages of eighteen and thirty years. For some years past, the annual expenditure on Colonial Defence amounted to over £200,000; but considerable retrenchment has lately been effected; and the vote for 1885-6 was £155,000. The outlay of the Imperial Government in 1884 on military services in the Colony is stated to have been £88,752. RELIGION AND MISSIONS 115 From the period when the Colony became a British possession, contributions towards the support of the clergy of several denomi-- nations were granted by the Government at various times. In 1853 these grants amounted to £16,060 per annum ; and by a schedule to the Constitution Ordinance that sum was- set aside to be annually appropriated for the service of “religious worship.” But the unequal distribution of this amount among: the different churches, and the growing claims of new congre- gations excluded from a share in it, as well as the persistent agitation of the advocates of the “ Voluntary Principle,” finally induced the Legislature in 1875 to pass an Act providing for its- gradual withdrawal and abolition. This Act secured the con- tinuance of stipends during the life-time of existing incumbents, and to the successors of such of them as might die or resign before the expiration of five years from the taking effect of the Act. Existing incumbents appointed to vacancies where previous incumbents were in receipt of stipends, receive the same salary, whether more or less, as was paid to the predecessor in sucli. vacancy. The congregations of the different religious denominations in the Colony (exclusive of the Transkeian Territories) number as far as ascertained 383,765 members, 232,046 being classed as whites and 150,719 as coloured. Of these the Dutch Reformed Church, numbers 162,739; Wesleyans 68,814; Church of England 57,895;, Congregationalists, Independents and London Missionary Society, 33,065; the Moravian or United Brethren 10,053; the Rhenish Mission, 10,011; Roman Catholics, 9,694; Presbyterian (Free Church of Scotland), 8,646; and besides these there are Baptists, Lutherans, French Reformed Church, Free Protestant, and Hebrew, and Mahommedan Congregations. Among the aboriginal tribes, various Christian Missionary Societies have their agencies; and their good influence in raising the natives, both morally, educationally and industrially, are acknowledged by all who observe their labours. The Government commission on Kafir Laws and Customs, which sat in 1881-82, and of which the present Premier was a member, bore its unani- mous testimony to the good which has been and is being effected by them, and recommended that all the countenance, protection and support which may be possible should be extended to them. Dr. Dale, the head of the Education Department of the Colony, has. truly remarked that every one who would honestly measure the result of these missionary labours, should extend the horizon of his: observation some sixty years back, and contrast what the native population was then and now. Thousands of the heathen inhabi- tants of Kafirland have in the intervening period taken the first step towards civilization; have acquired handicrafts, engaged in rench 2016; and hcs, 9,694.40,053, tha 12 116 SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. industrial trades, and accummulated fixed property; and many of them may proudly point to churches and chapels that have arisen chiefly from their own efforts, where large congregations, neatly- dressed and well behaved, now regularly assemble at the sound of the Sabbath-bell. The heterogeneous population of the Colony may be classed under three main sections :—The first, comprising the inhabitants of European origin, English, Dutch, French, German, and other; the second, those of mixed race, who form the bulk of the domestic servants and day-labourers in the towns and villages ; and the third, the aborigines, Kafirs, Fingoes, Basutos, and Bechuanas. To meet the educational wants of this tripartite community, the system of Public Education has been adjusted, and consists of (1). The Public and District Boarding and Day Schools, under local boards of management. (2). The Mission Schools under the control of Religious or Mis- sionary Bodies. (3). The Aborigines Day Schools, trade-classes, and Training In- stitutions, in connection with Missionary Societies. The Public Schools lead up to the Colleges, in which the course of study is regulated by the requirements for degrees in the Uni- versity of the Cape of Good Hope, which is an examining body forming the copestone of the system of Public Education, The Government co-operates with each section of the com- munity in promoting education, by means of grants-in-aid from the public revenue. The objects to which grants are appropriated under the provi- sions of the Higher and Elementary Education Acts are these :- (1). Grant in aid of the general expenses of the University, and ibursaries. (2). Grants in aid of salaries of professors and lecturers in colleges, which offer facilities to students to qualify themselves for degrees in the University of the Cape of Good Hope. 13). The half salaries of Principal and Assistant teachers in the three grades of Public Schools. (4). The half salaries of superintendents and teachers of District Boarding Schools among the agricultural and pastoral population, and of Boarding Departments in connection with the Public Schools. (5). Capitation allowances towards the maintenance of indigent scholars resident in District Boarding Schools, and aid towards the expenses of industrial departments connected with these schools. (6). Aid towards the salaries of teachers of District Mission Schools under the direction of religious bodies, with the view of assisting the managers to provide secular instruction for the children of the poorer -class, who are not reached through the agency of the Public Schools. (7). Aid towards the salaries of teachers of Day Schools among the SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. 117 Aborigines, Kafirs, Fingoes, Basutos, &c.; also of trade teachers in the Native Training and Industrial Institutions. (8). Capitation allowances for part maintenance of native boys and girls, resident in Industrial Institutions and receiving general indus- trial training besides ordinary school instruction. (9). Capitation allowances to native apprentices in the Trade Schools. (10). Assistance in equipping schools with all necessary appliances, furnituro, books, maps, blackboards, scientific apparatus, &c., sewing materials when a seamtress is employed to teach sewing and cutting, out clothes; and tools for the native workshops.. (11). The training of Elementary Teachers. (12). Schools of Art. Through these several agencies, the primary instruction of alli classes, without distinction of creed or colour, is sought to be pro- moted ; and whilst at the same time, the superior instruction of those who aspire to professional pursuits and University degrees is not overlooked, special attention has been given to the instruction of native lads in trades, such as carpentry, waggonmaking, print- ing and bookbinding, &c., and to the training of native girls for domestic employments. To encourage native lads to become skilled workmen, an allow- ance of £15 per annum, maintenance money, is made for those who, after one year's probation, have entered into a definite engage- ment with the authcrities of the institution with which they are connected, for a further period not exceeding four years, nor less than two years, as apprentices to one of the following trades :- carpentry, waggonmaking, blacksmith's work, tailoring, shoe- making, printing, and bookbinding To encourage native girls to become habituated to and skilled in the performance of the duties of domestic civilised life, an allow- ance of £10 per annum, maintenance money, is made for those who, after three months' probation, have entered into a definite engagement with the authorities of the institution. The day-schools among the aborigines are usually kept by native teachers who have passed the elementary Teachers” Examination ; but the Trade-teachers are Europeans. The managers of a school may provide for the religious instruc- tion of the scholars at a time set apart by them for that purpose, in addition to the ordinary school hours; but no scholars may be compelled to attend at that time for religious instruction without the consent of their parents or guardians. Freedom of action as regards education in the Colony has been promoted without any undue striving for uniformity, either in modes of teaching or results. Parents are expected to feel their obligation to educate their children; teachers have free scope for their zeal and professional experience; and local authorities. 118 SYSTEM OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. are encouraged to co-operate in maintaining their own schools in efficiency. Thus Parents, Teachers, and School Managers contri- bute to their own individual and collective interests; and the Government intervenes not to damp voluntary zeal, nor to check private and municipal efforts, but to foster the progress of Educa- tion; to keep alive a spirit of generous emulation among Teachers as well as Pupils : in short, to supply whatever appears to be de- fective in the local agencies, whether it be inadequacy of funds, weakness of control, or a low conception of the scope and methods of true education. The latest statistics to June, 1885, are as follow :- University and Colleges. In the five Colleges aided in connection with the University of the Cape of Good Hope, there were 305 students; of these 216 were preparing for Matriculation. 75 for the B.A. Degrees. and 14 , for the Survey Certificate. Schools for the year ended 30th June, 1885. No. Schools and Institutions in actual operation during some portion of the year .. New Schools opened during the year . Schools closed during some portion of the year II. Annual enrolment of scholars .. 75,713 Highest Quarterly Ditto ... 51,931 Daily attendance ... 39,034 989 75 85 : III. 328 54 400 Public Schools, Classes 1, 2, 3, and Farm Schools .. Boarding Schools and Departments Mission Schools .. .. Special Institutions (Training and Art Schools, &c.). . Aborigines' Schools-Colonial .. Transkei .. Tembuland East Griqualand :::::::: 28 92 42 40 Total 989 : The Government Expenditure for public Education for the financial year ended June, 1885, amounted to £95,000, including administration. Of this amount, the University and Colleges absorbed £8,000; the Public Schools, £28,000; the Mission Schools, £18,000 and the Aborigines' Day and Industrial Schools, £21,000. PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS. 119 olution. been assented tonge with the Schthe The agencies which are supported for the education of the white population enjoy about 40 per cent of the Government Grants ; those for the education of children of mixed races about 19 per cent.; and the Aborigines day and trade-schools 21 per cent. The Department of Public Education is directed by the Superintendent-General of Education, who is responsible for the administration of the grants in accordance with the School Regulations which have been assented to by both Houses of Parliament by resolution. A regular inspection of all Schools is maintained through a staff of Deputy Inspectors. The Department encourages and co-operates with local efforts for the extension and improvement of elementary and superior education, and without interfering in the management and discipline of any schools presses upon the attention of managers and teachers such changes as appear desirable in the accommoda- tion for the school and the teacher, the methods of teaching, the text-books, furniture, and other apparatus, as well as the discipline and general organization of the school. Teachers can obtain by results a merit grant or good service allowance as a recognition not of mere length of service but of distinguished merit, where a school is reported as excellent throughout. Public Libraries, Museums, Botanic Gardens, and an Association for the Promotion of the Fine Arts, have been established and supported by the public, and partly by the State. One of the best things the Colony has to boast of is the handsome building in Cape Town containing under one roof the South African Library and Museum. The Library Hall is a fine room about eighty feet long by forty feet broad, well lighted and fitted with galleries and recesses, which are lined with bookshelves and books. It contains upwards of 40,000 volumes in every department of literature and science, besides the valuable collection presented by Sir George Grey, consisting of rare manuscripts, original editions of carly printed works, and many volumes illustrative of the native languages of Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. It is open and available for study daily to all classes of the community; while subscribers of from £1 to £3 per annum may take out one or more sets of books and periodicals for perusal at their homes. A narrow vestibule leads from the Library to the Museum, which occupies the other wing of the building, and is filled with a very interesting collection, numbering many thousand specimens of the mammalia, birds, fishes, reptiles, insects, and minerals. The country Libraries are fifty-one in number, the most notice- able being one at Port Elizabeth which contains 14,758 volumes ; one at Graham's Town containing over 7,000 volumes; one at King William's Town with 10,254 volumes; one at Graaff-Reinet with 5,150 volumes; and one at Alice (Lovedale) with 6,438 volumes. 120 SAVINGS BANKS AND MAIL SERVICE. The Press, from its first establishment in 1824, has exerted a highly educational influence in the Colony. There are now 42 newspapers published in English ; 22 in English and Dutch ; 7 in Dutch; 1 in German; 1 in Kafir; and 1 in Kafir and English. Of these papers, 10 are dailies; 9 published twice a week; 14 twice; 38 once; 1 fortnightly and 2 monthly. Of Benevolent and Charitable Institutions, the Government maintains a General Infirmary and Lunatic Asylum on Robben Island, at the entrance of Table Bay, and a Lunatic Asylum at Graham's Town. There are also commodious public hospitals at Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, Graham's Town, King William's Town, Queen's Town, and Kimberley. There is a fine roomy Sailor's Home, for the accommodation of seamen connected with Table Bay. Orphanages and other benevolent societies, under the care of philanthropic bodies, are voluntarily supported. There is an admirable Young Men's Christian Association in Cape Town; and Masonic, Odd-Fellows' and Good Templars' lodges are numerous throughout the Colony. To foster habits of prudence and forethought, without which neither communities nor individuals can be prosperous, there is an old-established Savings' Bank Society at the metropolis, with some branches in the country districts, whose permanently invested funds now amount to £345,599. The Government Post Office Department has also opened Savings Banks at most of its offices since the 1st January, 1884, and the statement of business done from the opening up to 31st December, 1885, shows an excess of deposits over withdrawals of £174,000, which is invested under security of the public revenue. The Postal service throughout the colony is well performed. There are 620 post-offices, and the estimated number of letters annually posted is six and a half millions. The postal rate for letters is one penny per half-onnce within town delivery; two- pence within the colony, or South Africa, and sixpence to England; to Continental parts an extra charge is made. Money can be transmitted by post-office or telegraph order; and, by parcel-post, parcels can be forwarded to or from any place in South Africa and the United Kingdom. The Ocean Mail service with England is now a weekly one. By the contracts entered into with the Union Company and Sir Donald Currie's Castle Company, the voyage is required to be performed in 21} days via Madeira or Lisbon, and 221 days when St. Helena and Ascension have to be touched at. Premiums for speed at the rate of £6 5s. per hour, are given for passages completed under the allotted time. A postal subsidy of £25,000 is paid to each Company, instead of the proceeds of postage on the mail matter conveyed. $10 per hour, are subsidy of postage on བའི 8 ་་་་ཞེ་ BRIDGE OVER THE GREAT KEI RIVER. ROADS, TELEGRAPHS, RAILWAYS, HARBOURS, AND IRRIGATION WORKS. The progress of the Colony is perhaps nowhere more apparent than in the improvements which have taken place in the means of travelling from the sea-board to the inland districts. In a country with no rivers available for internal navigation, and where the physical features presented formidable obstacles to ordinary communication, its material advancement was heavily handicapped until roads were made, mountain barriers crossed, and rivers bridged. Lord Charles Somerset was the first to commence the opening of the mountain passes by constructing a road over the French Hoek; and about ten years later, Sir Lowry Cole authorised the line of road across the Hottentots Holland Mountain, which still bears his name. In 1844, however, a system of public road-making was initiated by Mr. John Montagu, Colonial Secretary, which conferred most extensive benefits upon the community. He de- vised the construction of main lines of communication throughout the Colony, together with the advantageous employment of colonial convict labour upon them; and, aided by a public board of administration (the Central Road Board), and the professional services of Colonel Michell and Mr. A. G. Bain, as engineers, he was successful in carrying out to completion undertakings which, to use the language of Governor Sir Harry Smith, “would do honour to a great nation instead of a mere dependency of the British Crown.” There are now about 4,100 miles of constructed main road throughout the Colony, and the roads other than main roads, or as they are officially known, divisional roads, extend to fully four thousand three hundred additional miles. Over such a great extent of communication there are necessarily a considerable number of bridges, and some of them are very large and important structures. The principal ones, however, are those which span the Orange River at different points. This river which traverses the continent almost from east to west, having its sources in the highest points of the Drakensberg mountain and emptying itself into the South Atlantic Ocean on the West Coast, is subject to great and heavy floods, due to its extensive drainage area, which is estimated at 400,000 square miles. The interruption to trade with the interior occasioned by the stoppage of traffic when the river was swollen after heavy rains, was felt to be a very serious drawback, and the Colonial Parliament, in 1874, authorised the river 122 BRIDGES AND TELEGRAPHS. Orange River e Transkeian terrpiers filled. W work was un94 feet 11'inch piers fillede is of iron being spanned by four separate iron bridges. That at Hope Town is the largest, being 1,480 feet long, and cost £114,260. The next in size is the one at Colesberg, measuring 1,339 feet in length, and which cost £108,726. There is another at Bethulie, 1,350 feet long which cost £78,874 ; and the fourth is at Aliwal North, 860 feet in length, and cost £59,904. The cost of construction was con- siderably increased by the heavy charges which had to be paid for the transport of the material (ironwork, &c.) from the seaports to the Orange River. Another bridge, similar in design and structure to those over the Orange River, spans the Great Kei River, uniting the old Colony proper with the Transkeian territories. It is of iron lattice super- structure, resting upon iron piers filled with cement, and has thirteen spans of 94 feet 11 inches each. Its cost was over £49,000. This work was undertaken by the Government at the instance of Capt. Blyth, C.M.G., the chief magistrate of the Transkei, who urged the importance of it on the ground that a bridge over the formidable drift of the Kei River would secure free access to the Territory at all seasons, and have a most civilizing and beneficial effect upon the natives. The Fingoes themselves showed their appre- ciation of it by voluntarily contributing £1,500 towards making the approaches. The progress of construction was interrupted for some time during the war of 1877-78, but soon afterwards the bridge was completed, when the Kafirs significantly made the remark, “Now we see that we are conquered; the land of the Ama- settlers (British settlers) and of the Amakosa is one." Electric telegraphs have been extensively constructed, and there are few towns throughout the Colony which are not in communica- tion with the Metropolis. The total expenditure on purchase and construction of lines up to the end of 1884 was £351,000. The number of stations open and available in 1885 for the use of the public was 203, and the number of miles of wire, 8,663. The maximum cost of a telegram of ten words between the extreme points of the system (1,500 miles) is one shilling, with a charge of sixpence for every additional five words. But the works which afford strongest evidence of the enterprise and progressive spirit of the Cape Colony are the extensive rail- ways which have been undertaken chiefly within the last twelve or fifteen years. Railway communication was first projected during the governorship of Sir George Grey, who turned the first sod of the Cape Town and Wellington line on the 31st March, 1859. This line, 58 miles in length, was constructed by an English Com- pany under a guarantee of a rate of interest of 6 per cent. per annum on a sum of £500,000. In 1862, private Colonial enter- prise started a short branch line, from Salt River to Wynberg, wi:hout any guarantee or subsidy; and later on, another line RAILWAYS. 123 ity was givehe three principaondon. These how they forn from Port Elizabeth to Uitenhage was commenced by a private company. All these lines, however, afterwards passed by purchase into the hands of the Government. In 1874, consequent upon the general prosperity resulting from the discovery and develop- ment of the diamond mines in Griqualand West, legislative authority was given for carrying on railway construction upon a large scale from the three principal seaports of the Colony, Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, and East London. These lines were sub- sequently authorised to be extended inland, until now they form three main systems, converging towards Kimberley and the Interior, and the Orange Free State. At the commencement of the present year (1886), the total number of miles of Government railway open for traffic in the Cape Colony was 1,599 miles, purchased, constructed, and completed at a cost of £13,407,385. The following is an enumeration of the several main and connecting lines :- Western System. Total Cape Town Dock to Kimberley 648 Stellenbosch Branch .. Malmesbury Branch .. .. Salt River to Kalk Bay 718 Midland System. Port Elizabeth to De Aar Junction 338 Naauwpoort to Colesberg 38 Zwartkops to Graaff-Reinet .. Alicedale to Graham's Town .. 589 Eastern System. East London Harbour to Aliwal North 282 Blaney to King William's Town .. 10 292 Miles. Milage. .. .. 29 178 Total .. 1,599 These railways have been carried out on the 3 ft. 6 in. gauge, and with the exception of the Cape Town and Wynberg line, and the first seven miles of the Port Elizabeth and Uitenhage line, are all single lines. The general direction of the Western system is north-east, crossing the rivers forming the main drainage of the country, and intervening ridges, and the bridges are consequently both numerous and important. The Midland system runs north, following chiefly the main drainage of the country; while the principal characteristic of the Eastern system is its severe gradients and curves. 124 RAILWAYS. Some portime to the enginhe entry into Some portions of the lines are, in an engineering point of view, highly creditable to the engineers who laid them out and superin- tended their construction. The entry into the Karoo over the Hex River range of mountains is specially worthy of notice. From the town of Worcester (780 feet above sea level) the line proceeds up the beautiful Hex River Valley, and then begins to climb the moun- tains by curves and zigzags along their sides, piercing some of the mountain spurs by tunnels, and crossing gullies spanned by viaducts, until within a distance of 36 miles it attains an altitude of 3,193 feet. Looking down from the top of the moun- tain there is a magnificent view of the valley, some 2,000 feet below; and the stupendous character of the engineering work by which the ascent has been accomplished can be fully appreciated. For upwards of twenty miles the line is steep in gradient (1 in 40 and 1 in 45), sharp in curve, deep in rock cutting, and precipitous in embankment. The highest point, however, is at Pieter Meintjes Fontein, 77 miles from Worcester, where a height of 3,588 feet is attained—a little higher than the summit of Table Mountain. Beyond this high level it again descends, being 2,717 feet at Buffel's River, and 1,537 feet (the lowest point beyond Worcester) at the Dwyka River; then ascending again, the altitude of 2,379 feet is attained between Prince Albert and Fraserburg Road, and it finally runs into Beaufort West at an altitude of 2,778 feet. From thence to Kimberley the Western line is on comparatively easy ground. The highest point (5,185 feet) on the Midland system is at Bosworth, near Naauwpoort, 164 miles from Port Elizabeth, from whence the country is generally flat to De Aar, the junction with the Western system, at 339 miles from Port Elizabeth and 500 miles from Cape Town. The Eastern system attains its summit (5,586 feet) on the top of the Stormberg range, 207 miles from the coast at East London. Owing to the nature of the country traversed, there is a large amount of waterway to be provided for. On the Eastern system there are eleven bridges of 100 feet opening and upwards, with a total waterway of 1,798 feet. On the Midland there are, including those across tidal rivers, fourteen bridges with a waterway of 4,229 feet; and on the Western, twenty-one such bridges with a waterway of 5,743 feet. The latter includes the bridge over the Buffels River, consisting of six spans of 100 feet each; that over the Geelbeck River, consisting of five spans of the same length; a third over the Blood River, consisting of seven spans; and a fourth and fifth over the Dwyka and Bitter Water Rivers, consisting respectively of four and seven spans of the regulation length. The largest however is the “ Good Hope” bridge spanning the Orange River on the Kimberley extension line. It is a substantial and magnificent piece of engineering skill. Its total length is RAILWAYS. 125 1,230 feet, in nine spans of 130 feet each, plus the width of the piers. From the water to the rail, the height is fifty-six feet, and the weight is ninety-five tons per span, giving a total of 855 tons for the whole structure. The piers were commenced with the foun- dation being laid in July, 1884, and the erection of the girders in June, 1885, and the bridge was opened for traffic on the 28th November, 1885. The total cost of the bridge is estimated at £60,000. For some years, all the rolling-stock and coaching required for the Railways was imported; but now well-equipped Railway Workshops have been established at Uitenhage and at Salt River, where repairs and transformations, as well as construction, are executed departmentally. Among other improvements carried out at these workshops, may be mentioned a most comfortable adapta- tion of the Pullman car, for through journeys from Cape Town to Port Elizabeth and Kimberley; and also a successful alteration of the locomotive engines, some of which are fitted up with long fire-boxes and ash-pans and an arrangement of movable bars, specially adapted for burning Colonial coal containing a con- siderable per centage of dross. This Colonial coal is now extensively used on the Eastern system of Railways, from East London to Aliwal North; and contracts have been entered into by the Government for its regular supply. Three of the mines, Cyphergat, Molteno and Fair View, are in close proximity to the Railway line, on the Stormberg, while another mine, the Indwe, which yields coal of better quality, is dis- tant some miles. The contract prices are for the former 16s. per ton, and the latter 25s. per ton. When a junction is effected between the Eastern and Midland systems, the whole of the Rail- ways may be worked with Colonial fuel. Taking the total cost of purchase and construction of the Govern- ment Railways, including rolling-stock, locomotive establishments, and raising of loans, the amount disbursed has been about thirteen and a half million sterling, or an average of about £8,613 per mile. The contribution towards interest on this capital from the receipts or earnings is equal to rather more than 2 per cent. But it must be borne in mind that it is only now that the systems have attained completion, and some time should be allowed to realise the full benefit which must inevitably result from the stimulus given to the trade and resources of the interior by the recent opening of the Main Trunk Line to Kimberley. The following table shews in respect to each of the last five years, the progress of the lines of Railway, the average length open, the earnings and expenses per mile, capital invested, cost per mile, the amount of passenger and goods traffic, and the quantity of work- ing rolling stock, &c.:- Plan showing EXISTING AND AUTHORIZED TABLE BAY HARBOUR WORKS. AUTHORIZE P AL 11 1111 wwwmumi EXTENSION 1015LNU Breakwater MANDA W U USUTUUNTOU TOUTUUIUS anitanna AUDUAARI URUHNHALDARODI bbwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww. Coaling Jetty East Jetty Inner Basin ulugu duructiva CONVICT STATION entwu0000000 Доск Alfred Basin HARBOUR COMMISSIONER'S BOUNDARY ایمانده هم له ته لومة لانها بفن فنر VS AMSTERDAM BATTERY Lithographed in the Surveyor General's Dep. Printed by Solomon k C Cape Town TABLE BAY HARBOUR AND GRAVING DOCK. 127 designs for works having that object in view, which, together with an increasing demand for dock accommodation, resulted in 1860 in the formation of the Table Bay Harbour Board, and their ultimate adoption of Sir John Coode's plans as the best suited to fulfil the required conditions of the port. The first work undertaken was that of running out from the shore a Breakwater in a N. by E. } E. direction, formed of stones of varying sizes excavated from a quarry partly on the site of the old Chavonne Battery. The first wagon of stone was deposited by H. R. H. Prince Alfred on 7th July, 1860. During the pro- gress of the Breakwater it was determined to convert the quarry in process of formation into a basin, and its form was modified with that object. The Breakwater mound was completed to a length of 1,870 feet in July, 1868, having been carried out into 5} fathoms of water, and it effectually protected a portion of the anchorage together with the dock and outlying works. These consisted of the Alfred Dock or inner basin having an area of 8} acres, and an outer basin protected by a jetty 610 feet long, run out from the Breakwater on its south side at 970 feet from its root. They were opened for traffic on the 20th November 1869, and the formal ceremony took place on July 11th, 1870, in the presence of H.R.H. Prince Alfred. Prior to the completion of these works, the Board acquired by purchase the Patent Slip belonging to Messrs. De Pass & Co., and removed it to the south end of the Alfred Dock. The means of repairing large vessels being still wanting, arrange- ments were made with the Lords of the Admiralty to assist with funds towards the construction of a Graving Dock of such pro- portions that it would suffice to accommodate the largest of Her Majesty's ship likely to visit these waters. Plans were accordingly prepared by Sir John Coode and approved of by the Imperial Government, but some difficulty as to certain restrictions both of priority and in matters of finance having arisen, the Harbour Board undertook the cost of construction themselves, and during the pro- gress of the work an additional one hundred feet in length was given. This structure, which is built of granite (obtained from the Paarl 36 miles distant from Cape Town), will bear comparison with any similar work in the world. The foundation stone was laid in 1867, on the 24th August, by H.R.H. Prince Alfred. It was opened by the Governor Sir Hercules Robinson on the 20th October, 1882, and was named after His Excellency the “Robinson” Graving Dock. Since its completion it has been largely used by vessels requiring either to be repaired or cleaned, and from the 4th to the 5th November of 1885, it was occupied by the White Star Line 8.S. “ Coptic" of 4,448 tons and 438 feet length, which had met 128. TABLE BAY DOCKS. with the loss of one of the blades to her propeller. She was docked, a new blade affixed, and undocked in 24 hours. During the construction of the Graving Dock, a timber jetty was erected 500 feet in length and 68 feet wide, running out from the Breakwater at 1,630 feet from its root for the accommodation of the large steamers from England to Australia and New Zealand requiring coal en route. A depth of water of 28 feet is here ob- tainable, and as much as 1,300 tons of coal has been put on board one of these vessels in 12 hours. At the same time a Quay wall, 600 feet long, was constructed parallel to the Breakwater between the above structure and the jetty forming the east side of the outer basin. The rapidly developing trade of the port having rendered further increase of accommodation desirable, plans for works providing this were submitted, in 1880, by Sir John Coode, and sanctioned. To protect these, and in order to afford largely increased anchor- age, an extension of the Breakwater was necessary, and authority was obtained in August, 1880. It was determined to lengthen the mound 800 feet in the same direction as the existing structure, and continue it a further distance of 1,000 feet in a north-easterly direction into 7} fathoms of water. At the present time this work has been carried out a distance of 660 feet and is still proceeding, a total length of Breakwater of 2,530 feet having been constructed, which gives an extensive sheltered area of anchorage in Table Bay. The bend referred to is already half finished, and each foot that the breakwater is now advanced will afford in proportion a much larger protected area than a similar advance did formerly. The quarry, from which the material for the breakwater is being excavated, is so designed that it may be made to give, with but small expenditure, additional dock accommodation of 8 acres, with a minimum depth at low water springs of 27 feet; an entrance would in that case be made through the West Quay immediately to the South of the entrance to the Graving dock. The scheme, dated 2nd February, 1883, of Sir John Coode for an Duter Harbour of sixty-two acres has been adopted, and all the works are being carried on with due regard to its requirements. The mound of the South arm, which will run parallel to the break- water at a distance 1,650 feet south of it, will shortly be commenced. This work will protect the Quay Wall between the East and breakwater jetties from the effect of seas due to South East winds, and make it available as additional berthage room. The whole of the docks are most efficiently lit by the Anglo- American “ Brush ” arc and incandescent light system, and a well organized fire brigade and fire extinguishing apparatus are maintained. There is an adequate supply of excellent water, which is delivered on board vessels at 3s. per ton. TABLE BAY DOCKS. 129 The increased importance of the trade of the port, largely due to the facilities now afforded to the shipping by the Breakwater and Docks, rendered it necessary that its defences against any attack of an hostile fleet should be considerably increased. With this object in view the Amsterdam Battery was greatly strengthened in 1879, by the deposit of surplus material in front of it from the Break- water quarry excavation, and two new Batteries of considerable power have been erected this year, one at Mouille Point and the other at the South head of the Bay at Craig's Tower; the labour and tools for which were supplied from the Table Bay Harbour Works. As the trade of the port has increased, the dock dues charged have been considerably reduced, and the following are the rates at the present time :- Dock Dues on Goods. Upon all goods landed from or shipped to ports or places beyond the limits of this Colony, “ bona fide” in transit, or from distressed vessels, to be re-shipped, or coals, 28. per ton. Upon all goods transhipped, landed from or shipped to ports or places within the limits of this Colony,“ bona fide" in transit or from distressed vessels, ls. per ton. On horses, mules, asses, horned cattle and ostriches landed, shipped or tran- shipped, 5s. each. On calves, sheep, pigs and goats landed, shipped or transhipped, 3d. each. On Vessels. On all vessels entering the Dock or Basins with the privilege of remaining therein for twenty-one days, including the day of arrival and departure, per ton, 6d. For every week or portion of a week after the above period, per ton in Docks or Basins, 2d. On every vessel re-entering Docks or Basins within forty days from her first entrance on that voyage, per week or portion of a week, per ton, 3d. On all coasters or craft of 50 tons and under, at per month of thirty days, per ton, 4d. Note.-All vessels are charged at the above rates at per register ton gross, and are found in fenders and stages only. All vessels, whether ships of war, transports, or belonging to the mercantile marine of any nation, visiting this port for coal or stores only, and not remaining inore than eight days in Dock or at the Quays, and neither landing nor receiving cargo, will be charged at the rate of 4d. per ton, otherwise the charge will be 6d. per ton, as per Dock regulations. On Ballast. Stone Ballast put on board at per ton, 5s. Earth Ballast do. 3s. Ballasting vessels after hours, an extra charge of one shilling per ton will be made. All ballast landed in the Dock to become the property of the Board. Graving Dock and Patent Slip. For docking and undocking vessels, or for taking up and launching from the Patent Slip, per ton register gross, including days of docking and undocking, or of taking up and launching, 28. The minimun charge, however, to be in no case less than £25 for the above. Rent charge for Graving Dock and Patent Slip. Vessels of 250 tons and under for every twenty-four hours' occupation of Dock Slip, £6. 130 OTHER HARBOURS. Vessels above 250 tons for every twenty-four hours' occupation of Dock or Slip at per ton register gross, 6d. All vessels taken into the Dock or on the Slip for the purposes of inspection or cleaning and painting only will be allowed a ceduction of 25 per cent. on the above charges. Sir John Coode is Engineer-in-Chief, and to him the successful development of all the works is due. The Breakwater, Alfred Dock, and outer Basin, were carried out under the immediate superintendence of Mr. A. T. Andrews, who was succeeded in 1871 by Mr. A. C. Jenour, during whose regime the extension of the Breakwater was commenced and the Graving Dock and Break- water jetty, &c., constructed; he retired in March, 1884, and Mr. H. Thwaites is the present Resident Engineer. The cost of the entire works up to the 31st December, 1884, has been £1,273,078, while the revenue during the same period has been £938,048, the last yearly revenue being £72,197, which is sufficient to pay the interest of the money already expended or likely to be required to complete the works in hand and to provide for their proper maintenance. The comparative small cost of these important undertakings has been due in a great measure to the extensive employment of convict labour. The total gross tonnage entered inwards and outwards in the year after the opening of the Alfred Docks was 110,058 tons, which had increased last year to 814,840 tons, the whole of the shipping arrangements being under the charge of Captain Hewat, the Dock Superintendent. Simon's Bay is the naval station and dockyard for Her Majesty's vessels. Mossel Bay, situate midway between Table and Algoa Bays, is from its geographical position the natural port for the central coast divisions of the Colony; there is a first-class lighthouse, an excellent harbour, warehouses, jetties, steam cranes, and other facilities for landing and loading cargoes. Algoa Bay, the chief port for the eastern and midland districts, and the Interior, is an open but safe roadstead with good holding ground, and the loading and discharging of vessels are very ex- peditiously done by means of steam tugs and lighters and surf- boats, and gangs of native labourers. But this method, being found subject to occasional interruptions from the state of the surf, large iron jetties have recently been constructed and run into drep water; and these are fitted with steam and hand cranes, by which the landing and shipping operations are greatly facilitated. An elaborate scheme for an outer harbour capable of sheltering vessels of any size has been designed by Sir John Coode, who contemplates the construction of an iron viaduct extending seaward for a distance of 3,000 feet, and at its outer end a breakwater pier 2,000 feet in length in a N. by E. direction, having a depth of 33 feet at the NA EAST LONDON HARBOUR WORKS-MOUTH OF BUFFALO RIVER. IRRIGATION DEPARTMENT. 131 south or inner end, and 36 feet at the outer end at low water of spring tides. The estimated aggregate cost will be about a million sterling; but the prosecution of this large undertaking is at present in abeyance. At Port Alfred (the Kowie River Mouth) there is good holding: ground at the outer anchorage ; and a steam tug and lighters for loading and discharging, or for bringing vessels of moderate draught (nine to twelve feet) into the river to the wharves, a mile- from the entrance, where there are stores, a bonding warehouse, and the railway to Graham's Town. The harbour works were commenced many years ago by a private company, but were taken over by the Government in 1869. They were afterwards carried on, according to plans recommended by Sir John Coode, and designed to affect the flow of the river and tides so as to in-- crease the depth of water at the entrance. East London, at the Buffalo River Mouth, is another river har-- bour where similar works, under Sir John Coode's direction, have been in progress. These were intended to remove the “bar,” and keep clear the passage to the deep reaches of water inside. Train- ing walls, forming quays, were built so as to narrow the river channel and thereby increase the scour, and a breakwater of concrete blocks, like that of Portland, constructed in the form of an arm outside, to prevent the sea from checking the river's outflow and driving the sand back upon the bar. In former years occasional floods or freshets in the Buffalo River served to clear the “bar”. sometimes to a depth of seventeen feet, and vessels were then able to pass inside and discharge cargo, without the use of surf-boats or the delays and risk attendant upon lying at an open anchorage outside. But since the works have been proceeded with, no freshets. have occurred, and the sand accumulation has shallowed the entrance of the river. To remove this obstruction, in the absence of a freshet, a powerful dredger or sand pump has been ordered, and will shortly be at work to scour out the sand from the entrance, so as to enable vessels of large draught to utilise the spacious water accommodation: inside the river's mouth. Government, recognising the crude and unsystematic manner in. which irrigation was generally conducted by private persons, and being desirous of affording them the benefits of professional advice, as well as of being inclined to commence large works on its account, in 1875 instituted the present Hydraulic Engineer's Department, with Mr. J. G. Gamble, M. Inst. C.E., as its head. Under the direction of this Department, the most likely districts of the Colony have been inspected, with a view either to the improvement of the method of irrigation in vogue, or the inauguration of large public works. Advice has been given to private persons and to public bodies and compinies, and a large number of works for irrigation th K 2 132 IRRIGATION LAWS. and for town water supply have been constructed under the -supervision of the Department. With a view to encourage farmers and public bodies to undertake irrigation works, an Irrigation Act was passed by the Legislature in 1877. Under this Act, provision is made for the constitution of Irrigation Boards in districts, wherever three or more owners of land .agree to act in combination for carrying out irrigation works, or the storage of water. The members of the board are chosen from and elected by the landowners. They have borrowing and rating powers, and the Government is authorised to assist them with loans of money on the credit of the rates assessed ; but the character of the works to be carried out is in every case to be decided by a professional engineer appointed by the Government. Provision is also made for aiding individual proprietors and farmers desirous of storing water or irrigating their lands; they may receive assistance from Government in the shape of an advance, on undertaking to pay a rent-charge for the same at the rate of 8 per cent. for a term not exceeding 24 years. An Act passed in 1879 extended the provisions of the second part of the Act of 1877 to municipal bodies, thus enabling the Government to lend money to munici- palities for the purpose of improving the water supply of the towns; and an Act sassed in 1880 introduced several further improvements. T'he conditions under which loans for irrigation works may be obtained were republished in a concise form in 1885. They are briefly as follows : - The loan must be secured by first mortgage upon the land on which the works are to be constructed, and will be granted for a term of any number of years, at the dis- - cretion of the recipient, not exceeding twenty-four. The loan will be repayable, through the Civil Commissioner, by means of fixed annual payments varying with the term of the loan. For twenty-four years, the longest term for which money can be borrowed, the annual payments would be at the rate of eight per cent. per annum on the amount of the loan. For a less number of years the annual payments would be larger in proportion. The recipient of the loan will understand that after having made all the annual payments he is relieved from all further liability whatsoever, and will have discharged both principal and interest. The annual payments above referred to may, at the discretion of the recipient, be redeemed at any aime before the expiration of the term for which the loan is granted, by a payment calculated by a scale fixed for this purpose. The existence of a previous mortgage or other incumbrance need not be a bar to a loan under the Ir cts, provided the previous mortgagee or others consent to the preference of the Government Loan The Government will give the necessary notices to the persons previously interested (if any), whether mortgagee or others: allowing a period of four months within which they may object to the preference of the Government Bond. Land under mortgage for a loan under the Irrigation Acts cannot be transferred without the consent of the Government, and unless the rent-charge (or annuol re-pay. ment) is fully paid up. Thé works inust be constructed upon plans and specifications approved by the . Government, who will bear all costs of inspection and examination of the scheme. If it be desired, designs will be furnished by Government free of charge; but in this case, to guard against loss, the applicant will be required to undertake to make good the cost of the necessary surveys in the event of the works not being carried o'rt. there is much measurement required will this guarantee exceed Ten Pounds (£10), and in no case will it exceed Fifty Pounds (£50). where IRRIGATION WORKS. 133 Until the repayment of the entire loan the owner is bound to keep the works in efficient repair, and to certify once a year, through the Civil Commissioner, as to the- condition of his work, under pain of an action for default and damages resulting there-- from. The loan will be issued in instalments. One-fifth of the whole amount will be advanced upon the completion and registration of the Mortgage Bond, to enable the works to be commenced. Subsequent instalments will be paid on the certificate of the Hydraulic Engineer that sums previously advanced have been properly spent. The facilities for making reservoirs, while more abundant in: some districts than in others, are fairly plentiful in all parts of the Colony. This of course applies to ordinary farmers' dams. It is- obvious that large works requiring special circumstances cannot be constructed equally well in all parts, yet there are numerous sites- of the most promising kind scattered through the Colony, the utilisation of which is a mere matter of money directed by a little energy. Calvinia has of late years been the scene of considerable dam-- making, the works being constructed by the farmers from pecuniary assistance obtained from Government under the Irrigation Act. In that, as well as in numerous other districts, there are immense tracts of the most fertile land, which only need water to produce the most astonishing crops. An average of 70 bushels of wheat from one bushel sown can be relied on, while a return of 130 bushels. is not infrequent. In the division of Beaufort West, Victoria West, Prince Albert, Jansenville, &c., there are large reservoirs for the use of stock. Little use is made of them for irrigation, as the farmers prefer the less laborious occupation of sheep-farming. Griqualand West is not sufficiently diversified in character to admit of the construc-- tion of numerous reservoirs ; there are, however, many farmer's reservoirs in existence. Some Karroo districts, owing to their flat character, are quite unsuited for reservoirs, while others which are intersected by low ranges of hills, afford at breaks in the range unrivalled sites for dams. In the divisions of Worcester, Swellendam, Caledon, and in fact along the low ground at the foot of all the great mountain ranges, the configuration is well suited for reservoirs, but little use has been made of the sites. In Oudtshoorn and along the sides of the Great Fish River the side valleys and kloofs are well adapted for dams. The drainage area of the Great Fish River is well worth a close investigation, for the land is of first rate quality, and its proximity to the rail- way admits of a ready market. A properly organised association, or a company more intent on developing the land than in speculat- ing, could not fail to find this locality one of the best in the Colony for agriculture. Farmers' reservoirs as ordinarily constructed, generally have many defects. They are seldom proportioned to the drainage area IRRIGATION WORKS. 135 -structing irrigation works on a somewhat extensive scale at Stols- hoek, near Beaufort West, and at Van Wyk’s Vley, in the Carnar- von division. The work at Stolshoek, completed in 1884, was undertaken for the purpose of irrigating a fuel plantation for the railway. The principal work is a masonry wall, which blocks up an opening in a low ridge of trap hills at the foot of the southern slope of the Nieuweldt mountains, thereby forming a reservoir having a drainage area of about five square miles, and capable of holding 96,000,000 gallons of water. The greatest depth of water is 20 feet. The wall is 500 feet long, 21 feet high, and contains 3,000 cubic yards of cement masonry, the cost of which was £2 7s. 6d. per cubic yard, exclusive of the cost of carrying water for mortar a distance of two miles. The water is conducted from the reservoir to the intended plantation in cast iron pipes. This work has cost about £8,700. Van Wyk's Vley is by far the most important irrigation work which has been constructed in South Africa. The work is designed for the purpose of storing the rainfall so as to irrigate an extensive tract of fertile country, which without water is practically worth- less. The drainage area of the reservoir is 460 square miles, an extent which to the casual observer would appear capable of yield- ing an immense volume of water. However, owing to the scanty and extremely irregular rainfall of the surrounding country, the flow into the reservoir is not in keeping with the extent of the drainage area. As an example of the scanty rainfall it may be mentioned that the averages for the years 1883 and 1884 did not exceed four inches. The works consist of an earthwork embankment a little more than 300 yards long, and 31 feet high at its highest point, a masonry tower at the inside toe of the embankment for drawing off the water, a masonry culvert containing cast iron pipes for leading the water through the embankment, and an overflow for storm water. The water is led to the irrigable lands in a large canal. The reservoir when full will hold 35,000 million gallons, and the extent of the water surface will be 19 square miles, with an average depth of over 10 feet. The greatest depth is 27 feet. The total cost of the work, exclusive of land, has been between £23,000 and £24,000. The water supply of various towns have of late years been im- proved under the supervision of the Hydraulic Engineer's Depart- ment, and among them may be mentioned King William's Town, Queen's Town, East London and Port Elizabeth. The old works which supplied King William's Town with water consisted of a weir on the Buffalo River, from which the water was led out by means of an open furrow to a turbine placed near the town. The fall of a large quantity of water was used to pump up a portion into a high level reservoir from which it was 136 WATERWORKS. nto the towalo in pipes at commended the distributed through the town in pipes. Unfortunately in dry seasons the flow in the Buffalo was too small to work the turbine, consequently the town had at these seasons to do without its high level service. In 1878 Mr. Gamble recommerded the Town Council to lead out the Buffalo in pipes at a point high enough to bring the water into the town by gravitation. These works were begun about two years afterwards. The water is conveyed from the Izeli, a branch of the Buffalo, in cast-iron pipes, to a service reservoir commanding the whole of King William's Town. The length of the main from the intake to the service reservoir is 8 miles, and its diameter 10 inches. The general features of the works constructed at Queen's Town are, a reservoir for the purpose of storing the storm-water from the Komani River, the water being condueted into the reservoir by means of a weir and furrow, a siphon to draw off the water, and a 6-inch main with distributing pipes and hydrants for the supply of the town. The embankment is 650 yards long and 31 feet high at the highest part. The reservoir is estimated to hold 80 million gallons of water. At East London, the works comprise a reservoir in the Ama- linda Valley which collects the rain water from the drainage area of the uppermost part of the valley. This drainage area extends to 1,500 acres. The surface is covered with green turf and studded with mimosa trees. The length of the embankment is 300 yards, and its greatest height, measured from the surface of the valley, 31 feet. The water area when full covers 26 acres, with a depth at the bank of 25 feet. There is a substantial masonry culvert through the embankment with a cast iron tower at its inner end for drawing off the water. This tower is the first of its kind in the Colony, if not in South Africa. From the storage-reservoir the water is led by a cast iron main to a covered service-reservoir 41 miles distant; thence it is conducted into the town by a main which delivers it into the distributing pipes. Hydrants are attached to the distributing pipes for fire-extinguishing purposes. Until quite recently the water supply of Port Elizabeth was very scanty. The lower, or business part of the town drew water from a main laid along the beach from a small valley called Shark's River, in the sand-dunes between Port Elizabeth and Cape Recife. The upper part of the town, however,—where most of the best houses have been built-was dependent on underground tanks in which the rain caught on the roofs was stored. To remedy such a condition of affairs, a scheme was devised and approved by Mr. Gamble, for bringing in the water from the basin of “ Van Staaden's River," over some twenty-eight miles of difficult, and in several places mountainous country, into the town. The work con- sists of a small intake weir in the mountains, from which a cast BEAUFORT WEST DAM. 137 Accoma supply the field of by dependente rious to the iron main is laid to Port Elizabeth, communicating with and pass- ing by a service reservoir at the highest point of the suburbs of the town. The present main was designed to carry 840,000 gallons per diem, but from actual measurement the main itself gave on one occasion 930,000 gallons and on another 960,000 gallons in twenty- four hours. The total cost has been about £130,000. The construction of these waterworks has very materially aided the expansion of Port Elizabeth, and numbers of houses and gardens have been built and laid out year by year on the “ Hill,” which has now very much the aspect of a neat, well-ordered English watering-place. At Riversdale, Somerset East, George Town, Wellington, and Mossel Bay, gravitation works for the distribution of water have also been carried out; that at. Mossel Bay costing £26,000, the length of piping being 22 miles. At Beaufort West, a very large dam or reservoir has been constructed by the local Municipal Corporation. Previous to the formation of this dam the town was solely dependent for its water supply on two springs, the yield of which often fell to 20,000 gallons a day—a supply which was quite insufficient in the dry seasons. Accordingly the Municipal Commissioners constructed a reservoir by throwing an embankment across an opening in a ridge of low hills, thereby collecting the drainage from an area of 60 square miles. The capacity of the reservoir newly-made, under the supervision of Mr. Brand, in 1880, is estimated at 572,000,000 gallons. The greatest depth of water at the embank- ment is 19 feet, and the height of the embankment at its highest part is 25 feet. The cost of the works was £13,800. In 1883, the direct revenue derived from leasing new lands to be irrigated from the dam is stated to have been £1,000. The indirect revenue can scarcely be estimated, consisting as it does in a gieat improve- ment in the health and comfort of the inhabitants. Another important undertaking—that of supplying water to the Diamond Fields at Kimberley from the Vaal River (a distance of 17 miles)—has been very successfully carried out by the Kim- berley Waterworks Company (Limited), an English association, with a capital of £350,000. The intake is in the centre of the Vaal River, and the water flows through two eighteen-inch wrought iron pipes into a well 70 feet deep, built of stone in cement. At the head of the well in the engine house is a powerful A frame engine, which lifts the water from the well and forces it through eighteen-inch pipes into reservoirs or settling tanks, of which there are four, each capable of containing one million gallons. From these tanks the water is conducted through suction pipes, fourteen inches in diameter, to the main engines, by which it is now forced a distance of seventeen miles through fourteen-inch wrought iron 138 THE KIMBERLEY WATERWORKS. pipes into the storage reservoir at Kimberley, a height above the river of about 470 feet. The engine-house at the river is divided into three separate compartments :—the lowlift engine-house, where stands the A frame engine to lift the water from the well; the boiler-house, in which are four compound sectional boilers, and the main engine-honse where are two 60 n. h.p. horizontal compound surface condensing engines which can be used separately or together as may be required. The engines and boilers were specially designed for this Company, and constructed by Messrs. Simpson & Co., of London. In the first instance, it was thought advisable to break the distance and lift from the River to Kimberley, and an intermediate Station, about halfway between the two points, was accordingly constructed. At this station there is a reservoir of a capacity of 300,000 gallons, and an engine-house containing two horizontal engines and three boilers precisely similar to those at the river. The water was originally pumped from the reservoirs at the river into this one, and thence almost simultaneously pumped to the storage reservoir at Kimberley. After numerous tests and experi- ments it was found to be feasible to pump direct the entire distance from the river to Kimberley, and consequently the intermediate station is not now in use. The storage reservoir at Kimberley is a large circular basin, constructed at the highest point above the town, and capable of containing ten millions of gallons. The water for consumption in the town is conducted through 14-inch pipes to the filtering reser- voir (200,000 gallons) in the vicinity where, after being filtered, it is discharged into a clear water reservoir adjoining, capacity 300,000 gallous, and thence flows by gravitation through a 14-inch wrought iron pipe into the heart of the town, and is then distributed through branches of 6 and 3-inch cast iron pipes. There are mains through nearly every street and a large number of hydrants have been fixed for the protection of property. The town system is divided by means of valves into 24 sections, so that while one section may be undergoing repair the general supply is not interrupted. The condition of the water for use in the mines being immaterial, the four mines, Kimberley, De Beer's, Dutoitspan, and Bultfontein are served direct from the storage reservoir. There are now about seventy miles of mains laid. Mr. F. R. Despard, As., M.I.C.E., is the manager and superintending engineer. CAPE WOODS AND FORESTS. By A. W. Herwood, Forest DEPARTMENT. The large forests of the Colony exist in the temperate regions of the Southern mountain chains near the sea, running almost parallel to the coast. Altogether these wooded tracts cover an area of something over 350 square miles. About one- half of this forms a nearly continuous strip in the Divisions of George, Knysna, and Humansdorp, constituting the Conserva- torship of Knysna. The other half (the Conservatorship of King William's Town) is situated in the Amatola mountains and subsidiary ranges, in the Divisions of Stutterheim, King Wil- liam's Town, Victoria East and Stockenström. There are also some small patches of high timber forests in the Fort Beaufort Division, and a larger area in the Zuurberg mountains of the Uitenhage Division; in addition to which, the Eastern forests comprise about 50 square miles of low but valuable forest partially demarcated near the coast. The Transkeian Territories lately annexed to Cape Colony are reported to contain many fine forests; but their extent is not accurately known, nor have they as yet been placed under the administration of the Forest Department. They are said to abound in both the Stinkwood of the Western, and the Sneeze- wood of the Eastern forests, a circumstance unknown in the older portions of the Colony. Until within a recent period, the management and working of the Cape forests was of a very unsystematic and thriftless cha- racter. Fellings were not confined to limited areas or sections; woodcutters were allowed to pick and choose their trees indiscri- minately throughout the forests, and to pay only for the wood actually removed. The consequence of such a method was that only the choicest trees were felled, and their rejected portions left to cumber the ground. It has been estimated that by working on this system nearly thirty cubic feet of wood were wasted for every one utilised and paid for. Natural reproduction was thus severely handicapped ; many forests disappeared altogether; and those which now remain and are at all accessible, have been impoverished to the last degree. In 1880, the question of forest management was brought before Parliament. It was pointed out that the officers in charge had received no special training for the work which had in conse- actually retroughout the fto pick and Limited areashrift 140 FOREST MANAGEMENT. quence suffered severely, and the salary for a trained forest officer was voted by the Legislature. The Crown Agents in London were consulted, and with the assistance of Colonel Pearson, then at Nancy, the services of Count de Vasselot de Régné, of the French Forest Department, were secured. This officer arrived in Cape Town early in 1881, and as Superintendent of Woods and Forests undertook the organisation of the present Forest Department. In 1883, by the courtesy of the Indian Government, the services of Mr. Hutchins, Deputy Conservator of Forests, were made tem- porarily available to the Colony. Count de Vasselot first set about the introduction of a proper management scheme for the Knysna and adjoining forests, whilst Mr. Hutchins proceeded with the demarcation of Reserves in the King William's Town and neighbouring divisions. KNYSNA AND TZITZIKAMMA FORESTS. Having regard to the conditions prevailing at George, Knysna and Tzitzikamma, Count de Vasselot adopted the method of dividing the forests into blocks, and sub-dividing them again into sections. Fellings now proceed regularly in bi-annual sections, so that the re-growth in the first section cut may develop into mature trees by the time the working of the last section is finished, and there will thus be no occasion at any time to close the entire forest. The period for the “revolution of fellings has been fixed at 40 years. (For a full description of the system adopted see Intro- duction to Systematic Forestry: Cte. M. de Vasselot.) The forest staff at the Knysna consists of one Conservator, 3 officers of the higher grade, and 6 forest rangers or guards. The work of each officer of the higher grade extends over an area varying, according to circumstances, from 10,000 to 30,000 acres. The timber, or high forests, are surveyed by him. He determines the boundaries of series or blocks, and draws up work- ing plans for the formation of sections. All working schemes are submitted to the Superintendent of Woods and Forests, and after approval the lines are opened, sections surveyed, and trees avail- able for felling counted and stamped. The total forest area in the Knysna conservation is approxi- mately 100,000 acres, of which about three-quarters have been considerably exhausted by reckless and indiscrimate felling. Not- withstanding this, sixteen series or blocks have already been formed and twenty-one sections opened for felling. No working is allowed under any circumstances in forests not properly surveyed and demarcated. Two-thirds of the Knysna forests have yet to be so treated. It is estimated that these forests, even in their present condition, properly worked, will yield annually 1,200,000 cubic feet of squared timber valued at £15,000 at licence rates. KNYSNA WOODS. 141 per fomination. Poles running foot; running feetods found in the The tariffs for standing trees at present in force at Knysna vary from one penny to three pence per cubic foot of sound wood, with. one exception, Stinkwood, for which the rate is fixed at one shilling per foot, as this, the most valuable species, was threatened witlı extermination. Poles from six inches to ten inches in diameter are sold at one penny per running foot; spars from four inches to six inches in diameter, sixpence per 100 running feet. The following list includes the principal woods found in the Knysna forests. The weights and cost of working have been calculated by Messrs. J. Bisset, M.I.C.E., and Henry Hall, F.R.G.S.:- Common Name. Botanical Name. Weight of a cubic foot | (dry) in lbs. Cost of working Fir = 1. 1:35 1:35 2:00 :::::::: einen 1:6 2.0 1: 5 1:25 Upright Yellowwood Podocarpus latifolius. Outeniqua do. Do. elongatus .. Black Ironwood .. Olea laurifolia.. White do. .. Vepris lanceolata Stinkwood .. Oreodaphne bullata Olyvenhout (Olive Olea verrucosa .. Assegai .. .. Curtisia faginea .. White Pear Pterocelastrus rostratus.. Kersenout (Candle wood). . Do. variabilis .. Wit Els (White Alder) .. Platylophus trifoliatus .. Saffraan .. .. Elæodendron croceum .. Quar . Euclea undulata .. Vlier (Wild Elder) Nuxia floribunda Red Els (Red Alder) Cunonia Capensis Essenhout (Cape Ash) Eckebergia Capensis Hard Pear.. Olinea Capensis .. Beukenhout (Beech) Myrsine melanopleos .. Kamassi (Cape Box) Gonioma Kamassi White Wood ... Zybast . . . . Celastrus acuminatus Zwarthout .. Red Wood.. Ochna arborea Melkhout (Milk Wood) .. Mimusops obovata Red Pear.. .. Scalopia Ecklonii Zwart Bast (Black Bark).. Royena lucida .. Klip Els (Rock Alder) .. Plectonia mundtiana .. Terblantz .. .. .. Protea sp. 1.60 1:40 ::::::::::: e na 1.75 The great difficulty attending the preparation of all Colonial woods has been to overcome their excessive tendency to warp and 142 YELLOW-WOOD. crack when dried. It is hardly possible to successfully season wood in open yards, so dry is the climate, and so great the daily range of temperature. The question of the most suitable time for felling is therefore of the greatest moment, and has been carefully considered by Count de Vasselot, whose remarks on this subject are of considerable interest. He says :- I am of opinion that the period for felling all wood (in the Colony) should be between the 1st of April and the 31st of August, and that a felling season of three months is long enough for any species. Thus if a species be of late vegetation (as the assegai for instance in 1884). the cutting season might be limited from the 1st of May or even the 1st of June to the 31st of August; and in the same manner if species commence vegetation early, the season might be from the 1st of April to the 1st of July. (Selection and Seasoning of Wood. Count M. de Vasselot). Nearly 50 per cent, of the total yield of Colonial high timber forests consists of the two species of yellowwood (Podocarpus lati- folius and P. elongatus). Of these the former, or “Upright" has sometimes been called the “real” or true yellowwood, but its claim to such title is open to dispute. The name is derived from the Dutch “ opregte.” The latter, or Outeniqua yellowwood, attains larger dimensions than any other tree in the Colony. Its crown is massive, fre- quently sixty feet in diameter, and its trunk short and bifurcated. Upright yellowwood, on the contrary, has a comparatively light covert, and a greater length of bole. It is difficult to distinguish between the wood of these species; both are of a light-yellow colour, and very close grained, but the bark of the Upright is of a whitish appearance, and fibrous, whereas that of the Outeniqua is almust black, thin, and scaly. The largest Outeniquas measure thirty feet in girth and about eighty feet in height. Upright, though sometimes found with a clean bole of fifty feet, does not average more than six feet in girth. Both species have an equal commercial value, and may be regarded as the “ Colonial pine.” The economic career of yellowwood has been somewhat chequer- ed. The floorings, ceilings, doorways, and window sashes of many old Colonial homesteads were made of this wood, and in- stances are numerous of its having withstood the influences of wind and weather for upwards of a hundred and twenty years. Some of the piles used in constructing the old jetty at Knysna were of yellowwood, and for twenty years remained sound and untouched by the voracious teredo. On the other hand sleepers of unpickled yellowwood have been known to rot in the second year after they were laid down, and their average duration has not exceeded four or five years. In cases where reliable information has been forthcoming, it has CREOSOTING APPARATUS. 143 been ascertained that much of the wood giving unsatisfactory re- sults had been felled in Spring after the sap had risen, and employed in an utterly unseasoned condition. In one instance, green wood cut in summer had been coated with tar. The sap was thus shut in, evaporation prevented, and rot was the natural sequence. With results so variable, large consumers of timber have systematically avoided yellowwood, but it has been demonstrated that the wood has has not been fairly tried, and that failures have resulted not from any inherent defect, but from improper felling and carelessness in seasoning. In 1877 twenty-four railway sleepers were experimentally creo- soted in England, and laid in the Cape main line. For the pur- pose of examination, five were taken up in 1883, and found to be sound, and the remainder, half Upright and half Outeniqua, are still in the ground. Further experiments, made by Messrs. J. Bland & Co., of Cardiff, S. Wales, in 1883, demonstrated that yellowwood readily absorbs creosote, and is capable of resisting the various shocks and strains to which a railway sleeper is subjected, more effectually than the Baltic fir now principally in use. The success of these trials induced Government to purchase saw-mills at Gouna, near Knysna, and to erect a creosoting apparatus capable of turning out a sleeper supply sufficient for the whole Colony. This work has already been taken in hand by a special Government department. Contracts for 50,000 sleepers have been entered into, and a first shipment of 10,000 forwarded to Cape Town, creosoted and ready to lay down. Besides the creosoting method, experiments are also in progress for the protection of yellowwood by the injection of chloride of zinc, a process attended with marked success in Holland. The result of this extensive trial is awaited with considerable interest. If successful the Baltic sleeper will be superseded so far as Cape Colony is concerned; for her forests are well able to yield the supply necessary to maintain existing lines, and it is expected that other woods, notably Ironwood, will be found equal to the service. For 1886 requirements are estimated at 80,000 sleepers. Large sums have been annually voted by Parliament for forest conservation purposes with as yet but small return so far as revenue is concerned. If, however, Yellowwood proves itself the good wood its few friends believe it to be, and can be manufactured at a price to compete with Baltic fir, then the large amounts annually sent abroad, £83,000 in 1883, and £44,000 in 1884, for the purchase of sleepers may be retained within the Colony, and encouragement will be given for more extensive schemes of conservation. The most valuable timber grown in the Knysna forests is undoubtedly Stinkwood (Oreodaphne bullata). About one-eighth of the wood marked for felling in these forests consists of Stink- The procesetach of yelmethod, ex 144 STINKWOOD. ganic struc and has beroduces itse wood. In organic structure the wood bears a remarkable resem- blance to Burmah teak, and has been called the “ Teak” of South Africa. Stinkwood naturally reproduces itself with great facility from seeds and coppice shoots, but as a nursery tree its qualities have not been ascertained. Its growth is rapid : perhaps more rapid than that of any other indigenous tree in the Colony; as few as six annual rings of growth are frequently counted to the inch. Three distinct varieties are produced by this species,—white, mottled, and black, owing to different conditions of growth. When freshly worked a somewhat disagreeable odour is exhaled from the wood, but all unpleasantness quickly disappears. Stinkwood has been extensively used for building purposes and wagonmaking. The black variety is highly prized for cabinetmaking. It takes an excellent polish, and has a wavy irridescent appearance; otherwise it is not unlike walnut. Used as railway sleepers, Stinkwood has lasted ten or twelve years in the ground, but it has now become too valuable for the purpose. The high prices obtained for logs, and the former relatively low licence rate for felling, naturally led to a large trade in this wood to the neglect of other species, and to the detriment of the forests. Stinkwood was therefore fast dis- appearing, and in 1883 the licence was raised to one shilling per cubic foot, a higher rate than for any other Knysna woods. As with all Colonial woods the greatest care is necessary in seasoning Stinkwood. The climate of the country is such that the period of repose in vegetation is very short, and not easily deter- mined; the difficulty of taking trees at the moment they contain their minimum of sap is therefore correspondingly great. Added to this the extreme dryness of the atmosphere induces a too rapid evaporation of the moisture in the wood, and splits and cracks can only be avoided by the greatest care. A trial has been made to overcome these difficulties by immersing the wood in brackish water for three months. Three hundred logs intended for the con- struction of railway rolling stock, have been thus treated. The results so far appear satisfactory, but too short a time has elapsed to report fully on this process. When successful methods for its preparation have been discovered, and when the measures now adopted for restoring and improving the forests shall have pro- duced an increased supply, it is not too much to expect that Stink- wood will be used in the manufacture of all Colonial rolling stock, and the importation of this considerable item discontinued so far as the woodwork is concerned. The quantity of Stinkwood avail- able for felling in 1885 in the surveyed portions of the Knysna and Tzitzikama forests was 65,500 cubic feet, valued at licence rates at £3,132, and worth £11,500, delivered in Cape Town. The order JASMINACEÆ is represented in the Knysna and Tzitzi- kama forests by three principal varieties : Olea verrucosa (olive OLIVE-WOOD AND IRON-WOOD. 145 wood, or Olyvenhout); Olea laurifolia (Black Ironwood); and Olea faveolata (Bastard Irouwood). The wood commonly called white Ironwood (Vepris lanceolata) belongs to a totally different order, Xanthoxyleæ. Black Ironwood largely predominates, and constitutes about one-sixth of the contents of these forests. It is extremely hard, heavy, and difficult to work, and its economic uses in the Colony are few. For furniture, wagonmaking, and fencing poles a small quantity is consumed, but its testings as railway sleepers (uncreo- soted) have not been sufficiently encouraging to justify its extended use for this purpose. Trials have not yet been made of its durability when creosoted. They are, however, proposed, and if successful Ironwood will form a valuable supplement to Yellow- wood in this service, and the forests will be greatly benefited by the removal of large quantities of mature timber now simply rot- ting away. Under instructions from Sir John Coode, Ironwood has been experimented on for piles at Yarmouth (where only American Greenheart can endure), and of seven species of Cape hardwoods, excluding Sneezewood (Pteroxylon utile) which was not tried, it has best withstood the action of the sea-worm. On the Breakwater at Table Bay, it is used above water, but below is rapidly attacked by the teredo. Black Ironwood takes an excellent polish and is peculiarly marked. Selected logs might be exported with profit for the manufacture of mechanical appliances, engine-bearings, &c., re- quiring a hard, heavy, close-grained wood. Of other Knysna trees none attain the dimensions of those already described. For the most part they are hard, tough, close grained, and principally used in the construction of carts, wagons, agricultural implements and for fencing poles and furniture. For cabinetmaking of a high class, some Cape woods might be exported with advantage. Hard Pear, Wild Olive, Kersehout, Essenhout, Red and White Els are specially worthy of notice. For the requirements of the colonial wagon-making industry, the Knysna woods are admirably adapted, possessing all the toughness and elasticity necessary to withstand the perpetual shocks and strains occasioned by roads, in some localities of the very worst description. The ordinary load of a transport wagon is 10,000 lbs., and the usual team consists of sixteen oxen, though in some mountain passes a double team is required. In the Western Province, the Paarl and Worcester are centres of the wagon-making trade. In the prosperous years following the discovery of the Diamond Fields, hundreds of carts and wagons were sent away every month to Kimberley, the Transvaal, and Free State. Of late years the industry has considerably declined, partly owing to the railway 146 WOOD FOR ENGRAVING PURPOSES. the fir of eraria 2. N having in many districts superseded the primitive mode of convey- ance, and partly to the diminution of trade. Large numbers of the unique Cape cart, with fixed or folding hood, are, however, still manufactured. For strength, endurance, and comfort in travelling they are unequalled by any American imitations which have endeavoured to compete with them. Wagons are usually built in the hottest part of the year, and are thus able to withstand the severest droughts. At the Edinburgh Forestry Exhibition, it was ascertained that several Colonial hard woods might be advantageously used for engraving purposes. Specimens* were therefore prepared (cross sections, one inch thick), and forwarded to Messrs. C. and A. Young, engravers on wood, Ludgate Circus, and their report is as follows: KAMASSI (Gonioma Kamassi). Suitable for the finest mechanical engraving, such as machinery of all descriptions; also adapted for ordinary engraving purposes. QUAR (Euclea undulata). Nearly equal Kamassi, and quite suitable for ordinary engraving. REDWOOD (Ochna arborea). Very suitable for ordinary en- graving, also most excellent for wood type. SALIE WOOD (Buddleia salviæfolia). Quite suitable for the bolder kinds of engraving, also excellent for wood type. SAFFRAAN (Elæodendron croceum). Excellent for the large size of wood type, posters, and bold engraving generally. WHITE PEAR (Pterocelastrus rostratus). A good useful wood for all the larger kinds of engraving, wood type, posters, &c. With the exception of Saffraan, the trees mentioned in this list are under two feet in diameter. Some of them rarely exceed twelve inches in diameter, and are at the present time sold at the rate of one penny per running foot as poles. As their small size would pro- bably not militate against their usefulness for engraving purposes, and for the manufacture of mechanical appliances, such as weaver's shuttles, skate-rollers, &c., it is expected that further trials will lead to an export trade in these valuable woods to meet the demand for the ever diminishing supply of true box-wood. No estimate of the quantity of these woods is at present avail- able, as all trees under twelve inches in diameter, when marked for sale, have been indiscriminately described as “poles.” The num- ber is, however, considerable, and arrangements are in progress for the enumeration of each species. * Specimens were not tested of Cape Box (Gala-gala), probably a more valuable wood than any of those submitted. Its qualities will be mentioned in connexion with the Eastern forests of the Colony. EASTERN FORESTS. 147 The principal timber trees in the Eastern forests are :- Common Name. Botanical Name. ::::::: Sneezewood Upright Yellowwood Bastard do. Outeniqua do. White Ironwood Black do. Red Els .. Red Pear ... White Pear Hard Pear .. Thorn Pear Kafir Plum . Boerbone .. Kamdeboo Stinkwood Saffronwood Essenwood (Cape As Wild Olive.. Knobwood .. White Milkwood .. Cape Plane.. Beukenwood Red Milkwood Wild Lemon Assegai .. Paardepis, or Foul Leafwood Cape Box (Gala-gala) Black Bark or Swart Bast Guarri Red Currant Wild Chestnut ... Natal Mahogany, Blinkbar, or Wild Peach .. Red Stinkwood or Bitter Almond Septee Kajatenhout, or Cape Teak :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: Pteroxylon utile. Podocarpus latifolius. Do. pruinosus. Do. elongatus. Vepris lanceolata. Olea laurifolia. Cunonia Capensis. Scalopia Ecklonii. Pterocelastrus rostratus. Olinea Capensis. Scolopia Zeyheri. Harpephyllum Caffrum. Schotia latifolia. Celtis rhamnifolia. Elodendron croceum. Eckebergia Capensis. Olea verrucosa. Xanthoxylon Capense. Sideroxylon inerme. Ochna arborea. Myrsine melanopleos. Grumilia cymosa (?) Curtisia faginea. Hippobromus alata. Undetermined. Royena lucida. Euclea lanceolata. Euclea sp. Calodendron Capense. Brabejum stellatifolium ? Halleria elliptica. Atherstonea decussata. The forests in the East of the Colony are somewhat larger than: the Knysna forests, but less compact and less well known. They are naturally classified into mountain forests and coast forests. The bulk of the mountain forests lies North of King William's. Town, on the slopes of the two parallel ranges of the Perie and Amatola Mountains. In addition there are detached portions of 1 2 BOXWOOD, 149 places, notably in the neighbourhood of Alexandria and Bathurst, have been reduced to mere scrub. They are chiefly valuable for the Sneezewood and Boxwood* they contain. Only during the past year has the value of the latter wood been brought to notice, and Boxwood now bids fair to take its place as by far the most valuable wood in South Africa. The Box-producing country is. unfortunately limited at present to the south-east corner of the Colony in the neighbourhood of East London. The total area probably does not exceed fifteen or sixteen square miles, half of which is in the hands of private proprietors. "Until quite recently this valuable product has been sold as firewood at five shillings a. load on the East London market. The average diameter of Boxwood rarely exceeds a foot, and its length of bole twenty feet. An approximate calculation has been made of the Boxwood contained in the Crown forests of Fort Pato and Fort Grey, 7,000 and 12,000 acres in extent respectively. It is estimated that together they contain 361,400 cubic feet of serviceable wood of different sizes, besides an ample natural re-growth of young trees. Assuming 35 cubic feet to weigh a ton, by which weight the wood is sold, the stock in these forests may be considered roughly 10,000 tons, and, at a price of £20 per ton in the rough log, should be worth £200,000 on the English market. Or if, in order to maintain a continued supply and to keep up natural reproduction, one-fortieth part of the stock be annually felled, a revenue of £5,000 per annum should be derived by the Colony from these two small forests alone. The total area producing Boxwood should yield more than double that amount. Kamassi wood, which, as previously mentioned, grows abundantly at Knysna, is in many respects similar, and by some declared superior to the Boxwood of East London. Together it is hoped these woods may in some measure meet the decreasing supply of hardwoods referred to above. The Conservator of King William's Town is assisted by a staff of six European foresters and four native forest guards. Each forester is stationed in the forest of which he has charge, and besides the ordinary police and inspection duties required of him as well as of similar officers at the Knysna, he is entrusted with the management of a nursery, two or more acres in extent, adjoining his cottage. Each forester is expected to raise 40,000 young trees during the year for planting out on bare patches it is desirable to re-forest. * The genus of this tree has not been determined by Cape Botanists. It has many characteristics of Buxaceae, a genus not hitherto recognised at the Cape. Species of true Burus are found in Madagascar and in tropical Africa, and this may prove to be a new species. 7150 WESTERN FOREST DIVISION. from, at Clamo valuable restraines The Western Divisions of Cape Colony contain little forest of · any kind. There are, however, large areas of Crown Land which furnish firewood and grazing, and these are under the immediate supervision of a Conservator and staff of rangers. The most im- portant work in this Division is in connection with Plantations, which have been begun on an extensive scale. In the District of Swellendam there exists a small area of indi- genous woodland about 900 acres in extent, and though nominally under the control of the Forest Department, it is unsurveyed, and no measures have as yet been taken for its systematic management. The species contained in this forest are similar to those of Knysna, and the wood is considered equally serviceable for wagon making : and kindred industries. The most noteworthy indigenous tree now found in the Western Division is the Berg Cypress or Cedar (Widdringtonia juniperoides), which grows in the mountains of Clanwilliam. In former times the whole of the Cedar Berg range was studded with these trees, ? but conflagrations and the unrestrained use of the axe have well nigh decimated these valuable forests. All the internal woodwork of the church at Clanwilliam and of numerous homesteads is of Cedar from the neighbouring mountains. Sir John Alexander reports that in 1836 a tree was cut down measuring 36 feet in girth, and furnishing 1,000 feet of planking. In quality the wood is said to be equal to the Scriptural Cedar of Lebanon. The specimens remaining are of small growth and scattered over an area of about thirty miles amongst the abrupt mountain crags and kloofs of the Cedar Bergen, snow-capped in winter. The reproduction of this tree from seed has been successfully accomplished in the Government nurseries to be subsequently spoken of. With the exception of Pinus insignis so successfully introduced :at Graham's Town, the only pines thoroughly acclimatised in the Cape Colony are Pinus pinaster (Pin maritime of France) and Pinus pinea (Stone Pine of Italy), and nowhere do they flourish .so well as on the Cape Peninsula. The Pine woods stretching along the fertile strip of country on the south-east slopes of Table Mountain constitute a remarkable feature in the landscape. Both -species reproduce themselves with che greatest facility, and under old trees in favoured localities, young Pines come up like grass. Cape Town and its suburbs are supplied with firewood from these plantations, and the wood, though excellent in quality, is rarely applied to other uses. The Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus) was first introduced into Cape Colony in 1828. Plants from Australian seed were raised in Mauritius by Sir Lowry Cole when Governor of that island, and on being transferred to Cape Town in the above-mentioned year spo With the Town, thus pinasty), and 10 Pin DRIFT SANDS. 151 , and Wing, and cons girth at there growth hence of he brought a number of seedlings with him. Nine only survived the voyage, and were planted in the Governor's garden. Of these two are still standing, and consequently are about 58 years old. The largest measures 19 feet in girth at 3 feet from the ground. Its height is not more than 95 feet, further growth having been stopped, as with all trees in these gardens, by the violence of the wind. Perhaps the most completely acclimatised forest tree is the Oak (Quercus pedunculata) introduced by the earliest Dutch settlers. This tree has become naturalised in all the more temperate portions of the Colony, though the climate is undoubtedly warmer than in its European habitat. It bears acorns regularly and very abundantly, and is freely reproduced from self-grown seedlings. It is easily transplanted, and but little care is ordinarily taken to ensure success. In many towns of the Western Province the streets are planted with oaks. At Stellenbosch and Paarl they have attained very large dimensions, and the cool shade afforded by their giant arms is the delight of the villagers and a lasting monument of the enterprise and forethought of Governor van der Stell, who planted them. Cape Town also has its leafy avenue of oaks which, planted 200 years ago, had fallen somewhat into decay. Its restoration has been undertaken by the Forest Depart- ment, and a sum of £400 has already been expended on pruning and re-planting. The fixation of the ever-shifting belt of sand constituting the isthmus between False and Table Bays, for many years occupied the attention of Government, and the importance of the work was augmented by the construction of the main railway line from Cape Town across the sand at its most unsettled point. The sand sup- ply is derived from False Bay, and blown inshore by the strong south-east gales prevailing in summer. Previous to 1877, rows of bush screens were erected across the wind, and seeds sown between them. This method was wholly unsuccessful. The screens were blown down, the seeds hopelessly buried, and the sands continued their way without interruption. In the above mentioned year, at the instigation of Mr. Lister, the present Conservator of the Western Forest Division, a railway siding was constructed from D’Urban Road station, nine miles from Cape Town, right into the heart of the drifts, and along this the street refuse of Cape Town was deposited daily. In this manner about 1,500 tons of manure were supplied monthly for about five years, a great portion of which has been carted away and spread over the sand hills. In the drifts thus temporarily arrested, a mixture of seed was sown composed of Pyp Grass (Ehrhartia gigantea), Australian Black Wattle (Acacia Saligna), Hakea Suareolens, and two varieties of Pine (P. Pinaster and P. 152 DRIFT SANDS. averas to the rom the Pssful, Pinea). The success of this method has been complete, and the sandy wastes in the vicinity of the railway, in area about four miles, are now clothed with a luxuriant growih of grass and trees. with an almost park-like appearance. Pyp grass grows readily and quickly, fixing the sand until such time as the more effective trees spring up. The more difficult portions have cost about £6 per acre to reclaim, but the average of the entire area does not exceed £2 per acre. A return equal to the interest on the money thus invested may now safely be drawn from the plantation. The Pines have not been altogether successful, but the Black Wattle (A. Saligna) could not apparently have found a more con- genial home. The trees first planted are now eight years old, and where special care has been given to their cultivation, some measure five feet in girth at one foot from the ground, where the branches bi-furcate. Self-sown seedlings spread rapidly, and in a few years the entire area will doubtless be covered with this valu- able wood, and a handsome revenue may be looked for. The bark is highly esteemed by tanners, who pay for it £7 10s. per ton, dry, and for fuel the wood is far superior to the fir, now almost universally consumed. The percentage of tannin yielded by this Wattle has not been definitely ascertained in the Colony, but it is supposed to be not inferior to the Australian yield, viz., 30 per cent. The entire isthmus between Table Bay and False Bay ap- pears to be admirably adapted for the cultivation of Australian tannin-producing Acacias. Special prizes are offered by Govern- ment for the cultivation of these sandy flats, and private enterprise- is now being directed, though somewhat languidly, to meet an in- creasing want of tanning material. Acacia Glaucophylla is also extensively grown, and A. melanoxylon has been very successfully introduced. The latter variety has, however, been almost entirely eradicated, and its planting discouraged, owing to its ready attack by the Dorthesia or Australian Bug. * PLANTATIONS. In 1876 a stimulus was given to tree-cultivation by the passing of an Act, whereby public bodies were aided by Government to the extent of one-half their expenditure on such work, and £1,000 is annually voted for the purpose. In the same year an experimental fuel plantation, principally Blue Gum, was com- menced by Government at Worcester, about 100 miles from Cape Town. The area of this plantation is 80 acres, and it contains about 40,000 well grown poles; many of them, now ten years old, *To the ravages of this past the Colony is indebted for the loss of many of her finest orange groves in the neighbourhood of Wellington, Stellenbosch, and Piquetberg. The Dorthesia has been described in the United States, where it also destroys orange trees, as Icerya Purchasi. According to the reports of Professor McCoy, of the Mel. bourne Museum, it is undoubtedly a native of Victorin, Australia. PLANTATIONS. 153 are five feet six inches in girth, and all nearly 100 feet high. The annual increment is calculated to be eleven tons of dry wood per acre. A similar plantation, eight acres in extent, was commenced, and is now flourishing, at Beaufort West, but the scarcity of water, and the brak (saline) nature of the soil rendered the work too costly to be continued. The success of the Worcester plantation has lead to the forma- tion of nurseries and plantations at Tokai, on the Table Mountain range near Constantia, and at Ceres Road. At Tokai plants have been raised of about 150 species of extra-tropical trees, of which the seeds have been imported from all the warm-temperate countries of the world. There are 33 varieties of Eucalypts, and about 20 varieties of Pines. The Oak (Q. pedunculata), and Camphor Tree, acclimatised for upwards of 200 years, are exten- sively propagated. Nearly a million tree-plants are now flourishing in these nurseries. It is proposed to re-forest the whole of Table Mountain, and in two seasons nearly 1,000 acres have been planted. At Ceres Road an area of about 3,000 acres bordering the railway is in process of re-foresting. In one season 500 acres have been planted with 105,000 trees, comprising 75 species.- Special attention is given to the cultivation of Jarrah (E, marginata), and Camphor Tree, which are expected to prove most useful in railway works. DISTRIBUTION OF PLANTS AND SEEDS. This is an important function of the Forest Department in the Western Division. In four years, 1882-85, fully a quarter of a million plants have been distributed throughout the colony from the Worcester nurseries, at an almost nominal rate; and in two seasons Tokai has supplied the public with 140,000 plants. Of seeds, 19,000 pounds weight have been disposed of in four years, consisting principally of Pinus pinea, P. pinaster, and Acacia saliyna. A large proportion is supplied gratis to perpetual lease- holders of certain Crown lands. With such machinery at work, and with a growing appreciation of the utility of tree-planting and forest conservation, it is con- fidently hoped that the efforts of Government in this direction, will, in future years, render the colony independent of foreign markets for her timber supply. THE CAPE AS A HEALTH RESORT. THE CAPE PENINSULA. By C. Lawrence Herman, M.B. ; M.C.; M.R.C.S. Though the Cape olimate has already for a long time enjoyed a reputation for its salubrity, and many travellers have been warm in their praises of its health-giving properties, it is incomprehensible that so little is known in Europe of its advantages as a resort for invalids, “even by our best physicians."* The South African Medical Association, with a view to placing on record some definite and reliable information on the subject, appointed a committee, with the sanction of the Colonial Govern- ment, to collect and collate information dealing with this impor- tant subject. Circulars were sent to medical men all over the Colony asking for assistance, and a large number of replies were elicited, containing most valuable information. The space allotted in the Handbook to this subject unfortunately renders it impossible to do more than give a few extracts from some of these replies. It will be sufficient, however, to say that they were of a uniformly favourable character, and establish incontestably the beneficial effects of this climate on invalids suffer- ing from chest affections. The appended reports, necessarily very brief, written by gentle- men who have a practical knowledge of the districts they describe, and using the information obtained in reply to the committee's circular, may serve as a guide to the most important areas into which, for purposes of description, it has been found necessary to divide the Colony. It must be remembered that over so extensive an area, presenting such varied physical features, high mountains, low-lying valleys, elevated table lands interpersed by patches of desert here and there, the climate must needs vary very considerably in different parts, and it is necessary therefore carefully to examine the meteorological circumstances of each area before recommending invalids to take up their residence in any particular locality. The seasons here are not so well marked as in Europe. Spring merges into summer, and there is little change between autumn and winter. Christmas time sees us at the Cape in nearly mid- summer. Spring is a most delightful season, when glad nature * Dr. Harry Leech, Notes on South Africa for Invalids. is little chancape in neard nature THE CAPE PENINSULA. 155 rejoices, and the earth is covered with the greenest verdure, crop after crop of the most beautiful flowers succeed each other, covering the veldt on every side, as far as the eye can reach with a red, white, or yellow carpet. The heat is nowhere excessive, and though the direct rays of the sun, particularly in summer, may be very great, yet the peculiar dryness and rarefaction of the atmosphere render it easily bearable. In some of the deep-lying valleys where the motionless air becomes heated by the large mountain masses, the heat is in summer oppres- sive, but the actual heat is at no time excessive. Taking as an example Kimberley, notably one of the warmest places in the Colony, we find the absolute maximum temperature during 1882: For January..........105.5 February .... 101:3 March 94.2 April . 91.5 May ...... 79.1 June ............ 75.0 For July ............ 75.6 August .......... 85.0 September ...... 92:7 October.......... 96:0 November ...... 97.5 December ........101:0 Yet there is no place in the Colony whose people have more ceaseless activity, or more restless energy. Europeans work here all day, heedless of the heat. The day is characterised by a maximum of sunlight, a balmy, buoyant atmosphere with a clear cloudless sky of the purest blue, and a cool night succeeds a warm day. În former years, before the opening of the Suez Canal, the Cape was the favoured resort for invalids from India. It was the winter season that evoked their enthusiasm. Dr. Stovell, writing in the Bombay Medical Journal, eays: "No climate in the world could be more agreeable to the feelings—and very few more beneficial for the usual class of Indian invalids than a Cape winter. There is an invigorating freshness about this season equally delightful and beneficial; the moment the rain ceases, the clouds rapidly clear away and the sky remains bright for several days.” The total mean annual temperature is 61.26 F. in the shade, a remarkable approach to the mean annual temperature of England, 62º, and when to this fact is added the peculiar characteristics of the Cape climate, the excessive dryness, clearness, and rarefaction of the atmosphere, with a maximum of sunlight, a series of condi- tions of an almost typical character are met with for the treatment of pulmonary affections. The peculiar dryness of vur climate, while it gives it such valuable properties for invalids suffering from pulmonary disease, is, as Dr. W. H. Ross remarks, “ the cause at once of all our woes and our wants. The periodical and long-continued droughts have made 156 CAPE HEALTH RESORTS. all agricultural speculations a mere matter of reliance on St. Swithin ; while the gradual denudation of the soil by bush-fires, and careless cutting down of trees, has intensified the action of the sun and the desert winds. The greater part of our colonial land is glazed with baked clay, from which the water runs off as fast as it falls. There is nothing to retain moisture and allow of slow filtration, and except in the neighbourhood of the Knysna and George forests, and the few miles of territory that are moderately well wooded, there is really no certainty as to water supply.” Such being the broad characteristics of the Cape climate, it is easy to see what class of patients will be most benefited by a sojourn here. The rainy seasons vary in different parts, so that the invalid need find no difficulty in travelling from place to place to avoid the wet. In the most advanced cases, it would be best to winter on the plains and pass the summer in the cooler and more elevated mountain lands of the interior; but in less marked conditions the coast need not be left, as the late Dr. Harry Leech (Medical Officer for the port of London) remarks in his “ Notes on S. Africa for invalids:"- “I can safely say that even the air of Wynberg on the one side, and of Green and Sea Points on the other side of Cape Town, are very good atmospheres for invalids, and indeed far better than can be found at most times of the year at any so-called Sanitaria in the United Kingdom or the Continent of Europe. Even for the invalid who does not care, or is not able, to go beyond the precincts of Cape Town, a residence in the Wynberg district during the summer (Cape summer) and at Sea Point during the winter months, will avoid the disagreeable circumstances that obtain on both sides of the capital at certain seasons of the year.” The prevalent diseases are those of Europe ; epidemic disease is rare. There is no ague, or yellow fever, nor has cholera ever visited our shores, and hydrophobia is unknown. Cases of chronic lung disease are infrequently met with among the European population, and acute lung disease is not attended with so much danger as in Europe; even infants a few weeks old recover from severe attacks of bronchitis which would invariably have proved fatal in Europe. The fevers are of a mild type, and are seldom followed by sequelæ. Diseases of a parasitic nature are rare, and Hydatids are infrequent. Rheumatisms and neuralgiæ are common, due to some extent, doubtless, to the large amount of meat consumed, and perhaps also to a diluted malarial influence. Whilst all pulmonary affections are benefited by a residence in this climate, it cannot be too earnestly recommended that cases sent out here should be carefully picked; frequently invalids THE CAPE PENINSULA. 157 suffering from pulmonary phthisis arrive here in the last stages of their complaint, and are landed only to die. To derive any real benefit they must arrive early, and to effect any lasting ameliora- tion in their condition it is advisable for them to take up residence here for a considerable period; in fact, they must be encouraged to make this country their home. Sufferers from bronchial and asthmatic affections derive great benefit here. Where there is any marked hereditary phthisical tendency, a residence is most strongly to be recommended, particularly in the case of children. In other conditions of debilitating and wasting disease, much benefit will be derived from travelling in our equable climate; and a convalescence from a serious illness can be most profitably spent by voyaging to the Cape, spending a short time here, and then returaing. The voyage to the Cape has justly become famed as one of the most pleasant and enjoyable it is possible to make, and the great ocean steamers of the Cape lines have become celebrated for their comfort and punctuality. Provided with every necessary and every comfort, each carrying a surgeon, they touch, either outward or homeward, at Lisbon, Madeira, St. Helena, and sometimes Ascension, and accomplish the voyage to Cape Town in somewhat less than three weeks. Cape Town is the most convenient place for the invalid to land at; it is provided with the best means of communication with the interior.“ In all the world,” says Mr. Froude, in his Oceana, “there is no place so beautifully situated.” The sanitary condition of the town itself is unfortunately not over good, though vastly improved in the last year or two. Hotels and private boarding- houses are numerous, and everything obtainable in the European towns can be got here. It is advisable, however, for the invalid suffering from distinct pulmonary disease not to tarry too long in Cape Town, but to select a locality to proceed up-country, and by rail in six, twelve, twenty-four, or thirty-six hours he can comfort- ably, in a Pullman car, be transported hundreds of miles at very small expense and without any discomfort. The cost of living fluctuates very much and differs considerably in different localities, but on the whole it is not more expensive than in England. Luxuries are dear, and servants bad, but the ordinary necessaries of life are cheap and plentiful. In the western parts of the colony fruit is very plentiful. House rent is generally high, and the accommodation as a rule is not perfect. The hotels and boarding-houses are open to improve- ment, particularly up-country. A great stride would be made if a good sanitorium for invalids was established on European principles. 158 CAPE HEALTH RESORTS. GRAHAM'S TOWN AND THE EASTERN DISTRICTS. By the Hon. W. GUYbon ATHERSTONE, M.D., F.R.C.S., F.G.S. This area may be said to include all that portion of the Cape Colony between the main chains of mountains and the seaboard to the eastward of the 26th parallel of longitude ; the home, in fact, of the British Settlers of 1820 and their descendants. It is divided, as are the southern and western parts of the Colony, into three terraces, separated by mountain ranges running parallel to the coast. Ist. A coast plateau extending to the base of the first moun- tain range, about 1,000 feet altitude, embracing the districts of Alexandria, Bathurst, Peddie, East London, and Komgha. 2nd. The midland terrace, between the altitudes of 1,000 and 2,500 feet, comprising Albany, Somerset, Bedford, Fort Beaufort, Victoria East, Stockenstrom, and King William's Town. 3rd. The upper plateau, from 2,500 to 5,000 feet above the sea, in which are situated the districts of Cradock, Tarkastad, Queen's Town, Stutterheim, Cathcart, Wodehouse and Aliwal North. The climate of this important and interesting part of the Colony is as varied as the physical character of its fiscal sub- divisions are diversified in altitude, soil, vegetation, geological for- mation, and capacity for absorbing and retaining or throwing off the rainfall, and thus affecting the moisture or dryness of the climate, and its range of temperature,—the chief meteorological factors in considering the claims of particular localities for selection as health resorts. In these three terraces, we have thus a coast climate, warm and moist and equable, its winter cold moderated by the warm sea ; a midland climate, cooler and drier and more genial, but with a greater range of temperature, due to its altitude and the greater amount of evaporation from diminished pressure, its mean range varying from 189 to 20°; and a mountain climate drier still, and more bracing, but with much greater extremes of temper- ature, cold nights and hot days, the mean range being more than double that of the lower or coast plateau. Taking Port Elizabeth, Graham's Town, and Aliwal North as representing the three types of climates, the following, taken from tables compiled by the Cape Astronomer-Royal in 1881, of four years observations, 1876 to 1879, will justify these remarks, which are also substan- tially borne out by later and more complete tables compiled by the Meteorological Department. ee 2 3 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 18 19 20 SOUTH AFRICA. DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL IN THE YEAR From the Averages of Available Observations Scale of Eng. Miles CARA 20 KIMBERLEY Pella Port 20 Nolloth 9 27 BLOEMEONTEIN HOW Kenhardt Milli12 rahisi Var Hope Town 14 MWM Al 30 tranno V ky Norti 22 USUM AUTAS Woo wel sunt power eller Callvin Calvinia Me Sem 1296 1 Fraserburgo Vues ang ASSE TH 10 PEN Ano Harmatpost IN the country inexiliama tiba diena Sine William's Town LO DRO nesAlbert illowmore Willowmore 29 . East London Grahamstown Qudtshogi 125 CAPE TOWN es 2 BREITA in YENYE SPORT Trop iane DAR PORT ELIZABETH Wellendam 716 Aliwal s. Melville Under 6 Inches Between 6 and 18 Inches. O , 18 , 30 30 42 . 42, 54 Over 54 Inches IN 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 30 THE EASTERN DISTRICTS. 159 TEMPERATURE. Rain saturation Humidity Complete --100. Amount | in inches. No. of days on which rain fell. (E) 1879. 1. Coast plateau. Mean Mean Mean Absol Absol of of Mean temp. max. min. max. min. range Wind. Summer | 66.8 | 94.5 Winter 59' 5 97-5 1. Port Elizabeth alt. 180 ft. 48.5 | 75.0 43'0 67.4 60:4 | 14:6 533 141 19.99 S.E 49 NE. & W.N. 2. MIDLAND. Graham's Town alt. 1800 ft. Summer Winter 63:1 / 99.0 53'1 82-0 44. 0 743 56.6 350 637 50-9 177 | 74 i 12-8 77 29 59 S.W. WSW 77 3. MOUNTAIN, Aliwal North ... alt. 4330 ft. Summer | 674 102:0 41.0 48.8 847 24 0 882 626 558 34:41 384 342 771 22 88 89 N.W. Summer 697 Winter 49 3 101'0 33'0 853 549 | 304 44 ) 845 | 23'0 | 668 | 392 | 2706 | 73 | 14! 18:35 3. MOUNTAIN, Colesberg Bridge alt. 3600 ft. 69 S.E. 69 S.E. 1. Coast (W) Wynberg... ... alt. 250 ft. Summer 63:8 960 Winter | 5503 | 920 42 0 762 41.5 | 664 652 11.0 492 | 17.2 75 34 02 34.62 92! | S.E. 92N .W . perts also hairy tes"HD The East It will be seen that Graham's Town has the lowest mean temperature in summer, and the smallest range in winter, and the largest rainfall, which occurring in summer cools the heat, and explains its low temperature. The humidity is also less than at Port Elizabeth, although the rainfall is į more (nearly 30 inches to 20 inches, at the coast station ;) whilst the dry winter reduces the range to 12.8, that of Port Elizabeth 14:1. The character of the vegetation, soil, and geological formation exerts also a considerable influence on climate and health. The rank luxuriant hairy grass is generally met with in the coast lands, and on the “ Zuurberg” Mountains, hence named “ Zuur veldt” or “ Sour grass” country. The greater part of Lower Albany, Alexandria, Bathurst, Peddie, East London and Keiskama to Fort Beaufort, is of this character. It is far less nutritive than the grass of the middle terrace which is generally “sweet grass," or alkaline bush, the rock formation being shales or conglomerate, rich in alkalies and lime. Stock from this country sent down to the coast lands often sicken and die from the change, gorging them- selves on the coarse grass which requires twice the quantity to give the same amount of nutriment. A mixed herbage is met with on the mountains of the upper terraces, a luxuriant red grass, highly nutritious; and on the plains the stunted karoo shrubs, bitter and alkaline, or a mixture of both, called “gebroken veldt;” and in some parts the mimosa thorns, always an indicative of good country for stock. The special advantages of the climate of each district for indivi- CENTRAL KARROO DISTRICTS. 161 that there is no comparison between the clear, dry, invigorating climate of this part of the Colony, and the warm, moist, relaxing heat of Madeira, which has hitherto enjoyed the monopoly of a sanitarium for chest complaints. During my professional life of 45 years in Graham's Town, I have known cases of consumption far advanced completely recover, and even phthisical cavities have cicatrised, and the progress of the disease has been entirely checked when confined to one lung. I have known also cases of hereditary consumption completely eliminated from the system by a prolonged residence in the drier inland parts of the Colony; and I can confidently state, that if the unhappy victim of hereditary consumption were to be sent out to this Colony three or four years before the expected period of attack (as shewn by the history of other members of the family), and kept here in some favourable locality until three or four years after that age, there would be every chance of the hereditary taint being entirely eliminaied from the system. In most cases the patient returns home too soon after he feels him- self well, and the irritative matter in the air of his native climate lights up again the dormant germs of his old complaint. THE CENTRAL KARROO DISTRICTS. By H. W. SAUNDERS, M.B., LonD., F.R.C.S., Eng. The plateau of the “ Karroo” or “Great Karroo " is a vast tract of country in the Western and Midland Provinces of South Africa, lying between the Roggeveld and Nieuwveld mountains on the north, and the Zwarteberg mountains on the south, and extending from the Hantam in Calvinia District to Sunday's River in the Graaff-Reinet District, that is, over five degrees of longitude. It includes, for the purposes of a general description, the fiscal Divisions of Tulbagh, Worcester, Prince Albert, Beaufort West, Murraysburg, Willowmore, Aberdeen, Jansenville, part of Somerset East, Cradock and Graaff-Reinet. The approximate average level of the Karroo is about 3,000 feet above sea level. To shew the gradual rise to the north we may give the approximate heights of the chief towns, viz. :-Tulbagh, 400 feet; Worcester, 780; Ceres, 1,700; Prince Albert, 2,100; Beaufort West, 2,850; Aberdeen, 2,400; Somerset East, 2,400; Graaff-Reinet, 2,500; Murraysburg, 3,800; Cradock, 2,856. The average height of the Nieuwveld, Roggeveld and Zwartberg mountains may be taken at 5,000 feet, but some of the peaks rise over 7,000 feet. The climate of the Great Karroo is characterised by its extreme 162 CAPE HEALTH RESORTS. dryness, severe and prolonged droughts occurring at intervals, whilst at the best seasons rains seldom fall. The temperature is intensely hot in summer, much more bear- able, however, than an equivalent heat in a moister atmosphere, and the nights are cool, at least on the plains, away from the im- mediate vicinity of the mountains. The skies in summer are mostly of brass, unclouded, except by the cirrus of heat on the horizon. Winds in summer are not infrequent, but they are mostly from the north and north-west, and having passed over or perhaps originated in the desert, are comparable to the simoon on a small scale, bringing great clouds of red dust with them, and feeling as if coming from an oven; they seldom blow long. Some plaees nearer the coast come under the influence of the south-east trades, such as Tulbagh, Prince Albert, Worcester, &c. Thunderstorms are not very frequent, but are often of great violence, and often follow in the wake of the north-west winds; in a few hours vast tracts of country may be transformed into temporary lakes, and great damage is done by the bursting of dams and overflow of rivers at these times. The winter is characterised by very cold nights and early morn- ings, with several hours of bright, sunny weather between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m., or thereabouts. The air is remarkably clear, bright and bracing; yet, except in the higher parts of the Karroo, a fire in the sitting room is generally a luxury rather than a necessity, although often acceptable in the evenings. Snow generally falls on the mountains, and sometimes on the higher plains; but for the most part no snow lies in the plains of the Karroo proper--Beaufort, and especially Murraysburg and Cradock, being exceptions. The winter of the Karroo is, in the writer's opinion, the best season for pulmonary invalids; but, unfortunately, it is just the time at which none such arrive, coinciding as it does with the European summer. Of this more will be said hereafter. Taken as a whole, the air of the Karroo may be considered to present some, at least, of the features of mountain air, of which, according to Dr. Weber, the main physical features should be :- 1. Purity; comparative absence of floating matter. 2. Dryness of air and soil. 3. Coolness or coldness of air temperature and great warmth of sun temperature. 4. Rarefaction. 5. Intensity of light. 6. Stillness of air in winter. 7. A large amount of ozone. In winter all these features are present in greater or less per- CENTRAL KARROO DISTRICTS, 163: fection, but in summer the great heat, the prevalence of winds, often dust-bearing and very hot, and other drawbacks, often lead to lassitude and loss of appetite ; there is further the impossibility, except in the robust, of taking the amount of exercise and out-door life demanded by the disease; further, the inadequate ventilation found in most of the houses renders in-door life unhealthy. The most feasible escape from these drawbacks is, in my opinion, to get to the mountain heights in the summer; up to the present time this has not been practicable from the want of any accom- modation for invalids, but steps are being taken to supply this. want. For instance, Dr. Davey, of Beaufort West, is now recommend- ing in the Lancet, a comfortable home with & Scotch family on the "Nieuwveld Mountains.” The summit of the pass now in course of construction over the Zwartberg Mountains, from Prince Albert, is also highly recommended by my friend, Dr. Mearns, of that village, having the advantages of ozone-laden winds in summer from the sea, a plentiful supply of pure mountain water from & beautiful stream at hand, and a view over the fertile district of Oudtshoorn; hence also a short excursion leads one to the beautiful stalactite caves of the Cango. If sufficient encouragement could be given, no doubt properly constructed institutions could be es- tablished under medical supervision at these and other favourable spots, and the Karroo would then offer the invalid an all-the-year round residence which would compare with advantage with that in any part of the world—the summer to be spent in the moun- tains, the winter on the plains—thus fulfilling the indications now greatly and wisely insisted upon, namely, an uninterrupted residence in and about the same locality. Nothing has astonished the writer more than the hap-hazard manner in which consumptive patients are bundled off to South Africa without regard to the phase of the disease, peculiarities. of temperament, or the appropriateness of the climate ; and the ignorance displayed of the varieties of climate in South Africa, would be laughable, if its consequences were not often so sad. Probably within the bounds of the Colony we possess climates. more varied than can be found in any equivalent area in Europe, and yet the formula suffices, “go to the Cape.” The wet season- on the south and south-western coast, for example, is the winter; on the eastern seaboard it is the summer. Too often invalids act at their own or friends' instigation, having an instinctive preference for a warm climate, or attracted by the reputation of “the Cape;" but still more frequently the medical attendant or even the consulting physician is equally care- less or ignorant in this respect, and either sends incurable and unsuitable cases to die far away from friends and the comforts of lence who would mision at the institutionas M 2 164 CAPE HEALTH RESORTS. home, or having selected an appropriate case sends the patient, without any precise instructions, to take his chance. Even Dr. Weber in his recent Croonian Lectures has fallen into error about South Africa. He advises patients to travel up-country by ex-wagon from Wynberg or Grahamstown. Considerable astonishment would be caused by this method of travelling in a country, all, or nearly all, the chief towns of which are now either on or near lines of railway, and even Bloemfontein is little more than a day's journey from the present terminus at Kimberley. No doubt the cpportunities of acquiring precise information regarding these points are extremely meagre; neither the countless popular books of travel, nor even the writings of the late Dr. Harry Leach and others, are to be relied upon as accurate, and it was the intention of the medical profession here to compile a medical handbook for the Cape (with full particulars of each district and village) for the Indian and Colonial Exhibition, but it was found that the time allotted was too short; but this is a desideratum we may shortly hope to see supplied. As Dr. Weber says, the influence of long standing routine mostly guides the practitioner when he selects the most appropriate climate for consumption, the idea of this being ultimately associated as regards treatment with that of warm climates. The formula is “choose the warmest climate accessible," and so one locality is chosen above another on account of an insignificant difference in the mean heat of the year or season. These premises, that cold favours the formation and development of tubercle and that heat deters them, rest upon no proof, and a reaction has set in in some quarters, resulting in an opposite theory, viz., that cold climates should be exclusively employed. These extremes have produced as a resultant the theory of altitude as the great preven- tative and curative of phthisis. Dr. Jaccond's writing on this subject is diffuse and somewhat difficult to follow, but his argument condensed is to this effect:- -“That, seeing that alike in very hot and very cold climates phthisis is very prevalent, whilst there are numerous elevated places in the Andes, Switzerland, Silesia, &c., where at a certain altitude con- sumption is almost unknown, one is inclined to favour the altitude theory. This altitude varies for different places according to conditions of temperature. The altitude which preserves at one region will not do so at another, which at the same height has a warmer temperature.” If this theory be applied to the Karroo, it is doubtful whether on account of the latitude, any altitude obtainable on the plains, comes up to the standard of requirement, and it is pretty certain that there is no region in which absolute immunity from phthisis amongst the native born inhabitants can be claimed. Nevertheless CENTRAL KARROO DISTRICTS. 165 The writer knows from the experience of a three years' residence, and from communications from various medical men in these: districts, that phthisis, especially tubercular phthisis, is almost unknown in many parts. The study of the whole question shows decisively the healthful influence of life in the open air; so that with an agricultural or pastoral people, the lower limit of protection descends, and vice versa sedentary occupations cause it to ascend. It might be inferred that the protection conferred by altitude is illusory, and that the result depends upon mode of life-yet this would be a complete error, since the most favourable mode of life, that of an agricultural population, is powerless against the effects of low altitudes. The climatic conditions which are associated in South Africa with an altitude which confers immunity from phthisis, are chiefly a temperature cold in winter and cool in summer, the winds having a special direction at fixed times during summer, and scarcely existing in winter, and a complete pureness of air. These conditions, plus a high altitude, give us the type of climates which are tonic and stimulant, i.e., curative. I believe they may be found at several places in the manner already hinted at, viz., a residence on the summit of the mountain ranges in summer and on the plains in winter, if the cold be found too severe in the higher altitude. The forms of consumption in which altitude climates are advisable are thus summed up by Dr. Hermann Weber :- 1. Hereditary and acquired tendency to phthisis. 2. The so-called “phthisical habitus.” 3. All conditions comprised by the term “phthisis,” excepting cases which are described as non-suitable, e.g.:-. (a) Patients of the irritable constitution at any stage of the disease. (6) Very advanced phthisis. (c) Phthisis com- plicated by emphysema. (d) Phthisis complicated by albuminuria. (e) Phthisis complicated by disease of the heart. (1) Phthisis complicated with ulceration of the larynx. (9) Phthisis complicated with rapid progress and constant fever.. (h) Phthisis complicated with great loss of weight. (i) Phthisis complicated with considerable em- pyema. (j) Phthisis in persons who cannot sleep or eat at high stations, or feel the cold too severely. A tendency to Hæmoptysis was formerly regarded as forbidding mountain climates, but this is now regarded as an error; it is said, in fact, that it occurs less frequently in these high regions; never- theless, in such cases, considering the remarkable call made upon the circulatory and pulmonary systems by a sudden change to a highly rarefied atmosphere, it would, I think, be better, as a matter 1166 CAPE HEALTH RESORTS. of prudence, when there is a great tendency to Hæmoptysis, to make the upward journey by easy stages. Probably in theory the open air, tent and waggon life recom- mended by Livingstone for the Kalihari region, would be the most perfect, but it is seldom practicable, except for the most robust; it would be too hot in summer, too cold in winter, besides being unfitted in other ways. On the whole, however, the Karroo climate is favourable to out-door life. In summer the whole day can be passed in a well shaded verandah, or in a hammock slung between trees, and in winter the calm, dry, cold air is inviting to exercise, and the summer evenings, if the patient be prudently clothed, can be utilized for exercise. Unfortunately the house accommodation, from an invalid's point of view, leaves much to be desired. The common plan of keeping the house cool is to shut it up all day long in summer, opening the doors and windows only in the early morning ; the result is good, as far as coolness is concerned, but an atmosphere is produced thereby which lacks the constant interchange of fresh and foul air demanded by conditions of health, and still more by those of disease. The houses are also as a rule badly ventilated and ill- constructed, comfort being sacrificed to economy, building being excessively dear. There is a great lack of shady walks, also, on account of the absence of woods. In some villages the streets are well planted, notably Worcester, Beaufort West, and Graaff-Reinet. The farm houses are for the most part situated on the open plains, and have a few trees planted in the vicinity, and frequently productive vegetable and fruit gardens and orchards. Food is on the whole cheap and wholesome, but lacks variety, and the cooking leaves much to be desired for invalids; the supply of milk, fresh butter and eggs varies very much according to the locality and the season; "always a feast or a famine” is almost a South African proverb. Vegetables are well supplied at some places and very scanty at others; a fact dependent more upon the abundance or otherwise of the water supply than upon difference of local industry. Most of the villages contain several hotels, at which the charges are moderate, about £7 10s. to £10 per month for board and lodging, and boarding houses somewhat lower; and lodgings with private families can generally be negotiated. A fair house can often be obtained for from £3 to £6 per month unfurnished. Illustrative cases.—The nature and scope of the Handbook forbid the insertion of cases reported in extenso, but a few jottings from various sources may not be uninteresting, as illustrating the remarks already made. CENTRAL KARROO DISTRICTS. 167 Dr. Zahn, of Ceres, reports that the death rate for lung and pleura diseases in the district, with an European population of 2,000, is as follows:-Between 1872 and 1884, five cases of chronic and six of acute lung disease (exclusive of children and of those who have emigrated with diseased lungs). In the case of coloured natives, Dr. Zahn is unable to make a satisfactory statement, as they do not as a rule fall under his notice, but he believes lung disease to be rather prevalent among them, due to poverty, intem- perance and bad hygienic surroundings. Since 1872 only one case of mileory tubercle in a youth of eighteen. Many invalids suffering from phthisis have visited Ceres, and have as a rule been benefited, but Dr. Zahn is unable to report a single instance of complete recovery, usually he believes because the stay was too short or the disease already far advanced. Dr. Hurford, of Ceres, reports that many cases of pulmonary disease have been greatly benefited by a sojourn there. Dr. Davey, of Beaufort West, reports that many cases of advanced phthisis have come to Beaufort, with often the result of a certain improvement at first, but, with the exception of a very few, this was temporary only; the comforts of home and the presence of friends and relatives are much missed, and their want helps to make matters unsatisfactory. It is far otherwise in the earlier stages of phthisis: here a residence in these parts often works wonders, especially if patients are in fairly comfortable circumstances. Dr. Mearns, of Prince Albert, reports that during a residence of more than seven years he has remarked a special immunity from pulmonary consumption and asthma. The place is not much resorted to by invalids because the virtues of the climate have never been made known, and perhaps also because there is no first-class accommodation for invalids. Dr. M. reports the following cases among others :- 1. G.R., aged 19, came in 1879 with marked dulness at both apices; on left, breaking down of tissue, muco-purulent, frequently sanguineous expectoration, night sweats, emaciation, bad appetite. After four months he left with marked improvement in all symptoms, the disease of left apex stationary. 2. W.C., aged 42, came in January, 1882, advised by his medical men that he had not six months to live. Cavities in both lungs, great emaciation, night sweats, purulent expectoration, with frequent hæmorrhages, loss of appetite, and in short he appeared to be sinking rapidly. Improvement was steady and marked; he gained weight, appetite returned, night sweats almost ceased, and one cavity appeared to have closed; he continued to improve until 1883, when he got chilled in returning from Cape Town, pleurisy supervened and it was long ere he regained strength. He continued moderately well, taking UPPER KARROO DISTRICTS. 169 Ceres Road Station, which is 85 miles from Cape Town. 3. Prince Albert, 30 miles by passenger cart from Prince Albert Road Station, which is 265 miles from Cape Town. 4. Murraysburg, about 50 miles from Nelspoort Station, 371 miles- from Cape Town. 5. Somerset East, 16 miles from Cook- house Station, which is 126 miles from Port Elizabeth. 6. Jansenville, 18 miles from Mount Stewart Station, which is 113 miles from Port Elizabeth. 7. Aberdeen, about 30 miles from Aberdeen Road Station, which is 145 miles from Port Elizabeth. 8. Willowmore, 73 miles from Baroe Station, which is 103 miles from Port Elizabeth. THE UPPER KARROO PLATEAU. By J. Baird, M.D., L.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., Ed. The immense tract of country included under this area embraces. the Upper- Karroo plateau sloping from the midland mountain ranges to the valley of the Orange River. It includes the fiscal divisions of Aliwal North, Albert, Colesberg, Middelburg, Hanover, Hopetown, Herbert, Kimberley, Richmond, Victoria West, Fraser-- burg, Carnarvon, Calvinia, and part of Namaqualand. This plateau- varies in height from 2,700 to 6,000 feet above sea level, one point, the Compassberg, 7,800 feet, being the highest point in the Cape Colony. To medical men and invalids the great and characteristic feature of this elevated plateau is the nature of its climate and its suitability as a residence in certain diseases of the lungs. The following remarks are intended to shew this, as far as can be done by words. There cannot be said to exist any well marked division of the year into Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter; rather it may be described as a long summer and a long winter. The former begins rather suddenly about the month of September, increases in intensity till January, and then decreasing till the end of April, while the latter may be said to last from the end of April till the month of September. During the first half of the summer months a westerly or north-westerly wind prevails during the day which is very warm and dry; it often blows with great force, bringing with it clouds of red sand. Towards evening the wind abates, and is followed by a steady, cool and refreshing breeze from the south- east during the night, which quite invigorates and braces after the hot winds of the day. Towards the end of December or the beginning of January thunderstorms are common, accompanied by a great downfall of rain, often with hail showers. These storms are of short duration, and their effect is such as to infuse- new life into every living thing. With the exception of these 170 CAPE HEALTH RESORTS. thunderstorms, it may be said that for the whole summer life is led under a cloudless sky. The heat in summer, although great- and on some days the thermometer ranges as high as 110° F. in the shade-cannot be described as oppressive, except it be shortly before a thunderstorm when the sky is overcast. This is owing to the excessive dryness of the air and to a gentle current of wind which almost always blows. But even with the very hottest days a cool night can almost invariably be depended on. The winter in this region is most delightful during the day. The air is dry, clear and sharp. But during the hours between sunset and sun- rise the air is very cold, accompanied by sharp frosts. Often the pools of water are frozen over, but the ice melts soon after the sun rises. Snow falls but rarely, in some places once in five or six years, and that in no great quantity. While these remarks apply generally to this whole area, it will be understood that the climate will vary somewhat as we approach or recede from the mountains which form its boundary. To enable an idea to be formed of the climate of the different Divisions, I shall quote from the reports of competent medical observers on their different towns and districts. At the extreme east of this area lies the Division of Albert. From Burghersdorp, the chief town of this Division, Dr. Kanne- meyer thus reports :-" The chief summer months are hot and relaxing during the day:—the mid-winter nights are cold. During the rest of the year the weather is temperate and delightful. The sun is rarely obscured, never for a whole day, mostly and grate- fully by thunder-clouds during the hot summer afternoons. We live practically under a cloudless sky. Our principal rainfali is in summer, sharp and short thunderstorms. These showers are very refreshing. The range of temperature in summer is high on the plains. In the Stormbergen (Mountains) it is more equable, the heat never oppressive during the day, nor are the nights cold; and there is more verdure and humidity. In winter, the days are cloudless, rainless, sunny, and very dry on the plains. Between sunset and sunrise, the air is very cold and frosty. Snow is rare. The mountainous parts are cold ard comparatively damp,-frosts heavy and snow occasionally. Mists or fogs are unknown on the plains; in the mountains they occur frequently." A little further to the West of Albert, and not far from the Sneuwberg range of mountains, lies the Division of Hanover. From Hanover, the chief town of this Division, Dr. Wm. Bourke sends the following report :-" The climate of this district is a particularly dry and bracing one. The winter is seldom severe,- being comparable to that of the South of France, the days throughout that season being bright and balmy. On only one occasion was the thermometer known to register 20° of frost. The L'PPER KARROO DISTRICTS. 171 over lies theuring the winter of days in the summer months are warm, and in the absence of the light prevail- ing winds, they approach a tropical heat; but as a rule you can depend on a gratefully cool evening. The sun throughout the year reigns supreme in the heavens, and seldom, indeed, if ever, a day passes without his radiant beams being both seen and felt. For the past three years the average rainfall was 10.2 inches- distributed on an average over 34 days or portion of days in the year. There is little or no snow during the winter.” To the West of Hanover lies the Division of Richmond. Dr. Fick thus reports of his town and district :-“ To the South and East, the district of Richmond is bounded by a formidable range of mountains, the Sneuwbergen, one point of which, the Compass- berg, is the highest in the Cape Colony, being 7,800 ft. above sea level. During winter we often have beautiful days—no wind or dust—a cljudless sky—a bracing air, and the sun sufficiently strong to make staying out of doors a pleasure. The winter nights are cold—the minimum of temperature measured once by me was -8°C. When the summer sets in the windy days begin, bringing a great deal of fine and coarse sand even through closed shutters. Mornings and afternoons are always fresh and pleasant even in the hottest time of the year. In summer, heat at midday is piercing, but not oppressive.” To the North of the Divisions of Hanover and Richmond lies the large Division of Hopetown, having for its northern boundary the Orange River. From Hopetown, the chief town of the Division, Dr. E. B. Muskett thus reports :—“ The surrounding country consists chiefly of large plains, often sandy, with hills, some of considerable elevation. The town itself is situated in a valley opening towards the Orange River, the river being distant about 14 miles. The prevailing wind is from the Westward, and blows frequently with force during the early summer months. The thermometer may rise to 100° F. in the shade in summer and fall to 20° F. in winter. The air is extremely dry. Rainfall very scanty, said to average 5 inches, and falls almost entirely in thun- der-showers, rain without lightning being rare. Snow is rare, but tolerably severe frosts occur at night in winter. Ice always melts before the middle of the day.” Further to the West of the Division of Richmond, and forming the apex of this triangular area lies the extensive Division of Fraserburg. From its chief town, Dr. H. P. Butler reports as follows :-" In winter there is dry cold for the most part, but the frost is very severe, sometimes registering 19º. In summer it is very hot and dry in daytime; but the evenings are very pleasant, being cool. The sun is rarely obscured either in summer or in winter. The thermometer varies in summer from 90° to 110° F. in the shade. In winter it varies from 24° to 70° F. The rain- 172 CAPE HEALTH RESORTS. fall is very slight, being 2 to 4 inches for the past few years. Snow often falls in winter. The air is very dry.” From the Division of Carnarvon to the North of Fraserburg, Dr. Hanau reports very much in the same terms as those of Dr. Butler. When we take into consideration the extreme dryness and porous nature of the soil, the great elevation above sea level, the tem- perature and dryness of the air, the practically cloudless sky, permitting almost constant outdoor life, and if to these we add the scantiness of population and the absence of hurry, worry and bustle which characterise European life, we have an almost ideal set of conditions requisite for the alleviation and cure of certain diseases of the lungs, and especially phthisis. I say cure of phthisis advisedly, because cases of cure are within the experience of almost every medical man practising in this area. Further, the all but complete absence of pulmonary phthisis in persons born and bred in this area is proof of the favourable operation of the above con- ditions in this direction. The most convincing proof, however, is afforded by the record of cases by competent medical men. In a personal experience of ten years practice as a physician, in a district in the Division of Colesberg, with a population of a bout 3,000 white and coloured, and including all ages, only two cases of pulmonary phthisis came under my care, originating in natives of the district, but neither of which were tubercular. One case was that of a girl aged 16; she had a slight attack of pneumonia, which ultimately developed into phthisis. After careful treatment she gradually recovered, married, and is now the mother of several children. The other case was one of syphylitic phthisis in a mar- ried woman. She died in childbed. Several cases from near the coast of this Colony, and from Europe, came under my care with phthisis, all of which were greatly benefited by residence, and followed active and useful lives. One case especially I can call to mind, that of a Mrs. A. B., who, in spite of extensive disease of both lungs, carried on an active business, reared a large family of children, and nursed for some years a paralytic husband. The only signs of illness she exhibited were occasional attacks of coughing, and in the summer slight streaks of blood in the spectum. I am fully convinced that had this patient been living at or near the sea coast of this Colony, or in any part of Great Britain, she would long ago have succumbed to this dire disease, whereas she is alive and actively employed at this present time. The following short history by Dr. E. B. Muskett, of Hopetown, of two cases which came under his notice within the last few years, speaks volumes :- “R. P. and C. P., two brothers, aged respectively 18 and 19 years, arrived in Hopetown three years ago. Their two elder UPPER KARROO DISTRICTS. 173 brothers died within eighteen months of rapidly developing con- sumption. On the death of the last they took fright, and had their lungs examined by two physicians, separately, one a specialist. Both pronounced the young men to be suffering from the incipient stages of phthisis, and recommended them to leave England immediately, which they at once did. On examination of their chest on their arrival in Hopetown, both were found to be in an almost similar state-dullness over a considerable area at the apices of both lungs, more pronounced on the left side, lengthened expiratory murmur, some crepitation, flattening of the chest in the affected region and diminished movement. In addition they suf- fered from muscular weakness, shortness of breath on exertion, and loss of flesh. They also had slight cough but no expectoration. At the end of six months the physical signs had much diminished, and they had regained strength and flesh, the younger so much so that his clothes were too small for him. At the expiration of a yoar, the physical signs had disappeared, and they felt otheruise well. Now, after three years the one pursues a laborious profession in Kimberley, the other has returned to England; both are in the enjoyment of excellent health.” Dr. Fick, of Richmond, thus reports of his own case :—“I, myself, am a fair sample of a man who has benefited by residence in this climate. I came from Germany in 1879, partly because I was suspected to be Consumptive. After a few years stay in Richmond, my whole appearance was altered. I became hale and hardy, and had gained in weight 40 lbs., weighing 180 to 190 lbs." From Burghersdorp in the Division of Albert, Dr. Kanne- meyer reports as follows:-“I have more than once had the opportunity to see cases of phthisis coming from Europe, but too far advanced for cure, derive temporary benefit during their sojourn amongst us. Incipient or early cases at once improve. Hitherto invalids frequenting this part of the country in search of health have made their stay too short, or have come too late. Continuous residence is necessary to establish a cure. There are about half-a-dozen persons residing in this town at present, leading useful lives, who came here as confirmed invalids, and whose lives have been undoubtedly saved by continuous residence.” From the town of Hanover, Dr. Bourke sends the following :- “ There seems to be a special immunity from Consumption enjoyed by the inhabitants of this district, as it is seldom if ever met with among the people born and bred in this district...... There are to my knowledge two cases of Consumption in this district to all intents and purposes cured. The individuals in question arrived from England with the disease in a most aggravated form ; and now after several years residence, they are practically restored to their former health and vigour. The late District Surgeon of this 174 CAPE HEALTH RESORTS. place is another instance in point. For notwithstanding the advanced stage of the malady on his arrival in this Colony, he was enabled, through the beneficial effect of this climate, to carry on the arduous duties of a general practitioner for ten years; and it was only on his return to England that he succumbed to the disease. Other two cases occur to my memory in which the patients are being gradually restored to health and vigour.” Dr. J. Hanau sends the following instances from the town of Carnarvon :-“A German gentleman (a missionary), about 54 years of age, is reported to me by good authority, as having suffered from Consumption some twelve to fifteen years ago. He is now so well that as long as I have known him, he has not required medical attendance. Another German, aged 30, in whose family there is hereditary predisposition to Consumption, became ill in this Colony, and exhibited signs of phthisis after an attack of pleurisy. He is now attending to his business, and seldom requires professional advice.—A young gentleman, aged 21, born in Cape Town, with a family predisposition, was warned by his former medical attendant, and while resident in Cape Town was constantly troubled with attacks of Bronchitis, now finds himself as well as possible, and is never troubled by his old complaint." The late Dr. L. Gogol, District Surgeon of Murraysburg—a district to the South of Richmond,-in reporting to the Govern- ment in the year 1882, says:-"During a practice extending over five years, I have not hit upon one patient with pulmonary phthisis, born in this or the adjoining districts.” These are but a few of the examples of benefit devided from residence in this area. If space permitted, their number could be very largely increased by drawing on the case-books of any physician practising within its limits. They will, however, suffice to establish the truth of the statement, that not only can phthisis be alleviated and life prolonged, but that it can actually be cured by a sufficiently long residence. Although, from the grave nature of the disease, and because of the brilliant results recorded of its cure, phthisis has been chiefly and especially mentioned, this is not the only disease benefited by residence. Many cases of Asthma and Chronic Bronchitis are on record where benefit has been derived. Indeed, speaking generally, cases requiring a dry warm air and altitude are all benefited. With a record such as the foregoing, it would seem strange that the advantages of residence here are not more widely known and generally used by Europeans than they at present are. One reason for this is the fact that sufficient attention has not been drawn to it by medical men in the European Medical Journals. But the chief reason for its neglect is the fact that until quite 176 CAPE HEALTH RESORTS. for this kind of food, as it is looked upon more as luxury than necessary, and the supply is irregular. With regard to Fruit and Vegetables, the same remark applies as to butter and milk, all depends on the nature of the season. If rain is plentiful, and there are no untimely frosts, fruit and vegetables are abundant, cheap, and of good quality in most of the towns. Amongst the fruits grown in the town or on the surrounding farms, the chief are Oranges, Naartjes, Apples, Pears, Plums, Peaches and Apricots, Grapes, Figs, Mulberries, Loquats, Pomegranates, Quinces, Water Melons and Musk Melons. Of the towns and villages within this area, and in which invalids would naturally be inclined to live, it may be said that they vary very much in appearance and size, according to the amount of water supply for irrigation purposes, and their age. Where water is abundant, foliage is plentiful, and the town or village has a .cheerful and comfortable appearance; where it is absent, the town has a dry and desolate look. There is here none of the historical associations, the beauteous landscapes, the refined society, or art collections of a Mediterranean health resort, nor the grand scenery of the Swiss Alps. The characteristics are, rather, a rough, whole- some plenty, and a free and primitive state of society. Many of the towns are dull and dreary, and when an invalid has no employment, time will hang heavy on his hands. It must be distinctly understood that a cure will not be the result of a few weeks or months stay, but extend into years; indeed, it cannot be too often repeated, that to ensure a cure continuous residence is necessary. It must also be remembered that, although the English language is pretty generally spoken in the towns and villages, the prevailing language is Dutch, and that the habits and customs of the people are in many ways different from what prevails in Europe. In spite of these disadvantages, after a few years residence, the free and easy mode of life in these country towns becomes very pleasant, and is often looked back to with regret on the return to a large city. The conclusion of the whole matter is, what will not one do for dear life! To gain this one pearl of great price, all others can be dispensed with. One word with regard to clothing. Many people, on leaving Europe for this country, load themselves with light, and omit to take warm clothing, supposing the latter not to be necessary. This is a great mistake. As will be seen from the foregoing reports, the nights are very cold, especially in midwinter. It should be distinctiy understood that exactly the same kind of clothing is necessary here as in Great Britain. Flannel and tweed are just as essential here as in the North of Scotland. Bearing this in mind will save much useless expense. and theis impose tren if fidence Greeks m a good a for the so an old own dia Empire ar org rrite mod The In tezinsula umvince Liver in the Taconda i probable Today the ng at Pur nuortance *usmed b tis estim vited to I teresting hebrated c the openin tury prag The Braz an, a chair alia and R then lati Tued mine rich di wa F'illa B DIAMOND MINING AT THE CAPE. BY THEODORE REUNERT, M. Inst. M.E. The existence of diamonds is recorded in such primitive times and their occurrence is so widely distributed over the globe, that it is impossible to say when and where they were first discovered. Even if the mention of the diamond in the Book of Exodus (chap. xxxix, v. 11) amongst the jewels in the high priest's breast- plate be declared an error on the part of the translators, there is evidence enough that diamonds were possessed by the Hindoos and Greeks many centuries before the Christian era; nay, it is declared on good authority that the history of the Koh-i-noor may be traced back for 5,000 years, at which remote period it is celebrated in one of the songs of the Vedas as having formed part of the treasures of an old Indian chief. There is little doubt that the earliest known diamonds came from India. The writers under the Roman Empire and those of the Middle Ages who allude to diamonds and their origin, refer only to the Indian mines, and, indeed, until quite modern times no other source of supply was known. The Indian mines are scattered along the whole centre of the peninsula from near the southern bank of the Ganges in the province of Bundelcund, lat. 25° N., to the banks of the Pennaur River in the Madras Presidency, lat. 15° N. The famous mines of Golconda are in the Nizam's Dominions, about lat. 17°, though it is probable no diamonds were ever found in or near the city itself. To-day the only Indian mines regularly worked are the northern ones at Punnah in Bundelcund, but the total yield is of trifling importance to the world's traffic, the bulk of the production being consumed by the local markets, the principal of which is at Benares. It is estimated that the annual weight of Indian diamonds ex- ported to Europe does not exceed 100 carats. They are chiefly interesting through their historical associations, nearly all the celebrated crown-jewels of Europe having been derived from India. The opening of the Brazilian mines at the beginning of the last century practically closed the mines of the Deccan. The Brazilian diamond-fields are situated in the Serra do Espin- haço, a chain of mountains running parallel with the coast between Bahia and Rio Janeiro, following the direction of the 43rd meridian between latitudes 109 and 20° north. In this range occur the re- nowned mines of Diamantina in the province of Minas Geraes, but other rich diamond mines exist in the very centre of the Continent near Villa Bella (or Masso Grosso), at Cuyaba and other places on olcondible no dia Indian Helound, he bulk of of whic 178 BRAZILIAN AND OTHER MINES. Borneo sending, it is comfne of the larges found neath of Matam. the Paraguay river. For a hundred and fifty years these mines continued to supply the world with diamonds, till the discovery of the vastly richer diamond deposits of South Africa ruined the Brazilian trade, as that had previously ruined the Indian mines. Several other widely distant countries have yielded diamonds, though in much less quantities than India and Brazil. In the North American continent diamonds have been found in North Carolina, Georgia, Arizona, California, as well as in Mexico. Two countries in Europe have also supplied a few stones. In the year 1829, some diamonds were discovered in the gold washings on the European side of the Ural Mountains near the iron mines of Bissersk, and a single diamond is reported to have been found at Dlaschkowitz, in Bohemia. Small quantities are said on doubtful authority to occur also in Algeria, and in some parts of Siberia. More important than any of the last named are the mines of the East India Archipelago. About the year 1840 diamonds were found in Sumatra, subsequently in Celebes, but the island of Borneo alone in that group has continued to produce a regular supply, sending, it is computed, about 3,000 carats annually into the European market. One of the largest diamonds in the world, a pure white stone of 367 carats, was found near Landak in Borneo; it is still uucut and belongs to the Rajah of Matam. One other diamondiferous region only, but that completing the number of the continents, remains to be mentioned. Diamonds were discovered in Australia in the year 1852, and again in 1859, on the Macquarie River in New South Wales, 100 miles north-east of Sydney, also ten years later near Rylstone on the Cudgegong River, and latterly at Bingera near the Gwydir River, in the ex- treme north of the Colony, about lat. 30° S. long. 151°. The Diamond Fields of South Africa, though of later discovery than any of the above, have eclipsed them all in richness and extent. They are situated north of the Orange River, in the pro- vince of Griqualand West, at a distance of 500 miles from the coast, and an elevation of 4,000 feet above the sea. The story of their discovery, of which many slightly different versions exist, is as follows. Early in the year 1867, a trader named John O'Reilly, travelling southwards from the Orange River, rested his oxen at the farm “ De Kalk,” the property of one Schalk van Niekerk, in the Hopetown district; and this is Mr. O'Reilly's account of what he saw there, given in a letter addressed some five years later to the Governor of the Cape Colony, Sir Henry Barkly :- “In March, 1867, I was on my way to Colesberg from the Junc- tion of the Vaal and Orange Rivers; I outspanned at Mr. Niekerk's Farm, where I saw a beautiful lot of Orange River stones on his table, and which I examined. I told Niekerk they were very of Sydneyd latterly Colony, abuth Africa, them all iper, in the the DISCOVERY IN SOUTH AFRICA. 1794 pretty. He shewed me another lot, out of which I at once picked the“ first diamond." I asked him for it, and he told me I could have it, as it belonged to a Bushman boy of Daniel Jacobs. I took it at once to Hope Town, and made Mr. Chalmers, Civil Commissioner, aware of the discovery. I then took it on to- Colesberg, and gave it to the Acting Civil Commissioner there for transmission to Cape Town to the High Commissioner. The- Acting Civil Commissioner sent it to Dr. Atherstone, of Graham's. Town, who forwarded it to Cape Town.” Dr. Atherstone wrote back to the Colesberg Commissioner-Mr. Lorenzo Boyes, who is still a member of the Civil Service in another part of the Colony—“I congratulate you on the stone- you have sent me. It is a veritable diamond, weighs 211 carats, and is worth £500. It has spoiled all the jeweller's files in Graham's Town, and where that came from there must be lots. more.” Dr. Atherstone's opinion was confirmed by Messrs. Hunt and Roskell, the Crown jewellers in London, to whom the. stone was sent for inspection, and it was subsequently purchased at the above valuation by Sir Philip Wodehouse, who preceded Sir Henry Barkly in the Governorship, and who sent it to the Paris. Exhibition of 1867. It may be imagined that Messrs. Boyes and O'Reilly, who shared the proceeds of this sale, were well satisfied with their bargain. They lost no time in returning to the scene of the first discovery, where others soon joined in the exciting search, but the success was so small that for another two years the existence of diamond fields in South Africa continued to be disputed. How- ever, in 1869, Van Niekerk secured from a Griqua or Hottentot a.. large stone for which he gave the sum of £400 or live-stock to: about that value, and which he sold directly after to Messrs. Lilienfeld of Hope Town for over £10,000. This was the famous “Star of South Africa.” It weighed 83} carats in the rough, and was estimated in June, 1870, to be worth £25,000. It has been cut, and now figures amongst the jewels of the Countess of Dudley, its present weight being 46} carats. When it was clearly authenicated that a gem of such value had been found, the first large“ rush ” of diggers made their way up to the Orange River, but it is a curious fact that though the earliest finds were in the Hope Town District no mine has been discovered there. However, careful prospecting soon proved that. the banks of the Vaal River were rich in diamonds. The search- ing parties worked their way from the junction of the Orange and Vaal up the latter stream as far as Hebron, leaving detach- ments of diggers along the whole course. About 100 miles above the junction following the windings of the river, they reached Klipdrift, or Barkly, which little town has since remained the N 2 DU TOIT'S PAN AND COLESBERG KOPJE. 181 that no description could convey the vileness of, and the cost per passenger was not less than fifty pounds. To-day all this is changed. The railway, which has placed the Diamond Fields within 30 hours' journey of the coast, now brings & daily supply of all the luxuries the Colony can produce, whilst the establishment of the Kimberley waterworks provides a constant store of good and cheap water, which not only removes the greatest hardship of the early days, but gives an impetus to gardening, so that thousands of trees have been planted, and nearly every house now boasts its flower-plot. In the last five years large sums have been spent in building and other permanent improvements. The town has been drained, paved, and lighted, and the public health has so greatly improved that “camp fever" is said to be dying out, and seldom now proves fatal. The talisman that has wrought these alterations and converted within fifteen years a diggers' encampment into a thriving populous- city, is the wealth produced by Kimberley Mine. Early in the year 1871 a new digging was discovered two miles- distant from Dutoitspan, in a north-westerly direction, and situated on a farm named Vooruitzigt, the property of one De Beer, from whom it was termed “Old De Beer's.” And on this same farm in July, 1871, the famous “ Colesberg Kopje” or “ De Beer's New Rush,” as it was variously called, was discovered by a Mr. Rawstorne of Colesberg, which town had thus the honour of giving its name to the richest mine in the world. By a Government pro- clamation issued three years later (see Statute Law of Griqualand West, No. 7 of 1874) these diggings were converted into “ Mines” with the respective titles of “Dutoitspan Mine,” “De Beer's. Mine," and “Kimberley Mine.” The Bultfontein diggings were not proclaimed a mine till 1882 (Proc. No. 210 of '82). Kimberley Mine lies due West of De Beer's, and Bultfontein Mine is to the South West of Dutoitspan. The centres of Kim- berley and De Beer's Mines are exactly one mile apart, the centres of De Beer's and Dutoitspan just over two miles, whilst the centres of Dutoitspan and Bultfontein are less than three-quarters of a mile. A circle three and a half miles in diameter would enclose the whole of the four mines. The three adjacent farms containing these four Mines changed hands very shortly after the opening of the diggings. The real name of the farm containing the Dutoitspan Mine is Dorstfontein. This farm was owned in 1870 by one Van Wyk, Dutoit having been the former proprietor, whilst the neighbouring farm of Bult- fontein belonged to another Dutchman named Du Plooy. The owners had at first issued “ briefjes,” or licences to dig, at a trifling charge, but the growing number of diggers soon proved too great for their pastoral tastes, and both owners disposed of their of le. A circlhe four miness containing of the digelis Dorstfontving 182 HISTORY OF GRIQUALAND WEST. property to Mr. H. B. Webb, through whom it eventually passed into the hands of the London and South African Exploration Company. The Vooruitzigt estate was similarly purchased from its owner, De Beer, by Messrs. Dunell, Ebden and Co., a Port Elizabeth firm of merchants, for the sum of £6,000. The new proprietors of the several farms were not slow in raising handsome revenues out of the diggers, and not a few complications arose as the rapid development of the industry, particularly on Vooruitzigt, demanded an ever increasing area for the prosecution of the digging operations. In addition to the disputes between landlord and tenant, inter- national difficulties arose respecting the right of government over the whole territory of Griqualand West. The Orange Free State (which had been converted into a Republic out of the British Orange River Sovereignty in 1854) held nominally the reins of government over the digging popula- tion till 1871, but its organisation was manifestly unfit to maintain Jaw and order amongst that growing independent community. Moreover its right to the territory was more than questionable, the true owner being doubtless the chief of the West Griquas, Nicholas Waterboer. This chief had previously petitioned the British Government to take him under its protection, and on a renewal of his prayer, backed by many of the diggers, his allegiance was accepted, and Sir Henry Barkly, as Her Majesty's High Com- missioner in South Africa, by a Proclamation of 27th October, 1871, declared Waterboer and his tribe to be British subjects, and their territory British territory. The Free State officials retired, but their government continued to dispute the legality of the annexation. However in 1876 the President, Mr. Brand, visited England, and on 19th July of that year a convention was signed in London between Lord Carnarvon and himself, whereby the Free State relinquished all future claim to the territory of Griqualand West, and received from the British Government the sum of £90,000 in substitution. The administration of the province was for a couple of years entrusted to three Local Commissioners; but in 1873, a change being needed, Mr. Richard Southey was appointed Lieutenant- Governor of Griqualand West, assisted by a Legislative Council of four nominee members and four elective members. Under this government occurred the memorable “rebellion” of April, 1875, when the irritation of the diggers against their rulers rose to such a pitch that the black flag was hoisted and men openly armed themselves to conflict the authorities. The disturbance passed off without bloodshed, and the subsquent purchase by the Government of the farm of Vooruitzigt for the sum of £100,000 led to a mitiga- ANNEXED TO CAPE COLONY, 1880. 183 On the 1stkalty of the Miand Bechuasentiments disp, the Native tion of the grievances. Mr. Southey was recalled, and Colonel Crossman sent out from England to investigate the matter, he being in his turn succeeded by Major Lanyon, who acted as “Administrator” till January, 1879 (when he was removed to govern the Transvaal), and Colonel Warren was appointed “ Acting Administrator,” in which office he was followed nine months later by Mr. J. Rose Innes. Mention should be made of the good ser- vice rendered by the Diamond Fields Volunteers in the Native Wars of 1878-9, which, as well as the sentiments displayed at the time of the Transvaal (1879) and Bechuanaland (1885) Expeditions, proved the loyalty of the Mining Community. On the 18th October, 1880, Griqualand West was formally incor- porated in the Cape Colony. The annexation was much opposed on the Fields at the time, but probably the presence of Griqualand West Members in the Cape Parliament has assisted the passing of wholesome measures needed for the protection of the diamond industry. The Diamond Trade Act (No. 48 of ’82) was passed on 30th June, 1882, the Precious Stones and Minerals Mining Act (No. 19 of '83) on 27th September, 1883, and the Regulation of Trade in Diamonds within the Colony Act (No.14 of '85) on 25th July, 1885. The object of these Acts is to consolidate and amend the various Mining Ordinances promulgated by the Griqualand West Govern- ment, also to place restrictions on the traffic in diamonds; to con- stitute a Special Court at Kimberley with power to inflict heavy penalties (up to fifteen years' imprisonment with hard labour, on those convicted of unlawful possession, illicit dealing, and theft; to provide for the better management and supervision of the diggings and mines; and finally to extend the diamond trade laws enforced in Griqualand West to the whole of the Cape Colony. As early as 1869 a few boers and Kafirs were scraping on the surface of the Du Toit's Pan farms, but their finds were insigni- ficant, and the appearance of the ground was so different from the diamondiferous deposits worked on the Vaal, that the diggers at the River paid slight attention to the dry workings. Even after the four mines of Du Toits Pan, Bultfontein, De Beer's and Kimber- ley had been successively “rushed,” no one suspected what a vast depth of diamond-bearing rock they contained ; they were supposed to be merely another kind of alluvial deposits, and consequently operations were conducted without thought of permanency, which has most seriously impeded the subsequent development of the Mines. Before deseribing in detail the “Four Mines” which have given stability to the diamond industry of South Africa, a few words may be said about some surrounding diggings in diluvial soil which caused a little excitement four or five years ago, but nearly all of the better min possessiosonment within Griqualani and finally tortagement and sur rinas 184 SHARE MANIA. which have since been abandoned as unpayable ; indeed, it is doubtful whether at some of these so-called “mines " any diamonds at all were discovered. The years 1880-81 witnessed the memorable “ share mania” on the Fields, during which not only most of the private holdings in the four mines were converted into Limited Liability Com- panies, but the immense demand for mining shares set a number of prospectors at work searching for new mines, and trying to open up others which, though previously known, had either never been worked or were already abandoned. Thus, whilst each morning's paper announced the formation of some fresh company for working claims in one or other of the established mines, hardly a month went by but some new digging was “rushed," till nearly every landowner in the district had begun finding diamonds on his farm. The game was a lively one whilst it lasted, and though these speculations proved entirely disastrous to the rashly investing public, they yielded for some time a considerable revenue in claim and stand licences to the Government or proprietors, as the case might be. In 1881 three new diggings were allotted on the Vooruitzigt Estate, namely, St. Augustine's Mine, Taylor's Kopje, and Otto's Kopje, all situated to the westward of Kimberley Mine, and the consequent additional revenue to the Government in licence moneys amounted for that year to £4,000; in 1882 it had sunk to less than half this amount, whilst in the following two years it dwindled down to next to nothing at all, evidencing the total abandonment of the diggings. A similar fate attended the diy- ging of Kamfer's Dam, some three miles to the north-west of Kimberley on the Barkly Road, where large sums of money were wasted on the erection of costly machinery. Meanwhile some half-dozen dry diggings had been “rushed” beyond the Orange Free State border, not one of which continues to be worked to-day, except Jagersfontein, an old-established mine, 80 miles south of Kimberley, in the Fauresmith district, which still produces about £50,000 worth of diamonds annually, of a peculiarly white quality, about midway in value between Kimberley and river stones. Five dry mines have also been discovered in the Barkly district, on the tongue of land formed by the junction of the Harts and Vaal Rivers. Of these, Victoria Mine and Newlands “No. 1” were opened in 1881, “ Newlands No. 2" in 1882, Wrigley's and Borrell's Kopjes both in 1883; but after yielding a revenue of about £2,000 per annum for the years 1883-4, they have all been declared abandoned, except Newlands “ No. 2,” an exceedingly small digging, not to be called a mine at all, consisting of only some 10 claims within the “ reef,” which here is a sandstone of unknown depth. A diamond of 6 carats 186 THE “ROADWAYS," 1871-1872. of 1872 they began to be unsafe; the working down of the claims on either side in perpendicular walls left precipitous caverns on both sides of the roads, and many were the accidents both to the workers below and to the carts and passengers along the roads before the latter began to cave in. The appearance of the mine at this period of its development was most picturesque; hundreds of .carts and wheel-barrows careering along the roads, bearing their precious freight of excavated ground clear of the mine to be sorted ; down below, at all distances from the surface, a succession of rectangular ledges, representing the various working levels of different claims, where thousands of diggers and native labourers, crowded together on the narrow working spaces, were busy picking and shovelling the ground and filling it into the original tubs and buckets of all sorts and sizes employed for conveying it to the surface; some of these were hauled up by ropes and tackle, others carried by hand up inclined planks and staircases cut in the perpendicular walls; each man worked on his own device, without regard to his neighbour, the only general rule being that the roadways must be kept intact. Whether from design or accident, it frequently happened that masses of the high ground subsided, leaving great chasms in the roads that had to be bridged over by the owner to enable the traffic to go on, and by the middle of 1872 the number of these slips had increased so as to leave the roadways little more than a succession of bridges thrown across the mine from block to block of claim-ground. It became evident then that some change in the system of working was needed, but whilst men were wondering what it was to be, the remaining solid portions of the roads collapsed, converting the whole works into ruins. Some of the diggers were in despair and sold out at once, thinking the mine could never recover from such a disaster. But it was only the first of a series of unanticipated mishaps that Kimberley Mine has experienced, and that any less rich property would have succumbed under. It is to be regretted that no statistics have been preserved of the number of workers employed in the mine at this period. It can hardly have been less than ten thousand or twelve thousand, and is estimated by many at double that number. The problem, now the roadways had collapsed, was how to work the large number of separate holdings, so as to preserve free access to each, and still let no claimholder encroach or trespass on his neighbour's ground. As a temporary expedient, the endless rope principle of haulage was adopted, a couple of grooved wheels being fixed, one on the margin of the mine, the other in the claim, whilst to the endless rope passing over these wheels the bucket was attached, which was filled with ground in the claim, and then hauled up and down by 188 FIRST MINING BOARD, 1874. difficulty would never have been serious, had anything like adequate pumping appliances been provided, as no strong springs were met with in the workings, and it was mainly surface drainage that had to be dealt with. Much more serious have been the reef troubles, forming a long chapter of accidents in themselves, from which the mine has not even recovered at the present day. The first necessity was to provide more powerful hauling machinery than the hand tackle hitherto employed. The "horse- whim” was introduced in 1874, a large timber wheel, some 20 feet in diameter, fixed horizontally 8 feet above the ground with an iron hoop reaching down to the level of horse's or mule's collar. The hauling wire, wound several times round the whim, had its two free ends attached to two buckets, one of which ascended from the mine as the whim revolved, whilst the other bucket was lowered down. This enabled larger tubs of two or three cubic feet capacity to be used, till the introduction of steam engines in the following year gradually replaced all other motors. It may seem surprising that the advent of steam power was so long delayed, but when it is borne in mind that the cost of transit from the coast was £30 to £40 per ton, and that no one could foresee the diamondiferous soil would have extended to such an unprecedented depth, surprise on this score vanishes. Indeed, in reviewing the history of diamond mining in South Africa, the perfectly novel features of the industry must never be forgotten. It is easy to look back and criticise, but to the pioneers of the industry there was absolutely no previous ex- perience to be guided by. It was a perpetual groping in the dark and a necessary waiting for events, and the wonder is that, with all the drawbacks of the situation, so much should have been accom- plished. Before tracing the more recent development of Kimberley Mine, a short description may be given of the methods employed for extracting the diamonds from the ground brought to the surface. The earliest method was that known as “ dry-sorting”—anala- gous to the use of the “baby” at the River diggings—and con- sisted merely in sifting the excavated ground through hand sieves, thereby separating the finer portions from the stones and coarse gravel, and then passing the latter over a sorting-table. By this method as many diamonds were missed as found, but the scarcity of water rendered any process of washing the ground inexpedient at the outset. An enormous quantity of ground from all the four mines was sorted on this principle, the resulting sand or refuse, being known as “ Debris,” has formed the huge heaps of yellow mounds which still disfigure so large a portion of the township. Since the era 190 KIMBERLEY REEF. The “pulsator,” well known in principle as applied to most ore-washing, is employed by some diggers so as entirely to dispense with the “ panning” process, and affords complete satisfaction. Returning now to the operations within the Mine, something more must be said about the ill-starred Kimberley Reef, that has earned for itself a world-wide reputation by its awkward inter- ference with workings that, without its presence, would have bestowed fabulous wealth on the claimholders. Like the malignant elf who came uninvited to the festival and succeeded in mixing a curse with all the previous blessings, the reef has been the bane and nightmare of Kimberley Mine and its owners. To deal more effectually with the reef removal the Mining Board erected costly hauling machinery on the north-east and south-west corners of the mine, at the same time sinking a large vertical shaft through the reef at the north-east corner some 200 yards back from the limit of the claim-ground. At the depth of 286 feet from the surface an exceedingly hard rock was struck upon, and the further sinking of the shaft abandoned. But it is deplorable that no tunnels were driven towards the mine on the surface of this rock, as they might certainly have been used for removing a large quantity of dangerous reef from the north and east margins, which subsequently fell into the mine, and had to be hauled out by the claimholders at an increased cost, after serious stoppage of payable work. For conducting operations on a larger scale tramways were laid to supersede Scotch carts, and the hauling gears in use by the diggers were improved, so as to accommodate tubs of an increased capacity. The whims had only drawn up tubs of 3 to 4 cubic feet, but the first steam engines in 1875 hauled tubs of three to four times that size. At the same time the aerial standing wires of each gear were increased from two to four, each tub having a carriage with four grooved wheels running on two wires. The size of these standing wire-ropes has been perpetually increased, till to-day the largest are 41 to 5 inches in circumference, and the largest hauling ropes 2 to 24 inches, the power of the hauling engines advancing in the same period from 6 to 25 and even 50 nom. h.p. Early in the year 1878 one quarter of the claims were covered by reef; this was being hauled out at a cost to the Board of 4s. per load of 16 cubic feet. In the years 1879-80 the Board's expenditure on the removal of reef, debris, and water exceeded £300,000, although the reef tariff had been reduced from 4s. to 28. 6d. per load. At the end of 1881 the Mining Board had 7 miles of tramway in use, whilst another 12 miles had been laid down by claimholders. During that year the Board expended over £200,000 in reef removal; but the work had been commenced too late, the slips became ever greater, so that in 1882 more than half- THE “REEF” DIFFICULTY, 1878-1883. 191 quas rectively fineling of the most en reel third shafttter partile min constantly gs. omalled by claim this lates, with the re st on a-million sterling was needed to defray the cost of the reef actually removed, and still claims were covered and other slips impending. The bulk of this removal had been done by the claimholders themselves, at the Board's expense. A couple of private shafts had been sunk some years previously, one on the north, the other on the south reef, at distances of about 450 and 650 feet respectively from the limit of claim-ground, and through these shafts a quantity of the upper reef was removed by means of tunnels and “passes,” the fallen reef from the lower claims being bauled out by the aerial trams. A third shaft surk through thə north-east reef to a depth of 100 feet in the latter part of 1882, was used for lightening the top reef in that part of the mine ; whilst inclined tramways on the west and east sides of the mine were conducting similar operations in the open. Notwithstanding all these appliances the reef removal did not keep pace with the constantly recurring slips. The tariff had been raised in October, 1881, to 3s. 9d. per load, and during the following eighteen months the reef hauled by claimholders alone cost the Board over £650,000. Unable to meet this large expenditure by cash payments the board had recourse to bills, with the result that by the end of March, 1883, its books showed a deficit of over a quarter of a million sterling. The local banks refusing then to discount its reef-bills any further, a financial crisis arose, causing a dead-lock in the operations of the mine. Outsiders freely stated that Kimberley mine was ruined. During 1882, in spite of the unprecedented amount of reef removed, more than half the claims in the mine remained encum- bered, and even these were only able to be worked intermittently, so that the total operations for the year showed three loads of reef hauled for every single load of diamondiferous ground. It is probable that had this heavy quantity of dead work been performed systematically, spread over a number of years, and with due regard to economy, the whole mine might have been cleared of dangerous reef long prior to this date, and without any excessive strain on the finances of claimholders or the Board. The total amount of solid and fallen reef removed since the opening of the mine in 1871 to the end of 1882 was under ten million loads of sixteen cubic feet each ; but of this amount nearly one-third, or almost three million loads, had been removed in the year 1882 alone. The gross cost to the Board, up to this date, had been about one- and-a-half million sterling, expended on reef removal alone (in addition to expenses of removing water and debris), and yet nearly an equal amount of reef remained to be removed to make the mine permanently safe for open working, and of this quantity of dead-work still to be done a largo portion was urgently called for, if it was not to be too late to afford relief to the workings 192 GEOLOGICAL FEATURES—THE BLUE. during his claimhonding Sistemico in shown in burden onpenditure threatened, or already submerged. As evidence of how tardily ard expensively the past reef removal had been conducted, it may be stated that if the work had proceeded uniformly through the previous ten years, instead of being mainly done in the four years ending 1882, it would not have entailed a greater expenditure than £10,000 per month; and that such a burden might have been borne without inconvenience is shown by the fact that in the eighteen months ending 31st March, 1883, the self-imposed rates borne by claimholders exceeded £32,000 per month, and yet during that period less than half the area of the mine was yielding a revenue and the price of diamonds was lower than it has ever been before or since. In the month of June, 1882, the enormous sum of £70,000 was expended on reef removal alone. Taking the above considerations together, it is not too much to say that the burden of reef-removal has been sic-fold greater on claimholders than it need have been. Still, as previously remarked, these statements must not be regarded as conveying any serious reflection on the ability of those who had the mining operations under their control. It is easy to be wise after the event, and in Kimberley Mine it would have been miraculous had no mistakes been made, new in every respect and fraught with a succession of surprises as the develop- ment the mine has been. At a depth of about 100 feet below the surface the appearance of the diamondiferous soil suddenly changed. Hitherto it had been of a soft friable nature, yellowish in colour, and crumbling as soon as exposed to the air. But below that level it grew gradually harder and altered from yellow to a slate blue colour. Once more a panic seized the workers, who thought this time the bottom of the mine had been surely reached. It was soon found, however, that the “ blue ground," (as it was called) also pulverised after short exposure to the atmosphere, and that far from being barren of diamonds, it yielded even better returns than the upper layers of - yellow ground.” It is now known that the latter is simply the “blue ground” changed from its original toughness and colour by the action of the atmosphere. The deepest sinkings in Kimberley Mine are now 600 feet below the surface, but the nature of the “ blue” has not altered, except by becoming harder and more crystallised. The rocks encasing the diamond-bearing soil were also found to undergo a corresponding change. The surface of the whole country is covered with red sandy soil, varying from a few inches to a couple of feet in depth ; underneath this is a thin layer of calcareous tufa never extending beyond a few feet; both these layers are of recent date, even still in course of formation, and are found equally over the Mine and the surrouuding country. But beneath the lime the distinction between the Mine proper and the 194 REEF TIPPING AND DEPOSITING SITES. As before stated, the bulk of the reef has been removed by the fixed hauling gears of claimholders themselves, either through shafts or by aerial trains. The excavated reef was tipped in long embankments branching out to the north and west of the mine, without much regard to the valuable areas thus encumbered and broken up. This tipping should have been confined to one locality, so as not to interfere with the space needed for washing operations and depositing sites, a vast area being required for spreading out the excavated blue ground in thin layers to enable it to pulverize. The yellow ground pulverized so readily that it could be taken direct from the mine to the washing machines. As a consequence these were fixed much too near the margin of the mine, and the accumulation of “tailings” as well as of “debris” from the “dry- sorting” days aggravated the subsidence of the reef. This was further hastened by the heavy blasting carried on in the mine, the toughness of the “blue” necessitating the use of dynamite. An immense quantity of this explosive is annually consumed on the Fields, and the careless storage of it led to the terrific explosion of the 10th of January, 1884, when, probably through the accidental ignition of petroleum stored in the immediate vicinity, twelve powder-magazines, containing 30 tons of dynamite, 10 tons of powder and blasting gelatine, and several hundred thousand detonators and rifle cartridges, were blown to atoms. Luckily, little damage was done to life or property, beyond the value of the explosives themselves, estimated at £17,000, but the horrible report of the explosion and the ghastly column of smoke which seemed as if it would bear down the town, as well as the scene on the ground after the disaster, will not soon be forgotten by those who heard and saw them. The smoke-column, over a thousand feet high, was clearly visible at the farthest River Diggings, 35 miles away. The hours of blasting on the Fields are at mid-day and after sunset, and a stranger hearing it for the first time would fancy himself in a besieged city. The firing in the four mines continues for ten or fifteen minutes. It is most interesting to stand on the margin of one of them, looking down into the vast cavern, and watch the shots go off. Some are fired by battery, others by slow fuse; the fuse may be seen smoking, then follows the dull heavy report, and a few seconds after the mass of detached ground slowly breaks away, rolling down till it finds a resting place, where it remains ready for loading into the tubs when the labourers return and work is resumed. Kafir labour is mainly employed in all the less responsible operations of the mines : in drilling holes for the dynamite cartridges, in picking and breaking up the ground in the claims and trucking it to the tub lowered to receive it; then in trucking it away from the depositing boxes and the margin of the mine and POSITION OF THE MINE IN 1883. 195 tipping it on the depositing floors, where it undergoes a variety of processes before it is ready for washing, and is again filled into. trucks and driven to the machines. For every three truck-loads of ground daily hauled out of the mine there is on an average one- Kafir labourer employed, and to every five Kafirs there is one white overseer or artizan. In 1882 the number of native labourers in Kimberley Mine was 4,000; but in 1884, owing to the serious stoppage of works, they had sunk to 1,500. These labourers are recruited from 16 or 20 different native tribes from various parts, of the Colony and the Interior, the proportion of the several tribes at any time on the Fields varying greatly according to the internal. state, whether of peace or war, of the district whence they hail. Out of 20,000 natives arriving in search of work in the first half of 1882, 8,000 were Secocoeni’s Basutos, 6,000 Shangans, 1,500 British Basutos, and 1,000 Zulus, the balance consisting of repre- sentatives of no less than 16 other different tribes and races. The- market afforded for the employment of native labour and the consequent development of native trade is not the least of the incidental benefits conferred on South Africa by the discovery of the Diamond Fields. It was remarked above that had the reef removal, performed up. to the end of 1882, been spread uniformly over the preceding ten years, instead of done under urgent pressure in the last five, the mine might have been kept clear of reef slips without any excessive burden of rates on the claimholders. Even in 1883, after more than a million and a half sterling had been spent on this work, the mine might rapidly have been cleared of what had already fallen, and subsequent reef slips averted, could the work. have been continued with the same vigour as exhibited during 1882, and by the present time the whole margin of the mine. would have been worked down to a safe angle. There can be now question that, considering how much of this work had already been completed, it would have been the wisest plan to proceed with it, as though nearly an equal quantity still remained to be. done, the reduced cost of working in these latter years would have enabled the expenditure of another million sterling to see the mine permanently clear of its reef troubles. Unfortunately, the funds for the prosecution of further dead work on a large scale- were not forthcoming. Several attempts to obtain a loan ir Europe for this purpose were abortive, mainly, no doubt, through: a clashing of interests and want of unanimity amongst the claim- holders themselves. That the mine had ample security to offer must be evident to anyone acquainted with its capabilities. Notwithstanding its encumbered position, with not one quarter of its claims free to yield diamonds, and in spite of an unprecedented fall in prices, the year 1883 saw Kimberley mine turn out 02 196 AREA AND SHAPE OF THE MINE. diamonds to the value of £846,706. In the following year, owing entirely to the stoppage of payable work through continuous reef-slips, the production had fallen to £634,332; whilst in 1885 it has been only £458,858, or not more than the mine produced in the last four months of 1882, viz., £456,420. Had it been possible to continue the open workings, there is no doubt the annual production would have exceeded one million sterling. How Kimberley has suffered through the cessation of energetic reef-work may be seen from a comparison with the other three mines of the district, which, being shallower and also larger in area, have so far had little interference from reef-slips. In the eighteen months ending February, 1884, Kimberley mine produced 1,429,727 carats of diamonds, being equal to the combined pro- duction of Bultfontein and Dutoitspan, each of which mines produced a little over 700,000 carats in the same period. In the following eighteen months ending 31st August, 1885, Kimberley produced only 850,396 carats, as against Bultfontein 877,648; De Beer's, 790,908; and Dutoitspan, 773,307. The area of Kimberley mine, originally enclosed within the reef, was about eleven statute acres. Successive slips and removal of reef have widened this area, till to-day the huge orifice presented to the spectator displays a gap of twenty-five or thirty acres. If the reef were cut back to the 30° angle, the mouth of the orifice would measure over 40 acres or about one-sixteenth of a square mile. The enclosing rocks of the mine, which form the walls of the diamond bearing “pipe," are not perpendicular, but converge in- wards from the surface downwards. The average dip of the reef or shale was 1 in 3, forming a natural angle, before it began to shell off, of about 70 degrees with the horizon. The hard rock, which is reached at a depth of about 270 feet from the surface, also in- clines inwards, though at a much less rate than the shale. The average inclination of the hard rock is about 1 in 12, and it is greater at the south than at the north side of the mine. It will thus be seen that the area of claim ground is constantly reduced as the mine deepens. The last Mining Board assessment shows 331 claims on which licences were still paid at the end of 1885, but some of these are claims at the west end of the mine, on which a quantity of high ground is still standing. The actual size of the mine at the level of the top of the hard rock is not more than 280 claims, or about 6 acres. How deep this continual “ cutting-out” of claims will ex- tend cannot yet be ascertained. It is stated that in some of the lowest underground sinkings, more than 600 feet below the surface, the rock is found to recede from the mine, thus regaining a certain area of diamondiferous ground. PROFITS OF MINING. 197 the Giorgreatest depth1885 albeut 9,000.00 bulk tunes had und excabout Lay This contingency, which is likely enough to happen, has been provided for in the Precious Stones and Minerals Act of 1883 Section LXIX) in which it is enacted that the whole mine shall participate in any such event, the diamonds from such expanded claims to be the common property of the then registered claim- holders, with a reservation of 21 per cent of their gross returns to the Government. The greatest depth to which workings in the open mine had ex- tended by the end of 1885 was 450 feet. The cubical contents of this huge cavity measure about 9,000,000 cubic yards, of which about half represents the reef hauled out, and the other half diamondiferous ground, both “yellow” and “blue.” The yield of diamonds from this big excavation since the opening of the mine in 1871 to the end of 1885 has probably exceeded seventeen and a half million carats, equal to three and one-half tons weight of precious stones, in value about £20,000,000, whilst the total weight of reef and ground excavated exceeds 20,000,000 tons. Large fortunes had been made out of Kimberley Mine prior to the bulk of the claims being formed into companies in 1880. But even since that date, in spite of all the drawbacks of the situation, the profits made whenever work could proceed have been enormous. One company with a capital of over £100,000 paid back in the three years after formation 87 per cent. in dividends to the shareholders, and another company with a capital of a little over half a million paid within the same period nearly £300,000 in dividends; whilst a third company with a capital rather under £350,000, and which was £33,000 in debt at the end of 1883, managed to pay off the whole of this liability in the following year, besides showing £15,000 to the good; and in 1885, after paying out £27,500 in dividends, there was still a profit of over £40,000 to carry forward. Slowly, but surely, Kimberley mine is recover- ing from the reverses of the last three years, and it may confidently be stated that a most brilliant future awaits it. With ground yielding, on an average, from 10s, to 30s. profit per load (equiva- lent to 30s. and 90s. per cubic yard), even the colossal burdens it has been suddenly called upon to bear, joined to an almost total stoppage of works, and wholesale destruction of property through reef-falls, cannot do more than cause temporary depression in the fortunes of the mine. It is probable that out of the gross returns mentioned above fully seven millions sterling have been nett profit. A few words must now be said about the manner in which the mine has overcome the accumulation of reef troubles which three years ago seemed to threaten it with disaster. The dilemma was- really a most grave one. The financial position of the Mining Board rendered a continuance of heavy reef work in the absence of outside assistance impossible. Still less could any individual 198 MAIN SHAFTS, 1885. inside, down to thithin the late more tha claimholders contemplate reaching their submerged grounds by means of tunnels and shafts sunk outside the mine, the expense of boring through the hard rock, besides being too costly, was too lengthy an operation to afford the speedy relief that was needed. At this juncture a mining engineer who had been conducting Jarge reef contracts for some time previously propounded a scheme which, though startling in its novelty and pooh-poohed by most practical miners at the time, was shortly afterwards carried into execution by the inventor at his own risk, and has actually enabled the mine to tide over its gravest difficulties. The question was how to get out diamondiferous ground at once without the prose- cution of further dead work. “Jones System,” as it has been styled after its inventor, over- came these difficulties in the following manner. A shaft was sunk through the fallen reef within the mine, on the “coffer-dam” principle of gradually lowering a square timber box, without bottom, through the loose stuff, shovelling out the reef from the inside, and fixing-on box after box to the first one, till it had sunk right down to the bottom of the fallen reef, forming a strong timbered shaft within the latter, and resting, at last, on the solid -5" blue ground.” In this mode more than a hundred feet of loose reef were successfully sunk through, after which the shaft could easily be extended to any desired depth into the “blue," and tunnels driven in all directions, so as to continue the excavation of the mine underground. The great merit of the scheme was that it entailed little initial outlay, whilst as soon as the “ blue” was reached the work of “opening up” the galleries more than paid for itself, in the value of the ground removed, which was reached within a few months after starting the shaft. At the present day there are no less than six shafts in Kimberley mine sunk on this principle, and by their means several hundred thousand loads of 50 blue” have been hauled out. Meanwhile, the two private shafts on the north and south reefs, previously mentioned, have been deepened; the former having recently been connected with the underground workings in the mine at a depth of over 520 feet, so that the excavated “blue” may be hauled either direct to the surface, up the outside shaft, or to the level of the bottom of the open mine up the internal shaft, and thence by the aerial trams to the surface. In the event of any further reef-slips damaging the head gear of the latter shaft, egress will be preserved through the former, and as even this shaft is rather near to the present edge of the Mine, second outside shaft has been sunk 120 yards further back, down to the top of the hard rock, and a tunnel driven along the surface of this rock connecting the two outside shafts together. Connected with this system of workings there are two other shafts within the shaft. any furthence by the. of the up th “UP-SYSTEM” OF UNDERGROUND WORKING. 199 mine, making three mine shafts and two outside shafts in all. The main tunnel connecting the deeper outside shaft with the shaft in the centre of the mine is 700 feet long, of which 500 feet are driven through the “hard rock," Ingersoll drills, with compressed air, having been used for the purpose. The lower half of the deep shaft is also sunk through the hard rock to a depth of 230 feet through the latter, and at the bottom of this shaft a large direct- acting condensing steam pump is fixed, capable of dealing with the whole drainage of the mine. Tramways are, of course, laid through all the underground tunnels as well as on the level of the open workings in the mine, the material consisting chiefly of light steel rails, 12 to 14 lbs. to the yard, and light wagons of 16 cubic feet capacity, constructed wholly of steel, the gauge of tramway being 18 inches. The shafts are made to accommodate two cages, each holding one of these wagons, of which one ascends whilst the other goes down, and the wagons arrived at the top of the main shaft are drawn away to the depositing floors by locomotives. The mode of excavation adopted is shown on the accompanying plan of section of the mine. Where the main tunnel cuts through the junction of the hard rock or “ blue," a couple of cross tunnels are driven at right angles to the first one, and running in opposite directions till they reach the boundaries of the company's claims. These cross tunnels have therefore a wall of hard rock on one side, whilst the roof and other side are solid “ blue.” The excavation is then continued by cutting down the “ blue" from the roof overhead, but instead of trucking away the “ blue” as it falls, the rails in the tunnel are taken up and the “ blue" allowed to pack underfoot, the miners therefore being continually climbing to a higher level, whilst the height of the tunnel in which they are working remains uniform, just high enough for them to be in touch with the roof. In order to preserve safe means of access and egress for the workers in this continually rising chamber, a couple of cross headings are driven parallel with it five feet high by four feet wide, branching out at right angles from either side of the main tunnel and leaving a solid wall of “ blue” ten feet thick between the cross headings and the working chamber. A number of inclined passes are then driven at a sharp angle through this wall of blue connecting the cross-headings with the working chamber, and where they strike the latter vertical “pass-pits” are carried up, rising simultaneously with the chamber and separated from it by a three-inch plank which prevents the loose pack of “ blue” from filling the passes. At last the overhead excavation of the chamber has proceeded so far as to nearly strike the fallen reef which at present covers all the open workings in the mine. The crown of the chamber is then broken through at either end, and the loose reef allowed to enter and pack on the top of the 200 “DOWN SYSTEM” OF UNDERGROUND WORK. excavated “ blue.” A sliding door in the planks at the bottom of the pass-pits is then opened and the excavated “blue” drawn off, sliding down the inclined passes into trucks in the cross-headings, which convey it through the main tunnel and shaft to the surface. As the “ blue” is drawn off, the loose reef above it sub- sides and takes its place till the chamber is entirely emptied of “blue” and filled with reef. The sliding-doors are then closed, and the excavation of that chamber is complete. Meanwhile a second set of cross-leadings have been driven ten feet further back and parallel with the first set, and now the opening up of a second chamber commences which works down the ten-feet wall of “ blue" previously left, and also the “blue” above the first cross-headings, vertical pass-pits being carried up as before connected at the bottom by inclined passes with the second cross-headings. A thin partition of solid “ blue” is left between the second chamber and the reef which now fills the first chamber, but the operations in this second chamber differ slightly from those of the first. Instead of allow- ing the “ blue” cut from the crown to pack underfoot, it is sent down the inclined passes to the trucks as soon as excavated. In order, then, to continually raise the miners to the level of their work at the crown, the thin partition of “ blue” is broken through under foot sufficiently to allow the reef from the first chamber to flow laterally into the second one and afford a footing for the niners. The planks which formed the screens of the first pass- pits are carried into the new chamber by the inflowing reef, and utilised again as screens for the second series of pass-pits, down which the “ blue” is being shot as quickly as it can be made loose. A third chamber is started and worked up in the same way as the second, which has been kept a uniform height by the reef flowing in at the feet of the workers, and the reef again from the second chamber is passed on into the third, the supply of reef being kept up from overhead where there is a practically unlimited store of it, as it lies more than a hundred feet thick over what were once the open workings of the mine. When an entire level some sixty or seventy feet thick has in this manner been excavated of "blue" and filled with reef, a set of workings are commenced at a lower level and the reef again passed down to do service there, as it previously passed to the higher level from the open mine. In the manner above described twelve to fifteen hundred loads of rich blue ground are beïng daily excavated and sent to the surface. In another part of the mine an entirely opposite system of ex- cavation is being successfully conducted. In this Company's claims a shaft is sunk in the “ blue” to a total depth of 512 feet below the red soil, and two sets of workings opened up, one at this lowest level in course of preparation, whilst a first level eighty feet higher is now being worked out. At each level two sets of tunnels 202 THE DE BEER'S MINE. The preceding Account represents the cost and profits resulting from washing 88,185 loads of blue ground (16 cub. feet to the load), which yielded an average of 1.54 carats of diamonds per load, or a total of 135,684 carats, realizing 19/23 per carat, so that the value of the ground per load was 29/7. The cost of washing, including manipulation on the depositing floors, was 3/6 per load. The above expenses include also the cost of hauling 125,021 loads of reef, towards clearing the Company's claims, at a cost of 2/ per load ; also of hauling by the tubs of the aerial tram 2,325,296 gallons of water out of the mine at a cost of 1/3 per 100 gallons ; finally the cost of excavating, hauling, and depositing on the Company's floors 134,701 loads of blue ground, (of which 70,000 loads were drawn from the underground workings) at a cost of 6/9 per load. Thus the entire cost of winning the diamonds from one load of blue ground, including all expenses of management, maintenance, and necessitating the removal of about an equal bulk of fallen reef, and including also a heavy amount written off for depreciation of machinery, amounted to about sixteen shillings per load, showing a clear profit of about 13/6 per load, or 66 per cent. on the gross production. The De Beer's Mine, situated likewise within the township of Kimberley, on the Government Estate of Vooruitzigt, is similar in formation to Kimberley Mine, though about a fifth larger in area. It is of irregular oblong shape, with a bulge at the south-east corner, and measures about 320 yards over surface from east to west, and about 210 yards from north to south. The reef encasing the mine for a depth of 100 feet is a yellow basalt, after which succeeds a layer of black shale which extends to a total average depth of 290 feet from the red sand at which level the hard igneous rock is struck. Within the mine diamondiferous soil is "yellow ground” to a depth of 100 feet from the surface, followed by an unknown depth of “blue ground.” Across the mine from south to north a great belt of blue shale originally covered a large area of claim ground, but the bulk of this inside shale (termed “floating reef” by the miners) has been removed, as the blue ground beneath is known to be peculiarily rich. Just as in Kimberley Mine there is a great difference in the relative richness of ground in different sections of the mine. A belt of rich claims spans the centre of the mine from north to south running out towards the north-east corner where some of the richest ground is found. The western portion of the mine, com- prising one third of the entire claims, was left unworked for many years, as it was found on the surface to be unpayable, but the deepening of the workings in the centre of the mine eventually left so high a wall of yellow ground standing on the western boundary that at last it collapsed, causing in March, 1885, lange from the thin the feet fromround." shale orbit this THE DE BEER'S MINE. 203 the nortginal reef in d until recent 1883, however, a follo the largest fall of diamondiferous ground that has ever occurred at any of the Mines. Taking warning from the experience of Kim- berley the De Beers' Mine has been steered clear of serious reef difficulties. As the deep workings have been mostly confined to the north and north-east sections, it has been possible to cut down the marginal reef in this locality so as to enable the sinking in the open mine to proceed until recent years without much interruption from this cause. In September, 1883, however, a considerable fall of main reef took place in the north-east corner, followed early in the succeeding year by another fall of like magnitude, and when to these troubles was added the huge fall of nearly half a million loads of top unpayable ground from the south-west corner, claim- bolders were necessarilly forced to consider some alternative to continuous working in the open mine, unless they could contem- plate launching into an enormous expenditure for cutting down the reef to a safe angle. As regards the future of Kimberley Mine it is still an open question whether at some not distant date it may not be expedient to continue the reef hauling till the entire mine has been cleared of the rubbish now encumbering it and rendered safe from further reef falls. After nearly two-thirds of this dead work has been completed at a gross cost of some £1,800,000 it may seem wise to complete the remaining third, for which a further expenditure of probably less than £700,000 would suffice, after which the difficulties, dangers and expense of underground working would be reduced to a minimum. But in De Beer's Mine the conditions are quite different. Comparatively little reef work has yet been done, owing to the deep workings being confined to one portion of the mine, the total expenditure on reef hauled at the Mining Board's expense not having exceeded £150,000, whilst a gross cost of something like £2,500,000 would be incurred in cutting down the whole reef to the level of the hard rock. It is therefore apparent that abandoning all idea of grappling with the reef the future excavation of the De Beer's Mine must proceed underground This is actually the conclusion which claimholders have come to, and within the last year five out of the seven companies at present holding the entire mine have sunk shafts within the mine for the purpose of reaching their “blue” ground. One company owning a large portion of the east end of the mine has been working its claims for some years past by a large shaft sunk 200 yards outside the reef margin, with a tunnel driven from the shaft into the mine at a depth of 150 feet from the surface. Two years ago another company, the largest holders in the mine, commenced sinking a large circular shaft 1,000 feet outside the northern margin of the mine, which was designed to penetrate the hard rock, but the great expense this would have incurred has induced it to be temporarily 204 THE DE BEER'S MINE. netrates the pth of 200 freet extreme lens below by bile that at 300 teine will be less The greatestierground cumber 2370 Le deres largem Grout The 2€ 60 of yellow abandoned, and in the place of it an inclined shaft has been sunk on the west margin at an angle of 34 degrees from the vertical. Starting 130 feet back from the boundary of the claim ground, this inclined shaft penetrates the basaltic rock and black shale and enters the claim ground at a depth of 200 feet from the surface, thus missing the hard rock altogether. The extreme length of the shaft is 645 feet, its lowest end being 500 feet vertically below the surface. Two sets of working galleries are opened up, one at this lowest 500 feet level, another set 120 feet higher, at a distance of 380 feet from the surface, and the higher level workings communi- cate also with the open workings in the mine. The inclined shaft is strongly timbered throughout its entire length and has two sets of rails laid in it, on which a couple of triangular cages pass up and down. Many novel features connected with the devolopment of underground working in diamond mines might be dwelt upon if space permitted, but to the financial mind a few figures relative to cost of working and profit in De Beer's may be of greater interest. Like Kimberley, this mine has been considerably reduced in size by the cutting in of the hard rock. Recent borings make it pro- bable that at 300 feet below the surface the number of claims left in the De Beer's Mine will be less than 400, or but two-thirds of the original number at surface. The greatest depth reached in the open workings is 370 feet, whilst the underground workings have extended to 530 feet deep. The present area or orifice is about 15 acres, or about two acres larger than the original area of claims at the surface. The area of claim ground at level of hard rock will be probably not much over 8 acres. The mean depth of the mine, as at present developed, is 200 feet, about 60 claims at the West End being still untouched, and a great mass of yellow ground remaining there to be worked. The volume of diamond- iferous ground excavated from the whole mine measures about 3,250,000 cubic yards, in addition to some 750,000 cubic yards of main and floating reef. The gross value of diamonds produced by De Beer's Mine between the years 1871 and 1885 inclusive is not much under £9,000,000, representing about 1} tons weight of precious stones. The present average production in value amounts to £500,000 per annum. As previously stated, the value of ground from different parts of the mine varies greatly, the best ground in De Beer's being quite as rich as Kimberley Mine. As an instance of the most profitable working, the following abridged profit and loss account may be taken, shewing the half- year's working for the period ended 30th April, 1885, of a small company of about 11 claims in the central and southern portion of the mine known as the Australian Gully, a deep open working DE BEER'S MINE Section from East to West. Scalo 300 feet to 1 inch. - BASALTIC ROCK CFGROUND BASALTIC ROCK BLACK Ti I Miss Robinson 2 Oats Shaft 3 Blue Ground in Shaft 4 Late Interational Co 5 United Co UNC BLACK SHALE ++ H- Eura . Schwab's Bully 8 De Beer's Water Shaft 9 Open Workings De Beer's 110 Fotsheet pol level 11 Oriental 0 UNA NUN HARO Rock usBLUE GRO 1. -ROCK 12 Flacsheek and leved 13 United C Shaft 1293 101, Claims boscodice con los mo's 61661 6196:9 620 623 622 623 622 626 6256 +6282306 Lithographed in the surveyor Generals Dep Printed by Saul Solernen LC, Cape Town THE DE BEEK'S MINE. 205 £ s. d. &c. . . bounded on the west by high yellow ground, and on the east by floating shale :- Dr. £ s. d. Towages, explosives, stores, By diamond account, 43,045 9,088 14 5 carats at 17/101 '.. 38,431 8 9 Fuel .. 1,705 39 Produce. . . . . . 1,022 6 8 Rates and licenses .. 158 12 0 General expenses .. 900 11 11 Decrease of blue ground on floors during half- year, 916 loads at 3s. . 137 8 0 ,, Balance of profit . . 25,418 12 0 £38,431 8 9 £38,431 8 9 The above account represents the cost and profits resulting from washing 28,944 loads of blue ground, which yielded an average of 1:42 carats per load, also from washing 5,380 loads of “lumps” (i.e., fragments of pulverized ground which at the first washing were not sufficiently reduced to pass through the cylindrical screen into the pan, and therefore were re-carted to the depositing floor for further weathering there), the lumps yielding an average of 0.56 carat per load. This total washing resulted in the finding of 43,045 carats of diamonds, which realised an average of 17/10 per carat, so that the first yield of the “maiden blue” was twenty-five shillings and four pence per load, and of the lumps ten shillings per load, or 26/6} per load total value of the blue ground. The above detailed expenses included the cost of hauling out 4,871 loads of main reef and 1556 loads of reef and ground for other claimholders, besides hauling and depositing 28,028 loads of “blue” on the Company's floors, so that the entire cost of winning the diamonds from one load of blue ground amounted to eight shillings and five pence per load, leaving a profit of 18/13 per load, or 68 per cent on the total pro- duction of the Company. This Company with a capital a little over £100,000 was nearly £4,000 in debt at the end of 1883, owing to an accumulation of water in its claims which hindered their working, but after starting full work in 1884 this debt was not only rapidly wiped out, but within that same year dividends amounting to 30 per cent of the capital were paid to the share- holders. As another instance of the richness of Be Beer's ground the casə of a small company holding some 17 claims in the north-east corner may be cited, which in the five years since formation has paid back nearly two-thirds of the subscribed capital in dividends to the share- holders; whilst a third company adjoining the last, and about the same size, even more successful still, in the three years 1882-84 paid out over £75,000 in dividends ; and lastly, as a case of 206 THE BULTFONTEIN MINE. octahedrotomie und in De been the 27th successful working on a large scale it may be stated that the com- pany, which now owns two-thirds of the entire De Beer's Mine, has paid out a Quarter of a Million Sterling in dividends during the last five years, its capital having meanwhile risen through amalga- mation with smaller neighbours from £665,000 to over £1,000,000. The quality of diamonds produced in the Kimberley and De Beer's Mines is similar, a considerable number of large stones being found in both including a good deal of yellow and spotted ones, the colour being better in Kimberley, but the size larger in De Beer's. The value of a diamond depends on the purity of its colour, its freedom from flaws and spots and its relative size. The finest diamond ever found in South Africa was the famous “ Porter Rhodes,” discovered in claim No. 375 near the centre of Kimberley Mine on the 12th of February, 1880. It is a pure white octahedron weighing 150 carats, and was valued at £60,000. The largest stone found in De Beer's Mine was one of 302 carats, yellow octahedron, discovered on the 27th of March, 1884, in the east end of the mine. The Bultfontein mine is situated on the farm of the same name, rather under 2} miles to the south of De Beer's, and just over 21 miles south east of Kimberley, measured from centre to centre of the mines. It is of almost circular shape, about 360 yards across and contained over 1,000 claims on the surface. Owing to the encroachment of a mass of shale abutting on the main reef a large number of claims on the west side of the mine have recently been abandoned, so that at the end of 1885 the number of assessed claims was only 886; a line of floating reef extended also along the eastern boundary of the mine, striking thence across to the opposite side, so as to shut off about one-fourth of the claims to the north from the deeper workings in the centre and south-east portion of the mine. The bulk of this northern block of claims is still unworked. A recent fall of main reef has covered the southern line of claims to a distance of 50 yards from the edge of the mine, so that within the central area left unencumbered the deepening of the mine is proceeding rather rapidly. The deepest workings at the end of 1885 were nearly 300 feet below the surface, the mean depth of the mine being over 200 feet. No underground workings have as yet been commenced, so that to a casual observer the Bultfontein mine presents to-day a better idea of what the operations of the last ten years have been like than any of the other three mines. For this reason it has been selected to furnish a model of diamond mining for the Indian and Colonial Exhibition. No attempt has been made to deal with the reef- question in Bultfontein, though a good deal of the central floating shale has been removed by individual claim-holders. The incasing rock beneath the sand is a calcareous shale, followed by a THE BULTFONTEIN MINE. 207 DR. stratum of black rock, as yet undefined. It is not known whether the hard igneous rock occurs below this, but, assuming it does, the cost of cutting down the encasing shale to a safe angle to allow an indefinite extension of open-mine working would probably exceed £3,000,000. It is therefore likely that some cheap system of underground works will have to be devised for the future excava- tion of this mine. Its present contents, as excavated, is about 6 million cubic yards, representing a yield of some £5,000,000 worth of diamonds, since the opening of the mine to date. The acreage of assessed claim ground is 181 acres. The size of a claim in Bult- fontein and Du Toit's Pan is rather smaller than in the other two mines, being only 30 feet x 30 feet, or 100 square yards. The profits realized in Bultfontein and Du Toit's Pan are much smaller than in the Vooruitzigt mines, owing to the inferior quality of the ground. The following abridged profit and loss account will convey an idea of the expense and results of working the best Bultfontein ground; being for the six months ended 30th June, 1885:- CR. To wages, salaries, explo- By diamonds sold and on sives, &c. i. .. £20,716 12 41 land .. .. ..£36,256 5 3 , Forage and stable acct., 1,528 0 ,, Blue ground sold 1,209 2 3 Water and fuel .. 6,830 0 , Increase of "blue" , Machinery - mainten- on floors: 16,437 ance and stores .. 3,342 10 6 2,054 12 6 General expenses, ,, Rent of certain claims 313 7 9 licenses, &c. .. .. 2,087 18 10 , Decrease of lumps on floor... 34 8 0 • „ Balance of profit . 6,293 17 7 £39,833 7 9 £39,833 7 9 The above expenses represent the cost of excavating from the mine and delivering on the depositing flgor 136,409 loads of blue ground, also of extracting the diamonds from 107,465 loads of blue passed through the washing machines, which together with the proceeds of 17,615 loads of “Lumps” washed, yielded 35,835 carats, or an average of 3335 carat per load, equivalent to six shillings and five-pence per load, the diamonds having averaged 19s. 2d. per carat all round. The cost of manipulating the ground, all charges included, was four shillings and sixpence per load (of 16 cubic feet). The Company in question possesses 72 claims, of which 50 are in the centre and 22 on the margin of the mine. From this latter block over 30,000 loads of floating reef were removed at a cost of 2s. per load. The ground washed was all taken from the centre block, which are about the richest in the whole mine, so that the profit made out of these central claims was at the rate of £250 per claim per year. The Du Toit's Pan Mine derives its name from the “pan " or small lake which lies to the southward of it, at a distance of some como loads at 2s. 6d. 208 DU TOIT'S PAN MINE. 600 yards, and about equi-distant from the Bultfontein mine. The Pan is filled by the surface drainage which gravitates there after heavy rains, and it has frequently been 50 or 60 acres in extent, when pleasure-boating and wild duck shooting may be had there. At the present time, owing to the continuous drought, the Pan is quite empty of water, and the same is the state of Blankenberg's Vley, a similar but smaller lake lying about a mile and a quarter to the north-east of Du Toit's Pan Mine. The water of both these “pans" is leased by the diggers for mining purposes, twelve companies from the two mines forming what is called the Pan Pumping Association, whilst Blankenberg's Vley is leased by three Du Toit's Pan Companies. The rental is drawn by the London and South African Exploration Company, Limited, who possess not only the two farms of Bultfontein and Dorstfontein, on which the two mines are situated, but also the adjoining farm to the southward of Alexandersfontein, on which are laid out a great portion of the depositing sites for the Bultfontein mine. The southern boundary line of Bultfontein farm touches the southern margin of Bultfontein mine, the eastern boundary of the farm almost touching the western extremity of Du Toit's Pan, whilst the northern boundary line of Bultfontein farm actually touches the south-east corner of De Beer's mine, whence it runs westward through the centre of the town of Kimberley, the southern half of which, known as the Newton Estate, is built on London and South African Company's property, whilst the northern half of Kimberley township, including Gladstone and De Beer's, lies on the Vooruitzigt Estate of the Govern- ment. The Exploration Company likewise owns the site of the town of Beaconsfield, which is built on the north-west of the Bultfontein and Du Toit's Pan mines, and is rapidly growing to considerable dimensions. Freehold tenure is granted on the Government estate, but the leases on the Bultfontein farm, on which a monthly rental of 10s. per “ stand” (measuring 60 by 80 feet) is payable, may any time be cancelled if the site should be required for mining purposes. Great friction has existed on this score between standholders and the Exploration Company, but attempts are being made to amicably settle some of the differences. The Company also receives a monthly rental of 30s. per claim from the two mines on its estate, which rental includes the use of one acre per claim for depositing floors. The Government have hitherto made no charge for floor rent on the Vooruitzigt estate, but a charge of 5s. per acre is now to be levied for the depositing floors of Kim- berley and De Beer's mines. This, in addition to the monthly licence of 10s. per claim, will afford a revenue to the Government of some £8,000 per annum, whilst the revenue from the claim licences of Bultfontein and Du Toit's Pan mines, amounts to about £40,000 annually. The London and South African Exploration DU TOIT'S PAN MINE. 209 Company has proved one of the finest investments in the world ; its 10s. shares are worth £7 10s. in the market to-day. The Du Toit's Pan Mine is in the shape of a half hoop, measur- ing an average of 200 yards wide and 750 yards long, the greater length being from east to west. The number of assessed claims at the end of 1885 was 1,430, equal to 30 statute acres. The greatest depth attained in the open workings was about 295 feet, but one of the Companies situated near the centre of the mine on the northern side has sunk a shaft in its claims to a depth of some 500 feet, and the finds from this level are said to be much more satisfactory than nearer the surface. This is the only in- stance of underground working at present carried on in Du Toit's Pan, it being the general impression that, owing to its small average yield of diamonds, Du Toit's Pan, as a mine, will not pay to work underground. Further experience, however, may prove this view to be erroneous. The present average depth of the whole mine is only about 165 feet, there being still many high banks of floating reef and unpayable ground that have been left standing at near their original level. Some of the claims at the western extremity are encumbered by a fall of main reef which there seems no inclin- ation of removing at present, though the ground below is known to be some of the richest in the mine. The encasing rocks (or reef) of the mine are similar to those described in Bultfontein; a yellow shale on top, followed by a black shale of yet undefined depth. In both these mines the modern workings have been much hindered by the accumulation of “debris ” left from the early days of dry sorting. The total excavation of Du Toit's Pan Mine measures some 8 million cubic yards, representing a gross yield of about £5,800,000 worth of diamonds. The following abridged Profit and Loss Account shows the results of a company working 43 claims on the southern reef during the period ended 31st December, 1885 :- Dr. CR. To wages, salary, &c. . £10,079 1 4 By diamonds sold .. £17,672 100 Forage and stable, &c. 869 64, Increase of Blue on Fuel and water .. 1,946 2 11 Floor, 27,092 loads 38. 4,063 16 0 Explosives . 1,030 2 3 - Maintenance and stores 876 67 General expenses 1,171 18 3 Balance of profit 5,763 8 4 £21,736 6 0 £21,736 6 0 The above represents the cost of excavating and depositing on the floor 80,488 loads of blue ground, also of hauling out 1,902 loads of reef, besides washing 53,396 loads of blue, which yielded 13,931 carats of diamonds equivalent to 26 carats per load average ing 25s. 4fd. per carat, or siz shillings and sevenpence half-penny 210 THE LARGEST DIAMOND FOUND. per load. The total cost of manipulating the ground was four shillings and serenpence half-penny per load, leaving a profit equal to £268 per claim per year. This is a most favourable instance of Du Toit's Pan working, the average results from the whole mine being not half so good as the above. Du Toit's Pan yields the largest and most valuable diamonds of any of the four mines, though in average value per load it stands last of the four. The largest diamond ever found in Griqualand West was dis- covered near the west end of Du Toit's Pan Mine on the 29th September, 1885. It was a large irregular octahedron stone, slightly spotted, of yellow colour, and weighed 404 carats or nearly 3 ounces. In the month of February previous, a similar stone of 352 carats was found near the east end of the mine. The former of these stones is probably the largest diamond the world has yet produced, excepting a very imperfect stone of some 500 carats found in Jagersfontein in the year 1881. The largest diamond ever found in Bultfontein was one weighing a little over 150 carats discovered in the north-east corner of the mine in the latter part of 1884. The average size of liamonds found in Bultfontein is smaller than in any of the other three mines, though the colour of Bultfontein stones is superior to the rest. Experts can generally tell, on inspecting any rough diamond, from which of the four mines it has come; and the River diamonds again are distinct in character from those of the Kimberley mines, Quite recently the special court for the trial of contraventions of the Diamond Trade Act, was enabled to convict some River diggers of being in unlawful possession of diamonds, on the evidence of experts who unhesitatingly declared the stones produced could not possibly have come from the River diggings. The most serious obstacle to the profitable working of the Cape mines is the large illicit traffic in diamonds that continues to be carried on, in spite of the stringent penal laws and the elaborate searching system in vogue for its suppression. It is estimated that from one-fourth to one-fifth of all the diamonds found in the mines never reach their lawful owners, and with an annual production exceeding two millions sterling, the importance of suppressing this nefarious traffic can hardly be exaggerated. In conclusion, it may be interesting to quote some figures of the gross production. Prior to 1st September, 1882, when the Diamond Trade Act came into force in Griqualand West, no accurate official returns were made of the exact weight and value of diamonds produced in the several mines, but since that date careful monthly statistics are collected by the chief of the Detective Department at Kimberley, with whom, under penalty, every digger is bound to register exact particulars of his monthly finds. GROSS PRODUCTION. 211 The following is an abstract of these returns up to the end of December, 1885:- Kimberley. De Beer's. Bultfontein Dutoitspan. Total Production of the Four Mines. Total Import into Kimberley. Total Exports from Kimberley. 143936) Production in Carats Value ... ... € Average per Carat ... 380955 456420 23'114 1405131 157220 22/44 1909485 8563533 313040 | 1119210 32/94 26/2 7965463 1156273 192530 26/9! 29/- ... | 2413953) Production in Carats Value ... ... £ Average per Carat... | 9478173 42672845020293 4356584 23122345 816705 435762 503227 | 573772 2359466 17/101 20/03 26/4 20/6 2742521 20/5 22/83 1882. 1883. Jan. to Dec. Jan. to Dec. Jan, to Dec. Sept. to Dec, 1884. 1885. | Production in Carats Value ... . £ Average per Carut ... 642438 634332 19/9 4975961 566201 579608 588465 2334 2094 4985504 22047864 760218 2567623 30/51 231 22636863 2807288 24/98 Production in Carats Value ... ... £ Average per Carat... 5237741 458858 17/61 566233 500134 500134 17/8 636340 579326 18 25 5609124 2287261 690360 2228678 247 19/6 244078831 2492755 20/5 Total 34 Years. Production in Carats 249498541631072 18485081 16860698 7660635 Value .. ... € 2396315 1672724 1863548 23373908269977 Average per Carat... | 19/3 20/6 20/2 21/72 272305479149748 436876 9198837 32- 232 279 Shewing a total production from the four mines for the three and a third years of over 81 millions sterling. The imports into Kim- berley are made up of 123,8473 carats from the Free State Mines (mainly Jagersfontein), valued by the importers at £193,717 ;. 68,2455 carats from the River Diggings, valued at £157,884; and 80,2123 carats from England, the Cape Colony, etc. (diamonds returned for sale in the Kimberley market), and valued at £84,475. It will be noted that the prices realized in 1883 shew a great falling-off from those of the previous year--also that in 1884 a considerable revival occurred, whilst in 1885 prices ruled lower than in any of the preceding years. It is further interesting to note that whilst Du Toit's Pan stuff always fetches a much higher price per carat than diamonds from the other mines, the relative value per carat of diamonds from the- other three mines fluctuates constantly. P 2 212 GROSS CAPITAL OF THE COMPANIES. The weight of diamonds sent through the Kimberley Post Office in 1884 was 1,801 lbs. (gross), and in 1885 it was 1,830 lbs. Forty per cent. must be deducted from these weights for weight of packages, leaving respectively 1,080 lbs. and 1,100 lbs. as the net weight of diamonds shipped each year, equivalent to 2,385,000 and 2,430,000 weight in carats, so that it will be seen, by reference to above table, that the Post Office Returns agree very nearly with those of the Detective Department. From a comparison of various official sources of information it has been estimated that the gross value of diamonds exported from the Cape Colony up to the end of 1885 amounted to £35,000,000. But this estimate does not include exports on the person prior to the existence of an export duty, nor the large number of stolen -diamonds known to be illicitly exported. By calculation of the amount of diamondiferous ground removed from each of the four mines to date, and from the known average yield per load in each, it is found that not less than 33 million carats of diamonds (or more than 6} tons weight) must have been extracted from the four mines up to the present time, realizing in round numbers forty millions sterling. The total number of claims in the four mines is at present 3,238, or about 70 acres of diamondiferous ground. Its present assessed "value is £5,172,975, being at the rate of £75,000 per acre. This property is divided amongst 98 holders, of whom 42 are Joint Stock Companies and the remaining 56 private firms and individuals. The gross capital of the above 42 companies, holding 2,211 claims, is £7,970,490. Taking the property of the 56 private holders in the same pro- portion to the assessed value of their claims as is obtained from the above capital of the companies, the value of private property in the four mines would stand at £1,624,900, making the gross capital of the entire mines £9,595,390. Within the last few months a syndicate has been formed in London, under the title of the “Unified Diamond Mines, Limited," for the object of bringing about an amalgamation of all the hold- ings in the several Kimberley Mines, and taking such other steps as may tend to regulate production and keep up prices. The capital of the Unified Company is to be ten millions sterling, and tif established it is likely to prove one of the most powerful com- mercial monopolies in the world. The amount of labour and machinery employed at the Diamond Fields is of course considerable. Something like 10,000 native labourers and 1,200 European overseers and artizans are daily at work in and about the four mines, the average wage earned by a Kafir being about 20s. per week and by a white man £5 per week. POPULATION AND WAGES. 213 The population of the Fields at the time of the last Census, taken in 1877, was as follows : Europeans. Others. Total. Kimberley and De Beer's .. 6,486 7,104 13,190 Bultfontein and Dutoitspan .. 1,648 2,611 4,259 17,449 At the present time, however, owing to the increased activity in working the mines of Bultfontein and Dutoitspan, the population around the latter has more than doubled. In addition to the above manual labour some 2,500 horses, mules. and oxen are daily employed about the mines. The total length of tramways is about 160 miles. About 350 steam engines, at work and idle, are fixed around the four mines, aggregating nearly 4,000 nominal horse power. The annual expenditure in labour, material, &c., is not less than two millions sterling, distributed somewhat as follows:- Wages, Salaries, etc. .. £1,000,000 Fuel and Water .. 250,000 Mining Material and Stores 250,000 Explosives .. 100,000 Forage and Stable Expenses 125,006 Rates and Taxes, General Expenses, &c. .. 275,000 eue £2,000,000 THE RIVER DIGGINGS. Diamonds have been found in the bed, and on the banks of the Vaal River from its junction with the Orange in latitude 28° 20', longitude 24° 30', to above Christiana, latitude 28°, longitude 26° 30°. The River Diggings are situated between these two points on both banks of the Vaal, those at present worked extend- ing from Delport's Hope at the junction of the Harts and Vaal Rivers to above Hebron on the latter stream, a distance of some fifty miles across country, or about seventy miles following the winding of the river. The farms traversed by this length of river are partly private property, partly Crown lands. In the former case a distinction is drawn between lands on which the Crown reserves the right to precious stones and minerals, and lands on which there is no such reservation. Within the latter category falls the “ Pniel Estate," owned by the Berlin Missionary Society, and also the “ Vaal River Estate," the property of some Kimberley capitalists. Both these farms are on the south bank of the river, opposite and below the town of Barkly which is on the north bank. The rising ground above the river at Barkly undulates into a PRODUCTION. 215 cashed by the remainder bout £1,06 is at enduation is pd at €132,0 diggings in the threfor the Proroprietors fix the amount of licence money, 'rent, or royalty to be paid by diggers, subject to a contribution to the Government of ten per cent. of such revenue. The present revenue collected from the alluvial diggings is at the rate of about £1,500 per annum, of which about £1,000 flows into the Government coffers, and the remainder to the proprietors. From the statistics published by the Board for the Protection of Mining Interests, it appears that in the three years ended 31st August, 1885, the river diggings produced 55,514 carats of dia- monds, valued at £132,042, equivalent to 47s. 6d. per carat. This valuation is probably excessive, but, after making every allowance, the superior quality of river stones will still be very apparent. Within the same period the total exportation of diamonds from the entire province amounted to 7,011,382 carats, valued at £8,292,870, or 23s. 6d. per carat; or, in other words, whilst the weight of dia- monds from the Vaal River was only about his of the entire exports, their declared value was as much as o'z of the total value exported. There is no means of arriving at an approximate estimate of the gross yield of diamonds from the river diggings since their opening fifteen years ago. But comparing what imperfect statistics are available, it is probable that the total yield of diamonds from the Vaal River to date has exceeded £2,000,000. A short account of the mode of working at the River diggings will not be out of place here. It has been stated above that the diamondiferous deposit is embedded between boulders, and mixed with a quantity of fine red sand, and in many places with a good deal of lime. The diggers draw a distinction between “red kopjes” and “lime kopjes.” At some of the diggings this lime forms a hard crust, or “clinker layer,” on the surface, varying in thickness from two to twenty feet, and shafts are sunk through it before the payable ground is got at. At Gong-Gong some of these shafts are over a hundred feet deep before they strike the bed-rock, which is a dolerite of amygda- loidal structure. At other diggings the workings are exceedingly shallow, consisting only of a few inches of red sand before the bed- rock is reached. The hardest work consists in excavating and lifting the heavy boulders, under which the richest gravel is generally found. At the present time a large number of the claims are encumbered with debris from the early workings, which has to be removed before the maiden ground can be dug. Another diffi- culty is the presence of water at a depth of forty or fifty feet at Gong-Gong and Waldek's, the majority of diggers not having the capital for putting down pumps. Occasionally, too, the river rises and submerges claims, which are then subject to a reduced rental of only one shilling per month whilst under water, the draw, and in maren boulderse that the 216 THE RIVER DIGGINGS. ordinary rental being ten shillings. There is little doubt that the river bed itself is rich in diamonds, but the Vaal is too well supplied with water all the year round to render prospecting of its bed an easy matter with the limited funds and appliances at the diggers' disposal. In a time of drought, some four years ago, a narrow arm of the river at Niekerk's Rush was diverted, and diamonds to the value of £30,000 taken out of the bed. The Vaal has continually changed its course, and occasionally a digger is lucky enough to strike a portion of an old river bed, silted up with lime and gravel, when his finds are sure to be good. There are evidences along the whole banks of a vast denudation; rocks on the summits of the hills, more than a hundred feet above the river level, are water-worn, with the marks of great eddies in their sides. The proportion of diamondiferous gravel varies at different diggings. In four loads of solid ground there is on an average one load of boulders, one load of rough stones, one load of fine sand, and finally one load of pebbles which remains to be washed. This is in the red sand kopjes. In the lime kopjes there are less boulders, but more calcareous sand and gravel. The mode of working is as follows: After the excavation has been made with pick and shovel (there is seldom any explosive used) the boulders and large stones are thrown aside, and the gravel secured is taken to a sifting- machine, styled a "Baby.” This consists of an oblong sieve swing- ing by four thongs or chains from four upright poles, and inclined slightly, so that the pebbles may roll over it. At the higher, or feeding end, a small square sieve, about two feet square, and coarse enough for stones three-eighths of an inch thick to pass through it, is fixed over the oblong sieve, which is about five feet long and of very fine mesh. The gravel from the claim is emptied by hand buckets on to the coarse sieve; the worker, standing behind it, swings it alternately towards and away from him, whereby the finer stuff passes through on to the lower long sieve, which again allows only the fine sand to pass through, whilst the pebbles roll off the lower end into a tub put to receive them. The coarse stones from the top sieve, as well as the fine sand which passes through the lower one, are refuse to be thrown away, but the medium-sized pebbles which have tumbled into the tub will contain the diamonds, if there are any in the ground. Any diamonds too large to have passed the first sieve would have been noticed at once by the worker, who has it immediately under his eye, and who continually throws out the rough stones to make rocm for fresh ground from the claim, whilst any diamond so small as to have passed away with the fine sand is not worth the trouble of further search. This is the “ dry-sorting” process. The process that follows consists in “ gravitating " the contents po there the firsta it in 218 THE RIVER DIGGINGS. Kimberley, has been tried at the river, and though not so satis- factory as gravitating, it answers fairly well. Some six years ago a machine was devised to save the labour of hand-sieving and supersede the imperfect washing of the “ cradle.” This contrivance, known as the “Rule and Henry” or “Maddocks" machine, is an arrangement of suitable mechanism for “jigging” a sieve up and down whilst immersed in a tank of water, and providing proper shoots for separating the heavy deposit from the tailings. The average quantity of maiden-ground that one man can excavate per day is about one and a half loads of rough gravel and sand, which after being “babied,” yield half a load of pebbles to be washed. The cost of picking, sifting, and washing is about two shillings and sixpence per load (of 22] cubic feet) of maiden- ground. No estimate whatever can be framed of the average yield of diamonds, their occurrence being too uncertain. Sometimes hundreds of loads are manipulated without finding a single precious stone, then perhaps a rich “ pocket” is hit upon and a handful of diamonds are turned out. Still, with all this uncertainty to an individual digger, the gross yield of diamonds from the river remains pretty uniform throughout the year, being at the present time at the rate of about £4,000 worth per month, which is very near the average of the last three years. This represents the finds of not more than 350 diggers distributed over the various diggings from Jonas' to Delport's, of which number about 300 are Europeans and 50 Kafir-diggers, besides some 500 native labourers. It will thus be seen that diamond digging on the Vaal is not a very lucrative occupation, bringing in on an average an income of about £120 per annum. The expenses that have to be paid out of this are not very beavy, and living is cheap; the life itself healthy and certainly preferable to that of artizans in the Kimberley Mines. At some spots, such as Pniel, Gong-Gong and Hebron, there is a pleasant profusion of foliage, and the mud-huts and tents of the diggers are picturesquely pitched amongst the trees on the hill-sides overlooking the river, whilst here and there a rustic arbour, with dining table and wooden benches, may be seen hidden in the leafy shade. But the majority of the diggings are bleak stone-kopjes, where there is nothing but the fresh air, wide view and free life to compensate for an arduous existence, though to these inducements must, of course, be added the fascination of the pursuit that still draws men from all quarters of the globe, so that on a single small digging there may be nearly as many nationalities as workers. Genial, hearty fellows the most of them are, and not wanting in tastes not usually associated with remote mining camps. Books are here in plenty, and the author of “ Culture and acts of trouble be udicio atch, the base of essencetustomer LAND AND AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL RESOURCES. The Colony, in its varied aspects and conditions, gives scope for every kind of pastoral and agricultural occupation. Flocks of sheep and goats, and herds of cattle and horses, feed entirely on the natural plants and grasses; wheat and other varieties of grain yield excellent returns from the soil; and most of the pro- ducts of the temperate or semi-tropical zone may with moderate ease and trouble be successfully cultivated. Farming at the Cape is accordingly, in judicious and industrious hands, a profitable as well as an independent employment. It should be understood, however, by persons desirous of push- ing their fortunes in this direction, that an initiation into the colonial peculiarities of seasons, soil, pasture, management of stock, and, it may be added, native labour, as well as the vernacular Cape Dutch, the spoken language of a large pcrtion of the country population, will be of essential service. A short time spent in observing and getting accustomed to colonial ways is amply repaid by the experience gained. The value of any farm in the Colony depends much upon the quality of its herbage, the strength and permanency of its foun- tains, the nature of the improvements that have been made upon it in the form of dams, buildings, homestead, &c., as well as its extent of arable land, and proximity to a market. The best first-class farms, combining “horn, corn, wool, and wine,” are worth at present from £3 to £1 a morgen, and others range from that price down to 10s. per morgen, while inferior spots may be had as low as ls. or ls. 6d. per morgen, or two acres. In some districts, however, such as the fertile irrigable lands of Oudtshoorn, fractions of farms sometimes sell at the rate of from £50 to £250 an acre. Although the greater portion of the country is settled, and become the property of private individuals, there is a large extent of waste land belonging to the Crown, which is from time to time surveyed and offered for sale by public auction and disposed of on perpetual quit-rent (equivalent to an annual rental) for the highest annual sum obtainable. If such land offered at public anction fails to obtain a purchaser at the price reserved, any person prepared to fulfil all conditions required may, upon application within one year from the date of the sale, become the purchaser of the ground at the upset price. This is provided for by Acts 14 of 1878, and 37 of 1882, which form the present land law of the Colony. Each lot is put LAND LAWS. 221 purchaser is bont, dating froment is declareshest bidder wont of the up at an upset annual quit-rent, which is one-twentieth part of the actual assessed value of the land, and the highest bidder who offers not less than such upset quit-rent is declared the purchaser of the lot on quit-rent, dating from the day of sale; and every such purchaser is bound to pay the first year's quit-rent in advance on that day, and to secure the payment for the two next years by sureties whom the Civil Commissioner shall deem sufficient: provided that the Civil Commissioner shall, if required by the purchaser, receive two years' rent in advance, in which event the said security is not required. The expenses of survey and erection of beacons and the expenses of title deed (viz.: stamp according to tariff, and the office fee of 12s. 3d.) are paid on the day of sale. Upon due payments being made, and surety bond (if required) passed as above, the purchaser becomes entitled to receive title deed on quit-rent to the said land, which is issued to him accord- ingly. The annual quit-rent payable upon any quit-rent grant, whether a grant made after the taking effect of the said Act No. 14 of 1878, or upon any grant made previously, may be redeemed at any time by the payment of a sum equal to not less than twenty times such annual quit-rent, which redemption in no way alters the nature of the tenure. The disposal of small areas for agricultural purposes is pro- vided for by Act 37 of 1882, amended by Act 40 of 1885. This bids fair to become a most popular means of acquiring small hold- ings, its advantages being appreciated by Europeans and Natives alike. The following is a synopsis of its provisions :- Grants of available waste Crown land not exceeding 250 nor less than 4 morgen in extent, and not being forest land, may be made to approved applicants upon perpetual quit-rent under conditions as follows: The applicant, who must address the Civil Commissioner of the division in which the land he applies for is situated, must declare that he is 21 years of age or upwards, that he is not the owner of ground of 250 morgen or upwards, that he applies for the land for his own use and benefit, that he is not in collusion with other persons respect- ing the application, and that he does not already hold land under the Act. The land must already have been surveyed, and he must either describe it accurately or generally so as to lead to its identification. When applying he must deposit with the Civil Commissioner a sum equal to 18. per morgen, which goes in diminution of the first year's payment, or otherwise if the application be refused, is returned. The application, if in order, is referred to a Land Board consisting of three persons of whom the Civil Commissioner is one ex-officio, specially appointed for each division; which Board reports to the Commissioner of Crown Lands and Public Works. An approved applicant receives a licence to occupy for five years, dating from the 1st July or 1st January following the date of the WHEAT GROWING. 223 or oatsheaves so made form a sweet and wholesome fodder for horses and cattle, which fetches, if fair or good quality, from 3s. to 6s. or 7s. per 100 lbs. weight, according to season and demand. Barley is very prolific; the Cape barley more so than English malting kinds; but it requires well manured virgin soil. The actual return on two farms which could be named was three hundred and thirty bushels from three; the average return is about forty bushels per acre; and it realises about from nine to fifteen shillings per bag of three bushels. Rye is not so largely cultivated as other cereals; it is generally used for horse feed and the straw for thatch- ing purposes; it yields largely and requires the lightest and most sandy soil. In the Cape and Malmesbury districts, some of our best wheat is grown, which would gladden the heart of an English corn chandler or miller, weighing from 200 to 212 lbs. per muid of three bushels, which is at the rate of 67 to 70 lbs. per bushel; and it certainly seems strange that with thousands upon thousands of acres of ground equally adapted to the growth of wheat, but still lying uncultivated, we should be importing £300,000 to £600,000 value of breadstuffs yearly to supply our own wants, of which undoubtedly every bushel could and ought to be grown in the Colony. Some people are sanguine enough to think that we ought to export, but whilst there is such a wide range between the price of wheat in the Colony, and that obtained by the farmers of Australia or America, to stand all the charges and risk conse- quent on bringing it over sea four thousand or six thousand miles, the solution of that problem may be left for the future. To the above charges must be added an import duty of ls. per 100lbs., which, in all, really means a protection to the Cape farmer of 25 per cent. to 33 per cent., according to price and season. And this with a climate and soil specially adapted to the growth of wheat, where the yield (even with the present mode of culture) shows a good average for the acreage ploughed and quantity sown ;: with labour at least equally cheap and obtainable as it is in the countries competing with us in our own markets; and the price of good ground from £1 to £2 per acre, and that sometimes in- cluding a fairly built homestead. When, in addition to all this, we remember that the crops here are subject to fewer drawbacks, all things considered, than most countries have to contend against, it surely is only the want of a knowledge of these facts, that keeps many of the struggling agricultural farmers of Europe (if with a family so much the better) from trying their fortune here. There is no doubt that we have ample room, even at this western end of the Colony, within easy distance of the larger markets, for the gradual settlement of thousands of families in the 224 WHEAT GROWING. corn-800 morgen 14ing point, let usprains ; and cultivation of cereals, vines, and sheep-farming. But they must be of the right stamp, with sufficient capital to give them a start, willing to work, and not too proud or self-willed to learn, because the most intelligent man, no matter how experienced, can gain many useful, nay, necessary hints, from local usages, which it is well not to ignore, although they may appear strange or wrong. If the new- comer acts with due caution, and accommodates himself to his surroundings, applying his experience only where he feels sure it would give better results than the system or mode of culture generally followed by his new neighbours, there is not the slightest doubt that the same amount of energy, forethought and capital expended in the Colony, would give far better returns than if employed in older, more developed, and keenly contested centres of agriculture; and this remark equally applies to every branch of industry in the country. To give the reader, if a stranger, some general idea of the routine followed and the work done on an agricultural farm in the corn-growing districts of the West, let us suppose we are on a farm of 1,000 morgen (2,000 acres) in the Malmesbury district. As we must have a starting point, let us take the 15th to the 30th of April, the time we look for our first rains; and all farmers who are on the alert ought to be ready by the 15th, because if a few earlier showers have given the grass a fair start, the sooner the crops are in the better, so that they may get the benefit of the full rainfall. If no rain has fallen before the 15th April most farmers prefer waiting until the commencement of May, after which they begin to plough in oats and any early crops, although it may prove a dusty operation. In fair seasons, oats are sown from the 20th of April to the 30th of May; wheat from the 15th of May to the 30th of June. In exceptional seasons much later ploughing is done, with good results. We must not forget the all-important work of manuring. The manure, after being thoroughly worked and taken out of the kraal, is ridden to the lands from about the middle of March, and placed in small heaps, ready to spread out just before ploughing. A good deal of guano is used by some farmers, either alone or mixed with the ordinary farm manure. If used alone about 1 ton of 2,000 lbs. of guano is given to say 3 muids (3 bushels=l muid) of seed wheat. This guano costs about £6 10s. in Cape Town, and is generally well mixed with sand before being sold. The better qualities .cost £10 to £12. The seed is sown broadcast, and ploughed in (some people think the way this is usually done is open to great improvement) and harrowed afterwards. Howard's and Ransome's single, double, and three-furrow ploughs are generally used, and the two-furrow 3eem most liked, drawn by eight horses or mules, and attended to by 226 WHEAT GROWING. cereals. This is cleared by having the bush rolled or grubbed up by the bush pick, and afterwards burnt. The cost of clear- ing say thirty thousand square yards of the above would be about 40s. The efforts made by farmers to get as much land broken as possible shew that they know the value of this work. They usually take good care of their land and do not exhaust it. After the first year's break-up and ploughing, a wheat crop is raised; in the following year a crop of oats, sometimes it may be another crop, and after that it is allowed to lie fallow. From the middle of July to September and October, the “ veld" or field is in splendid condition ; there is a wealth of grass every- where and flowers of every hue and shade carpet the sward in all directions. Towards the end of October again, it is a most enjoy- able treat to drive through these grain-growing districts; for fifty or sixty miles on a stretch the eye resting everywhere on the fast ripening harvest of all shades and stages of growth waving and glittering in the brilliant sunlight. By the end of October the early crops begin to ripen, and the har- vest is soon in full swing, continuing to about the first of December according to season. The crops are reaped by reaping machines, scythes, and sickles. The state of cultivation is not always adapted for machines ; the field being too rough, and the roller seldom used, so that the breakage is constant, and the expense of procuring extras considerable. The cradle scythe is largely used for oats, barley, and rye, but the waste is very great with wheat, for which they are in no way adapted; the hot sun during the harvest season causes the straw to become so hard that it is not possible to keep an edge on the blade. A mower receives 2s. 6d. a day with his food and wine. The wheat is sometimes reaped by the sickle. Six reapers, two binders, and two bundle makers, form a team, and go round the country. They take a strip of eight yards and go at it with a will. At times there are as many as seven teams in a field, each divided from the other by a furrow; these teams commence at five in the morning and continue until six in the evening. It would astonish a European labourer to wit- ness their reaping contests. They go at it as merrily as possible, each team straining every nerve to outdo the next one. They cut these eight-yard lands in strips of 60 yards, and the team that finishes his strip first, takes the lead and is called the front team, and so on. It is considered a great achievement to be the first of several teams; they never flag until all is reaped. The harvest home consists of allowing them to have as much wine--the vin- ordinaire of the country-as they can hold. Fiddlers are not idle ; and powder is given them to enable them to carry out what is known in the vernacular as “shooting the corn off.” The day after, they are ready to engage to any who may require their WHEAT GROWING, 227 services; like the mowers, they earn 2s. 6d. per diem, with food and wine. The scythe and self-delivery reaper are, however, gradually re- placing the sickle. The Johnston's Harvester, Walter A. Wood, McGregor's Albion, Hornsby's Indispensable, and McCormack's Daisy are all worked, but the two first are most used in the wes- tern districts. All do their work well, and it is surprising Reapers have not met with more ready sale, when we look at the cost and trouble they save. Let us take the cost of a day's harvesting with a Reaper, and the amount of work done in that day. First, a Reaper cuts about two muids or six bushels of seed wheat per ordinary day's run, or eighteen acres. Allow only fifteen days' actual work in the season for a machine; we get 270 acres. Say first cost of Reaper is £32, and deduct 25 per cent. for wear and tear; this gives about 7d. per acre cut. The machine requires a driver, 3s. per day wages ; one leader, a boy, in front of cattle, ls; four binders 2s. 6d. each, 10s; add food for the six at 2s. each, 128 ; in harvest each man generally gets wine six times a day (or near two bottles), which at £6 per leaguer comes to, say 2d. per bottle, that is 2s. for wine in the day; and cost of feeding four mules 4s. This gives us £1 12s. as the cost of labour to cut down two muids of seed wheat or eighteen acres of land, equal to 1s. 9d. per acre ; add the 7d. for proportion of cost of machine, and a total of 28. 4d. is reached. If cut by the sickle, allowing one muid or three bushels of seed, as a day's work for each span, as they are called, of eight men and two women or boys, at the same rate of wages and cost of food, gives about 58. 6d. per acre. The workpeople are supposed to get lodgings, but that does not trouble them much, as little shelter is required at this time of the year. The above operation leaves the sheaves on the land in fair sized heaps, from whence it is ridden to the homestead at the earliest convenience, and stacked until a thrasher can be obtained. About 400 sheaves weighing about 2,200 to 2,500 lbs. may be taken as a load, and four to five muids of wheat or ten muids of oats are expected from each load. Several disastrous fires, sweeping away the labours of a whole year, have taught our farmers the necessity of insuring, or, safer still, getting the grain into store as soon as possible. Thrashing is the next work on the list. December and January are the principal months in which it is done. There are now a large number of steam-thrashers, mostly Clayton and Shuttleworth's make, competing with each other, and as pre-arranged, the farmer's mules, horses, or cattle fetch the machine and engine from some neighbour's farm, where it is just finished, and no time is lost in setting to work, as all preparation is made for the day they expect to commence. Coals are fetched and boys hired. Q 2 228 WHEAT GROWING. The owner, or conductor and engineer, as a rule, undertakes to thrash the stack or stacks, for a given sum, the farmer telling him how many loads it contains, and he, with his practised eye, judging by bulk. This generally averages say £4 or £4 10s. per day for his machine, self and fire-boy. The engineer earns 12s. 6d. to 15s., and the fire-boy 3s. per day. For this they are sup- posed to find themselves, but when at work, they, as a rule, get food. The farmer provides 15 to 20 men, at ls. 6d. to ls. 9d. per day and food, with wine five or six times a day. The engine con- sumes about 30s. worth of coal per day, if used alone, but where stumps of bush or other wood is obtainable, it will cost less. (Best steam coal can be bought for 43s. to 45s. per ton of 2,240 lbs. in Cape Town). An 8-horse thrasher (the size generally used in fair working order, will clean in a day's work, 250 to 300 muids of wheat or 450 to 550 muids of oats. Barley or rye is generally tramped, or if thatching straw is required, the latter is beaten out in bunches by the hand. Tramping means the old-fashioned practice (as described in Scripture) of driving the mules or horses round a circular thrash- ing-floor, their feet beating out the grain. It is then cleaned by throwing it up against the wind, the heavy grain falling to the ground, the chaff being carried away ; but this tedious process is seldom practised now for wheat and oats, or only by the small and poor farmers. The riding season, or bringing the grain to market, used to occupy three months of the year, but railways have brought them so much nearer, that far less time is now necessary, and the farmer has also a better pick of markets. January and February are the months for this ; but some of the well-to-do farmers hold a little to sell, after the ploughing and breaking season, in the hope of partici- pating in any rise that may have taken place. Formerly a poor harvest insured high prices, but in these days of quick and cheap freight, aided by the telegraph, the price is regulated by what grain can be imported for, which, taking the last five years, has ranged from 16s. 6d. to 22s. per 3 bushels, 203 lbs. gross, including 2s. duty and cost of bag. Our Cape wheat always commands the top market value, if not a slight advance, on even the best Australian imports. In the above we have quoted Cape Town and coast ports price; further inland, if supplies had to be drawn from the coast, carriage would tell on value, the railway carriage being 2d. per ton of 2,000 lbs. (10 muids of wheat or 20 muids of oats are taken as 2,000 lbs.) from station to station, per mile, irrespective of distance ; cartage, &c., to buyers' stores is, say, Is. 3d. per ton more. Imported cereals are charged at a rate of 3d. per ton per mile. Most of the corn farmers have a few sheer, ranging in number 232 THE KAROO DISTRICTS. strings, a sufficient length of which is done up into rolls of six or eight lbs. in weight. This work is performed chiefly by the coloured people, men, women, and children, who receive very good pay, as they in many cases suffer considerably from the effects of the narcotic. These rolls are apt to rot unless care be taken that the leaves are not soaked with water when twisted. Production. It is estimated that the yield of tobacco in this district alone amounts to about 3,000,000 lbs. per annum. This is consumed within this and the neighbouring colonies; a large proportion being used for sheep-dipping. General prospects of the trade.—Much of the leaf grown in this dis- trict will compare very favourably with the generality of that grown in other countries; but up to the present time enterprise and capital have been wanting to place the article in the markets of the world. Were this to be done, the production would be largely increased, and more careful attention given to the cultivation and general manipula- tion of our tobacco. New interest is now being awakened in this im- portant branch of industry, and it is confidently expected that the apointment of a competent expert, sanctioned during the last session of Parliament, will lead to its speedy development Roll tobacco sells in the Colony at prices ranging from 3d. to 9d. per lb. Good leaf at from 3 d. to 6d. per lb., though this quotation is not of much value, as there is no demand for large quantities. Although the Karoo districts are chiefly pastoral, the soil, like that of Oudtshoorn, is naturally rich, and only wants the fertilis- ing power of water to produce the heaviest crops. In favourable situations along the rivers, farmers form dams or weirs and lead out furrows from which the arable lands are irrigated ; in other cases they raise the water by centrifugal pumps from the bed of the streams, which run at great depths below the surface of the adjacent lands. Thus at many places along the Orange River, there are several pumps worked by stream power, supplying water from its bed, and large areas adjacent to it are brought under cultivation. Over the greater part of the Karoo, water can be found by sink- ing wells. The horizontal beds of sandstone and shale, which form the flats or level plains, are generally intersected by igneous dykes known to the farmers as “ Yzer Klip Kopjes” or iron stone ridges. These cross the beds of sand and shale vertically, and arrest the veins of water which permeate them, forming natural underground reservoirs. Generally, by observing the natural drainage area, and sinking alongside these dykes, where they form breaks or “ poortjes,” springs of considerable volume may be found. In addition to the igneous dykes, there are also limestone bands traversing the shale beds, and these sometimes seal up the fissures of the stratified beds so hermetically that springs are pro- duced by their interposition in the same way as with the dykes. WATER-FINDING. 233 Nature has made it easy to follow the course of the dykes, for they are marked by a low ridge of dark colour traversing the country, while those covered with soil are rendered conspicuous by the “Karreedoorn” and “Wolvedoorn,” and other bushes growing along their course. The sub-surface water-courses are known to the farmers as “aars ” or arteries, and from the vegeta- tion above them are almost as legible as footpaths. An interesting pamphlet on the subject of opening up these springs and wells has been published by Mr. Thomas Bain, Road Engineer,* who mentions a remarkable instance of an unbroken dyke running across a valley a little below the village of Calvinia. The village, being above the dyke, stands on an underground reservoir, sup- ported by a tolerably good drainage area. Hence it is that, by sinking wells, water can be found at a depth of 8 or 10 feet in any part of the village. The number of windmills which now are to be seen dotted over the plains of the Karoo indicate that springs and well-sinking have of late years been much resorted to. The usual way, however, of conserving the limited rainfall of these central elevated plateaux is by the construction of dams, and impounding the flood waters which would otherwise flow off to the sea. There are a great many forms of dams existing, indeed the larger part of the country Is entirely dependent upon water thus collected for the use of stock and other purposes. Some few of these dams contain when rall as much as two hundred million gallons of water, and in several instances farmers have proved themselves very successful in producing sufficient grain for their individual wants, some even raising a surplus. As an instance of what can be done in the way of irriga- tion, the Fish River, draining part of the Fraserburg and Calvinia districts, affords an example. It has there been found possible, by the construction of simple weirs of stone and bush, to raise the flood waters to a height sufficient to cover the enormous flats bordering the river on either side, and of this fact farmers have largely availed themselves. The early operations were carried out by unassisted private enterprise, and met with fair success; but, of late years, considerable sums have been advanced under the Irrigation Act for the better construction and strengthening of the weirs now in use, with the result that the yield has been increased sevenfold within that time. Some similar works have been constructed along the banks of the Zak River, into which the Fish River flows some distance above its junction with the Orange River, and it is anticipated of latested privates. The earl of this fac * “ Practical Hints on Water Finding in connection with Geology and on the Con- struction of Dams," by Thomas Bain, C.E., Cape Town. Richards & Sons, Govern. meut Printers, 1886. 234 GRAIN-GROWING ON IRRIGATED LANDS. that very large areas on both streams, in addition to those now cultivated, will be brought under the plough within a comparatively short period of time. The soil is of great depth and is peculiarly rich, the width of the valleys varying from a half to five miles in extent. Capt. Balfour, C.E., says of this locality :-“The average height to which the crops grow varies from five to seven feet, and the ears measure from six to nine inches, full and well developed. After the first crop is reaped, a second one may be expected without sowiug ;” and sometimes even a third comes up. The yield last year (1885), which has been what is considered in that back country à fair season, would probably exceed thirty thousand bushels. The conditions necessary to the securing of a reasonable harvest may be stated generally to be one thorough soaking of the soil before seed time and one flooding after the plants are well grown; an additional flooding in season naturally enhances the yield. The only effort that has been made to effect artificial irrigation on a scale of any magnitude, is the Government scheme of Van Wyk's Vlei, described in a preceding chapter. The reserve for this work was about eighty thousand acres, but, owing to the serious losses farmers have sustained during the recent years of drought, Government have been compelled to resume possession of at least an equal extent of land lying contiguous to the pro- perty. The dam closes the mouth of a gorge, the sides of which are of no great elevation, and through which the water passes to a lower level, the outlet to the dam being over a depression in the ridge to the eastward of the earthworks, through which superfluous water is discharged to a point in the valley more than a quarter of a mile below the works, thus affording absolute safety in periods of flood. The area feeding the dam represents about an eighth part of the drainage area discharging its waters over the property ; the dam, in fact, being upon a side stream about seven miles above its junction with a larger main stream. Á canal of some four and a half miles in length has been constructed from the dam towards the junction of these two streams, commanding a large extent of arable land, of which two thousand five hundred acres are now under survey, the area still available for survey being at least three or four times as great as that now measured. Apart from the fact that these lands can be irrigated by water caught in the dam, floods from the main stream are of frequent occurrence during the sowing season, and can, at very slight cost, be led out and utilized for the first soakage of all sowing lands to be offered for sale, thus giving the leaseholders the very exceptional power of being able to husband the water in the dam for use at a later period. The lands available for irrigation below Van Wyk's Vlei are variable in quality. Those in the main valley are probably equal SUNDAY'S RIVER. 235 in richness to the Fish and Zak River lands, some patches amounting perhaps to a fifth of the whole, being of indifferent quality, and a little, here and there, is too poor for cultivation. The enormous area, however, of good level ground below the dam, affords a choice of far more than sufficient land on which to employ the impounded waters. Cultivation of a similar class of land to that now obtainable has been effected on parts of these lands, but the experiments hitherto made by aid of water in the dam are too recent to allow of a decisive opinion being formed as to whether the yield will exceed that gained by what is called natural irrigation. It is, however, satis- factorily proved that wheat, barley, and oats yield abundantly. All common vegetables thrive well. Some five hundred trees have been planted within the last few months, and are growing freely. Vines are a success as far as their growth is concerned, but it is doubtful whether viticulture can be carried on to any great extent, owing to the fact that untimely frosts are apt to damage the crop. Roots, such as mangel, sugar, beet, carrots, turnip, &c., thrive splendidly. Mealies, sorghum, and lucerne can be depended upon for a full crop of forage during the summer months, and ensilage can be carried on to any extent. Turning eastward again, in the direction of the country adjacent to Port Elizabeth, the valley of the Sunday's River offers a fine field for the promotion of irrigation. Here an association has already been formed—the Sunday's River Land and Irrigation Company—which is setting an example of what may be done on a large scale by private enterprise. They have acquired upwards of 74,000 acres of varied “veld,” 15,000 to 16,000 acres of which are capable of being irrigated, comprising the vast valley through which the river winds for a distance of 15 miles, irrigation canals for six miles having been already constructed. The soil of this valley is a very rich alluvial, being composed of the periodical deposits of the river for ages. The depth of soil varies from 20 to 45 feet; and wherever cultivation has been attempted the growth has been most luxuriant. On the homestead “Hillside,” occupied by Mr. J. S. Kirkwood, mealies (or Indian corn) grow fourteen feet high. Tobacco thrives well there, and Mr. Kirkwood has a vineyard in a very healthy condition. Indeed, there are on the banks of the Sunday's River, at Darlington, Jansenville, and Graaff-Reinet, some of the finest vineyards in the Eastern part of the Colony, proving the fitness of the soil and climate for viticul- ture. Wheat, barley, and all kinds of cereals, as well as vege- tables, grow abundantly wherever they have been planted; while under the former proprietors orchards containing as many as 500 trees were in existence. Of the remaining 60,000 acres a great part is grass and bush, affording both grazing and shelter for live 236 PASTORAL RESOURCES. stock; cattle, goats, and ostriches thrive well on this pasture. The estate extends some way into the densely wooded kloofs of the Zuurberg Mountains, which abound in valuable timber, suitable for fencing, building and other purposes. There are twelve home- steads on the estate. Indeed, it consisted of twelve farms when it was acquired by the company. Twenty years ago fine crops of grain were raised on many of these farms, the land being irrigated by water led out from the river by means of gravitation. On the discovery of the Diamond Fields the sons of the old owners of the farms were tempted, by the large prices paid for the carriage of merchandise, to the new Adamantia, and abandoned husbandry for the more lucrative occupation of “kurveying." Thus the old dams and watercourses fell out of repair, and the rich land has practically been lying fallow ever since, having being turned into runs for the numerous herds of oxen employed in the carrying. On one portion of the estate a village is being formed by about 20 to 30 families (European). Each holder has a certain portion of arable land, and has proportionate grazing rights over the extensive commonage. On another portion 500 Natives live. They cultivate mealies extensively, and have 1,400 bead of cattle grazing on the commonage assigned to them. The facilities for sending produce, agricultural and dairy, to market are good, the Midland Railway running through the estate at a distance of about four miles from the river; and on the other side the Addo Station on the North Eastern line is only fifteen miles distant. Thus all the principal markets of the Colony are easily accessible. Should the attempt now being made to establish cotton-growing as a Colonial industry succeed, there is no doubt that the Sunday's River Valley will be found most suitable for it. With the facts proven that with natural irrigation astonishingly remunerative returns may be obtained from the soil, and that life- giving water can at no great cost be artificially impounded and so distributed that adjacent fertile lands can be utilized for agricul- tural purposes, especially grain and fruit-growing, it is certain that, under proper direction and management, there is ample room for the extersion of Irrigation, and that a great future awaits its general practice throughout the Colony The chief Pastoral pursuits of the colonists are horse, cattle, goat, ostrich and sheep-breeding; and fully one-third of the entire population may be said to be engaged in these and other occupations subsidiary thereto. The horse-stock of the Colony at last census was 205,985. That number has now probably doubled, but at present there is no extensive market for horses, and breeders are wishful that the Imperial or Indian Governments would establish a remount establishment here, or make their requirements known and the HORSES AND CATTLE. 237 price a certain class of animal would always command, as there would not be any difficulty in providing a regular steady supply. Cape horses are celebrated for their hardy and enduring qualities. The original stock came from South America; they were after- wards improved by pure Arabs, who gave them their characteristic of good constitution and indomitable pluck; and they have since had a large infusion of English thoroughbred blood, both racers and roadsters. There are a considerable number of notable sires in the Colony,* and several thoroughbred dams have also been brought out, much more attention being now given to the character of brood mares than formerly. The principal studs in the west are those of Messrs. Melck, Kotzé, Breda, Van der Byl, Faure, and Alport; in the Midlands are Mr. Rose of Beaufort, Mr. Burgers of Murraysburg, the Messrs. Southey and Distin of Middelburg, and Messrs. Hilton Barber, Heathcote, and Mechau of Cradock; Mr. Moorcroft of Dordrecht; and the famous establishments of Messrs. Van Zyl, Oosthuysen, and cthers in the Hantam, Colesberg. The cattle of the Colony include the descendants of the long- horned native species which the Hottentots possessed in Van Riebeek's time, crossed with the Dutch breed introduced by the early colonists. To these have been added contributions from nearly every breed known in England and Holland-Shorthorns, Herefords, Ayrshires, Devons, Alderneys and Kerries, A great extent of the grass pasturage along the coast districts is well adapted for cattle, including the tracts known as the “ Zuurveld ” or sour grass country, where they attain to magnificent condition, the finest oxen employed for transport riding being supplied from that quarter. Many of the farmers of Albany, Peddie, Victoria, and King William's Town are not only cattle breeders but also “kurveyors ” (transport riders) and have always some wagons and teams on the road. At the last census the total number of draught cattle in the Colony was returned as 421,762 ; and other cattle 689,951; to this has to be added the cattle in the Transkeian Territories, now annexed to the Colony, numbering 218,931 head, making a total in 1875 of 1,330,644. The average value of draught oxen in the Colony during the last five years has varied from £9 down to the present price of £6 10s. per head, and in the Transkei it is about £6 per head. Dairy farming near to the centres of population is very profitable to those who have a knowledge of it, the average price of fresh butter being 2s. per lb., and sometimes it has been known to * The Racing Calendar (1884), gives the following as among the notable sires in South Africa :- Almoner, Berzelius, Bismarck, Buxton, Capillaire, Catalpa, Conductor, Deluder, Elf King, Eurus, Fire King, Glastonbury, il Gladiatore, Ivanhoe, Jacobin, Mr. Dodd, The Monk, Morning Star, Plunger, Selborne, Sir Marmaduke, St. Augustine, Student, Tapestry, The Minstrel, Visconti, Whackum, Winchester, of sommest over. Mang TOW? 238 ANGORA GOATS. run up as high as 4s. or 5s. per lb. In the inland districts the yield of milk very much depends upon the quantity of food the cows can get; and as the animals are entirely dependent upon the natural veld, unless there is a good rainy season the share of milk that comes to the dairy is but small. Up to the present time very little has been done towards the systematic cultivation of food for milch cows or other stock; but in some parts the wild grasses growing on "vley" grounds are being cut and stacked for winter food, and “silos" are also being built, and ensilage will no doubt ere long form an important addition to the food supplies of the stock-breeder. Very many farmers have flocks of goats—in most cases the common goat of the country, but often mixed with various grades of Angora blood. These original goats are a very hardy race of animals, and live where sheep cannot, and supply meat which, though not equal to Southdown wether mutton, is quite passable, and very useful on a farm. They breed and increase very fast, having as many as five kids at a birth, and seldom less than two; they are, altogether, a useful animal, and give a skin which is unequalled for the manufacture of superior leathers. The beautiful Angora goats, yielding the valuable mohair, were first introduced to the Cape by Colonel Henderson of Bombay. Afterwards the Hon. Dr. White obtained some through Sir Titus Salt; and the stock resulting from these found its way to Caledon, Swellendam, Graaff-Reinet, and Richmond districts, Later on, Messrs. Mosenthal Brothers, who appreciated the value and importance of a fleece-bearing goat as next to a wool-bearing sheep, tried to secure some pure-bred animals from Angora, and in 1856 succeeded in doing so. Since then importations have been effected by other private individuals and mercantile firms. One of the latest and most important was that by Mr. J. B. Evans, who visited Asia Minor, and obtained some goats from the moun- tain districts of Teherkess and Geredeh ; these were introduced into the Colony in 1880, and some of the rams were sold at from £100 to £400 to the breeders of Graaff-Reinet and the Eastern districts. Although mohair only began to figure in our exports in 1862, the quantity then being 1,036 lbs., it has steadily advanced in quantity and quality, and last year (1885) it amounted to 5,251,301 lbs., of the declared value of £204,018. Cape mohair promises, with care and attention, to excel Turkish in the various qualities prized by the manufacturers. A Bradford authority, writing to Messrs. Savage and Hill, of Port Elizabeth, says:-"In time with careful and intelligent cultivation, the Cape might take its place as equal if not superior to Turkey as a mohair-producing country. The lustre, as a rule, is nearly equal to that of Turkey mohair, and it is softer and finer. In the best lots there is nearly MERINO SHEEP-BREEDING. 239 De best of stulling of the best specie breeding of as much freedom from kemp, and the kemps are not usually so thick and coarse as those in Turkish mohair. The colour is gene- rally superior. The medium are largely used for wraps for making mohair plush, and here again the fineness of Cape mohair is most suitable, as it makes a full, rich plush. There is no doubt that South Africa is eminently suited for the growth of mohair, and that it only rests with the people of the Colony to make it some day the greatest mohair-producing country in the world.” With Angoras, as with our Merino wool-bearing sheep, the fundamental rule which will determine the value of our staple products for the future is the degree of attention given to the selection of the best of stud rams, the proper classification of ewes, and the systematic culling of flocks—carefully eliminating the worst, and breeding only from the best specimens of each generation. The same rule will also apply to the breeding of ostriches. The Colony is more like Spain, the original home of the Merino sheep, than any other country; and wool of excellent quality can be grown throughout our various divisions. But in many parts the evils of injudicious and indiscriminate breeding, and the irrational system of farming and kraaling stock, has tended to deteriorate the general character of the staple. The small farmers have been content to grow wool on no very definite plan, and to shear twice a year as a matter of profit, or on account of scab in their flocks; the consequence being a good deal of produce of an indefinite, inferior, and rubbishy type. The exhibition held at Port Elizabeth in Decem- ber last, shows, however, that wool of a well-defined character and superior quality is raised by our leading flockmasters. The gold medal for the best exhibit of grease wool was awarded to Mr. A. W. Hart, of Cathcart, the sample being described as of "superior quality, long sound staple, splendidly got up, and in every way suitable for combing purposes.” The gold medal for grass-veldt wool was given to Messrs. Geo. King and Son, of Bedford district, for long, fine, well-bred wools, strong in staple. Mr. J. Kemp, of Cathcart, was also recommended a gold medal. Amongst the other prominent and successful exhibitors were Mr. R. Rubidge, of Graaff-Reinet, whose stud stock is of high repute ; Mr. Murray, of Colesberg, whose clip was considered very desirable for combing purposes, and altogether creditable to the district; Mr. Vermaak of Burghersdorp, Mr. Brown of Cathcart, and Mr. A. Vigne, of Middelburg, who were recommended silver medals; and a host of others who received honourable mention. It was noticeable that several of the exhibits were wools of the Australian character, many of the frontier flockmasters having recently imported rams and ewes from Australian stud flocks, considering that the accli- promatf-Reinet, whose clip was editable toho FENCING, 241 proposed were fencing in and subdividing the farms; allowing portions yearly to seed down and recover; sowing grasses and karroo plants; and making provision for times of drought by pre- serving the veld for any such emergency. The Commission stated :- “The time has passed, or is rapidly passing, when sheep-farming can be carried on profitably under the old system. Besides this, there are the general advantages of fencing experienced in other colonies, such as the cheapening the working of sheep-runs, the improved con- dition of the sheep by avoiding the driving of them in the heat and when they are full of water and food, the prevention of contagion from scab and other contagious diseases, the spread of parasites by stray sheep going over a clean run, the increased yield of wool, the saving of tramping out the grass hy driving to and fro, the being able to let the grasses seed and multiply by sparing annually parts of the run, the depositing of the excrement of the stock on the land as nature meant it to be, instead of heaping it up in kraals where it breeds innumerable flies, and the making it practicable to scatter grass and Karoo seeds during rains, with a fair prospect of their becoming per- manent, by keeping the stock off, which is impracticable under the kraaling and herding system.” Prior to this time, fencing had been adopted by many flock- masters, those of the Caledon district having been amongst the first to form enclosures, in which their stud sheep, troops of blood mares, and herds of antelopes (chiefly bonteboks) respectively grazed. The extension of ostrich-farming and the necessity of the formation of camps for these birds, gave a stimulus to fencing; and experience of its advantages for the improvement of stock generally, led to the passing of an enactment by the Legislature, in 1883, to regulate the erection and maintenance of dividing fences, and providing for occupiers of adjoining lands contributing to the expense of constructing the same; the operation of the Act, however, being limited to proclaimed divisions. This system of fencing of runs is silently bringing about a revolution in stock-farming. Subjected as portions of the Colony are to severe and protracted droughts, it enables the farmer to keep a part of his pastures in reserve to meet any such contingency. Even in the Karoo districts, the benefit of enclosing, and the improved condition of the pasturage and health of the flocks re- sulting from it, are now being realised by the generality of sheep- farmers, and every man of any means is carrying it out as far as practicable. Some of the more enterprising have spent several thousands of pounds upon enclosures, and their stone and wire- fencing may be reckoned by tens and twenties of miles. Many names might be mentioned, but without any invidious distinction one may be selected, who was foremost in the adoption of the system-Mr. J. S. Distin, of Tafelberg Hall. 242 TAFELBERG HALL ESTATE. 13 incheon le provisions in heighted by ma Tafelberg Hall estate is situate on the upper Karoo Plateau, about 20 miles from the district town of Middelburg. A railway station is on the estate, and within half an hour's drive of the homestead. The property is about 22,800 acres in extent, lying on the extensive plains, studded with flat-topped hills, which slope away on the eastward side of the Sneeuwberg mountain chain. Its lands are all enclosed and divided into camps, the fences consisting of stone and wire, extending over some 50 to 60 miles. The stone enclosures were commenced before the days of wire-fencing, and were constructed by native labourers; the walls average 4 feet 6 inches in height, and are three feet wide at bottom (with ample provision at short distances for water-way), and from 18 inches to 2 feet at top. About half of the wire fence is com- posed of eight wires with poles five yards apart ; in the other half the poles stand ten yards apart with the wires laced between them, the spap between the wires being 4 six inches apart, 3 eight inches, and I nine inches. Behind the homestead rises the table-topped hill from which the property takes its name, and on each side of it as well as in its rear are broad valleys stretching away to the mountain ridges on the horizon. Here, in their respective camps, horses, cattle, sheep, goats and ostriches are pastured on the aromatic Karoo bush, which has the advantage over grass that it is not injured by frost in winter, and even when in driest seasons it appears but a parched brown stubble, sapless as a worn-out broom, it still affords nourish- ment to the animals, and, provided drinking water is available, stock can be maintained in good condition throughout the year. In each of the enclosures the storage of water is regarded as of great importance, and where there are no fountains, small semi- circular dams or tanks are constructed of sufficient depth to prevent rapid evaporation. Near to the homestead again are smaller enclosures, some of which are set apart for the horses, mules and cattle required for the daily work of the farm. The utility of these small camps was established during the period when ostrich- breeding was at its height; at that time, within six years, Mr. Distin sold chicks and birds to the value of £11,167, and over a period of eleven years the value of ostrich feathers disposed of by him was £26,674. Another feature of the estate is the capacious dam or reservoir, which has been formed by the construction of an embankment of about 300 yards across the foot of the valley on the left side of the Tafelberg. When full, which it is in every season, it forms a magnifi- cent sheet of water about two or three miles in circumference, with a depth of from 12 to 14 feet in the deepest part. This is the source of all the profusion of foliage which environs the homestead of Tafelberg Hall. On approaching it, one may imagine oneself TAFEI in Ex ENOM MIDDELBURG Fountain LAND PLAATS Stone Wire Fes Fencing Breedin krialar and Viru Little Brack RA TRE LANDS Hd с arra Dam А м Р DOT AFELBERG STATION TiON..:* W Dam FO CAMP va ile y Dam Fountain Dam K ALKO Fountain Luce K R A N I Z fou fountain Dam Dan A MP TO CHADOCK n the Surveyer Generals Department inted by Saul Solomon Cape Town. WOOL, By W. Spilhaus.* tonnes, which con of the lastrica participate Since Jason set out on his expedition in search of the golden fleece, many thousands have followed his example, but when we examine the records of their success we are obliged to give the prize to those who have directed their attention to the animal that furnishes the genuine fleece, the woollen fleece, and the metaphor of the Greeks bas become a reality for the humble substance from which it was borrowed. The total quantity of wool imported into the United King- dom from British Colonies in 1831 amounted to 11,859 bales; since then it has been rapidly increasing, and in 1884 the imports from Australia and the Cape had reached 1,273,732 bales. The total of the 55 years gives the stupendous amount of 21,322,592 bales, which represents at £19 15s. per bale (the average selling price in London of the last 25 years), the magnificent amount of £421,121,192. South Africa participates in this with 3,919,834 bales, to the value of £77,416,721.7 It will be interesting to compare with this the total value of Gold extracted from the rich deposits of the Australian Colonies. As far as we can ascertain this was altogether £264,000,000 to the end of 1884. By far the largest part of this wealth was gained during a comparatively short time. From 1852 to 1857, £82,000,000 were produced. From that yearthe production dwindled down gradually to £4,000,000 in 1878; and after all we are not sure whether it was real wealth. The gold was simply and quickly transformed into counters. As the number of these increased they represented less value in all other commodities, prices of everything else rose rapidly, only to fall again, now that the increase of the number of counters available has not kept pace with the growing population of the world. Wool, on the other hand, has slowly but materially increased the national wealth ; a steady increasing supply has been kept up, and many millions of industrious hands have found employment in converting it for the use of mankind. Some conception of this may be formed when we compare the value of ng the rich deppas altogethe of this 352 to 1852 * The writer has thankfully to acknowledge the assistance kindly rendered to him by the Editor, who had, in his Handbook of the Cape and South Africa, for the Paris Exhibition, already exhaustively treated the subject of this paper. He is further under great obligation to the office of the Colonial Secretary for the readiness with which information has been collected for him from all parts of the country. † All these figures are compiled from Messrs. Helinuth, Schwartze & Co.'s Annual Wool Reports. WOOL. 245 the raw material with that of the manufactured article. The highest price paid for any wool in the November-December Series of auctions in London in 1884 was 2s. 9d. per lb. for a lot of Port Phillip lambswool, whilst good woollen tweeds still cost from 5s. to 6s. per yard, the finest goods being quoted as high as 12s. 9d. per yard, and the yard of such material will weigh only about half-a-pound. The weight of a woollen shirt, the wholesale price of which is 7s. 3d., is 16 ounces; a yard of fine flannel costing 13d. weighs 4 ounces; blankets are sold at from 14d. per lb. for union (wool and cotton mixed), to 22d. per lb., material for blankets being of the cheapest. It must be a matter for congratulation that the British Colo- nies in the Southern Hemisphere are mostly particularly well adapted for the production of the Merino sheep. Through their aid there is no fear that for many years to come the British manufacturers will lack profitable employment. Amongst these Colonies it is true the Cape takes but a modest place. The following Returns will show our Export of Wool from 1850 up to 1884:- lbs. Value. 1850 .. 5,912,927 £285,610 1860 23,219,689 £1,448,629 1870 37,283,291 1,669,518 1871 46,279,639 2,191,233 1872 48,822,562 3,275,150 1873 40,393,746 2,710,481 1874 42,620,481 2,948,571 1875 40,339,674 2,855,899 1876 34,861,339 2,278,942 1877 ... 36,020,571 2,232,755 1878 32,127,167 2,114,341 1879 40,087,593 2,156,609 1880 42,467,962 2,429,360 1881 42,770,244 2,181,897 1882 41,689,128 2,062,180 1883 38,029,495 1,992,745 1884 .. 37,270,615 1,745,189 1885 .. 34,432,562 .. 1,426,108 In 1830 the Cape exported only 33,000 lbs. Then the production increased with rapid strides until it apparently reached its climax in 1872. In that year the country had been enjoying successive good seasons, and the price then was the highest during the last 25 years. Messrs. Helmuth, Schwartze & Co. give the average value of a bale of wool in 1872 as £26 10s., whereas in 1884 it would be only £18. Since 1872 the quantity exported has been fluctuating, until in 1884 it amounted to the same weight ... 246 WOOL-WASHERIES. as in 1870. This reduction is owing to several causes. The Orange River Free State is a large sheep-producing country. In 1880 the Census Returns there showed 5,056,301 Merino sheep, which would produce about 25,000,000 lbs. unwashed wool. Most of this wool used to be exported through the Cape Colony; but since the Diamond Fields became a large market for Natal produce, facilities for the transport of wool to the Sister Colony increased, and much of the Free State produce must have found its way for shipment to Durban. Besides this, great and long-protracted droughts have unfortunately visited the Colony, and in some districts largely decimated the flocks. Last but not least, the retrogression in weight is accounted for by much wool being now scoured in the Colony which used to be shipped in the grease : this is proved by a com- parison of the value. Although in 1884 the weight of wool exported was about 13,000 lbs. less than in 1870, the value shows about £75,000 more, notwithstanding that prices in 1884 were £2 15s. per bale lower than fourteen years previously. The wool-washing establishments have greatly developed lately. There are a large number of taem throughout the country, of which we may mention two at Colesberg and Aliwal North, one at Brak River (George), Cradock, Middelburg, Hanover, Hay, Somerset East, one private washing establishment at Ceres Road station, and four at Albert, turning out yearly about 16,000 bales together. Both at King William's Town and East London steam washeries are now in course of construction. At Uitenhage there are eleven establishments, employing about 250 hands each. In these washeries, somewhat more than 53,000 bales are yearly scoured, ready for shipment. The quantity last year was in all, 21,266,746 lbs. grease wool or 53,162 bales. Besides these, there are twoimportant Western establishments, the Waverley Mills, close to Ceres Road Station and the Zoete Inval washery at the Paarl Station, in which, together 10,000 bales of wool were scoured last year for shipment to England, Germany, Italy and Canada ; one lot even having been sent to Rio de Janeiro. Most of these washeries employ a Cape Colonial invention for cleansing the wool-Niven's Patent. It is very simple and parti- cularly well adapted for short stapled wools. After yolk and grease are dissolved in the hot water bath, the wool is conducted into one end of drums in which an axle with spirally arranged spokes revolves quickly carrying the wool out at the other end. During this process it is subjected to rinsing in a strong stream of clean cold water, which is made to pass through the drums. Subsequently the wool is spread out over grounds loosely paved with round stones, and the African sun soon completes the drying and bleaching. Great sums have been expended on drying-machines, and many aard sto Ceres "portant i 102 Yantity WOOL. 247 are in use for rainy weather, but the brilliant whiteness of our best wools is only obtained in the sun. The capital invested in these washing establishments is very considerable, and it is satisfactory to notice that progress is made from year to year in the efficiency of their manipulation. It is an open question whether the same may be said of the quality of the product itself, and in fact complaints are heard that our wool is deteriorating and not keeping pace with the advance shown by other Colonies. There may be some truth in this, but the amount of agitation about this matter at present will act as a powerful ferment, and is a guarantee that we shall not drop out of the race. There are good men all over the country investing money, despite of the low value of wool, to import fresh blood and to judiciously improve the breeds. Wool will for many years remain the most important production of the farming industry of this Colony, and the low values at present will be a blessing in disguise, as they will force our farmers to the closest attention towards perfecting their staple product. It may be remarked here that unfortunately a great deal of scab is still prevalent throughout the Colony. Generally speaking, farmers are earnestly endeavouring to keep their flocks clean, and quite considerable amounts of capital and labour are yearly expended on curing the sheep; the most favoured remedy is tobacco, either boiled by the farmers, who grow or buy the colonial grown article, or from imported extract. Besides this, arsenic, lime and sulphur, Cooper's powders, and a great many other chemical preparations, are used; but a uniform, energetic action is still wanting. It is, however, to be hoped, and may be expected, that in the next Session of our Parliament an efficient law will be enacted. Deep-rooted as the Merino sheep-farming industry has now become, it took a long time until it found a grateful soil in our country. It is reported that the first woolled sheep were introduced into this Colony by a Colonel Gordon, who was in the Dutch service, in 1790. He procured a number of rams of the fine- woolled sheep of the Escurial breed, which had been presented to the Dutch Government by the King of Spain. Of these he kept some himself and others he distributed amongst some farmers between Cape Town and Mossel Bay, who crossed them with the hairy native sheer, producing an animal with a rough, lustreless but heavy and abundant fleece.* There was, however, * It will be interesting to know that part of the sheep brought out by Colonel Gordon were the original progenitors of the many millions of fine woolled sheep, which now wealth of Australasia. It appears that, when Colonel Gordon died, his widow had to sell his stock, and 29 of his sheep were put on board two English war ships, the “Reliance" and the “Supply," which happened to be in Table Bay, for the purpose of taking supplies to Sydney. (See “ The Colonies and India” December, 1885.) 248 WOOL. not much appreciation shown for this new pursuit. The farmers, mostly consisting of descendants from the Dutch and French, had no traditions about the rearing of Merino sheep; and even to this day there is not a woman among the Dutch farming population who understands converting wool into stockings or jackets! The native hairy, fat-tailed sheep which had been found by the first Dutch occupants of the Cape in possession of the aborigine Huttentots, forming large flocks, had been found useful and handy for the early white farmers. It is prolific, scarcely subject to disease and very hardy; its carcase furnishes excellent mutton; the fat of its enormous tail is much valued, and takes the place of butter and lard in the country; the skin is readily con- vertible into a soft leather. Even now the Cape sheep is bred on many farms in preference to its higher cultivated rival, and the last census (of 1875) showed a total number of nearly a million of Cape sheep in the country. This number has now rather increased than diminished, as the larger population of the Colony has made the production of mutton more profitable in many parts than the farming for wool. Returning, however, to the history of the merino sheep, we find that it was not until 1812 that a commencement was made in earnest to acclimatise fine-woolled sheep. Two gentlemen, Messrs. J. F. Reitz and Michael van Breda, introduced some sheep of the genuine electoral breed from Saxony, and located them on farms in the Bredasdorp (at that time comprised in the Swellendam) District. They kept up the pure breed for many years, and in several flocks in the Swellendam District to this day the Saxon electoral type may be recognised. Somewhat later, Spanish merino sheep, bred by Sturgeon, were imported by Lord Charles Somerset, and kept at the Government farm at Groote Post near Cape Town, and at the Boschberg, a commissariat establishment on what was then the frontier, now the town of Somerset. Subsequently, in 1820, the English settlers in Albany imported a larger number of good Spanish merino sheep with fine wool, and in the East as in the West great progress was made in accumulating good and thoroughbred flocks. The Afrikander Boers* with their natural shrewdness and intelligence soon saw that for their increased wants, quickened by their intercourse with the numerous immigrants fresh from the civilised world that now poured into the country, they would best be provided with means by embarking in the new pursuit. A Willem Burger in Calvinia, some 50 years ago, pro- cured some sheep from the Swellendam District : a little later Peschal introduced sheep from Albany and Cradock, Petrus Joubert and Jan Heefer procured some for the Colesberg District, * The Dutch word Boer simply means farmer. WOOL. 249 Kinnear took some of Mr. Reitz's flock to Beaufort West, and Dirk de Wet of the same flock to Victoria West, and P. J. J. Burger introduced thoroughbred sheep from Graham's Town to Murraysburg, and all these Districts became again centres for distribution elsewliere. The breed has of course been modified and altered as the exigencies of market and fancy of breeders suggested. It was soon seen that for mass production, neither the fine-woolled electoral sheep nor even the Sturgeon sheep was the most profitable. Although Messrs. Reitz and Breda produced wool as fine and valuable, probably, as any from Saxony or Silesia, weights of both fleece and carcase were very small. Besides, there seemed to be a larger outlet for strong combing wools, and various breeds were in- troduced, the favourite being the Rambouillet sheep bred in the Famous french stud of this name, and most of the well-bred sheep of the Colony are now of this stamp. Latterly some importations have been made from Australia, from Pomerania, and Hanover; and in some districts, where it is noticeable that the wool loses too much of its fineness, Sturgeons will now be employed with advantage by breeders who judiciously study their business. The character of the wool varies of course with the pasturage of the different districts, and with the care bestowed by farmers upon their flocks. The best wool, finest and strongest in fibre, is still produced in the area where thoroughbred merino breeding was first commenced in the west, comprising the coast lands east of the Hottentot Holland mountains. Along the mountain ranges of these districts, the homesteads, surrounded with oaks and other shady trees, with their gardens full of beautiful roses and the honeysuckle twining over inviting porches, and with their hospitable and kind occupants, remind us of the most pleasant parts of the old country. Most of the farms produce grain as well as wine, besides furnishing splendid grazing for sheep and cattle. The fertile soil gives six successive crops when virgin, and five crops when it has been under the plough before, without artificial manuring. Grape-vines grow easily and abundantly on the hill- sides, and the merino sheep here may be brought to produce the finest and strongest wool. Close to the coast, along the downs, the soil is more sandy and level. This is called the Duineveldt, where merino sheep thrive well and are subject to few diseases. Flocks from the upper country are frequently brought here for change of air and pasturage. The wool produced is characterised mostly by its strength of staple, not so much by its fineness, and from the different bushes growing here it assumes a blueish tinge. Between the Duineveldt and the mountain farms there are the “ Ruggens ”— undulating country, nothing but hills and valleys, here and there intersected by a small stream or rivulet, except where the 250 WOOL. Breede river, with the waters of the River Zonder End and the Buffeljagt's river, takes its course towards the sea. These Ruggens are dry, and dotted here and there with mostly uninteresting farm- houses erected of clay with thatch-roof, seldom whitewashed, scarcely ever relieved by trees and shrubberies. But the extensive sheep walks on the Ruggens form excellent pasturage, although the wool here does not attain the strength of that from the higher and better situated farms. The characteristic feature of the whole of this country is the “Rhenosterbush” (Elytropappus rhinocerotis), a bush which has become evenly distributed through the agency of the merino sheep, the seed being transported across the country in its fleece. The bush is of no use except for fuel, but underneath it the grass sprouts readily, the bush probably promoting its growth rather than checking it, as it wards off the greatest heat of the sun, and yet with its wiry leaves does not shut out the light altogether. According to the last census (1875) there were in these Districts in all 1,778 holdings with 929,588 merino sheep, and these figures probably do not require much modification now. A moderate farm holds about an average of 1,200 sheep, there are small farms down to 100 to 500 sheep, but there are also well managed estates with 5,000 to 7,000 sheep, and the largest flock-master owns alto- gether about 12,000 well-bred merino sheep. These farms are rationally managed; the sheep are divided about the grounds with outlying stations and sheds, and they are depastured in such a way as not to exhaust the runs all at once. The country carries from one to two sheep per morgen grazing-land. The animals owing to their origin from Saxony stock are mostly of small structure, but the mutton is valued for the delicacy of its flavour. They yield about 3 lbs. washed wool in the average. In these Districts the universal rule is to shear once a year. Formerly nearly all farmers used to wash their sheep before shearing them, either in a river or under a pump, but now much wool is shorn and exported in the grease. The fleeces are tied up in bundles and the locks and pieces should be taken off and packed separately. In many cases neglect is shown in this respect, but an improvement is already noticeable. The clip occurs during the month of October, and about this time the yearly wool-fairs in the more important inland towns take place. Another complex of sheep-producing Districts stretches out parallel with the west coast, comprising the eastern parts of the Divisions of Clanwilliam, Piquetberg, Malmesbury and part of the Paarl ; these are pre-eminently grain districts, and not so much importance therefore is attached to the rearing of sheep. However according to the census of 1875, there were 266,469 woolled sheep there, which may now be considered to have increased to about WOOL. 251 325,000. There are 1,434 holdings altogether; most of which have but a small number of sheep; nearly all shear twice a year, and the character of the wool does not as a rule show a high standard. The great division of Namaqualand produces but few Merino sheep; here the Cape sheep has still a greater hold upon the farmers, and along the sea-coast down to Table Bay, the country, being very sandy, is not adapted for sheep. The same may be said of the coast lands of the other side of George, Knysna and Tzitzi- kama, Port Elizabeth, Alexandria, and Bathurst. All along the valley called Longkloof, however, Uniondale, and Humansdorp, into the Uitenhage District, there are a number of sheep farms, and on the eastern side of the Sneeuwberg mountain range we get into the grass districts of Somerset East, Bedford, and Albany. These divisions contained in 1875, 1,033 holdings with 671,366 sheep, and here, it will be remembered, was another centre from which the merino sheep invaded the Colony. Here there are famous stock- breeders, and large flockmasters, the better farms owning from 5,000 to 10,000 sheep. Further to the east the frontier districts furnish a formidable contingent towards our army of wool-bearers. These are the grass lands of Fort Beaufort, Stockenstrom, Victoria East, King William's Town, Queen's Town, and Cathcart. Some part of this territory has only recently been conquered, but the 1782 holdings of the first-named four divisions possessed in 1875 in all as many as 611,851 sheep; of this number by far the larger part, viz., 446,474 sheep, belongs to the division of King William's Town. The bad custom of shearing twice a year also prevails in these parts of the country, but lately sheep-breeding here has made great progress, and the wool known as the Kaffrarian enjoys a good reputation in the London market. Much has been done in importing superior rams, principally from Australia, and in fencing, and in other improvements of the industry. Returning to the west again, we have two peculiar sheep Districts, the Warm and Cold Bokkeveldt in the Clanwilliam and Tulbagh divisions, with Ceres as outlet, and the Boschjesveldt in the Worcester District. The wool is shorn once a year in the grease, is fairly well bred, of good staple, but generally remains dull of colour when scoured. There are in all 595 holdings with, in 1875, 211,935 merino sheep. But the greatest portion of the country taken up for sheep farming and the most remarkable part, peculiar to the Colony, is the Karoo. This large marvellous tract of country which has been regarded as semi-desert, is as fertile as the banks of the Nile, pro- vided it receives sufficient moisture. But even the severest drought cannot destroy its vegetation. You look around for miles and miles importiother improvem mest again, heveldt in the Boschjesve in the 252 WOOL. and see nothing but dusty ground and small stumps of bushes sparingly strewn over the surface, not a green leaf, not a blade of grass, except, at long intervals, rows of mimosa trees along the dry beds of rivers. You think this is desolation, a life-destroying desert. But at last you notice a building at the distance; you see trees near the house, you get to a farm, you are hospitably received, are treated with coffee and bokke melk (goat's milk); the old man shows you his fountain (spring) which he has newly opened up by aid of dynamite; he shows you his steam engine to pump up water for the flocks; his dam, that cost him hundreds of pounds; his garden with wonderful wheat and oats, splendid fruit trees, enormous pumpkins; he tells you, yes, it is *banj droog (very dry), during three years there has been rain only twice or three times; his lambs are lost, he had to cut their throats to save the ewes, and many of his big sheep are dead also, but the remainder is all right; as long as his fountain runs he has no fear; while they have water, they keep alive on the stumps of the bushes. And when rain, good rain comes, then all these bushes revive; there is a general resurrection, grass springs up, and there is an abundance of food for the flocks, which after first suffering from the sudden change, soon prosper and increase as nowhere else in the world. + This remarkable territory takes its commencement from the first range of mountains in the west, it covers the terrace that runs along these mountains north of the Wittebergen and Zwartebergen Ranges out to the great Sneeuwberg Range, which extends from north to south; it covers the whole of the large upper Plateau north of the Roggeveld and Nieuweveld mountains till it is bordered in the east by the Stormbergen and slopes off towards the north to the Orange River. This vast area covers about 13 millions of acres; there are according to the last census-about 4,700 holdings scattered over it, and it carries approximately five millions of merino sheep. This territory, although of most fertile grounds, is subject to great and continuous droughts, and -------- ---- - - - - - - - - * “ Banj,” corrupted from “ Verbannd," banished, mild form of swearing, as in Swedish "forbannade." † A contributor writes to the Graaff-Reinet Advertiser :-It is a fact and circum- stance worthy of remark, I think, that there has sprung up since the heavy rains in May last, all over the country, a most extraordinary, and, as far as I can learn, unpre- cedentedly luxuriant crop of countless millions of young seedling karoo bushes. Should one-fourth of this new crop attain maturity, it cannot but enhance the value of land for grazing purposes, by double its present worth. From personal observation I am led to believe that it extends over the whole colony in all its karoo districts, though it may not be go thickly studded in all as I have noticed it is in the Aberdeen, Graaff-Reinet, Willow- more, and part of the Jansenville and Uitenhage districts. This remarkable phenome- non is but one more surprising evidence of the wonderful powers of rejuvenation and renovation possessed by our arid-looking Karoo plains and barren hills, that have stoor the wind's fiery blast and the sun's scorching rays for many and many a drought- stricken summer, even in the remote past; and still maintain their character as the best grazing grounds for all stock in South Africa, and perhaps equal to any other in the world. SAUL SOLOMON & CO CAPE TOWN FARM ON THE KAROO PLAINS, NIEUWVELD (FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY MR. FRIPP.). 一 ​ WOOL. 255 folius Canistributed over theso a species of phosa, seed of whiles are Chrysocoma tennifolia has become the prevailing plant of late years, originally belonging to the S.W. of the Colony. It was first eschewed by sheep but is now in some parts their only sustenance, so much so that the mutton becomes impregnated with its rather pleasant aromatic flavour. The best Karoo Bushes are the Pentzia virgata and the Pentzia globosa, seed of which has been sent to Australia, also a species of Adenachaena ; these are widely distributed over the lower Karoo. The Atripflex halimi- folius and the A. capensis fur...wh also good pasturage for sheep. (The bot. names have been kindly supplied by Mr. Harry Bolus.) The influences operating on the changes in the pasturage were aggravated by the system of overstocking which prevailed through- out the Colony (except in the S.W. coast districts), and it was feared at one time that the sheep walks of the country were gradually approaching their destruction. However, long years of drought intervened, the flocks were thinned out, all weak and delicate animals having to perish, and of the vegetation only what was really adapted to withstand rainless seasons could survive. Thus the most useful plants were preserved, plants that extend their roots to remarkable depths under the surface, whose seeds will remain germinable for many years, exposed to the hottest sun and to the severe cold of winter. What seemed a dire misfortune has been punishment and remedy at the same time, and where nature has provided so much assistance and so many facilities, it will now behove man to improve upon his opportunities. The South African farmer has his path clearly laid out for him, through care in selection of breeding animals, through the passing of energetic laws for the eradication of scab, through the fencing of his lands and through also improving his sheep runs by sowing useful plants, by giving them time to grow and by keeping down unsuitable vegetation, he can do much to improve his staple product and to enrich his country, and he will do it. Whatever may be said against our Afrikander Boer, slowly but steadily he advances, without the feverishness of the modern money-maker, but with the steadfast perseverance of his Batavian and Huguenot forefathers. 258 OSTRICH FARMING. hitherto been the great drawback to successfully farming them. each succeeding generation showing more and more signs of per- fect domestication. The result was that in 1875, five years later, the export had risen to 49,569 lbs. weight, valued at £304,933. In this year (1875) a census was taken of the Cape Colony, the return of live stock shewing 21,751 domesticated ostriches, as against 80 of live stock ning of the decade.oroduction of feather k shewing 21, 19as taken of the Caped at £304,933. In The next five years saw the production of feathers rise rapidly, the export in 1880 being 163,065 lbs. weight, valued at £883,632. At this time the industry was most lucrative, pairs of birds that had already bred, or that were sold with a guarantee that they would breed, realised readily £200 a pair and upwards, whilst as high as a thousand pounds was in more than one instance given for particularly well known birds of superior plumage, and £10 each was the standing price for chicks a few days old. This state of things induced a mania for Ostrich farming, everybody who could scrape money together plunged into it. Companies were formed in every town and village. And the talk on the market or in business offices would be all of Ostriches and their requirements: the Doctor and the Lawyer, the Baker and the Barber, each vying with the other as to who could speak most learnedly on the subject. But, alas! for frail human pature, how quickly, and to their sorrow, did these gentlemen discover what a deal of truth there is in the old proverb “every cobbler to his own last.” When the money was invested and it was too late to retrace the steps, it was found that the successful management of Ostriches was a delicate matter requiring knowledge and experience, and above all close personal supervision. The highest export return as to quantity of feathers yet reached was in 1882, when the export was 253,954 lbs. weight, valued at £1,093,989, but the next two years showed a decrease in both quantity and value, the last returns published being these for 1884, showing a decrease of 20,543 lbs. in weight and £127,510 in value. This decrease in the export being mainly owing to drought and a virulent fever that of late years has attacked and carried off large numbers of the chicks when about a month old, and which promises to put a check to any further rapid increase in the number of domesticated birds. This check to the hitherto rapid increase of Ostriches is not altogether to be deplored, as the increase had before been at a rate that was certainly alarming as to the stability of the industry, and the heavy fall in the value of feathers that has just occurred, showed that to some extent production was exceeding demand. But it should be borne in mind that production has exceeded demand in everyone of the principal articles of export from our great Colonies, and this, taken in conjunction with a temporary SAUL SOLOMON OC OSTRICHES NEAR GRAAFF-REINET. (FROM PHOTOGRAPH BY MR. ROE.) OSTRICH FARMING. 259 turn of fashions against Ostrich feathers, fully accounts for the heavy fall, and should prevent anything like a panic as to their future value. There having been no census taken since 1875, the number of Ostriches in the Cape Colony at the present time is not exactly known, but taking the known production of an Ostrich to be 1} lbs. of feathers in a year, allowing eight months between each crop, and dividing this into the total weight exported in 1884, after deducting the small amount of wild birds' feathers still exported, we get a return of 150,000 domesticated Ostriches living in the Cape Colony at the present time, giving employment to not less than eight millions of capital. A VISIT TO AN OSTRICH FARM. We can imagine nothing more delightful and interesting to a traveller than a visit to a large ostrich farm. Let us try and describe what may be seen on one we know well. The size of the farm is 13,000 acres, situated in the Eastern Province of the Cape Colony. The herbage is a mixture of grass, Karoo (a sort of heather) and succulent bushes. The rainfall in this part of the Eastern Pro- vince is too uncertain to allow of cultivation without irrigation, so the cultivation is confined to a few acres of lucerne irrigated by pumps, some soft green food being indispensable for rearing the little ostrich chicks during droughts. On the farm are kept 600 ostriches and 400 breeding cattle. The whole property is enclosed by strong wire fences 5 feet high, and sub-divided into numerous camps, with similar fences. Near the homestead the camps are of about 100 acres each, being appropriated to the rearing of the young birds. Beyond these again are camps of about 25 acres each, these being given up to a single pair of superior old birds in each camp for breeding, whilst beyond these again are large camps of about 2,600 acres in extent, with 150 birds in each. But let us take a stroll in these camps and see what is going on. Here in the first we find an old Hottentot with about 30 little ostriches only a few days old around him, these have all been hatched in the Incubator, and he is doing nurse to them, cutting up lucerne for them to eat, supplying them with fine gravel to fill their gizzards with to grind their food, breaking up bones for them to let them get a supply of phosphates, and giving them wheat and water, and at sundown he will bring them back to the Incubator for warmth, or should the weather change and rain come on he will be seen hurrying home with his 30 little childrer following him to a warm well lighted room, with a clean sanded floor. In the next camp we have a pair of birds and about 15 chicks accompanied by a Kaffir man, who has been with them every day from the time they hatched to get them tame and accustomed to man. These have s 2 260 OSTRICH FARMING. been hatched by the parent birds who will brood them at night in the camp. But great risks are run by this method of rearing, froni wild carnivorous animals catching the chicks, as great number of carnivorous animals of nearly every known species abound in South Africa, the most destructive to young ostriches being the jackals, a single one of which will destroy a whole brood in a night. Our host informs us that he is compelled to keep a man constantly employed laying poison and setting traps. The poison is laid by inserting strychnia in pieces of meat and laying the pieces at short distances all round the camps. In consequence of this wholesale destruction of the carnivara, game abounds on the farm, and as we walk beautiful antelopes of different kinds are constantly springing up and bounding away in front of us, and in the afternoon our host lends us a rifle and taking us into some unoccupied camps we bring down our first buck. But here we come to another camp in which we are told there is a nest, and as we enter a heavy thorn bush is given to us, and we are told that if the male bird charges we are to hold it to his eyes. But we do not see the cock bird, and have got some distance in, and can just see the hen bird upon the nest with its neck stretched along the ground, making itself look as much as possible like one of the monster ant-heaps that abound in the country, when we are startled by three tremendous roars behind us, and only just have time to put up our bush, when the infuriated cock charges down as fast as a horse can gallop, making every nerve in our body shiver with fear, as we remember having heard of broken ribs and legs, and men killed by savage male birds ; but we follow the example of our conductor and keep the bush at a level with the bird's eyes, when just as he reaches the bush he stops suddenly, his instincts teaching him not to risk his eyesight against the thorns. Then we move on to the nest keeping the cock at bay with our bushes, but we are thankful when it is over, as the cock dodges round us, first on this side then on that, always trying to get his head past our bush, and should he succeed, he would instantly floor us with a kick from his foot, armed as it is with the formidable horny nail. The kick is delivered forward and downwards, and with immense force when at the height of a man's breast, gradually losing its force as the foot nears the ground, in conse- quence of which many men have saved their lives when attacked unprepared, by lying flat on the ground, thereby escaping with a severe trampling, but no broken bones. We, however, arrive at the nest without accident, when to our astonishment our conductor suddenly lays his bush down, and handles the eggs, when we find that the hitherto infuriated cock's nature has quite changed ; hethat a moment ago was trying with all his might to get at us and kill us now stands a dejected, beseeching OSTRICH FARMING. 261 creature, uttering a plaintive noise and beseeching us in every possible way not to break his eggs. The nest we find to be merely a scratched hollow in a sandy place, with 15 eggs in it, weighing three pounds each, upon which the parent birds must sit for six weeks, the cock sitting by night and the hen by day, the eggs being exposed to many risks of destruction by jackals, baboons and carrion crows, or by heavy rains filling the nest with water. The “modus operandi” of the carrion crows to get at the contents of the eggs is very ingenious; the bills are not strong enough to break the shell, so they take a good-sized stone in their claws and rising up to a considerable height, let it drop on the eggs, but unless there are suitable stones near the nest they cannot do this, seeming not to be able to carry the stones horizontally. We have noticed the same peculiarity of a want of power in the crow to carry horizontally when trying to get at a tortoise by letting it fall to break its shell ; in every case where we have seen them do it, they have caught the tortoise on a rock, in no case have we known them to carry the tortoise till they get over a rock. But now we arrive at one of the large camps with a troop of 150 full grown birds in it, and here in the corner we have a planked yard : this is where the birds are plucked, the one end being movable, so that when the birds are in, the end can be moved up and the birds packed in so closely that they have no room to kick. Just as we enter, we observe the birds coming over the hill, being driven on by ten men on horseback, each man carrying his thorn bush to turn a refractory bird, or to master a savage cock. The birds being yarded the plucking begins, the tails and long black and drab feathers are pulled out, the white feathers being cut off and the stumps left for two months, till the quill is ripe, this being done to get the feather before it is damaged, and the quill being left in so as not to injure the socket by pulling it before it is ready to be shed. We now return to the Homestead and visit the Incubator room, which is constructed to be as little affected by changes of tempera- ture as possible. The machines used are the “Douglass” Patents. Then we visit the feather room and see the feathers being sorted into the different qualities, and done up in bunches, either for sale in the Colony or for shipment to England. We then visit the kraals, and find some 70 or 80 cows being milked, as dairy farming can be most successfully carried on in conjunction with Ostrich farming; the cattle eating the coarser grasses, and tending to keep the bush from getting too thick for the Ostriches to pass amongst it. We find all the labor on the farm is done by natives, who make excellent servants for managing stock, and as the natives are exceedingly fond of milk, the Ostrich farmer who has an unlimited amount of milk to give them, 262 OSTRICH FARMING. greatly reduces the cost of their food, and makes them contented and happy. Such are shortly some of the sights with many variations that may be seen on an ostrich farm, whilst the visitor will probably be regaled at dinner with a luscious omelette made from an Ostrich egg, or he may be asked to have a slice of roast Ostrich, the meat being very good eating though as yet little used. VALUE OF OSTRICH FEATHERS. The following table showing the value per lb. of all Ostrich Feathers exported from the Cape, given at quinquennial periods, may prove of interest. It must be borne in mind that they are average values of all kinds of Ostrich feathers exported, including “Dark Chicks” worth 2s. per lb., and “Prime Whites” worth very many pounds per lb. £ s. d. 1850, Average per lb. . . 1855 » » .. . 6 0 0 . . . . 8 8 0 . .. 3 14 0 1870 » , .. .. 3 1 0 1875 . . . . . 6 3 0 1880 .. 5 8 0 1884 1 2 .. .. 4 2 0 1884 is the last year for which the Customs return at the Cape are completed. In concluding this short notice of Ostrich farming, we must remind our readers that the Cape Colony, as it was the first to domesticate the ostrich, so has it hitherto had a practical monopoly of the Industry. But in 1883 several shipments of ostriches took place to South Australia, the Argentine Republic, and to California ; and the Cape Parliament taking the alarm that the Colony was in danger of losing its lucrative monopoly, imposed an export tax of £100 on every ostrich and £5 on every ostrich egg exported. 1860 1865 com corte ත Pinch NATURE OF SOILS. 265 Inches. Inches. 315 – - – : . :::::::::::: :::::::::: :::::::::::: . : 1 5 attributed to another important constituent of the granite soils, the ferruginous clay, which possesses a most peculiar power of retaining moisture, whereas the porous sandy soils, or the loose calcareous soils of the inland districts readily part with the moisture they contain, and therefore these soils require irrigation. The rainfall in the coast districts is much greater than in the in- land districts, and the maximum rainfall is during the winter months. It is evident that this latter circumstance is most favourable to viticulture. The returns of the Meteorological Commission give the average rainfall of Wynberg (Constantia district), Somerset West (Stel- lenbosch district), and Wellington (Paarl district) as follows :- Wynberg. Wellington. Somerset West. Inches. January .. February .. March April May June July August .. September.. October .. November.. December .. .. 1 .. Some time before the winter rains set in the grapes are ripe, and it is quite exceptional that the crops suffer from rain. The great difference in the rainfall between the coast and inland districts is not the only cause of the different method of cultivating the vine- yards in the inland districts. The physical condition and the chemical composition of the soil of the vineyards in these districts are most peculiar, and are the cause of the enormous production, which is greater than in any other part of the world. A bed of ferruginous marl, the so-called “kalkbank,” stretches for miles and miles almost at the same level through the lowlands of the districts of Worcester, Robertson, Montagu, Ladysmith, and Oudtshoorn. It commences on the Hex River and extends along the Lange- bergen as far as Cogman's Kloof. The whole belt of land between the Langebergen and Zwartebergen, from the Koo to Meiring's Poort, is characterised by the occurrence of this “ kalkbank.” The ferruginous marl frequently changes into calcareous clay, which readily decomposes, forming a very rich, loose, and deep soil. The value of this soil is, even in the Colony, not sufficiently appreciated, although there cannot be any doubt about the fact that no more fertile soil can be found throughout the length and breadth of South Africa. : 2, op online 20 266 METHODS OF CULTIVATION. Towing of vines in an accurate down ways; it is Terent in every The methods of cultivating the vineyards are different in every district, each farmer having his own ways; it is therefore quite impossible to give an accurate description of the planting and growing of vines in the Colony. The following account contains the recommendations to the wine farmers of the Colony from Seb. van Reenen, Esq., of High Constantia, who is undoubtedly the most experienced wine farmer in South Africa. These recommendations have been acted upon by most of the more successful wine farmers, and they can testify to the practicability of the same. His recom- mendations are as follows:- The season for planting depends much on circumstances, in this country, generally in the month of July ; but if possible, it should always be done as soon as possible after separation from the parent stock; the cane has thus a chance of making a first growth in its future home, instead of leaving it to exhaust its force while laying in the ground as a cutting, and necessitating a fresh effort when perma- nently planted. Very much of the future success of a vineyard depends upon the care with which the planting is done. A good start will not only en- sure a more healthy and vigorous plant, but greater longevity ; to secure this, deep trenching is essential, however rich may be the soil, to enable the young roots to strike well down. The trench should not be less than two to three feet, three feet is better, as the canes, which should not be less than 18 inches in length, will thus with facility strike deeply down, and have freer rooting ground; if the soil be poor, some manure should be placed at the bottom of the trench; the distance between the canes depends much on the variety of the grape, as well as the aspect of the vineyard ; in a hot district, it is admissable to plant closer, but, generally speaking, four by four feet is a safe distance ; also in very rich soils, and for luxuriant growing vines, even more space is desirable. For the two first years especially, the young vines should be kept scrupulously clean; a very general error is committed in occupying the ground during this time with melons and vegetables of various descriptions, thus improverishing the soil at the very time the young vine requires every aid, besides the evils of necessarily treading the ground, and injuring the young sticks in gathering the temporary crops, and further preventing that careful and diligent hoeing, which is so essential in giving free access of air to the soil, and permitting the spring rains to carry down the fertilizing matters. The young vines should not be pruned or interfered with the first two years, so as to enable them to give as many shoots as possi- ble: it is erroneous to suppose that earlier pruning ensures a quicker return, as, even if it does, it is at the cost of the future strength of the plant, in fact its free growth in infancy necessitates an extraordinary root action, which insures ultimately a far more vigorous growth and vine; when the vine is pruned, say, the third year, the first care should be the formation of a well shaped stock with a single trunk, and four or five arms radiating as nearly as possible from a common centre, so DIGGING AND PRUNING. 267 as to ensure an even supply of sap to all the future arms, and acquire the cup-shaped form. The attainment of an early harvest should always be subordinate, as the vines when once well cut for fruit spurs, will yield a return far beyond what can be gained by an early crop. It is now that the advantages of deep trenching will be manifested, as the plant, thus enabled to root itself deeply, will evince the greatest vigour and luxuri- ance. There is another practice which must be condemned, viz: shallow trenching and irrigating, the result of which is that the roots are kept near the surface, instead of striking down towards moisture, which by capillary attraction a deeply loosened and porous soil will always furnish. Digging. All vines are benefited by digging, even though the soil be porous and loose, but this should be finished in the month of May, as digging and pulverizing the soil towards the end of winter tends to favour the increased productiveness of insect life, especially of the Calandra. The scarcity of labour has led to the practice of ploughing, and with very ill result, the subsoil becomes hardened by the horses' hoofs, and in addition the plough continually passing at a uniform depth, causes a hardening of the subsoil, from the flat bottom of the iron share constantly pressing it down, and further, with a careless leader or driver, an immense number of arms and shoots are destroyed. A good many instruments have been invented for hoeing, but the hand-hoe is by far the best ; if a grubber, or horse-hoe, be desired from motives of economy, it should be so light that a donkey can draw it; the heavy foot pressure of a horse is very injurious in the freshly dug and moist rows of a vineyard, especially if the soil be tenacious. Pruning.–We need hardly say that at all periods this should be done by experienced hands with a sharp knife or scissors : it is marvellous how vines can at all sustain the rough treatment of a club-stick or hatchet, with which the young branches are too fre- quently broken off. The vine when three years old, may be said to have fairly entered on its bearing career, but it does not the less require diligent care and skill, in fact the operations of nature in every form resent neglect ; too much care and attention can hardly be bestowed on the pruning, from the age the vine is now supposed to have attained ; bad pruning affects both quantity and quality of the crop, impairs the vigorous growth of the plant, and leads to premature decay. The pruning should, we repeat, ensure an open space in the middle of the stock, to admit of free ventilation, without which the fruit cannot well mature even if it escape the other ills consequent on faulty work; the arms should, as before said, be three or four in number, branching from a common centre; they should then be trained some- what horizontally, and then pruned, so as to get the fruit spurs per- pendicular; those fruit spurs must be left from the current year's growth, and have only two eyes each; if this number be adhered to, the young shoots will be strong and healthy, the lower bud will give the thickest shoot, which will serve for the succeeding year's pruning, and thus give a short jointed wood, and consolidated well set stem; whereas, if three or more eyes be left the uppermost will form the stoutest MANU'RING. 269 and artificial manures. The nature of the vineyard manure is, however, greatly dependent on the nature of the soil. Guano may, for instance, be used with great success in a soil containing all the necessary ferti- lizers in sufficient quantity, whilst it will prove ruinous in a soil which is lacking in the one or other of the necessary fertilizers, which is not at the same time contained in the guano itself. In this case, the guano acts as a powerful stimulant, in the first and even in the second year, but in the third year the equilibrium between the quantity and quality of the fertilizers of the soil available to the plant, is disturbed to such an extent, that it can only be restored by an expensive and careful treatment during many years. The best manure for the vine is a well decomposed compost of vege- table substance and animal manure. But it must always be remem- bered that ammoniacal ingredients, as chiefly supplied by animal man- ure, are apt to produce too great a development of shoots and leaves, and too much albuminous matter in the juice of the grape, which, later on, will interfere with the good qualities of the wide. The materials which may be used for making a good vineyard manure are: cuttings and leaves of the vines, grass, straw, and ashes; further, all kinds of animal manure, such as that of cattle, horses, sheep and fowls; all sweepings from the yard, ditches, roads, &c; bones, burnt and unburnt; in short, every kind of refuse of vegetable and animal matter. Before these materials are used they must be thoroughly mixed and decomposed. There ought always to be at least two compost heaps on a wine farm, the one almost ready for use, or containing the materials col- lected the year before, the other in preparation. A rectangular hole of about 10 yards by 20 yards and two yards deep, is first constructed on a place on a farm which allows the urinary excrements of the stables, or, if there be not any stable, occasionally water, to run into it. The above named materials are stratified with thin layers of earth until the hole is filled, and left from three to four months, during which time the materials are frequently wetted, so as to allow a thorough decomposition to set in. The contents are after that time thoroughly worked up and mixed and covered once more with a thin layer of earth to prevent the escape of volatile matter. It is then left for another twelve months, whilst the second heap is in preparation. After that time it is once more thoroughly worked through, and is then ready for use. It is evident that on farms where much material is to be had, three and four of such compost heaps may be prepared. This compost generally forms a dark loose powdery mass, which contains all the fertilizers for the vine in the proper condition, and at the same time much improves the physical character of the soil. Manure prepared in this way will on the one hand be found superior, by its immediate effect, to any other, and on the other hand by not deteriorating the soil in course of time as, for instance, guano often does. There are few varieties of natural soil which will continue to yield fruit for years without being improved or manured. Some soils will, however, continue to yield for a longer time than other soils, WINE-MAKING. 273 Data. 1884. Name of Farmer. Locality. Acid. Sugar Speci- per perfic mille. cent. weight. do. do. do. Mar. 5 A. Roux Eerste River 20-71.103 6 A. Cloete Jonker's Hoek, Stellenbosch 21.2 1.106 6 J. Roux do. 3.9 21.6 1.108 6 A. Watermeyer do. 20.7 | 1.103 6 A. Watermeyer 21. 21.106 8 R. v. d. Merwe .. Hex River 18.2 1.090 8 P. de Vos .. do. 18.8 1.093 12 D. Hugo .. Riebeek's Casteel 21.6 1.108 12 D. Roux do. 23.4 1.118 13 1). Malan .. 25.5 1.130 13 N. Mostert .. do. 24.7 1.125 15 J. Meiring ... .. Hex River East 18.2 / 1.090 15 W. Meiring, sen. do. 19. 21.095 15 W. Meiring, jun. .. 1 19.2 1.095 15 M. de Vos .. do. 21.0 1.105 .. 26 S. v. Reenen .. .., Constantia | 20.8 1.104 Average Acidity, 4:4. The making of the wine is on the whole very primitive, in no way corresponding with the excellence of the grape. In order to raise the wine-industry in the Colony, and to introduce better methods of wine-making, the Colonial Government decided two years ago to appoint a colonial viticultural expert, and it may now be said that no better man could be appointed to this very im- portant position than Baron C. v. Babo, the son of Baron F. von Babo of Klosterneuburg. Since his arrival in the Colony, the Colonial Government has purchased the famous estate of “ Great Constantia,” where under the superintendence of Baron von Babo and two other European viticulturists, the best methods of growing and making wine are carried out, where at the same time a number of young wine-farmers receive instruction in all the different branches of viticulture. The last report of Baron von Babo, to the Colonial Parliament contains the following obsevations:- The different kinds of Grapes in the Colony.- The most common grape is the Green grape. This is, however, not due to the superiority of this grape over the others, but principally to the fact that this grape with- stands the action of insects and of fungus better than others, and that it has a more vigorous growth. It will certainly produce a good wine for export. The Haanepot is distinguished by a strong bouquet which might make the hanepot wine very superior; the wine is, however, very delicate with regard to soil, oïdium, and rust. Until a better manipulation of wine has been generally adopted, it will be advisable to use the hane- pot only for making raisins. The present way of making raisins is unsatisfactory, the dipping into ash-lye before drying imparts a harsh by-taste to the raisins, which renders them unfit for the European market. Large quantities of raisins are then made into wine, and good raisins will find a ready market. The hanepot can also be used T BRANDY, RAISINS AND GRAPES, 277 The making of brandy is of greater importance in those districts. where little wine is made. It is made here in the following way: the grape juice with all the husks is left in the tubs until the first fermen- tation is over ; husks and must are carried into the still and submitted to distillation. As the grape juice has only passed through the first fermentation a very considerable amount of sugar remains unfer- mented and is completely lost. The farmers are compelled, however, to proceed in this way, because there is such a complete want of the necessary amount of fustage, tubs, &c. As they can only proceed with cutting grapes after the tubs are empty, it is evident that a very large amount of the yield of the vineyards is wasted. It is certainly not the way to derive the greatest possible benefit from the vineyard. Wine which is intended for making good brandy should pass through the following stages :—The grapes are cut, cleanly pressed, and the must fermented in closed vessels. After the first fermentation the wine is frequently racked, and all particles of yeast which remain for a long time in suspension should be removed by filtration. By this. treatment the bouquet of the wine is developed to perfection and the wine is ready for distillation; the bouquet of the wine passes into the brandy and renders it valuable, exportable and marketable every- where in Europe, Raisins are also made at the Cape, and there used as such; that is to say, they are not used for wine making. There are two kinds of grapes used for making raisins, the Haanepot and the Currant grape, which yield very different products. The Haanepot raisins are large and thick-skinned, the latter small thin-skinned currants ; but the value of the latter is three times that of the Haanepot raisins. As the Currant grape bears more and can be more easily dried, its cultivation is much to be recommended; it would be a good export article. The Haanepot is dried in the same way as has been described in the pre- paration of sweet wines. But the unsatisfactory way of preparing the raisins shows itself here, more than in the preparation of sweet wines. I should recommend only artificial drying, using the large drying apparatus, which is employed in the southern European coun- tries for drying fruit. By means of this apparatus it is easy to get light coloured raisins, and they are specially valuable for making sweet wines. The French wine manufacturers only use fresh raisins, and. only those which have the least raisin taste. Some varieties of grapes are certainly an excellent material of which to make raisins; if they are made in good quality they will have a reliable market in Europe. But if good wine be made, it will pay better than raisins. Fresh grapes, which have to stand a long journey before they reach their destination, must possess certain qualities. They must belong to that class of grapes which is called "grapes for eating.” They must be fleshy, hard, and the skin tough, and they must not be readily putrifiable. All these properties are to be found in the White Haane- pot grape. The second point of importance in the export of grapes is the packing. In an experiment which has been made this year, in sending fresh grapes to England, which arrived there in perfect con- -278 WINE-SPIRIT. dition, the packing was the following: properly selected bunches were carefully examined, to remove all berries which were not perfect or were damaged, and also those which made the bunch too compact. The point of the stalk, which was cut, was sealed with wax. This prevents the drying and shrinking of the grapes. The bunches were then wrapped in soft paper (tracing paper) to prevent their being soiled by the packing materials. In the one box charcoal was used for packing and in the other cork dust. The bunches were put in layers in the boxes and these separated by layers of cork dust or charcoal. The place in which they are kept on the voyage should not be too hot nor too cold. The most suitable temperature is 35° to 45° F. As the Cape grapes could reach the European market just at the time when the price of grapes is highest, all expenses would be paid and a handsome profit left. It will be of very great importance to the European wine mer- chant to know that in the Cape Colony spirit is only made from grapes, and that of late the most excellent wine-spirit, containing all the aromatic bouquet compounds of the wine, has been prepared in the Colony. Samples of it are now being exhibited in London. This wine-spirit is most suitable for improving the inferior European wines, and for the manufacture of sparkling wines. Much has been done by some merchants of Cape Town and others interested in the development of the resources of the country, to induce the wine-farmers to bestow more care upon the preparation of raisins, than has been the case before. With regard to the export of grapes to Europe, it is not likely that the Colonial wine-farmer will ever carry this out on a large scale, and much chance of success is here left for European enter- prise. . The Phylloxera has now made its appearance at the Cape, but only a few vineyards have so far been affected. The insect was discovered at the beginning of this year (1886) in some vineyards near Cape Town. It is to be hoped that the Government will, by the means which are adopted, succeed in retarding the progress of the phylloxera, so that the wine-farmers of the Colony will have time to replant their vineyards with grafted cuttings of American vines, which are not attacked by the insect. If this be done the Colony need not fear the plague, and the wine-industry at the Cape will remain what it is now, a source of revenue to the greater part of the population of the Western Province. MANUFACTORIES, MINES, MINERALS, &c. The greater part of our Colonial products consists of raw mate- rials which are sent to the English markets for manufacture; but there are many of them which, in their preparation or in their conversion into articles of domestic use and consumption, give employment to a considerable amount of capital and labour. The manipulation of wines, the manufacture of spirits, and the brewing of beer, are industries which have taken firm root amongst us, and are now of considerable proportions. In Cape Town and its suburbs there are seven large breweries; and recently the cultivation of hops has been commenced, and promises to be carried on with success. There are also many extensive steam milling establishments for converting wheat into flour of several descriptions, and for the manufacture of biscuits of first-class quality. Articles of furniture from the indigenous woods of the country have been for many years in general use, and recently the produc- tion of some exquisite suites of drawing-room and bed-room requi- sites from the yellowwood and Cape laurel (stinkwood) has brought this industry into considerable favour. Carriage and wagon- making give continual occupation to many workmen, there being an extensive trade carried on with the inland districts in the supply of transport and travelling wagons, light hooded spring carts, and carriages. There are also iron foundries and engineering establish- ment, capable of executing any mechanical requirements. The manufacture of woollen fabrics has not become an estab- lished industry; but a beginning is now being made at the Waver- ley Woolwashing Company's Works, near to Ceres Road railway station. There is a boundless supply of water power there, at present utilised by a Lefell double turbine, for working the wool- washery, which is capable of turning out 120 bales in a day; this will be applied to power-loom machinery, for the manufacture of woollen blankets from the colonial staple for the colonial market ; and there is every reason to believe that the industry will be most successful. Leather manufacture has been in operation for some years, and there are several large tanneries, both in Cape Town, Port Eliza- beth, and Graham's Town. Ox and horse hides, calf, goat, and sheep skins are plentiful, and the very best materials for prepar- ing them are to be had in any quantity. Many indigenous plants and trees, such as kreuppelboom, wagenboom, kliphout, wild plum (shumac), assegai, saffron, and mimosa, as well as the European oak, are in common use før tanning purposes. Fellmongering has 280 COLONIAL INDUSTRIES. been commenced, and many skins, formerly little valued, are bought up, and by this process have the wool upon them turned to account, as well as the pelt preserved. Soap-making has also been established, and the colonial article is to a great extent sup- planting the imported one. Boot and shoe manufacturing, saddle and harness making, brick making, iron and tinware work, tobacco, cigar and snuff making. and ærated water manufactories are also widely distributed over the Colony. Confectionery and jam making have received a stimulus during the last year or two, from the provision made by the Legislature for granting a rebate of duty on sugar used wholesale for the manufacture of jams, preserves, and confectionery. The preserves of the Cape-gooseberry, naartje, orange, lime, guava, quince, melon, citron, peach, fig, apricot, and other varieties—surpass any of the English manufactured fruits. Many of these are now being made for wholesale exportation. Mineral springs are numerous throughout the Colony. They are chiefly sulphur, chalybeate, and thermal ; and are distributed over some thirty or forty different districts. At the town of Caledon there are four thermal chalybeate springs, containing carbinate of soda 2:10 grains; sulphate of soda •862 grains, and common salt 4:027 grains per gallon, the total of soluble ingre- dients being 12:225 per gallon; temperature 120° F. At Malmesbury, there is a sulphur spring, temperature 88°. At Brandvlei and Goudini (Worcester division) there are thermal springs, the first-named with a temperature of 145º. Near to Graaff-Reinet, at Kruidfontein, there is a cold sulphur spring. Near Uitenhage, there are two mineral springs, at “ Balmoral," the farm of General Nixon, and at Sandfontein. Midway between Willowmore and Uniondale, there is a thermal chalybeate spring, temperature 112. Near to Robertson and Montagu, and at Prince Albert, there are other springs of considerable repute. All of the mineral springs are considered to possess more or less of curative powers in chronic cases of rheumatic and cutaneous dis- eases. Samples of the mineral waters of the Caledon springs have been forwarded to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. The medicinal plants of the Colony are many and varied, about 100 of them, commonly used as remedies by the colonists and natives, have been enumerated by the late Dr. Pappe, * who, however, stated that there were others of unquestionable worth which he had not enumerated because they were not actually employed by the inhabitants. From the richness and extent of the South African Flora, no doubt many useful efficient drugs will still be Near vitinet, at Kruidfowith a temperature there are therm been for samples of the min cases of rh * Flora Capensis Medicæ Prodromus: By L. Pappe, M.D., Cape Town, 1957. GUANO ISLANDS. 2811 discovered, and form a valuable addition to the Pharmacopoeia. A contribution to the South African Materia Medica, chiefly from plants in use among Kafir natives, has also been made by Dr. A. Smith, M.A., of the Lovedale Institution, and among them are some used as antidotes for snake-bite, one being a tincture or infusion of the Wild Dagga or Wild Hemp (Leonotis Leonurus). Fishing is carried on in all the bays which indent the coast. At some places there are large private establishments for the curing and export of the bountiful treasures of the deep, which give em- ployment to numbers of the coloured people. 335 boats and 1,800 persons, are engaged in connection with the sea fisheries, and the quantity and value of salted or cured fish exported in 1884 was respectively 2,741,966 lbs. weight, and £16,206 value. On the small islands along the west coast of the Colony, and forming part of it, there are valuable deposits of guano, which finds a ready market both in the Colony and in England. Prior to the year 1877 all these Guano Islands were leased out of hand under the superintendence of the Officer in charge of H.M.'s Customs. Since then the leases, as they lapsed, have been disposed of by public tender by the Surveyor-General, subject to the approval of Government, and under this arrangement all the following existing leases have been entered into, with the exception of No. 1, Ichaboe, the lease of which does not expire until 29th June, 1895:- RETURN OF LEASES OF GUANO ISLANDS. Term 01 Lease Expires Description of Rock or Island. Present Lessee. Lease, Years. Annual Rent. on the £ s. a. 800 2 0 26 30th June, 1895 31st July, 1889 31st Aug., 1887 a 105 10 . orar 553 0 31st Oct., 1889 31st Aug., 1887 . . • Alme o . 31st Dec., 1885 5th Feb., 1888 1,561 0 0 135 0 Ichaboe, West Coast De Pass, Spence & Co. Yzerklip Rock, Malmesbury .. J. C. Kotze ... ... Elephant's Rock & Bird Islands, J. Roe... ... Oliphants River, Clanwilliam Islet, Lamberts Bay, Clanwilliam Stephan Brothers ... North West Rock, St. Helena Bay J. Roe ... Paternoster Island, Malmesbury Marcus Island, Saldanha Bay... Jutten Island, do. Jacobs Rock & Robbenstein,near J. Roe ... ... Saldanha Bay Malagas Island, Malmesbury... I J. Spence Schaapen Meeuwen Eiland, J. W. Stigling Saldanha Bay Foundling Island or Rock near W. Humphris Saldanha Bay Dassen Island, Malmesbury Coast Stephan Bros. Vogelstein Blaauwberg Beach... , J. Roe ... Duiker Klip, Hout Bay... ... J. Roe ... Seal Island, False Bay ... ... W. Humphris Dyker's Island & Contiguo H. Wilman ... lands, Caledon Coast St. Croix Island, Algoa Bay . W. & R. Messina ... orom o Oro root o 31st Dec., 1886 30th Sep., 1885 30th Nov., 1889 31st Oct., 1889 31st Aug., 1857 31st Aug., 1887 30th Nov., 1889 30th June, 1887 31st Aug., 1888 1,500 0 0 12 10 0 315 0 0 1,523 0 220 29 00 215 0 0 230 0 SL4 75 0 7,110 00 COPPER ORES, 283 men and nected withinder on the sa po product is copper, which is found throughout the district of Namaqualand. The existence of copper in that locality was known nearly two centuries ago, and as early as 1685 attempts to turn it to account were made by the Dutch Company's Governor, Simon van der Stell, and afterwards by others, but without success. The want of fuel and the difficulties of transport in those days were probably insurmountable obstacles to enterprise. It was only thirty-four years ago that the working of the mines was commenced by a Cape Town firm, the late Messrs. Phillips & King, now King and Son. They opened the ground at Springbok, which then was a desolate place, with merely a mud cabin and a few mat huts occupied by the natives. The first eleven tons of ore were shipped by the steamer Bosphorus on the 31st August, 1852. Since then the exports have year by year largely increased, until now the annual production is about 20,213 tons of ore. The principal mining station is Ookiep, situate five miles north of Springbok, and ninety miles from Port Nolloth, with which it is connected by a railway. This is the most important of the Cape Copper Mining Company's centres. There is a population of about 1,800 persons on the place, a portion of whom work under- ground and the remainder on the surface, in the different occupa- tions connected with the mine. A number of these are Cornish men and skilled European artisans; but there are also labourers from St. Helena, and Hottentots, Bastards, Damaras, and other natives employed. The Cape Copper Mining Company, although the largest and most important, is not the only association engaged in mining. The Namaqua Mining Company are busily and economically working the Concordia Mines, including Hester Maria, Wheal Julia, and Tweefontein. There are many other mines in the district, which are leased from the Governinent; but the mines worked by these two Companies are the only ones from which ores are at present extracted. Another mineral product to which special attention is now being directed, as the needful base of many industries for which there are openings in the Colony, is that of coal. In the Stormberg Range, extending over the districts of Albert, Aliwal, and Wodehouse, Xalanga and Maclear, deposits of vast extent occur. At one or two places, known as Molteno and Indwe, the coal seams have been worked for some years past, chiefly for local consumption within a radius of eighty miles from the pits mouth; beyond that distance the cost of carriage being prohibitive. Since the railways have been carried to the neighbourhood of the mines, however, the economic importance of this coal is being developed, and it has already displaced the English imported article on the Eastern system of communications. One encouraging 284 COAL MINES. feature of the coal seams of the Stormberg is the ease with which they can be worked. There is no sinking of shafts required, with elaborate machinery for lifting the coal, pumping out water and supplying of air. A simple heading is made at the outcrop of the seam, which is seen under the sandstone strata, and the tunnelling proceeds forthwith into the hill-side. At Cyphergat a siding extends from the railway towards the mine, and the coal is brought from the workings on wagons on a small tramway and tipped into the railway trucks. There are three seams of coal in the working at present open, which are 6, 4, and 16 inches thick respectively, making in all 26 inches of coal and 28 inches of shale; the height of the working being 4 ft. 6 in. The work is done with picks, no gunpowder being used; and the miners are both white men and Kafirs. At Indwe a seam of coal, four feet six inches in thickness, and of a better quality, has been opened, and 500 tons can be put out per mensem. At present the quantities of coal supplied under contract with the Government from the different mines is as follows:-Vice's Mine, three hundred tons per month, at 16s. per ton; Fair View Mine, three hundred tons per month, at lis. per ton, or if five hundred tons are delivered, then 16s. per ton; Cyphergat, five hundred tons per month, at 16s. per month ; Indwe, two hundred tons per month, at 25s. Trial borings in the Karroo beds are about to be made, with a view to the settlement of the question as to any deposits of coal being found there that would be servicable to the central and western districts of the Colony. If the result prove unfavour- able, the development of the Stormberg mines, and their connection with the whole railway system of the Colony, will be a settled matter. Manganese ore occurs on the ranges of the Cape Peninsula and Drakenstein mountains. Near Du Toit's Kloof, about 30 miles from Cape Town, a mine has been cpened and worked by a private company; the ore is plentiful and rich, yielding from 70 to 90 per cent. The ornamental stones of the country are very beautiful, and of considerable variety. Foremost among the gems is the diamond. These are found of every tint, from the perfectly limpid stones, possessing great fire, found at Jagersfontein and the River diggings, through many shades of yellow, &c., to dark yellowish-brown stones. In size they range from a large walnut down to the minutest specks. All are beautifully crystallized. Garnets, both red and green, are found in the north-western portion of the colony; they are abundant at the diamond mines as coarse fragments; but at the River diggings there are rounded forms of very beautiful appearance, some rivalling the ruby in colour. THE FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA. 287 Systematic bote presentars, the ca for the last hundred years, the constant discovery of new forms, even up to the present day, has largely occupied the attention of systematic botanists. . Without the means, in the present state of our knowledge, of precisely comparing the relative number of species of flowering plants in this, and any other portion of the earth's surface, enough is known to enable us to say that South Africa ranks amongst the richest of regions. But if we ascend to those higher systematic groups called Genera and Orders, we can speak with a greater approach to accuracy. These may be compared in two ways. First, for the sake of the general reader, the numbers of these in South Africa (and by the term South Africa let it be understood that I mean always Africa South of the Tropic of Capricorn) may be compared with the known total for the whole world. The latter is taken from Bentham and Hooker's Genera Plantarum (Journal of Botany xxi, 156):- Whole World Orders 200: Genera 7569 South Africa , 142: „ 1255 Secondly, we may compare South Africa with another country, in the same hemisphere, for the most part in the same temperate zone, and of which the Flora is about as well known as that of South Africa, e.g., Australia. I take the figures for the latter from Sir J. D. Hooker's well- known Essay: On the Flora of Australia (London, 1859). And we have the following result :- Australia Orders 152: Genera 1300 South Africa , 142: , 1255 The area, however, of Australia is five times larger than that of extra-tropical South Africa ; and what is of more importance is the fact that its eastern coast line runs up into the tropics to nearly the 10th degree of S. latitude. It wiĩl be evident, therefore, how much richer in variety of forms, relatively to area, is the Southern extremity of the African continent, than that of Australia. There is another interesting point in the number of endemic genera in each area, that is, of genera exclusively restricted to each country. In Australia these are about 520 (Hooker); in South Africa 446. Why South Africa should be so rich in vegetable forms, is a question which cannot yet be fully answered. Proximate causes appear to be (1) The meeting and partial union of two (perhaps three) distinct Floras of widely different age and origin. (2) A highly diversified surface of the land and of soil. (3) A climate with much sunlight (or little cloud); a condi- tion which seems everywhere favourable to the multipli- cation of forms. ve the fol Australafrica Australia that is of the tropic the THE SOUTH-WESTERN REGION. 289 appearance when lying a short distance inland, but clothed with an immense variety of small plants. The soils are varied, the exposed rocks being chiefly granite, clayslate (Malmesbury_beds : Silurian ?) and sandstone (Table Mountain Sandstone : Devonian); with insignificant exceptions, tertiary deposits are absent, occurring only in low places and of shallow depths. Throughout South Africa the influence of soils upon the distribution of plants appears to be less important than that of climate and exposure. Rivers are few, and badly supplied with water except in winter; practically, none of them are navigable. The mean annual temperature of Cape Town is 16°25 C. (61°25 Fahr.) ; of the six summer months 20° C., and on the six winter months 12°5C.; the mean annual humidity of the atmosphere 71.83 per cent. ; the mean annual rainfall in the city itself is 23.80 inches ; but in the suburbs it reaches in some localities to 60 inches. Further inland the temperature is higher, the extremes greater, and the humidity and rainfall much less. At Worcester, situate about 60 miles from Cape Town, the mean annual temperature rises to 16:93 C.; the humidity is 54:40 per cent.; and the average rainfall is 12:47 inches. About two-thirds of the whole rainfall takes place during May, June, July and August; and the months of January to April are usually very dry. The whole rainfall of this Region attains its maximum near Cape Town ; and diminishes rapidly as we proceed northward up the west coast. The prevailing aspect of the vegetation of this and the two next Regions, thus of the whole Cape Colony except the eastern coast region, is that of a number of low-growing scattered shrubs of a dark or blueish green hue. With considerable exceptions this is, nevertheless, the appearance which most commonly meets the eye. Almost everywhere the “ bush ” is present. There are vast tracts called the “ Boschjesveld” (bush country), from the uniformity of this appearance. There, the chief bush is the “Rhenosterbush” (Elytropappus rhinocerotis); but these are intermingled with others, and in general they belong to the most various Orders. All have usually very small leaves, or of greyish green colour, or so covered with a dull coloured indument, as to produce at a distance a generally sombre aspect. On the coast the bushes are larger, ranging from 4 to 8 feet. The following genera are some of those which by their abundance largely contribute to make up the floral landscape :-Mundtia, Pelargonium, Agathosma, Celastrus, Cas- sine, Phylica, Rhus, Cyclopia, Borbonia, Aspalathus, Cliffortia, Berzelia, Brunia, Staavia, Tetragonia, Aster, Athanasia, Stoebe, Metalasia, Erica, Simocheilus, Myrsine, Euclea, Lycium, Loboste- mon, Salvia, Penæa, Passerina, Leucadendron, Protea, Leuco- spermum, Serruria, Myrica, &c. Interspersed among these are is presencommonly Theis appearanceschjesveld Push THE SOUTH-WESTERN REGION. 291 upon its pureing grouhe Proteap. cynard a few oturiking, onths, wbone chloroleuca, and C. Harveyana ; the brilliant blue Disa (Herschelia) graminifolia (long known as H. coelestis) and the allied D. renusta, and D. purpurascens; and, finally, the small beautifully fringed spider-like Bartholina pectinata and B. Ethelae. Close upon these presses the so-called “ Arum,” the Richardia africana, with its pure white spathe,-almost as common an ornament of all moist low-lying ground as the common dock is an accompaniment of English ditches. The Proteas are universal objects of admiration, and few things can surpass P. cynaroides, with its flesh-coloured involucres, P. speciosa, P. coccinea, and a few others. The singular Leucadendron argenteum, or Silver Tree, is a striking ornament of the mountains about Cape Town. Next come the Heaths, whose names would be legion. The most beautiful, and those with the largest flowers, are denizens of the mountains lying between the Hottentot's Holland range and the town of Swellendam, being especially abundant about Caledon and Genadendal. On Table Mountain, Erica cerinthoides, E. mammosa, E. coccinea, E. spumosa, and E. hirta are amongst the finest, the latter sometimes making a whole mountain side glow with its warm pink tints. There are, probably 350 species of true heaths found in this Region alone. Amongst Compositae, Gazania has some fine species, while Helichrysum restitum, Helipterum, spp., and Phoenocoma pro- litera, are amongst the showiest of the everlasting flowers, the heads of the first-named being gathered, dried, and ex- ported in large quantities to Europe as immortelles. Dimorphotheca annua has gay white rays, and, with some species of Arctotis, makes the fields look bright in spring. In the large Order, Leguminosae, Podalyria calyptrata, with its large rosy flowers, may, perhaps, lead the list, and Virgilia Capensis, Cyclopia spp., Hypocalyptus obcordatus, and the wide spread Sutherlandia frutescens, are amongst the few handsome plants of an Order not remarkable for its beauty in this Region, but which consists for the most part of inconspicuous shrublets. The Acacias are deficient; only 4 horrida occurring sparingly in the drier parts of the Region. The Pelar- goniums are abundant, and several species, P. cucullatum, P. betulinum, &c., are very handsome. Oxalises with white, red, and yellow flowers, stud the fields in early spring. The numerous species of the tribe Diosmeae, including Diosma, Barosma (some of which as B. crenulata, &c., furnish the Buchu of medicine), Agathosma, Adenandra, &c., are mostly confined to this Region. The attractive Rochea coccinea, is one of the chief ornaments of Table Mountain; while the Cotyledons contribute some of the most curious plants of the Region, especially C. fascicularis, with its smooth, thick, swollen tree-like stem; very abundant in the neighbourhood of Worcester and Hex River. Near the Tulbagh Waterfall occurs the rare and pretty Ixianthes retzioides, and in 2 292 FLORA OF SOUTH AFRICA. the same neighbourhood, the curious Roridula dentata, a shrubby Droseraceous plant with extremely viscid leaves, which the farmers hang up in their houses in order to catch flies. The showy Poly- gala oppositifolia and P. myrtifolia are both widely distributed. Plants parasitic on the roots of others take a prominent position in our Flora. They include several handsome Harveyas, white, purple, and orange; and in other orders the Cytinus dioicus, the curious Hydnora africana ; the foul smelling Sarcophyte sanguinea and Mystropetalon spp. Labiatæ are not plentiful, but Salvia panicu- lata and S. nivea are fine species. Turning to the Monocotyledons, Orchide have already been mentioned, Irides are abundantly represented in handsome species of Romulea, Geissorhiza, Ixia, Gladiolus, Watsonia, Babiana, etc.; Amaryllideæ in Amaryllis Belladonna, Nerine, Brunsvigia, Vallota, etc.; Scitamineæ in the peculiar and noble Strelitziæ. Liliacea are very varied and numerous. The most conspicuous are the Aloes,- A plicatilis with an arborescent trunk, attaining a height on the western mountains of 12 to 15 feet; the beautiful blue Agapanthus ; the star-like Ornithogalums; Kniphofia alooides, and many others. Prionium Palmita is a remarkable plant with the flower of a Juncus, and the habit of a pine-apple, which in some parts fills the beds of certain western rivers, and reaches a height of eight or ten feet. Some Restiaceæ and Cyperaceae attain to six or seven feet, and often form a striking feature in the landscape. Ferns are not very abundant, chiefly occurring in the deep ravines, where the arbor- escent Hemitelia Capensis is found several feet in height; and Todea africana forms a handsome plant. Osmunda regalis is sparingly met with, while Pteris Aquilina is more commonly scattered on the open hillsides. It is in the orders and genera of plants exclusively or chiefly found here that the most striking differences are to be found be- tween this and the other Regions of South Africa. An immense mass of observations has been collected, but has not yet been tabulated. It must suffice to say that this Region is distinguished by the comparative abundance of the Orders : Rutacea, Bruniaceae Ericaceæ, Penaeacea, Proteaceæ, Iridex and Restiaceæ; by the tribe Stilbeæ of the Order Verbenaceæ; and by the large propor- tionate number of the following Cape genera, of those richest in species, belonging to other Orders : Pelargonium, Oxalis, Phylica, Aspalathus, Cliffortia. The following list of the sequence of Orders according to the numbers of species of each is chiefly based upon Drège's collec- tions which were very large and general. He, however, or rather Ernst Meyer, considerably over estimated the number of species both of Restiacere and Irideæ; and to follow his results implicitly would be misleading. I have therefore framed the following list in which the position of those Orders has been reduced :- THE SOUTH-WESTERN REGION. 293 1. Compositæ 8. Cyperaca 2. Leguminosa 9. Restiaceae 3. Ericaceae 10. Liliaceae 4. Proteaceæ 11. Orchidea • 5. Irideæ 12. Rutaceae 6. Geraniaceae 13. Scrophularineæ 7. Gramineæ The fact of five such Orders as Ericaceæ, Proteacex, Irideæ, Geraniaceæ, and Restiaceæ, occupying so high a position, is sufficient to stamp this Region with a character peculiarly its own. Very remarkable is the deficiency of Rubiacea. This Order, which is the fifth natural Order of the World, and the 2nd of India, does not only not find a place in the above list, but actually constitutes less than one per cent. of the total Flora. The follow- ing large Orders are also very poorly represented : Myrtacea, Aroideæ (each 1 species) ; Laurineæ (3 sp.); Acanthaceæ, Labiatæ and Asclepiadeæ. No trustworthy calculation of the number of species occurring in the Region is available. Drège collected 2,914 species; I should estimate the total at about 4,500 species. The richness of certain localities is very great. On the Cape Peninsula alone, an area about one-fourth larger than the Isle of Wight, I have collected eighty species of Erica, and nearly one hundred species of Orchideæ; and the total number of species of flowering plants is probably nearly two thousand. The affinities of the Flora of this Region with that of Australia, especially of South Western Australia, are very striking, and have already been shewn by Sir J. D. Hooker (loc. cit.), from the Australian point of view. Two very distinct Orders: Proteaceæ, and Restiaceæ, are abundant in both regions, and, except for a few outliers, do not occur in any other countries : yet they have no single species, and only two or three genera, in common, out of many. Proteaceæ form the third Order of the Australian Flora, and the fourth of this Region. Diosmeæ, a large tribe of Rutaceæ abundant in this Region, find a counterpart in Australia, in the tribe Boro- nies of the same Order. The tribe Ericeæ of the order Ericaceæ, has over 400 species in this Region alone; not one occurs in Australia, but the place of the tribe is taken by the large Order Epacrideæ, closely allied to it, and which is almost confined to Australia. The following table of the nine largest Australian Orders is taken from the same source, and is compared with the preceding list of the Orders of this Region. I carry the latter up to twelve, not being quite sure of the sequence of the smaller orders :- THE SOUTH-WESTERN REGIOX. 295. The following Orders, characteristic of Australian vegetation, abound most, after Australia, in South Africa: Thymeleæ, Haemodoraceae, Droseraceae (Hooker); and another point of approach is found in the remarkable deficiency in both countries. of the widely diffused Orders, Rubiaceae, Laurineae, and Aroideae. On the other hand there are certain remarkable divergencies, as. pointed out in the following list, taken with modifications from Sir J. Hooker's Essay before quoted. The following Orders are represented in the Flora of this Region, but are either comparatively rare or absent in Australia :- Fumariaceae, absent in Australia Ericeae, absent in Australia Geraniaceae. Selagineae, ditto Caryophylleae. Stilbeae (tribe Verben.) ditto Rosaceae (Cliffortia). Penaeaceae ditto Bruniaceae, absent Podostemaceae ditto Crassulaceae. Cytinaceae ditto Dipsaceae, ditto Piperaceae ditto Campanulaceae. Aloineae (tribe Liliac.) ditto Temperate Australia contains the following orders that are rare or absent in this Region :- Dilleniaceae, absent in S. Africa, Epacrideae, absent in S. Africa Magnoliaceae, ditto Loganiaceae Tremandreae, Myopcrineae, ditto Stackhousieae, ditto Monimiaceae, ditto Sapindaceae. Casuarineae, ditto Halorageae. Cupuliferae, ditto Myrtaceae (1 species) Coniferae Caprifoliaceae, absent Johnsonieae (tribe of Liliac.) do. Stylidieae, ditto Xeroteae (tribe of Juncac.) do Goodenovieae, (1 species) It is also noteworthy that whereas in the Orchideae of Australia. it is the tribes Vandeae and Neottieae which most largely prevail (Ophrydeae being restricted to two species), in this Region the Vandeae are few, and Neottieae completely absent, while Ophrydeae abound. Sir J. Hooker conjectures the probability of a common origin of the Australian and South African Floras, derived from ancestors inhabiting a vast antarctic continent, of which the greater part has been submerged. In connection with this it is not a little remarkable that geologists tell us that the surface of the S.W. Region consists of the older rocks which are known to exist in South Africa ; the most recent being the Table Mountain Sand- stone, which seems to be generally regarded as Deronian. But this hypothesis must be understood as referring exclusively to that portion of South Africa which is included in the Region I am ditto 296 FLORA OF SOUTH AFRICA. now treating of. The affinities of this Region with that of other countries are more obscure, are certainly very slight and have not hitherto been elucidated. On the eastern boundary the Flora of this Region passes gra- dually into that of the Tropical African Region, and on the north, where, however the boundary is much sharper and more defined, into that of the Karroo Region. The foreign vegetation naturalised in the Region demands a brief notice. I have made a list of about 158 species, of which the great majority are wide-spread European plants, with a few American and Indian species, which have been recorded as more or less naturalised throughout South Africa. The observations are im- perfect as regards the eastern region, and the whole number would probably be nearer 200 species. Of these about 130 may be found within ten miles of Cape Town. Yet only the following can be said to occur in sufficient number in that locality to attract atten- tion : Fumaria officinalis, Sisymbrium officinale, Brassica nigra, Raphanus Raphanistrum, Trifolium angustifolium, Serpicula repens, Sonchus oleraceus, Solanum Sodomaeum, Datura Stramonium, Nicotiana glauca, Rumex acetosella, Panicum sanguinale, Brisa maxima, Pteris aquilina. A species of prickly pear, Opuntia Tuna? which is very abundant and troublesome in the Karroo Region, occurs also in the drier eastern portions of this Region. Pinus pinea (the stone pine) Pinus pinaster, and Quercus pedunculata, have been largely planted, but cannot be said to grow spontaneously ; although when once sown, the first named is one of the few intro- duced plants which can contend successfully against the indigenous undergrowth, in which the seed may be deposited without clearing, and which it at length overtops and finally destroys. Few of the introduced plants are found far from roadsides or human habita- tions, and it is remarkable how small upon the whole is the in- fluence they exert upon the aspect of the vegetation, and how weak (with the sole exception of the Opuntia referred to) is their aggressive power as against the indigenous Flera. THE TROPICAL AFRICAN REGION. This Region occupies almost the whole portion of the continent which lies between the tropics. Owing to the warm and moist climate caused by the currents of the Indian Ocean, the Flora re- tains a sub-tropical character to an extent very much greater than that of the west coast; and the Region puts forth an arm, which reaches about as far south as Port Elizabeth, and the Van Staden's mountains. From the Zitzikamma forest on the one side, to the ending of the Zuurberg range near Graham's Town on the other, may be regarded as a debateable territory, where the present Region overlaps and intermingles with the South Western Region. THE TROPICAL AFRICAN REGIOX. 297 Generally speaking, its inland boundary appears to be the highest range of mountains which, under various names, and not always quite continuously, run parallel with the coast-the Boschberg, Řagaberg, Winterberg, Stormbergen, Quathlamba mountains, Drakensbergen, &c. Thus it includes the Colonial districts of Uitenhage anci Somerset (in part), Albany, Bedford, Fort Beaufort, Peddie, Queen's Town, King William's Town, East London, and all the Transkeian territories, Natal, and Zululand, up to the tropic. The width of the Region ranges in this portion from 60 to 100 miles. The physical features of the country may be easily understood if it be remembered that a lofty mountain chain, reaching from 5,000 to 10,000 feet in height, slopes down gradually to the sea, sending down numerous rivers which cut up the irtervening coun- try by their deep valleys. The surface of the country is extremely varied ; large tracts of bush alternating with open grassy downs, grass and bush sometimes intermingled in park-like stretches. In the western portion (the Addo and Fish River) there are dense thickets of bushes 10 to 15 feet high; further eastward and north- ward these become forests, and in many parts the slopes of the mountains facing the sea are covered with woods to the summit. The general aspect of the country is much greener and more luxuriant than that of the South Western Region. The climate of a Region stretching from the tropic to 34º S is, of course, in some respects very different in different localities. At King William's Town, 1,300 feet above the sea, the mean annual temperature is about 18.9 C (66° Fahr.), the rainfall about 26 in.; further inland the rainfall diminishes ; towards Natal the temperature gradually rises, and the rainfall is somewhat greater. At Pietermaritzburg, in Natal, at an elevation of 2,096 feet above the sea, the mean annual temperature was 18:25 C (64°. 83 Fahr); the rainfall 30.23 inches; the humidity of the air 70:30 per cent. (9 years' observations, Dr. Mann). But the most striking difference between the climate of this and the South Western Region is the fact that the one has chiefly summer, the latter chiefly winter rains. The gradual transition from the South Western to the Tropical Flora is noticeable in the bordering districts already named. The Cycadaceous Encephalartos (Kaffir bread) pushes one of its species along the ridges of the Zuurberg as far west as the pass known as Salt Pan's Neck. Leguminous plants begin to abound, especially the bush Schotic speciosa (Boer boon) a decidedly eastern type ; and the same dry tracts are occupied by a succulent Euphorbia with four angled thorny stems, E. tetragona (Noorsdoorn). In the woods near the coast, from the Knysna eastward, epiphytic orchids begin to occur (Polystachya, Angræcum and Mystacidium). Genera be- 298 FLORA OF SOUTH AFRICA. longing to Malvaceæ, Sterculiacex, Rubiacex, Asclepiadex, and Acanthaceæ, become more numerous, both in individuals and species. The only Sterculia hitherto known in the Colony, S. Alexandri, occurs in the Van Staden's Mountains, but has been found nowhere else. Sanseviera thyrsiflora covers the hill-sides over large tracts, and affords excellent fibre, at present the subject of experiments in rope manufacture. The beautiful Calodendron Capense (Wild Chestnut) a tree of the Order Rutaceæ, occurs throughout the Region; it has been met with on the Zambesi, and even on the Kilimanjaro Moun- tain, a few degrees south of the equator. The number of trees of handsome foliage and showy flowers might almost be said to characterise the Region. I can only mention a few of them occur- ring in the Colony, Kaffraria and Natal :-Boscia Caffra, Oncoba Kraussiana, Dombeya (3 species), Sparrmannia Africana, S. palmata, Turraea obtusifolia, Acridocarpus natalitius, Millettia caftra, M. Sutherlandi, Erythrina caffra, E. latissima, Sophora nitens, Calpurnia spp., Schotia speciosa, S. brachypetala, S. latifolia, Gardenia spp., Paretta (many species), Burchellia Capensis, Alberta magna, Tricalysia Capensis, &c. The number of flowering shrubs is also very considerable amongst Malvaceæ, Sterculiacex, Rubiaceæ, Ascle- piades, Scrophularineæ, Acanthaceæ, and many others. Greyia Sutherlandi is a curious Sapindaceous tree, with handsome crimson flowers, which extends from Kaffraria to Natal ; it is allied to the endemic genera Melianthus, Aitonia and Erythrophysa, the two latter belonging, however, to the Karroo Flora. Oldenburgia arbuscula, a singular looking composite of dwarf arboreous habit and very large flower heads, occurs along the Zuurberg range, but must rather be regarded as an outlier from the South Western Region, where it has two congeners, O. Papionum and 0. paradoxa. Vernonia, which is almost entirely absent from the latter Region, begins to abound here, and increases in species as we proceed towards the tropic. The “everlastings” are well represented in many fine species of Helichrysum ; and even the Elytropappus rhinocerotis (the Rhenoster bush) has pushed up as far as Graham's Town. The Euphorbiacex begin to occur in considerable numbers in Albany and as will be seen presently, occupy a very important position in this Region. Amongst the succulent species is the noble E. grandidens, which attains a height of 30 feet or more in favourable situations, and forms a very characteristic feature in the the wooded ravines of the Region. The Coniferæ are not better represented than in the western districts – two Podocarpi (Yellow Woods), and the same Widdringtonia cupressoides, being all that occur. The Cycadaceæ have been mentioned already, but besides several species of Encephalartos there is the curious Stangeria paradoxa which comes down as far south as Lower Albany; and here it may be mentioned that the same genial climatic influences bring a THE KARROO REGION. 301 mongst the Order occupy respectivent in the fact that I have not sufficient data of the Flora of tropical Africa, as a mass, to attempt to trace the affinities between it and the South Western Region. So far as that portion of the former is con- cerned which stretches south of the actual tropic, and constitutes the subject of the present sketch, there is an agreement in the fact that Compositae and Leguminosae occupy respectively the first and second place amongst the Orders of each Region, as they do amongst the Orders of the whole World. This is important when we bear in mind the undoubted affinity which exists between the Flora of Tropical Africa and that of India, because in the latter country the Orders Leguminosæ and Rubiaceæ take the first and second place. The similarity, in other respects, will be shewn if we com- pare the sequence of Orders in India with that of Wood's Natal list :- INDIA (Hooker) NATAL (Wood) Leguminose Compositæ Rubiaceae Leguminosa Orchidea Liliaceae Composite Orchidea Gramineæ Rubiaceae Euphorbiaceae Euphorbiaceae Acanthaceae Asclepiadeae Cyperaceae Acanthaceae Labiatæ Irideæ If it be remembered that, as I have said above, Wood's list is certainly unduly deficient in Gramineæ and Cyperacea, which should probably be included in the above, and would throw out the two lowest orders, it will be seen that there is a considerable agreement between the two. The lists of Drège, MacOwan, and Wood, given above, contain comparatively few naturalized foreign plants; yet we may not infer that they exist only in such proportion; and exact informa- tion is, in fact, wanting. My own personal acquaintance with the Region is somewhat limited, extending only for about 150 miles of its south-western extremity. In the parts I have seen, introduced plants, excepting Opuntia Tuna (?), in some of the drier western parts of the Uitenhage district, Xanthium spinosum occa- sionally, and Nicotiana glauca, are few in individuals, and exert but a very small influence upon the aspect of the Flora. They do not appear to differ much in character from those that have been referred to under the South-Western Region. In Wood's list, however, there are certain tropical weeds which, as might be expected, do not occur in the older Colony. THE KARROO REGION. This Region includes on the west side the coast strip of Namaqualand lying between the mountains and the sea. How 302 FLORA OF SOUTH AFRICA. far it may extend north of the Orange River is unknown. South- ward it stretches between the Khamiesbergen and the sea, and thence passes over by tracts little known botanically, to the south and west slopes of the Roggeveld mountains. Here it widens out and includes all that large tract known colonially as the Karroo; bounded on the north by the Roggeveld, Nieuwveld and Sneeuw- berg mountains, on the east by the mountains fringing the Fish River; on the south by the Zwarteberg range, Kamanassiebergen, and finally the Zuurbergen, and on the west by the mountains of the Warm and Cold Bokkeveld. Speaking broadly, it is a vast, shallow basin, surrounded by mountains; but the mountains, while always loftier on the northern side, are sometimes a mere rim on the southern. Its height above the sea ranges from 1,800 to 2,500 feet. But for the purposes of floral computations I have reckoned all plants collected on the southern slopes of the northern mountains, up to a height of about 3,750 feet, as belonging to this Region. Above that height, in certain localities, at least, the vegetation changes, and belongs to the next (the Composite) Region. It is traversed by numerous river-beds or torrents, mostly dry or nearly so, except when filled by the summer thunderstorms, when the beds suddenly fill, carry off a vast quantity of muddy water for a few days, and soon again become dry. But water, generally, is scarce, and springs are infrequent. The country has been subjected to long ages of denudation by rains and rivers, and exhibits its traces everywhere. It is probable that since the interference of man, which, by sheep pasturage has killed much vegetation andloosened and opened the soil, this denuda- tion has proceeded more rapidly, and in some places enormous gullies have been formed where previously moist and fertile valleys existed. The surface consists chiefly of vast plains of light, reddish soil, which, when irrigated, is extremely fertile ; in other parts it is more sandy, and in some places the soil is shaly, hard and barren. The plains are, however, broken by hills or mountains, sometimes with flat tabular tops. Everywhere the exposed rock is sandstone in beds, of varying colours and hardness, which have been regarded by Wyley and Dunn as belonging to the carboniferous measures. In the north eastern portion these are traversed by frequent doleritic dykes, which are sometimes vertical, and sometimes lateral, form- ing cappings to the sandstone hills. The climate is one of great dryness and extremes of heat and cold. The following observations have been recorded at Graaff- Reinet, a town on the northern edge of the region, 2,476 feet above the sea :—Mean annual temperature 18° C. (64:41 Fahr.) ; mean of greatest range on any one day 30:26 C. (370.88 Fahr.) ; extreme limits of temperature (Dec. 20) 400-55 C. (105° Fahr.) ; THE KARROO REGIOX. 303 June 24, 3.56° C. (28° Fahr.); rainfall 13:19 in., of which about two-thirds fell during the six summer months. The foregoing are from three years' observations. Twenty-three years' obser- vations give an average of 14.5 in. of rain. Other observations of rainfall for other stations in the region for at least five years are :-Prince Albert, 7.71 in.; Beaufort West, 9.19 in.; Willow- more, 7.40 in.; Aberdeen, 12 in.; Jansenville, 9:44 in.; Spring- bok (Namaqualand), 8:05 in. The following are from one year's (1883) observations only :--Port Nolloth, 2.66 in. ; Touws River Station, 8.86 in.; Matjesfontein, 10-21 in. The greater part of the rains take place during the summer thunderstorms; occasionally, in the Eastern portions, a strong south-east wind brings up general rain, but this is rare, the clouds being usually discharged in the intervening mountain ranges which divide this Region from the two coast Regions, and intercept its rains. During periods of drought nothing can be imagined more desolate and mournful than the appearance of the vegetation. The soil is rarely covered, bare patches of greater or less extent inter- vening between shrubs and bushes. These are frequently blackened by drought as if they had been killed by fire. The largest and indeed almost the only trees are those of the Acacia horrida (Doornboom) which line the banks of the dry river beds as with a fringe ; and occasionally, on the higher mountain sides, a few other trees of shrubby habit occur. For the most part the shrubs are scattered, and range from 5 to 8 feet in height; with inter- vening shrublets of 1 to 2 feet. Yet after copious rains all will be changed within a week or two, as if by magic. Many of the apparently dead bushes put forth bright green leaves; the shrublets are covered with flowers often before leaves can be seen ; bulbous plants, which may not have flowered for several years previously, send up their scapes with incredible rapidity, and annual flowering herbs and grasses are everywhere seen where formerly all was bare and barren. Namaqualand, perhaps, exhibits this phenomenon to the most striking extent. I was amazed on visiting that desert country after the rains of June to July, 1883, to see tracts, hundreds of acres in extent, covered with sheets of living fire, or glowing purple, visible from several miles distance, caused by the beautiful Compositæ in flower; and nothing is more singular than to see this luxuriance intermingled with the black or white branches of dead shrubs killed by previous droughts, standing like ghostly intruders on a scene of merriment and joy. These charming displays pass away all too rapidly, and in a month or two little that is beautiful remains. I proceed to speak of a few of the chief plants of the Region most noteworthy, either from their beauty, singularity, or from their being confined to, or peculiarly characteristic of it. I am best 304 FLORA OF SOUTH AFRICA. acquainted with the Karroo of the Graaff-Reinet district, partly with that of Namaqualand, and for the rest have only passed through it as a rapid traveller. Several species of Heliophila are extremely bright in spring, especially in the west ; and the monotypic Palmstruckia Capensis, which had only been gathered before by Thunberg, has just been re-discovered in Namaqualand. Cadaba juncea with its dark crimson flowers is a singular and characteristic plant both of this and the next Region; while Capparis oleoides (the Witgat boom) standing generally alone, 10 to 15 feet high, with its white trunk which has given its vernacular name, is a prominent feature of many of the Karroo plains; the young buds are nearly or quite as good for culinary purposes as those of the Caper of Southern Europe. The Portulaceae occupy a prominent place chiefly by the well-known Portulacaria ofra (the spek boom, or fat tree), a large shrub with fleshy acid leaves and panicles of small pink flowers. This occupies the hill sides, often growing sub-socially in great masses and affording the most favourite food for live-stock of all kinds. It also occurs, though less abundantly, in the Tropical Region. In addition there are several species of Anacampseros, one of Talinum, and one of Portulaca besides the ubiquitous P. oleracea. Tamarix usneoides occurs in Namaqualand, where it is used as fuel, and is the only plant of the Order in our Region; it is recorded also by Drege as from the central and eastern Karroo. Amongst Malvaceæ are four species of Hibiscus, one of the most curious of which is H. urens, which looks at a short distance so much like a plant of the gourd family that every botanist is astonished to find upon it the Aowers of a Hibiscus. Burchell says his Hottentots called it Wilde Kalabas (Wild Calabash). Of Sterculiacæ, the genera Her- mannia and Mahernia, are represented by 10 and 5 species re- spectively. The large Order Sapindaceæ includes Pappea Capensis (the Wild Plum) a shrub of 15 or 20 feet frequent on mountains sides; Aitonia Capensis, also a shrub, the curious pendulous papery capsules of which look like miniature Chinese lanterns hung on a Christmas tree; the allied and even handsome Erythrophysa undulata, of Namaqualand; and several species of Melianthus. The Gera- niaceæ are a numerous Order. The curious candle-bush, Sarco- caulon Patersoni is here, besides numerous species of Pelargonium. The latterare especially frequentin individuals, and much diversified in structure, those with succulent stems and leaves constituting a marked feature of the Flora. These include P. oblongatum, a hand- some species from Namaqualand, with yellow flowers, lately figured in the Botanical Magazine (t. 5996), P. flarum, P. carnosum, P. crith- mifolium, P. ferulaceum, P. pulchellum, P. sericeum, P. quinatum, the very curious and rush-like, almost leafless, P. tetragonum, P. peltatuni, P. echinatum, and many others. The Oxalideae, though numerous, THE KARROO REGION. 305 surple gente en els terete le south westendary this Regione Labout a mountainere only the begin hereTherRhynchuiflora, fregion, and often brilliant, are less common than in the South Western Region. The Rutaceae are conspicuous by their absence. I never found but one species in the Region, a Diosma, on the mountains of Namaqualand, evidently a straggler from their great home fur- ther South. The Zygophyllums are frequent and mostly with succulent leaves ; of the same family is Āugea Capensis, à mono- typic genus peculiar to the Central Karroo and abundant in many places, with thick terete leaves like those of a Mesembryanthemum. Phylica, so common in the South Western districts, is here absent; one or two species hover on the boundary line of some of the mountains, but they are scarcely members of this Region. Anacar- diaceæ are only represented by Rhus, of which there are about a dozen species. The Leguminose do not occupy nearly so promi- nent a place here as elsewhere. There are, however, several species of Lotononis. Lebeckia, Indigofera, Rhynchosia, the widely distributed Sutherlandia frutescens; and Sylitra biflora, found in this Region only. Schotia speciosa, an outlier of the Tropical Region, occurs sparingly. Acacia horrida, the only species of this genus within our limits, is scattered widely, but especially fringes the river beds, the timber is largely used for fuel, and the bark for tanning. The almost complete absence of Aspalathus is very remarkable. Of Rosaceæ there are but two species of Grielum ; while Cliffortia and Rubus are both absent. Crassulaces are an important constituent of the Region, Crassula and Cotyledon being numerous both in species and individuals. It is the Order Ficoideæ, however, that we may regard as the one most typical of the Region. Mesembryanthemums are met with everywhere, from the annual herb to the shrub with leaves of the most diverse and curious shapes, with flowers of white, yellow, and reds of many shades. In some portions vast tracts are covered with M. spinosum growing sub-socially almost to the exclusion of anything else. In Namaqualand is a huge species resembling M. crystallinum, but as large as a cabbage. Some of the larger flowered species are extremely brilliant. Cussonia spicata and C. paniculata are trees of the order Araliaceæ with con- geners spread over the whole Colony. Rubiaceæ are here, as in the $. W. Region, remarkably deficient, not more than half a dozen species occurring near Graaff-Reinet. Of Compositæ the larger genera are Pteronia, Pentzia, Helichrysum, Senecio, Othonna, Euryops. Those most abundant in individuals are Aster filifolius, Chrysocoma tenuifolia, Adenachaena parcifolia, Pentzia virgata, and P. globosa, Eriocephalus glaber, Helichrysum spp. ; most of them are very aromatic, and, excepting the second, furnish excellent food for live stock. In Namaqualand a large species of Didelta, D. spinosum, is used as a substitute for spinach, and is eaten greedily by all animals. Several species of Arctotis, Venidium, Gorteria, &c., 306 FLORA OF SOUTH AFRICA. A are exceedingly brilliant, and make a great display after rains. Ericaces are entirely absent. Olea verrucosa is one of the few trees of the Region occurring sparingly in mountain ravines, and furnishing the most useful wood for fencing poles and for fuel. Of the order Ebenacea there are several species of Royena and Euclea. Some genera of Asclepiadeæ seem to indicate an affinity with the Tropical Region and India. Such are Gomphocarpus, Sarcos'emma, Ceropegia. Of the genus Stapelia there are many species, thinly scattered, besides Huernia, Piaranthus, Decabelone, and the remarkable Hoodiæ of Namaqualand. Adenium. Nam- aquanum (or Elephants' Trunk) is a curious Apocynaceous plant of the same country. Gentianeae are almost, if not entirely, want- ing. Scrophularineae occupy a comparatively poor place, - Diascia, Nemesia, Lyperia being the chief genera, with some of the root parasites Alectra, Striga, and Hyobanche sanguinea. Rhigozum trichotomum is a handsome Bignoniaceous shrub. Acanthaceae are very deficient and probably constitute less than one per cent of the whole Flora. Selagineae are also few; Selago leptostachya (Aar- boschje) is one of the good stock food plants. The ashes of Salsola aphylla (Kanna-bosch) are used for soap making; and Atriplex Halimus and A. Capensis (Vaal-boschje) are considered most valuable food plants for sheep and goats. Hydnora Africana occurs in the eastern, and H. triceps in the western Karroo. San- talaceae are represented in Osyris compressa, the leaves of which here and in the two preceding Regions, are very generally in use for tanning; there are also several species of Thesium. Euphorbiaceae are chiefly confined to succulent Euphorbiae, in many forms,--melon shaped, 4-angled, many-angled, and club- shaped, in some tracts immensely abundant in individuals. Dur- ing severe droughts E. Caput-medusae (Fingerpoll) is in some places cut up as food for cattle ; as is also a spinous species (Euphorbia sp.) after the spines have been previously burnt off. Several species of Viscum, and a few Loranthi occur; Forskohlea candida seems to be peculiar to the Region. There are one or two species of Ficus; and the widely distributed Salix Capensis occurs along many of the river banks. Coniferae are entirely absent. Orchideæ are scarce. In the whole eastern Karroo I found but one species, Habenaria arenaria ; but in Namaqualand on the mountains where the average rainfall does not exceed seven inches yearly, I saw a Holothrix, Satyrium pustulatum, Pterygodium Volucris, and Disperis purpurata var. Of Hæmodoraceæ, Sanseviera tthyrsiflora is common on many hill sides, but rarely flowers. It may here be mentioned that this is a common condition of many of the Karroo Monocotyledons. They pass years in a dormant state : not until rain and temperature coincide suitably to their F THE KARROO REGION. 307 need will they flower. Hence one may live seven years near a mountain side, and then first see it nearly covered with Hesperantha falcata; or one may watch the numerous bulbs of Ammocharis falcata in leaf for ten years, as I have done, and never see them in flower. Iridex and Amaryllideæ are neither by any means abundant in species or individuals. Liliacea are much richer, and include Aloe (of which there are many fine species, A. ilichotoma of Namaqualand being one of the largest) Haworthia, Apicra, Ornithogalum, Albuca, &c., in great variety and beauty; there are also many Asparagi. Testudinaria elephantipes is one of the best known and most curious plants of the Region. Juncaceæ are scarce; Cyperaceæ also but few, while Carex is entirely absent. Of Restiaceæ, also, none have been found. Gramineæ are some- what rich in species, and occupy the second place amongst the Orders of the Region ; yet they occur chiefly in isolated tufts, and rarely except in some specially favoured spot can anything like turf be seen. They belong to many genera amongst which may be named Panicum, Andropogon, Aristida and Eragrostis. Of Ferns there are perhaps 8 or 10 species in the whole Region. These are chiefly Cheilanthes, Pellaea, and Nothochlaena; most of them are peculiar to the Region, and five at least, according to Lady Barkly, are found in Namaqualand only. The predominating feature of this Region is the peculiar adapta- tion of its vegetable life to meet the severe conditions of the dry and hot climate and soil. Succulence, which may here be taken to include thickened roots, stems or leaves, is displayed in the most diverse Orders. At Graaff-Reinet, on the north-eastern border of the Region, and where the climate is far less severe than further west, I counted thirty-one per cent. of all flowering plants as more or less succulent. In the central and western Karroo the proportion would be much larger. The prevalence of thorny plants is also very noticeable. The following list of the chief Orders of the Region is taken from a list of 611 flowering plants collected by me mostly near Graaff- Reinet, all below 3,750 feet above the sea, and being nearly a complete collection of the plants within twenty miles of that centre ; to which are added 66 others collected by Drège, and by myself, in other parts of the Region, further south and west. But it does not in- clude plants from Namaqualand, nor from the western Karrio generally. Substantially, it is a fair representation of the eastern Karroo, but I think it probable that a fuller and more general collection would reduce the position of Gramineae, raise that of Ficoideæ and Geraniacex, and introduce the order Iridexe into the first twelve. W 2 308 FLORA OF SOUTH AFRICA. .. 17:1 .. 9.2 ::::::::::: :::::::::::: :::::::::::: :::::::::::: :::::::::::: ๖๑ ว ล ง 2.2 .. 2 . tiacehe scarcityving Large Region Guidia, Strueke; and the the Tropica- CHIEF ORDERS-EASTERN KARROO. Per cent. 1. Compositze ... 2. Gramineæ .. 3. Ficoidere .. 6.8 4. Liliace .. .. 6.5 5 Crassulaceæ .. 6. Leguminosa 7. Geraniaceæ .. 8. Scrophularineæ 9. Asclepiadeæ.. 10. Sterculiaceæ.. 2:5 11. Solanaceæ ... 12. Cyperaceæ .. The Flora shows but weak affinities with either of the two pre- ceding Regions, and these are chiefly exhibited in widely distri- buted genera common to the whole of Southern Africa. From the South Western Region it differs in the complete absence of Rutaceae, Bruniacea, Ericaceae, Proteacea, Penaeace, and Res- tiaceae, the six most characteristic orders of that Region ; further, in the scarcity of Leguminosa ; and in the almost complete absence of the following large genera which are so abundant in and characteristic of that Region : Muraltia, Phylica, Aspalathus, Cliffortia, Athanasia, Arctotis, Gnidia, Struthiola. There is a point of approach in the abundance of Geraniaceæ ; and there is a com- mon scarcity of Rubiace and Acanthaceae. From the Tropical Region it is distinguished by abundance in Ficoides and Crassu- laceae ; and by its paucity of Leguminosa, Rubiaceæ and Acan- thaceae ; to these might perhaps be added Malvacea, and Euphor- biaceae, for these occur chiefly in the eastern Karroo, where it bor- ders on the Tropical Region. It may hereafter be found that the affinities of this Region, together with the succeeding one, are greater with the Kalahari Region than with any other, if indeed they might not be regarded as an extension of it. But at present our knowledge of the Kalahari is too imperfect to enable us to form a judgment. With respect to the naturalized foreign plants of the Region, it may readily be supposed that the heat and drought of the climate would be unfavourable to European colonists. The number is indeed few, and chiefly confined to weeds of cultivation, which is here synonymous with irrigation; or to a few wayside weeds. The number known to me does not exceed twenty-five. Those of American origin are more prominent. Opuntia Tuna (?) already mentioned, has a branched stem with obovate articulated joints, covered with tufts of strong prickles; the flowers are yellow, and the fruit much eaten by the natives and colonists. Drège does not mention this plant, so that it must have been introduced, or, at least, have spread, since his visit (1826-1834). It is now a most troublesome pest, growing in some places sub-socially, and killing THE UPPER REGION. 309 out the native vegetation. So tenacious of life is it that a piece of stem of a few square inches dropped upon the surface of the hot dry soil, will take root and grow readily. Cattle and goats, driven to browse upon it by drought, suffer by the laceration of their mouths, and fall off in condition. Its eradication is slow and laborious, needing either to be completely buried, or burnt. The Xanthium spinosum is also a troublesome weed owing to its hooked achenes becoming entangled in the wool of sheep. Nicotiana glauca springs up immediately wherever quarries are opened; Argemone Mexicana has fairly established itself, though not yet abundant; and Amsinckia angustifolia, from Chili, has been found in Namaqualand. THE UPPER REGION, OR REGION OF COMPOSITES. This Region is bounded on the west by the Hantam and Rogge- veld mountains ; southward by the continuation of the Roggeveld range; the Nieuwveld, the Sneeuwberg range; thence across by the Boschberg and by the mountains about Daggaboer's Nek, towards the north-western flanks of the Great Winterberg mountain ; eastward by the watershed which separates the waters of the Fish River from those of the Kei, so as to include the districts of Tarkastad and Albert, to the Orange River. Its northern boundary is in part unexplored. I am informed by Mr. E. J. Dunn, F.G.S., who has travelled through that part of the country for the purpose of exploring its geology, that the boundary line on the northwest is well marked and co-incident with the line of his Dwyka Conglomerate and the Karroo Beds, the former being covered by the Twa-grass (Arthratherum brevifolium) so characteristic of the Kalahari Region, while the latter bear the stunted bushes peculiar to this Region. This line would begin near the Kabis- kouw mountain, thence it extends in a curve towards Hope Town where it is certainly existent about thirty miles south of that town. It then runs northward, crossing the Orange River. The exact boundary in the Orange Free State is unknown to me, but it is probable that it takes a wide curve eastward between Bloemfon- tein and Smithfield, and again cuts the Orange R. southwest of Aliwal North. It is thus an elevated country sloping gently from the southern edge towards the Orange River, at an average eleva- tion of from 5,000 to 4,000 feet above the sea. I have included in the Region that part of the districts of Middelburg, Cradock and Tarkastad, which is formed by the basin of the Great Fish River above Dagaboers Neck. Is it uncertain whether this is correct. Drège regarded this tract as belonging to the Karroo Region ; but he passed rapidly through it (as I have also done) and scarcely collected anything. His view would have this consistency: that it would make the waters of the whole Upper Region run into the 310 FLORA OF SOUTH AFRICA. Orange River; and those of the whole Karroo Region into the Southern Ocean. But the tract in question is somewhat more elevated than the rest of the Karroo, and appeared to me from its deficiency in succulents to belong rather to the present Region. The matter must be decided by further evidence, since no collec- tions, so far as I know, have been made there. The general aspect of the country is that of a vast treeless plain, interspersed at great distances by a few isolated and flat- topped mountains, or short ranges; or lower, and then very rugged rocky hills. On these hills or in the few ravines of the monotonous mountain sides, may be found a few stunted bushes. In fertile shallow vallies (“ vleis "), grassy patches, with more luxuriant bushes 6 to 8 feet high, may be seen; but trees never, except such few as have been planted by the hand of man; or except the few (chiefly Salix capensis) which fringe the banks of the Orange River, where it flows through this Region ; and the predomi- nant and constantly prevailing aspect of the country is that of a heathy tract, or dry elevated moorland, covered with small shrub- lets of a dull green hue, the few intervening plants of different growth which occur being too small or too few to alter or modify the general appearance above described. Respecting the climate of this Region no observations for any considerable length of time, excepting of the rainfall, have been made. The extremes of temperature are considerable, the summer maximum being nearly as high as in the Karroo Region although the summer nights are always cool; while the winter temperature is much lower. Severe frosts are common, with occasional snows in winter and hailstorms in summer. The rains are almost entirely in the summer months, and usually accompanied by thunderstorms. The following list of stations at which the rainfall has been observed for a period of five years or more is taken from the Report of the Meteorological Commission for 1883. I take the stations in their order from west to east :--Fraserburg, 6:11 inches; Carnarvon, 7.78; Victoria West, 9.82; Richmond, 11.64; Hanover, 13.77; Middelburg, 14:17; Colesberg, 12.82 ; Cradock, 13:19; Tarkastad, 17.08. The following remarks on the plants chiefly characteristic of this Region are based upon collections of 507 species of flowering plants made by myself chiefly on the loftier portions of the Graaff-Reniet district (above 3,750 feet above the sea) with a few in the districts of Murraysburg, Richmond, Hanover and Colesberg; of 331 (other) species collected by Drège in the same districts, together with Albert and Aliwal North; and of 135 (other) species collected by Mr. W. Tyson, chiefly in the district of Murraysburg ; being a total of 973 species. These lists and the calculations upon them, which will be found on page 313, were made some time ago. I have THE KALAHARI REGION. 315 boundary of the Colony, may now be regarded as decided in the negative.* The Olive of the Colony (Olea rerrucosa), also occurs here, and a number of smaller shrubs as Capparis, Zizyphus, Grewia, Rhus, Tarchonanthus, Vangueria, Euelea, Royena, Lycium, &c. The Mesembryanthemums of the Cape, and other succulent Ficoideæ, as also Crassulaceæ, appear to be very scarce, though not entirely absent. A species of Atriplex is regarded as valuable for stock in Bechuanaland. As very little is generally known respecting the plants found in this Region, I will give the following list of genera mentioned by Burchell, who travelled be- yond Litakun, collected by Dr. Muskett near Hope Town, or found by myself near Kimberley and Barkly, in the south-eastern part of the Region : Clematis, Cissampelos, Sisymbrium, Helio- phila, Senebiera, Lepidium, Cleome, Cadaba, Capparis, Oligomeris, Polygala, Anacampseros, Talinum, Sida, Sphæralcea, Hibiscus, Melhania, Hermannia, Maherina, Grewia, Corchorus, Triaspis, Celastrus, Zizyphus, Aitonia, Rhus, Crotalaria, Argyrolobium, Psoralea, Indigofera, Bolusia, Sesbania, Vigna, Cassia, Bauhinia, Elephantorrhiza, Vahlia, Cotyledon, Myriophyllum, Terminalia, Combretum, Mesembryanthemum, Tetragonia, Aizoon, Phar- naceum, Vangueria, Vernonia, Pteronia, Nidorella, Nolletia, Chrysocoma, Tarchonanthus, Helichrysum, Geigeria, Pentzia, Senecio, Othonnopsis, Osteospermum, Wahlenbergia, Lobelia, Royena, Euclea, Menodorr, Olea, Raphionacme, Pachypodnim, Gomphocarpus, Dæmia, Barrowia, Ceropegia, Sebæa, Chironia, Trichodesma, Heliotropium, Lithospermum, Ipomæa, Convolvulus, Evolvulus, Falkia, Solanum, Lycium, Aptosimum, Peliostomum, Nemesia, Rhigozum, Pterodiscus, Harpagophytum, Sesamum, Barleria, Justicia, Bouchea, Ocimum, Salvia, Stachys, Leucas, Boerhaavia, Celosia, Hermbstaedtia, Sericocoma, Atriplex, Salsola, Oxygonum, Arthrosolen, Loranthus, Euphorbia, Croton, Ficus, Salix, Lanaria, Cyanella, Babiana, Gladiolus, Crinum, Brunsvigia, Buphane, Asparagus, Aloe, Bulbine, Eriospermum, Anthericum, Tulbaghia, Dipcadi, Ornithogalum, Cyperus, Andropogon, Anthis- tiria, Aristida. On the west coast near Walwich Bay is the very remarkable Welwitschia mirabilis, (Tumboa) of the Order Gnetacem; and the singular Cucurbit, Acanthosicyos horrida, the fruit of which is used by the natives. Towards the eastern edge of the Region, including part of the Transvaal, and the Free State the Flora passes gradually over to that of the Tropical African Region, and is especially rich in tropical types in the neighbourhood of the well-known Magaliesbergen. Comphocarbuclea, Menodosteospermuhrysum, Geirella, Nollotar- * On this point I am indebted for valuable information to Mr. E. J. Dunn, and also to Dr. E. B. Muskett of Hope Town, who first pointed out to me that the statements on this subject of Burchell, usually so accurate, were mistaken. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 317 Summary. Speaking generally, and disregarding exceptions, the Flora of the Regions of South Africa is distinguished :- 1. By its highly differentiated character. 2. By its want of luxuriance of growth (but from this the Tropical Region must be excepted). 3. By the narrow distribution area of each species. 4. By the deficiency of trees. 5. By the paucity of sociable plants. 6. By its power to resist the aggression of foreign invaders. STATISTICS-POPULATION, REVENUE, COMMERCE, AND CUSTOMS TARIFF.. The statistics of the Cape Colony are not as complete in some respects as could be desired. Since the census of 1875, there has been no official enumeration of the population, agricultural indus- tries, or pastoral productions. But with regard to Revenue and Expenditure, the public Assets and Liabilities, and the Trade transactions of the Colony, the returns available are most full and accurate, as will be seen from the appended tables. A computation has been made of the area and population of the Colony, including Griqualand West, the Transkeian Territories and Griqualand East, and the results give a total area of 213,636.1 square miles and a population of 1,252,347 persons, of whom 340,000 are European or white, and the remainder coloured or native races. From the other statistics at our disposal, we present the follow- ing information as to the actual condition of the Colony, in a brief and succinct form :- Public Revenue (1884-85):-- From taxation, " £1,650,841 For services rendered .. " 1.351, 799 Income from Colonial estates . 236,636 Fines, forfeitures, interest, &c. .. 78,876 £3,318,152 Public expenditure (1884-5) £3,375,682 Government Public Debt .. .. .. .. £20,417,227 Corporate Bodies Debt .. . . £1,254,935 Valuation of fixed Property for rateable purposes .. £37,799,508 Area of Crown Lands undisposed of .. 45,298,808 acres Extent of Railways opened ... 1,599 miles Do. Telegraph Lines .. .. 8,663 miles of wire Roads, Main and Divisional .. 8,400 miles Number of Vines in the Colony .. 70,000,000 vines Diamonds, production of (1884-5) 2,282,433} carats Do. declared value exported .. £2,553,671 Wool exported 1885, quantity .. .. 34,432,562 lbs. Do. declared value .. .. £1,426,108 Mohair exported 1885, quantity.. .. 5,251,301 lbs. Do. value .. £204,018 Ostrich feathers exported 1885 .. .. 251,084 lbs. Do. value .. $585,278 Copper ore, exported 1885 .. .. 20,213 tons Do. value .. £395,676 Hides, ox and cow, exported 1885 (number of) .. 290,010 Do. value .. .. £128,915 Skins (goat and sheep) exported 1885, number of .. 3,827,336 Do. value of .. .. £295,840 Tornage of British vessels entered and cleared 1885.. 5,106,328 tons Do. of Foreign vessels ... .. .. .. 275,789 tons The commercial transactions of the Colony are shewn in detail in the accompanying Customs Trade Returns Tables A and B), giving the quantity or value of the articles imported and entered ::::::::::: :::::: :::::::::::: · STATISTICS. 319 for consumption as well as the quantity and value of the articles of export. But to illustrate how materially these trade operations add to the commerce of Great Britain, we present a return of the aggregate value of the imports and exports for the period from 1880 to 1885 :- ::::::::: do. .. do. Exports, total value of, from 1880-85 45,852,234 Imports, total value of, from 1880-85 .. .. 44,473,151 Total value of Imports and Exports, 1880-85.. 90,325,385 Imports from the United Kingdom, 1880-85 .. 34,336,687 Do. from British Possessions do. 5,696,352 Do. from Foreign Countries 3,444,112 Exports to the United Kingdom, 1880-85 .. 43,292,750 Do. to British Possessions 821,110 Do. to Foreign Countries do. .. .. 1,738,374 The sources of Colonial Revenue are customs duty, excise duty, transfer duty, auction duty, succession duty, bank note duty, house duty, and stamps, licences, and office fees. Besides these, there are receipts from railways, telegraphs, post offices, lands and mines, forests, native hut-tax, tolls on bridges, &c. Although the Revenue for the last year shows a decline in sympathy with the prevailing general depression and shrinkage of business, the annexed comparative statement (prepared by the Hon. C. Abercrombie Smith, Controller and Auditor-General) of the ordinary revenue and expenditure from 1870 to 1885 (ride table E) demonstrates the remarkable financial prosperity which the Colony enjoyed during the greater part of that period. Begin- ning on the 1st January, 1870, with a balance deficit of over a million sterling, the excess of revenue over expenditure for a continuous number of years was such as to clear off the deficit, and leave a surplus of over half a million on the 30th June, 1885. The table C exhibits the various purposes to which the public Revenue has been applied from 1867 to 1885. In the Expenditure for the nine financial years, chargeable to ordinary revenue, it will be seen that £1,143,930 was disbursed for Native Affairs, including the education of natives, and £1,782,604 for internal Defence. The table D shows the various services for which the loans now constituting the public debt have been raised and appropriated, namely, railways, harbours, bridges, buildings, telegraphs, irriga- tion works, immigration, and suppression of native rebellion. With the exception of the last item-expenditure for native rebellion, chiefly in Basutoland, nearly the whole of the public debt of the Colony has been incurred on works, either of a directly reproductive and remunerative character or of permanent improve- ment, many of which are now contributing to a large extent towards the payment of interest, and most of them in course of time will become income-producing investments. E.-COMPARATIVE STATEMENT of the Revenue and Expenditure (Ordinary), of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope, 1870-85. 320 Revenue. Expenditure. Surpluses. Deficits Balance Surplus. / Balance Deficit. £ 8. d. £ s. d. 1,054,913 13 7 £ s. d. £ S. 1,054,913 13 Balance (deficit), 1st January, 1870 d. 7 £ s. d. £ 8. d. 1,054,913 13 7 : Calendar Year... ... 1870 ... 711,364 01 996,909 13 6 : 58,004 01 121,588 15 6 731,662 137 875,320 16 0 : 407,675 17 4 467,645 08 : 410,303 4 7 57,341 16 1 : .. 1874 ... : 615,347 7 3 567,234 5 5 ... 1875 558,005 11 2 1,125,239 16 7 1,054,748 0 1 : : 70,491 16 6 278,403 2 11 103,922 123 STATISTICS. 776,344 17 2 653,360 00 613,073 18 1 632,564 17 8 804,758 04 903,210 13 10 1,105,486 14 4 901.575 6 6 1,601,610 14 2 1,691,932 15 5 1,916,081 4 11 2,257,075 25 2,806,022 14 9 3,278,785 5 3 3,686,288 09 3,502,487 12 11 3,875,682 1 6 Period, January—June, 1876 Financial Year 1876-77 1877-78 1878-79 1879-80 1880-81 1881-82 1882-83 1883-84 ... 1884-86 ... : 1,040,240 15 0 1,215,061 4 11 1,518,558 1 1 1,672,720 19 9 831,083 100 1,323,207 11 3 1,588,010 3 2 2,083,818 14 3 2,536,907 16 2 2,999,903 0 4 3,525,472 0 3 3,306,637 120 2,953,628 17 4 3,318,152 6 4 167,737 9 4 279,832 13 9 193,880 5 7 246,686 15 0 672,422 4 11 840,159 14 3 1,119,992 8 0 1,313,872 137 1,560,559 8 7 1,180,808 19 10 631,850 4 3 574,320 91 379,750 8 9 648,968 157 57,529 15 2 : ... Balance deficit, 1st January, 1870 £1,064,913 13 7 , surplus, 30th June, 1885 674,320 91 Excess of Revenue over Expenditure from 1st January, 1870, to June 30th, 1885 £1,629,234 2 8 STATISTICS. 321 DETAILS OF REVENUE. REVENJE (ACTUAL) IN DETAIL FOR HEADS OF HEVENUE. 1876-77. 1877-78. 1878-79. 1879-80. 1880-81. (1881-82. '1882-83. 1883-4. 1884-5. (ustoms (includ- ling Harbour Dues) 605981 | 775776 923597 | 983156 1198054 (1356947 1119752 906499 1082213 Land Sales . 69330 50913 46091 78772 77385 68329 49710 35056 18930 Land Revenue 111108 90325 108466 178419 161134 | 180139 193422 200587 192639 Rent exclusive 2503 2716 8169 19616 32116 23529 i 20214 18795 of Land) Transfer Dues... 77368 72082 86703 98936 98936 129063 | 146604 | 1234421 9996793798 100062 Auction Dues... 29 19652 26960 24733 32303 31617 31254 21078 18296 Succession Dues 6193 7222 7505 8456 7658 11352 12531 11637, 12999 Taxes, House is 58428 86157 70331 75916 87535 S4338 90001 Duty (133397 112109125868 Stamps and 97816 99981 118872 138121 178952 213434 Stamped Licences, (86066 102014 124280 Bank Notes Duty 81361 0957 8388 9306 13682 18732 15740110671 9980 Postage... ... 60306 01482 70512 77631 92089 109887 106530 114619 125675 Excise Duty. 63522 74104 49566 58293 43103 194681 94686 Fines, Forfeitures, 17894 / 15673 15165 18567 24792 24951 21573 16942 & Fees of Court 15113 Fres of Office ... 80778 (5991 3297 6745 10562 6600 6409 5149 Sales of Govern 3155' 2744 11943 1458 1700 2727 1272 931 796 ment Property Reimbursements 18011 36101 58107 110347 90949 90015 92865 102409 110745 Mines ... 18760 2:2919 26036 24271 Miscellaneous 163 5569 3237 1205 3262 5736 6606 11175 28886 Peceipts Interest & Pre 4197 3016 21851 20050 15174 4773 9330 26140 | 22037 miums Special Receipts 2369 2368 3091 13915 20148 26888 117 419 291061 18094 Rivilway Receipts 186439 ! 274515 | 396162 564532 739206 966536 941509 | 920066 1027030 Telegraph Receipts 20937 | 23419 29633 35837 54741 63224 | 52271 508094 52301 Revenue from Transkein Terri- tories 20773 Included above Stores issued 4866 / 1707 | 929 | 1551 017 813 / 1638 3578 341 Total ... (1323207 1588010 2083818 25.36908 2999903 "3525472 3306538 2953529 3318152 AL [MPORTS AND EXPORTS. RETURN of the Total Imports and Exports of the Colony, and the Value of Imports from and Exports to the United Kingdom, British Possessions and Foreign Countries during each of the last Six Years. PARTICULARS. | 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. Imports ... Exports ... ... .. 9,660,611 8,561,458 6,680,942 7,576, 415 5,260,697 4,991,688 7,031,744 | 6,224,261 8,092,043' 9,787,140 7,858,016 8,600,310 15,950,089 18,387,450 Imports and Exports ... 18,222,099 14,257,357 | 12,292,441 11,215,949 United Kingdom, Imports from Exports to ... 6.183,309 ! 7.739,224 | 7,613,396 7,478,821 8,092,820 8,113,936 4,899,402 7,142,330 4,023,819 6,602,193 3,877,537 5,862,650 British Possessions. Imports froin Exports to 1,118,181 - 1.036,430 89,701 326,062 1,074,301 ! 1,051.862 131,409 100,272 731,618 90,580 678,960 83,086 Foreign Countries. Imports from Exports to 790,553 | 1,011,486 289,524 | 181,428 972,944 316,113 729,678 333,813 500,260_ 338,971 435.191 278,526 NOTE.-Specie included in above Returns. :322 SHIPPING. Return of the Total Number and Tonnage of British and Foreign Shipping entered and cleared during each of the last six years. PARTICULARS. 1990. 1880. 1881. i 1892. | 1853. | 1881. i 1855. INWARDS: British No. Tons. Foreign 1,785 2,123,091 1,935 2,858,906 1,853 2,832,533 2,327,877 1,699 2,517,707 1711 2,540, 419 No. 329 133,314 438 213,113 393 199,970 282 157,414 225 133,299 297 151,639 Tons. Total No. Tons. OUTWARD: British 2,114 1 2,236,405 2,212 2,540,910 2,328 3,058,876 2,135 2,990,277 1.923 2,651,006 2,715,055 No, Tons. 1,781 2,033,663 1,854 2,334,767 1,942 2,837,636 1,720 2,525,621 1.703 2,311,615 Foreign 1,829 2,898,690 286 160,568 No. Tons. 319 127,250 406 191,S24 399 196,379 935 142.190 293 153,182 Total No. Tons. 2.103 2,260 ... ! 2,220,913 | 2,526,591 2,331 2,115 3.031,015 | 2,969,258 1.955 2.671.111 1.996 2.697.797 F. W. BURROWS, Collector. IMMIGRATION. RETURN of the Number of Immigrants introduced into the Colony from Europe through the Agency of the Government from the date of the establishment of the London Emigration Office, Ordinary YEAR. or Aided. Total Souls. Grand Total Souls. Government. Men. Women, Children. Men. Women. Children. Ordinary. Aided. Ordinary and Aided 20 377 776 1283 1312 927 140 214 212 August, 1873 to December 31st, '73 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1890. 1881. 1882, 1883. 1884. 20 92 35 202 105 307 190 290425 not given | 112 | 415 ! 231 not given ... not given not given given 72 17 506 816 1341 1561 1322 467 470 1205 1550 1246 361 173 447 711 890 289 862 1402 2613 3399 1029 292 510 989 1791 2272 2212 756 1332 2007 4163 4645 1390 292 :::: 10848 12111 22959 German Agriculturists. 1883. 83 75 220 ... ... ... 378 ... 378 23337 Note: --Ordinary or Government Immigrants consisted of Agriculturists settled under the Regulations; skilled lahourers for Hailway and other Public Works; and Recruits for the Cape Mounted Rifles and Cape Intantry Regiments. Aided Immigrants comprised the class of Domestic Servants, Artizans, &c., introduced by Employers in the Colony, LAND ALIENATED. 323 PARTICULARS. 1880. 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885, first 6 months. Titles issued .. No. 1,087 859 1,000 1,828 2,070 549 Extent alienated acres 2,976,438 (0) 3,136,267 (5) 2,790,450(6) 2,462,193(0)2,309,166 (6) 964,016(6; Purchase amount paid ... 68,206 63,707 49,811 51,686 37,759 4,899 Annual quitrent payable 13,206 11,537 10,448 15,202 23,785 5,653 Area of the Colony (a) ... acres 131,711,600 131,711,600 131,711,600 131,711,600 131,711,600 131,711,600 Area disposed of acres 74,810,670 77,916,937 80,737,387 | 83,199,580 | 85,508,746 | 86,412,792 Area undisposed of acres 56,900,930 53,764,663 50,974,213 48,512,020 46,202,854 45,298,808 (a). Inclusive of East and West Griqualand, exclusive of Tembuland and Transkei. (b). Exclusive of Tembuland and Transkei. A. DE SMIDT, Surveyor-General. VALUATION OF PROPERTY FOR DIVISIONAL COUNCIL PURPOSES. Divisions. Date. Amount. Divisions. Date. Amount. 1885 1880 1885 1885 1880 1885 1885 1882 COCK .. :::: 1882 Нау ... Cape Port Elizabeth .. Kimberley Victoria West Cradock Oudtshoorn Paarl .. Albany .. Richmond.. Albert Fraserberg Graaff-Reinet .. Queen's Town .. King Wm's. Town Beaufort West Somerset .. Colesberg .. Uitenhage Robertson.. Malmesbury Swellendam Caledon .. Middleburg Worcester Hope Town Prince Albert Carnarvon Stellenbosch Bedford Willowmore .. Tarka Herschell No. D.C. East London .. ::::::::: 4,979,352 Riversdale 1881 1,950,516 Aliwal North 1882 1,711,751 Herbert ... 1881 | 1,200,861 | Mossel Bay 1885 1,090,040 1.090.040 | Calvinia .. 1885 | 1,067,390 | Tulbagh ... 1885 1,038,027 | Murraysburg 1883 | 993,948 Wodehouse 1881 | 859,057 Aberdeen 1881 840,000 Fort Beaufort 1885 831,328 1885 827,944 Hanover .. 1881 822,699 Barkly West 1883 795,496 Humansdorp 1885 783,966 Barkly East 1884 747,613 Clanwilliam 1880 714,311 Jansenville 1884 704,248 | George .. 1880 699,316 Ladismith 1884 670,664 Piquetberg 1881 606,842 Uniondale 1880 587,262 Bredasdorp 1884 580,754 | Alexandria 1884 573,285 Cathcart .. 1884 544.539 Knysna .. 1885 527,055 Stockenstroom .. 1882 502,122 | Bathurst .. 1882 485,694 Namaqualand .. 1884 453,643 Victoria East . 1881 444,446 Stutterheim 1881 427, 752 Peddie Komgha .. 1881 416,354 Simon's Town .. Total 1885 1883 1881 1881 1885 1881 1880 1884 1885 1881 1883 1881 1885 1885 1881 1885 1883 1880 1881 1884 1882 1884 1883 1883 402,948 396,533 371,919 369,181 362,533 357,565 349,212 340,000 323,367 300,436 302,850 295,284 295,076 282,263 272,214 263,888 261,289 260,645 232,651 221,657 212,627 206,000 181,067 180,606 171,957 161,414 158,468 154,307 144,208 142,681 123,235 112,927 110,225 37,799,508 x 2 ::: ::: do. :::: ::::: 0 0 :::::::: :::::: CAPE COLONY TARIFF OF CUSTOMS DUTIES. £ 8. d. Agricultural Implements, for every £100 value (1) .. .. 10 0 0 Ale and Beer, the gallon .. Bags for Flour, Grain, Coal and Wool, for every £100 value 10 00 Boots and Shoes, vizi Men's the dozen pairs 0 8 0 Women's 0 6 0 Boys' and Girls' do. 0 30 Children's do. Slippers and Goloshes do. .. .. .. .. 0 2 0 and for every £100 value 10 00 Butter, including Butterine or any other substance imported for mixing with, or for use as Butter, the 100 lb... 0 12 G Candles, the lb... Carriages, Carts, Waggons, and other wheeled vehicles, including wheelbarrows, for every £100 value (2) 20 00 Axles, Springs and Lamps for Carts and Carriages, for every £100 value 10 Olli Cartridges, for every £100 full value .. .. 15 00 and for every lb. of Gunpowder therein 0 0 6 Cement, per 400 lbs. .. 0 16 Cheese, the 100 lb. 0 !6 S Chicorydo. 0 16 5 Cider, the gallon 0 0 Cinnamon or Cassia, the lb... Cloves, the lb... . Coals, Coke, and Patent Fuel, the ton of 2,000 lbs. Cocoa and Chocolate, the 100 lbs. .. 0 16 8 Coffee, the 100 lbs. .. 0 16 8 Confectionery: Jams, Jellies, and Manufactured Sweets, not being medicated or properly classed as Apothecaryware, but including Sweetmeats of all sorts, and other articles with which sugar is largely compounded for preserving purposes (3), the 100 lbs. 0 16 S Corks and Bungs, for every £100 value .. 10 00 Corn and Grain, viz. : Barley, the 100 lbs. Maize do. 0 1 0 Oats do. .. 0 1 0 do. Wheat do. Dates Dynamite, Blasting Powder, Blasting Compound, Gun Cotton and Fuse, the lb. 0 0 0 Flour, Wheaten and Wheaten Meal, the 100 lbs. .. .. 0 3 6 Fruits, Dried : Currants, Raisins, and Figs, the 100 lbs. 012 Other Sorts do. 0 121 Ginger, Dry, the lb. .. 0 0 3 Preserved Chow Chow and other similar Preserves, the lb. 0 0 4 Gunpowder, the lb. .. 0 0 6 Guns or Gun Barrels, the barrel .. .. 1 0 0 Hops, for every £100 value .. 10 0 0 Iron, Bar, Bolt and Rod, for every £100 value 10 00 Iron Wire) for fencing, for every £100 value Steel Wire .. 10 00 Lard, the 100 lbs. .. .. 0 126 Mace, the lb. .. .. 0 0 3 Malt, for every £100 value .. .. 10 0 0 ::::::::::: v tako im 100. .. . .. : : . . . ::::: :::::: ::::: Rye . . 0 4 :::::::::: ::::: :::::::::::::: : : : : : : ::: :::: busumption. 1882. 1883. 1884, 1885. www. of SS-100 Iv CT Agt 29,272 17,976 20,501 28.603 Ale 1,230,243 900,953 472,578 479,258 Apr 629,093 291,944 267,717 268,040 Bag 65,45+: 63,845 45,362 43,858 But 1,121,904 1,380,566 946,860 1,009, 276 Can 2,118,145 1,728,411 1,840,234 1,839,404 Che 1,328,656 1,084,350 996, 297 883,487 Chic 690,373 769,349 739,810 809,666 Coff 9,883,150 9,819,765 9,936,758 9,444,882 Con 3,705,773 2,641,314 2,327,310 2,063,081 Cori 4,066,066 2,542,025 36,378 98,429 626,580 476,308 228,854 478,996 484,932 402,160 64,160 171,461 21,524,115 31,166,842 24,862,482 13,221,958 9,383,016 15,363, 230 12,168,176 18,854,242 1,336,384 1,726, 205 27,843 859,001 56,947,944 ' 49,570,431 41,443,980 54,090,180 Cott 616,866 349,031 431,014 419,684 Gun 273,870 159,164 91,861 77,406 Gun 4,437 4,402 3,150 1,657 Gun 10 30 16 12 J!al 804,670 473,736 527,135 526,429 Har 663,767 337,576 248,582 186,847 Iron 34,496 16,023 7,723 10,802 Leat 498,683! 286,050 280,032 237,336 Lini 58,345 26,612 16,885 22,247 Rice 13,463,911 12,708,00+ 10,010,488 10,683,081 Sadi 98,128 31,577 22,881 21,256 Silk 10,833 4,112 4,617 4,386 Soaj 6,056,775 6,944,396 7,891,413 5,941,368 Spir 283,663 251,273 173,454 155, 104 Sug 38,971,769 | 30,079,163 28,433,961 26,365,900 1,041,778 923,164 / 1,124,345 1,001,764 10,009 3,4371 28,855 4,973 fea 1,162,744 1,166,925 1,002,732 981,773 Tobi 142,154 168,678 100,404 150,819 418,359 342,056 163,975 142,726 314,300 230,250 166,241 112,854 56,191 Win 89,104 56,530 23,674 18,078 Woc 1,927,818 1,288,418 597,465 . 1,030,447 Woo 388,625 183,162 138,176 150,548 52.973 F. W. BURROWES, Collector. [TURS OVER. E RETURNS. ticles of Colonial Produce Exported. Sá, charg 1880. , 1881. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885. 31-2. 10,841 .),622 394,032 8,788 10,258 5,591 454,113 6,816 4,909 2,879 306,790 5,042 Nil. 883.632 27,616 1,249 206,471 26,691 3,863 Nil. 16,982 3,367,897 107,428 172,264 328 1,207 11,996 4,233 1,65+ 261,110 9,630 50 894,241 33,428 761 262,660 19,923 4,115 11,748 17,081 4,176,222 101,933 ! 181,919 281 1,014 11,719 1,093,989 26,334 1,038 2:13 128 57,919 6,799 17 4,019 3,992,502 118,326 227,112 (159 1,359 10,299 931,380 22,198 ! 3,665 271,804 82,064 7,283 1,085 5,746 2,742,470 122,796 231,190 1,123 2,371 21, 474 9,973 6,823 405,115 7,993 Nil. 966, +79 16,206 1,469 239,673 105,873 8.621 2,753 3,879 2,807,329 115,099 213,793 884 1,779 16,922 8,228 6,487 39.5,675 € 8. d. 4,975 Nil. 587, 278 15,852 2,586 204,018 128,915 7,474 3,110 3,029 2,489,659 103,209 192,631 1,074 696 6 2,687 14,558 w Siin on varios casosida 395,966 1,317,630 517,776 337, 266 1,427,174 417,197 311,717 1,227,274 523,189 262,853 1,340,287 389,605 267,365 1,100,834 376,994 164,977 PO 16 976,209 9 4 11 284,92295 4 57 19 4 8. F. W. BURROWES, Collector. 3 LONIAL GOVERNMENT ARTICLES. inial Government Articles (excluding Specie) Imported and Exported. 1875. . 1880 1881. 1882. 1883. | 1884. 1885. 489,381 kept. 402,073 | 251,084 787,189 No account kept. 906,615 | 298,670 292,107 F. W. BURROWES, Collector, onial Parliament. 81—2. 1882—3. 1883—4. 1881-5. Total to 31st June, 188.5. - 8. 366 14 d. 9 £ 8. 2,188,658 5 d. 0 8. d. 1 1,522,150 185 13 11 62,262 11 71 9 17,049 1 8 398 5 583 3 46,611 3 11 12,794 16 4 533 110 95,759 15 11 1 8 )44 6 88 16 13,406 8 9 30,143 17 9 32,838 14 5 15,003 0 7 18,528 19 3 6 £ s. d. 13,746,728 6 11 502,189 18 3 290,647 15 9 416,144 10 213,289 14 9 165,097 18 1 33,379 6 6 85,872 5 0 4,794,762 13 4 £ s. d. | 665,787 17 4 16,825 16 11 | 11,933 1.5 2 6,673 11 49,706 O 2 3,646 0 0 3,059 19 1 3,217 4 8 32,401 4 1 -9,067 10 7 51,978 12 7 2,242 13 5 .71 13 8 140 3 8 196 19 10 213,996 4 41 15,310 6 10 6,349 18 6 60,389 128 --503 17 7 108,748 11 7 310,662 193 1,467 6 10 58,374 16 0 219,102 0 2 1,870,897 8 7 | 845,229 11 1 -503 17 7 – 9,067 10 7 29 17 9 2,651,729 6 2 1,870,393 11 0 836,162 0 0 20,777,877 8 5 » Expenditure. C. ABERCROMBIE SMITII, Controller and Auditor-General. ADVERTISEMENTS. EQUITABLE MARINE & FIRE ASSURANCE COMPANY, EXCHANGE BUILDINGS, CAPE TOWN. CAPITAL, $75,000. ESTABLISHED 1849. DIRECTORS. F. PORTER, Chairman, F. W. MILLS, E. LANDSBERG, A. B. MARAIS, J. R. MARQUARD, G. MYBURGH, C. POPPE, J. F. WICHT & D, D. KRYNAUW, F. FERGUSSON, Secretary. LONDON AGENTS:-PREVITE & GREIG, 2, CROSBY SQ., E.C., Who accept Marine Risks on behalf of the Company. COLONIAL FIRE SO ASSURANCE CO., LIMITED. CORNER OF SHORTMARKET & ST. GEORGE'S STREETS, CAPE TOWN. --- ----------- CAPITAL - - £50,000. DIRECTORS: HON'BLE JOHN MILLER, M.L.C., CHAIRMAN. J. SPENCE, H. M. ARDERNE, P. G. H. WILLMOT, THOMAS J. ANDERSON, ALEX. SINCLAIR, W. A. LIPPERT. HARRY BOLUS. THOS. PHILIP. The COMPANY accepts Risks in Town and Country on Properties, Live-Stock, &c., upon favourable Terms. FRED. AYERS, Secretary. GOWANS & BAIN, (FROM HILL'S, BOND STREET, LONDON) TAILORS AND HABIT MAKERS, GREENMARKET SQUARE. LIVERIES, &c. STYLE AND FIT GUARANTEED. TESTIMONIAL. U.S. Flag Ship Brooklyn, Cape Town, April, 1884.-Messrs. GOWANS & Bain having done work for us in their line during our stay here, we take pleasure in testifying to the good fit, quality and taste of their work, and in recommending them to others who may need their services.- H. M. MARTIN, P.N. Surgeon JNO. M. STEELE, P.O. Surgeon ; Tuos. SNOWDEN, Ensign." The Official Handbook is Published and Illustrations Printed for Cape Exhibition Committee by Contractors, Saul Solomon & Co. ADVERTISEMENTS. ROBERT TEMPLEMAN seed Department, Botanic (Late Manager, Seed Department, Botanic Garden, Cape Town), SEEDSMAN AND FLORIST. COLD MEDAL AWARDED, South AFRICAN EXHIBITION, PORT ELIZABETH, DEC., 1885, FOR BEST COLLECTION CAPE BULBS AND EVERLASTINGS. VEGETABLE SEEDS.- A large Stock always on hand. FLOWER SEEDS.- A large Assortment for all Seasons kept in Stock. TREE SEEDS.—Blue Gum, Hakea, Casuarina, Carob Tree, &c., &c. CAPE BULBS.--In great variety, for Export during Months December to March. Collections made up for Mail Weekly. BRIDAL AND OTHER BOUQUETS MADE TO ORDER ON SHORTEST NOTICE. EVERLASTING FLOWERS, WREATHS, CROSSES, &c. ADDRESS: 12. CASTLE STREET, CAPE TOWN, ONE MINUTE'S WALK FROM RAILWAY STATION. CENTRAL OFFICE : WATERKANT STREET, CAPE TOWN. Shippers of every description of Cape Wines, Sherries, Madeiras, Hocks, Hermitage, Pontacs and Constantia Sweet Wines, also Brandies & Pure Wine Spirits de Samples can be seen at of fine qualities at low prices. our London Offices, Attention is particularly St.DUNSTAN'S HOUSE directed to the Wines soso IDOL LANE, E.C. at 11- duty, both White and Red So OR AT THE OFFICES OF OUR AGENTS, Messrs. Borradaile & Co., 150, Leadenhall-st dougowaangutasun This Firm has the Largest Stock of Wines in the Colony, and their Premises comprise a Whole Block. soy GOLD MEDAL.............. ANTWERP, 1885. SILVER MEDAL ............. AMSTERDAM, 1883. SILVER MEDAL..HEALTH EXHIBITION, LONDON, 1884. opy SY boga WENTZEL & SCHLESWIG, SUCCESSORS TO C. SCHMIETERLOEW & CO., WHOLESALE CHEMISTS AND ORUGGISTS IMPORTERS AND WHOLESALE DEALERS IN DRUGS, MEDICINES, PHARMACEUTICAL & SURGICAL NECESSARIES. 54, ADDERLEY STREET, CAPE TOWN. The Official Handbook is Published and Illustrations Printed for Cape Exhibition Committee by Contractors, Saul Solomon de Co. DVERTISEMENTS. E. BURMESTER, MANUFACTURING JEWELLER, WATCHMAKER AND OPTICIAN, IMPORTER OF ENGLISH, FRENCH, AMERICAN AND GERMAN GOODS, WHOLESALE AND RETAIL, 58, ADDERLEY STREET, BURMESTER'S BUILDINGS, CAPE TOWN. Agent for the Celebrated Berlin Reading, Table and Hanging Lamps (with Round Burners), which received the Gold Medal at the Exhibition. WATCHES, CLOCKS AND JEWELLERY REPAIRED ON THE PREMISES. HENRY C. COLLISON, COLONIAL WINE AND SPIRIT MERCHANT, WHOLESALE OFFICE:—No. 5, CASTLE STREET, CAPE TOWN. STORES:-"THE WINE DEPÔT,” SIR LOWRY ROAD. nxoo cascade of DHE BEST QUALITIES OF CAPE SHERRIES, PONTACS, MADEIRA, Jo HOCK, HERMITAGE, CONSTANTIA SWEET WINES AND COLONIAL SPIRITS ALWAYS READY FOR SHIPMENT. ALSO PURE NATURAL WINES. SAMPLES AND PRICE LISTS AT LONDON AGENTS, MESSRS. L. TWENTYMAN & SON, 26, BUDGE ROW, LONDON. GOLD MEDAL. SILVER MEDAL. GOLD MEDAL. AMSTERDAM EXHIBITION, 1883. PARIS EXHIBITION, 1878. BORDEAUX EXHIBITION, 1882. H. W. MARKHAM, 42, ADDERLEY STREET AND 1, 2, 3 & 4, HOUT STREET, CAPE TOWN. GENERAL OUTFITTER AND CLOTHIER AND MERCHANT TAILOR. DIRECT IMPORTER OF ALL THE NEWEST DESIGNS IN GENT'S READY-MADE CLOTHING. YOUTHS' AND BOYS' CLOTHING. LITTLE BOYS' AND CHILDREN'S CLOTHING. HATS, SHIRTS, HOSIERY, BOOTS AND SHOES. CHRISTY'S FELT, SILK, CLOTH AND SHELL HATS. BAGS, PORTMANTEAUS, TRAVELLING RUGS. DUST COATS, ULSTERS, OVERCOATS, WATERPROOFS. Everything required for a Complete OUTFIT will be found at this Establishment. :0: H. W. MARKHAM, OUTFITTER, CAPE TOWN. The Official Handbook is Published and Illustrations Printed for Cape Exhibition Committee by Contractors, Saul Solomon & Co. ADVERTISEMENTS. ENGLISH AND CONTINENTAL PRINTING PAPER MANUFACTURERS, GENERAL PAPER MANUFACTURERS, EXPORT STATIONERS, LITHOGRAPHIC MATERIAL MANUFACTURERS, PRINTING INK MAKERS, PRINTING MACHINE MAKERS, PUBLISHERS, DESIROUS OF CULTIVATING TRADE IN SOUTH AFRICA, SHOULD COM- MUNICATE WITH SAUL SOLOMON & Co., STEAM PRINTING WORKS, CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHERS, BOOKBINDERS, PUBLISHERS, Engravers and Wholesale Stationers, CAPE TOWN. CONTRACTORS FOR & PUBLISHERS OF "THE OFFICIAL HANDBOOK.” The Official Handbook is Published and Illustrations Printed for Cape Exhibition Committee by Contractors, Saul Solomon & Co. ADVERTISEMENTS, THE CAPE ARGUS. LEADING JOURNAL IN SOUTH AFRICA. ESTABLISHED 1858. PUBLISHES FOURTEEN ISSUES A WEEK. MORNING EDITION...........PRICE ONE PENNY. EVENING EDITION .............PRICE ONE HALFPENNY. WEEKLY EDITION..............PRICE THREEPENCE MAIL EDITION.................PRICE TWOPENCE. RPHE “ARGUS” has been for many years 21 recognized as the foremost advocate in the South African Press of Civil Liberty and Progress, combined with the maintenance of the Imperial connection. Special prominence is given in its columns to all matters bearing upon Commercial Interests. The WEEKLY EDI- TION has the widest general circulation of any Newspaper published on the African Continent, and is held in special favour by Farming and Mercantile Classes alike. Publisher : — FRANCIS J. DORMER, Whitehall, Cape Town. Agents in London :—STREET & CO., 30, Cornbill, E.C. ----- - The Official Handbook is Published and illustrations Printed for Cape Exhibition Committee by Contractors, Saul Solomon & Co. ADVERTISEMENTS. O ON THE GOVERNOR. BY APPOINTMENT TO HIS EXCELLENCY J. M. STEPHEN & CO,, Wholesale and Retail Grocers, Provision Healers, Wine and Spirit Merchants, &c., &c. RETAIL AGENTS FOR H. C. COLLISON'S COLONIAL WINES. Corner of ADDERLEY STREET & STRAND STREET (Opposite the Railway Station), CAPE TOWN. BRANCE ESTABLISHMENT-WYNBERG. All Goods packed and delivered free of extra charge in Cape Town and Suburbs and to the Shipping in the Docks. Colonial Gobernments. to the Imperial and Colors the same Contractors to ATTWELL & CO., Steam Biscuit Manufacturers, MILLERS & CORN MERCHANTS, SHIPPING AND GENERAL COMMISSION AGENTS. CHIEF OFFICE: STRAND STREET, CAPE TOWN. Echibit-- South African Court, Colonial and Indian E.chibition, 1886. W. · SOUTHALUS TEA IMPORTER, Ossiacordurend THE ODD-FELLOWS’ HALL, 48, PLEIN STREET, CAPE TOWN. uose W. S. deals only in Teas and keeps in Stock a Choice Variety from China, India, Ceylon, &c. BLENDED TEAS to suit all tastes supplied in Parcels, Boxes and Half Chests. Country orders promptly despatched on receipt of remittance. J. WOODHEAD, LEATHER MANUFACTURER AND IMPORTER. TANNERY: 122 & 124, SIR LOWRY ROAD, STORES: 30, STRAND STREET, CAPE TOWN. The Official Handbook is Published and Illustrations Printed for Cape Exhibition Committee by Contractors, Saul Solomon & Co. ADVERTISEMENTS. MUTUAL Life Assurance mmm.SOCIETY OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. ESTABLISHED 1845. HEAD OFFICE: MUTUAL BUILDINGS, CAPE TOWN. ACCUMULATED FUND ON 31st MAY, 1885 ... ... £939,454 ANNUAL REVENUE, 1884—85 ... ... ... ... £135,585 M HIS Old-established Society offers unrivalled Security to Insurers. 1 For Forty Years past it has been distinguished for its Liberality, and has been the means of preserving many Families from destitution. It is the only South African Life Assurance Society in existence ; and therefore the only Society of which the Control is in the Hands of the Resident Members. The Society being a purely Mutual one, the whole of the Profits are divided amongst the Policy Holders ; there being no other Interest to serve. Procure a Prospectus from the Head Office, or any of the Agents, and see examples of the large Amount of Profits hitherto added to Policies. Agencies in all the principal Towns and Villages in the Colony, Free State, Transvaal and Natal. J. C. GIE, Secretary. The Official Handbook is Published and illustrations Printed for Cape Exhibition Committee by Contractors, Saul Solomon & CO. ADVERTISEMENTS. IMPORT DIRECT FROM THE MANUFACTURERS. ? J. LAWLEY & CO., 67, LONGMARKET STREET, CAPE TOWN. MEN'S, BOYS' AND JUVENILE CLOTHING, HATS, BOOTS, SHIRTS, HOSIERY, COLLARS, TIES, BÁGS, RUGS, UMBRELLAS, PORTMANTEAUS, &c., &c. PLEASE NOTE THE FOLLOWING DIRECTIONS: OUTSIDE the Store :— Brass Plate on each side of Entrance. INSIDE the Store :-"WEST OF ENGLAND" on an Electric Sign. Manufacturing GENERAL IMPORTERS Confectioners. JAMS, THICKSON AND NYTT MERCHANTS. JELLIES, FRYS CHOCOLAT SONS & CO FRYS COCOA dc., dc Omnium ‘NOVELTIES OUR "Speciality.” i 20 Our Stock of Confectionery is the most select and the Largest in the Colony. Regular supplies of Fancies from the leading En. glish Houses. NEL And im je MESSUTOMATATLANTISING AGENCIES: CLARK'S COTTONS. SINCLAIR'S COLD WATER SOAP. CLEEVE BROS, GOLDEN SYRUP, IN PATENT TINS. ENAMEL IRON Co. AND NUMEROUS OTHER FIRST-CLASS HOUSES. English Consignments receive Prompt Attention. Charge 5 per cent. Commission. P. LEWIS & SON, COMMISSION AGENTS, 38, FINSBURY PAVEMENT, LONDON, E.C. BUY DIRECT FROM MANUFACTURERS, AND FROM THEIR LONG EXPERIENCE IN THE CAPE TRADE, ARE IN A POSITION TO SELECT GOODS MOST SUITABLE TO THE MARKET. -:0:- ALL TRADE AND PROMPT CASH DISCOUNTS ALLOWED. The Official Handbook is Published and Illustrations Printed for Cape Exhibition Committee by Contractors, Saul Solomon & Co. ADVERTISEMENTS. THE MAIL EDITION THE HOME EDITION PUBLISHED ON THE RECEIVED BY MORNING OF DEPARTURE OF EACH MAIL STEAMER FOR ENGLAND. EACH MAIL STEAMER FROM ENGLAND. The Capr Times BY FAR THE LARGEST CIRCULATION OF ANY NEWSPAPER PRINTED IN SOUTH AFRICA. THE WEEKLY THE EVENING EDITION EDITION PUBLISHED EACH PUBLISHED EACH WEEK FOR TRANSMISSION TO THE COUNTRY DISTRICTS. AFTERNOON. The Official Handbook is Published and Illustrations Printed for Cape Exhibition Committee by Contractors, Saul Solomon & Co. ADVERTISEMENTS. CLAN LINE OF STEAMERS FROM GLASGOW AND LIVERPOOL то BOMBAY AND KURRACHEE. COLOMBO, MADRAS AND CALCUTTA. SOUTH AFRICAN PORTS. SCAPE TOWN, MOSSEL BAY, ALGOA BAY, 2 KOWIE, EAST LONDON AND NATAL. 3 Gos THE FOLLOWING IS THE FLEET: Tonnage. Tonnage. CLAN MACPHERSON 9984 CLAN SINCLAIR .. 2932 CLAN MONROE MATHESON .3984 GRAHAM 2926 MACKAY MACINTOSH .. 9984 DRUMMOND 2922 MURRAY MACARTHUR.. 9984 MACDONALD .. 2642 STUART.. GRANT .. 3545 FORBES.. 2441 RANALD MACGREGOR 2956 CAMERON 2433 LAMONT MACKENZIE... 2954 OGILVIE 2425 GORDON BUCHANAN ... 2939 MACLEAN 2336 FRASER.. CLAN ALPINE .. .. .. 2080 Tonnage. 2197 2171 2108 2094 2091 2091 These Steamers, all constructed in excess of requirements for highest class at Lloyd's, are despatched as above at regular intervals. Saloons and State Rooms are on the Upper Deck, and are fitted with every requisite comfort in tropical as well as in cold climates. Full Particulars with regard to FREIGHT or PASSAGE may be obtained on application to CAYZER, IRVINE & Co., Leadenhall Buildings, Gracechurch Street, London, E.C. 4, Albert Square, Manchester. 40, Chapel Street, Liverpool. 109, Hope Street, Glasgow. or to the following Agents, at Cape Town, JAMES SEARIGHT & Co. Mossel Bay, HUDSON, VREEDE & CO. Algoa Bay, WILLIAM ANDERSON & Co. Kowie, C. A. BEZANT. East London, GEO. B. CURISTIAN & Co. Natal, STEEL, MURRAY & CO. Mauritius, PIPON, ADAM & CO. Calcutta! FINDLAY, MUIR & Co. Bombay) - The Official Handbook is Published and Illustrations Printed for Cape Exhibition Committee by Contractors, Saul Solomon & Co. ADVERTISEMENTS. 120 Commercial Assurance Company, Limited. sicest to be HEAD OFFICE: ADDERLEY ST., CAPE TOWN. - io:- ESTABLISHED 1855 AND REGISTERED UNDER ACT NO. 23 OF 1861. are lon. SUBSCRIBED CAPITAL, £250,000, with power to increase to 2520,000. Paid-Up Capital, £55,000. RESERVE FUNT, £10,000. ., &c. DIRECTORS. W. BERG, Chairman, L. WIENER, M.L.A., Vice Chairman. J. W. ATTWELL. H. C. VAN BREDA. E. J. EARP. D. P. Krynauw, P. Marais. Medical Officer : A. ABERCROMBY, M.D. Secretary: A. W. BROOKE SMITH. - :0:- BANKERS. THE STANDARD BANK & THE SOUTH AFRICAN BANK. LONDON AGENTS: PERROTT, BARNES & CO, 13, KING WILLIAM ST., E.C. NO ONE IS SECURE FROM ACCIDENTS.. 0:- WISE MEN INSURE AGAINST LOSS CAUSED BY ACCIDENTS. MARINE.-Insurances to or from all parts of the World, including Passengers’ Baggage, Live Stock, Cargo, Freight and Hulls. FIRE.-Insurances of every description throughout the Colony, Free State, Transvaal and Natal. TRANSIT.-Insurances on Merchandise, Diamonds, Feathers and Specie by Post, Rail and Road. ACCIDENT.-Insurances against Loss of Life and Limb. No Medical Examination required. to Extra Premium for Outdoor Amusements. Weekly Compensation for Disablement. £1,000 AT DEATH BY ACCIDENT FOR £1 15s. per Annum. RAILWAY ACCIDENT INSURANCE TICKETS AT ALL PRINCIPAL RAILWAY STATIONS IN THE CAPE COLONY. £145,480 HAS BEEN PAID AS COMPENSATION FOR LOSS. The Official Handbook is Published ard Illustrations Printed for Cape Exhibition Committee by Contactois, Saul Sulomcn & Co. ADVERTISEMENTS. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE SAVINGS BANK, Established agreeably to an Ordinance of His Excellency . the Governor in Council, 8th June, 1831. COMMITTEE OF MANAGEMENT, 1886. President. Hon. J. H. HOFMEYR, Esq., M.L.C. Vice-l’residents. A. D. Krynauw, Esq. P.J. Korze, Exq. W. HIDDINGH, Esq. F. MASKEW, Esq. Hon. A. EBDEN, Esų. Directors. C. WATERMEYER, Esq., H. C. Jarvis, Esq. II. P. H. v, 1). PoEl, Esq. E. LANDSBERG, Esq. ! W. Y. ELDRIDGE, Esq. i C.C. De Villiers, Esq. G. C. Gie, Esq. J. C. WESSELS, Esq. / H. H. MARAIS, Esq. J. SPENCE, Esq. Ianagers. J. R. MARQUARD), Esq., R. C. Nelson, Exq. | H. SOLOMON, sen., Esq. J. C. DE KORTF, Esq. ! F.F. Rutherfoorn, Esq. i L. WIENER, Esq. Dr. J. P'. Roux. | H. J. DE WET, 0.s., Exit. C. A. Dickson Es. A. H, SINCLAIR, Esq. Treasurers. W. HUDDINGH, ('. WATERMEYER and H. H. MARAIS, Esqs. S. V. HOFMEYR, Esq., Secretary. J. P. DE WET, Taler Cashic. J. C. Goh, Bookkeeper. W. A. ELDRIDGE, Clerki F. DE VILLIERS, Junior ('lerk. The Official Handbook is Published and illustratioris Printed for Cape on Committee by Contractors, Saul Solomon & Co.