WIDENER HN P2G2 % 26 co 2010: Oc 4408.79,3 Bd. Neay, 1884, Cullen ETA COL CHRISTO .CCLESIAE HAR ANGL: cuyo o TARVARD OV: AN ANTAB The Gift of Colonial Mouseum OS 1884. TO WINX TUNTIAUTO LATION ALL 70.2800 1600 و آن را بنا /1 سری دوره های وه وه هنا یو ی با ما منها و از اند.» to ارد دو ب ار این و . در میان ہے ۔ اتات ، ، و یه وه ان کی چه حریم نے دو وقة هونه و درو 一 ​、 7030 2 .003. Colonial Museum and Geological Survey Department. Bind HANDBOOK OF NEW ZEALAND. BY JAMES HECTOR, M.D., C.M.G., F.R.S., DIRECTOR OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WITH MAPS AND PLATES. (THIRD EDITION, REVISED) dellington BY AUTHORITY: GEORGE DIDSBURY, GOVERNMENT PRINTER 1883. PREFACE. THis Handbook was first published in accordance with a resolution of the Royal Commissioners appointed by His Excellency the Governor of the Colony to carry out and devise the proper representation of New Zealand at the Sydney Exhibition of 1879; a second edition was published for distri- bution at the Melbourne Exhibition of 1882; and the present revised edition has been prepared by direction of the Hon. Thomas Dick, Colonial Secretary. The published literature bearing on New Zealand is very extensive. About eighty separate works have been quoted as published prior to the foundation of the colony in 1839, in which year the first number of the New Zealand Government Gazette was issued. Since that date the number of separate publications amounts to many hundreds, while the Parliamentary papers, both of the Provincial and General Governments, and the “ Transac- tions of the New Zealand Institute," abound in valuable reports and memoirs that describe the history and resources of the country. Most of these works can, no doubt, be referred to at the great public libraries, and, to some extent, at the office of the Agent-General in London. Such research is, however, beyond the reach of most readers, and from the rapid disposal of former editions of this publication it is reasonable to infer that there is a demand for information of the kind now offered. In the original preparation of this Handbook several previous works of a similar nature were largely drawn from, among which may be mentioned in particular the Jurors' Reports and Awards of the New Zealand Exhi- bition, 1865 (Dunedin, 1866); the admirable and exhaustive “Handbook of New Zealand” published by Sir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G. (London, 1875); and the Official Reports on the New Zealand Court in the Philadelphia Exhibition, 1876, by the writer (London, 1877). The records of the various Government departments have been also largely made use of, particularly the annual volumes of statistics issued by Mr. W. R. E. Brown, Registrar. General. I must also acknowledge the valuable services of my assistants Mr. Bryce Bain and Mr. S. Herbert Cox, F.G.S. In elaborating the details and revising the press of the present edition I have been ably assisted by Mr. A. T. Bothamley. JAMES HÉCTOR. Colonial Museum, Wellington, 1st September, 1883. ADDENDUM. STATISTICS FOR 1882. Population, &c. Estimated population, 31st December, exclusive of Maoris Marriages (per 1,000 of population, 7.07) Births (per 1,000 of population, 37.32) Deaths (per 1,000 of population, 11:19) Immigrants Emigrants ... Excess of immigration over emigration : : : : : 517,707 3,600 19,009 5,701 10,945 7,456 3,489 Education. : Number of public schools Number of teachers School attendance 911 2,143 68,288 : : Postal and Telegraphic, Postal Correspondence- Letters Post-cards Books and parcels Newspapers Telegraphic messages ... Postal revenue Postal expenditure :: 30,525,579 959,095 2,396,255 13,313,099 1,570,189 £232,079 145,738 ... Imports and Exports. Imports, value of £8,609,270 Exports, value of ... 6,658,008 Value of Principal Articles of Export- Wool £3,118,554 Gold ... 921,664 Produce 1,271,223 Tallow 165,938 Kauri gum... 260,369 Timber 114,700 Customs revenue ... €1,515,916 CONTENTS. PAGE 4, 5 5-7 7-12 12-16 17, 18 18-21 21 GENERAL DESCRIPTION ... HISTORY NATIVE RACE ... GOVERNMENT VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS AGRICULTURE PASTORAL PURSUITS WOOL ANIMAL LIFE WHALING FISHERIES GEOLOGY MINING AND GEOLOGY: ECONOMIC MINERALS CLIMATE STATISTICS TRADE, INDUSTRIES, AND PRODUCTIONS CROWN LANDS ... PUBLIC WORKS... PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : 21, 22 22, 23 24-41 41-67 68-75 76-97 97-103 103-112 113–116 116-121 . : : : : APPENDIX. DESCRIPTIVE LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL FOREST TREES OF NEW ZEALAND ... MINERAL WATERS DESCRIPTION OF STATISTICAL DIAGRAMS ... ... 122–133 133–144 144-147 To face p. 48 ILLUSTRATIONS. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING DEVELOPMENT OF GOLD-MINING STATISTICAL DIAGRAMS ... METEOROLOGICAL DIAGRAMS TOPOGRAPHICAL AND STATISTICAL MAP OF NEW ZEALAND GEOLOGICAL MAP OF NEW ZEALAND ( At end of volume. Save Prices INDEX. 6 6 94 12 102 95 12 22 23 13 10 76 122 58 :iiii 48 67 76 PAGE PAGE Administration Electoral laws Ages of the people 79 Emigration ... Agriculture ... Exports ... 97, 100, 101, 146 Agricultural exports ... 100 Factories 84, Classification of subsoils Finance Land in cultivation 16, 146 Fire brigades ... 121 Progress of agriculture 14 Fisheries Varieties of soil ... Fishes Yield of crops 146 Flax (Phormium) Allegiance of population 81 Forests (see Timber). Nationalities Forest-trees ... Animal life ... Franchise . Antimony ... Fur seal 22, 100 Area of colony ... 1, 103 Geology 24, 41 Assurance Department... 118 Gold-Composition 50 Banks and savings-banks 96, 146 Discovery 48, 50 Barks for tanning and dyeing 9 Export 50, 100, 101, 146, 148 Births and birth-rate ... 90, 91, 145 Mining Locality of ... ... 76, 81 Yield .. 48, 50, 147 Blind 93 Gold fields 48 Bricks water supply on 114 Building stones 62 Government ... Cattle 17, 21 Government Life Assurance ... 118 Cement .66 Granite ... 39 Census of the colony .. Graphite . 61 Chinese 77, 83, 89 Grasses, land laid down in Chrome ... 56, 101 Hæmatite ... 52, 53, 56 Cities–Names and population ... History Treaty of Waitangi Coal-Consumption ... 47 Horses ... 17, 21 Exports and importo 44, 47, 101 Hospitals Mines ... Immigration ... Mining and geology ... ... 29, 41 Imports ... 97, 146 Constabulary 121 Industries ... ... 84, 97 Cook, visits of Captain ... Iron Copper-Exports and imports... 101 Ironsand Mining and geology 56 Kauri gum 100, 101, 148 Counties, names of Land Area of agricultural 12 Crops, average yield ... 15, 147 „ colony ... ... 1, 103 Crown lands ... 103, 111 Disposed of ... 110 Cultivation, lands in ... 14, 16, 147 In cultivation ... 14, 16, 146 Deaf-and-dumb 93 103 Deaths and death-rate ... 91, 146 „ of the Crown ... 103, 111 Causes of 91 Number of holdings 14 Debt of the colony 95 Quality of 12 Density of population ... Land transfer 111 Direct steam service Lead 57 Discovery of New Zealand 3 Life Assurance Department 118 Diseases 91 Limestone 36 Dwellings ... 77 Lunatic asylums 93 Dyeing barks ... 31 Manganese ... Education, dogree of 83 Manufactories . Native schools 120 Marriages and marriage-rate 145 Schools 120 ! Maoris-Christianized ... Climate 78 68 mint tion ... ... 45 3 ... 51, 101 ... 51, 54 ... Laws ... 77 102 :::::::::: ::::::::::::: 84, 102 viii INDEX. 68 27 101 :," export of Mining 41 12 ::::::::::::::::: 76 ... 100, 101 PAGE 1 PAGE Maoris-Discovery of New Zealand by 3 | Saurian remains 31, 35 Education of ... 120 Savings-banks 96, 146 Numbers .. 4, 88 Schools (see Education). Schools Origin Sealskins ... 22, 100 Physical character Settlement by Maoris ... Traditions Sheep 17, 21 Meteorology ... Shells Minerals 41 Shipping 102 exported 100, Silver 50, 51 Mineral oils ... 59 51, 100, 101 waters 133 Situation of New Zealand 1 Soils—Quality of Moas 25 Varieties of Mortgages .. 112 Statistics ... ... Mountains ... Statistical diagrams ... 144 Nationalities of population ... 76, 81 Tallow, export of Natives (see Maoris). Tanning and dyeing barks 9 Oils-Mineral Tasman's discovery of New Zealand 3 Shale ... Telegraph Department ... 116, 146 Whale ... charges 118 Occupations of population Temperature ... 69 , Chinese... 89 Timber-Character ... Paint ore (see Hæmatite). Export 100, 101 Pastoral exports 100, 101, 148 Extent pursuits 17 » Principal trees 122 Phormium tenax 10, 100 Strength Towns and cities Population ... 76, 90, 91, 144 Trade 97 Maori 4, 88 Treaty of Waitangi Postal Department 116 Vegetation ... rates 117 | Volcanoes ... Pottery manufacture Volunteers Productions Waitangi Treaty Provinces ... 2 Whaling 21 Public debt ... 95 Whale-oil 22, 100 Public works 113 Wheat 100, 146 Quartz-mining 48 „ land sown in 16 Rabbits ... 100 9 yield of 15, 16 Railways ... 115, 146 Winds 74 Rainfall 70 Wool 17, 18 Religions of the people... » export of 100, 101 Revenue and expenditure 95 9 classes of Rivers 72 Zinc Roads and bridges ... 114 . :: 9 Plains 2 7, 122 121 :::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::: 80 :: 58 HANDBOOK OF NEW ZEALAND. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. SITUATION AND AREA. The Colony of New Zealand consists of two islands called the North and South Islands, and a small island at the southern extremity called Stewart Island. There are also several small islets, such as the Chatham and Auckland Isles, that are dependencies of the colony. The entire group lies between 34° and 48° S. lat. and 166° and 179º E. long. The two principal islands, with Stewart Island, extend in length 1,100 miles, but their breadth is extremely variable, ranging from 46 miles to 250 miles, the average being about 140 miles, but no part is anywhere more distant than 75 miles from the coast. AREA OF THE ISLANDS. Sq. Miles. Acres. The total area of New Zealand is about ... 100,000 or 64,000,000 the North Island being ... 44,000 , 28,160,000 S the South Island being ... 55,000 ,, 35,200,000 Stewart Island being ... 1,000 , 640,000 It will thus be seen that the total area of New Zealand is somewhat less than that of Great Britain and Ireland. The North and South Islands are separated by a strait only thirteen miles across at the narrowest part, presenting a feature of the greatest importance from its facilitating intercommunication between the different coasts with- out the necessity of sailing round the extremities of the colony. The North Island was, up to the year 1876, divided into four provinces—viz., Auckland, Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, and Wellington. Taranaki and Hawke's Bay lie on the west and east coasts respectively, between the two more important provinces of Auckland on the north and Wellington on the south. 22 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. The South Island was divided into five provinces-viz., Nelson, Marlborough, Canterbury, Otago, and Westland (Southland was for a short time an independent province). Nelson and Marlborough are in the north, Canterbury in the centre, Otago in the south, and Westland to the west of Canterbury. These provinces, however, in 1876 were divided into sixty-three counties—thirty-two in the North Island and thirty-one in the South Island—and provincial government ceased to exist. Names of Counties. In the North Island.—Mongonui, Hokianga, Bay of Islands, Whangarei, Hobson, Rodney, Waitemata, Eden, Manukau, Coro- mandel, Thames, Piako, Waikato, Waipa, Raglan, Kawhia, Taranaki, Patea, Tauranga, Whakatane, Cook, Wairoa, Hawke's Bay, Wanganui, West Taupo, East Taupo, Rangitikei, Manawatu, Waipawa, Hutt, Wairarapa West, and Wairarapa East. In the South Island.-Sounds, Marlborough, Kaikoura, Waimea, Collingwood, Buller, Inangahua, Amuri, Cheviot, Grey, Ashley, Selwyn, Akaroa, Ashburton, Geraldine, Waimate, Westland, Waitaki, Waikouaiti, Maniototo, Vincent, Lake, Peninsula, Taieri, Bruce, Clutha, Tuapeka, Southland, Wallace, Fiord, and Stewart Island. Mountains and Plains. New Zealand is mountainous, with extensive plains, which in the South Island lie principally on the eastern side of the mountain- range, while in the North Island the most extensive lowlands lie on the western side. In the North Island the interior mountainous parts are covered with dense forest or low shrubby vegetation ; while in the South Island these parts are chiefly open and well grassed, and are used for pastoral purposes. In the North Island the mountains occupy one-tenth of the surface, and do not exceed from 1,500 to 4,000 feet in height, with the exception of a few volcanic mountains that are more lofty, one of which, Tongariro (6,500 feet), is still occasionally active. Ruapehu (9,100 feet) and Mount Egmont (8,300 feet) are extinct volcanoes that reach above the limit of perpetua? snow: the latter is surrounded by one of the most extensive and fertile districts in New Zealand. The mountain-range in the South Island, known as the Southern Alps, is crossed at intervals by low passes, but its summits reach a height of from 10,000 feet to 12,000 feet, and it has extensive snow- fields and glaciers. Flanking this mountain-range and occupying its : greater valleys are extensive areas of arable land, which are success- fully cultivated from the sea-level to an altitude of over 2,000 feet. NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. THE NATIVE RACE. ORIGIN AND TRADITIONAL HISTORY. There is nothing on record respecting the origin of the Maori people ; but their arrival in New Zealand, according to tradition, is due to an event which, from its physical possibility, and from the concurrent testimony of the various tribes, is probably true in its main facts. The tradition runs that generations ago a large migration took place from a distant island, to which the Maoris give the name of Hawaiki. Quarrels among the natives drove from Hawaiki a chief, whose canoe arrived upon the shore of the North Island of New Zealand. Returning to his home with a flattering description of the country he had discovered, this chief, it is said, set on foot a scheme of emigration, whereupon a fleet of large double canoes started for the new land. The names of most of the canoes are still remembered, and each tribe agrees in its account of the doings of the people of the principal “canoes” after their arrival in New Zealand; and from these traditional accounts the descent of the numerous tribes has been traced. Calculations, based on the genealogical staves kept by the tohungas, or priests, indicate that about twenty-seven generations have passed since the migration, which would give for its date about the beginning of the fourteenth century. The position of Hawaiki is not known, but there are several islands of this or a somewhat similar name. NATIVE POPULATION, North ISLAND. The North Island is now supposed to contain a Native popula- tion of about 42,000, divided into many tribes; but their number is probably very largely over-estimated. : The most important tribe is that of the Ngapuhi, who inhabit the northern portion of the North Island, in the Provincial District of Auckland. It was among the Ngapuhi that the seeds of Christianity and of civilization were first sown, and among them are found the best evidences of the progress which the Maori can make. Forty years ago the only town in New Zealand, Kororareka, in the Bay of Islands, existed within their territory. Their chiefs, assembled in February, 1840, near the Waitangi (“Weeping Water”) Falls, were the first to sign the treaty by which the Maoris acknowledged themselves to be subjects of Her Majesty; and although, under the leadership of an ambitious chief, Honi Heke, a portion of them in 1845 disputed the English supremacy, yet after being subdued by English troops and their Native allies (the Ngapuhi's own kinsmen) they adhered im- NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. members, nominated by the Governor for life; and the other the House of Representatives, elected by the people from time to time, and now consisting of ninety-six members. Until 1882 the House of Representatives was elected for five years, but by an Act passed in 1879 its normal term of service is now limited to a period of three years, which, however, may be shortened if the Governor should see fit to exercise his prerogative of dissolving it. Except in matters of purely Imperial concern, the Governor, as a rule, acts on the advice of his Ministers. He has power to dismiss them and appoint others, but the ultimate control rests with the representatives of the people, who hold the strings of the public purse. ELECTORAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE. Any man of twenty-one years and upwards, who is a born or naturalized British subject, and who has held for six months a free- hold of the clear value of £25, or who has resided for one year in the colony, and in an electoral district during the six months immediately preceding the registration of his vote, is now, according to an Act passed in 1879, entitled to be registered as an elector and to vote for the election of a member of the House of Representatives ; also, every male Maori of the same age whose name is enrolled upon a ratepayers' roll, or who has a freehold estate of the clear value of £25. And, by another Act passed on the same day, the duty is imposed upon the Registrar of each electoral district of placing on the electoral roll the names of all persons who are qualified to vote. Any person qualified to vote for the election of a member of the House of Representatives is also, generally speaking, qualified to be himself elected a member of that House. There are, however, certain special disqualifications for membership, such as grave crime, bankruptcy, and paid office (other than what is called political) in the colonial service. Four of the members of the House are Maoris, elected under a special law by Maoris alone. The Colonial Legislature, which as a rule meets once a year, has power generally to make laws for the peace, order, and good govern- ment of New Zealand. The Acts passed by it are subject to disallowance by the Queen, and in a very few cases are required to be reserved for the signification of the pleasure of Her Majesty, but there have not been, in the course of the twenty-seven years since the Constitution was granted, more than half a dozen instances of disallowance or refusal of assent. The Legislature has also, with a few exceptions, ample power to modify the Constitution of the colony. Executive power is administered, as before stated, in accordance with the usage of Responsible Government as it exists in the United Kingdom, NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK, TIMBER AND FOREST-TREES. The general character of the New Zealand woods resembles the growths of Tasmania and the Continent of Australia, most of them being harder, heavier, and more difficult to work than the majority of European and North American timbers. They vary, however, very much among themselves. Many varieties are very durable, and Manuka, Totara, Kauri, Black-birch, Kowhai, and Matai appear to be the most highly esteemed on the whole. STRENGTH OF NEW ZEALAND TIMBERS, The following table gives the results of experiments, extending over a period of some years, on the strength of the principal timbers of the colony :- RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON NEW ZEALAND TIMBERS. FThe dimensions of the specimens were 1 inch square and 12 inches long. 7 No. Native Names in Alphabetical Order. Specific Gravity. Weight of a Cubic Foot. Greatest Weight carried with Unimpaired Elasticity. Transverse Strength. lb. Ib. lb. -562 •502 •488 33.03 31.28 30:43 94:0 573 125.0 77.5 106.0 57.9 .623 •637 .678 •884 38.96 39.69 42.25 55:11 97.0 75.0 92:0 98:0 165.5 120.0 117.4 207.5 ndi- 1.159 •790 •593 •788 .621 943 .991 72:29 49.24 33.62 49:10 38.70 59.00 61.82 193.0 106.0 62:0 2000 109.0 115.0 92:0 314.2 179.7 122:0 230.0 1378 239.0 192:4 13 Hinau, or Pokaka (Elæocarpus dentatus) ... | Kahika, supposed white-pine . Kahikatea, white-pine (Podocarpus dacry- dioides) Kauri (Dammara australis) Kawakà (Libocedrus doniana) Kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabile) Kowhai (Sophora tetraptera var. gran flora) Maire, black maire (Olea cunninghamii) ... Maire-tawhake (Eugenia maire) ... Mako (Aristotelia racemosa) ... 11 Manoao (Dacrydium colensoi) .. 12 Mangi, or mangeao (Tetranthera calicaris) | Manuka (Leptospermum ericoides) 14 | Mapau, red mapau, or red-birch (Myrsine Urvillei) 15 | Matipo-tarata (Pittosporum tenuifolium) ... Matai (Podocarpus spicata) Miro (Podocarpus ferruginea) ... 18 | Puriri (Vitex littoralis)... 19 Rata, ironwood (Metrosideros lucida) 20 Rewarewa (Knightia excelsa) 21 Rimu, red pine (Dacrydium cupressinum) ... Taraire (Nesodaphne taraire) Tawa (Nesodaphne tawa) Tawiri-kohukohu, white mapau (Carpodetus serratus) 25 | Titoki (Alectryon excelsum) | Totara (Podocarpus totara) Tawai, red-birch" (Fagus menziesii) Tawai, black-birch (Fagus fusca) ... Whawhako (see also Maire) (Eugenia maire) Whau (Entelea arborescens) 17 .955 •787 .658 .959 1.045 .785 563 .883 .761 .822 60:14 49:07 40.79 59.50 65.13 48.92 36.94 55:34 47:45 51.24 125.0 133.0 103:0 175.0 93:0 93:0 92:8 99.6 142:4 80.0 243.0 197.2 190.0 223.0 1960 161.0 140.2 112:3 205.5 177.6 22 .916 559 •626 •780 .637 .187 57.10 35:17 38.99 48.62 39.63 11.76 116.0 77.0 73.6 108.8 75.0 13:0 248:0 133.6 158.2 202:5 120.0 32:0 VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS. The experiments were conducted in the following manner: A pressure of 50 lb. was applied for two minutes (as measured by a sand-glass), and the sample was then released; 75 lb. was then applied for the same time, and then 100 lb., and so on, increasing by 25 lb. each time. Each time the sample was released the point on the deflection scale to which it returned was read, and when it came to be notably under the original reading it was allowed to remain unloaded for two minutes, to see whether it would in time recover itself. Then the pressure was gradually increased, without being removed, until the specimen broke. A particular description of forty-four of the principal forest-trees will be found in the appendix. EXTENT OF FOREST LAND. The proportion of forest land in each provincial district, as ascer- tained in 1873, was as under :- Percentage of Forest North Island- Land. Auckland 7.20 Hawke's Bay ... 8:19 Taranaki 65.56 Wellington 42.85 South Island- Nelson 28.86 Marlborough 18:38 Canterbury 2:07 Westland 49:42 Otago ... Southland Further particulars will be found in the table relating to the Crown lands of the colony, shown on the statistical map attached to this book. The value of the export trade in timber for the decade 1868–77 amounted to £333,083, increasing from £15,653 in the former year to £50,901 in 1877. The trade is now rapidly growing, and in 1881 the total export was £73,926, of which £65,169 was for sawn timber. BARKS FOR TANNING AND DYEING. A number of the native forest-trees and plants furnish good dyes from their bark. The Natives were acquainted with most of these, and dyed their flax mats and baskets with them. A black dye can be made from the bark of the hinau (Eleocarpus dentatus), and by adding a rust of iron an excellent non-corrosive ink is obtained, ::::: ... } 11.84 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK, Brown and red dyes are obtained from the bark of the towhai or tawhero (Weinmannia racemosa). The Native mode of procedure is first to bruise the bark, and boil it for a short time along with the flax to be dyed, which, when the infusion is cold, is taken out and steeped thoroughly in red swamp-mud, rich in peroxide of iron; it is then removed and dried in the sun. The towhai is a forest-tree abundant in many parts of New Zealand. The bark has been successfully used as a tanning agent. The dye obtained from this bark gives a very fast class of shades upon cotton; it can be sold at the same price as gambier and catechu. The extract is more astringent than that of the hinau, and needs only to be introduced to be accepted by tanners. The bark of the tanekaha (Phyllocladus trichomanoides) is now exported to a small extent as a dye-stuff that imparts fine shades to fancy leathers for glove-making. Tan-barks Native to New Zealand. Name. Native Name, Percentage of Tannin. Bark of Phyllocladus trichomanoides Bark of Eläocarpus dentatus Bark of Coriaria ruscifolia Bark of Eugenia maire ... Bark of Weinmannia racemosa ... Bark of Elæocarpus hookerianus ... Wood of Fuchsia excorticata Bark of Knightia excelsa ... Bark of Myrsine urvillei ... ... ::::::::: ::: Tanekaha ... Hinau Tutu Whawhako ... Tawhero .. Pokaka Kotukutuku... Rewarewa ..! Mapau ... 23:2 21.8 168 16.7 12:7 9:8 ::::::: 5.3 2:7 104 PHORMIUM TENAX (THE NEW ZEALAND HEMP). The history of what is termed the flax industry in New Zealand affords a remarkable instance of the difficulty experienced in develop- ing the natural resources of a country if the commodities to be disposed of have not a previously-established market value. When the colonists first arrived in New Zealand the valuable qualities of the Phormium fibre were well known, as it was in constant use by the Natives, and a very considerable trade in the article existed as early as 1828, when the Islands were only visited by whalers and Sydney traders, fifty thousand pounds' worth of the fibre being sold in Sydney alone between 1828 and 1832. At Grimsby, in Lincolnshire, a manufactory was also established in the latter year for the produc- tion of articles from the New Zealand fibre, which failed from some unexplained cause, notwithstanding that the results were not con- VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS. 11 sidered at the time unsatisfactory. From 1853 to 1860 the average annual value of the fibre exported was nearly £2,500, reaching as high as £5,500 in 1855; but up to that time the only fibre exported was that prepared by Native labour, no machinery of any kind being employed in producing the exported article. In 1860, therefore, when the Native disturbances affected the Waikato and other interior districts in the North Island, the preparation was confined to the Native tribes north of Auckland, so that the average export value was only £150 per annum. Attention was then directed towards the contrivance of machinery with the aid of which the fibre could be profitably extracted by European labour. In 1861 the increasing demand for white rope, and the limited quantity of manilla (which fibre depends for its production on native manual labour in the Philippine Islands), led to a rise in its value from £21 to £56 per ton, and even to £76 per ton in America during the late civil war. These high prices stimulated the endeavour to introduce Phormium fibre to compete with manilla, and several machines were invented for rapidly producing the fibre from the green leaf. With these machines the export trade again increased, so that from 1866 to 1871 the yearly average was valued at £56,000. This sudden revival of the trade led many to embark in it who were not only unacquainted with the new form of manufacture, but also unaccustomed to any kind of business that required special mechanical skill and careful elaboration of the details of management. Commissioners were appointed in 1869 and 1870 to investigate and report on the manufacture and cultivation of the plant and the particular requirements of the market. Recently the term “flax” has been changed to “hemp,” with great advantage to the position which the fibre holds in the brokers' sale- rooms; but the fibre can be prepared so as to mix advantageously with true Linum flax in the manufacture of textile fabrics, and the shortness of the ultimate fibre is not an insuperable obstacle even to its being spun into unmixed yarns. It will therefore, in all probability, be neces- sary to adopt two names for the fibre to indicate the purpose for which it has been specially prepared, such, for instance, as Phormium hemp and Phormium flax. Samples of serge-sheeting, canvas sacking, and other varieties of cloth from unmixed Phormium fibre, have been manufactured in Scotland and sent out to the colony, and also samples of a very superior kind of canvas made from an admixture of Phormium with Riga flax. The fibre used in these experimental manufactures was prepared by Mr. C. Thorne by the use of alkaline solutions, and it is stated that such fibre would find a ready market in large quantities at from £60 to £90 per ton. Whether this would AGRICULTURE. 13 VARIETIES OF SOIL. It would be beyond the scope of this description to give in detail the endless varieties of soil which are found in New Zealand, but attention may be drawn to the chief peculiarities. Northern District. In the North of Auckland, including the lower portion of the Waikato Valley light basic volcanic soils prevail, interspersed with areas of clay-marl, which in the natural state is cold and uninviting to the agriculturalist, but which, under proper drainage and cultivation, can be brought to a high state of productiveness. The latter soils, how- ever, are generally neglected at the present time by the settlers, who prefer the more easily worked and more rapidly remunerative soils derived from the volcanic rocks. North-western District. In this district, which extends round to Taranaki and Wanganui, the soil is all that can be desired, and is probably one of the richest areas in the Southern Hemisphere. The surface soil is formed by the decomposition of calcareous marls, which underlie the whole country, intermixed with débris from the lava-streams and tufaceous rocks of the extinct volcanic mountains. The noble character of the forest which generally covers the area proves the productiveness of its soil, although at the same time it greatly impedes the progress of settle- ment. North-eastern District. In this district of the North Island, from Taupo towards the Bay of Plenty, the surface soil is derived from rocks of a highly siliceous character, and large areas are covered with little else than loose friable pumice-stone. Towards the coast, and in some limited areas near the larger valleys, such as the Waikato and the Thames, and also where volcanic rocks of a less arid description appear at the sur- face, great fertility prevails, and any deficiencies in the character of the soil are amply compensated for by the magnificence of the climate of this part of New Zealand. On the eastern side of the slate range which extends through the North Island the surface of the country is generally formed of clay-marl and calcareous rocks, the valleys being occupied by shingle deposits derived from the slate and sand- stone rocks of the back ranges, with occasional areas of fertile alluvium of considerable extent. It is only the latter portions of this district which can be considered as adapted for agriculture, while the remainder affords some of the finest pastoral land to be met with in any part of the colony. NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK, South-eastern District. In the South Island the chief agricultural areas are in the vicinity of the sea-coast, but there are also small areas in the interior, in the vicinity of the lake districts, where agriculture can be profitably followed. The alluvial soils of the lower part of the Canterbury Plains, and of Nelson, Otago, and Southland, are the most remark- able for their fertility; but scarcely less important are the low rolling downs formed by the calcareous rocks of the Tertiary formation, which skirt the higher mountain masses, and frequently have their quality improved by the disintegration of interspersed basaltic rocks. South-western District. On the western side of the South Island the rapid fall of the rivers carries the material derived from the mountain-ranges almost to the sea-coast, so that comparatively small areas are occupied by good alluvial soil ; but these, favoured by the humidity of the climate, possess a remarkable degree of fertility. PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE. By the proper selection of soil, and with a system of agriculture modified to suit the great variety of climate which necessarily prevails in a country extending over 12 degrees of temperate latitude, every variety of cereal and root crop may be successfully raised in New Zealand ; and, with due care in these respects, New Zealand will not fail to become a great producing and exporting country of all the chief food staples. The progress made in agriculture has been very rapid, and the number of persons engaged in this pursuit is, as compared with other countries, very large, more than one in every five of the adult male population being in this way possessed of a permanent stake in the country. The number of holdings of one acre and upwards of culti- vated land (exclusive of gardens attached to residences and Native holdings) enumerated in March, 1878, was 20,519, an increase of 1,769 on the year previous ; in February, 1879, the number of holdings had increased to 21,048; and in February, 1882, it had further increased to 26,298. The exports of agricultural and farm produce increased from £262,930 in 1875, to £763,635 in 1879, and £1,114,253 in 1881. The pursuit of farming has, at any rate in the South Island, been one of the most steadily prosperous industries of the colony; and although, in the course of time, the value of first-class land has naturally much increased, it is a question whether such enhancement of price is not more than counterbalanced by the improved and AGRICULTURE. 15 cheaper facilities of access to market now offered; and certainly, when compared with the published accounts of the condition of agricultural affairs in Britain, the prospect offered by New Zealand farming must present a tempting aspect to those engaged in struggling along in the same pursuit in the Old Country. On the next page will be found, in tabulated form, an account of land in cultivation, and agricultural produce of the various provincial districts of New Zealand, showing the nature of the holdings and the character of the cultivation for the past two years, indicating the increase or decrease respectively. : AVERAGE YIELD OF CROPS. The extent of land under wheat in the early part of 1882 was 365,715 acres, an increase on the area in wheat in 1881 of 40,766 acres. The aggregate produce of the wheat crop was estimated at 8,297,890 bushels. The estimated produce averaged 22.69 bushels per acre in 1882, against 25 bushels in 1881, the average for the last five years being 24:82 bushels per acre. For Auckland the average yield was 26:40 bushels. Otago .. 25.68 Canterbury 21:30 Wellington ... 23:22 Hawke's Bay The estimated average yield of other produce for the same year, 1882, for the whole colony, was,— Oats... .. 28.45 bushels per acre. . Barley .. 2228 2 1 Potatoes ... 5:41 tons , One of the statistical diagrams at the end of this pamphlet (No. XI.) will be found to give a graphic comparison of the wheat yield of New Zealand and the Australian Colonies. : ... 27.68 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. ACCOUNT OF LAND IN CULTIVATION AND AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE.SEASONS 1881 AND 1882. (From statistics collected in February.) IN IN SOWN GRASSES. NUMBERS OF HOLDINGS OVER 1 ACRE IN EXTENT. IN WHEAT. IN OATS. IN BARLEY. IN POTATOES. OTHER CROPS. IN HAY. PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS. Extent of Land broken up, but not under Part Freehold, Part Rented. Freehold Estimated Gross Produce (in bushels). Rented. For Green Food or Hay, Total Number of Acres under Crop, exclusive of Land under Grasses. Estimated Gross Produce of Grain (in bushels). For Grain. Estimated Gross Produce (in bushels). Estimated Gross Produce (in tons). Estimated Gross Produce (in tons). In Grasses, after having been broken up (including such as in Hay). Grass-sown Land not previously ploughed (including such as in Hay). Crop. Area. Area. Area. Area. Area. 937 845 1882 267 8 892 Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. AUCKLAND 1882 4,704 423 26,9738,100 213,842 7,589 3,268 88,319 427) 10,515 5,208 29,623 16,301 40,893 16,615 19,454 264,962 292,844 18813 4,565 390 35,114 5,127 130,520 8,124 2,353 55,755 348 8,142 5,115 24,068 17,153 38,220 13,528 15,075 252,972 279,843 TARANAKI 1882 943 249 139 1,351 2,960 76,771 375/ 1,975 60,019 94 2,363 641 3,154 3,008 9,056 2,703 4,212 35,419 93,002 1881 722 261 2,294 2,103 48,068 467 1,230 36,495 168 3,910 644 2,646 2,558 7,170 2,357 3,368 30,800 84,127 WELLINGTON 1882 2,142 334 5,027 12,013 278,884 2,369 8,902 259,150 640 18,484 1,537 9,750 7,808 33,269 7,353 11,084 121,475 750,426 1881 1,868 774 278 15,385 11,550 239,193 1,974 7,365 174,056 731 18,424 1,758 8,908 4,796 28,174 5,649 7.702 106,305 666,240 HAWKE'S BAY ... 683 10,484 1,608 44,503 957) 3,947 88,582 296 7,252 840 5,037 2,672 10,320 9,720 14,349 103,514 579,233 1881 647 210 14,530 2,008 43,297 997 2,911 60,409 517 17,682864 5,051 2,788 10,085 6.813 8.853 94,622 566,802 MARLBOROUGH ... 1882 424 10,401 3,789 88,780 1,408 2,080 58,9:8 2,669 76,518 587 3,756 1,749 12,282 1,085 1,471/ 22,574 38,233 1881 396 4,482 3,224 68,975 1,546 1,999 54,977 4,064 110,986 590 3,454 12,315 1,035 1,380 22,966 44,352 NELSON 1882 866 4,551 3,207 55,394 4,137 2,105 47,028 3,009 63,230 1,145 5,366 4,443 18,046 3,232 4,206 49,108 76,066 776 1881 501 9 263 3,948 2,246 41,298 3,432 2,009 46,953 3,798 90,740 1,151 5,190 5,125 17,761 3,375 3,759 42,279 66,227 WESTLAND 1882 22969 82 2) 32 411 10 233 247 824 343 1,015 208 220 3,5036,286 1881 1500 1,308 5 465 1 30 214 622 201 891 265 150 2,604 7,594 CANTERBURY 1882 3,649 1,451 706 100,662 237,015 5,047,883 19,633 102,370 2,540,591 17,728 347,075 5,930 31,508) 119,728 502,404 15,647 16,917 674,8951 176,050 1881 3,355 1,347 677 130,208 208,561 4,915,298 15,331 89,280 2,406,476 28,640 732,345 6,264 29,112 113,283 461,359 11,992 14,573 567,445 148,835 OTAGO ... 1882 4,092 1,377 586 89,021 97,021 2,491,801 24,552 118,7303,782,008 4,943 138,652 6,402 32,872 123,550 375,178 17,860 17,168 496,425 154,054 ... 1881 3,447 1,514 657 86,203 90,125 2,661, 148 18,851 107,882 4,056,810 8,607 239,047 5,953 26,974 110,378 341,796 9,083 13,919 448,577 124,359 TOTALS ... 1882 17,732 5,832 2,734 248,552 365,715 8,297,890 61,431 243,387 6,924,848 29,808 664,093 22,540 121,890 279,602 1,002,483 68,423 89,081 1,771,875 2,166,194 ... 1881 15,926 5,620 2,601 293,472 324,949 8,147,797 51,187 215,030 6,891,961 46,8781,221,276 22,553 106,025 257,174 917,771 54,097 68,7791,568,570 1,988,379 INCREASE IN 1882 1,806 212 133 40,766| 150,093 10,244 28,357 32,887 ... | 15,865 22,428 84,712 14,326 20,302 203,305 177,815 DECREASE IN 1882 ... ... 44,920 ... ... ... ... 17,070 557,183 13 442 : PASTORAL PURSUITS. PASTORAL PURSUITS. The mildness of the winter season (which does not require that any special provision for the keep of stock during that period should be made), the general suitability of the country for grazing pur- poses, and the production of a superior class of wool, caused the attention of the first settlers to be much given to pastoral pursuits, so that at a very early date all grass lands were taken up as sheep or cattle runs. The success attending the pursuit enabled the runholders to a large extent to purchase the freehold of their runs, or the best portions of them; and by improvements in fencing and sowing with English grasses, which thrive remarkably well in the colony, the bearing capabilities of the land were increased many-fold. While in the North Island there are considerable tracts of grazing ground with natural herbage, a large extent of the country consists of bill land of varying quality, covered with forest, or bush, as it is called in the colony. This land, after the bush has been cut down and set fire to, if grass seed be sown upon the ashes, is converted in a few weeks into manner, and the land supports large flocks and herds; and the same system will doubtless be extensively followed, as a large portion of country that would be so used is not available for agricultural pursuits. In the South Island the bush is chiefly confined to the western slopes of the dividing range; the open hills, plains, and downs to the east. of the range being available for grazing purposes. The extent to which pastoral pursuits have been followed may be estimated by the quantity of stock in the colony in 1881 (when the census was last taken). The numbers of the undermentioned kinds were as follow :- Horses ... 161,736 Cattle... 698,637 Sheep... ... 12,985,085 These numbers do not include the animals in the possession of aboriginal natives, no estimate of which can be given : while, however, possessing a considerable number of horses, they own but small numbers of sheep and cattle. The annual crop of wool has on the whole steadily increased since the first settlement of the colony in 1839. In 1881 there was a slight decrease, which is to be explained chiefly by the large increase of rabbits (as during 1881 rabbit-skins were exported to the number of 8,514,685, valued at £84,744), and also to the consumption of nearly a million pounds of wool in the manufacture of woollen goods within the colony. The exports for the last nine years ending respectively on NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. : : : : : : : :::::::: :::::::: the 30th September, or just before the shearing season begins, were as follow :- lb. 1873 ... 42,233,470 1874 ... 47,424,882 1875 ... 49,942,148 1876 ... 55,975,177 1877 ... 56,520,278 1878 62,166,251 1879 ... 62,643,497 1880 ... 62,586,189 1881 ... ... 60,477,151 While much of the country is only suited for sheep, a considerable portion is well adapted for the grazing of cattle. Much attention has been paid to, and capital expended on, the improvement of the various kinds of domestic animals; and some of the sheep and cattle fattened on grasses only may well bear comparison with the animals fattened on artificial food for the English markets. The horses in the colony vary much in quality : for some years they realized such low prices that but little attention was paid to the breeding of good saddle-horses, and, as the Maoris possess large numbers of mares (not included in the census numbers), and breed from them without much regard to the improvement of stock, there has been a large increase in the number of small weedy animals. Where care has been taken excellent results have been obtained. As both draught-horses and thoroughbreds of the best strains of blood have been imported, first-class animals of either sort are obtainable, and always command a good value. . The various large agricultural shows periodically held in different parts of the colony, and heartily supported by farmers, stockowners, and the general public, have done much to encourage the good breed- ing of horses and cattle, and all other kinds of stock. WOOL. Wool is, undoubtedly, the most important production of New Zealand, its value in export approaching nearly treble that of gold. Wool is divided into two classes, combing wool and clothing wool; from which are produced the two leading kinds of manufacture in the cloth trade--viz., worsted and woollen goods. The first comprises the long-stapled wools of the Lincoln, Leicester, Cotswold, and Romney Marsh breeds of English sheep. WOOL. 19 They are required for worsted goods, and, when combed, for bom- bazines, camlet, &c. This is a class of wool for the production of which the soil and climate of New Zealand are very suitable. The long-woolled sheep of Great Britain improve by the change; the length of the wool is increased, and all its valuable properties pre- served, owing doubtless to the genial climate and absence of exposure to the extremes of an English temperature. The Leicester breed has received great attention in New Zealand, and is the favourite with the Auckland sheep-farmers. The Cotswold is a wool very similar to the Leicester, but of a somewhat deeper and harsher character, and lacks the “lustre” so much in demand for certain classes of manufactured goods. The Cotswold appears quite as much in favour with the New Zealand breeder as the Leicester, and probably its habits and character are more generally adapted to the climate of the South Island and the mountain pastures of the colony than any other long-woolled sheep. The Cotswold bears exposure better .than the Lincoln or Leicester, will live and thrive on poor land, and come to more weight of carcass than any other breed. : The value of this breed as a cross with either Leicester or short- woolled sheep cannot be too much spoken of, and the favour in which crosses with the Cotswold are held is a sufficient proof of their excellence. The Romney Marsh partakes in a measure of the qualities of the Leicester and Lincoln, being a soft, rich, and good handling wool, rather finer in quality than the Leicester, and having the glossy or "lustre” appearance of the Lincoln. Wool of this description is much in demand for certain fabrics, and is much sought after in the French markets. The Cheviot is a wool that has grown into considerable popularity of late years, and is largely used in the worsted manufacture. It is à small fine-haired wool, of medium length and moderate weight of fleece. The varieties of fabrics manufactured from these long-stapled wools are almost innumerable, and are perpetually varying according to the changes of fashion, though there are certain fixed kinds which may be interesting to mention—viz., Sayes, which is used for clerical and · academical vestments. Serge, Sateens, light woven cloths for ladies' dresses. Reps are heavier, and from the method of weaving have a transverse ribbed appearance. Cords are like the last, but with longi- tudinal ribs. Moreens, watered cloths. Merinoes, finely-woven cloths, -originally made from the fine Spanish wool called merino. Paramattas, fine cloths originally made from the Paramatta wool with silk warps, 20 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. uthdown is a sheadcloths and famosaich are man though now woollen. Camlets, thin plain-woven cloths. Damasks, Shalloon, and, when made with cotton warps, Crapes, Coburgs, Tammies, Delaines, Lasting, and Orleans cloths. · The second kind or clothing wool comprises the short-stapled wool grown by the Southdown and Shropshire Down breeds of English sheep, and the Merino (Spanish) sheep, from which are manufactured woollen goods, including broadcloths and fancy kinds. The Southdown is a short-stapled fine-haired close-growing wool, used chiefly for clothing purposes. The value of this breed to New Zealand sheep-farmers consists mainly in the improvements which crossing with it imparts to the carcass. Some breeders have crossed the Southdown with the Merino, and with cross-bred Romney Marsh and Merino. The Shropshire Down is a breed which is growing every year into more importance. It produces a wool longer in the staple and more lustrous than any other Down breeds. It has been cultivated in New Zealand to a small extent only. The Merino is the most valuable and important breed cultivated in New Zealand, and of sheep of this class the flocks of the colony are chiefly composed; they are of the Australian Merino variety, improved through the importation of pure Saxon Merino rams from Germany. The excellence of the Merino consists in the unexampled fineness and felting property of its wool, which in fineness and the number of serrations and curves exceeds that of any other sheep in the world. Fine Saxon Merino wool has 2,720 serrations to an inch, Merino wool 2,400, Southdown wool 2,000, and Leicester 1,850. These figures represent the felting properties of the various wools. The Merinoes adapt themselves to and thrive in every change of climate, and, with common care, retain all their fineness of wool as well under a burning tropical sun as in cold mountain regions. In New Zealand the length of staple and weight of fleeces have been increased, without any deterioration in the quality of the wool. Of the fabrics manufactured from these kinds of wool may be mentioned-Doeskins, technically called “seven - harness cloth.” Cassimeres and Kerseymeres are “four-harness cloths,” that is, four instead of seven threads in warp and weft, and in the kerseymeres the web, being subject to an extra milling, is rendered more compact. Sataras, ribbed cloths, highly dressed, lustred and hot-pressed. Venetians, woven as twills. Meltons, stout cloths not dressed or finished except by paring. Beavers, Deerskins, Diagonals, or fancy cloths. Bedford-cords, usually drab-coloured ribbed cloths, of great strength and durability. Tweeds, which are lightly felted, originally of Scotch manufacture, but now largely produced in this colony of a WOOL. 21 quality and variety of pattern quite equal to any that can be im- ported. Up to the present time the weaving industry in New Zealand has been confined to tweeds, plaiding, and blankets, and various woollen underclothing. The value of wool exported in 1881 amounted to £2,909,760. ANIMAL LIFE. Until the systematic colonization of the Islands, New Zealand was very destitute of terrestrial or animal life suitable to the wants of civilized man, the only animals being a small rat, a dog (which had probably been introduced since the Islands were peopled by the present race), and pigs, the produce of some animals left by Captain Cook and the navigators that succeeded him : through the agency of the early missionaries, and by whaling ships, many useful animals and plants were then introduced. In more recent years all kinds of domestic animals, many of very high quality, have been imported, including valuable breeds of sheep and the American llama. Do- mestic poultry of almost every species have also been introduced, and, through the agency of the Acclimatization Societies, many species of game (such as hares, pheasants, partridges, black-game, red grouse, quail, &c.) and a host of the smaller birds of Europe and other countries have been spread throughout the Islands. The rivers also of New Zealand, which formerly produced only the eel and a few small salmonoid fishes of little value, are gradually being stocked with salmon and trout, both European and American, while perch, tench, and carp have also been satisfactorily acclimatized.. There are now in New Zealand about thirteen million sheep, seven hundred thousand cattle, and one hundred and sixty thousand horses. WHALING New Zealand is the chief centre of the southern whale fisheries, and at certain seasons the less frequented harbours are visited by whalers for the purpose of refitting and carrying on shore-fishing and barrelling their oil. These are generally American ships, but Otago and Auckland whaling ships are also equipped by New Zealand owners. The sperm whale abounds in the region of the ocean lying to the north- east of New Zealand, but stragglers are found all round the coast. In the open sea and to the south the most prized whale next to the sperm is the black whale, or tohoro (Eubalana australis), which is like the right whale of the North Sea, but with baleen of less value. Along the FISHERIES, 23 There is, however, no reason to complain of any want of useful variety in the New Zealand fishes as compared with Britain, for we find that out of 208 species of fishes enumerated as occurring in the British seas, including many which are extremely rare or only occasional visitors, only 40 are considered to have a marketable value. In New Zealand, notwithstanding our very imperfect know- ledge (especially with regard to the gregarious tribes, which there is reason to believe inhabit shoals at some distance from land), out of 192 · sea fishes, some of which are only known from single specimens, we have nearly as many varieties used for food as are brought to market in the British Islands. Of 140 species of fish enumerated as found in New Zealand, 67 species are, so far as we know, peculiar to New Zealand; 75 are common to the coasts of Australia or Tasmania; while 10 species are found in New Zealand and other places, but not in the Australian seas. New Zealand Ichthyology thus presents a very distinct character, the thorough deciphering of which affords a wide field for future observation and scientific investigation. The following is a list of the fishes which are chiefly met with in the market: Hapuku ... Oligorus gigas Turbot ... ... ... Ammotrites guntheri ... Ammo Kahawai ... Arripis salar Brill ... Pseudorhombus sca- Red Snapper ... ... Anthias richardsoni phus Snapper Pagrus unicolor Flounder or Patiki... Rhombosolea mono- Tarakihi Chilodactylus macro- pus pterus Sole ... ... Peltorhamphus novæ- Trumpeter Latris hecateia zealandiæ Moki Latris ciliaris Gar-fish ... Hemirhamphus intera Frost-fish ... Lepidopus caudatus medius Barracouta ... Thyrsites atun Grayling ... Prototroctes oxyrhyn- Horse-mackerel ... Trachurus trachurus chus Trevally ... Caranx georgianus Smelt ... Retropinna richard- King-fish Seriola lalandii soni John Dory Zeus faber Kokopu ... ... Galaxias fasciatus Boar-fish ... Cyttus australis Minnow ... ... Galaxias attenuatus Warehou Neptonemus brama Sand-eel ... ... Gonorhynchus greyi Mackerel Scomber australasi. Anchovy ... ... Engraulis encrasicho- lus Rock Cod Percis colias Pilchard or Sardine.. Clupea sagax Gurnard ... Trigla kumu Sprat ... Clupea sprattus Mullet ... ... Mugil perusii Eel (tuna) ... Anguilla aucklandii Sea-mullet ... Agonostoma forsteri Black eel ... ... Anguilla australis Spotty ... ... Labrichthys bothry- Conger-eel... ... Conger vulgaris ocosmus Silver-eel ... Congromuræna haben. Butter-fish ... Coridodax pullus tata Haddock Gadus australis Leatherjacket ... Monacanthus convexi- Red Cod ... Lotella bacchus rostris Whiting ... Pseudophycis brevi. Smooth-hound ... Mustelus antarcticus usculus | Sting-ray ... ... Trygon thalassia Ling .. ... Genypterus blacoides | Skate ... ... Raja nasuta. cus ... GEOLOGY 25 rapidity in New Zealand, owing to the mountainous character of the country giving to the rivers, even when of large size, the character of torrents, which are liable to occasional floods of extreme violence. To some extent, also, the remarkable indications of change which are everywhere manifest must be attributed to alterations of relative level which have affected the surface, some of which have occurred during the present century. Such changes are more easily detected on the sea-coast, where they effect sudden alterations of the shore-line, but there is no doubt that they have been equally potent in inland dis- tricts, and have caused, for instance, marked alterations in the courses of some of the rivers. The Maori race is considered, from the evidence afforded by their traditions, to have been established in New Zealand for little more than five hundred years before the first arrival of Europeans; but during that period, while the Islands were being explored in all parts by this intelligent and adventurous native race, the spread of fires, causing the destruction of the primæval forests and rank vegetation, was the means of setting free vast accumulations of loose soil and dis- integrated rock that were formerly retained on the mountain-slopes. The material thus displaced has accumulated in the river-courses, causing them to raise their beds above the adjacent lands, so that they have broken away from their channels in many places. The race of gigantic Moa birds (Dinornis) had its maximum development in the New Zealand area, and only became extinct during the recent period, but their extermination must have com- menced at an earlier date than the first human occupation, as their bones are found deeply embedded in the gravels and swamps, while the evidences of human occupation are confined to the surface-soil, shelter-caves, and sand-dunes. In a rugged and mountainous country like New Zealand it would evidently require a very large-scale map to show the innumerable fringes of river-beds, and other small patches of Post-tertiary deposits, and accordingly these have been neglected in the geological map, and indications of the recent deposits have been limited to those places where the structural rock of the country is not exposed. These deposits, however, cover a considerable area of country in the Canterbury Plains, the Mackenzie country, around the mouth of the Waitaki River, and in the Mataura, Waimea, and Five Rivers plains, in the South Island ; and in the Manawatu, Waikato, Thames, and Kaipara districts, and the isthmus between Awanui and North Cape, in the North Island. NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. II. PLIOCENE. a. Terrace plains ; Scinde Island limestone. b. Pumice sands and lignite series. c. Kereru Rotella veds, Motunau, &c. This formation belongs to a period when New Zealand was the mountain-range of a greatly extended land-area, and when, in the North Island, the volcanic forces had their greatest activity, attended with the rapid elevation of local areas of fossiliferous deposits that were at this period forming in adjacent seas. In the South Island no marine deposits of importance belonging to this period are present, but the great area of land above the shore-line intensified the erosive action of the glaciers radiating from the mountain centres, and gave rise to enormous deposits of gravel, such, for instance, as compose the greater part of the Canterbury Plains, and the Moutere Hills in Nelson. The marine Pliocene beds are characterized by the great abun- dance of Rotella zealandica, with Dosinea anus, Struthiolaria fraseri, Chione, and a large form of Buccinum maculatum, with many other forms. The economic importance of this formation is very considerable, from its containing the richest deposits of alluvial gold that form the support of the mining population. The beds cover a considerable surface-area, both in the North and also in the South Island. In the North they form notable beds around Manukau Harbour; they cover a considerable area of country in the districts between Alexandra and the Upper Thames, and stretch from Lake Taupo towards Opotiki, fringing the coast between that point and Kati- kati. They also occur as an important deposit at Wanganui, where they are highly fossiliferous, and, stretching back from there to the head waters of the Rangitikei River, flank the Ruahine Range, envelope the base of Tongariro and Ruapehu, and are subsequently traced as far as Lake Taupo, which they reach as a narrow strip on the banks of the Upper Waikato River. They further flank the Ruahine Range on the east side, and extend north as far as Moeangi- angi, and, besides appearing as isolated patches between, form the low hills surrounding Poverty Bay. Where they flank the Ruahine Ranges they have a great thickness, and being there of marine origin are highly fossiliferous; in that district they have also been involved in extensive structural movements, so that in many places they have been completely overturned. Elsewhere they are nearly horizontal, although the marine beds have been locally raised to an altitude of 300 feet above sea level. In the South Island their principal development is on the West GEOLOGY. 27 Coast between Lake Brunner and Bruce Bay; and in the Canterbury Plains, where they fringe the range between Timaru and the Waipara River. They also occur in the Hurunui Plains ; around Lake Tripp; at the outlets of Lakes Ohou, Pukaki, and Tekapo, fringing the Older - Carboniferous rocks in the Mackenzie country; from the Wanaka and Hawea Lakes as far south as Wakefield ; the upper lacustrine gravels of the Manuherikia and Maniototo Plains; also between Lake Te Anau and the Mararoa River; and in the Southland Plains, a part, of which is composed of these beds. III. UPPER MIOCENE. a. Wanganui series. b. Manawatu Gorge limestones. C. Castlepoint beds. d. Ross beds. e. Waitotara and Awatere beds. The marine beds of this age are limited in their extent to the southern and eastern districts of the North Island, and in the South, Island occur as patches, inland from Timaru, between Peel Forest and the Waitaki River ; at the mouth of the Waipara ; at Ross; to the south of Greymouth; and in Nelson, from Lake Rotoiti to the sea; but here, as at many other places, these beds are often represented by gravel conglomerates that, from the absence of fossils, have not been distinguished from the preceding formation. They consist of a series of sandy, calcareous, and argillaceous strata, the distribution of which, and as a rule also the mineral character, indicate that they were related to a closely adjacent shore-line, as they often pass, almost suddenly, from coarse conglomerates into narrow strips of fine mud and clay, such as are deposited in the centres of deep channels and inlets. The New Zealand seas have yielded about 450 species of existing shells, of which 120 have been found in this formation, together with 25 forms which are now extinct. They are specially characterized by the occurrence of Ostrea ingens, Murex octagonus, Fusus triton, Struthiolaria cingulata, Chione assimilis, and Pecten gemmulatus. IV. LOWER MIOCENE. a. Maungapakeha Valley beds. b. Taipo, Awamoa, and Pareora beds. This formation, which is distinguished from the foregoing chiefly by its fossils, is a calcareous and argillaceous formation, widely spread over the east and central part of the North Island and both sides of GEOLOGY. 29 of this formation, remains of a huge zeuglodont cetacean (Kekenodon) have been discovered by Mr. A. McKay, allied to those found in strata of equivalent age in Europe and America. The distribution of these beds is limited in area, the principal development being about the Waiau River, in Southland, and on the eastern side of Te Anau Lake, with a few patches up the east coast of the South Island at Oamaru, Geraldine, Mount Somers, and Mount Grey; while in the North Island they are principally developed from Cape Kidnappers south and inland up the Tukituki River. A small patch of the same beds also occurs at Mokau. VI. CRETACEO-TERTIARY. a. Grey marls. b. Ototara and Weka Pass stone. c. Fucoidal greensands. d. Amuri limestone, chalk-marls, and chalk with flints. e. Marly greensands. f. Island sandstone (Reptilian beds). . g. Black grit and coal formation. These constitute the Cretaceo-tertiary group, being stratigraphi- cally associated and containing many fossils in common throughout, while at the same time, though none are existing species, many present a strong Tertiary facies, and in the upper part only a few are decidedly Secondary forms. : The distribution of this formation shows that it was not, like the foregoing formations of later date, deposited in relation to a form of the land like that at present obtaining in the New Zealand area, except in the vicinity of some of the oldest and most lofty land-masses in the south, which appear to have remained above the water-line since the Lower Cretaceous period. The upper part of this formation is a deep-sea deposit, but the lower subdivisions indicate the close vicinity of land, and are replaced in some areas by true estuarine and fluviatile beds containing coal. The marine fossils include, besides well-marked Greensand forms, such as Ancyloceras, Belemnites, and Rostellaria, a number that have still a marked affinity to the Tertiary Fauna. Saurian bones occur, of the genera Plesiosaurus, Mauisaurus, Leiodon, &c., in this forma- tion, but they have only been found, as yet, over a limited area on. the east side of the South Island, The black grit, which is the lowest marine bed of this group, resembles, in mineral character and the contained fossils, the Car- stone and Calcareous Greensand of England. In the upper part of this formation the valuable building-stone -30 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. known commercially as “ Oamaru stone” occurs, which is a calcareous sandstone very easily worked, but hardening when exposed to the weather. The most valuable coal deposits of New Zealand occur in the Cretaceo-tertiary formation, but always at the base of the marine beds of the formation, in every locality where they occur. The coal- bearing beds always rest upon the basement rock of the district, marking a great unconformity and the closing of a long-persistent land-area at the period to which they belong. Thus the coal is immediately overlaid by the grey marls in the Waikato, by the fucoidal greensands at Whangarei, and by the Island sandstone in Otago and on the west coast of the South Island. The coals immediately beneath the marine beds are everywhere hydrous brown coals, but on the West Coast these rest upon an immense formation of micaceous sandstones, grits, and conglomerates, in which are seams of valuable bituminous coal, and this lower part of the formation is possibly the equivalent in time of the Lower Greensand group. . The same fossil plants are found associated with all these coal deposits, and even those of highest antiquity abound in the fossil remains of dicotyledonous and coniferous trees of species closely allied to those represented in the existing flora of the country. In the Malvern Hills, where the strata overlying the coal contain abundance of Lower Cretaceous fossils, the dicotyledonous leaves are associated with Alethopteris, Oleandridum (Tæniopteris), and other forms that are prevalent in the underlying Jurassic beds. The same association takes place in the sandstones overlying the coal on the West Coast. It appears from this that the land surface preceding the great depression during Cretaceo-tertiary times survived to a later date in the north than' in the south of New Zealand, the beds overlying the coal in the north being generally of younger Cretaceous age. This formation has a large distribution from north to south, but coal is only found at its base in a limited number of localities. · At Kawakawa, and between that point and Whangarei, coal has been found; and again in the Waikato, at Kawhia and Mokau. On the east side of the North Island coal-seams are yet unknown, associated with these beds, but strong escapes of petroleum and gaseous hydro- carbons are found in many places... . On the western slope of the main axis of the South Island all but the lower series of beds included in this formation occur in disconnected areas from Picton and Collingwood to Jackson Bay, being in every case associated with coal; and at the Buller and Grey the well-established coal mines are in seams that belong to this period. GEOLOGY. 31 At Preservation Inlet some divisions of the formation are found, as also at the Nightcaps; on the Mataura; at Kaitangata and Green Island-in every case associated with coal; while from Shag Point up to the Waitaki River they have a further development. Several other patches occur going northward along the East Coast, and, as a rule, coal-seams occur at their base until reaching the Malvern Hills; but north of this point, as at the Amuri Bluff, they pass down conformably into the next-described formation. The Island Sandstone, with its characteristic fossils, underlies and is associated with the older gold drifts that occupy the interior plains of Otago, proving that these great valleys were excavated prior to the Cainozoic period. VII. Lower GREENSAND. a. Amuri group on East Coast. b. Bituminous coals on West Coast. These beds consist of green and grey incoherent sandstones, with hard concretions, and large masses of silicified wood. This formation, which is confined to a few localities of limited extent, is very rich in fossils of the genera Belemnites and Trigonia, with a few Saurian bones and large Chimæroid fishes. Its typical development is at the Waipara and Amuri Bluff, but equivalent beds are also found on the east coast of the North Island in several localities, and they have a considerable development in the neighbour- hood of East Cape, extending inland as far as Hikurangi. VIII. JURASSIC. a. Mataura series. b. Putataka series. c. Flag Hill series. These beds, which are the youngest of the Lower Secondary formation in New Zealand, require mention under their several sub- divisions, although on the general map no distinction has been made between them. The Mataura series consists largely of estuarine beds, marine fossils being absent or rare. It consists of dark-coloured marls and fine-grained sandstones, and contains the fossil remains of a number of plants, of which eight species have been recognized. Amongst these are Camptopteris, Cycadites, and Echinostrobus, which connect these with the plant-beds of the next lower formation. Those found at Waikawa and Mataura Falls are especially interesting from at least one species, Macrotæniopteris lata, being identical with a plant found in the Rajmahal beds of India, which are considered to be of Liassic age. The same plants are found in the Clent Hills plant-beds, and 32 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. from the natural sections, and also from the very characteristic fossils immediately below them, there can be no doubt that they should be referred to the Upper Oolite period. The Putataka series, which has its typical development at Waikato Heads as marlstones, is represented in southern districts by coarse- grained sandstones, which pass near the base of the formation into conglomerates with bands of indurated shale, enclosing plant-remains and irregular coal-seams, which have been included in the next group as its upper member. The Putataka beds are of marine origin, and contain Middle Oolite fossils, of which eleven species have been identified. The Flag Hill series, which is principally developed in the Hokanui Range, Southland, is marine, and is characterized by eighteen forms of fossil shells which have been identified, besides many others which have yet to be examined. The Brachiopoda are interesting, as, besides seven forms of Rhyn- chonella and three of Terebratula, Spiriferina rostrata, of the Lias, is abundant, and also a form of Epithyris (i.e., a Terebratula of the type T. elongata), which is not hitherto recorded higher than of Permian age, The distribution of these beds, as at present known, is confined to the Hokanui Ranges, and a block of country on both sides of the Waikawa River, and extending inland to the Mataura Falls, as well as a narrow strip on Catlin's River, in Southland ; a small patch at Amuri Bluff; another at Kawhia and the Waikato Heads; and a strip of country running from Raukokore, in the Bay of Plenty, in the direction of Waikaremoana Lake. The minor subdivisions of these beds have as yet only been made in the Hokanui Ranges. IX, Lias. Catlin's River and Bastion series. This formation consists in its upper part of conglomerates and sandy grits, with plant-remains too indistinct for identification; and in the lower of marly sandstones in banded layers of different colours, at the base having a concretionary structure, which has led to their being termed the “cannon-ball sandstone:" similar sandstones also occur in the Otapiri formation. Fossils are plentiful, and divide the strata into distinct horizons, Ammonites being specially common. Fifteen species of fossils have been determined, but a large number of others are present which have not yet been identified. The general facies of the Fauna is on the whole Liassic, although 34 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. salinaria, Halobia lomelli, &c. Eleven species have now been deter- mined, and Brachiopoda are represented by the earliest appearance of Clavigera, Rastelligera, and a form allied to Spiriferina but having the dental plates conjoined with the rostral septum (Psioidea). In some districts the Wairoa series is divided into two horizons, yielding marine fossils, separated by sandstones containing fossil plants, from which forms of Glossopteris, Zamites, and Rhacophyllum have been obtained. The Oreti series (formerly included in the Lower Wairoa series) includes a great formation of green and grey tufaceous sandstones and breccias, having at its base a remarkable conglomerate of enormous masses of crystalline rocks, in a hard cementing matrix, resembling the character described for the base of the Gondwinda series in India. Some of the blocks, which are both angular and rounded, are 5 feet in diameter. This conglomerate has a thickness varying from 50 feet to 400 feet, and is never absent from its proper sectional position in any part of the Hokanui District. These strata have been sometimes termed “ash-beds” on account of their tufaceous and brecciated character. The fossils are chiefly Permian and Triassic forms, but a Pentacrinus also occurs, which resembles the Jurassic species. Brachiopoda are scarce, except one form of true Athyris, of which specimens are very abundant; also two species of Psioidea, and four species of Rhynchonella with smooth external surfaces, which only occur in collections from these beds in the Kaihiku Ranges. These Triassic beds are best known in the Moonlight and Hokanui Ranges in Southland, and extending as a narrow strip to the seą-coast at Nugget Point. They also occur at the Wairoa Gorge, in Nelson, where they were first discovered by Dr. von Hochstetter ; but they are also found in the Jollie Range, at the head waters of the Rakaia and Rangitata Rivers ; bounding the Hanmer Plains and forming the Lowry Peaks; and also at the mouth of the Dillon River, and at the gorge of the Ashley, where the limestones are highly fossiliferous. In the North Island they occur in the vicinity of Wellington, and also between Cape Palliser and Palliser Bay; and are found, farther north, flanking the western side of the Hakarimata Range, where the Raglan track crosses it. The boundaries of these beds, except in Southland and at the Wairoa, may yet require modification, but in the above places the beds have been traced with considerable care. XI. PERMIAN. Kaihiku series. The mineral character of this formation is grey and green sand- 36 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. · occasionally great development in it of contemporaneous igneous rocks, with which are associated metalliferous deposits. In the upper part this formation consists of fine-grained argillaceous slates (Maitai slates of Hochstetter), becoming calcareous and passing into true limestones at their base. These limestones, which close the Maitai series, contain the following Lower Carboniferous fossils : Spirifera bisulcata, S. glaber, Productus brachythærus, Cyathophyllum, and Cyathocrinus. Succeeding these is the Te Anau series, which should probably be considered as Upper Devonian, but from the absence of fossils it has not been distinguished on the map. It comprises an enormous thickness of greenstone breccias, aphanite slates, and diorite sandstones, with great contemporaneous flöes and dykes of diorite, serpentine, syenite, and felsite. These beds occur in the Longwood Range; the Takitimu Moun- tains; and between the mouth of the Molyneux River and Martin's Bay, occupying the area between the Te Anau and Wakatipu Lakes. In Northern Otago and Canterbury they form a continuous belt of country from Palmerston to Mount Cook, embracing the whole of the Mackenzie country; from there north they are found in the Tyndall Range ; at Browning's Pass; the Spencer Mountains ; St. Arnaud Mountains; thence through Nelson to D'Urville Island ; and, taking in a large area of the Marlborough District, they reappear from below the Permian rocks in the Kaikoura Mountains. They are also found on the eastern side of the Permian rocks at Geraldine; Mount Peel; the Palmer Range; Big Ben Range; Okuku Range, crossing the Hurunui River, and appearing on the edge of the Hanmer Plains. They are again seen in the Paparoa Range at Grey- mouth, and extend from a point a little west of Mount Herschel, through Reefton and Lyell, to the Tasman Mountains and Anatoki Range, near Collingwood. At Reefton they are the matrix of the auriferous reefs in that important mining district, and are distinctly seen to rest unconformably upon richly fossiliferous limestones and quartzites of Lower Devonian age. The auriferous cements which are worked at Reefton belong to the coal-bearing formation of the West Coast, which is of Cretaceous age. In the North Island their principal development is through the Rimutaka, Tararua, Ruahine, and Kaimanawa Ranges, and thus on to the Whakatane country, where they reach the sea-coast between Opotiki and Kotiki Point. They also occur as several isolated patches more to the westward, between Tuhua and Rangitoto; in the Haka- rimata, Pataroa, and Wairoa Ranges; in the gorge of the Waikato above Cambridge ; again at the Thames and Cape Colville Peninsula, 38 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK, Fossils have been found in two localities only, and these consist entirely of Encrinite remains, one species of coral not yet determined, and a few Graptolites which occur in the slates. The central axis of these beds consists of true mica-schists, to the east and west of which the limestone and bituminous slates overlie. XVI. FOLIATED SCHISTS. The metamorphic rocks under this division have as yet been only subdivided according to their mineral character; but they probably consist chiefly of altered Silurian rocks, and even those of formations as young as the Maitai or Lower Carboniferous beds. The less meta- morphosed areas of Lower Palæozoic rocks in the South of New Zea- land have yielded no fossils. They were formerly classed as the Kaihiku series, but this name has latterly been transferred to the Permian formation of which the Kaihiku Range is more largely com- posed. The schists occupy the central portion of the Otago District, where they have an area of nearly 8,000 square miles, and thence they crop out along the western flank of the central range through Westland and Nelson, a detached area also appearing in the Marlborough District, between Queen Charlotte Sound and the Pelorus. They are unknown in the North Island. They have been subdivided as follows :- Upper (Kakanui series).- A grey arenaceous and slaty rock, con- taining a little quartz in the form of veins and laminæ, with fine- grained quartz breccias and roofing slates, and having massive beds of crystalline limestone locally developed. Middle.-Soft blue slates, often highly micaceous, and intersected with quartz veins of small size, the quartz being often rotten and de- composed. The thickness of this formation is not more than from 500 to 1,000 feet, and it is probably from this formation that most of the gold in the western or lake gold fields has been derived, by the direct erosion of glaciers and mountain-torrents. This blue-slate for- mation has been removed by denudation from the greater part of the central anticline of Otago, only remaining in a few localities that are difficult of detection on account of its soft and perishable nature. Lower Contorted Schist. This is a clay-schist, foliated, not with mica nor felspar, but with quartz. It is often chloritic, when veins of magnetite occur in it, and also crystals of that mineral disseminated through the mass; and in the upper part the quartz is nearly wanting. The schists, apparently, lie very flat, and cover a great extent of country. The foliated quartz does not commence at a distinct horizon, but beds thus altered occur in the regular sequence of the strata, GEOLOGY. 39 separated by quartzless rock: in the lower part of the series, however, as exposed in the deep valleys that cut right through the central dis- trict of Otago, the whole mass of schist is intersected by concretionary laminæ of quartz (generally of a bluish tinge and horny appearance) that conform to the planes of foliation as in mica-schist. Gold occurs segregated in the interspaces of this contorted schist, but it is rarely found in sitú. Quartz reefs are confined to the upper schists, but there are but few instances of any other than true fissure-reefs having been discovered, that is, reefs that cut the strata nearly vertically, and have a true “back” or wall independent of the foliation-planes, and filled with brecciated material. XVII. CRYSTALLINE Schists. The south-western portion of the District of Otago is composed of crystalline rocks, forming lofty and rugged mountains, of which the chief characteristic is their cubical form, due to their being inter- sected in all directions by profound but narrow valleys, with abrupt precipitous sides to three-fourths of the extreme height of the adjacent mountains. The valleys are occupied on the west by arms of the sea, and on the east by those of inland lakes that resemble the Norwegian fiords, and present most wonderful mountain scenery. The base rock of this formation is foliated and contorted gneiss corresponding to Humboldt's gneiss-granite of South America, and associated with it are granite, syenite, and diorite, which belong to the next group. Wrapping round these crystalline strata, and sometimes rising to an altitude of 5,000 feet on its surface, is a series of hornblende schists, soft micaceous and amphibolic gneiss, clay-slate, and quartzites, associated with felstone dykes, serpentine, and granular limestone. I believe these latter to be metamorphic rocks of not very ancient date, probably of Devonian age. XVIII. GRANITE. Areas within the crystalline schists where true granite occurs, either metamorphosed or in the form of perfect dykes, have been distinguished under this group. Granites of a light-grey colour and very fine grain are found in the Nelson and Westland Districts, forming isolated hills along the boundary of the Foliated Schists on the east and Lower Devonian beds on the west. In the south-western extremity of New Zealand, at Preservation Inlet, coarsely crystalline granites, of white and flesh- colour, appear to break through and overlie the younger members of the crystalline schists. GEOLOGY. 41 coarse-grained breccia rocks, which form the matrix of the auriferous reefs of the Thames gold fields. In Eocene times dolerite flöes were contemporaneous with the limestones of the period of the Hutchinson's Quarry beds, while lastly in this group have been placed the basaltic lavas of Pliocene age in the northern parts of the colony, and also certain dykes of vesicular lava that cut through and alter the Upper Pliocene gold-drifts in the Maniototo Plain, in the interior of Otago. Acidic Volcanic Rocks. The rocks belonging to this group have a similar distribution in time to the foregoing, the earliest being the felsite (quartz) porphyries, while trachyte porphyries and breccias played an important part during Cretaceo-tertiary and older Tertiary periods, scoriaceous lavas and rhyolites being the characteristics of the later outbursts, which have continued down almost to the present time. The geysers and boiling springs in the North Island give rise to the formation of siliceous sinter, which must be included as the most purely acidic products of volcanic action, and as due to the decompo- sition of the older rocks by the action upon them of fresh water; but in the case of White Island, and other localities where the decomposition is brought about by the agency of sea-water, the sinter deposits are formed chiefly of sulphate of lime, and not silica. MINING AND GEOLOGY: ECONOMIC MINERALS. COAL. Coal mines are being worked in the Provincial Districts of Auckland, Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago (including Southland). The different varieties of coal may be classed as follow :- Class I.-Hydrous, containing an excess of combined water. Lignite. Brown coal. Pitch coal. Class II.Cinhydrous, containing very little combined water. Glance coal. Semi-bituminous coal. Bituminous coal. I. HYDROUS Coal, containing 10 to 20 per cent. of permanent Water. Lignite shows distinctly woody structure; laminated ; very absor- bent of water. Brown Coal rarely shows vegetable structure; fracture irregular, conchoidal; colour dark-brown, lustre feeble; cracks readily on ex- 42 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK, posure to the atmosphere, losing 5 to 10 per cent, of water, which is not reabsorbed ; burns slowly; contains resin in large masses. Pitch Coal. -Structure compact; fracture smooth, conchoidal; jointed in large angular pieces; colour brown or black, lustre waxy; does not desiccate on exposure, nor is it al., bent of water; burns freely; and contains resin disseminated throu: out its mass. II. ANHYDROUS Coal, containing less than 6 per cent. of Water. Glance Coal. Non-caking, massive, com..t or friable; fracture cuboidal, splintery; lustre metallic; structure a linated; colour black; does not form a caking coal, but slightly ait: res. This variety is brown coal altered by igneous rocks, and presents every intermediate stage from brown coal to anthracite. Semi-bituminous Coal.—Compact, with lamınæ of bright and dull coal alternately; fracture irregular; lustre i derate; cakes mode- rately, or is non-caking. Bituminous Coal.—Much-jointed, homogene, us, tender and friable; lustre pitch-like, glistening, often iridescent colour black with a purple hue, powder brownish; cakes strol,' y, the best varieties forming a vitreous coke, with brilliant metall. lustre. General Description. Class I.-The Hydrous Coals of the Sou: Island occur on th. eastern coast chiefly. Pitch Coal has been worked since 1867 – West Wanganui, in Nelson; and in Otago at Shag Point, forty ya'les north of Dunedin, it has been worked since 1862, together with brown coal. It is also found at Reefton, Nelson, where it conturils resin disseminated throughout its mass; Waikato and Whangaea, Auckland; Morley Creek, Southland. It belongs to the Upper Cretaceous period, and has an evaporative power of 5.2 lb. Brown Coal is extensively worked in Aui's land, on the Waikato River, and in the Kaitangata Mine, Clutha district of Otago, where the seams are from 5 to 20 feet thick. The area of this latter coal field is about 6,000 acres, and the quantity of coal has been estimated from surveys to be 140,000,000 tors, nearly the whole of which would be available without sinking. In the same provincial district thick seams of brown coal in grits aud clay-shale have been worked since 1861 at Green Island and Sailole Hill, and extensive seams exist in Southland, and to the west of Riverton, which have not yet been regularly mined. It belongs to the age of the Upper Green- sand, and has an average evaporative power of 1.2 lb. to 5.6 lb. The Lignites of Lower Miocene age occur in the interior of Otago, ECONOMIC MINERALS. 43 and at other places in superficial deposits of limited extent, and have been used chiefly by gold-miners. Class II.—The Anhydrous kinds of coal prove to be quite equal to any imported, experiments having been undertaken in 1865 for ascer- taining their value as steam coals. Both these and the hydrous coals occur at the base of a great marine formation, underlying limestone, clays, and sandstone of Cretaceous and Tertiary age, which have a thickness of several thousand feet, the coal-seams occurring whenever the above formation is in contact with the basement rock. The anhydrous kinds are more limited in distribution, and appear to have been produced by local disturbance of the strata, and in some cases are evidently due to the intrusion of volcanic rocks. Bituminous Coal is worked chiefly in the Nelson District. At Mount Rochfort or Buller mines the seams are on a high plateau, and are 10 to 40 feet thick, and from 900 to 3,000 feet above sea-level. Accurate surveys of this coal field show it to contain 140,000,000 tons of bituminous coal of the best quality and easily accessible. A Govern- ment railway seventeen miles in length is now completed along the level country at the base of the ranges in which the coal occurs, and from which it is lowered by incline planes constructed by the coal- mining companies. The principal mine is the Banbury, which has a magnificent seam of hard bituminous coal at an altitude of 1,800 feet above the sea-level. At the Brunner coal mine, on the Grey River, Nelson, the working face of the seam is 18 feet, and it has been proved to extend one-third of a mile on the strike without disturbance, and to be available for working in an area of 30 acres, the estimated amount of coal being 4,000,000 tons in this mine alone, most of which can be worked above the water-level. Coal-Pit Heath is a second mine lying more to the dip of the same seam. A third mine is being opened on the south side of the river, which, with a 370-feet shaft, will command 300,000 tons. The coal from the Brunner Mine, Nelson, which has now been worked for twelve years, yields vitreous coke, with brilliant metallic lustre. Average evaporative power of several samples, 71 lb. of boiling water converted into steam for each pound of coal. It occurs with grits and conglomerates of Upper Mesozoic age, corresponding to the horizon of the Gault or Lower Greensand. A railway has been con- structed by Government to connect the mine with the port, and harbour improvements are in progress, whereby a larger class of vessels than at present will be enabled to enter the river. The small quantity of this coal hitherto obtainable in New Zealand and Aus- tralian markets has been eagerly bought up for gasworks and iron foundries, which generally pay for it from 10 to 20 per cent. more 46 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. WORKING COAL MINES IN NEW ZEALAND—continued. Output for 1881. Number. Name of Mine and Locality. Number of Years working Quality of Coal. Number of Seams worked, Thickness of Seam. Coal. Slack. Feet. Tons. Tons. 6'6" 25 28 224 861 210 28,673 20 1,023 1,336 42 nil 43 12 1 190 85 1,652 1.195 13 25 6' to 16' 14' to 15 12 6 to 7 12 Evora Ciori Ainci Con Ng Ni i bring 50cc 53 312 5' 6" 20 936 650 860 nil brown brown brown pitch lignite lignite lignite lignite lignite lignite lignite brown brown lignite brown brown brown brown brown brown brown brown brown brown lignite lignite lignite brown brown brown brown brown brown brown brown lignite lignite pitch pitch lignite lignite 20 92 16 525 1,200 OTAGO DISTRICT—continued. St. Andrew's, Oamaru Ngapara, Ngapara ... Glenfield, Herbert ... 39 | Shag Point, Palmerston Hill's Creek, Hill's Creek Idaburn, Rough Ridge Mount Ida, Upper Kyeburn Dunsmuir's, St. Bathan's 44 Crossan's, Naseby Cambrian, St. Bathan's 46 Swineburn, Kyeburn ... Last Chance, Hyde .. Kyeburn, Kyeburn ... 49 Perseverance, Kyeburn 50 | Alexandra, Alexandra South Manuherikia, Alexandra South 52 Perseverance, Cromwell Bannockburn, Cromwell 54 Kawarau, Cromwell ... Clyde (Collins's), Clyde Clyde (Holt No. 1), Clyde Clyde (Holt No. 2), Clyde Earnscleugh, Clyde ... Gibbstown, Arrow ... 60 McPherson's, Roxburgh | Low and Robertson's, Roxburgh 62 Crossan's, Roxburgh ... 63 Fernhill, Green Island 64 Allandale, Green Island Green Island, Green Island Saddle Hill, Green Island McLachlan's, Green Island Walton Park, Green Island Abbotsroyd, Green Island 70 | Abbotsroyd No. 2, Green Island 71 Hurdstone, Milton ... Marshall's, Milton ... Bruce, Milton 74 Real Mackay, Milton ... Cannon's, Milton Bryce's, Milton 77 Elliott Vale, Milton ... | Benhar, Stirling Kaitangata, Kaitangata Kaitangata No. 1, Kaitangata Wangaloa, Kaitangata Johnston, Johnston ... Wyndham, Wyndham Dawson's, Gore Sarginson and Telfer's, Gore Chittock's, Gore White's, Gore 482 300 20 190 61 287 ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 750 28 520 65 19' 6" 13' 14! 19' 6" 1,248 3,956 142 4,570 5,052 nil 16,150 8,069 181 3,770 3,086 16' 72 1 35 nil 73 OH 12'6" 996 19- 9007 75 25' 20' : : : : : 76 12' pitch 20 40 brown pitch 24' 450 150 540 4,400 10,318 4.806 17,723 3,296 160 50 317 269 pitch 30 10'6" HALOO pitch lignite lignite lignite lignite lignite lignite ୧୧୧ ୧୧୧ pil nu 48 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. tinue to bear the same relative proportions, there being a fair prospect that the improvements now in progress for affording increased railway transport and better shipping facilities will give such a stimulus to this valuable industry that the output will be sufficient, not only for the supply of a fair portion of the home consumption, but also for a greatly increased foreign trade. GOLD AND Silver. Gold was discovered in 1842, less than three years from the foundation of the colony, but it was not practically worked until 1852, when the mines at Coromandel first attracted attention to the district of Cape Colville Peninsula, which still forms the chief centre of true lode-mining operations in New Zealand. The yield from those mines was up to 1880 over four and a half millions sterling, but is small when compared with the quantity of alluvial gold obtained in the South Island subsequent to 1861, at which date the gold fields of Otago became prominently known. The accompanying diagram illustrates the history of the development of gold-mining in New Zealand as a whole, and in the northern, central, and southern mining districts. Quartz-mining. The principal quartz mines in the North are in the Coroman- del and Thames districts, about thirty miles apart. In these localities the reefs have been proved to a depth of over 600 feet below sea-level, but the best mines have as yet been principally con- fined to the decomposed and comparatively superficial rock. Veins have been discovered and gold obtained at all levels on the ranges from the sea-level to an altitude of 2,000 feet. The quantity of gold that has been obtained from some of these quartz reefs is very great, and for considerable distances the quartz has yielded very uniformly at the amazing rate of 600 oz. to the ton : such reefs are, however, very exceptional in New Zealand, as elsewhere. The value of such a yield may be better estimated by those not conversant with the subject, when it is stated that half an ounce to the ton is in most cases a profitable return. Auriferous reefs are also extensively worked in the schistose rocks of Otago, and they occur at all altitudes, from sea-level to a height of 7,400 feet, the most elevated gold mine in the Australasian Colonies being that opened during the year 1878 on the summit of Advance Peak, near Wakatipu Lake. Several promising reefs have also been found in the Westland gold fields, amongst which may be mentioned a reef of auriferous stibnite at Langdon's Creek, near Greymouth, which yields from a FIELDS. LOGO £200 ca Scale of NO of Miners emo Ft € - 2400 Scale of value per Man on Gold raised Quartz Valwe, per man Alluvial) TTTQwarts) Oz. of Gold Alluial) Chinese Miner's Quarto" European Miners Aluvial 1837 1858 1859 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1680 TERE! Quartz Valne per man. : Quartz. 02. af Gold o of Quartz Miners. 1857 1353 18.70 ZIZZAZIZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ TATUS Zz 20 ZA 1875 1872 18377 1818 6 Walue per man; Alluvial oz. of Gold Aumber of liners 1880 2. of totd Numer af diners 1875 1876 1878 1879 Quartz Value per man Allwrai . Quartz 10. of Gold 11 Allwial Vs of God eunere Miner Allurraluropean Miners 1957 1858 1839 1875 1876 1877 1978 1879 1880 Mail IN TUTTI TUTTIMITTTTTTTTTT Quarta Value per man Alluvial) Ouaris Lozef Gold Allurial suarte Mix Hurial Europeans 1 | PA Mere 1857 1858 1859 1864 ZZZ 1876 1875 1877 1878 1879 1880 ECONOMIC MINERALS. 49 few ounces to 99 oz. of gold per ton; but up to the present time these reefs have not received the attention they deserve, except at Reefton and a few other localities. The importance of Reefton as a well- established mining district may be judged of from the fact that nine mining companies there, during the year ending on the 31st March, 1878, divided, as profit, the sum of £63,508 among the shareholders. So far as this more permanent form of gold-mining is concerned, there is every reason to feel confident that it is still in its infancy in this colony, and that it only awaits the judicious application of capital for its development to a vast extent. Alluvial Mining. Alluvial gold is chiefly found in the South Island, in the Districts of Otago, Westland, and Nelson, in which mining operations are carried on over an area of about 20,000 square miles. The auriferous sand, or gold drift, as it is usually termed, is of. three distinct kinds. Firstly, that which is found in the beds of rivers, and which is worked by small parties of miners, as the process requires no large expenditure of capital to effect the separation of the gold. Secondly, immensely thick deposits of gravel of more ancient date occupy the wider valleys and the flat country, from which the gold can only be obtained by means of considerable expenditure and large engineering works for the purpose of bringing a supply of water for undermining and working the auriferous deposits. This description of mining is of a more permanent character than the former, and provision has been made by the Colonial Government for assisting the miners by the construction of water-races, which will supply the means of profitable employment to a much larger number of persons than at present gain a livelihood by it.. Some of these deposits are of considerable age, the cements of Tuapeka being certainly not younger than the lowest Tertiary deposits of the colony. They occur in beds from 300 feet to 500 feet thick, and cover a considera ble area of country. These cements are treated in a different way from ordinary alluvial deposits, being crushed and washed in the same manner that a, quartz reef is worked; but in consequence of the nature of the deposit as much as 150 tons of stone is put through the batteries in one day. They consist of coarse gravels and silts cemented together, carrying variable quantities of gold, and were first found at the Blue Spur in Otago, and sub- sequently at a number of other places in the same district. At Charles- ton also, and elsewhere on the West Coast, auriferous cements are worked, but the localities first cited are those which to the present 50 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. time have received the greatest attention. The yield of gold from these cement claims is small, but, in consequence of the large amount of material which can he operated upon, the value of the deposits is considerable, and their extent guarantees that they will afford a remunerative return for some time to come. Thirdly, along the sea-coast the continued wash of the waves pro- duces a shifting action on the sands which are brought down by the rivers and drifted along the shore, thus producing fine deposits of gold, the extraction of which, by the aid of simple mechanical con- trivances, affords employment to a large number of diggers, who can labour without incurring the hardships and privations which attend the occupations of miners in the more inland districts. The alluvial diggings at Collingwood were discovered in 1858 ; those of Otago in 1861; and in 1864 the gold fields near Hokitika proved a great attraction to the mining population of New Zealand. In Otago the gold drifts rest on the denuded surface of their parent rocks. The auriferous gravels in the western district on the other hand, as a general rule, rest on the surface of Tertiary rocks of marine origin, and they have a general distribution parallel to whatever was the western shore of the Island at the time of their deposit. The richest alluvial diggings in Westland usually occur in places very inaccessible for water supply, the streams having cut their channels much below the surface of the country, so that an organized system of irrigation is necessary to obtain the required amount of water for the gold-washing. The following is the composition of New Zealand gold as exported from various districts :- Melted gold from West Coast, Hokitika, Westland : Assay—Gold .9627 - Silver ... ... ... •0363 Copper ... ·0010 Melted gold from Thames District, Auckland : Assay-Gold •6565 Silver . •3390 Copper •0045 Refined gold, as extracted by the chlorine refining process, and as exported by the Bank of New Zealand, Auckland : Assay-Gold ... ... ... .9942 Silver ... ... ... •0058 The total quantity of gold entered for exportation from New Zealand up to the 31st December, 1881, amounted to 9,822,755 oz., valued at £38,461,423. ECONOMIC MINERALS. SILVER AND SILVER ORES. "The silver exported from the colony has been chiefly extracted from the gold obtained at the Thames, which is alloyed with about 30 per cent. of the less valuable metal. Within the last few years, however, several mines have been opened where the ore is argentiferous galena that yields 20 oz. to 50 oz. of silver to the ton. In some cases the galena is mixed with iron- pyrites that yields a fair percentage of gold. A mine was formerly opened in Nelson, at Richmond Hill, where the ore is a form of tetrahedrite, a mixed ore, containing silver, antimony, zinc, bismuth, and copper, the silver being at the rate of from 20 oz. to 1,792 oz. per ton. The following is an analysis of the ore, which has been called Richmondite, after the locality in which it is found : Sulphide of lead 36.12 antimony 22:20 bismuth ... traces copper 19:31 iron 13:59 zinc 5.87 , silver ... 2:39 • Oxide of manganese ... ... •52 The total quantity of silver entered for exportation from New Zealand from the year 1869, when it was first exported, up to the 31st December, 1881, amounted to 377,471 oz., valued at £99,469. IRON ORES. No iron mines are at present worked, though almost every known variety of iron ore has been discovered in the country; the workings. being limited to the black sands, which occur plentifully on the coasts. There are also few soils or stream-gravels that will not yield a con- siderable quantity when washed. The chief deposits are, however, on the sea-shore of the west coast of both Islands, the best known being that at Taranaki. . Several companies have been formed both in England and the colony to manufacture steel direct from this ironsand. They have not, however, succeeded, but a partial success was attained by smelting, in furnaces, bricks formed of the ore with calcareous clay and car- bonaceous matter, and recently the sand has been treated by a continuous cementation process that produces puddled blooms. It remains to be proved, however, if it can be profitably treated in large quantities by this or any other process. NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. Brown Hematite Ore. At Parapara, Nelson, immense quantities of brown hæmatite ore occur on the surface of the ground. Some of this was converted into iron at Melbourne in 1873, and gave, on analysis, Iron ... 97.668 Manganese .268 Carbon combined. •542 „ free (graphite) •208 Silicon, with titanium traces 1.004 Phosphorus •041 Sulphur ... •269 100.000 This iron had the following characters : Colour uniform, approaching white; structure homogeneous, and finely granular, hard, brittle. It is therefore the variety called white iron. A further valuable deposit of brown hæmatite has been discovered by an officer of the Geological Survey Department on the west side of Mount Peel, where the deposit is about 60 feet thick. The ore contains 56 per cent. of metallic iron, and has been traced for a distance of three miles, beyond which point it is reported to swell out to as much as a mile in width. The following are the chief localities in which iron ore is found : Specular Iron Ore.—Dun Mountain, Nelson. Occurs in irregular veins in greenstone rocks; contains 63 per cent. of metallic iron. Specular Iron Ore.--Maori Point, Shotover, Otago. A 6-foot vein in mica-schist, equally rich with the above ; extent unknown. Compact Iron Ore.-D'Urville Island, Nelson. Vein, thickness "unknown, in diorite slate, with serpentine and chrome; yields 63 per cent. of iron. Magnetic Iron Ore. This valuable ore, though occurring chiefly as black sand, is found in several parts of the colony in the massive form. · Magnetic Iron Ore.—Dun Mountain, Nelson. In a vein 16 inches thick in serpentinous slates. Magnetic Iron Ore.Wakatipu Lake, Otago. In a vein in mica- schists. Magnetic Iron Ore.-Maramarua, Frith of Thames. From a vein in ferriferous slates; contains only oxides of titanium and manganese, Black Ironsand. From beach at Taranaki. ECONOMIC MINERALS. 53 Iron-band Ore.-Contains 70 per cent. of iron. Occurs at Wyndham River, Otago, and Manukau, Auckland; formed by black- sand layers becoming cemented with hæmatite. This would be a most valuable ore if obtained in large quantities. Brown Hematite, or hydrous oxide, also occurs in Amuri in great quantity. Reniform Iron Ore, Mongonui. Bog Iron Ore.—Spring Swamp, Auckland. Forms thick layers at the bottom of swamps. Though rich in iron, the ore is inferior on account of the sulphur and phosphorus it usually contains. Hematite.-An analysis of this ore, from Raglan, gave Sesquioxide of iron ... 72.69 Oxide of manganese ... •S1 Alumina ... Magnesia ... ... •69 Lime ... •58 Phosphoric acid not estimated Sulphide of iron ... .11 Hygroscopic water 4:61 Constitutional water ... 13:02 Silicates undecomposed by acids ... 2:02 :::::: ... 5.97 100.00 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK.. IRONSANDS OF NEW ZEALAND. pe Locality. Matrix whence probably derived. Magnetite. Hæmatite. Titanite. Percer of Iron. Other Minerals present. 9:4 4.2.3 Upper Buller River, Nelson Lower Buller River, Nelson Upper Molyneux River, Otago Lower Molyneux River, Otago Hornblende rocks Tertiary gold-drift of diorite slate ... Mica-schist Mica-schist and Tertiary strata ... 87.5 54:0 82:7 744 9.7 25 37.2 10:5 928 7:6 :::::: 62:7 86:1 2:2 80.0 9:8 63.5 778 71.5 79.8 70.9 8.0 16 20:1 8:2 Mountain stream, Canterbury Palæozoic slates... Mountain stream, Otago ... Palæozoic slates... Tuapeka, Otago ... Old gold drift ... Wakatipu, Otago ... Mica-schist Mataura River (Upper) Diorite slate Mataura River Old gold drift ... Stewart Island Granitic rocks with greenstone dykes Stewart Island Hornblende rocks Anatoke, Nelson .... Granite and hornblende ... Mahinapua Lake (old channel of Hoki- River drift from diorite rocks ... tika) Sea-beach, Hokitika Sea-sand drift Motueka River, Nelson Tertiary strata and granite Wairau River, Marlborough Tertiary strata and granite-schist Wanganui River, Nelson ... Granite and Tertiary Saddle Hill, Otago Basaltic Green Island, Otago Basaltic or sea-beach Hooper Inlet Basaltic or sea-beach West Bluff, Southland, Foveaux Strait Diorite or sea-beach D'Urville Island, Nelson Diabase and granite Taranaki beach Trachyte Taranaki beach Trachyte sands :- The following tabular statement gives a particular account of iron. Ironsands. 3:41 70.2 59.0 Auriferous. 65.9 Auriferous. 58.7 | Auriferous and with 12 per cent. of glauconite, 66.2 58:5 Auriferous. 638 Auriferous. 52.9 Auriferous. 41.2 606 57.3 Auriferous. 70:1 Auriferous. 60.2 Auriferous. 29:1 | Auriferous, with gar- nets, topaz, dis. thene, &c. Auriferous. 42:0 Auriferous. 38:9 Auriferous. 43.2 Auriferous. 52:9 50:3 53.0 28:6 Auriferous and pla: tiniferous. 57.4 Chrome iron. 70:1 56:1 Olivine and horn. blende. 68.0 58:0 54:0 : 75.0 33.0 21.0 54:0 58:3 53:3 20.0 12:2 32:5 48:4 13:0 | 25.6 29.6 742 40:6 78:6 91:9 71:0 Tauranga beach Trachyte ECONOMIC MINERALS. 55 The composition of the chief massive ores of iron may be illus- trated by the following analyses :- MASSIVE IRON ORES, OXIDES, AND TITANITES. Centesimal Composition. Variety. Locality. Magnetite. Hæmatite. Titanic Iron. Siliceous Matters. Percentage of Iron, Water, 90.62 traces Impure magnetite Manukau, Auckland ... 60.20 37.90 traces 1.90 70.06 Magnetite Dunstan Gorge, Otago 86:32 traces 13.68 63.60 Hæmatite . ... Dunstan, Otago ... 96:11 3.89 68:30 Magnetite Dun Mountain, Nelson 7.60 63.40 Mixed magnetite | Maramarua, Auckland 2.24 87.10 10.66 62:30 and hæmatite Bog iron ore ... Spring Swamp, Auck- 73:17 13.83 13.00 51.22 land Brown iron ore... | Raglan 72:69 9.68 1760 50.88 Brown iron ore* Kawau 67.98 19.65 12:37 47.58 Hydrous hæma- Parapara, Nelson ... 62.68 24:08 13:24 43.87 titet Hydrous hæma- Mount Pee , Nelson ... 56:00 tite * Manganese oxide, 1.38. Contains a little manganese. Spathic Iron Ore.—This occurs in considerable quantity in the Collingwood District, in most cases more or less oxidized ; one form of this ore known as black-band is one of the most valuable kinds known, and alternates with the coal-seams in Collingwood. A specimen of a siliceous and spathic iron ore from Otamataura Gully is constituted approximately as follows:- Carbonate of iron 56.9 Carbonate of lime and magnesia 2:8 Siliceous matters ... 40:3 100.0 The iron amounts to about 27 per cent. Other large deposits of spathic iron ore have been found at Foote's Coal Mine at the Miranda Redoubt, and Jenkins's Coal Mine, Nelson. They contain 40 per cent. and 41 per cent. of iron respectively. BLACK-BANDS, OR SPATHIC IRON ORES. Variety. Locality. Protoxide of Iron. Sesqui. oxide of Iron. Carbonic Acid. Per- Silicates. centage of Iron, 35.23 40:38 Collingwood, Nelson ... Collingwood, Nelson ... Miranda, Auckland Jenkins's Mine, Nelson ... 25•77 5.26 21:12 21:97 Black-band ... Black-band ... Spathic Spathic 3:93 16.69 | 46:06 35:12 40:08 41 00 NEŇ ZEALAND HANDBOOK. ANALYSIS OF Two SPECIMENS. Spathic Iron Ores. Malvern Hills. Collingwood 51.2 •8 :::: 3 Protoxide of iron ... Sesquioxide of iron Oxide of magnesia Alumina... Magnesia Lime .. Silica ... Sulphuric acid Carbonic acid Phosphoric acid Sulphide of iron ... Water ... Organic matter ... Silicates undecomposed by acids 13.6 iiiii :::::::::::::: ::::::::::::: 35.23 25.77 1:00 2:11 1.94 .71 .90 traces 21.12 not determined .41 1.96 5.72 3.03 31.2 100.0 99.90 Hæmatite, containing about 40 per cent. of iron, occurs intermixed with quartz pebbles, in a stratum 100 feet thick exposed over several acres, at Parapara, Nelson, and from it an excellent paint is manu- factured, which, being a pure peroxide of iron, is the best preserva- tive for that metal. Wood coated with this paint is comparatively non-inflammable, and it is therefore much used in painting wooden buildings. CHROME ORE. This ore, which is a mixture of chromic iron and alumina, is chiefly associated with magnesian rock, resembling olivine in com- position, named Dunite by Dr. Hochstetter. It occurs in veins often 12 feet in thickness, and sometimes contains as much as 80 per cent. of chrome ore. This ore has been largely exported from Nelson, and is used for the manufacture of salts of chromic acid, possessing the pro- perties of brilliant dyes. The pure ore contains 50 per cent. of the chrome oxide, and is worth £11 to £20 per ton, according to the state of the market. COPPER ORE. Copper mines have been worked in Auckland on Great Barrier Island and Kawau Island, and to a small extent in Doubtless Bay. It has been found associated with the metamorphic rocks in Otago and at Waipori, where a 4-foot sulphide of copper (pyrites) lode exists. An attempt to trace this lode was made for a short time and then abandoned. ECONOMIC MINERALS. 57 A carbonate of copper is found in the same locality, but only in rolled fragments. Copper has also been found in the form of cuprite and copper- glance in the Dun Mountain, Nelson; and on D'Urville Island, at which latter place the ore has been traced to a depth of 100 feet, some of the better samples from this place yielding as much as 45 per cent. of copper. A lode of copper-pyrites mixed with pyrrhotine has also been dis- covered in Dusky Sound, Otago, and an attempt has been made to open up a mine at that place. An interesting occurrence of native copper disseminated as fine grains through a granular serpentinous rock should also be noted. The extent of the ore is as yet unknown, but it occurs in the serpen- tine mineral belt of Nelson. Cupreous iron ore in serpentine has been found at Dun Mountain. It is interesting from its being slightly auriferous. Copper-pyrites is present in a lode 3 to 5 feet thick in mica- schist, at Moke Creek, Wakatipu Lake: it is associated with carbonate and native copper. The ore contains the high proportion of 11 to 55 per cent. of metallic copper, the usual average of Cornish ore being only 5 per cent. There is limestone in close vicinity to the lode, so that there would be no difficulty in reducing the ore to a “regulus,” in which state it would save cost in shipment. Near Collingwood, Nelson, a lode has been opened up, and con- tains 22 to 25 per cent. of metallic copper. Grey sulphide, found at Wangapeka, Nelson, contains 55 per cent. of copper, together with a little silver and gold. In Kawau Island, Auckland, the lode first produced 16 per cent. of copper, and then fell off to 8 per cent, and at the bottom of the workings to about 5 per cent. The width of the lode was 8 feet. The workings were discontinued chiefly on account of the high price of coal consequent on gold discoveries. In Great Barrier Island the ore (pyrites) occurs in a quartz matrix. A fair sample cf the mixed specimen afforded 26:62 per cent. of copper. The Otea Copper-Mining Company worked this pyrites ore to a considerable extent. LEAD ORES. Lead occurs as galena in the District of Nelson, at Rangitoto Mountain in Westland, and also at the Thames Gold Field. It in- variably contains silver to a considerable amount. The following localities may be mentioned : Galena from Bedstead Gully, Collingwood, 58 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. Galena and zinc-blende from Parapara Valley. Argentiferous lead ore from Richmond Hill, Parapara; value £50 per ton. Galena, Wangapeka, Nelson. Sulphide of lead, with quartz that contains also sulphides of iron, and antimony with gold, in veins in felspathic schist. The galena contains 26 oz. of silver per ton, while the gold is only in those parts of the ore that contain iron-pyrites. Galena with zinc-blende, Perseverance Mine, Collingwood, Nelson. Occurs in a band, 2 to 5 feet thick, parallel with auriferous quartz veins; the galena and blende are both pure, but so intermixed in the lode that they could not be reduced separately. Zinc Ores. Zinc ore occurs at the Perseverance Mine, Collingwood, Nelson, and in small quantity in Tararua Creek, Thames, where it is found in white cement with auriferous veins. It contains 60 per cent. of metallic zinc, which is worth about £15 per ton. It is also found in the following localities :- Zinc-blende and galena from Bedstead Gully, Collingwood. Zinc as yellow or honey blende from Perseverance Mine, Colling- wood, Nelson. Zinc-blende with galena and pyrites, the former having about 4 oz. of silver and the latter about 5 oz. of gold per ton, Mount Rangitoto, Westland. ANTIMONY ORES. Stibnite lodes were discovered in 1873 near the coast of Queen Charlotte Sound, Marlborough, and proved to contain from 51:12 to 69:40 per cent. of antimony, the matrix being quartz. Similar lodes have been known for many years in the Shotover district, at Hindon, at Waipori, in the Carrick Mountains, and other places in Otago. A sulphide-of-antimony lode occurs some miles south of Colling- wood, containing no less than •757 per cent. of silver, which is equal to 185.88 troy ounces per ton. Besides these localities antimony ores are found at the Thames and at Reefton, associated with gold; and also at Langdon's Reef, near Greymouth. MANGANESE Ores. These ores are useful for generation of chlorine for bleaching pur- poses, also for calico-printing, &c. The values of these common ores are from £3 to £4 per ton, and the following classes of them have been found :- ECONOMIC MINERALS. 59 Rhodonite (silicate of manganese), at Dunstan, Otago, as rolled masses ; percentage of manganese about 40. Wad (hydrous oxide), at Port Hardy, D'Urville Island, Nelson ; percentage of manganese about 45. Braunite, or manganese oxide, on Malvern Hills, Canterbury. Ores are also found at Whangarei in Auckland, at Ohariu near Wellington, and in Napier; the latter contains 44 per cent. of. manganese oxide, the remainder being mostly clay. The same ore, although of better quality, is at present being suc- cessfully worked in the Bay of Islands. The shipments for the year 1879 amounted to 2,140 tons, valued at £8,338. In 1881 the ship- ments were 1,271 tons, valued at £3,283. MINERAL Oils. In 1866 attention was first directed to the occurrence in the colony of petroleum, and some very fine oils have since then been found. There are three principal localities, and these produce each a distinct kind of oil :- 1. The Sugarloaves, in the Taranaki Provincial District. 2. Poverty Bay, on the east coast of the Provincial District of Auckland. 3. Manutahi, Waiapu, East Cape. The oil from the first has a very high specific gravity, .960 to .964 at 60° Fahr. (water at 1). It has thus too much carbon in its com- position for its commercial success as an illuminating oil, but is capable of affording a valuable lubricating oil. It resembles oil occurring in Santa Barbara County, California. The second kind, from Waiapu, Poverty Bay, is a true paraffin oil resembling the Canadian oil. By three successive distillations, and treatment with acids and alkalies, about 65 per cent. of a good illu- minating oil is obtainable, with a specific gravity of .843. The third produces a pale-brown oil, nearly or quite transparent, specific gravity •829 at 60° Fahr.; burns well in a kerosene lamp for some time, and is therefore of a very superior class; it contains only traces of paraffin, and produces 84 per cent. of an illuminating oil, fit for use in kerosene lamps, by means of a single distillation. By two more distillations 66 per cent. of the crude oil has a specific gravity of ·811, which is that of common kerosene. At Sugarloaf Point, Taranaki, the petroleum (rock oil) oozes from cracks in trachyte-breccia. Wells have been bored to the depth of many hundred feet, but no steady supply of oil has been obtaineda 60 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. The crude oil has a specific gravity of .962 at 60° Fahr., and yields, by fractional distillation, oils having the following gravities :- 2:0 per cent. of oil of specific gravity •874 10:0 .893 8:0 .917 60.0 941 80:0 total distilled off. 6:1 solid bitumen. 12:4 fixed carbon. 1:5 ash. 100.0 The following is an analysis of the petroleum found at Waipaoa River, Poverty Bay, Auckland :- 2:00 per cent. of oil, specific gravity.809 (colourless). 16:00 •826 (nearly colourless). 16:00 » 836 (pale yellow). 19:00 850 (dark yellow). 11:00 •855 (brown, solid at 40° Fahr.) 8:00 .864 21.25 paraffin oil. 93.25 total distilled off, 6.75 residue in retort, pitch. 100.00 At Waiapu, East Coast, Auckland District, the crude oil has specific gravity of •872 at 58° Fahr. ; boiling point, 290° Fahr.; flash- ing point, 230° Fahr. A sample with a specific gravity of 8294 gives— 40.00 per cent. of oil, specific gravity •800 (colourless). 33:00 •826 (pale-coloured oil). 12:50 .840 6•25 .860 4.25 .870 96.00 total distilled off. 4:00 residue in retort. CA 100.00 ECONOMIC MINERALS Another analysis yielded- 11.20 per cent., specific gravity •820 (fine lamp-oil). 37.75 853 (inferior lamp-oil). 26.69 (lubricating oil). . 16:00 (paraffin). 91.64 total distilled off. 8:36 bituminous residue. 100.00 OIL SHALES. Petroleum Oil Shales.-Pyroschist, or bituminous shale, occurs to a small extent in the upper portion of the coal formation Specimens have been examined from D'Urville Island, in Cook Strait; Mongonui and Waiapu, in Auckland; Kaikorai and Blueskin, in Otago. A good variety of oil-producing shale is obtained from the Chatham Islands, but it contains traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. These shales have been distilled for oil, those from Mongonui and the Chatham Islands producing the following excellent results :- Centesimal Composition. Relative Locality. Percentage Volatile Matters. Carbon, Water. Sulphur, Relative Percentage of Fixed Carbon. Volatile Matter. D'Urville Island Mongonui ... Chatham Island Chatham Island 81.79 7.98 75.20 9.30 66.43 20:41 64:67 19:87 .69 1.80 4.61 7:13 9.54 13.70 | 8:55 8:33 traces traces traces traces 91:11 88.99 76.49 76.49 8.89 11:01 23:51 23:51 GRAPHITE. The mineralized substance known as graphite-plumbago-black lead-consists of carbon in mechanical admixture with siliceous matter, as clay, sand, or limestone, and in varying proportions, and is the ultimate product of vegetable remains, mineralized to the highest degree. It has been found at Pakawau; in the vicinity of Wellington ; and in the pure state embedded in marbles from the West Coast. The pure amorphous variety is used for the manufacture of pencils, and for lubricants for machinery, while the impure siliceous or argillaceous graphites find extensive employment in the manufacture of crucibles, and for polishing material for ironwork. Graphite of the first quality has not been found yet in any quantity in New Zealand, but there is an abundance of the less pure 162 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. varieties. It has been found in greater quantity in the District of Nelson than elsewhere, but still many other localities yield this mineral in various states of purity, as at Malvern Hills, Canterbury, and Dunstan, Otago, where it is of fair average quality. A valuable sample of graphite has lately been reported from Waiokura Creek, Waimate, although the mineral has not yet been found in sitú. The following are analyses of two samples :- . a. 6. Fixed carbon ... ... 86.9 92.5 Volatile matter .. ... 6.6 ... 45 Ash 6:5 3:0 100.0 100·0. This specimen is of a very homogeneous character, and if, as is probable, large bands should be found, the discovery may prove of great value. The colour of the ash is reddish-white. BUILDING STONES, ETC. Abundant supplies of excellent stones for roads and building purposes are found in every part of New Zealand. The varieties useful as such may be divided into 1. Basalts and diorites; 2. Trachytes, granites, and crystalline schists ; 3. Limestones (freestones in part); 4. Sandstones (freestones). Basalts, locally called “bluestones,” occur of a quality useful for road-metal, house-blocks, and ordinary rubble masonry. They are found partly underlying and partly overlying the Tertiary rocks, inter- stratified with tufaceous clays and local beds of altered volcanic ash. In the North Island these volcanic rocks are largely developed, and include some of very recent date. True lavas and scorias are of frequent occurrence in the northern part of the Island. The latter have been quarried by the prisoners at Mount Eden, Auckland; their colour is dark-grey, and though absorbent they are very hard and coherent. In the South Island, on the other hand, the igneous rocks appear to be of much earlier date, and to have been nearly all of submarine origin. They are principally confined to the eastern seaboard, only rarely occurring at a greater distance than forty miles from the coast. The Halswell quarries, Canterbury, produce an exceedingly hard and close-grained stone of a dull leaden-grey colour ; but its excessive hardness will necessarily limit its usefulness. 64 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. stone, more suitable for architectural and monumental work than the former, At Seal Island a fine grey granite vein occurs, having a smooth grain. Granite rocks occur in detached areas in the Westland District, but not in accessible situations, being very different in that respect from those occurring on the south-west coast, where they admit of being quarried and shipped with great facility. At Astrolabe Island, and Tonga Harbour on the west shore of Blind Bay, is probably the easiest place from which granite could be quarried. It is there of fine quality, and can be quarried out in masses suitable for kerbing and harbour works. A variety with garnets is found at Metal Mountain, Milford Sound. Crystalline Schists.-Gneiss of equally good quality with the granite from the south-west coast is to be found in many other inlets, and on the north shore of Milford Sound there is one point where there is an immense accumulation of blocks of a grey variety mottled with crystals of garnet, and of all sizes and shapes, lying as if ready for shipment. Other localities are “ Connecting Arm” and Anchor Harbour. Marble.-The purest form of this series is found in many localities in the South Island ; statuary marble occurs among the gneiss and hornblende schists of the West Coast. The grain of most samples hitherto found is rather coarse, but closer-grained kinds exist in Caswell Sound, where a quarry has been opened, and also in the Mount Arthur district of Nelson. Granular or crystalline and subcrystalline limestones of every shade and colour, texture and hardness, occur plentifully, chiefly in the South Island. Extensive masses of the harder compact kinds occur in the Upper Palæozoic formations. They are generally speaking of a blue colour and unfossiliferous. One mass or stratum occurs in the slates of the Kakanui Range; it is several hundred feet thick, with an outcrop of five miles in length, and is probably the best in the District of Otago. A great variety of excellent limestones suitable for building stones might be obtained from the Horse Range (Shag Valley side); at Twelve-Mile Creek, on Lake Wakatipu; Malvern Hills, Canterbury; and Hokanui Hills, Southland. In the latter district a very fine kind is obtainable, very slightly coloured ; it belongs to the Cretaceo- tertiary series, A white granular limestone called the Oamaru stone is worked in extensive quarries in the Oamaru district; but it occupies a large tract of the country in the north part of Otago and throughout Canterbury, ECONOMIC MINERALS. 67 in England and France for manufacture in Roman cement are added for the sake of comparison :- New Zealand. England. France. Constituents. Moeraki. Amuri. Sheppey. Boulogne. (1.) 72:4 (2.) 50.8 (3.) 68.6 1.7 69.0 63.9 56 6.5 Carbonate of lime ... Carbonate of magnesia .. Alumina and iron oxides Soluble silica ... Sand and clay ... Water... 10-5 (4.) 54.9 1.5 6:4 1:0 31.9 1.2 12.3 87 .8 17.8 1.0 31.2 18.0 15:0 41.6 1:1 1.3 6 Materials for Portland Cement. The manufacture of Portland cement might be made an important industry in New Zealand, excellent chalk and lime and non-ferrugi- nous clay being obtainable. The Italian pozzuolana might be imitated also, as there are ex- tensive deposits of volcanic tufas occurring in the North and South Islands. Those volcanic sands would require then to be ground up with an admixture of lime, making, when correctly proportioned, an excellent hydraulic mortar. In Auckland an artificial cement is largely in use, prepared from hydraulic lime from the Tertiary strata at Mahurangi, which, when properly mixed with scoria dust, forms a most valuable cement for concrete buildings, and also for submarine walls and docks. BRICKS. The materials for brick-making are plentiful throughout the country. The clays are admirably adapted for the manufacture of the best kinds, and when properly weathered and tempered by mixing the clay into a perfectly homogeneous mass, and thoroughly burnt, the bricks are equal to any of British manufacture. POTTERY. The success of the pottery works that have been established at Tokomairiro, also at Christchurch and other places, has proved the adaptability of the fireclays and pottery clays of the colony for the best kinds of fire-bricks, drain-pipes, chimney-pots, tiles, and all kinds of pottery, porcelain, and terra-cotta goods. NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. CLIMATE. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. Meteorological observations have been made ever since the founding of the colony, though at first they were of an irregular character, and only with the view of comparing the climate of New Zealand with that of other countries. From 1833 meteorological reports appear regularly appended to the Registrar-General's statistics ; but it was not until 1859 that systematic observations were undertaken by a department established by Government. In that year eleven stations, equipped with carefully-compared instruments, were established at Mongonui, Auckland, Napier, New Plymouth, and Wellington, in the North Island ; Nelson, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill, and some years later at Hokitika and Bealey, in the South Island. At a later date several new stations were established, making in all fifteen stations, from which monthly returns were sent to the head office in Wellington. Since then the number of chief stations has been reduced to three, and the number of secondary stations has been increased. From these the following returns are prepared for publication :- I. A provisional return obtained by telegraph of the results at the chief towns, which is appended to the monthly report of vital statistics. II. An abstract of the results for each month, compared with. the averages for the same month in previous years, is published in the Gazette and circulated in a separate form to all correspondents. These abstracts are intended for the guidance of agriculturalists and other persons who require to watch the peculiarities of each season closely. III. Tabular abstracts, in the same form that has been followed since 1853, are prepared for the annual volume of statistics. IV. A biennial report on the climate, embodying all the most interesting results, is published in octavo pamphlet form and largely circulated. In addition to the above, daily telegraphic reports of the weather are obtained at 9 a.m. from twenty-five stations, and are exhibited for public information at all the shipping ports in the colony. Since 1874 this branch has been placed under the charge of a special signal officer, who issues warnings of the probable approach of storms to the different seaports. An intercolonial weather exchange has also been organized, and CLIMATE. 69 reports are received from different parts of Australia every day, and published in the form of a diagram in the leading newspapers throughout the colony. The following tables embody the averages which have been ascertained for the different elements of the climate of New Zealand. TEMPERATURE. The climate resembles that of Great Britain, but is more equable, the extremes of daily temperature only varying throughout the year by an average of 20°, whilst London is 7º colder than the North and 4° colder than the South Island of New Zealand. The mean annual temperature of the North Island is 57°, and of the South Island 52°, that of London and New York being 51°. The mean annual temperature of the different seasons for the whole colony is, in spring 55°, in summer 63º, in autumn 57°, and in winter 48º. COMPARATIVE TEMPERATURES OF NEW ZEALAND. I. GENERAL ABSTRACT. Yearly Means. Stations. Long. E. from Greenwich. Number of Years of Observation. Difference of the Coldest and Warmest Months. S. Lat. Yearly Fluctuation. Year. Summer. Winter. Autumn. Spring Max. Min. 35 1 36 50 39 4 39 29 41 16 39 56 173 28 174 51 174 5 176 55 174 47 175 6 20 14 59.90 | 53.06 ) 58.28 59:54 | 52:34 57:56 57.56 50.90 55.94 57:56 49.10 57.74 55.58 48.74 54:50 55.90 48.71 53:31 66.56 | 61.52 | 15.12 66.92 61.16 | 16:02 64.58 58.82 15.66 66.20 57:02 19.26 62.24 56.66 14.76 63:31 57:12 16.70 89.10 88.52 86.90 90.00 78.44 86 00 31.82 33.26 30.02 32.10 32:18 29.00 57.28 55.26 56.88 59.90 46.26 55.00 14 North Island. Mongonui Auckland Taranaki Napier Wellington Wanganui South Island. Nelson Hokitika : Bealey* Christchurch Dunedint nvercargill Queenstownt 41 16 42 42 10 432 42 33 173 19 170 59 171 31 172 39 170 31 168 20 165 39 54.86 46.58 54:50 52:34 | 45.50 51.62 46 76 | 37.40 46:04 52.88 | 43.52 53.24 50.72 | 43.52 50-54 50-36 42.26 51.26 51:01 | 40.01 | 50.92 62.78 55 76 17.10 82 04 59:18 53.06 14.76 7412 54.86 48:56 18.18 78.08 61.52 53.60 18.72 | 88 16 57 20 51.80 15.30 84.74 58.10 50.00 16.92 83.8+ 64.02 52:31 | 21.25 84.60 27.32 28:22 | 12:38 25.16 29.84 | 20.12 23.21 54.72 45.90 65.70 63.00 54.90 63.72 61.39 45 52 46 17 45 2 14 3 * Height above sea, 2,104 feet. † Height above sea, 550 feet. Height above sea, 1,070 feet. II. DAILY RANGE of TEMPERATURE. Difference of the Mean Daily Extremes. Stations. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Nov. Year. North Island. Mongonui Auckland Taranaki Napier Wellington 15.48 16.74 | 15 30 19 08 | 18:18 16.92 15.30 15.66 16.92 16.02 14.58 16.74 1890 19.80 20.88 19.80 19.08 16.92 15:30 15.48 16.74 15.84 16.56 18.00 19.62 21.60 20.16 21:42 19:44 | 15.84 15.30 14:40 16:56 18.00 16.7+ |18:54 18.72 21.60 21.78 17.82 15:12 14.94 13.86 15.30 15.12 18.00 | 18:18 1908 13:32 13.50 12.42 12-42 11.70 11.16 10.62 10.62 | 1152 | 11.88 12 241350 16:38 17.82 18:18 1746 12.06 South Island. Nelson Hokitika Christchurch Dunedin Invercargill 20-34 23.40 20702124 17:10 17·82 19.08 19:08 19•62 21.06 21:42 22:14 | 20:16 11:34 11:16 13:32 12.60 12.78 13.86 14:58 13.68 14.76 16.66 12 2+ 1152 13.14 17:10 18:36 16:56 17:46 17:10 16:38 14.94 1656 16.02 16.20 1854 19.08 17.10 16.20 15.66 15.66 15.12 13.68 1:52 | 10.44 1062 | 12.06 | 13:32 13.68 | 15:30 13.88 22:50 | 21•78 22:50 | 22.68 | 1800 | 16.02 17.64 / 16.92 | 19:44 22.32 21:06 20.16 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. COMPARISON BETWEEN CLIMATE ON EAST AND West Coasts. The climate on the west coast of both Islands is more equable: than on the east, the difference between the average summer and winter temperature being nearly four degrees greater on the south-east portion of the North Island, and seven degrees on that of the South Island, than on the north-west, on which the equatorial winds impinge. This constant wind is the most important feature in the meteorology of New Zealand, and is rendered more striking by com- paring the annual fluctuation of temperature on the opposite sea- boards of the South Island, which have a greater range of temperature by eighteen degrees at Christchurch on the east than at Hokitika on the west. RAINFALL. I. REVIEW of the PROPORTIONS of Rain in NEW ZEALAND. Rainfall. Probability of Rain. Stations. Winter. Spring. Summer. Autumn, Total for Year. Winter. Spring. Summer. Mean Max.in 24 Hours. Autumn. Percentage. | 24 | 23 117 Inches. 58.132 0.66 47.008 0:61 59:442 0:52 36:004 | 0.26 51.542 0:51 0.50 0:52 0:51 0:22 0:43 0:33 0:33 0:35 0:24 0:37 0.39 0:47 0:41 0:47 0:38 10:44 0:17 | 0:22 0:40 0:43 3.500 3:358 2:520 2.610 N. Island. Mongonui ... Auckland ... Taranaki Napier ... Wellington S. Išland. Nelson ... Hokitika Bealey Christchurch Dunedin ... Southland ... ... 61.599 111.653 105.340 25.536 31.682 49.732 0:27 0:52 0:53 0:36 0:51 0:47 0:25 0.61 0.61 0:33 0:55 0:47 0:22 0:57 0:56 0.28 0:58 0:40 0:18 0:48 0:47 0:24 0:54 0:23 0:54 0:54 0:30 0:54 0:46 7.189 3.532 3512 1.622 2:079 1.130 0:49 II. Totals of Monthly RAINFALL in INCHES. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Stations. Dec Jan. N. Island. Mongonui ... | 2:339 3.209 7.787 1:492 2:8825.461 8:319 6.598 62415.831 3•701 4:272 Auckland ... 3:409 2.071 3•272 3.150 3.402 4:771 5-721 5279 4:331 4:331 3.520 3.752 Taranaki ... 4:921 3.221 3.908 2.579 3.52017.72015 914 6.299 5:177 5.252 5.969 4:858 Napier 5:630 3:571 3.650 1.1301:358 1:532 3:402 3.6816.870 2:414 1.539 1.201 Wellington 3.999 3.882 4:453 3.780 3.280 4:5405.212 5.658 4.2993-941 5.000 3 500 S. Island. Nelson ... 4:319 5.358 8.331 2:063 3.2215.177 4 441 6.3196.2336.319 5.000 4:815 Hokitika ... 12:169 8:902 9.871 6:752 8:611 6:370 8.240 9.6389:130 5.878 13:402 12.690 Bealey ... 14:0871 9:681) 8:902 3:9217.4338:079|5:019 10:3787-7995811|15.501 8.733 Christchurch 1.622 2:311 2:370 1.7521.8112:280 3189 2:449 2:3191.161 2:142 2.130 Dunedin ... 3.012 3.599 2.142 2:220 21223.949/2.441 2.500 2.2282.000 2.500 2:969 Southland ... 3.622 5:279 3.921 3.980 3.5715.4015.019 3:441 4:390 2:661) 3.929 4:520 716 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. STATISTICS. Census Results, 1881. The Colony of New Zealand was founded in 1839. Since that period the census has been taken nine times. While seven years elapsed between the first and second census, the succeeding enumera- tions were taken at intervals of about three years. Population. The following table exhibits the population, exclusive of the abori- gines, when each census was taken :- Population. Date of Enumeration. Centesimal Increase. Number of Inhabited Houses. Persons. Males. Females. December, 1851 ... December 24, 1858 December, 1861 December, 1864 December, 1867 February, 1871 March 1, 1874 March 3, 1878 April 3, 1881 Increase from 1871 to 1881 26,707 59,413 99,021 172,158 218,668 266,986 341,860 414,412 489,933 15,035 33,679 61,062 106,580 131,929 156,431 194,349 230,998 269,605 11,672 25,734 37,959 65,578 86,739 110,555 147,511 183,414 220,328 122:46 39.99 73.86 27.01 17.25 16.82 38:36 18:22 83.51 12,812 22,398 37,996 54,015 57,182 61,356 79,657 92,833 In the above numbers the military and their families have not been included, as they did not constitute a portion of the settled population of the colony, and have now been all removed. Nationalities. The nationalities composing the above population on the 3rd April, .1881, were as follow :- English and Welsh 121,187 Scotch 52,753 Irish 49,363 Australian 17,277 New-Zealand-born (white) 223,404 Other British possessions 5,339 Foreign Uncertain 833 :::: 19,777 489,933 Proportion between the Sexes. In March, 1878, 1.. ere were 79.40 females to every 100 males, but in that proportion the Chinese people were included, but, as they do not come to the colony with a view to permanent settlement, and do not bring their women with them, a juster estimate of the general 78 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. number and description of the dwellings containing respectively one or two rooms, three or four rooms, and five or more rooms :- Number of Inhabited Dwellings containing Total Number of Inhabited Dwellings, including Tents. One or Two Rooms, including Tents. Three or Four Rooms. Five or more Rooms. Number o Rooms not stated. 1881 1878 1874 95,750 82,588 61,356 24,835 24,034 19,612 35,064 29,223 21,027 34,682 27,616 19,679 1,169 1,715 1,038 » » 2 4 18 20 29 » » In addition to the 95,750 inhabited dwellings, there were 6,737 unoccupied dwellings and 848 dwelling-houses that were being built. Of this total of 103,335 dwellings, 4,062 were built of brick or stone, 87,646 of wood and iron, 2,482 of sod or similar material, 370 of raupo (viz., a framework thatched with raupo or bulrush), 2,207 were described as huts of sod, clay, wood, or stone, and 2,917 were tents or dwellings with canvas roofs. The materials of 1,350 dwellings were not specified. Comparative Populations of Cities and Towns. There were, in 1881, 169 defined boroughs or towns. Of these, 2 contained .... upwards of 20,000 15,000 to 20,000 5,000 ,, 10,000 2,000, 5,000 1,000, 2,000 500 ,, 1,000 40 , 100, 500 The following are some of the principal towns with their popula- tion in 1881. As the population of Dunedin, Christchurch, and Auckland cannot fairly be estimated without taking the suburbs into account, these have also been included :- Names and Population of Principal Cities and Towns, including Suburbs. Dunedin and suburbs ... 42,794 | Lyttelton 4,127 Auckland and suburbs 30,952 Timaru 3,917 Christchurch and suburbs 30,715 New Plymouth 3,310 Wellington 20,563 Hokitika 2,600 Nelson 6,764 Greymouth 2,544 Oamaru 5,791 Masterton 2,241 Napier 5,756 Onehunga 2,217 Thames 4,863 Port Chalmers 2,181 Wanganui 4,646 Blenheim 2,107 Invercargill ... 4,5961 ::::: : : : : : :: STATISTICS. 79 Ages of the People. Of the 489,933 persons enumerated on the 3rd April, 1881, 9,209 males and 8,745 females were infants under the age of one year. There were, including these infants, 82,289 under five years of age, viz., 41,636 males and 40,653 females. The numbers at the ages usually recognized as the school ages, i.e., five and under fifteen years, amounted to 125,537, viz., 63,180 boys and 62,357 girls. The total number under fifteen years of age was thus 207,746, viz., 104,816 males and 103,010 females. There were 25,225 youths and 25,723 young women, or a total of 50,948 persons at the ages of fifteen to twenty-one. Thus, while during the first year of age there were 100 males to 94.96 females, there were 100 males under twenty-one years of age to 98.99 females at the same age. The children under five years of age amounted to 16.84 per cent. of the population, the children of five and under fifteen years amounted to 25:69 per cent., and the young persons of fifteen and under twenty-one years of age amounted to 10:43 per cent., the total number of persons under twenty-one years of age amounting to 52.82 per cent. of the popula- tion. The total number of persons of twenty-one years and under forty was 141,769, viz., 82,349 males and 59,420 females. The persons of forty years of age and under sixty-five numbered 81,163, viz., 52,288 males and 28,875 females. The number at sixty-five years of age and upwards amounted to 6,895, 3,957 being males and 2,938 females. There were 544 persons, viz., 306 males and 238 females, between cighty and ninety years of age, 12 males and 16 females between ninety and ninety-three years of age, 4 males and 6 females between ninety-three and ninety-seven years of age, 2 males between ninety-seven and one hundred, and 2 males between one hundred and four and one hundred and five years of age. GENERAL SUMMARY OF AGES OF POPULATION. TABLE showing the NUMBER OF PERSONS, Males and FEMALES (exclusive of Maoris), living at Three Periods of ages. NUMBERS. Persons. Males. Females. All ages Specified ages 489,933 488,601 269,605 268,635 220,328 219,966 Up to twenty years From twenty to sixty years Over sixty years Unspecified ... 250,435 224,932 13,234 1,332 125,876 134,993 7,766 970 124,559 89,939 5,468 362 80 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK, The Chinese included in the above numbers amounted to 5,004 persons, viz., 4,995 males and 9 females. Religions. Out of a population of 489,933, the persons who objected to state their religious belief amounted to 13,978. No entry was made in the column for “Religion” in the household schedules opposite the names of 1,329 persons. The following table gives a summary of the numbers of each religious denomination :- Religious Denomination. Persons. Males. Females. 203,333 111,653 91,680 Church of England, and Protestants not otherwise defined Presbyterians Methodists, &c. Baptists ... Congregational Independents ... Lutherans ... Unitarians ... Society of Friends ... Roman Catholics, and Catholics undefined Hebrews ... Pagans Otherwise described ... Undescribed Objecting to state their religion 113,108 46,657 11,476 6,699 5,773 489 51,565 22,812 5,691 3,250 2,070 158 232 61,543 23,845 5,785 3,449 3,703 331 153 36,963 844 4,931 6,707 950 8,748 79 : 68,984 1,536 4,936 11,403 1,329 13,978 32,021 692 5 4,696 379 5,230 : The Protestants of all denominations amounted to 387,767 ; the Catholics, including the Greek Church, to 69,039. Of the Protestant denominations, the members of the Church of England (including Protestants not otherwise defined) amounted to 203,333, or 41.50 per cent. of the population. The Presbyterians numbered 113,108, or 23:08 per cent., and the Methodists numbered 46,657, or 9:53 per cent. of the population. The Roman Catholics numbered 68,984, or 14:08 per cent. of the population. Of the principal denominations, the proportions to 100 of the population were respectively in 1878 and 1881 as follow :- 1878. 1881. Church of England 42:55 41:50 Presbyterians ... 22.95 23.08 Roman Catholics 14:21 14:08 Methodists ... 9:40 9:53 Of the smaller bodies, the Baptists increased from 9,159, or 2.21 per cent., to 11,476, or 2:34 per cent.; the Congregational Inde- pendents varied from 5,555, or 1:34 per cent., to 6,699, or 1.37 per cent.; the Lutherans from 5,613, or 1:36 per cent., to 5,773, or 1:18 : : : STATISTICS. - per cent.; and Hebrews from 1,424, or 0:34 per cent., to 1,536, or 0:31 per cent. Allegiance. The number of British subjects in the colony in 1881 amounted to 471,726, or 96.28 per cent. of the population whose allegiance could be ascertained. In this number were included all persons born in British possessions, all naturalized British subjects, persons having British names born at sea, and those whose birthplaces were not given, but who had British names. The foreign subjects amounted to 18,043, or 3:68 per cent. of the population, against 4:48 per cent. in 1878. Numbers born in the Colony. The persons in New Zealand in April, 1881, who were born in the colony numbered 223,101: of these, 112,404 were males, and 111,000 were females. The total amounted to 45.6 per cent. of the whole population. The number of New Zealand-born in 1878 was 174,126, or 42:02 per cent. of the whole population. There has thus been an increase since March, 1878, of 49,278, or 28:3 per cent., on the New Zealand-born population. The number of New Zealand-born in 1871 amounted to 122,635 persons. The increase, therefore, in the seven years was 100,769, or 82:16 per cent. The population as given does not include the Maoris. Numbers born outside the Colony. The Australian-born were 17,277 in 1881, an increase in the three years of 1,186, or 7:37 per cent. ; the English-born increased from 108,195 in 1878 to 121,187 in 1881, or 12 per cent.; the Scotch increased from 47,919 to 52,753, or 10:02 per cent.; the Irish increased from 43,758 to 49,363, or 12.8 per cent.; and foreigners increased from 18,505 to 19,777, or 6-87 per cent. Conjugal Condition of the People. In 1881, out of every 100 of the male population (excepting Chinese), 27:73 were married and 70:39 were single; and, of the female population, in every 100, 33:05 were married and 63.64 were single. The proportion of married males has thus decreased from 28:06 per cent. in 1878 to 27:73 per cent. in 1881, and the proportion of married females from 31:32 per cent. in 1878 to 33:05 per cent. in 1881. The decrease in the proportion of married persons is attri- butable to the increase in the number of persons under twenty-one years of age. The total population under twenty-one amounted in 1881 to 258,774 persons, or 52:82 per cent. of the whole population, STATISTICS. 83 show the proportions per cent. at the respective ages in England and New Zealand :- PROPORTION to 100 MARRIED WOMEN at the Ages Fifteen to Forty-five. Ages. England. New Zealand. Under 20 20 to 40 40 to 45 1:33 80:01 18.66 1874. 2:37 83.70 13.93 1878. 2:44 82:39 15:17 1881. 2:14 81.10 16.76 Year. Education of the People. The information required to be given on the household schedule was, as to the measure of education, limited to “Reading and writing," “Reading only,” or “Not able to read.” The Chinese have not been included in the tables relating to education. Only those Chinese who were able to read and write English were to be enumerated as able to read and write. Of the 5,004 Chinese in the colony, 102 males and 2 females were returned as being able to read and write, and 11 males and 1 female as being able to read only. Dealing with the population, exclusive of Maoris and Chinese, except for the census years previous to 1867, when the number of Chinese was not separately shown, it appears that in 1881 71:32 per cent. could read and write, 5.63 could read only, and 23:05 per cent, could not read. Percentage of Population able to read and write. Per cent. 1861 68.67 1864 72.70 1867 ... ... 71:35 1871 69.20 1874 68.15 1878 69.52 1881 ... 71:32 The rate having been lowest in 1874 is attributable to the fact that in the earlier periods the proportion of males from twenty- one to forty years of age was greater than in that year, and in 1874 the proportion of children under ten years of age was greater than in the preceding years; the proportions in 1864 and 1874 respectively of persons of those ages having been to the whole popu- lation as follows: Under Ten Years. Twenty-one to Forty Years. Per cent. Per cent. 1864 ... 26:37 1864 ... ... 44:53 1874 ... ... 32:36 1874 ... ... 32.51 The percentage of females who could read and write was at each of the census periods considerably less than the percentage of males :: :::::: 84 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. : who could read and write. In 1881, while 73:31 per cent. of the males could read and write, only 6894 per cent. of the females could read and write. The percentage of females able to read and write was less at all quinquennial periods of age, except at the periods five to ten, ten to fifteen, and fifteen to twenty years, when it was slightly in excess of the similar percentage of the males. School Attendance. In 1881 87,811 children attended Government schools, against 62,866 in 1878; 13,538 attended private schools, against 14,611 in 1878; 78,891 attended Sunday-schools, against 62,273 in 1878; and 7,348 were receiving tuition at home, against 9,706 in 1878. The number of children at what is generally defined as the school-going age, five to fifteen, was 125,527, but the above numbers of those attending school also include children under five years and over fifteen who were attending school. While the population at five to fifteen years increased 19:27 per cent. between 1878 and 1881, the numbers attending school during the same period increased 3081 per cent. The proportion of child- ren attending school to the total number of children at the ages five to fifteen was 66 78 per cent. in 1874, 73•64 per cent. in 1878, and 80.76 per cent. in 1881. INDUSTRIES AND MANUFACTURES. NUMBER and DESCRIPTION of MANUFACTORIES, WORKS, &c., in operation in New Zealand, April, 1881. Approximate Approximate Number of Hands Establish-employed. ments. Value of Land and Buildings. Value of Machinery and Plant. 1,779 99,449 129,717 - టి 315 90 27,582 6,690 16,272 6,703 ఈ 35,570 10,760 లు 8,068 1,800 6,700 PRINTING ESTABLISIIMENTS MUSICAL-INSTRUMENTS FACTORY MACHINES, Tools, IMPLEMENTS- Agricultural-implements factories Machinists and millwrights ... CARRIAGES AND HARNESS- Coach-building and -painting works SHIPS AND BOATS- Ship- and boat-building works Block and pump factories Patent slips ... FURNITURE- Furniture factories ... Chair and washboard factories Bellows factory CHEMICALS Chemical works Cleaning and dyeing works Hæmatite-paint factories TEXTILE FABRICS- Woollen mills Ornamental-silk factory 2,500 1,300 30,220 71,415 1,075 4,512 470 +లు ని 12 4,170 655 36,000 62,500 - STATISTICS. NUMBER and DESCRIPTION of MANUFACTORIES, &c.—continued.! Number of Hands Establish- employed. ments. Approximate Approximate Value of Land Value of and Machinery Buildings. and Plant. 31 1,299 per co co 33,100 6,200 3,892 13,267 2,480 1,190 . u contato 284 124 37 9,735 6,038 8,285 130 e 20 : 10,030 2,655 1,060 905 14 : s 131 450 148 207,085 18,380 150,093 9,965 18 228 526 63 arcos 36,201 233,218 16,700 47,850 30,700 84,180 5,650 666 900 75 67 15 800 825 468 DRESS- Boot factories Clothing factories ... Hat and cap factories Oilskin factories ... Stocking-weaving factories FIBROUS MATERIALS Flaxmills ... Rope and twine works Sail factories ANIMAL FOOD- Meat-preserving works. Included with Boiling-down. See ANIMAL MATTERS. Bacon-curing factories Fish-curing factories VEGETABLE FOOD- Grain mills Biscuit factories ... DRINKS AND STIMULANTS- Aërated water and cordial factories Breweries ... Coffee, spice, and chicory works Malthouses Sauce and pickle factories Colonial-wine factories ANIMAL MATTERS Boiling-down and meat-preserving works Bone-cutting mills ... Brush factory Glue factories Portmanteau factory Soap and candle works Fellmongering, tanning, currying, woolscouring works VEGETABLE MATTERS- Chaff-cutting works ... Sawmills and sash and door factories ... Paper mill ... Starch works COAL- Collieries ... Gasworks ... STONE, CLAY, AND EARTHENWARE- Brick, tile, and pottery factories Limeworks... Glass factory Stone quarries (building) ... Stone-sawing works ... METALS— Quartz-mining (gold) works ... Mining (manganese) works ... Iron and brass foundries Spouting and ridging factories Totals, 1881 Totals, 1878 62,525 6,500 25 on S 34,320 5,195 15 108 15,550 88,156 17,690 47,926 119 859 38 100 4,238 10 13,476 397,084 3,980 376,544 223. 992 188 100,071 177,749 121,079 314,367 17 : 127 685 :: 77,030 4,560 63 28,735 2,020 23 136 16,533 2,160 ... ::::: 1,147 19 953 20 | 17,938 14,177 1,643 1,271 83,581 2,500 | *1,993,330 *1,761,694 71,686 1,895 *1,612,141 *1,289,378 * These amounts represent the total values, including the values of certain industries the particu- lars of which are left blank in the table, not being published for sufficient reasons. STATISTICS. OCCUPATIONS.—II. FEMALES. TABLE showing the POPULATION and OCCUPATIONS of the FEMALE SEX of the COLONY and PROVINCIAL DISTRICTS of NEW ZEALAND, by Census taken on the 3rd APRIL, 1881. Occupations (arranged in Fifteen Orders). The Colony. Auckland. Taranaki. Wellington. Hawke's Bay. Marlborough. Order. Class. Canterbury. Nelson. Westland. Otago. Chatham Islands, Total female population 220,328 45,340 6,341 28,654 7,667 4,051 / 11,275 5,935 51,592 de Total of specified occupations .... 220,312 I. 1. 4 1 3 6 : 617 58 344 116 74 602 544 : 19 3,637 133 10,127 40,188 5,827 25,465 6,673 5,313 45,063 174 TV. 32+ 2,008 670 4,130 2,665 104 349 11 3,958 97 III. 135 VI. 10 44 Persons engaged in the general or local government, or the defence 23 or protection of the country Persons engaged in the learned professions, or in literature, art, 2,507 science (with their immediate subordinates) Persons engaged in the domestic offices or duties of wives, 194,538 mothers, mistresses of families, children, relatives (not other- wise returned) Persons engaged in entertaining and performing personal offices 15,034 for man Persons who buy and sell, keep or lend money, houses, or goods 439 of various kinds Persons engaged in the conveyance of men, animals, goods, and messages Persons possessing, working, or cultivating land ; raising or deal. 678 ing in animals; or following pursuits subsidiary thereto Persons engaged in working and dealing in art and mechanic pro 163 ductiovs, in which matters of various kinds are employed in combination Persons working and dealing in textile fabrics, dress, and in 5,541 fibrous materials Persons working and dealing in food and drinks 192 Persons working and dealing in animal and vegetable substances 19 Persons working and dealing in minerals , Labourers and others (branch of labour un lefined) 36 Persons of property and rank (not returned under any office or 121 occupation) Persons supported by the community, and of no specified occupa 964 tion 157 151 VII. VIII. 189 35 54 IX. 1,273 141 1,332 X. 35 56 12 5 : 12 :: : XI. XII. XIII. XIV. VI. : : 32 :::::: XV. 186 317 Occupation not stated ... ... .... : 88 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. MAORI POPULATION. The total number of Maoris was in 1878 estimated at 42,814, the greater number being in the North Island, only a few living in the South and its adjacent islands. In 1881 the census returns gave 44,097 as the total number. The number of the principal tribes is twenty : of these, the Nga- puhi is the strongest; the Waikatos rank next in point of numbers; the Ngatikahungunu is third ; then the Ngatiporou and the Arawas. Of the Maoris in the colony, 24,368 were stated to be males, and 19,729 to be females. As much difference of opinion has existed as to whether the numerical decline of the Maori race has not been, at any rate in certain districts, arrested, it may be interesting to compare, so far as they are given, the ages of the Maoris with the ages of the settled and steadily increasing population of England. The numbers and sexes of some of the Maori tribes have been imperfectly given. It is therefore necessary to deal only with those tribes for which full information as to numbers, ages, and sexes is given. This was the case in respect of the numbers belonging to thirteen of the principal tribes, amounting in the whole to 31,645, according to an account taken in the year 1874. Of these, 6,079 were males under fifteen, and 5,225 were females under fifteen. The males over fifteen amounted to 11,209, and the females over fifteen to 9,132. There was a total excess of males over females of 2,931, or to every 100 males there were 83:05 females. In England, in 1871, the males under fifteen amounted to 37.15 per cent. of the whole male popu- lation; the Maori males, of the tribes given, in 1881, under the age of fifteen, amounted to 33:78 per cent. of the whole male population of those tribes. The females of similar ages were, respectively, in England 35:13 per cent. of the whole female population, and among the Maoris 34:15 per cent. If the numbers of the males and females under fifteen be respectively compared, the following result is shown :- Proportions per Cent. to the whole Population. Age. England. N.Z. European. Maoris. Males under fifteen .... 18:09 21.61 18:43 Females under fifteen ... 18:03 21:24 15.35 To draw any conclusion from these figures, it would be necessary to have more exact information as to the numbers of the Maoris living at the various higher age-periods, but the information has only been given for the periods under and over fifteen. The existence among some tribes of the Maoris of a higher pro- portion of females under fifteen (ultimately to become wives and 12.09 STATISTICS. 91 or Scotland, the rates in the former country being 5.2, and in the latter 8:6, in 1878. Marriage-rate. The marriages in 1881 numbered 3,277, the number of persons married being at the rate of 13:28 per 1,000 of the population. This is somewhat lower than the average rate in England for the decade 1868–77, which was 16.6. Death-rate. The death-rate in 1881 amounted to 11:13 per 1,000 of the popu- lation. The death-rate in England for 1878 was 23.8, the average rate for the ten years ending 1877 being 21.9. The following table shows the number and proportion of births, marriages, and deaths for the last ten years. An opportunity of comparing the rates in New Zealand with the rates in the Australian Colonies is afforded by the diagrams at the end of this book :- PROPORTION OF BIRTHS, MARRIAGES, AND DEATHS TO THE POPULATION. (Decennial Return.) Numerical. Proportion to every 1,000 of Population. Year. Estimated Mean Population of New Zealand. Births. Marriages.* | Deaths. | Births. Marriages.* Deaths. 1,873 2,276 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 273,273 287,752 320,687 358,858 387,465 408,348 423,465 448,124 474,296 493,482 10,795 11,222 12,844 14,438 16,168 16,856 17,770 18,070 19,341 18,732 2,828 3,209 3,196 3,114 3,377 3,352 3,181 3,277 3,192 3,645 4,161 5,712 4,904 4,685 4,615 5,583 5,437 5,491 39:50 38.99 40:05 40.23 41.73 41:28 41.96 40:32 40.78 37.95 6.85 7.90 8.81 8.94 8.25 7.62 7.97 7.48 6.71 6.64 11.68 12:66 12:97 15.92 12.66 11:47 10.96 12:46 11:46 11:13 Of the deaths in 1881, 2,440, or 44:44 per cent., were of children under five years of age. Sexes of Deceased Persons. Of the deaths, 3,247 were of males, and 2,244 of females, which, upon the estimated mean number of each sex living in the year, gives a rate of mortality among the males of 11.81 per 1,000, and among the females of 9.93 per 1,000. Causes of Death. The following table gives the classification of diseases which have * The number of persons married, and the number married in proportion to every 1,000 of the population, may be ascertained by doubling the numbers in these two columns. STATISTICS. 93: 1 , 362 :: cubic feet of space amounted to 1,529,933, or an average of 1,326 : cubic feet to each bed. Lunatic Asylums. There are 7 lunatic asylums in the colony, which contained, at the end of the year 1881, 762 males and 396 females, being an increase of 38 male and 8 female patients upon the number at the beginning of the year. Of the above 1,158 patients, 625 males and 308 females were supposed to be incurable : 233 males and 132 females were admitted, 144 males and 110 females were discharged, and 49 males and 14 females died during the year. The asylums in the aggregate afforded accommodation for 1,157 persons (753 males and 404 females), with an average of nearly 647 cubic feet of space for each patient. The proportion of lunatics to the general population, exclusive of Maoris, on the 3rd April, 1881, the day of the last census being taken, was ... 1 to 437 In England, December, 1877, it was ... In Victoria ». » ... ... l , 313 In New South Wales „ ... ... I , 362 In Tasmania » » ... ... 1 , 317 DEAF-AND-DUMB. One hundred and fourteen persons were tabulated under this head, 60 males and 54 females. Of these, 55 were under fifteen years of age, and 17 between fifteen and twenty. In the Institution at Sumner, maintained by Government, 24 children are now being educated. Blind. One hundred and thirty-eight persons, viz., 79 males and 59 females, were returned as being blind. Of these, 23 were under twenty years of age, 25 between twenty and forty, 36 between forty and sixty, and 54 over sixty. IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION. Up to the end of the year 1870 the conduct of New Zealand immigration was entirely in the hands of the different Provincial Governments. The Public Works and Immigration Act of 1870 provided a sum. of £1,000,000, out of the loan then authorized, to be expended upon the introduction of immigrants throughout the colony. . The very liberal system under which immigration has been con- ducted, and which allowed residents in the colony to nominate suitable persons for free passages, was modified for a time owing: 94 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. to the presence of a superabundance of labour, coupled with the fact that more than the average number of the most desirable class of immigrants—small farmers and others with means—were coming forward, and paying their own passages to the colony. Now, how- ever, the system of nomination has been resumed, with the result, so far as at present seen, of the introduction of a very desirable class of people. The immigrants who have arrived in New Zealand, taken as a whole, may be said to be of a superior order. The following table shows the General Government expenditure on immigration to New Zealand during each year ending the 31st December, from the passing of “ The Immigration and Public Works Act, 1870,” to 1881, inclusive :- Year. Amount expended. Year. Amount expended. £17,081 1877 ... ... £140,828 1872 37,911 1878 ... 102,190 1873 142,646 1879 176,630 1874 426,233 1880 ... 72,259 1875 ... 447,578 1881 ... 5,539 1876 ... ... 323,708 A further expenditure on immigration was incurred by the late Provincial Governments between 1871 and 1876, amounting to £74,409. The following is a decennial return of immigration, 1872 to 1881 : 1871 ... : : : Immigration. Emigration, Excess of Immigration over Emigration. Year. Males. Females. Total. Males. Females. Total. | Males. Females. Total. 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 6,775 7,871 | 25,830 19,558 11,524 8,104 10,671 15,186 9,564 6,643 3,950 10,725 5,701 13,572 18,135 F 43,965 12,179 | 31,737 6,890 18,414 1,883 12,987 5,592 | 16,263 8,771 23,957 5,590 | 15,154 3,045 9,688 4,417 3,507 4,367 4,727 4,677 4,696 4,138 3,852 5,816 5,705 1,335 5,752 2,358 2,615 4,973 1,254 14,761 4,364 4,447 | 8,811 1,492 5,859 | 21,463 16,643 | 38,106 1,740 6,467 | 14,831 | 10,439 | 25,270 1,782 6,459 6,847 5,108 11,955 1,915 6,611 3,408 2,968 6,376 1,623 5,761 | 6,533 3,969 10,502 5,234 11,334 7,389 18,723 2,107 7,923 3,748 3,483 17,231 2,367 8,072 938 678 1,616 1,382 Emigration. Of the number of persons returned as having left the colony during 1881, amounting to 8,072, 669 went direct to the United Kingdom, and 6,777 to the Australian Colonies. There was, as regards the Australian Colonies and Tasmania, an excess of departures over arrivals to the extent of 1,198, STATISTICS. 95 FINANCE Revenue. The Customs revenue in 1881 amounted to £1,421,609, against £1,258,362 in 1880, being an increase of £163,247, or 12:97 per cent. The following figures show the comparative amounts realized by this branch of the revenue during the years 1866 to 1881, inclusive :- an increu 187 ... 1866 ... 844,267 being an increase of 114,259, or 15.65 per cent. 1867 813,997 „ & decrease of 270 , 03 1868 788,829 55,168, 6:53 1869 823,511 , an increase of 34,682, 4:39 1870 ... 765,930 » a decrease of 57,581 6.99 187 731,883 „ 34,047 , 444 813,279 an increase of 81,396 , 11•12 1873 965,800 152,521 „ 18.75 1874 1,188,948 · 223,148 , 23:10 1875 1,234,967 46,019 3.87 1876 1,206,791 a decrease” of 28,176 2.28 1877 1,224,906 an increase of 18,115 1:50 1878 ... 1,344,688 , 119,782, 8.90 1879 ... 1,237,259 , a decrease of 107, 429 1880 ... 1,258,362 „ an increase of 21,103 , 1881 ... 1,421,609 „ „ 163,247 , 12:97 The total ordinary revenue for the colony in 1881 was as under:- Ordinary revenue, raised by taxation £3,206,554 Territorial revenue, not raised by taxation ... ... 550,939 Total revenue · ... £3,757,493 This shows an increase of £311,426 in the ordinary revenue, and £161,025 in the territorial revenue, as compared with 1880. 7.98 1.70 ... £3.20 Expenditure. The ordinary general expenditure, or expenditure chargeable on general revenue, for 1881, was £3,675,797, being a decrease on the similar expenditure in 1880 of £344,053. This does not include special expenditure out of loans. Public Debt. The total public debt of the colony on the 31st December, 1881, amounted to £29,659,111; the total annual charge upon which was £1,510,527, part of this sum, namely, £136,052, being a payment to the sinking fund. The amount to the accrued sinking fund, at the same date, was £2,203,893. . The estimated mean population for the year 1881 was 493,482. This is inclusive of 5,033 Chinese, but exclusive of 44,097 Maoris. The latter contribute largely to the revenue through the Customs, and many of them are wealthy. For the present purpose, therefore, they may very properly be included in the general total, which thus amounted to 537,579. These data give a total debt of £55 3s. 5d. 96 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. per head, and an annual charge of £2 16s. 2d. per head of population; but the amount of the accrued sinking fund, £2,203,893, in reality reduced the public debt to £27,455,218, and therefore the rate per head is proportionately lessened to £51 ls. 5d. per head. It has, however, been very justly remarked that the pressure of a public debt on a community is not to be estimated by the simple process of counting heads, but that it is to be more correctly ascertained by inquiry into the earnings and conditions of the population. Con- sideration must also be given to the fact that a large proportion of the debt of New Zealand exists in the form of reproductive works, already, in some instances, returning a fair interest on the outlay. ACCUMULATION. Banks. The total average liabilities of the banks within the colony during 1881 amounted to £10,083,188, the total assets to £14,863,645 ; the total paid-up capital on the 31st December, 1881, to £5,450,000; the total amount of last dividends to £365,500; and the total amount of reserve funds, at the time of declaring such dividends, to £2,681,259. Savings-Banks. The figures given below show the operations of the Post-Office Savings Banks for the last three calendar years. The severe depres- sion which existed throughout the colony during 1879 appears to have had comparatively little effect upon this business. A greater amount of money was withdrawn during the year, but the total amount left standing at the credit of depositors on the 31st December, 1879, was very little less than in 1878, and greater than in 1877; and since that time there has been a steady increase, as the following table shows :- 1879. 1880. - 1881. Number of Post-Office Savings-Banks 165 178 190 Amount of deposits ... £812,399 £864,441 £1,189,012 withdrawals ... £876,180 £780,504 £902,195 , at credit of depositors ... £787,006 £903,765 £1,232,787 Average amount at credit of each depositor ... £22 12s. 11d. £23 7s. 6d. £24 38. 4d. The average cost of each Post-Office Savings-Bank transaction, deposit or withdrawal, in the year 1881 was 4 d.; the average for the whole period of the existence of the Post-Office Savings Banks in the colony being 723d. The proportion of depositors to the popula- tion was 1 to 13 for 1878, while in 1881 it had risen to 1 in 10. The proportion in the United Kingdom, in 1877, was 1 in 19. On the 31st December, 1881, the total sum standing at credit of ... STATISTICS. 97 depositors in the Post-Office Savings Banks amounted to £1,232,788 At the credit of depositors of other savings-banks ... £316,727 £1,549,515 This amount is equal to £3 ls. 10d. per head of the European population at the same date, as against £2 lls. 7d. for 1878. These figures are valuable, as giving an indication of the pro- sperity of the working-classes; but there is a very large amount of savings constantly being invested in building societies, and as con- stantly being withdrawn for the purchase or erection of dwellings, of which no official record exists. In No. VII. of the statistical diagrams at the end of this book will be found an interesting representation of the fluctuations in the rate of savings in New Zealand, in comparison with the rates of the Australian Colonies, during the years 1868–81, and with the average rate in Europe for the year 1877. TRADE, INDUSTRIES, PRODUCTIONS, ETC. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. The following table exhibits the rapid growth of the import and export trade of New Zealand, from the date of the colony being established to 1881, inclusive :- Period. · Imports. Exports, the Produce of the Colony. for years 1841-45, average 1845-49 1853-55 1856-60 1861-65 1866–70 1871-75 1876–77 1878 1879 1880 1881 Der er er or wo er 139,000 193,000 766,000 1,188,000 5,352,000 5,168,000 6,367,000 6,939,000 8,755,663 8,374,585 6,162,011 7,457,045 33,000 77,000 330,000 438,000 2,718,000 4,335,000 5,276,000 5,783,000 6,015,700 5,743,126 6,352,692 6,060,866 The great bound exhibited in the above table, as taking place in the quinquennial period 1861–65, was caused by the gold discoveries. The first considerable export of this metal occurred in 1861, the value being £752,657, increasing in the following year to £1,591,389, and the year subsequent, 1863, to £2,431,723. A more than correspond- ing large increase in the imports took place in the same period, due 7 TRADE AND INDUSTRIES. RETURN of the VALUE of the IMPORTS and EXPORTS, &c.--continued. 1881. 1880. Country, Colony, or Port. Imports therefrom. Exports thereto. Imports therefrom. Exports thereto. 13 147 454 19 : : : : : ::::::: : : 17 Pacific Islands-continued. Gilbert Island 750 Kingsmill Islands ... Navigator Islands ... 1,537 2,796 3,842 11,789 Suwarrow Island 1,112 120 Rotumah Island 2,311 4,790 1,289 Swain's Island 1,088 Union Islands 854 Marshall Islands ... 900 1,605 2,586 Mitchell Island 303 Sandwich Islands ... 7,146 365 1,371 Savage Island 2,799 708 4,623 Sunday Island 905 Malden Island 3,082 Howe Island 145 Macquarie Island ... 4,170 Wallis Island 1,308 Marquesas Islands ... 1,410 Manabiki Islands 1,314 28 Austral Island 1,165 Guam ... 9,460 6,300 Whale Fisheries 8,374 533 200 787 North America : Canada 100 Columbia United States of America : On the Atlantic ... 302,138 116,629 201,095 95,188 On the Pacific 41,507 239,158* 36,916 9,959 China 149,228 11,098 115,188 24,710 95 Singapore ... 4,497 6,270 India : Bengal 115,774 103,517+ Madras 97 Bombay 10 23 Ceylon ... 262 200 Africa: Cape Colony 707 43,178 35,017 Natal 150 2,130 Mauritius ... 243,709 195,873 Europe : France 18,014 51,464 10,784 Spain 630 380 Portugal ... 2,404 894 Italy 60 Austria ... 20 Switzerland Germany ... 5,779 1,434 Norway... 23 Sweden ... Holland 1,941 1,268 Belgium ... 26 Greece ... 122 Totals 7,457,045 | 6,060,866 | 6,162,011 | 6,352,266 * This includes gold to the value of £172,380. t Including Burmah. : : : : : Japan :: .**.48 : : : : :: :: : : : 4,401. :::::::::::: : : : : : : : : : : TRADE AND INDUSTRIES. 103 land yet exhibit unmistakable progress; their total number in 1881, as shown in detail in the census returns on a previous page, being 1,643, against 1,271 in 1878. This increase is almost entirely due to an extension in the number of industries dependent on the natural resources of the country, or incidental to a rapidly increasing popula- tion, and would seem to indicate a hardy and natural growth. Thus, since 1878 fellmongery, tanning, and currying establishments increased from 100 to 119; boiling-down and meat-preserving works, from 32 to 40; saw-mills, from 204 to 223; iron foundries, from 29 to 35; agricultural-implement factories, from 8 to 23; furniture factories, from 12 to 45 ; sail factories, from 1 to 13; bacon- and fish-curing factories, from 8 to 34. The increase in the number of woollen mills from 3 in 1878 to 4 in 1881 is small, but the increased quantity of goods manufactured is really much larger than the small increase in the number of establishments would appear to indicate, and from occupying an almost experimental position the woollen manufactures have grown into a sure and flourishing industry. This may be the better realized when it is stated that, while in 1878 the number of hands employed was 78, it had risen in 1881 to 417. The number of manufactories devoted to articles of clothing in- creased from 7 in 1874 to 24 in 1878 and 54 in 1881. CROWN LANDS. The total area of New Zealand is upwards of sixty-four million acres. Of this, fourteen millions have been sold, or disposed of in education and other public reserves; sixteen millions belong to the aborigines, or to the Europeans who have purchased from them; and thirty-four million acres of Crown lands still remain for disposal. Of the latter, fifteen millions are open grass or fern country, ten millions forest, and nine millions are barren mountain-tops, lakes, and worth- less country. The Crown lands are administered under the authority of “The Land Act, 1877,” “The Land Act 1877 Amendment Act, 1879,” and “The Land Act 1877 Amendment Act, 1882,” by the Hon. the Minister of Lands, Wellington. The colony is divided into eleven land districts, each being locally governed by a Commissioner and a Board. It is with the Land Offices the selector has to transact all business. The names of the land districts will be found on page 1ll. Crown lands are divided into three classes, (1.) Town and village lands—being the sites heretofore reserved or which shall be hereafter reserved for towns and villages : CROWN LANDS. 105 ACQUIREMENT OF FREEHOLD ON DEFERRED PAYMENTS. The principal features of the deferred-payment system are- (1.) If suburban land, an allotment must not exceed 20 acres; if rural agricultural land, 320 acres; if pastoral land, not less than 500 nor more than 5,000 acres. (2.) No person may take up an allotment in more than one class; but any person who has for two years fulfilled all the con- ditions under which he took up his section can acquire further sections, provided he does not become the selector in the whole of more than 320 acres. (3.) The price per acre of suburban land is £4 10s.; of rural land not less than £l; of pastoral land, upset price, not less than £1. (4.) Suburban and rural lands are open for application, but if two or more persons apply for the same allotment it is auc- tioned between the applicants. (5.) Land may, in place of being auctioned, be put up to public tender, and in the event of two or more tenders being of the same amount the successful tenderer is decided by lot. (6.) Pastoral land is put up to auction at an upset price of not less than £l per acre, and is open to all bidders. The deferred payments are made in equal instalments in advance, every six months. For suburban land the period for payment is five years; there- fore there are ten instalments. For rural land the period for payment is ten years, making twenty instalments : thus, if land offered at £l per acre was applied for by A and B, and went to auction, and A closed the bids at £1 10s. per acre, he would have ls. 6d. per acre to pay every six months for ten years. For pastoral land the period of payment extends over fifteen years, with thirty instalments. Any selector who has complied with the conditions of his purchase for three years may have the value of the unpaid instalments capi- talized at the value of an annuity of the same amount and for the same period. Interest is payable at 5 per cent. per annum, instead of the half-yearly instalments. After the capitalized value is ascer- tained, he may pay off the whole sum, or any portion, in sums of not less than £10. At any time within fourteen years of the date of his license the selector is entitled to a Crown grant, if he has paid the whole of the capital value, together with interest. On suburban land residence must begin within six months of CROWN LANDS. 107 by law as the upset price of land of the same class at the time the purchase is effected. After the third year also the holder may apply for an exchange lease : if this is granted, the payment of £l ls. per acre, in fourteen half-yearly equal instalments, or the balance at any time in full, completes the purchase. Another way of completing the freehold is for the holder to pay rent for seventeen years, when the land is Crown-granted to him without any further payment. HOMESTEAD System. This is in force in the Auckland and Westland Districts only. The settler makes no payment for the land, the only cost being that of survey. On the fulfilment of conditions—viz., five years' residence, the erection of a house, and the cultivation of one-third of the selec- tion if open land, and one-fifth if bush land—the Crown grant is issued. Any person of the age of eighteen years or upwards may (in Auckland District) select from 75 to 50 acres, according to quality of land, and any person under eighteen years of age 30 to 20 acres, provided that no family or household shall have more than 200 acres of first-class or 300 acres of second-class lands. In Westland the conditions are the same, with the exception that 50, 20, and 200 acres are the limits as above, irrespective of quality of land. PASTORAL Runs. These are put up to auction, at an upset rent, not less than a year before the existing licenses or leases expire. Generally no more land than is sufficient to carry five thousand sheep or one thousand head of cattle is offered in one lot. Pastoral lands are let, subject to the license being revoked on a year's notice being given that the land is required for sale or lease as agricultural or pastoral land. The licensee is not entitled to any com- pensation for revocation of his license. The licensee may select a homestead area of 150 acres, which cannot be resumed during the currency of his lease. If a licensee does not reacquire the license for his run when it is submitted to auction, he is entitled to compensation for improve- ments of necessary buildings, plantations, fences, and ditches for draining, provided that the compensation does not exceed three times the average annual rent paid under the existing lease or license. No claim for compensation can be made against the Crown or any Land Board. Leases or licenses of pastoral lands may not exceed twenty-one years. No person occupying, by himself or jointly, pastoral lands under license or lease from the Crown capable of carrying twenty 108 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. thousand sheep or four thousand head of cattle can be the purchaser or transferee of any other pastoral license or lease. This prohibition does not, however, affect transfers by way of mortgage, provided that in the event of possession being taken under any mortgage, or a mort- gagee becoming an absolute owner in satisfaction of his mortgage debts, a bona fide sale of the land so acquired is effected within three years from the date of taking possession. LEASING OF CROWN LANDS with PERPETUAL RighT OF RENEWAL. “The Land Act 1877 Amendment Act, 1882,” gives authority to lease Crown lands, and secures to lessees the value of their improve- ments, and an indefeasible title, with perpetual right of renewal. The main features of the scheme are as follow:- The Governor in Council may set apart for leasing one-third of the agricultural land open for sale. Leases are sold to the highest tenderer at or above an upset rental of 5 per cent. on the capital value of the land as fixed by the Board. Thus, land valued at £l per acre is put up at a rental of ls. per acre per annum. Six months' rent, together with £1 10s. for the lease, has to be deposited with every tender. If two or more tenderers offer the same rent, and there is no higher offer, it is decided by lot which person shall be the lessee. If a lease is not executed within a certain time the deposits are forfeited, and the next highest tenderer may be declared the lessee. If no tenders are received any person may apply to lease the land for which tenders have been invited. Any person may tender for two or more leases, but cannot become the lessee under more than one lease, unless the lands adjoin each other. · A tenderer for more than one lease need only deposit half a year's rent of the tender largest in amount. Any person of the age of eighteen years may become a lessee. Limit of Area for each Lessee. No person who owns the freehold of or who holds a license or lease from the Crown of land which, together with the lands included in any lease applied for, comprises more than 640 acres, is capable of becoming a lessee. This does not apply to persons who may become lessees or sub-lessees by marriage, or under a will, or by an intestacy. As to Preparation, Cost, Execution, and Registration of Leases. Leases are prepared by the Commissioners of Crown Lands, are registered under the Land Transfer Acts, and are exempted from stamp duty. CROWN LANDS. 109 Provisions as to Term, Payment of Rent and Taxes. Every lease is for a fixed term of thirty years. All leases are renewable. All rents are payable in equal half-yearly instalments, in advance. Lessees are liable for all rates, taxes, or assessments. Provisions as to Transfers, Sub-Leases, and Sales by Mortgage. Leases may be transferred or sub-let, but the limits as to area of land owned or occupied have to be complied with by the new holder. Surrenders of leases are permitted with the consent of the Land Board. Leased lands may be resumed for public purposes on payment of compensation to be fixed by arbitration, a proportional abatement of rent being allowed. Provisions as to Residence. Every lessee must reside upon his land within six months of the commencement of his term, and continue to reside for six years. The Board may, however, in the case of bush lands, dispense with residence until two years, or, in the case of youths living with their parents or relatives, until three years after the commencement of the term; or may dispense with residence altogether if the lessee resides on land contiguous to his lease. This does not apply to leases acquired under an intestacy or by will. In case two lessees inter- marry one may be absolved from the residential condition. Improvement Conditions. Each lessee must within one year from the date of his lease bring into cultivation not less than one-twentieth, within two years not less than one-tenth, within four years not less than one-fifth, of his leasehold; and within six years, in addition to the cultivation of one-fifth of the land, he must put on it substantial improvements to the value of £1 for every acre. The definition of “substantial improvements” will be found at page 106. Right to acquire Freehold. Any lessee of land outside a proclaimed gold field has the right of purchase (if within the six years he has fulfilled all the improvement conditions (at a price fixed when the lease is granted, but not less than the estimated value on which he has paid rent at 5 per cent. Advan- tage must, however, be taken of the purchasing right within eleven years of the commencement of a lease. Provisions as to Renewals. Three years before the end of the term of a lease a valuation of PUBLIC WORKS. 113 PUBLIC WORKS. Any account of New Zealand's progress that failed to make special mention of the extraordinary changes wrought by what is commonly known as the “Immigration and Public Works policy" would indeed be incomplete. The rugged character of the country generally, and the natural difficulties appertaining to many of the sites upon which the chief towns were built, very early necessitated a large outlay on roads and public works. The necessity was fully recognized, and to some extent met, by most of the Provincial Governments, who have justly received great credit for their far-seeing and liberal exertions in that direction. A great deal of road-making, often of a very costly character, was accomplished, harbour and other improvements begun, and immigration handsomely encouraged. Something was also done in the way of the making of railways, notably in Canterbury, where a line unusually difficult and expensive in construction, involving some heavy tunnelling, was successfully undertaken and carried through by the Provincial Government, in order to provide easy means of communication between Christchurch and the Port of Lyttelton. Some advance towards the construction of a main trunk line had also been made in the same province. In Otago, also, the City of Dunedin had been connected with Port Chalmers by a railway, constructed under the guarantee of the Otago Provincial Government, and some miles of railway had been made in Southland. But the work to be done in the colony generally was too vast to be grappled with by the separate exertions of a few local Governments. It was therefore proposed that the General Govern- ment should take in hand the execution of all public works of a colonial character, upon an extensive and well-defined system, and that a loan of ten millions be raised to provide funds for that pur- pose. The objects sought to be accomplished were defined to be, - I. Systematic immigration on a large scale.. II. Construction of a main trunk railway throughout each Island. III. Construction of roads through the interior of the North Island. IV. The purchase of Native land in the North Island. V. The supply of water on gold fields. VI. The extension of telegraph works. In accordance with the plan thus laid down, “ The Immigration and Public Works Act, 1870,” was passed by the Legislature, and many 114 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. who were greatly alarmed when the scheme was first propounded to the country by Mr. (now Sir Julius) Vogel, and thought it wild and extravagant, have since admitted that the step taken was as wise as it was bold. A considerable extent of country has been opened up and settled by a large and thriving population in a surprisingly short space of time. As facilities were offered for the conveyance of the products of agriculture, the value of land, of course, greatly increased : not its nominal value merely, but its actual value. Hundreds of thousands of acres, worth, before the advent of railways, from £l to £3 an acre, were afterwards sold at prices ranging from £10 to £20 per acre, and, for the most part, bought by experienced farmers, who had made their money in the colony, and knew the real capability and value of the land so purchased. It may also be said that, in addition to the enormous reproductive indirect results of the Public Works policy, the outlay incurred, at least in the case of the railways constructed, is likely to prove a capital investment, and so be directly reproductive, many of the principal lines already yielding a fair interest on the money expended in their construction. The total amount expended on public works by the General Government, from the date of the Immigration and Public Works Act of 1870, and similar subsequent Acts, and under their authority, up to the 31st March, 1882, is as under : Railways ... £9,869,670 Roads and Road Boards ... 1,353,800 Coal mines ... 10,835 Water supply on gold fields 460,779 Works on Thames Gold Field 50,000 Telegraphs 420,032 Public buildings... 986,105 Lighthouses and harbours 109,045 Miscellaneous works 557,278 Departmental ... 170,576 :::::::::: £13,988,120 ROADS AND BRIDGES. A great deal of road-making has been done in New Zealand. The district roads are undertaken by the various Road Boards. The total number of these Boards in 1882 was 321, and their expen- diture in the same year amounted to a total of £244,381, the whole being expended on actual works, less the sum of £27,504 for expenses of administration. PUBLIC WORKS. 115 Much road-making has also been done by the General Govern- ment, especially in the North Island. During the period extending from June, 1869, to March, 1882, the General Government expendi- ture in this department amounted to the sum of £1,324,887, the roads constructed being over 3,000 miles. To this must be added £225,000 paid to Road Boards previous to the 31st March, 1881, and a considerable amount included in the returns under the head of “Miscellaneous Public Works.” During the year ending on the 31st March, 1882, the expenditure by the General Government under this head was £69,871 in the North Island, and £28,896 in the South Island. RAILWAYS. Soon after the passing of the Immigration and Public Works Act in 1870, the construction of railways on a large and systematic scale was commenced, and has proceeded vigorously since that time. The total length of lines open for traffic on the 31st March, 1882, was 1,331 miles ; and there were under construction 188 miles. The total amount of money expended in the construction of railways up to the 31st March, 1882, was £10,974,000; but the cost of lines open for traffic at the same date was £9,443,000. The following table gives a view of the progress made in railway construction between the years 1876 and 1882, and the annual revenne and expenditure :- Number of Miles. Year ending Revenue. Expenditure. Expenditure · per cent. of Rerenue. Constructed. ! Under Con- struction. 30th June, 1877 ! 1878 ! 1879 31st Barch, 1880* 1881 u 1882 469,051 569,898 758,096 762,573 836,077 892,026 337,445 405,896 545,479 580,016 521,958 523,099 71.94 71.22 71.95 76:06 62:43 58 64 860 1,053 1,140 1,181 1,288 1,334 304 163 204 257 192 188 Diagram No. VIII. exhibits the comparative progress made in railway construction by New Zealand and Australian Colonies during the years 1868–82. It will be seen that the cost of working the railways for the twelve months ending on the 31st March, 1882, was very much less than in previous years, for the revenue for that period exceeded the expenditure by £368,927, the ratio of the expenditure to the revenue * Owing to the change in the financial year this statement overlaps the previous year, for purposes of comparison. 116 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. being only 58.64 per cent. The receipts per mile for the same period averaged £668 13s. 8d., and the expenditure £392 2s. 7d. The rail- ways which are open for traffic thus made a return on the capital spent in their construction of £3 18s. 2d. per cent., which may be taken as a favourable result, for it may reasonably be expected that, when the many links in the chain of railways contemplated for the North Island are completed, some of the North Island lines will give a better result than they do at present. POST AND TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENT. The difficulty of communication, naturally incidental to a newly settled country like New Zealand, has been well met and mastered by an energetic and able postal organization, aided also by a very efficient telegraph system. In both services the policy has been to charge low rates; so as to give the public the greatest facilities for intercom- munication. The following figures, taken from the last report of the Postmaster- General and Commissioner of Telegraphs, will afford an indication of the extent to which these advantages have been made use of by the people. The total revenue of the Department for the year was £234,529, showing an increase of £11,937 on the previous year. Taking into account the sum of £58,585 for official postage, and £22,738 for official telegrams, the gross earnings of the department for the year amounted to no less than £82,560 in excess of the expenditure. Postal Business. The total number of letters, newspapers, post-cards, and book packets received during the year 1881, for delivery in New Zealand, may be seen in the following table :- Where from. Letters. Newspapers. Letters. Post-cards. Book Packets. United Kingdom ... . 547,219 Australian Colonies .... 341,956 ther places 48,166 From places within the colony ..| 11,969,191 Totals ... ... 12,906,532 1,464,781 508,408 77,248 5,019,380 234,737 45,259 17,867 921,944 490,366 | 7,069,817 490,366 1,219,807 Compared with the returns of the previous year, letters increased 11.97 per cent., post-cards 45.69, book packets 11.27, and newspapers 19.23. This shows a considerable increase on the work of the pre- GOVERNMENT LIFE ASSURANCE. 119 and the business was actually commenced in March, 1870. As may be seen by the statement below, from very small beginnings the busi- ness steadily increased ; the total number of policies issued up to the 30th June, 1882, being 19,456, representing an aggregate insurance amounting to £6,507,528, while the amount of the funds at the same date was £653,890. It may be useful in this manual to notice the principal advantages offered to policy-holders by the Government Insurance Department of New Zealand, which is the first British colony that has, by special legislation and exceptional attractions, stimulated the growth of those self-dependent and provident habits that lie at the root of the life- assurance system. These advantages may be briefly stated as follows :- 1. The inviolable security offered to the assured, the payment of every policy being guaranteed by the colony under a special Act of Parliament. 2. The division of profits, the whole of which are by law to be divided amongst policy-holders only, who thereby enjoy the advan- tages possessed by members of mutual companies, in addition to that of having the security of the colony for the payment of claims. The first quinquennial investigation showed a profit of over £12,000; and the investigation which took place on the 30th June, 1880, showed the surplus funds to amount to £77,595. Out of this sum, £56,000 was divided amongst policy-holders. . 3. The low scale of premiums comes next in order. The premiums are as low as the non-participating rates in other offices, and yet they entitle policy-holders to a full share of the profits that may accrue. 4. The regulations affecting policy-holders are liberal, and com- pare favourably with those of other institutions. Thus policies contain no restrictive conditions as to voyaging, trade, or occupation. A policy-holder may travel in any part of the world, or engage in any occupation. Admission of age is indorsed on policies when issued, if a certificate of birth or the best evidence available is produced. Policies are kept in force as long as the surrender value is sufficient to pay the premium in arrear and interest, and may be revived within twelve months after the surrender value is exhausted, on proof of unimpaired health and payment of arrears. Policy-holders can borrow 90 per cent. of the surrender value of their policies. Policies are indisputable and unchallengeable after five years' duration, if age has been admitted. The subjoined tabular statement will show the remarkable growth of the business of this department :- EDUCATION. 121 average attendance during the year was 1,562. The number of instructors was 112. The cost of the education of Native children (excluding those who attend the public schools) was, for the year 1881, £18,699. Many European schools also received subsidies from the Govern- ment for the support of Maori pupils : 632 Maoris-viz., 349 boys and 283 girls—attended these schools, an increase on the previous year of 111 boys and 86 girls. Thus the total number of Maori children receiving education in 1881 amounted to 2,642. Corps. Strength. 820 13 CONSTABULARY, VOLUNTEERS, FIRE BRIGADES. . CONSTABULARY. The total strength of the Armed Constabulary on the 31st March, 1882, amounted to 1,404 men of all ranks. Of this number, 447-—-viz., 11 officers, 75 non-commissioned officers, and 361 constables-were engaged in the police duty of the colony; while the reserves, con- sisting of 21 officers, 81 non-commissioned officers, and 855 constables, were performing duties of a military character. VOLUNTEERS. The various branches of the Volunteer Force on the 31st December, 1881, had a total strength of 10,294 officers and men including 1,783 cadets, belonging to 144 corps. The totals of each branch of the service were as follow :- Cavalry Artillery 989 Engineers 253 Rifles 5,300 Naval 956 Cadets 1,976 In October, 1881, when it was decided to advance against Te Whiti at Parihaka, the Districts of Auckland, Nelson, Marlborough, Wellington, and Canterbury were called upon for volunteers for active service, and readily afforded a contingent of 6+ officers and 1,048 men, while hundreds were anxious to go whose services were not accepted. The campaign was, however, only demonstrative, as the Maoris suffered themselves to be taken into custody without offering resistance; but the officer commanding the forces recorded his high appreciation of the exemplary and soldierlike manner in .which the whole force behaved under the circumstances. FIRE BRIGADES. In 1881 there were 38 fire brigades in the colony, having a total strength of 148 officers and 811 men. FOREST TREES. 123 and heavy; used by the Maoris for carving, and said to be excellent for planks and spars ; grows in the North Island, being abundant in the forests near the Bay of Islands and to the north of Auckland. Libocedrus bidwillii, Hook. Pahautea, Cedar.-A handsome conical tree 60–80 feet high, 2-3 feet in diameter. In Otago, it produces a dark-red free-working timber, rather brittle, chiefly adapted for inside work. Found on the central ranges of the North Island, and common throughout the forests of the South Island, growing at altitudes of 500 to 4,000 feet. This timber has been used for sleepers on the Otago railways of late years, is largely employed in that district for fencing purposes, and is frequently mistaken for totara. In former years it was believed to be suitable only for inside work. Genus—Podocarpus, L'Héritier. Podocarpus ferruginea, Don. Miro, Bastard Black-pine of Otago.—A large ornamental and useful timber tree; attains a height of 40–60 feet, trunk 2–3 feet in diameter. A useful wood, but not so durable as the matai or true black-pine wood; reddish, close-grained and brittle; the cross section of the timber shows the heartwood star-shaped and irregular. The timber is generally thought to be unfitted for piles and marine works, except when only partially exposed to the influence of sea-water as shown in the railway embankment at Bluff Harbour, where it is reported to have been durable. Grows in the North and South Islands at altitudes below 1,000 feet. Podocarpus totara, A. Cunn. Totara.— A lofty and spreading tree, 60–120 feet high, 4-10 feet in diameter. Wood very durable and clean-grained, in appearance like cedar, and works with equal freedom; it is adapted for every . kind of carpenters' work. It is used extensively in Wellington for house-building and piles of marine wharves and bridges, and railway sleepers, and is one of the most valuable timbers known. The wood, if felled during the growing season, resists for a long time the attacks of teredo worms. It splits freely, and is durable as fencing and shingles. Totara post-and-rail fences are expected to last from forty to fifty years. The Maoris made their largest canoes from this tree, and the palisading of their pas consisted almost entirely of this wood. Grows throughout the North and South Islands upon both flat and hilly ground ; the timber from trees grown on hills is found to be the most durable. 124 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. Podocarpus spicata, Br. Matai, Mai, Black-pine of Otago.—A large tree, 80 feet high; trunk 2-4 feet in diameter. Wood yellowish, close-grained and durable ; used for a variety of purposes-piles for bridges, wharves, and jetties, bed-plates for machinery, millwrights' work, flooring, house-blocks, railway-sleepers, and fencing. Bridges in various parts of the colony afford proof of its durability. Mr. Buchanan has described a log of matai that he found had been exposed for at least two hundred years in a dense damp bush in North-East Valley, Dunedin, as proved by its being enfolded by the roots of three large trees of Griselinia littoralis, 3 feet 6 inches in diameter, with over 300 growth rings. Grows in both North and South Islands at altitudes under 1,500 feet. . Podocarpus dacrydioides, A. Rich. Kahikatea, White-pine.—A very fine tree, 100–150 feet high ; trunk 4 feet in diameter. Timber white and tough, soft, and well adapted for indoor work, but will not bear exposure. Abundant throughout the North and South Islands. When grown on dry soil it is good for the planks of small boats, but when from swamps it is almost useless. A variety of this tree, known as yellow-pine, is largely sawn in Nelson, and considered to be a durable building timber. Genus--Dacrydium. Dacrydium cupressinum, Soland. Rimu, Red-pine.-Tree pyramidal, with weeping branches when young; trunk 80–130 feet high, and 2–6 feet in diameter. An orna- mental and useful timber; wood red, clear-grained, heavy, and solid ; much used for joisting and planking, and general building purposes, from Wellington southward. Its chief drawback is in being liable to decay under the influence of wet. It is largely used in the manu- facture of furniture, the old wood being handsomely marked like rosewood, but of a lighter brown hue. The juice of this pine is. agreeable to drink, and was manufactured into spruce beer by Cap- tain Cook. Grows throughout the North and South Islands, but is of best quality in the central district. Dacrydium colensoi, Hook. Manoao, Yellow-pine.—A very ornamental tree, 20–80 feet high. Wood light yellow. It is the most durable and strongest timber in New Zealand. - Posts of this wood have been in use among the Maoris for several hundred years. Grows in the North and South Islands up to 4,000 feet altitude. This tree is curious from having . FOREST TREES. 125 two kinds of leaves on the same branches. It is greatly valued for furniture. Genus—Phyllocladus. Phyllocladus trichomanoides, Don. Tanekaha, Celery-leaved Pine.—A slender, handsome tree, 60 feet high ; trunk rarely exceeds 3 feet in diameter; wood pale, close-grained, and excellent for planks and spars ; resists decay in moist positions in a remarkable manner. Grows in the North Island, especially in the hilly districts. Phyllocladus alpinus, Hook. : Toatoa.—A small ornamental and densely-branched tree, some- times 2 feet in diameter. Bark used for dyeing and making tar. Found in both North and South Islands. Order—CUPULIFERÆ. Genus— Fagus, Linn. Fagus menziesii, Hook. Tawhai, Red-birch (from the colour of the bark).- A handsome tree, 80–100 feet high; trunk 2–3 feet in diameter. The timber is chiefly used in the lake district of the South Island. Durable and adapted for masts and oars, and for cabinet and cooper's work. Grows in the North Island on the mountain-tops, but abundant in the South Island at all altitudes to 3,000 feet. Fagus fusca, Hook. Tawhai, Tawhairaunui, Black-birch of Auckland and Otago (from colour of bark), Red-birch of Wellington and Nelson (from colour of timber).—This is a noble tree 60–90 feet high ; the trunk 5-8 feet in diameter. The timber is excessively, tough and hard to cut. It is highly valued in Nelson and Wellington as being both strong and durable for all purposes. It is found from Kaitaia in the North Island to Otago in the South Island, but is often locally absent from extensive districts, and grows at all heights up to 3,000 feet altitude. Fagus solandri, Hook. White-birch of Nelson and Otago (from colour of bark), Black- heart Birch of Wellington.-A lofty, beautiful evergreen tree 100 feet high; trunk 4–5 feet in diameter. The heart timber is darker than that of Fagus fusca, and is very durable. The wood is well adapted for fencing and bridge piles, and the bark is useful as a tanning material. This tree occurs only in the southern part of the North Island, but is abundant in the South Island, at 3,000–5,000 feet altitude. 126 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK Order—MYRTACEA. Genus—Leptospermum, Forst. Leptospermum scoparium, Forst. Kahikatoa, Tea-tree of Cook.—It is ornamental, and useful for fuel and fencing; generally a small shrub, but occasionally 20 feet in height in the South. Abundant throughout the Islands. Leptospermum ericoides, A. Rich. Manuka.—A slender tree 10–80 feet high, highly ornamental, more especially when young. The timber can be had 28–30 feet long, 14 inches in diameter at the butt, and 10 inches at the small end. The wood is hard and dark-coloured, largely used at present for fuel and fencing, axe-handles and sheaves of blocks, and formerly by the Natives for spears and paddles. The old timber, from its dark- coloured markings, might be used with advantage in cabinet-work, and its great durability might recommend it for many other purposes. Highly valued in Otago for jetty and wharf piles, as it resists the marine worm better than any other timber found in the district. It is extensively used for house-piles. The lightest-coloured wood, called “white manuka,” is considered the toughest, and forms an excellent substitute for the “ hornbeam” in the cogs of large spur-wheels. It is abundant as a shrub, and is found usually on the poorest soils, but is rare as a tree in large tracts to the exclusion of other trees. - -- - Genus— Metrosideros, Br. Metrosideros lucida, Menzies. Rata, Ironwood.—A very ornamental tree; attains a height of 30-60 feet, and a diameter of 2–10 feet. The timber of this tree forms a valuable cabinet wood ; is of a dark-red colour; splits freely. It has been much used for knees and timbers in ship-building, and would probably answer well for cogs of spur-wheels. Grows rarely in the North Island, but is abundant in the South Island, especially on the West Coast. Metrosideros robusta, A. Cunn. Rata.— A tall erect tree, 50-60 feet high; diameter of trunk 4 feet, but the descending roots often form a hollow stem 12 feet in diameter. Timber closely resembles the last-named species, and is equally dense and durable, while it can be obtained of much larger dimensions. It is used for ship-building, but for this purpose is inferior to the pohutukawa. On the tramways at the Thames it has been used for sleepers, which are perfectly sound after some years' use. Grows in the North Island; usually found in hilly situations from Cape Colville southwards. 128 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. Order—CORNEÆ. Genus—Griselinia, Forst. Griselinia littoralis, Raoul. Pukatea, Broadleaf.—An erect and thickly-branched bush-tree, 50–60 feet high ; trunk 3–10 feet in diameter. Wood splits freely, and is valuable for fencing and in shipbuilding; some portions make handsome veneers. Grows chiefly in the South Island and near the coasts. Order—COMPOSITÆ. Genus—Olearia, Mench. Olearia avicenniefolia, Hook. Mingimingi, Yellow-wood.—An ornamental shrub-tree; flowers numerous; trunk 2 feet in diameter. Wood close-grained, with yellow markings, which render it desirable for cabinet-work; good for veneers. Occurs in South Island. Olearia nitida. An ornamental shrub-tree, 20 feet high and 2 feet in diameter. Wood close-grained, with yellow markings; useful for cabinet-work. Found in the mountainous region of the North Island and throughout the South Island. Olearia cunninghamii. An ornamental shrub-tree, 12–20 feet high, with very showy flowers. Found abundantly on west coast of South Island, and not uncommon in North Island. Order—EricEÆ.. Genus— Dracophyllum, Lab. Dracophyllum longifolium, Br. Neinei.-An ornamental shrub-tree with long grassy leaves. Wood white, marked with satin-like specks, and adapted for cabinet- work. Grows in South Island and in Lord Auckland's Group and Campbell Island ; none of the South Island specimens are as large in the foliage as those in Auckland Islands. In the vicinity of Dun- edin attains a diameter of 10 to 12 inches. Order--VERBENACEÆ. Genus—Viteaz. Vitex littoralis, A. Cunn. Puriri.— A large tree, 50–60 feet high; trunk 20 feet in girth. Wood hard, dark olive-brown, much used ; said to be indestructible under all conditions. Grows in the northern parts of the North Island only. Considered very valuable for railway-sleepers. FOREST TREES. 129 Order—LAURINEÆ. Genus—Nesodaphne, Hook. Nesodaphne tarairi, Hook. Tarairi.— A lofty forest tree, 60–80 feet high, with stout branches. Wood white, splits freely, but not much valued. Grows in northern parts of North Island. Nesodaphne tawa, Hook. . Tawa.-A lofty forest tree, 60–70 feet high, with slender branches. The wood is light and soft, and is much used for making butter-kegs. Grows in the northern parts of the South Island, and also in the North Island, chiefly on low alluvial grounds; is commonly found forming large forests on river-flats. Order—MONIMIACEA. Genus-Atherosperma, Lab. Atherosperma nove-zealandie, Hook. Pukatea.—Height, 150 feet, with buttressed trunk 3–7 feet in diameter; buttresses 15 feet deep at the base; wood soft and yellowish, used for small boat planks. A variety of this tree has dark-coloured wood that is very lasting in water, and greatly prized by the Maoris for making canoes. Grows in the North Island, and northern parts of the South Island. Genus—Hedycarya, Forst. Hedycarya dentata, Forst. Kaiwhiria.-A small evergreen tree, 20–30 feet high; the wood is finely marked and suitable for veneering. Grows in the North Island, and as far south as Akaroa in the South Island. Order—PROTEACEÆ. Genus-Knightia, Br. Knightia excelsa, Br. · Rewarewa.-A lofty slender tree, 100 feet high. Wood handsome, mottled red and brown, used for furniture and shingles, and for fencing, as it splits easily. It is a most valuable veneering wood. Common in the forests of the North Island, growing upon the hills in both rich and poor soils. Order—MAGNOLIACEÆ. Genus— Drimys. Drimys axillaris, Forst. Horopito, Pepper-tree, Winter's Bark.—A small slender evergreen tree, very handsome. Whole plant aromatic and stimulant; used by the Maoris for various diseases. Wood very ornamental in 130 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. cabinet-work, making handsome veneers. Grows abundantly in forests throughout the Islands. At altitudes of 1,000 feet the foliage hecomes dense and reddish-coloured. Drimys colorata, Raoul. This is a very distinct species, very common near Dunedin ; it is a very ornamental shrub-tree, with leaves blotched with red. Order-V10LARIEÆ. Genus-Melicytus, Forst. Melicytus ramiflorus, Forst. Mahoe, Hinahina.—A small tree, 20–30 feet high; trunk often angular, and 7 feet in girth. The wood is soft and not in use. Abun- dant throughout the Islands as far south as Otago. Leaves greedily eaten by cattle. Order—MALVACEÆ. Genus-Hoheria, A. Cunn. Honeria populnea, A. Cunn. Houhere, Ribbonwood of Dunedin.—An ornamental shrub-tree, 10–30 feet high. Bark fibrous and used for cordage, and affords a demulcent drink. Wood splits freely for shingles, but is not durable. Grows abundantly throughout the Islands. Bark used for making a tapa cloth by the Maoris in olden times. Order— TILIACEÆ. Genus-Aristotelia. Aristotelia racemosa, Hook. Mako.-A small handsome tree, 6–20 feet high, quick-growing, with large racemes of reddish nodding flowers. Wood very light, and white in colour, and might be applied to the same purposes as the lime-tree in Britain ; it makes good veneers. Genus-Elæocarpus, Linn. Eleocarpus dentatus, Vahl. Hinau.— A small tree, about 50 feet high, and 18 inches thick in stem, with brown bark which yields a permanent blue-black dye, which is used for tanning; it is used by the Maoris for colouring mats and baskets. Wood a yellowish-brown colour and close-grained; very durable for fencing and piles. Common throughout the Islands. Order-OLACINEÆ. Genus—Pennantia, Forst. Pennantia corymbosa, Forst. Kaikomako.-A small, very graceful tree, with white sweet- smelling flowers ; height 20–30 feet. Wood used by the Maoris FOREST TREES. 131 for kindling fires by friction. Grows on the mountains of the North Island, and more abundantly throughout the South Island. Order—RHAMNEÆ. Genus-Discaria, Hook. Discaria toumatou, Raoul. Tumatakuru, Wild Irishman.—A bush or small tree with spreading branches; if properly trained would form a handsome hedge that would be stronger than whitethorn. The spines were used by the Maoris for tatooing. Order—SAPINDACEA. Genus--Dodonea, Linn. Dodonea viscosa, Forst. Ake.—A small tree, 6–12 feet high. Wood very hard, variegated black and white; used for Maori clubs; abundant in dry woods and forests. Genus-Alectryon, Gärtner. Alectryon excelsum, DC. . Titoki.—A beautiful tree with large panicles of reddish flowers. Trunk 15–20 feet high, and 12–20 inches in diameter. Wood has similar properties to ash, and is used for similar purposes. Its toughness makes it valuable for wheels, coach-building, &c.; the oil of the seeds was used for anointing the person. Grows in the North and South Islands ; not uncommon in forests. Order--CORIARIEÆ. Genus—Coriaria, Linn. Coriaria ruscifolia, Linn. Tupakihi, Tree Tutu.—A perennial shrub 10–18 feet high; trunk 6–8 inches in diameter. The so-called berries (fleshy petals) vary very much in succulence, the less juicy bearing seeds which, according to Colenso, are not poisonous. The juice is purple, and affords a grateful beverage to the Maoris; and a wine, like elderberry-wine, has been made from them. The seeds and leaves contain a poisonous alkaloid, and produce convulsions, delirium, and death, and are some- times fatal to cattle and sheep. Abundant throughout the Islands. Order=LEGUMINOSA. Genus--Sophora, Linn. Sophora tetraptera, Aiton. Kowhai.—A small or midilling-sized tree. appearance, with large pendulous yellow flowers. It has a splendid Wood red; valu- 138 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. Sulphate of soda » potash ... lime magnesia alumina iron Sulphuric acid Hydrochloric acid Silica Grains per Gallon. 19:24 traces 7:41 3:03 21.67 1.24 22:12 3.65 18:41 : 96.77 Sulphuretted hydrogen 2:98 Carbonic-acid gas 2:16 29. “Whangapipiro," commonly known as “Madame Rachel's Bath ;" saline waters with silicates (reaction alkaline). Grains per Gallon.. Chloride of sodium ... 69:43 potassium 3:41 lithium traces Sulphate of soda 11.80 Silicate of soda 18:21 „ lime 4.24 » magnesia 1:09 Iron and alumina oxides 2:41 Silica 5.87 a ... 116:46 Carbonic-acid gas ... ... 3.79 24. “Te Kauwhanga” (a), commonly known as “ Cameron's Bath ;" hepatic, feebly saline, with excess of acid (reaction acid). Grains per Gallon, Sulphate of soda ... ... 44:54 Chloride of potassium 1.67 sodium ... 12:01 calcium ... 5.22 magnesia 1.28 alumina ... 0.62 Silica 9:22 Hydrochloric acid 5.92 Sulphuretted hydrogen Carbonic acid gas 80:51 4:42 1.96 MINERAL WATERS. 139 8. “Turikore.” Faintly acid reaction, which turns to alkaline- on boiling. Grains per Gallon. Silicate of soda 16:32 lime 1.61 magnesia 1:14 iron Sulphate of soda ... 13:47 Chloride of potassium 1.24 sodium 53.61 Phosphate of alumina traces •39 iiiiiiii 87.78 The following abstract of a most interesting paper communicated to the Australasian Medical Gazette gives the actual experience of the usefulness of these springs obtained by Dr. Hope Lewis, the Medical Officer in charge of the Sanatorium : Only a few years ago the Rotorua District became known to those eager tourists whose thirst for sight-seeing gave them the energy to undertake long journeys on horseback with fare in Maori whares, and to those sufferers from chronic diseases, especially rheumatism, who, having exhausted the Pharmacopoeia, gave the waters the last chance of achieving an alleviation or a cure of their ailment. A road was at last made from Tauranga, a seaport in the Bay of Plenty, about forty-two miles from the Maori village of Ohinemutu, and the district then became the resort of tourists each summer. At the same time the number of invalids increased, and they, living in whares rented from Maoris, bathed daily in the warm springs near which their abodes stood. After using the waters, both for bathing in and drinking haphazard, one after another, many would feel much relieved, some cured, and almost all better for the change. No wonder the most powerful of the springs have received fanciful names, such as “The Painkiller,” “ The Lobster- pot,” « The Oil Bath,” “Madame Rachel,” and many named after indivi- duals who were cured by their use. Were any one to believe a hundredth part of the extraordinary tales of cures with which the coachdrivers regale their passengers en route to the district, any of the “ thousand ills” would meet with its appropriate bath and cure here. Such, however, experience shows is not the case. Being furnished by the Government Analyst with analyses of the principal waters near Lake Rotorua (on the shores of which the Native settlement of Ohinemutu and the new Township of Rotorua stand), I have had opportunities of watching closely many cases of disease that have been treated by bathing. I shall confine myself in my remarks to the * springs in the immediate neighbourhood of Rotorua. The various mineral waters are classified as alkaline siliceous, acidic, and acidic and hepatic or sulphurous. Of these three varieties several exist in the immediate vicinity of the new township, and the bath pavilion which has been erected, and is now in working order, has been supplied with two waters, one acidic, and one alkaline siliceous—viz., (1) Te Pupunitanga, commonly known to visitors. 140 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. - - -- - - -- - - - - - as the “ Priest's Bath” (acidic); and (2) Whangapipiro, commonly known -as “ Madame Rachel" (alkaline siliceous). The origin of these sobriquets is somewhat curious, and, having a more easy pronunciation than the Maori names, they have received too common use. No. 1. From the fact that a well-known Roman Catholic priest frequented, in early days, with much benefit, this now well-known spring. This water issues from porous pumice soil, part of which it has solidified by its deposit of silica, so making for itself a more or less per- fect set of tubes. There is a constant ebullition of gas (H2S) from the spring. Its temperature varies from 99° Fahr. to 104° Fahr. It rises 15 inches above the lake level, on the edge of which it stands, and into which it empties itself, depositing as it flows yellow flocculent sulphur. Silver held over this water, or dipped in it, becomes blackened, as also does gold that is alloyed with that metal. It has a most powerful action on the skin, causing redness of the whole surface immersed, and in some cases causing a small vesicular eruption of the skin. A curious fact that patients have observed is its astringent action on the skin, which is quite contrary to the effect of an ordinary warm bath. As before observed, sulphuretted hydrogen is given off by this water, and some cases have come under my notice in which fainting has been caused by its inhala- tion. That sulphur is absorbed into the system by the use of this water is proved by the fact that after removal from the locality silver worn on the person is still blackened. On few has it any purgative effect, but there are cases on record in which some diarrhea has resulted. I apprehend this is the result of an increased flow of bile, which I am led to believe is the case from the benefit that bilious and dyspeptic patients have received from bathing in this water, and also from the change produced in the colour of the stools. In a case of locomotor ataxy, which was treated by this bath and one of the hepatic sulphurous ones for a course of six weeks, a crop of boils was induced. Of one fact I am assured : that is, that it acts as a tonic and alterative generally, and that it has an eminently stimulating effect on that organ, so often at fault with obscure symptoms, the liver. This water has the power of destroying the Acarus scabiei with rapidity. I have seen in a short time a most severe case of scabies in a Maori completely cured by repeated bathing in this spring. That the vegetable parasitic affections of the skin will be benefited by the use of these waters I also hope to be able to prove soon. This water, as will be seen from the analysis, is not fitted for taking internally on account of the amount of free sulphuric acid it contains. One very similar water was taken by a curious tourist, who, to his pain, discovered its astringent qualities. It was beneficial, however, in a case of relaxed sore-throat, when employed as a gargle. For a vaginal douche this and other waters here have been used with marked benefit in cases of leucorrhæa, endo- metritis, and uterine atomy, especially about the time of the cessation of the menses. The ease and comfort with which the waters can be used in these cases is apparent. In functional dysmenorrhæa, accompanied with neuralgia, they have proved exceedingly beneficial. The appetites of patients under a course of bathing calls for remark. In every case that has come under my notice the appetite for food, when it has been failing, has been increased by regular bathing; and in cases where patients have felt much enervated while undergoing a course, still they have been surprised that their desire for food increased, and its subsequent easy digestion was accomplished. MINERAL WATERS. 141 No. 2 received its name from the fact of its rendering the cuticle so. soft and pliable as to resemble to some the enamelling process of the celebrated “beautifier.” The luxury, for it is such, of bathing in this water is due to its softness, and to the amount of silicic acid and silicates that it contains. When the body is immersed a gloss is given to the skin which is most characteristic of the alkaline siliceous waters in the district. As the water flows from the spring, which is a deep, clear cauldron, at a temperature of about 174° Fahr., it deposits a steel-grey coating of silica on the bed of the stream in the form of a rock. By this process the beautiful terraces at Rotomahana have been formed, one of which is white, the other being slightly tinged pink, due to a small amount of iron oxide in solution. This class of water, of which Whangapipiro is a typical example, has been employed principally in the treatment of gout, gouty arthritis, chronic rheumatism, rheumatoid arthritis, and forms of myalgia, especially lumbago of a rheumatic kind; also sciatica. For these com- plaints, and many others too numerous to mention, invalids have alter- nated the use of the alkaline waters with the hepatic sulphurous, of one of which I append an analysis as a type. The cases which seem most benefited by their use are those semi- convalescent from the acute forms of rheumatism and gout. These, as a rule, rapidly improve after a few days, and make good recoveries; but the chronic cases take a far longer time than patients will or can give to their treatment, as a rule, so far. It is only due to these waters to state that, though they have not removed synovial fringes, nor relaxed anchylosed joints, to my knowledge, still they appear in many cases to reduce fluid in joints, and they certainly eradicate that wearing pain which is so harass- ing at times to the rheumatic and gouty, when their use is persevered in. Of the action of this water when taken internally I cannot yet speak with certainty. Several cases of lumbar and sciatic myalgia produced in miners. who have been employed in the damp mines on the west coast of the South Island of New Zealand have been cured by the use of a strongly siliceous water in the form of a heavy douche. I have only had an opportunity of watching one case of psoriasis, but. the marked benefit that was produced leads me to hope that in those cases of Psoriasis inveterata there is yet one more remedy to try after the usual course has been adopted with no good result. In January this year a. gentleman, A. B., æt. 42, was sent here by his medical advisers as a last chance. I saw him the morning after his arrival. He was a most typical example of Psoriasis inveterata, the whole body and limbs being covered with the disease, the face and hands excepted. He had taken all the known medicines, including quiniæ arsenias, and used all the applications, including chrysophanic acid ointment. The duration of the disease was. four years. Family history of skin disease on both sides. No syphilitic taint. Disease had steadily increased up to six months ago; since then had been stationary. The amount of desquamation was very great, and there was pain in every movement of the large joints. There was loss of sleep and appetite, and sitting down was performed with much pain. I may mention that during the greater portion of the coach journey up he was kneeling, that being the position in which he felt least pain. He began a course of bathing at one of the alkaline siliceous springs named Turikore,* and persevered for about four months, each week of which time he pronounced himself as improving. At first, * No. 8 in table on p. 134. 146 NEW ZEALAND HANDBOOK. No. V.-IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. No. VI.—LOCAL EXPORTS. In the first of these diagrams South Australia and New South Wales occupy the highest position ; and in the second Queensland and South Australia. Neither Victoria nor New Zealand has main- tained the position held at the commencement of the period under notice, and Tasmania stands so low in both cases as to be seemingly quite out of the race. No. VII.-Savings. In this diagram, which exhibits the rate of deposits in Post Office and other Savings Banks to population, all the colonies, it is shown, have made considerable progress. In South Australia and Queensland the advance has been remarkably great and rapid; Tas- mania and New Zealand have, to a large extent, followed their good example; and New South Wales and Victoria appear to have some- what lagged behind until 1880. No. VIII.-RAILWAYS. The proportion of constructed railways to population is shown in this diagram. The place occupied by New Zealand is marked 2.66 miles per 1,000 of population ; Queensland and South Australia have a still higher percentage, owing to their wide-extending but sparsely- populated territories ; and all the colonies stand higher than the United Kingdom, the proportion in that country being 0:54 miles per 1,000. No. IX.--TELEGRAPHIS. The long trans-continental lines necessarily give prominent places in this diagram to Queensland and South Australia. New South Wales, New Zealand, and Tasmania come next in order, very close together ; then Victoria. No. X.--CultivaTION. This diagram exhibits the area of land in cultivation (including land under sown grasses) in proportion to the population. The extraordinary progress made by New Zealand and South Australia in this direction is very strikingly shown. Tasmania occupies an almost unchanged medium position, and the Colonies of Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland have preserved, in near neighbourhood, a very low level, Victoria, however, showing a slight rise in the last three or four years. No. XI.- WHEAT. The average yield of wheat per acre in the Australian Colonies, shown in this diagram, contrasts favourably with the general average STATISTICAL DIAGRAMS, 147 given of America. The yield in New Zealand stands considerably higher than that of the other colonies, Tasmania taking second place, New South Wales being next, then Queensland, Victoria, and South Australia, the average of the last-named colony being lower than that of America. No. XII.-GOLD. The value of gold raised in proportion to population during the years 1868-81, in the Colonies of Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, and New Zealand, is shown in this diagram so far as the information at command will permit. The decline in the quantity of gold raised in Victoria and New Zealand is very marked; the yield in New South Wales has fluctuated very little ; and in Queensland the quantity of gold raised in 1874 was nearly double that of 1868, but it has since been falling off. By Authority: GEORGR DIDBBURY, Governmont Printor, Wellington.-1883. No. I. INCREASE OF POPULATION. o 100 of Populata. 1868, 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877.1 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 15.5 15-0 14:5 14.0 135 13.0 12-5 12:0 11.5 11.0 10-5 10:0 9.5 Queensland cococió cioció ்் N. S. Wales N. Zealand Victoria .. S. Australia . THE ileen ST Tasmania .. England .. 2.0 1.5 1.0 00 Decrease. 0.5 No. II. MARRIAGES. Y 1,000 of Populatn. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. N. Zealand Queensland Ñ. S. Wales England .. 9.60 9.40 9.20 9.00 8.80 8.60 8:40 8.20 8.00 7.80 7.60 7.40 7.20 7.00 6.80 6.60 6.40 6.20 6.00 5:80 S. Australia Victoria .. VIAN tin MIHAV Tasmania .. TV W AVAM CALEN NO. V. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. Y Head of Populatn. 1868. 1869. 1870. 1871. 1872. 1873. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881.1 £47 46 44 Victoria .. N. Zealand sahil Queensland ni Whitnou N. S. Wales untutininin S. Australia 17 U. Kingdom Tasmania .. 16 15 14 No. VI. LOCAL EXPORTS. £24 22 N. Zealand Queensland Victoria .. Thi S. Australia N. S. Wales Tasmania .. COCOCCA 176 178 (Lower Carboniferous, Upper Devonian. Lower Devonian. Upper Silurian. Lower Silurian. Foliated Schists. Granite, Crystalline Shiats. (Basic Volcanic rocks. Serpentines {Acidic Volcanic rocks. {Coal outcrops. {Gold workings. Auriferous reefs. {Copper & other ores. pode 8 Ooon 0 . Coo DO 0 4:20 1359 8 SSD PSM o Il