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OF
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CHAMBERS'S COMMERCIAL HANDBOOKS
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
OF
OF
THE BRITISH ISLES
BY
A. J. HERBERTSON, M.A., Ph.D.
LECTURER IN REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD, AND
EXAMINER IN ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON
SECOND EDITION

LONDON: 47 Paternoster Row
W. & R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED
EDINBURGH: 339 High Street
1907


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CHAMBERS'S COMMERCIAL HANDBOOKS.
COMMERCIAL ARITHMETIC. By W. WOODBURN. 112 pages. 8d.
Do.
Do.
With Answers. Price ls.
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Answers only. Price 6d.
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE BRITISH ISLES.
By A. J. HERBERTSON, M.A., Ph. D. 152 pages. Price ls.
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD OUTSIDE THE
BRITISH ISLES. By A. J. HERBERTSON, M.A., Ph.D.
268 pages. Price 2s. 6d.
COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD.
By A. J. HERBERTSON, M.A., Ph.D. 420 pages. Price 3s. 6d.
COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENCE AND OFFICE ROUTINE.
First Year's Course. By G. R. WALKER. 128 pages. Price ls.
COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENCE AND OFFICE ROUTINE.
Second Year's Course. By G. R. WALKER. 152 pages. Price 1s. 6d.
COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENCE AND OFFICE ROUTINE.
Complete Course. By G. R. WALKER. 280 pages. Price 2s. 6d.
COMMERCIAL COPY BOOKS. No. 1, price 3d.; No. 2, price 3d.
These books may be used in conjunction with the text-books
on Commercial Correspondence and Office Routine,' or they
may be used independently.
W. & R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED, LONDON AND EDINBURGH.



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AGRICULTURAL
DIVISIONS
of
GREAT BRITAIN.
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AGRICULTURAL DIVISIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
AGRICULTURAL Divisions
AND
Returned as
Divisions.
Total Area
of Land
and
Water.
Returned
as under Woods
and Plantations
in 1995.
Estimated Area of
Mountain and
Heath Land used
for Grazing.
SUBDIVISIONS.
Permanent
Pasture.
| Arable Land.
%
Acres.
3,647,000
Acres.
118,000
Acres.
35,000
Acres.
956,000
%
26.2
Acres.
2,034,000
%
5500
| 3.2
(a.) Beds., Hunts., Cambs.,
Suffolk, Essex, Herts.,
Middlesex, London.
(6.) Norfolk, Lincoln, York,
E.R.
3,765,000
114,000
3.0
43,000
1:1
992,000 263
2,270,000 | 60-2
3,882,000
439,000
| 11.3
127,000
(a.) Kent, Surrey, Sussex,
Berks, Hants.
(6.) Notts, Leicester, Rutland,
Northampton, Bucks,
Oxford, Warwick.
3.2 1,369,000 35-2
•1 | 1,710,000 51.0
1,413,000 36.3
1,169,000 34:9
3,349,000
154,000
| 45
5,000
II II IDIO
3,899,000
255,000
91,000
2:3 | 1,990,000 5067 | 1,227,000 31.4
(a.) Salop, Worcester, Glou-
cester, Wilts, Monmouth,
Hereford.
(6.) Somerset, Dorset, Devon,
Cornwall.
4,205,000
200,000
270,000
6:4|
1,806,000
42-9
1,351,000 | 32:1
5,072,000
202,000
3.9
1,025,000
201 | 2,092,000
41.2
1,122,000
4,725,000
184,000
3.8
613,000
| 12:9
| 2,277,000
48'1
1,016,000
21.5
(a.) Northumberland, Durham,
York, N.R., York, W.R.'
(6.) Cumberland, Westmor-
land, Lancashire, Staf-
ford, Cheshire, Derby.
Wales (12 counties)......
4,774,000
182,000
3.8
1,154,000
24•1 | 1,930,000
40-4
903,000
18:9
V
Scotland (East).....
6,546,000
457,000
6.9
2,177,000
33.2
519,000
709
2,170,000
33•1
VII.
Scotland (West)....
....
12,909,000
421,000
3.2
7,280,000
56:31
872,000
67 | 1,332,000 | 10-3
-
Great Britain...
56,773,000 |2,726,000
| 48
12,820,000
22-2 | 16,513,000 29.0 16,007,000
28:1


CONTENTS.
PAGE
MAP AND TABLE SHOWING AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS OF
GREAT BRITAIN.......................
............ 4, 5
INTRODUCTION.
Commercial or Economic Geography-Distribution of Occupa-
tions in Britain-Summary of Industrial History of Britain
9
CHAPTER 1.
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
Mountains, Plains, Rivers, and Coasts—Climate and Vegetation
-Soils.
....
12
CHAPTER II.
THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
Grass-Lands-Cultivated Lands-Woods. Useful Animals-
Cattle-Sheep-Horses-Pigs—The British Farmer and
his Competitors-Fisheries.......
....
21
CHAPTER III.
DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS AND MINING CENTRES.
Building Materials-Coal-Chief Coalfields and the Related
Industries-Iron-Other Metals—Peat-Oil-shale-Salt.... 35
CHAPTER IV.
DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES AND MANUFACTURING
CENTRES.
Rise of Manufactures-Classification. The Textile Industries
-History of the Textile Industries—Sources of Power-
The Manufacture of Woollens-Woollen Manufacturing
Centres—The Manufacture of Linens-Linen Manufac-
turing Centres — The Manufacture of Cotton — Cotton
Manufacturing Centres—Cotton, Woollen, and Linen
Manufacturing Statistics—Jute and Hemp Manufactures
and Centres—Silk Manufacture and Centres—Fibres for
Textile Manufactures. The Iron Industries—Iron Manu.


CONTENTS.
PAGE
facturing Centres—Recent Developments. The Chemical
Industries—Coal-tar Dyes—Salt Works-Sulphuric Acid
-Glass-making-Potteries—Soap-makir 1–Candles, &c.—
Paper-making-Tanning. Industries connected with Food
and Drink-Preserved Foods-Sugar-refining-Dairy Pro-
duce—Brewing and Distilling..........
...... 44
CHAPTER V.
TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
Towns and Trade-Internal Transport-Roads-Canals—The
Canal System of Britain—Ship-canals-Railways–Main
Lines connecting London with the Western and Southern
Counties-Main Lines connecting London with the Mid-
lands and North of England-Scottish, Welsh, and Irish
Railways—Chief Trading Centres-London-Birmingham
-Staffordshire - South Lancashire - Cheshire – West
Riding of Yorkshire-Northumberland and Durham-
The Lowlands of Scotland-Ports.......
62
CHAPTER VI.
OUR FOOD-SUPPLY.
Changes in the Staple Diet-Demand for Imported Food-
Cereals—Wheat-Maize-Other Cereals-Pulses—Rice-
Dairy Produce and Eggs-Fish–Flesh-Poultry and
Game-Fruits-Sugar-Spices, Flavourings, &c.-Ice-
Stimulants and Narcotics—Tea-Coffee-Cacao (Cocoa)
Fermented Drinks—Tobacco and Snuff............................
80
CHAPTER VII.
IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED ARTICLES.
Raw Materials for Textile Manufacture_Wool-Flax-Cotton
-Silk-Jute-Hemp—China Grass. Other Raw Materials
of Vegetable and Animal Origin-Palm-oil-Rubber-
Gums and Resins, &c.-Substances imported for Tanning
and Dyeing-Timber and Cabinet Woods–Furs and other
Animal Products-Ivory-Ostrich Feathers—Sponges.
Imported Minerals-Iron-Copper-Lead and Manganese
--Zinc-Tin-Mercury- Platinum - Nickel - Sulphur-
Graphite — Nitrate of Soda — Asbestos — Petroleum-
Asphalt-Gold and Silver-Precious Stones. Manufac-
tured Articles Imported— Cotton Piece-goods-Woollen
Goods — Silk Goods — Ready-made Clothing - Boots-
Gloves-Household Utensils — Glass - Scientific Instru-
ments -- Musical Instruments — Matches—Watches and
Clocks-Manufactured Iron........
91


COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY
OF THE BRITISH ISLES,
INTRODUCTION.
ECONOMIC, or, as it is more often called, Commercial
Geography, deals with the distribution of things of
economic importance. It regards geography from the
point of view of men's activities in getting food,
shelter, and other material goods, and neglects all
other aspects of the subject. The river Mersey, for
instance, is of interest in Economic Geography, not
because it rises in the Pennines and flows westward to
the Irish Sea, but because its waters are available for
turning machinery, for scouring, bleaching, and dyeing,
and because its estuary forms one of the great water-
ways of the world. The Pennines themselves are
important because of the grass on their sides, which
feeds sheep, and because of the coal in their flanks,
which is used as fuel in mills and houses, in the
engines which convey freight between mills and
markets, and in the steamers which sail from Liver-
pool and other neighbouring ports. i
Economic geography, therefore, must take into
account the geographical conditions which help man
to make a living. The sea supplies fish and salt, and


10
INTRODUCTION.
is a pathway for his ships. The rivers supply water
for domestic and industrial use, and, if navigable,
afford an easy and cheap means of transport. The
plains yield food for man and beast; the hills are
pasture grounds; the very rocks yield stone for
building purposes, clay for bricks, coal for fuel,
iron and other metals for the necessary implements
of manufacture and transport.
The occupations of men, therefore, have a natural
distribution. On the coast they become fishers, sailors,
or traders; on the plains, farmers; on the hills,
shepherds; while mining and other industries depend-
ing upon coal and iron spring up where these sources
of natural wealth are available. .
Looking at a physical map of the British Isles, the
south-east of Great Britain and the centre of Ireland
are seen to be plains; the northern half of Great
Britain and all the west and the corners of Ireland
are generally mountainous, with plains of small extent.
The south-east and east of Great Britain, therefore,
are mainly agricultural, and the west mainly pastoral.
Agriculture is more developed in Ireland on the
central plain than in the mountains to the north-
west and south, but cattle-rearing is everywhere more
important than the cultivation of the soil. This is
largely due to the heavy rains, an illustration of the
fact that climate as well as relief helps to deter-
mine the nature and distribution of occupations.
For many centuries minerals played a comparatively
unimportant part in the economics of our island, except
in the extreme south-west, where tin early attracted
foreign traders to Cornwall. Salt was much in demand
for preserving meat for the winter, and continued to


INTRODUCTION.
11
bare mehed land bericulture can rest cleari
be so until the development of transport rendered the
produce of distant markets available at all seasons of
the year. At the dawn of history in Britain much of
the land was uncleared forest, and hunting and fishing
were the chief occupations. In Roman times the
country must still have been densely wooded, for we
find some of the main Roman roads leading over the
bare mountain-tops, which were easier to cross than
the wooded land below. In the regions that had been
cleared of trees agriculture developed, and corn was
exported to the Continent. Forest clearing, however,
is a slow process, and for many centuries the chief
product was wool from the numerous sheep which fed
on the grassy slopes of the unwooded uplands. With
the gradual clearing of the forests, agriculture became
more and more important, but sheep-rearing remained
the staple industry. The wool was not, however,
manufactured at home, but was exported to Flanders.
More than one English monarch attempted to intro-
duce the woollen industry, and from time to time
numbers of Flemish weavers settled in this country.
As the forests were gradually cut down and timber
became scarcer, coal was increasingly used for fuel,
and its consumption was enormously increased by the
application of steam to machinery in the eighteenth
century. The demand for machinery which sprang
up at that time reacted on the iron industry, and
led to the diversion of much land to industrial uses.
Home production of raw material no longer sufficed
for the rapid development of industry.
Meanwhile, although the population increased
rapidly, the proportion of those engaged in raising
food diminished, and the home food-supply became


12
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
quite inadequate. Foreign trade, therefore, had a
twofold object—to dispose of the surplus commodities,
and to supply the deficiency of raw material and
food. Hence the paramount importance of trade,
home and foreign, to our country, and the taunt
sometimes levelled against us that we are a 'nation
of shopkeepers.'
In studying the economic geography of Britain,
therefore, we have to consider the geographical con-
ditions as they affect such primary occupations as
fishing, the rearing of animals, or the tilling of the
soil; to explain the reasons for the distribution of
its industries and industrial cities; and to describe
the great internal trade-routes, the great ports, and
the commodities carried in the ships that enter and
leave them.
CH A PᎢ Ꭼ Ꭱ Ꮮ.
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
Mountains, Plains, Rivers, and Coasts.—The physical
features of the British Isles are of great economic
importance. The high land of Great Britain lies in
the west; the low land occupies the south-east and is
nearest to the Continent of Europe. Ireland, farther
removed from the Continent, is more or less isolated,
and its east coast, which is nearest Great Britain, has
few good harbours.
A line from the Exe to Whitby divides Great
Britain into two parts—an older, billier, northern and
western part, and a younger, flatter, southern and


PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
13
eastern part. The south-eastern plain reaches the
west coast only at the Bristol Channel, and across the
Cheshire plain to the Dee and the Mersey. These
outlying portions of the plain separate the Cornish
Heights from the Welsh Mountains, and the Welsh
Mountains from the Pennine Uplands and the
Mountains of Cumberland respectively. Farther
north, the Central Lowlands of Scotland divide the
higher ground into the Southern Uplands and the
Highlands of Scotland, and permit communication
from east to west. The long, narrow depression of
Glenmore divides the South-east from the North-
west Highlands.
Each of these regions of lower land, permitting
ready communication from east to west of the island,
is of great economic importance. In the case of
England, the Bristol Channel serves as an outlet to
the west through Bristol, Gloucester, Newport, Cardiff,
and Swansea, corresponding to the estuary of the
Thames, where London is the centre, on the east.
Even more important is the flat Cheshire plain, which
permits communication with the central plains of
England. The Mersey estuary, with the great port of
Liverpool, on the west coast, corresponds to that of the
Humber, with Grimsby, Hull, and Goole, on the east
coast. The Cheviot Hills and the Southern Uplands
of Scotland practically shut off all communication
between the two seas, and block the route to the north
along the east coast, which is flat and easily traversed
south of them. The great firths of the Forth and the
Tay on the east, and of the Clyde on the west, stretch
far into the heart of the Lowlands, and permit products
to be easily received and distributed through Glasgow,


14
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
Greenock, and other west-coast ports, and through
Leith, Grangemouth, Dundee, and other east-coast
ports. This is the place to cut a great ship-canal
across Great Britain, which would join the Clyde
and the Forth, and prove of great commercial, as
well as of great strategic, importance. The narrow
depression of Glenmore is relatively unimportant
from an economic point of view, as it is entirely in
a mountainous region, and connects no great fertile
plains or busy industrial districts.
From north to south the east coast is bounded by
comparatively flat land, which is interrupted only by
the Southern Uplands and the South-east Highlands
approaching close to the sea, and by the Forth and
the Tay, which necessitated long detours round their
estuaries before these were bridged. Communica-
tion from the Thames almost to the very north of
Great Britain has long been possible across the flat
land along the east coast. The eastern barriers are
not so formidable as those on the west coast, where
communication was obstructed north of Lancashire
by the Cumbrian Mountains, then by the Southern
Uplands of Scotland, and lastly by the great extent
of the Highlands. The lands around the Solway
Firth could be reached only by the difficult route
from the south between the Pennines and the
Cumbrian Mountains, by the North Tyne from the
east, or by the valleys of the Liddel, the Annan, and
the Nith, which formed the equally difficult pašses
to the north. The valleys of the Tay and the Spey
form passes across the centre of the South-east High-
lands. The railways now traverse these, the easiest
tracks across a difficult country.


PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
15
The rocky, mountainous western coasts have many
drowned valleys which form excellent harbours, but
the lack of easy communication with the busy parts
of the country makes most of these harbours com-
paratively unimportant, though Milford Haven forms
a packet and naval station. The exceptions are where
the estuaries are found in the western flat lands, and
these are of the greatest importance now that the
Atlantic Ocean has become a great highway for
trading-ships. The chief are the Clyde, which reaches
into the Lowlands of Scotland; the Mersey, which
indents the Cheshire plain, across which the Weaver
serves as a waterway; and the Bristol Channel, with
the canalised Severn and the Warwickshire Avon
communicating with the heart of England.
On the east coast, on the other hand, there are
few good harbours except in the estuaries of the
great tidal rivers and in the firths of eastern Scot-
land. The Tay and the Forth reach into the heart of
the Scottish Lowlands. The Aberdeenshire Dee, the
Tyne, and the Tees, though navigable only near their
mouths, are outlets for important industrial regions.
The Humber, the Wash, and the Thames are the
most important in the south, and the chief water-
ways of the English plain reach the sea by them.
The Humber is connected by the Yorkshire Ouse and
the Trent with the flat lands of the north-east and
centre of England. Parts of the Yorkshire Ouse and
its tributaries, and almost the entire length of the
Trent, have been rendered navigable by canalisation.
The shallow Wash extends into the marshy Fenland,
across which sluggish rivers like the Welland and
the Great Ouse, now canalised, form waterways. The


16
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
Thames valley breaks through the line of chalk
heights between the Marlborough and the Chiltern
Hills, and serves as an outlet, not merely for the
lowlands to the east of them, but also for those to the
west. The canalising of the Thames and the Kennet
has made them important waterways.
The south coast has many good harbours, such as
Southampton Water and Portsmouth Harbour, but the
line of chalk Downs which flanks it prevents ready
communication with the interior, where the Kennet
and the Thames form the natural route to the sea.
The south-western harbours at Plymouth Sound and
Falmouth Bay are excellent, but have little land
behind them, while most of what there is is relatively
unproductive upland.
Many of these physical hindrances to communica-
tion have been overcome by engineers in the last
half-century, and now the railways follow not merely
the lowlands that we have mentioned, but travel over
the hills through passes like that of Shap, or tunnel
through the colitic and chalk scarps of central and
southern England.
In Ireland the mountains lie, as a rule, round the
coast, thus leaving a great central plain. This central
plain is drained mainly by the Shannon, a navigable
river expanding into great lakes, and forming a wide
estuary, which, unfortunately for Ireland, opens to the
west and not to the east. In the south, west, and
north there are many good harbours, but they are
in the more hilly regions, have relatively difficult
communication with the interior, and do not face
Great Britain. The southern and northern ports,
however, are more favoured in this way than the


PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
17
western, as the ports in the south communicate with
the south-west of England and the Continent, and
those in the north with the west of the Scottish
Lowlands. The most important openings are Water-
ford and Cork Harbours in the south, and Lough
Foyle in the north. The east coast has few good
natural harbours, that of Belfast Lough being the
best. Dublin, at the mouth of the Liffey, is on a
gentle incurve of the coast, but Dublin Bay is not
naturally a good harbour, and engineering works have
been necessary to form the harbours at Dublin and
Kingstown. Even now vessels of the largest size
cannot get up to Dublin.
Climate and Vegetation.--'All flesh is grass,' says the
Preacher, and all animals ultimately depend on plants
for their subsistence. Plants alone have the power of
obtaining food from the simpler elements found in the
air, water, and soil. This they can do only in the
light, and when there are sufficient heat and moisture.
Their distribution thus depends on that of sunshine,
heat, and moisture; in other words, on climate. The
nature of the soil and drainage must also be taken
into account, but where the climate is unfavourable
good soil and drainage do not avail.
In spite of their situation in the northern part of the
north hemisphere, between latitudes 50° and 60° N.,
the British Isles are specially favoured as regards
climate. They lie to the north-west of the continent
of Europe, and rise above the waters in the north-east
of the Atlantic Ocean. Land near a great ocean has a
more equable climate than that remote from the sea,
and if the prevalent winds blow from the warmer parts
of the ocean, as in the case of the British Isles, such a
B
Goog. 1


18
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
country has an exceptionally equable and mild climate.
Our land is therefore better suited to the growth of
plants than most other lands in similar latitudes. The
prevalent winds come from between south and west at
all seasons of the year, and blow over stretches of warm
Atlantic water. When they reach our shores they are
heavily laden with moisture, most of which is visible
in the form of clouds. The western mountains deflect
the clouds upwards, leading to cooling and condensa-
tion. This makes them still denser, and causes heavy
rains along the western coast and the west of the
higher lands. On the other side of the mountains the
air begins to descend again, becoming warmer and
drier as it sinks once more to the sea-level. On the
whole, therefore, the mountainous parts, more particu-
larly their western slopes, are cloudy and rainy; the
plains, more particularly in the east, are clear and dry.
This has a very important effect on the nature of the
plants grown, which in the west are species thriving
best in dull, rainy conditions, and in the east those
which require a relatively dry, clear climate.
In dull, wet regions plants run to leaf; their fruits
mature more readily under drier and sunnier con-
ditions.
From an economic point of view, the fundamental
difference between west and east is that in the west
those economic plants flourish whose leaves are of most
use (and of these grass is by far the most important),
and in the east cereals and fruits ripen well. The
grass-lands of the country are found in the west and
in the uplands, the grain and fruit regions in the plains,
more particularly on the eastern side of the mountains.
Temperature, however, as well as humidity, must


PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN. 19
be taken into account. For every additional 300 feet
in altitude the temperature falls on an average 1° F.;
for every additional degree of latitude it falls a little
more than 0:5° F.; so that in the higher lands and in
the north the conditions are less favourable for plant
growth than in the plains and in the south. The
temperature of winter is less important than that of
summer, for grains and fruits require warm, sunny
weather to ripen them, while many seeds and trees
can withstand hard frosts. Moreover, many seeds are
not sown until the winter is over.
The winter temperature of the British Isles varies
little from north to south, but diminishes from west to
east. Hence grass grows at all times of the year in
the lower parts of the western section of the country,
whereas in the east and in the higher lands the cold
winters interrupt its growth.
The east is warmer in summer than the west, because
it is less influenced by the cooling action of the sea,
and the temperature is higher in the south than in the
north; so that in summer the south-east is the warmest
and the north-west is the coolest part of the British
Isles. The dry, warm lands of the south-east are those
that favour the ripening of the cereals. Above a
certain height the summers are too cold for this to
take place, even where the rainfall is suitable. Hence
the highest parts of the British Isles are either bare
or covered with poor grass, heather, or bracken; or, in
the western parts, where the water accumulates in the
hollows, great peat-bogs or mosses occur. In Scotland
more than three-quarters of the land is unproductive,
but in the south of Great Britain and in Ireland the
proportion of waste land is less than a quarter. Thirty-


20
PHYSICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
six per cent. of the United Kingdom is covered with
permanent grass, and 26 per cent. grows cereals and
other crops, including grasses under rotation.
Soils.—Soils are formed of decomposed rocks. They
may be divided into clays, sands, and loams. Clays
consist of very fine particles that are easily pressed
together, and so do not let water pass through them
easily. Sands are very different; their particles are
larger and looser, and water easily percolates through
them. Loam is a mixture of clay and sand in almost
equal parts, and may contain more or less organic
matter. The organic matter in soils is known as
humus, and is of very great importance, its presence
making soils fertile.
Lime is found in most soils in greater or smaller
quantities, and is very useful when not too abundant.
A very limy soil may contain as much as 20 per cent.
A clay with a fairly large proportion of lime is called
marl.
Soils depend in the first place on the nature of the
rocks from which they are decomposed. Soils formed
from immediately underlying rocks in the place where
they are found are by no means the commonest in
the British Isles. They occur mainly south of the
Thames, where chalk and flints enter so largely into
their composition that they are not very fertile.
Many of the limy soils, like those of the Downs and
the chalk and colitic scarps, produce excellent grasses,
which form food for many sheep.
Most of the soils of the British Isles are mixed, as
the greater part of the archipelago has been covered
by glacial drift. The ice, passing over many kinds
of rocks, has ground up the waste of these together


THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
21
to form boulder clay. There is a very noticeable
difference in the fertility of the soils north and
south of the Thames, the former being one of the
richest agricultural soils in the British Isles, because
of the mixing brought about by the ice in a region
where very many different kinds of rock are found
close together. The open clays which form good
wheat-land are mixed soils.
Rivers, passing, as they do, through many different
kinds of rock, bring down rock-waste of different com-
position and a large amount of vegetable débris. This
makes the river alluvium, which is a very fertile soil,
and much of the Fenland and the valleys of the York-
shire Ouse and the lower Trent is formed of it.
Alluvium occurs in the flood plains, and borders the
estuaries of all great rivers.
There is considerable difference in the fertility of
the soils derived from the older rocks. Many of the
volcanic soils are fertile, but the hard crystalline rocks
of the western mountains yield a comparatively poor
soil. On the other hand, the Old Red Sandstone and
many Carboniferous rocks yield fertile soils, but the
limestone which covers so much of Ireland is not a
specially favourable one for agriculture.
CHAPTER II.
THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
Grass-lands.—Where the elevation is over 1000 feet
or the rainfall more than 40 inches a year, the
land is almost entirely covered with grass, unless


22
THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
special conditions of temperature or soil make it waste
land. This grass-land includes all the mountain area
of the western parts of the British Isles. In these
districts, as a rule, the grass forms permanent pasture
and is little broken up for cultivation, although here
and there a patch of ground is sown with oats, and in
Ireland considerable areas are planted with potatoes.
In the other parts of the islands grass is found either as
meadow-land or coming in rotation with other crops.
Much of the cultivated grass is used for hay, but the
proportion of this is less in Scotland, where the summer
is cooler and more rainy than in other parts of the
kingdom.
In Ireland 55 per cent. of the land is covered with
permanent pasture, whereas in Great Britain the pro-
portion of permanent pasture is less than 30 per cent.
(Scotland, 7 per cent.; Wales, 40 per cent.; England,
40 per cent.).
Cultivated Lands. The drier and lower lands in the
east, more particularly of Great Britain, are cultivated.
In Ireland 18 per cent. of land is arable, in Scotland
18 per cent., in Wales 19 per cent., and in England
nearly 35 per cent.
Of this land the greater part is cultivated with a
rotation of crops-cereals, roots, and grasses-of which
cereals are the most important, except in Ireland and
Scotland, where only 36 per cent. of the arable land
produces cereals, compared with 40 per cent. in Wales
and 50 per cent. in England. The principal cereal
crop in the British Isles is oats. Two-fifths of the
cereal-land of Great Britain and five-sixths of that of
Ireland is sown with this grain. The oat flourishes in
the cold, moist summer of the northern and western


THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
23
parts of the kingdom, and the limit of its successful
cultivation is fixed by the limit of early autumn frosts,
which in the far north, or at a considerable height
above the sea-level, kill the plant before the grain
has matured. Only in England is less than half the
cereal-land covered with oats.
Wheat is the most important English cereal, about
three-tenths of the arable land being sown with it.
One-quarter of the land producing cereals in Great
Britain is sown with wheat, but only one-thirtieth
of that of Ireland and of Scotland, and nearly
two-fifteenths of that of Wales. Wheat requires a
warm, dry summer, and the climate of south-east
England and its rich soil are specially suited for
raising heavy crops. Much of the wheat grown here
is winter wheat—that is, wheat sown before winter;
and although this is one of the colder regions of
the British Isles, the wheat-plant is hardy enough
to stand the winter temperature. Wheat-growing
on an extensive scale is restricted to the south-east
of England, not because the other parts of the
kingdom are colder in winter, but because they are
colder, wetter, and more cloudy in summer.
Barley, the most widely distributed of all grains
grown by man, requires less sun than wheat, and
many varieties have the advantage of ripening a week
or two sooner after sowing than the oat, so that they
can be reaped before the autumn frosts appear. More
than a quarter of the land producing cereals in Great
Britain, and about one-eighth of that in Ireland, is sown
with barley. The wheat-growing area of England is
also the region where most barley is produced. The
barley of this region is exceptionally well suited for


24
THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
mainly as a valuable straw:
place in th
brewing, and is cultivated for industrial rather than
food purposes.
Little rye is cultivated in the British Isles, and that
mainly as a green food, though some is allowed to
ripen for its valuable straw.
Great changes have taken place in the last half-
century in the cereal-producing areas of the British
Isles, and in the nature of the crops sown. In Great
Britain the cereal-land has been reduced by one-
twelfth in twenty years, and in Ireland by one-fourth.
Formerly half the cereal-land in England was sown
with wheat and only one-fifth with oats, whereas now
two-sevenths are wheat and one-third oats. In
Great Britain over 40 per cent. of the cereal-land
used to be wheat-land and 30 per cent. oat-land;
now the figures are reversed. The proportion of
barley has remained almost constant. In Ireland
only 3} per cent., instead of over 10 per cent, is wheat-
land. The area of cultivated and permanent grass
has grown correspondingly, having increased by
50 per cent. in Great Britain in twenty years. This
is largely owing to the cheapness with which cereals
can be imported from all parts of the world by the
numerous quick steamer services which have grown
so rapidly in the past half-century.
After cereals the green or root crops are the most
important cultivated plants of the British Isles. The
potato, introduced from America, and the turnip, grown
as a field-crop since the end of the seventeenth century,
are important food-stuffs. Potatoes, turnips, and man-
golds are sown on an area about 18 per cent. of the
arable lands in England, 12 per cent. in Wales, 17 per
cent. in Scotland, and 28 per cent. in Ireland.


26
THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
that the ent. of their surfa.berdeen having
Market-gardens abound round the large cities, more
particularly near London and in the Channel and
Scilly Islands.
Woods.—5 per cent. of England and Scotland, 4
per cent. of Wales, and 11 per cent. of Ireland is
covered with forests. In England, Kent, Surrey,
Sussex, Hants, and Monmouth are the only counties
with more than 10 per cent. of their surface wooded;
and in Scotland, Kincardine, Aberdeen, Elgin, and
Nairn are the regions with the densest plantations-
all these counties except Aberdeen having more than
10 per cent. of their surface wooded. It will be seen
that the densest woods exist in the driest hill regions
of the islands.
Deciduous trees, such as the oak, beech, elm, ash,
alder, and maple, are commonest in the plains and
fertile lands. In the northern and higher regions
these give place to pine-trees. Many mixed woods of
deciduous and coniferous trees exist, especially in the
valleys of the mountainous regions.
Useful Animals.*-Cattle.—The distribution of animals
is largely determined by the distribution of grass-
lands. The rich meadow grass of Ireland and the
western part of England is especially suitable for
cattle. The proportion of cattle in Ireland is twenty-
three to the hundred acres, and in England and Wales
about fifteen, while in Scotland it is only six. In
England and Wales cattle are most numerous in
the counties of Cheshire, Leicester, Pembroke, Corn-
wall, Lancashire, Somerset, and Staffordshire. In all
* Much of the information in this section is obtained from
Dr Fream's admirable Elements of Agriculture (6th ed.;
London, 1897).


THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
27
the counties named there are over twenty cattle to the
hundred acres. In Scotland, in no county are cattle
so numerous. The majority are found in western
counties like Renfrew and Wigtown, where the grass
is rich and the winter mild, or in the Lothians, Fife,
and Aberdeen, where they are fattened for the market.
Galway is the only Irish county with less than fifteen
cattle per hundred acres; while the counties of
Limerick, Meath, and Dublin have over thirty cattle
per hundred acres.
There are over a dozen native breeds of cattle in the
British Isles. Of these by far the most important is
the Shorthorn, which, originating in the Tees district
of Durham at the end of last century, has spread all
over the country, and is also widely distributed abroad.
It is a breed noted for its beef and milk, and easily
adapts itself to different climatic conditions.
Dairy cattle are found principally on the low lands,
where rich meadow grass is obtainable. The Short-
horn, the Longhorn of the Midlands of England, the
Red or East Anglian polled cows, those of South
Devon and of Kerry in Ireland, are among the chief
breeds; but, above all, the cows of Ayrshire, in
Scotland, and of Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney, are
famous as milk producers.
The large cattle which are reared for their beef
belong to the Shorthorn breed, found in all parts, or
to the Hereford, Sussex, Welsh, Galloway, or Aberdeen
breeds, whose distribution is indicated by their names.
Some breeds, such as the Shorthorn, the East
Anglian, the Devon, the Welsh, and the Dexter Kerry,
are reared both for meat and for milk.
The Highland cattle are a small but very hardy


28
THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
breed, living on the poor pasture of the Scottish
mountains, and, like the larger Galloways, yielding
good beef.
Many of the cattle reared for the butcher are stall-
fed, and feeding-stuffs of many kinds, some imported,
are used.
Cows that are used for dairying have to be treated
differently to cattle fattened for the market. To
produce milk rich in fats, which are necessary both for
butter and cheese making, a richer diet is essential,
as cows that feed on poor pasture yield milk which is
small in quantity and poor in quality. Dairy cows
require much more careful attention than cattle reared
for the butcher.
Sheep.—Broadly speaking, sheep are found chiefly in
regions where cattle are few. They are commoner in
the drier east than in the rainier west. They are
found on the hillsides rather than on the plains. The
chalk Downs of England and the Southern Uplands of
Scotland are the best sheep-regions ; but large numbers
feed on the steep and easily-drained hillsides of the
west, where they are reared principally for their
mutton, whereas those on the eastern heights are bred
largely for their wool as well as for their flesh. In
England about fifty, in Wales over seventy, in Scot-
land thirty-eight, and in Ireland twenty sheep are
found to the hundred acres. There are more sheep
per hundred acres in Roxburgh, Selkirk, and Berwick
than anywhere else in the kingdom. In Kent, Romney
Marsh and the Downs are both suitable for sheep rear-
ing, and one sheep is found to every acre. In all the
counties through which the Downs extend the propor-
tion of sheep is considerable. Cumberland, Westmor-


THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
29
land, the limestone height counties, and most of the
Welsh counties except Pembroke and Carmarthen
have more than fifty sheep to the hundred acres.
In Scotland all the southern counties, as well as
the south-west of the Highlands, are noted for their
sheep. In Ireland, Connaught and Leinster have
more sheep than either Ulster or Munster; Carlow,
Wicklow, and Galway being the counties which have
over forty sheep per hundred acres.
The mountain sheep, such as the blackfaced and
the Cheviot sheep of Scotland and the Welsh mountain
sheep, are usually horned, and as a rule have rough
fleeces, with thick, strong wool. They yield mutton of
very fine quality. Except these, together with the
Border Leicesters of the south of Scotland and the
Roscommon breed of Ireland, all the other varieties of
sheep are English. Of these, the most important are
the long-woolled Cotswolds, Leicesters, and Lincolns,
and the short-woolled sheep of the Downs and Shrop-
shire. The pure Leicester is largely used for crossing
with other sheep, especially those fattened for the
market. The Southdown sheep, with fine short wool,
has been used for crossing with, and thus improving
the breed of many short-woolled sheep, some of which
now form distinct varieties, like the Oxford Downs.
There are many varieties of sheep confined to limited
regions, such as those of Romney Marsh, the Exmoor
sheep, the Wensleydale, the Limestone breed of West-
morland, and others.
Horses are largely found in the drier parts of the
British Isles, on less hilly ground than the sheep. In
England, the three Ridings of Yorkshire, Norfolk,
Cambridge, and Huntingdon have more than five


30
THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN. -
horses per hundred acres; and in Ireland, Down,
Wexford, and Louth have the same number, and
Dublin has double. In Scotland most horses are
reared in Fife and Linlithgow; but the proportion
is only about three per hundred acres.
There are two types of horses — the heavy work-
horses, of which the Shire, the Clydesdale, and the
Suffolk are the different breeds; and light horses, such
as the thoroughbred, the hackney, the Yorkshire car-
riage-horse, and the small ponies which are found in
the less accessible, less fertile, and more rugged parts
of the island, such as the Shetland Islands, the High-
lands of Scotland, the Welsh mountains, Dartmoor and
Exmoor, and the New Forest. The Yorkshire coach-
horse is bred in the north-eastern counties, more par-
ticularly in the North and East Ridings of Yorkshire
itself. The hunter and thoroughbred are reared in
different parts of England and in Ireland. The
hackney or nag is reared chiefly in the eastern
counties, more particularly in Norfolk, Cambridge,
Huntingdon, Lincoln, and Yorkshire. The Shire is
the largest work-horse, and is reared mainly in and
around the Fenlands. The slightly smaller and more
graceful Clydesdale is bred in the region which gives
it its name. The Suffolk horse is still smaller in size,
but is long-lived and a good worker.
Pigs.—The proportion of pigs to cattle is greatest
in the south-east of Ireland and England; but the
largest number per acre is found in such eastern
counties as Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, Bedford, Cam-
bridge, Huntingdon, and such western ones as Flint,
Cheshire, Anglesey, Somerset, Dorset, and Cornwall.
The total number in England is over five, and in


• THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
31
Wales under five, per hundred acres. In Scotland,
most pigs are reared in Clackmannan, Wigtown, and
Midlothian; but they are comparatively few. On the
other hand, in Ireland most counties rear more than
six pigs per hundred acres; the proportion being least
in Connaught and greatest in Wexford.
Most pigs in Britain are white in colour, and are
distinguished as Large, Middle, or Small White breeds.
There are two black breeds, known as the Small Black
of Suffolk and Essex and the Berkshire breed; while
the Tamworth sow, originating in Staffordshire, is red.
The Large White sows yield a great proportion of
lean meat and can be grown to enormous weights,
whereas the Small White sow usually makes very fat
bacon.
The British Farmer and his Competitors.—In spite of
the large quantities of farm produce of every kind
grown in the British Isles, the supply is wholly in-
adequate to the consumption of the country, and
cereals, vegetables, meat, and dairy produce of all
kinds are imported in ever-growing quantities. While
the yield of English wheat crops per acre is higher
than that of any other country in the world, except
that of the small wheat-producing area of Scotland, the
British farmer has found it difficult to compete with
the settler who has cultivated the virgin lands of
America or the rich black soil of Central and Southern
Russia. He labours under the disadvantage of cul-
tivating a soil which requires heavy manuring and
careful tillage to produce good crops, while the high
rent paid for land and the cost of transport by rail
more than counterbalance the advantages due to the
proximity of his markets. Rent and freight charges


32
THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
will undoubtedly be reduced; but even then the British
farmer will find the best guarantee for success in even
more skilled farming than that for which he is already
famous. Agriculture involves great scientific knowledge
as well as practical skill; and in the matter of agricul-
tural education our country has been comparatively
backward compared with the United States, Denmark,
and some of our colonies. With a more careful and
intensive use of the natural agents of the country, the
quantity and quality of pastoral and agricultural pro-
ducts may be still further improved; and in the future
agriculture will probably become much more important
than it is even at the present day.
Fisheries.—-Fishing is a great source of food-supply.
In this country fresh-water fish are comparatively un-
important. The salmon and sea-trout, which migrate
between salt and fresh water, are caught in the rivers,
mainly in the estuaries of Scotland, western Eng-
land, and Ireland, more particularly in the Spey,
Tay, Tweed, Severn, Bann, and Shannon.
The sea fisheries are exceedingly valuable. The
turbot, sole, flounder, and other flat fish; the cod,
haddock, herring, mackerel, and pilchard, are the most
important fish caught. The waters over the shallow
banks of the North Sea, and round the islands in the
north and west of Britain, are visited by fishermen
from many ports. From every little fishing village
men fish with hand-lines, catch shellfish in traps, and
go out in fishing-boats to the adjacent fishing-ground,
where both lines and nets are used. The great centres
of population are supplied with fish from the fishing-
ports, which send out fleets of sailing and steam
trawlers and other fishing-vessels, some of which have


THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
33
tanks where fish can be kept alive until the ship
returns to port. The fish may be sent from the fishing-
grounds in swift carrier steamers direct to London or
to the nearest port, whence they are despatched by
special fast trains to the great cities. The east coast
fisheries are the most valuable, and three-quarters of
the fish are landed in England at east coast ports.
Fish are caught by hooks or in nets, which are
either fixed or hauled. Short lines, whose hooks are
rebaited after each fish is caught, are used close to the
shore all round the coast. The east and south coast
fishermen send out very long lines (some even eight
miles in length, in eastern England), to which hundreds
of baited hooks are attached. These are sunk across
the current to let the short lines, to which the hooks
are attached, float clear of the long one. When hauled
in, haddock (in Scotland), cod (in the east of England),
cod, ling, conger, skate (in the south of England), and
many other predaceous fish are caught. The Scottish
fishermen use mussels for bait, those in southern
England squids or cuttlefish.
Where the bottom is smooth a trawl is used. It
consists of a netted bag, with finer meshes near its end,
the mouth of which is fixed to a beam raised a little
above the bottom. This is hauled along, and brings
up flat-fish such as flounders, soles, plaice, halibut,
turbot, and others, together with fish that feed at the
bottom of the sea, like cod, haddock, hake, and ling.
The trawls are sometimes carried by large sailing-
vessels, but oftener by steamers. From Aberdeen,
Leith, and Granton, trawlers go eastwards to the
banks in the North Sea. In eastern England, Hull,
Grimsby, Yarmouth, Lowestoft, and Ramsgate send
Goog. 1


34
THE BIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF BRITAIN.
trawlers to the Dogger Bank in winter and to the
east of the North Sea in summer, whence the fish
are sent to these ports or to London by fast
steamers. On the south coast, Brixham and Plymouth
are the chief trawling stations, the boats going as
far in summer as the north coasts of Cornwall,
where east coast boats also come. In the Irish Sea,
Cardiff tugs often trawl off Lundy Island, and regular
trawlers leave the Lancashire ports of Liverpool, South-
port, Blackpool, and Fleetwood, especially for the seas
round the Isle of Man, to which Whitehaven and
Dublin send trawlers, as well as Douglas.
Migratory fish, such as the herring, mackerel, and
pilchard, are caught in nets. Drift-nets are sunk
across a current, and the heads of the fish are en-
tangled in the meshes, which vary in size according to
that of the fish to be caught. The herring is much
the most important. It is caught chiefly off the
Scottish coast in the west early in the year; in the
north in summer; farther and farther south, along
the east coast of Britain, as the year advances; and
in the English Channel in winter. The ports of the
Clyde sea-area, Strome Ferry, Stornoway, Lerwick,
Wick, Fraserburgh, Peterhead, Aberdeen, and the Forth
ports are the chief Scottish centres of the herring-
fishing; and the north-east of England ports, especially
Whitby, and Yarmouth farther south, are the chief
English centres. Off the south coasts of England and
Ireland mackerel-fishing is very important. Pilchard-
fishing is confined to the south-west of England. The
pilchards are caught in nets, which are let down across
a bay such as that of St Ives in Cornwall, and hauled
to land by ropes. Sometimes so many fish are trapped


DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS.
35
that a number of smaller nets have to be used inside
the barrier formed by the big one, which would break
with the pressure of the fish were it drawn ashore.
Many 'shellfish, such as lobsters, crabs, shrimps,
and other crustaceans, are caught in traps or netted,
and oysters and other molluscs are dredged.
About 45,000 men are engaged in fishing in Scotland,
30,000 in England, and 28,000 in Ireland ; but the value
of the English is two and a half times that of the Scot-
tish fisheries, and twenty times that of Ireland, mainly
owing to the nearness of large markets. In Scotland
more than ten men, and in Ireland about six men, in
every thousand are fishermen. In England and Wales
the proportion is under one man per thousand.
CHAPTER III.
DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS AND MINING
CENTRES.
The mineral wealth of the British Isles is mainly in
the older rocks of the west and north. In the newer
rocks of the south-east, clay (for making bricks), lime,
and chalk are the most important mineral products.
The older rocks yield valuable minerals, and most of
the sandstones and limestones can be used for building
purposes.
Building Materials.—Of the building stones, the most
important are the sandstones of Carboniferous and
Permian times; but the oolitic limestones are also used
for building purposes. The granite rocks of Aberdeen-
shire, Galloway, and Galway are quarried for stones


36
DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS.
suitable for massive structures, such as bridges and
reservoirs, where great strength is required, and for
ornamental stones to be used in public buildings.
Marble is quarried in Ireland.
Carboniferous limestones, as well as those of more
recent date, are burned to yield lime, which is used as
mortar or as a purifier or a fertiliser. Portland stone is
ground to form an exceptionally quick-setting mortar
known by the name of Portland cement.
In many parts of the older regions of the British
Isles local stone is used for building purposes, whereas
in the south-east of Great Britain nearly all the houses
are built of brick. The hard old red sandstones of
Caithness can be cut into large, flat, thin slabs which
form excellent pavement.
Slates for roofing purposes are formed of rocks
which are easily split into thin layers. These are
usually clays which have been subjected to great heat
and pressure. Purple slates are found in Wales, more
particularly round Llanberis and Festiniog. The green
slates of Tilberthwaite in Cumberland are the most
beautiful of all; and different blue, gray, and purple
slates are found in various parts of Scotland, more
particularly in Perthshire and Argyllshire (at Easdale
and Ballachulish), and in Ireland (in Cork and
Tipperary).
Some Carboniferous rocks are useful for making
fireclay, more particularly those of “The Potteries' in
North Staffordshire, those round Kilmarnock in Ayr-
shire, and those in Tyrone Fine pottery is made in
“The Potteries' and in Worcester, whither kaolin or
china-clay, a decomposed granite suitable for making the
finest porcelain, is taken from the Cornish peninsula.


DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS.
37
.
Coal.—Coal is the chief mineral mined in the British
Isles. Iron and coal are two of the great sources of
our industrial prosperity. The rich underground
kingdom of the English and Scottish coalfields has
often been called the Black Indies.' . As coal is used
in reducing the ores of the useful metals, especially
iron, we shall study its distribution first.
Coal is found in the Carboniferous rocks, and there-
fore in the west and centre of Great Britain. The
coal has been preserved in the rocks which form the
trough of the Scottish Lowlands. In England the
coal-measures covered the whole of the Pennine
heights; but, though they are still found on both
flanks, they have been worn away from the summits.
They are also found where the Carboniferous rocks
bend down on the eastern and south-eastern sides of
the Welsh Highlands. In Ireland, which was formerly
entirely covered by coal-measures, only a few isolated
patches of coal now remain.
Coal-mining is carried on in Ireland at Castlecomer
in Kilkenny, and at Dungannon in Tyrone, but is not
important. The chief fields in Great Britain are the
Scottish coalfield, divided into the western or Ayrshire
coalfield, the central coalfield in Lanark, Linlithgow,
and Stirling, with an outlier in Clackmannan north of
the Forth, and the smaller fields of Fife and Mid-
lothian; the Northumberland and Durham to the north-
east, the Cumberland to the north-west, the Yorkshire,
Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire to the south-east, the
South Lancashire and the North Staffordshire to the
south-west, of the Pennines; the North Wales, the
Shropshire and Worcestershire, the Forest of Dean,
and the South Wales coalfields on the borders of the


38
DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS.
Welsh mountains; the Midland in South Stafford-
shire, Warwickshire, and the borders of Leicestershire
and Derbyshire, and the Bristol, both surrounded by
young rocks.
(Those in large type are the most important.)
Coal is usually mined; but in a few places it is
simply quarried. Its value has long been known.
There is evidence that it was quarried even in
Roman times. Sea-coal was sent to London from
Newcastle from the thirteenth century onwards. With ·
the clearing of the country and the growing scarcity of
timber, the use of charcoal for iron-smelting became
too expensive, and in the eighteenth century coal came
into general use for this purpose. This gave a great
impetus to the extraction of coal. New mines were
opened and carried deeper and deeper to meet the ever-
increasing demand due to the application of steam-
power to machinery. The output has steadily increased,
and was never greater than at the present time, when
over 227,000,000 tons are raised yearly. The York-
shire, Derbyshire, and Nottinghamshire field is the
richest, yielding 52,000,000 tons. The Northumber-
land and Durham field puts out 46,500,000 tons. The
South Wales coalfield produced over 39,000,000 tons
in 1902, the Scottish coalfields 34,000,000 tons, the
Lancashire coalfield 24,500,000 tons, the two Stafford-
shire coalfields 13,500,000 tons, and the others put
together 17,500,000 tons.
The quality varies considerably in the different
coalfields. In most it is a soft black coal, producing
considerable heat and smoke." The cannel coal of
central Scotland was formerly almost exclusively
used for making gas, but it is now almost exhausted.


DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS.
39
Anthracite from the South Wales coalfield supplies
the smokeless coal for our navy, and is the fuel
used in breweries.
The coal yielded in the various coalfields is put to
very different uses.
In Scotland it is used in the iron and textile manu-
factories, more particularly in the west, as well as in
Fife and southern Scotland. Much® is exported from
the Forth to the North and the Baltic Seas, to the
Mediterranean, and even farther; from the west,

STIRLINC
ADORA
DUNBAR
FALKIRK
EDINBURGH
AIRDRIE
GLASGOW
BERWICK
HAMILTON
Scottish Coalfields.
chiefly to Belfast and the North of Ireland. The latter
region also receives the surplus coal from the Cumber-
land coalfield, much of whose output, however, is used
in smelting iron ores in Furness.
The output of the Northumberland and Durham
coalfield is largely used in the iron industry. The
surplus is exported, large quantities being shipped to
London and all over the world.
The York, Derby, and Nottingham coalfield supplies
the woollen manufactories of the West Riding of
Yorkshire, the ironworks of Sheffield, and the textile


40
DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS.
works of Nottingham. Any surplus is exported to
London by rail, or from Goole on the Humber.
The coal of the South Lancashire coalfield is almost
entirely used in the local cotton manufactories and

BERWICK
NORTHS
SCOTLAND
NEWCASTLE
• CARLISLE
IRELAND
DURHAM
YORK
ER IS HOSEA
LEEDS
MANCHESTER
HULL
LIVERPOOL
SHEFFIELD
LINCOLN
CHESTER
DERBY
STAFFORDO
LEICESTER
NORWICH
munitar
BIRMINGHAM
UCESTER
PEMBROKE
LONDON
CARDIFF O
BRISTOL
SH CHANNEL
English Coalfields.
engineering and chemical works. It also supplies fuel
for steamers sailing from Manchester and Liverpool.
Hardly any is available for export.
The North Staffordshire coalfield supplies steam-
power in the pottery district.


DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS,
41
The Midland coalfield supplies fuel for the Black
Country in South Staffordshire, the great centre of the
iron manufacture. Large quantities are sent by rail
to London.*
The North Wales coal is used locally and in the
salt and chemical works of Cheshire.
The Shropshire-Worcestershire coalfield, stretching
between Coalbrookdale and Bewdley, supplies the
ironworking region of South Staffordshire to the east,
the Worcester potteries to the south, and the woollen
manufactures at Kidderminster.
The Forest of Dean coalfield provides the coal
needed in the local iron smelting and forging.
The Bristol coalfield supplies that city and the
West of England woollen manufacturing centres.
South Wales coal is shipped to all parts of the
world. Some is used in the district for smelting
different ores. Many of these are imported, copper
being brought even from distant Chile and red
hematite from Spain, as it is less difficult to carry the
ores to the coal than the coal to the ores. Anthracite
* Of the coal-basins in Great Britain, the Midland coalfields are
the least favourably placed for foreign trade. The Scottish basin
is encircled and penetrated by the sea. The estuary of the Clyde
on one side and the Firth of Forth on the other open it up by
their long fjords, and form, as it were, large natural canals. The
Durham and Northumberland coalfield stretches in the direction
of a coast-line with numerous and excellent ports, among which
it will be sufficient to mention Newcastle and Sunderland. The
Welsh coalfield is provided for by the long estuary of the Bristol
Channel. In the presence of three rivals so well equipped for
exportation, the Midland coalfields are quite naturally designed to
carry on the home trade.'-Quoted, with slight modification, from
The Labour Question in Britain, by Paul de Rousiers. Translated
by F. L. D. Herbertson. Page 165. London, 1896.


42
DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS.
is sent to the great brewing centres, to vessels
in the British navy, and to all our naval coaling
stations.
Iron.—Iron is by far the most important of the
metals obtained in the British Isles. It is found in
several forms. In the more recent rocks, pouches of
iron exist here and there, and used to be worked
before the discovery of the richer deposits in the older
rocks. They occurred mainly in the chalk rocks,
and the timber of the wooded Weald was used for
smelting them. The finest British iron ore is the red
hematite of Cumberland and North Lancashire, which
is an oxide of iron easily reduced to the pure metal.
The brown hematite, not quite so rich in iron, is mined
in South Wales, the Forest of Dean, Northampton-
shire, and Antrim. Blackband and clayband iron ores,
impure carbonates of iron, are common in most of our
coalfields, as, for instance, in the Scottish Lowlands.
The fact that iron and coal so frequently occur together
has had much to do with the rapid development of the
manufacture of iron in the British Isles. Another
great advantage is that lime, which is used as a flux in
smelting, is generally also present in the same region,
together with a plentiful supply of fireclay.
Middlesbrough has become the most important iron-
smelting centre in Britain since the discovery of a
suitable method of obtaining iron from the ironclays
which form much of the Cleveland Hills in north-east
Yorkshire. It obtains coal from the Durham and
Northumberland field, and limestone is found com-
paratively near. Magnetic or black iron ore, the
finest of all, is imported from Sweden to the ports of
Durham and Northumberland, to be smelted mainly


DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS.
at Middlesbrough, Stockton, Darlington, and the Tyne
ports. The Scottish Lowlands are important iron
centres. The local blackband and clay band iron ores
are supplemented by red hematite from Spain. Glas-
gow, Airdrie, Coatbridge, Motherwell, and Kilmarnock
are the chief centres. Barrow is the great centre for
smelting the red hematite of the Furness region,
with coal brought from Cumberland, Scotland, or
Lancashire. South Wales receives most of the great
imports of Spanish iron ores, through Swansea, Cardiff,
and Newport, and the smelting is carried on at New-
port, Merthyr Tydfil, and other centres. The iron ore
of the Midlands is smelted in and around Birmingham,
at Wolverhampton, Dudley, Walsall, Wednesbury, and
other places, mainly in South Staffordshire. Iron-
smelting is important in the West Riding of Yorkshire,
especially at Rotherham.
Other Metals.—Traces of the precious metals are
found in many parts of the United Kingdom, but
rarely in quantities sufficient to pay working expenses.
The Cornish peninsula has long been one of the
chief European sources of tin. Copper is also found,
but the ore is now almost exhausted. Zinc is mined
along with lead in the North of Wales and in
Northumberland. Lead, in the form of silver-lead
ore, from which both metals are extracted, is also
found in the Lead Hills in Scotland, in Cumberland,
Northumberland, Wales, the Isle of Man, and the
Wicklow Mountains in Ireland.
Peat.-In Ireland, northern Scotland, and other
regions where great peat-bogs exist and coalfields are
distant, peat is cut and dried for fuel. In Ireland it
is even used industrially; and this use of peat will


44
DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
largely develop with the discovery of a suitable process
for turning it into coke.
Oil-shale.—In the midlands of Scotland, more espe-
cially in Midlothian, West Lothian, and Fife, large
quantities of oil-shale are mined. This oil-shale is a
compressed black clay, from which burning and lubri-
cating oils can be distilled and candles and other
paraffin products extracted.
Salt.—One of the most useful minerals is salt. On
many parts of the coast it is obtained by evaporating
sea-water, but great beds of rock-salt exist in the
valley of the Weaver in Cheshire (near Northwich), at
Droitwich in Worcestershire, and in south-east Durham.
From these beds salt is obtained either by mining or
by pumping the brine, but principally by the latter
process. In addition to its domestic utility, salt is
used in Worcester to form a glaze for pottery, and
in Cheshire, South Lancashire, and in the north-east
of England in various chemical industries.
CHAPTER I V.
DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES AND
MANUFACTURING CENTRES.
Rise of Manufactures.—The manufactures of the
British Isles, now so important a branch of national
activity, developed but slowly until last century. They
grew out of the domestic industries necessary in an
early stage of society, when every household was more
or less self-supporting. Then, doubtless, every house-
wife spun wool or flax into yarn, wove the yarn into


DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
45
cloth, and made the cloth into clothes and napery,
while the men provided shelter, weapons, and im-
plements.
One of the first trades to become important was
that of the smith. Our Teutonic forefathers deified
Thor the Hammerer. Confined in early times to
the forging of armour, weapons, and implements,
the smith's trade has now become increasingly complex
with the extended use of iron in the arts of peace and
war, until at the present day engineering is one of
our most important occupations.
In the same way the other domestic industries of
primitive society have developed into highly-skilled
industries carried on by specially-trained workmen.
Spinning or weaving now forms the only occupation
of thousands of people. The grinding of grain into
meal, the baking of flour, and the fermenting of grain
have similarly become special trades practised by great
bodies of men. The tanning of hides and the making
of leather goods are now also special occupations.
With the opening up of the country the trades con-
nected with transport of various kinds grew up,
developing later into the great railway industries.
The ancient Briton made his small canoe in the
roughest way; the modern Briton constructs great
ships which sail to the uttermost parts of the earth.
Classification.—Manufactures can be classified in
several ways, as, for instance, those dealing with
the production of food, those having reference to
shelter or protection, and those concerned with trang-
port. Another possible classification is according to
the nature of the raw material--mineral, vegetable, or
animal; still another according to the process of manu-


46
DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
facture—mechanical, chemical, or biological. For
instance, the making of cloth is, a mechanical process,
the making of dyes a chemical one, and brewing a
biological one. No hard-and-fast line, however, can
be drawn, for the manufacturer of cloth often dyes it,
and the brewer has chemical as well as biological
processes to consider. The problem of the manufac-
turer—to transform some natural product into an
artificial one, which will be of greater use than the
unworked raw material—is on the whole a simpler
one than the brewer's, which is to transform organic
materials into their most utilisable form. Here we
shall deal first with the mechanical industries con-
nected with clothing, shelter, and protection, such as
the textile and iron industries, and then with the
chemical and biological ones.
The Textile Industries.
Historical.—The textile or spinning and weaving
industries have grown very gradually. Several un-
successful attempts were made by English kings to
introduce them as special industries before the efforts
of Edward III., in the fourteenth century, led to the
settlement of weavers in East Anglia and elsewhere.
The chief centre was round Norwich, more particularly
in the village of Worstead, which has given its name
to worsted goods. Numerous other manufacturing
centres existed over the chalk Downs. The populous
and prosperous south-east of England was the chief
industrial region until the discovery of coal led to
a shifting of the woollen centres.
Woollen and linen manufactures had grown up
both in Lancashire and Yorkshire; but these were far


DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
removed from the more densely populated regions.
Kendal green was a famous cloth in the Middle Ages.
Manchester cottons, probably a mixture of wool and
linen, are also mentioned in old works. At the end
of the fifteenth century the Yorkshire woollen manu-
facture was stimulated by the settlement of a large
number of Flemish weavers. With the application
of coal to industry, those manufacturing centres
which were favourably situated for obtaining wool
and coal, and were well supplied with water for
scouring and dyeing, grew at the expense of the
others. The once great woollen manufacture of
Norwich declined because neither coal nor water-
power was available.
Sources of Power.—During the past century steam
has been the chief source of power used in industry.
To-day the use of electricity is becoming more and
more common, steam being used to generate it.
Attempts are being made to cheapen its production
by utilising wind and water power (forces which at
present are but little used) for this purpose; and
probably these two sources of power, as well as the
tides, will be more and more utilised in the twentieth
century. This may lead to a considerable rearrange-
ment of the industrial centres, which would tend to
develop in regions with abundant water-power—that
is, in the mountainous parts of the country—and more
particularly near the coast, where water transport is
available for obtaining raw material and distributing
manufactured goods.
The Manufacture of Woollens.—Before the arts of
spinning and weaving were discovered, men probably
pounded the wool fibres together into a felt. Before


48
DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
wool is manufactured at the present day it is first of
all cleaned and scoured in pure soft water, such as
that of the streams of the Southern Uplands of Scot-
land, where there is no limestone. A little alkali is
added to the water to remove the natural grease in the
wool. The wool is next teased to separate the fibres,
and oiled to keep them from snapping in the course
of carding and spinning. Carding is the process of
separating each fibre of the wool, after which a
number are condensed together and then spun or
twisted round and round into yarn. The yarn is
next woven into cloth. A series of parallel threads
of yarn is fixed to form a warp, and another thread
is made to cross this warp at right angles (under
some threads, above others), forming the weft of the
cloth. The cloth is then scoured to clean and soften
it, and milled or felted to make it more compact.
The old way of felting or fulling was to soap the
cloth, and then beat it with big hammers; but it is
now milled in a machine. The felting property,
which is peculiar to wool and hair, makes woollen
cloth denser and more compact than that made from
vegetable fibres. Dyeing may be done at any stage
of manufacture, most commonly after the wool is
scoured or the yarn spun; but for some purposes the
material is not dyed until after the cloth is woven.
Woollen Manufacturing Centres.—Although all the
wool produced in this country is not manufactured
in it, and considerable quantities are exported to other
woollen manufacturing centres on the Continent, the
home supply of wool does not suffice for the woollen
manufactories. Much is brought from Australia,
South Africa, and other countries; and manufacturing


DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
49
HARROGATE
SKIPTON
KEICHLEV
OTLEY
BINGLEY
COLNE
LEEDS
BRADFORD
HALIFAX
centres near good ports have an advantage over others,
especially if they are also near a good coal and water
supply. At the present time the woollen manufacture
is carried on in three chief centres—in Yorkshire, the
west of England, and the Tweed valley.
The Yorkshire woollen centre is exceptionally favour-
ably situated as regards the easy supply of raw
material and the distribution of the manufactured
articles. It lies half-way between the Irish and the
North Seas, with the
great ports of Liverpool
on the west and Hull on
the east. The hills of
Yorkshire afford pasture
for innumerable sheep,
its coalfield is of almost
inexhaustible richness,
and it is excellently
watered. The chief
centre of the woollen
Woollen District.
inanufacture is Leeds,
on the Aire. Many other large towns have grown
up, such as Bradford, and the towns in the Calder
valley-Halifax, Huddersfield, and Dewsbury.
The West of England woollen centre has also its port,
Bristol; the coalfields of Bristol and the Forest of
Dean are near; and numerous streams drain the Cots-
wolds. Stroud in Gloucestershire, and Bradford in
Wiltshire, are the most important centres. The
scarlet cloth for uniforms is manufactured at Stroud.
The South of Scotland woollen centre has some of
these advantages—uplands for pasture, mountain rills
and streams, but less accessible coalfields. Peebles,

BATLEYS
DEWSBURY
WAKEFIELD
CADE
ROCHDALE
HUDDERSFIELD
10R
E OF MILES
Geog. 1.
D


50
DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
Galashiels, Selkirk, Hawick, and Jedburgh on the
Tweed and its tributaries, Langholm on the Esk,
and Dumfries on the Nith are the chief manufactur-
ing towns. They manufacture cheviots and tweeds (the
former so named from the hills where the sheep feed).
Outside these three centres the chief woollen manufacturing
towns are Bury and Rochdale, both near Yorkshire, which com.
bine woollen and cotton manufactures. Some woollen manu-
facture is carried on on a small scale in many towns both in
Great Britain and Ireland, more particularly where wool is
plentiful. Flannels are made at Welshpool and other towns in
the upper valley of the Severn, which are near the West Shrop-
shire coalfield. Witney in Oxfordshire is noted for blankets.
Kidderminster and Wilton make carpets. Leicester hosiery has
long been famous. Hand-loom weaving has not quite disappeared,
and the strongest cloth made in the British Isles is probably the
Harris tweed, manufactured in this way in the Outer Hebrides.
The Manufacture of Linens.—Linen thread and cloth
are made from the fibres of the flax-plant. The plants
are uprooted as the seeds ripen, and these are taken
off or ‘rippled' to make linseed oil and cake. The fibres
are separated from each other by allowing the stem
to rot or partially rot—that is, ferment—either in soft
water or simply on wet grass. They are next dried,
and then broken, which permits the removal of the
woody parts. This process is called 'scutching.' The
fibres are combed or 'heckled, and the long fibres, or
line,' separated from the short fibres, or tow,' and the
line is prepared for spinning, the next process it under-
goes. Successful spinning requires a certain humidity
of the air, and the finer linen threads are spun when
quite wet. The linen yarn is finally woven into cloth.
Linen Manufacturing Centres.—Historically the manu-
facture of linen is next in importance to that of


DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
51
wool; flax, like wool, being a home product. In the
time of Charles I., Wentworth introduced the cultiva-
tion of flax into the north-east of Ireland, which is
the principal seat of the production of lint and linen
at the present day. Although Ulster has no coal,
except at Dungannon, it is conveniently situated
opposite the Ayrshire and Cumberland coalfields,
whence cheap supplies can be procured. The water
of Ulster is very suitable for bleaching linen, which
is the chief manufacture of Ireland. Belfast is by
far the most important centre, making all kinds of
linen goods, but especially the finer sorts. Lisburn,
Lurgan, and most of the towns of Ulster manufacture
lawn, cambric, and fine linen. Outside Ireland linen
is spun and woven principally in Fife, where Dun-
fermline, the chief centre, is noted for its table-linen.
At Kirkcaldy coarser linens are made; and in Forfar-
shire-at Dundee, Brechin, and Arbroath—still coarser
goods, such as canvas and sailcloth, are woven. Fife
possesses several special advantages. Flax is imported
from the Baltic, which lies opposite to Fife; and coal
is obtained from the Fife and Clackmannan coalfields.
The constancy of the temperature and of the humidity
of the air are favourable climatic conditions. Barns-
ley, the only important centre in England, lies in
Yorkshire, east of the Pennines, and, like Kirkcaldy,
makes upholstery linen.
The Manufacture of Cotton.—Raw cotton consists of
the fibrous hairs surrounding the seeds of the cotton-
plant, which belongs to the mallow and hollyhock
family. It flourishes between the tropics, but is now
grown in favourable places in the warmer parts of
the temperate regions. The fine white hairs are


52
DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
SHA
separated from the cotton seeds by a machine called
the gin. The seeds, like those of the flax-plant,
yield oil and form a food-stuff for animals, while the
stalks are made into paper. The 'cotton-wool' is
carded, drawn, and spun into yarn, and then woven
into cloth. Little more than a century ago cotton
yarn could not be spun strong enough to make the
warp, for which linen or wool was used. Nowadays
both warp and weft are of cotton, and this pure
cotton cloth is called calico. Cotton is also used
mixed with linen, with wool, with silk, and other
fibres to make different varieties of yarns and cloth.
Cotton Manufacturing Centres.—All raw cotton is im-
ported. Consequently the regions near the great ports
have greater facilities for obtaining it than those far
inland; and, as most of it comes from America, the
west coast ports are more favourably situated than
those on the east. Bristol, Liverpool, and Glasgow, the
three great ports of communication with America, are
respectively connected with the three great western
coalfields of South Wales, Lancashire, and Scotland.
The climate and waters of Lancashire and Scotland
are specially favourable for the cotton manufacture,
which requires a fairly damp atmosphere for successful
spinning and weaving. A great development of the
cotton manufacture has occurred in the past century.
Formerly cotton was mixed with other fibres; but since
the introduction of steam-driven machinery the manu-
facture of pure cotton goods has developed until it
is now the most important industry of the country.
A century ago the cotton manufactured was worth
little more than one-twentieth of the woollen; but at
the present day it is worth double, while the value


DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
53
of the linen manufactured is only one-fifth that of
the cotton. By far the greatest proportion is manu-
factured in South Lancashire, in the towns surround-
ing Manchester, such as Stockport (which, however, is
in Cheshire), Ashton, and Stalybridge;* Oldham, Roch-
dale, Bury, and Bolton; and in the towns on the north
of the Lancashire coalfield, Burnley, Accrington, Black-
burn, and Preston. Manchester manufactures little,
but is the great market and distributing centre.

BURNLEY
PRESTON
ACCRINGTON
RIBBLE
BLACKBURN
HASLINGOEN
- CHORLEY
I
ROCHDALE
SOUTHPORT
BOLTON
BURY
MIDDLETON
ORMSKIRK
WIGAN
OLOHAM
ASHTON
SALFORD
MANCHESTER
VROOTLEST HELENS
LIVERPOOL
WARRINGTON
STOCKPORT
BIRKEN HEAD
MERSE
RUNCÓRN
SCALE OF MIL
Cotton District.
In Scotland cotton is manufactured-chiefly into
cotton thread-at Paisley.
Most machine-made lace is composed of cotton
threads, for the linen threads of which the beautiful,
delicate hand-made lace is formed are too fine for
machinery to manipulate. Nottingham is the chief
centre of cotton-lace and net manufacture.
Cotton, Woollen, and Linen Manufactures.— A century ago
the value of cotton, woollen, and linen yarns and piece goods pro-
duced in Great Britain and Ireland was about £22,000,000—say,
* Stalybridge is partly in Lancashire, but principally in Cheshire.


54
DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
woollen, £17,000,000; linen, £4,000,000; and cotton, £1,000,000.
Of recent years the value has been about £170,000,000
say, cotton, £100,000,000; woollen, £50,000,000; and linen,
£20,000,000. The total amount of capital employed is about
£200,000,000; and at least 5,000,000 people—men, women, and
children are dependent upon these textile industries for their
livelihood. Moreover, one-half of the value of British and
Irish products exported consists of textiles.'*
Jute and Hemp Manufactures.—Jute is a plant of the
lime-tree order, which flourishes in hot, moist climates,
in regions with rich soil, such as the Ganges delta.
It grows five, ten, and even more feet high, and the
fibre is separated by rotting, like linen from the flax-
stems. The manufacture of yarn and cloth is carried
on very much like that of linen, but all the fibres are
carded. Jute is a long, strong, silky fibre, and the
finer tissues assume a silky appearance. Unfortunately
it is difficult to dye in fast colours. Jute carpets,
curtains, handkerchiefs, and fabrics may be made; but
the staple jute product is coarse sacking for bags.
The manufacture of jute is almost entirely confined
to Dundee, Arbroath, and Montrose, all in Forfar-
shire.
In these towns hemp is also spun, and rope-making
is carried on all round the coast, as every seaport
requires it. Hemp is grown in most European and
many other countries; but our supply comes largely
from Russia, especially from Poland. New Zealand
hemp and the Manila hemp are strong fibres derived
from quite different plants.
Silk Manufacture.—Silk, like wool, is a fibre of animal
origin. It is secreted as a fine thread by the cater-
pillar or larva developed from the egg of a moth.
* Thomas Ellison in the Statesman's Year Book, 1899.


DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
55
This silk thread forms a cocoon, within which the
larva passes a quiescent stage of its life; then it
dissolves part of the silk cocoon, and emerges as
a moth again. The silk-rearer heats the finished
cocoon, and thus kills the larva. He then softens with
hot water the gum binding the silk threads, and
unwinds and reels up three or four or more of the
fine fibres together as one thread, known as raw silk.
This is cleaned and twisted into thread and woven;
but sometimes the raw silk itself is used for the warp.
Spitalfields, in London, was long famous for silk-
weaving; but few looms are now employed there.
The manufacture of silk is scattered up and down the
country, the chief centres being Macclesfield, Derby,
Coventry, and Leek (threads for needlework), while
silk waste is manufactured in Bradford. The raw silk
is all imported.
Fibres for Textile Manufactures. The fibres used in our
textile industries are few in number. Flax, cotton, jute, and
hemp are of vegetable origin ; wool and silk of animal origin.
Vegetable fibres, like the ramie or China grass, have been tried.
China grass is an exceptionally strong and beautiful fibre, but
hitherto the difficulties of preparing it for spinning have pre-
vented its general adoption for cloth-making. Several hundred
fibres at least exist which might be used for textile purposes ; and
it is desirable that systematic experiments should be made to test
the value of each of these, samples of which are to be found in
the great collection at Kew Gardens.
The Iron Industries.
In the past century iron, and in recent years steel,
a specially prepared form of iron, have largely replaced
wood as a constructive material. Iron beams and
pillars are used as supports in building; iron or steel


56
DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
is the most common material for bridges; rails are
laid with it, and it enters largely into the construction
of trucks and of carriages; the locomotives that draw
the trains are made of it, and we traverse our roads
on steel bicycles. Machinery of all kinds is mainly
constructed of steel; our ships are almost entirely
built with that metal, and the guns and projectiles of
our navy and army are principally composed of iron
in some form or other. Less striking, but equally
important, is its use in bolts, screws, and rivets, for
purposes too numerous to mention.
South Staffordshire has long been a famous centre of
the iron manufacture, for the timber of its forests was
used for smelting the iron ore of the neighbourhood
long before its coal was utilised. All kinds of metallic
goods are turned out here, from the proverbial pin at
Birmingham to the anchor at Tipton. Nail and chain
making are carried on at Cradley Heath; locks are
made at Walsall and Wolverhampton; keys at Wednes-
bury; and tin-plate, gun-barrels, armour-plate, great
girders, and railway plant of all kinds are turned out
in the numerous factories of the busy district of
which Birmingham is the chief city. This region is
distinguished among the other industrial regions of
the country by its large number of small workshops.
On the Yorkshire-Nottinghamshire coalfield the iron
industries are centred round Sheffield. The Sheffield
district is famous for cutlery and tools of every kind,
and, in addition, every sort of steel work is made-
iron plates, engine castings, shot, rails, and machinery
of all kinds. Both coal and iron are found in the
neighbourhood; but for the finer steels the black iron
ores from Sweden are imported. Rock is also found


58
DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
declined with its growth in the United States, but has
gained new markets and recovered again. The export
of iron has become relatively less important. In
most of its markets the United Kingdom has to
compete with the manufactures of other nations, more
particularly with those of the United States, Germany,
and Belgium. At the present time, however (1899),
the iron industry was never more active in the United
Kingdom. This is due to the development of electrical
engineering for supplying electric light and electric
tramways; to the growth of cable and ordinary tram-
ways in our great cities; and to the extra activity
in all the shipbuilding yards, a consequence partly of
the actual demand for greater transport facilities for
the world's rapidly growing commerce, and partly of
the great increase of naval armaments by our own and
other countries, a fair proportion of all foreign ships
being built in the United Kingdom.
The universal use of the bicycle in recent years has
led in Coventry to the substitution of this manufacture
for silk-ribbon weaving, which had for some years
been declining. Bicycle-making is also actively carried
on in most of the other iron centres, more particularly
in Birmingham and Wolverhampton. Sewing-machines
are made near Glasgow. Motor-car building is a new
industry which is still in its infancy in Britain.
The Chemical Industries.
It is difficult to overestimate the importance of
chemical industries in the modern industrial world.
The only iron ores successfully smelted in this country
were the hematites of the Forest of Dean and Furness,
until, by the proper application of physical and


DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
59
chemical processes, ores such as those of the Cleve-
land Hills in Yorkshire, formerly refractory, were
rendered suitable for smelting. In addition to im-
proved processes of metal-working, many by-products
of various manufactures, which were formerly con-
sidered waste, have been utilised as raw materials by
the application of proper chemical methods. Coal-
tar, a by-product in the manufacture of gas, has been
applied to many uses, and, among others, is made to
yield an important series of aniline dyes. Dye
substances were formerly either of vegetable origin,
like madder and indigo; animal, like cochineal; or
pulverised minerals, like hematite. Now aniline dyes
are mainly employed.
Salt, mined in Cheshire and Durham, is used in the
chemical-works of South Lancashire and the Tyne, and
as the basis of alkalies for bleaching and other purposes.
Sulphuric acid, used in many industries, is manufac-
tured in the centres just named and around Glasgow.
Glass-making from silica (pure sand, quartz, flint),
mixed with salt, soda, lime, potash, and lead, is the
principal industry of St Helens in South Lancashire,
and is important at Newcastle. (For potteries, see
pp. 36 and 44.)
Soap is made by heating fatty substances with soda
to form hard soaps, or with potash to form soft soaps.
Tallow and vegetable oils—especially palm, coco-nut,
and cotton-seed oils—are used. As the latter are all
imported, soap-making naturally flourishes in a sea-
port such as Glasgow. Glycerine is a by-product of
80ap-making. .
The manufacture of candles, paraffin, &c. from oil-
shale is carried on mainly in Mid and West Lothian.


60
DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
Paper is made by bleaching vegetable fibres, usually
esparto grass, or wood fibre combined with cotton or
linen rags. These are reduced to a fine pulp, which
is rolled and dried into a continuous web of paper.
In Midlothian, round Edinburgh, and in Kent and
London, where most printing is done, are many
printing-paper factories; but many mills exist in
other parts of the country.
Tanning is a process for preserving the hides of all
kinds of animals and transforming them into leather.
Most of the domestic animals supply the skins, which
are treated with some solution containing tannin,
such as can be obtained from oak and other bark,
acorns (valonia), cutch, gambier, &c., or compounds
of chromium.
Industries connected with Food and Drink.
Preserved Foods.—In olden times food for winter
was preserved by drying, smoking, and salting. At
the present day, when transport facilities provide a
continual supply of fresh food, this is no longer so
necessary; but fish and bacon are still salted and
smoked to preserve them and to improve their flavour.
At the fishing centres, more particularly those distant
from market, drying, salting, and smoking fish
is an important occupation. Herring, haddock, and
cod are the chief fish preserved. Finnan (Findon)
haddocks in Scotland, and Yarmouth bloaters in
England, are important articles of trade.
A little home meat is preserved in tins for use at
sea; but the great bulk of our tinned food is imported.
Small fruits are made into jams and jellies in
London and the neighbourhood, and on fruit-farms


DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURES.
in other parts of the country. Orange marmalade is
made in Dundee and elsewhere.
Sugar is refined at Greenock, and made into sweet-
meats in all large cities. It is combined with cacao
(commonly called cocoa) to make chocolate in Bristol,
York, and other places.
Dairy Produce, such as butter and cheese, is made in
Ayrshire, Cheshire, the Midlands, Gloucestershire, and
the south-western counties of England, and in Ireland.
Brewing and Distilling.—The juice of apples and
pears is fermented to form cider and perry in the
south-west of England, especially in Hereford and
Devon; but by far the most important drinks manu-
factured in the British Isles are beer and whisky,
both derived from barley.
Beer is made by allowing the barley grains to
germinate, when the starch of the grain is changed
to sugar, and the grain is called malt. The sweetened
liquid extracted from the malt is fermented by the yeast-
plant, and flavoured with hops. Beer is chiefly brewed
in the three capitals, London, Edinburgh, and Dublin,
and at Burton-on-Trent, which is near the hop-fields
of Worcestershire, and possesses a large and suitable
water-supply. The anthracite of Wales can be easily
transported to Burton, which has a world-wide celebrity
for its beer. Brewing is also carried on in all our large
cities. Stout, a beer impregnated with burnt sugar, is
mainly brewed in London, Burton, and Dublin.
In Scotland and Ireland the malted liquor is distilled
to form whisky, which is manufactured in all the
large cities. In Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland
a special flavour is imparted to the whisky by the
smoke of burning peat.


TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
CHAPTER V.
TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
slands, comme earliest me at that dan
Towns and Trade.-In Roman times almost all the
towns were fortified places. Many of them can be
identified by their names—Chester, Worcester, Win-
chester, Cirencester, &c.— which are derived from
castra, the Latin word for camp. Even at that date,
however, and, indeed, from the earliest days of human
habitation in our islands, certain spots, such as fords,
or the junction of two valleys or rivers, presented
special advantages for meeting-places, more especially
between those who had commodities to exchange. As
population and trade increased most of these naturally
grew into towns of greater or less importance. At a
later date abbeys and monasteries attracted a consider-
able population, composed of members of religious houses,
their pupils and servants, those who resorted to them
for healing and other benefits, and the artisans, crafts-
men, and traders required in a growing community.
Our towns, therefore, have grown up in various ways.
Some, like Warwick or Chester, developed out of fortified
places; others, like Oxford, out of monasteries; others
again out of such centres of local trade and traffic as
fords, bridges, or ports. Many of these, such as
Wallingford, Cambridge, Newport, Exmouth, can be
recognised by their names. A group of ancient
market centres, Chipping, Chipping Norton, Chippen-
ham, Chepstead, Chepstow, and others, were places
where chapmen or merchants met to sell or barter


TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
63
their wares. These owed their importance to the fact
that shopkeeping was little developed in the early
Middle Ages, and that trade was chiefly carried on
at such markets and at periodical fairs, held once a
year or oftener, and lasting for days or weeks, like
Stourbridge Fair, near Cambridge, which was known
throughout Western Europe, and flourished in full
vigour up to the middle of the eighteenth century.
In addition to the many towns well fitted to be busy
centres of local trade, a few have always possessed
special natural advantages marking them out for
commercial greatness. Of such we have an excellent
example in London, standing at the head of the tidal
waters of the Thames. Here a ford existed in early
times, replaced later by a bridge. Combining facilities
for sea and land communication, and serving as an
outlet for the rich south-east of England, London early
became the chief commercial town of England, and
replaced Winchester as the political capital. Bristol,
on the Severn estuary, possessed a very similar
situation; but, commanding a less rich district, and
being comparatively remote from the Continent, it
never became the rival of London.
The modern development of manufactures and rail-
ways has led to a corresponding development of towns.
The application of steam-power to production has
made the coalfields industrial centres, while its appli-
cation to transport has facilitated the rise of many
inland towns, especially of those at the intersection of
different routes. Other things being equal, however,
proximity to the sea must ever be an advantage; and
the rapid growth of our foreign trade, combined
with that of our manufactures, has had the most


64
TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
marked effect on the prosperity of our ports and of the
manufacturing towns near them. At the present day
two opposite tendencies are at work. One is shown
by the disposition of industry to move to the sea.
This is illustrated by the removal of many important
engineering firms from inland to coast towns. The
second is shown by the construction of the Manchester
Ship-Canal, which aims at bringing the advantages
of a maritime situation, with its concomitants of cheap
and convenient water-transport, to an inland centre.
Internal Transport.— Internal trade is carried on by
road, railway, and canal, and by coasting-vessels. The
country is covered by a network of railways and
canals, which is closest around the great centres,
London, Birmingham, Manchester, Sheffield, Leeds,
Liverpool, and Newcastle.
Roads.—Roads are seldom employed for long-distance
traffic, except where there are no other means of trans-
port. Their chief use is to distribute goods brought by
rail, canal, or sea to the nearest station or port. Carts
of various kinds are generally employed for this pur-
pose. The improvement in motors is giving rise to a
new traction traffic.
Canals.—The plains of England readily lend them-
selves to the construction of canals, which cross them
in every direction. Most of our canals were made
between 1770 and 1830. The utility of many is im-
paired by their being both too shallow and too narrow
to permit barges of fair length, breadth, and depth to
pass from one canal to another. Canal-boats are the
cheapest and most commodious means of inland trans-
port for any heavy and bulky goods that are not
easily damaged, such as coal, metals, hardware, building


TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
65
materials of all kinds; and the deepening and widen-
ing of our canals is, therefore, an urgent necessity.
Most of the rivers of the plain are canalised and joined by
important canals. The chief are those uniting the Trent to
the Mersey, the Severn, the Thames, and the rivers flowing to
the Wash; those joining Thames and Severn, Severn and
Mersey, Mersey and Yorkshire Ouse; the Forth and Clyde
Canal in Scotland ; and the canals of the Irish plain.
The Thames and the Severn are both canalised, and are con-
nected by two canals, one making use of the Kennet and the
Bristol Avon, the other passing from Lechlade on the Thames by
Stroud to the Severn. The Thames and the Trent are joined by
means of the Grand Junction and Grand Union Canals through
Brentford, Watford, Wolverton, Leicester, and the Soar, with
branches through Northampton to the Nen, and through Market
Harborough to the Welland. The Oxford Canal runs northwards
by Banbury, Rugby, and Nuneaton to Burton-on-Trent.
There is a great network of canals round Birmingham, which is
joined to the Severn at Worcester, to the Trent by canals through
Lichfield, and through Tamworth, and by the Warwick and
Napton to the Oxford Canal, which is joined to the Grand Junction
Canal.
An important canal system, the Trent and Mersey Canal, joins
the Trent to the Mersey through the Potteries, making use of the
river Weaver.
Three canals cross the Pennines. Two of these unite the Irwell
at Manchester to the Calder; the southern one passing through
Huddersfield, the northern one by Rochdale. Still farther
north, the Leeds and Liverpool Canal passes through Blackburn,
Burnley, and Skipton. A branch of this canal joins Preston and
Blackburn.
The rivers flowing east into the Humber and the Wash are all
canalised.
The Forth and Clyde are connected by canal from Grange-
mouth to Glasgow, with a connection to Edinburgh by the Union
Canal. In Ireland the Grand and the Royal Canals join the
Liffey to the Shannon. The former joins the Shannon between
Lough Ree and Lough Derg, the latter near Longford. The Erne
Goog. 1
nanal


66
TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES,
and Shannon Canal connects these two rivers, and the Ulster Canal
unites the Erne to the Blackwater and Lough Neagh, whence it
connects with the sea by the Bann and by another canal with the
Lagan. The deep Newry Canal, three miles long, joins Newry to
Carlingford Lough.
Ship-Canals.—There are several ship-canals which are
of importance in connection with the coasting and
foreign trade. Some of these are natural water-
ways artificially deepened. All the chief rivers are
constantly dredged to allow the largest vessels to enter
the docks of the great ports, and thus the. Thames,
the Tyne, the Bristol Avon, and the Clyde may be
regarded as great ship-canals. A ship-canal joins
Gloucester to the navigable part of the Severn. The
great Manchester Ship-Canal, from the Mersey to
Manchester, is wholly artificial.
The Manchester Ship-Canal is thirty-five and a half miles long,
and unites the Mersey estuary at Eastham with Manchester, við
Runcorn and Latchford, by a waterway twenty-six feet deep and
one hundred and twenty feet wide at the bottom. The first
twenty-one miles to Latchford are without locks. Between
Latchford and the docks at Salford and Manchester, where there
are over six miles of quays, four locks raise vessels sixty feet.
In Scotland the Crinan Canal saves a long voyage
round the Mull of Kintyre to vessels going from
Glasgow to the north-west; and the Caledonian Canal,
through Glenmore, allows vessels of moderate draught
to pass from Loch Linnhe to the Moray Firth, and
avoid the stormy voyage across the Pentland Firth.
Railways.-On the plains railways compete with
canals for the transport of commodities, while in the
more mountainous districts they are practically the
only means of carrying on trade.
London, the capital as well as the chief port and


TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
67
market, is naturally the centre of the railway system
of the country. From this centre important lines
radiate in all directions, like the spokes of t great
wheel. The terminal points are either ports or great
industrial towns, which, in their turn, are the centres
of minor systems of radiating lines, connecting them
with each other. The country is thus covered with
a network of lines too complex to describe in detail,
by which every town of any size is connected with
the Metropolis, ports, and industrial centres, frequently
by several alternative routes. This network is most
closely interwoven on the plains, while in the moun-
tainous districts all the great valleys form railway
routes, except in the outlying and thinly peopled
districts of Wales and Scotland, which are of little com-
mercial importance. The effect of this keen competi-
tion is to facilitate transport and to reduce rates.
In 1850 there were less than seven thousand miles
of railways in the United Kingdom. During the next
twenty years the mileage was more than doubled.
At the end of 1903 the total length of railways
was over twenty-two thousand miles, of which fifteen
thousand miles were in England and Wales, over three
thousand six hundred miles in Scotland, and rather
less in Ireland.
From a commercial point of view a detailed know-
ledge of the great main lines is of less importance
than a clear understanding of the facilities of transport
between the various industrial towns and districts and
the ports or other centres from which they obtain raw
materials, or to which they distribute finished products.
For convenience of reference, however, the customary
grouping by main lines—a system based rather on


68
TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
passenger than commercial traffic-is followed; but it
should be remembered that this simpler classification
tends to disguise the complexity of the railway systems
from a commercial point of view.
Main Lines connecting London with the Western and
Southern Counties.—The Great Western (G.W.R.), with
the longest mileage in the United Kingdom, connects
London with Birkenhead through the manufacturing
centres of the Midland coalfield, and with Exeter
and the southern counties. The London and South-
Western (L.S.W.R.) competes with the G.W.R. for
the Exeter traffic, and carries a considerable propor-
tion of the French and Continental traffic by way
of Southampton. The traffic of the south-eastern
counties—with much for France—is divided among
the London, Brighton, and South Coast (L.B.S.C.R.),
running to Portsmouth and Newhaven; and the
South-Eastern and Chatham (S.E. & C.R.), running
to Dover, and connecting with Holland through
Queenborough. The eastern counties traffic—with
much for the Continent by way of Holland and
Belgium-is carried by the Great Eastern (G.E.R.).
The G.W.R. main line runs from London (Paddington) through
Reading, Didcot, Swindon, Chippenham (branch to Weymouth,
for Channel Islands service), Bath, and Bristol (branch to South
Wales by the Severn Tunnel), to Exeter, with connections to
Barnstaple, Plymouth, and Penzance. Its main branches are
(a) through Didcot, Oxford, Birmingham, Shrewsbury, and
Chester (for the Welsh and Irish traffic) to Birkenhead ; (6)
through Swindon to Gloucester, and to Cardiff, Swansea, Pem-
broke, Milford, and Fishguard.
The L.S.W.R. runs from London (Waterloo) through Woking
(branch to Portsmouth), Basingstoke (branch to Winchester and
Southampton), Salisbury (branch to Weymouth), and Yeovil
Junction to Exeter, whence it is continued to Plymouth.



BURG
SWICK
Ini
ENGLAND
Principal Railways.
Newcastle
WO
Hexham
Carlisle Durham
NO
RELAND
MeHTUNNI
ESA
2. &
Darlington
Arlesborough
MILANO
VO
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SO
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Stafford
Yarmouth
Burton
NORTHERN
Settle sord Work
Hellifier
B2B
Preston Leeds) Hull
Huddersfield
Wigand Manchester
Energet c. CENTRA
Rurdorn Macclesfield
Chesterfield Lincoln
hester
D rewe Ambergabe...
>/Stoke Derby
pttingham Gran
Treytin. 22
Shrewsbury
Leidesier
Kings Lynn Norwiche
Peterborough
Wolverhampton
Varch
Lambtoft
Birmingham
Bury St Edmunds
fambridge
S Worcester
le ipsu
* Hereforda chettenham
Carmarthen
Gloucester
Oxford
Aylesbury
Pemborong Star Newport (swinderen bidcot Yon bon names
Bristol
aralel
Reading
BABA
Bath
Chaman
Woying
RN
Canterbury
Raugale
SI
WEST
Varer
Guildfords EASTERN
u Astro
Barnstaple
alisus
ugton
Winchester
Southampton 2. Brighton
Yeovil
Exeterd
Ely
Ludlowe
Buty
Narwich
NO
LONDON & NORTH WES
of
Bedrord
Ipswich
Carmarthens
onglouceste for den viel
C. CENTRAL
WESTERN
SOUTH WEST
ESTERN
sastaks
olema
M
pb Badmin
7 Plymouth
SH DEU
nespouth
HITTA
WINAN
UNIMIN


70
TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
The L.B.S.C.R. runs from London (Victoria and London Bridge)
through Oxted to Eastbourne, through Lewes to Newhaven,
through Redhill to Brighton, through Chichester to Ports-
mouth; and a line follows the south coast from Hastings to
Portsmouth.
The S.E. & C.R. (Chatham division) runs from London (Victoria,
Holborn Viaduct, and St Paul's) through Gravesend, Rochester,
Chatham, Sittingbourne (for Sheerness and Queenborough), Faver-
sham (for Margate and Ramsgate), and Canterbury to Dover.
The S.E. & C.R. (S.E. division) runs from London (Charing
Cross and London Bridge) through Tunbridge (branch to
Hastings), Ashford (branch through Canterbury to Ramsgate
and Margate), and Folkestone to Dover.
The G.E.R. runs from London (Liverpool Street) through
Colchester, Manningtree Junction (branch to Harwich), Ipswich
(branch to Norwich), Beccles Junction (branch to Lowestoft), to
Great Yarmouth. Another line runs from London through Cam-
bridge, Ely (branch through Lynn to Hunstanton, and another to
Norwich), March (branch to Peterborough), and Lincoln to Don-
caster, connecting there with the G.N.R. and the N.E.R.
Main Lines connecting London with the Midlands and
North of England.—The traffic of the midland and
northern counties is carried from London by the Great
Northern (G.N.R.), continued by the North-Eastern
(N.E.R.)-opening up the Yorkshire and Northumber-
land and Durham coalfields—to Berwick, the east coast
centre for the Scottish traffic; and by the London and
North-Western (L.N.W.R.)—connecting the capital
with the great industrial district of South Lanca-
shire-or the Midland (M.R.)—connecting it with the
Midland and Yorkshire industrial towns—to Carlisle,
the west coast centre.
The Great Central (G.C.R.), formerly the Manchester,
Sheffield, and Lincoln, also connects the capital with
the manufacturing towns of the Lancashire and
Yorkshire coalfields. The Lancashire and Yorkshire


72
TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
convenient to trace them from Carlisle and Berwick,
where they connect with the great English lines.
The three regular through passenger routes from
London to Scotland are: (1) the East Coast Route by
the G.N.R. and N.E.R. to Berwick, and thence by
the eastern branch of the North British (N.B.R.)
through Dunbar to Edinburgh and Glasgow; (2) the
West Coast Route, by the L.N.W.R. to Carlisle, and
thence by the Caledonian (C.R.) to Edinburgh, Perth,
or Glasgow; and (3) the Midland Route, by the M.R.
to Carlisle, and thence by the Western or Waverley
branch of the N.B.R. to Edinburgh, or by the Glasgow
and South-Western (G. & S.W.R.) to Glasgow.
Both the C.R. and N.B.R. main lines run to Aber-
deen, where a connection is made with the Great
North of Scotland (G.N.S.R.) for the north-eastern
counties. Perth, reached by both lines, is the starting-
point for the Highland Railway (H.R.), which opens
up the Highlands and the northern counties; while
Glasgow is the centre for the West Highland traffic,
which is sent over the West Highland line by Loch
Lomond and the desolate Moor of Rannoch to Fort
William.
The C.R. connects with the English railways at Carlisle, and
runs through Lockerbie, Carstairs (branch to Edinburgh on the
east), Motherwell (branch to Glasgow on the west), Stirling,
Dunblane (branch through Callander to Oban), Perth, and Forfar
to Aberdeen.
The N.B.R. connects with the English railways both at Carlisle
and Berwick. From Carlisle the western branch runs through
Hawick and Galashiels (Tweed woollen district) to Edinburgh,
outside which city it is joined by the eastern branch from Berwick.
Glasgow is reached through Edinburgh either by Falkirk or by
Bathgate and Airdrie. From Edinburgh the main line runs to



Pentland
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CAITHNESS
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ARRAN
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Campbeltown
SAROS
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JMO LAND
Belfast
SCOTLAND-Principal Railways,


74
TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
Dalmeny, and over the Forth and Tay Bridges to Dundee, Arbroatlı,
Montrose, and Aberdeen. From Glasgow the West Highland line
runs to Fort Augustus, Fort William, and Mallaig.
The G. & S.W.R. runs from Carlisle through Dumfries (branch
to Stranraer) to Glasgow ; and from Glasgow by Ayr to Stranraer.
The H.R. starts from Perth and follows a picturesque route
along the glens and over the passes of the Highlands, through
Dunkeld, Blair Athol, Aviemore (branch to Forres, Nairn, and
Elgin), Inverness, Dingwall (branch to Strome Ferry), and Tain,
to Wick and Thurso.
The G.N.S.R. runs from Aberdeen to Elgin, with branches to
Banff, Peterhead, and Fraserburgh.
The Welsh traffic is chiefly carried on by the G.W.R.
in the south and the L.N.W.R. in the north, both with
numerous branches. The Cambrian has a consider-
able mileage in the centre. In South Wales numerous
parallel lines running more or less north and south,
sometimes in the valleys, but generally along the
heights, connect the collieries with the coast.
In Ireland the railways radiate from Dublin. The
Dublin, Wicklow, and Wexford Railway serves the
counties named. The Great Southern and Western
Railway runs to Cork and Limerick by Kildare and
Charleville, with branches to Kilkenny and Athlone.
The Midland Great Western crosses the island to
Galway, Clifden, Westport, and Sligo. The Great
Northern (Ireland) unites Dublin to Belfast and
Londonderry through Drogheda and Dundalk, and
the Northern Counties Railway joins Belfast and
Londonderry through Antrim, and also runs to Larne.
Chief Trading Centres.—The internal trade of the
British Isles is greater at the present day than at any
other period. It is also greater than that of any other
country. Each mining or manufacturing centre has



CANTIRE
IRELAND
Principal Railways & Canals.
Port Rush
Coleraine
Ballymohley
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channel:
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Londonderry
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A
Strabane
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Monaghan
Sligon
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NORTHERN
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V
Dundalk
Cavan
Boyle
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GREAT
IRISH
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Drogheda
Navan
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Balbriggan
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Maryborough
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&
arlow
S.
WES
KIOWA
Arklow
6.
&
WICKLO
Limerick
Kilkenny
Clonmel
Tralee
Charleville
W
GREAT SOUTHERN
WHerford
Mallow
es Channel
Killarney
Kenmare
Cork
Youghal
Seucaristown
Bandon you
Bantry
Skibberegn
St. Georges


TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
its great trading town, where most of the business of
buying and selling is carried on. Birmingham in the
Black Country, Sheffield in the South Yorkshire iron
district, Leeds in the woollen district, Manchester in
the cotton district, Newcastle-on-Tyne in the northern
coal and iron district, are the great commercial centres
of industrial England. With the exception of New-
castle, these are all practically connected by a series
of smaller towns. Cardiff is the commercial centre
of South Wales. In Scotland, Glasgow, and in Ireland,
Belfast and Dublin have become commercial capitals.
London.—London is a great central market, receiving
commodities from all parts of the country and from
abroad, and redistributing them both to home and
foreign markets. Imported agricultural and food pro-
ducts of all kinds, such as tea, coffee, sugar, groceries,
as well as all kinds of fancy goods and luxuries,
are sent from it to other towns. In the same way
coal, chiefly from the Midland coalfield, manufactured
goods, jewellery, and hardware from Birmingham,
cutlery from Sheffield, woollen goods from Yorkshire,
and cotton goods from Lancashire, all pass through
the wholesale London warehouses. Dairy, farm, and
garden produce are brought from the country and
the Continent to supply its great markets and feed its
seven million inhabitants. Special fish and meat trains
arrive during the night at the great London stations,
loaded with food supplies, which are sold the next
morning. The city and suburban traffic is carried on
by the main lines of which it is the centre, and by
two local lines, chiefly underground—the District and
the Metropolitan.
The chief London markets are Billingsgate for fish ; Smithfield


TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
77
and Leadenhall for meat, game, and poultry ; Covent Garden and
Smithfield for fruit and vegetables. There is a Metropolitan
market for home cattle, and a Deptford market for foreign cattle.
Staffordshire.—Birmingham manufactures large quan-
tities of jewellery, and is the centre of a district which
produces hardware of every description. These wares
are sent to London—whence they are largely redistri-
buted to the great northern industrial towns—and to
Gloucester, Liverpool, and Hull for shipment abroad.
Like London and all large manufacturing centres, it
obtains its food - supplies from home and foreign
sources, receiving daily supplies of the more perishable,
for the quick transport and delivery of which special
arrangements are made by the railway companies.
The Staffordshire potteries and the Burton breweries
distribute their goods in the same way.
South Lancashire.-Cotton goods, the staple of South
Lancashire, are consigned from the surrounding dis-
tricts to Manchester, whence they are distributed to
Liverpool, Hull, and other ports for shipment, and to
all parts of the country for home consumption. The
raw materials enter mainly by Liverpool or by the
Manchester Ship-Canal; and large quantities of food
from foreign and colonial sources are consigned to
Manchester by these routes.
Salt from the Cheshire mines and chemicals from
South Lancashire are distributed to both the Lanca-
shire and the Yorkshire manufacturing districts, as
well as to other home and foreign centres.
West Riding of Yorkshire.—Leeds and Bradford serve
as the emporia for the West Riding woollen centres,
whose wares they distribute partly by rail and partly
by sea, through the ports of Goole, Hull, and Liverpool.


78
TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
Cutlery and armour-plates from Sheffield are distri-
buted in the same way.
From Northumberland and Durham the North-Eastern
Railway carries coal, iron goods, and chemicals to all
the surrounding districts, and to Newcastle, Sunder-
land, Middlesbrough, and other ports.
The railways in the Lowlands of Scotland carry much
coal to the ports for foreign trade in addition to dis-
tributing it to the inland parts of the country. The
North British Railway distributes the woollen goods
of the Tweed valley, and shares all the varied trade
of the Glasgow district with the Caledonian Railway
and the Glasgow and South-Western Railway.
Ports. —London is the port nearest the heart of the
south-eastern region of England, and is opposite the
great Continental ports, more particularly those at the
mouth of the Rhine, with which a constantly active
trade is carried on, not only from London, but from
other ports on the east and south-east coast of England.
The Continental packet stations, outports of London,
are Harwich, Dover, Folkestone, Newhaven, South-
ampton, and Weymouth. Southampton has grown in
recent years to be the port for great liners to the East
and to Africa, and for London passengers to America.
The western ports sprang into importance after the
doubling of the Cape of Good Hope and the discovery
of America. Bristol and Plymouth were the most im-
portant of these until the application of steam-power
to industry and the rise of great manufacturing
centres round the South Wales, Midland, Lancashire
and Yorkshire coalfields raised Liverpool, in the west,
and Hull, in the east, to the rank of first-class ports.
Cardiff, Newport, and Swansea have grown with


TRADE ROUTES AND CENTRES.
the development of mining and metal-working on the
South Wales coalfield. From early times Newcastle
shipped coal to London; but the other Northumberland
and Durham ports, North Shields, Tynemouth, Sunder-
land, together with Middlesbrough, in Yorkshire,
have become important only in recent years with
the development of coal and iron industries and the
manufacture of chemicals. Silloth is the port for
this region in the west, and south of it Maryport,
Workington, and Whitehaven are outlets for the
Cumberland coalfields.
In Scotland, as in England, the east coast ports
were long the most important, and trade was carried
on, more particularly with France, through Leith.
Now Leith, Grangemouth, Burntisland, and Dundee
still carry on an extensive coasting and Continental
trade; while the Clyde has become the busiest com-
mercial centre in Scotland. Greenock, Glasgow, and
Ardrossan are the chief ports. Aberdeen sends out
granite and manufactured goods.
The great ports of Ireland, such as Belfast, Dublin,
Waterford, and Cork, are all in the east or in the south,
nearest Britain and the Continent, and serve as outlets
for the agricultural products and salmon of Ireland, and
as inlets for manufactured goods from Great Britain.
The east coast is not only nearest the richest land
of Ireland, but is opposite Great Britain. The west
coast of Ireland has numerous natural harbours; but
a natural harbour alone does not suffice to make a
port, which must have easy communication with land
producing commodities for which there is a demand.
The west of Ireland is chiefly pastoral, and is unable
to support more than a coasting trade. Limerick,


80
OUR FOOD-SUPPLY.
which forms the outlet for the Golden Vale, is by far
the most important port on the west coast.
The routes between Great Britain and Ireland are numerous.
Scotland sends goods and passengers from Glasgow and Greenock
to Londonderry, Belfast, and Dublin ; and swift boats run daily
between Ardrossan and Belfast, and between Stranraer and Larne,
the latter the shortest sea-route between the two islands. The
north of England ports, Barrow, Fleetwood, and Liverpool, do a
large cross-Channel trade with Belfast, and also trade with the
Isle of Man. Liverpool is also directly connected with Drogheda,
Dublin, Cork, and other ports. The quickest service from London
to Dublin is by the mail route vid Holyhead to Kingstown or
Dublin direct. Steamers also sail from Holyhead to Greenore for
Belfast. Both New Milford and Bristol are in regular com-
munication with Waterford and Cork.
All the ports of the British Isles have regular steam communi.
cation with each other every few days.
CHAPTER V I.
OUR FOOD-SUPPLY.
In olden times our country was dependent on its
own products for the food of its inhabitants, who were
forced to subsist on what could be grown in their own
immediate neighbourhood. In bad years considerable
distress was therefore felt, while actual famines were
not unknown. The choice of food was also more
limited than at present, and some districts offered
less variety than others.
In the Tweed valley servants formerly stipulated for a clause
in their contracts forbidding salmon to be served more than three
times a week. Nowadays few masters feed their servants on
salmon even three times a year. It is no longer the commonest


OUR FOOD-SUPPLY.
81
fare either in Tweeddale or elsewhere, but is a luxury within
the reach only of the well-to-do. Its value has increased even
in regions where it is abundant, while the value of other foods
has fallen. No doubt salmon have become scarcer, but the
change in relative value is in large part due to the development
of transport facilities, which permit salmon to be forwarded to
distant markets, and other kinds of food to be cheaply brought
from other parts.
This increase in transport facilities is part of a
general economic change which has come over this
country during the last century and a half, transform-
ing Great Britain into a great manufacturing country.
The increased power of production resulting from the
use of steam-power has led to an enormously rapid in-
crease of population, especially in the non-agricultural
section of the community. The home food-supply has
not kept pace with this increase of population, and
the bulk of our food now comes from the uttermost
parts of the earth in great steamers which occupy
only a few weeks on the voyage. Over £230,000,000
are spent annually on imported food.
Food products, using the term in the widest sense,
may be divided into cereals, fish, flesh, dairy produce,
fruits, and drinks. The cereal most in demand is wheat.
It is long since the wheat-lands of Britain ceased
to supply enough wheat for the people of the United
Kingdom, and since the removal of the heavy duties
once levied on foreign wheat the import of this cereal
has gone up by leaps and bounds. At the end of the
nineteenth century it was more than double the
quantity imported thirty years previously.
The latter half of the nineteenth century has been
marked by the colonisation and cultivation of many
lands formerly occupied by wandering hunters or
Goog. 1


82
OUR FOOD-SUPPLY.
herdsmen. The extension of the wheat-growing area
has enormously increased the world's food-supply, and
has created a surplus which is sent mainly to Europe,
and very largely to the United Kingdom. The most
important of these new wheat-lands are the North
American prairies, west of the Alleghenies and the
Great Lakes. In Europe, the pusztas of Hungary, the
Wallachian plain, and the rich black lands of southern
Russia are the great wheat-producing regions. All these
regions are relatively sparsely peopled, and in some-
for example, in Russia-rye and not wheat is the cereal
consumed by the inhabitants themselves. There is
consequently a large surplus for export to western
Europe. In India excellent wheat is grown in the
north-western regions under irrigation. The Plate
basin in South America is another source of our wheat-
supply, and its resources are as yet by no means fully
developed. Australia sends irregular supplies—e.g.
£1,500,000 in 1902, £10 in 1903. In addition to these
wheat-lands there are two vast areas which, though as
yet comparatively undeveloped, might be made to pro-
duce enormous supplies of wheat. These are the plains
of western Canada and southern Siberia. Until these
virgin lands are more or less exhausted, there will
be a natural increase in the world's wheat-supply; but
in a few decades a more careful and intensive cultiva-
tion of the wheat regions will be essential, as most of
the available free land will doubtless in that time be
fully utilised, even in the higher lands of Africa.
American wheat is sent east to the Atlantic ports, more
particularly to New York, Boston, Montreal, and Quebec, by the
great railways of the United States and Canada, and the Great
Lakes and the canals which connect them either with the


OUR FOOD-SUPPLY,
83
Hudson or the St Lawrence. Much United States wheat is
exported in the form of flour, ground largely at Minneapolis,
on the Mississippi, at the foot of the great St Anthony Falls,
which supply water-power for turning the numerous flour-mills.
The finest flour is imported into this country from Hungary,
and it is remarkable that this is superior to that ground in
this country from Hungarian wheat. Hungarian wheat is ex-
ported partly from the port of Fiume on the Adriatic, but most
of the Danube valley crop finds its way down the river to
Braila and Galatz, near its mouth, where it is shipped westwards.
Russian wheat is brought across the plain to Odessa, to Kherson
at the mouth of the Dnieper, and to Taganrog at the mouth of
the Don. Wheat is also shipped from the Baltic ports. Indian
wheat is shipped mainly from Karachi ; Australian from Sydney,
Melbourne, and Adelaide ; South American from the Plate River.
From 40 to 60 per cent. of our imported wheat and
flour comes from the United States, nearly one-third
of it as flour; 5 to 25 per cent. from Russia and from
Argentina; and 10 to 12 per cent. from Canada, the
most important of our colonial sources of wheat, and
the source most rapidly expanding.
Maize, the cereal next in importance, is imported
more as a feeding substance for our live-stock than
for human food, though much is turned into corn-
flour at Paisley and elsewhere. It comes chiefly from
the central Mississippi basin, and is shipped at Chicago,
New York, or New Orleans. Romania and Argentina
occasionally send as much as the United States.
The other cereals, more particularly barley, oats,* and
rye, and the pulses—peas and beans—are also largely
imported. Barley is chiefly used for brewing and
distilling, and is imported mainly from Russia, the
Danube provinces, Asiatic Turkey, and the United
* Oats come from the United States, Russia, and Canada, rye
and peas from the United States and Canada, and beans from
Asiatic Turkey and Egypt.


84
OUR FOOD-SUPPLY.
States. The other substances named are employed
more for feeding stock than for human food.
Rice, the only other important cereal, is brought
from Burma through Rangoon, and from Bengal.
Dairy Produce and Eggs.—Butter and margarine,
cheese, eggs, and milk are important articles of food
which our dairies and poultry-farms do not supply in
sufficient quantity.
Butter is largely obtained from Denmark, Sweden,
Holland, and the north of France, whence supplies can
be delivered in British markets before they have time
to deteriorate in quality. In recent years the intro-
duction of refrigerating processes enables dairy pro-
duce to be brought fresh from the farthest regions,
and Russian, New Zealand, Australian, and Canadian
butter is now a common article in the English market.
Cheese comes principally from Canada, where careful
technical education has made the farmers of Ontario
the most skilful cheese-makers in the world. Large
quantities also come from the Northern United States.
Cheese is also imported from Holland, Belgium, Swit-
zerland, France, and New Zealand. Over £1,000,000
worth of eggs are annually obtained from Russia,
Denmark, and Germany; and Belgium and France
send large supplies. Considerable numbers come
from Canada. Condensed milk is imported from
Switzerland and Norway.
Fish.—The home supply of fish is very large, and
more is exported than imported. Fresh herrings are
brought from Scandinavia, other kinds of fresh fish
from Norway and Holland, and oysters from the United
States and France. Frozen salmon from Canada is
becoming common in the markets of London and the


OUR FOOD-SUPPLY.
85
larger ports, and canned salmon, lobsters, and oysters
are imported in large quantities from Canada and the
United States. Sardines, preserted in oil, are imported
from French and Portuguese fisheries, and anchovies,
in oil or brine, are obtained from Italy and Norway.
Both are luxuries rather than staple articles of food.
Flesh.—Meat is imported partly in the form of live
animals, partly as dead carcasses, partly as salted or
preserved meat. Live cattle are sent mainly from the
United States, Canada, and Argentina, through New
York, Boston, Montreal, Quebec, and Buenos Aires.
From the same countries and from Australia and New
Zealand large quantities of dead meat are brought over
in ships fitted with refrigerating chambers. Sheep are
imported from the Argentine Republic, the United
States, Canada, and even from Iceland. Frozen mutton
is brought from the Argentine Republic, New Zealand,
and also from Australia. Fresh mutton is imported
in considerable quantities from Holland. Fresh pork
is imported from Holland and the United States.
Bacon and ham come mainly from the United States
and Denmark; a little from Canada. Beef and pork,
salted or preserved in other ways, come mainly from
the United States. Canned mutton is brought princi-
pally from New Zealand and Australia. Meat extracts
are imported from Uruguay and Argentina.
Poultry and Game are brought from various parts of
the Continent; dead rabbits from the Continent and
from Australia. In the latter country they have long
been a pest; but they are now killed for their flesh,
part of which is canned, and for their skins.
Fruits. In recent years, since refrigeration has
rendered it possible to bring even the more delicate


86
OUR FOOD-SUPPLY.
fruits from distant parts of the world without dete-
rioration, fruit has become a much more important
article of diet in this country. Of temperate fruits the
apple is the most important. The home supply is quite
inadequate, and several million bushels are imported
annually, chiefly from the United States, Canada, and
Normandy, though the supply from Tasmania is
increasing. Subtropical fruits are obtained from the
Mediterranean countries. The most important are
oranges, lemons, figs, grapes—either fresh or dried
into raisins and currants-olives, almonds, and dates
-the last from the borders and oases of the desert.
Of tropical fruits the banana is most in demand. It
is imported in immense quantities from the Canary
Islands, the West Indies, and other countries lying
between the tropics. The more expensive pine-apple
comes from the same sources. The coco-nut is brought
from various intertropical regions, but chiefly from the
islands of the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
A large trade is done in fruits preserved in bottles
and cans. Apricots, pears, and other fruits are bottled
in France, and are finer in quality and higher in price
than the many canned fruits imported from the
Southern United States, California, the East Indies,
and Australia. In addition to dried currants and
raisins, dried prunes, plums, and Normandy pippins
have long been in use, and dried pears and apricots
have been put on the market within the last few years.
Sugar.-Sugar not only forms part of our daily food,
but is also the medium in which most fruits are pre-
served. It is found in every plant, and most fruits
are rich in it. Several plants, such as the sugar-cane,
sugar-beet, sugar-maple, and sorghum, are cultivated


OUR FOOD-SUPPLY.
87
for the sugar they yield. The sugar-cane grows only
in warm, moist regions, and is cultivated in every part
of them. It was formerly the staple product of the
West Indies, where it is still largely cultivated, as
well as in adjacent lands like British Guiana. It is
also grown in the East Indies and Queensland. Our
chief supplies of cane sugar come from these countries
(excluding Queensland). The West Indian sugar trade
has suffered during the last century from the com-
petition of beet sugar. The Napoleonic wars at the
commencement of the nineteenth century deprived the
continental European countries of West Indian sugar,
and obliged them to depend on that obtained from
the sugar-beet, which could be grown in Europe. This
led to a great increase in the cultivation of this plant in
the north of France and Germany, in Belgium, Bohemia,
Austria-Hungary, and parts of southern Russia.
The sugar-beet is rarely grown in this country, though
the climate is suitable, and beet sugar (principally from
Germany, France, and the Low Countries) forms about
two-thirds of our imported raw sugar.
Spices, Flavourings, &c.—In former times, when salted
and dried foods were so largely consumed in winter,
spices were relatively a much more important article of
diet than now, though they are still largely used. From
the East Indies, one of the chief spice-lands, come the
nutmeg kernel and its covering layer the mace, the
dried pepper-berry, the ginger-root, and the mustard-
seed. Ginger is obtained from the East and West Indies,
and mustard from Asia Minor. The bark of the cinna-
mon-tree is imported from Ceylon. Zanzibar exports
the dried buds of the clove, and Jamaica the pimento
or allspice. Vanilla, used for flavouring, is produced


OUR FOOD-SUPPLY.
wer,
by an orchid growing in India, Central America, and
Mexico. Almond-oil is extracted from almond seeds.
The only oil extensively used as a food is olive-oil
from the olive drupe, the finest qualities coming from
the south of France and Italy.
Ice.—Nearly half a million tons of ice are imported
annually, chiefly from Scandinavia, for preserving and
cooling food in summer.
- Stimulants and Narcotics.—Stimulants may be divided
into aromatic drinks prepared by infusion and those
obtained by fermentation. The former owe their
stimulating property to the presence of alkaloids, the
latter to that of alcohol.
Tea.—In the British Isles tea is the most important
non-alcoholic beverage. It is made by infusing the
dried leaves of the tea-plant, which grows well in
regions with very warm and moist summers where the
slope of the land is sufficient to ensure good drainage.
Formerly nearly all our tea used to be imported from
China; but in recent years the hills of Assam, Dar-
jiling, and other mountainous parts of India, and the
mountains of Ceylon, have supplied the greater portion
of the tea used in this country. China tea was shipped
from Hankou and the Yang-tse-kiang ports, and from
Shanghai and Canton. India tea is shipped mainly
from Calcutta, and Ceylon tea from Colombo. Tea
is now grown in Natal, Java, and other regions with
suitable climates, and might well be introduced into
northern Queensland.
The consumption of tea is rapidly increasing in
this country: 160,000,000 lb. were consumed in 1880,
while the amount imported in 1903 was over
300,000,000 lb.


OUR FOOD-SUPPLY.
89
Coffee is an infusion of the roasted and ground berry
of the coffee-plant, which, like cotton, but unlike tea,
cannot stand any frost. Most of our coffee comes from
the Pacific slope of Central America, British India,
Colombia, Brazil, and the West Indies. Brazil and
the Dutch East Indies, especially Java, are among
the chief coffee-producing regions. Indian coffee
comes from the south of that country; very little is
now obtained from Ceylon. Coffee has also been
introduced into British Central Africa, where a 'bean'
of very fine quality is grown.
The consumption of coffee in the British Isles is
diminishing, but a million cwt. are imported every
year, of which about three-quarters is re-exported.
Cacao.—Cacao, commonly, but wrongly, called cocoa,
is made from the ‘nibs' or seeds of the cacao-tree, a
plant of American origin which flourishes in Mexico,
Central America, the north of South America, and the
West Indies, and has recently been successfully intro-
duced into Ceylon. The cacao of Ecuador is shipped
from Guayaquil; that of Venezuela from La Guaira ;
that of Trinidad from Port of Spain. It is also ex-
ported from Brazil, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Salvador,
and Guatemala. The consumption of cacao is increasing.
The kola nut, from West Africa, yields one of the
strongest of all non-alcoholic stimulants. It is used
medicinally, and is rapidly passing into common use.
Fermented Drinks.—The alcoholic drinks fermented
from barley have already been described (see page 61).
Wine, the fermented juice of the grape, is by far the
most important alcoholic drink which is imported.
Although the vine can be grown in the south of
England and Wales, it is at present of no economic


90
OUR FOOD-SUPPLY.
importance, and wine is obtained chiefly from the
vine-growing regions of France, more particularly from
the south, where Cette is the chief wine-port. Clarets
are exported from Bordeaux, and Burgundies from
the Saône valley. Wine is also imported from Spain
(sherry), Portugal (port), Italy, Germany (Rhine wines),
and Hungary. Algeria, in the north of Africa, and the
Cape, in the south, both export wine. In recent years
considerable attention has been paid to vine-growing
and wine fermentation in Australia, more particularly
in Victoria and South Australia. Californian wines
are also now in the British market. The distilled
liquor obtained from wine is brandy. The best
brandies are made at Cognac, in the west of France,
and in the Champagne region.
A portion of the spirits imported into this country is
distilled in Germany from the fermented juice of the
potato. Rum comes from the British West Indies and
British Guiana. Fine liqueurs are prepared by the
Benedictine monks in Picardy and those of Chartreuse
in Savoy. Among many others too numerous to
mention may be noticed Kirsch, distilled from the
cherry, and Curaçoa, made in Holland from the outer
rind of the Curaçao orange. Practically, every plant
can be made to yield alcohol, and numerous fruits and
plants are used for the purpose.
Tobacco and Snuff are made from the prepared leaves
of the tobacco-plant, a native of America. The tobacco-
leaf is rolled into cigars or cheroots, and in this form
it is brought from Havana in Cuba, Manila in the
Philippines, and from Mexico, Borneo, Burma, and
southern India. Tobacco for smoking and snuffing is
imported from the United States, several countries of


IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS, ETC.
91
Europe, and the Levant. Much is imported in the
form of dried leaves, which are manufactured into
pipe tobacco, cigars, cigarettes, and snuff in our own
country.
CHAPTER VII.
IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS AND
MANUFACTURED ARTICLES.
Raw Materials for Textile Manufacture.— Wool and
flax are the only two fibres of textile importance
grown in the British Isles, but the home supply of
both is quite inadequate. Cotton, hemp, jute, and
other vegetable fibres, and silk, camels' hair, and other
animal fibres, are all of foreign origin.
Wool.—Most of our imported wool comes from the
southern hemisphere, where the merino sheep has
been introduced. The chief wool-producing regions
are Argentina, South Africa, Australia (south of 20°
S. lat.), and New Zealand. Argentina exports little
wool used in this country, which is chiefly supplied
from Australasia and South Africa. The Australian
grass-lands are the drier downs south of the twentieth
parallel. The wool, which is washed on the sheep-
runs before being forwarded to the coast, is exported
from the chief ports of the five colonies. In New
Zealand the Canterbury plains in the Middle Island
are exceptionally suited for sheep-rearing, although
sheep are very numerous on the drier parts of the
western mountains. In South Africa the dry Karroos
supply scanty pasture. Cape Colony wool, how-
ever, is less in demand than Australian, largely


92
IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS, ETC.
because it is exported uncleaned. Its heavier weight
in this condition increases the cost of transport, and
consequently its price, while the manufacturer has
also to pay the cost of cleaning. This is true to an
even greater extent of South American wools.
There are numerous minor regions of wool-supply.
For instance, sheep-rearing is almost the only industry
of the Falkland Islanders.
The hair of the goat is also used for making woollen
goods, especially that of the Kashmir goat and the
Angora goat of Asia Minor. The latter has been suc-
cessfully introduced into South Africa, and its fine hair,
known as mohair, is a valuable export from our colonies
there. The hair of the camel and of the alpaca of
the Andes is also used in the woollen manufacture.
600,000,000 to 700,000,000 lb. of wool are imported on an
average every year, of which less than half is re-exported. The
home production is less than 140,000,000 lb. The total amount
of raw wool annually manufactured in the United Kingdom is
over 500,000,000 lb.
Flax. In addition to the flax grown in Ulster, lint
fibre is imported, mainly from the Baltic, and especially
from Russian ports. The finest flax, however, is
produced in the south of Belgium, which sends one-
fifth of our imports. We are also supplied from
Holland. A considerable quantity of flax is produced
in southern Russia, in northern Italy, and in western
France, but is not brought to Britain. Nearly 100,000
tons are annually imported.
Cotton.—Two-fifths of the world's raw cotton is sent
to be manufactured in the British Isles. Cotton
consists of the fine hairs growing round the fruit of
the cotton shrub, or tree, which is found everywhere


IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS, ETC.
93
between the tropics, and also in subtropical regions.
The hair is separated from the seeds by the process
called ginning, and the 'cotton wool' is then packed
into bales weighing about 440 lb. each. In the six-
ties about 10,000,000 cwt. of raw cotton were im-
ported every year; but the quantity is now over
16,000,000 cwt., of which about 15 per cent. is
re-exported.
The United States of America are by far the most
important source of our cotton-supply, for three-
quarters of the raw cotton of the world is grown
there. The cotton-plant cannot flourish in regions
where frost occurs, and while it does not require
exceptionally great moisture, it needs long, warm
summers to ripen the seeds. The south-eastern
United States have a climate admirably suited for
its growth, and in the sandy soils of Georgia and
South Carolina plants producing the finest and longest
fibres are raised. This is known as sea-island cotton,
which has been introduced from this region into
Egypt, Queensland, and different islands in the Pacific.
The American ports chiefly engaged in shipping sea-
island cotton are Charleston, Savannah, and Wilming-
ton. A cotton with a shorter staple, known as upland
cotton, is grown farther inland. This is largely shipped
from the Gulf ports, such as Galveston, New Orleans,
Pensacola, and Mobile.
The delta of the Nile, with its very dry air and
abundant moisture derived from the river, is well
suited for the growth of fine cotton; and Cyprus and
other parts of the Mediterranean are equally good
cotton lands. Much cotton is shipped to this country
from Alexandria and Smyrna.


94
IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS, ETC.
The black soil of the Deccan in India to the east
of the Western Ghâts, where the summer rains are not
excessive, yields rich crops, which are shipped chiefly
from Bombay. Of the minor cotton-growing regions,
Brazil is the most important. It ships its cotton from
Rio de Janeiro and Pernambuco. Attempts are being
made to increase the growth of cotton in British lands,
especially in Africa, from which in time a large supply
may be expected.
Silk.—Over 1,000,000 lb., about £750,000 worth,
of raw silk is imported into the United Kingdom
every year; £500,000 worth of husks and waste, and
over £500,000 worth of thrown silk are also imported
annually. Silk is obtained from the cocoon of the
silkworm, which feeds on the leaves of the mulberry,
oak, and other trees of China, Japan, the Mediter-
ranean region, and other parts of the world. Most
of our supply comes from France, China, and India.
Jute.—Jute is the coarse fibre obtained from the
jute-plant, which grows only in the rich alluvial soils of
warm, moist regions. The bulk of our supply, about
350,000 tons per annum, is grown in the delta of the
Ganges. It is shipped from Calcutta in sailing-vessels,
as its value is too small to pay for steam transport.
Hemp.—Hemp is widely distributed; but most of
that used in this country is imported from Russia,
Germany, and Italy. Manila hemp, the long fibre of
a palm, is imported in very large quantities from
Manila in the Philippine Islands New Zealand
produces a fibre known as phormium, or New Zealand
flax. The agave of Mexico and Central America
yields a fibre known as heniquen, or sisal hemp, used
in the manufacture of twine, rope, &c.


IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS, ETC.
95
The ramie or China grass is the fibre of a plant of
the nettle family, grown in many warm lands.
Other Raw Materials of Vegetable and Animal Origin.
Palm-oil, from moist and hot West Africa, and the
dried coco-nut, known as copra, from most Pacific
islands and the sandy shores of the Indian Ocean,
are imported for making soaps and stearine candles.
Many trees in the wet jungles of intertropical regions
exude a milky juice which when dry becomes elastic,
and is known as india-rubber or caoutchouc. The
Brazilian forests supply the best rubber. The port is
Pará, at the mouth of the Amazon. Rubber is also
imported from West Africa, and from the East Indies,
through Singapore. A variety of plants growing on
the borders of the desert exude juices which form
gums and resins imported either for use as drugs or
as the bases of varnishes, dyes, or compounds employed
in tanning. They are chiefly brought from East
Africa and Arabia.
Substances imported for Tanning and Dyeing.-Tannin,
an astringent found in most tree-barks, is used
for tanning bides into leather. Some barks are
richer in tannin than others. Among those imported
into this country are the bark of the hemlock-spruce
from the United States, of an acacia from Australia,
and of an oak from the Mediterranean, from the east
of which region come the acorn-cups known as valonia,
also used in tanning.
Vegetable dyes have become less important since
the introduction of aniline dyes. Indigo, the most
important, is extracted from the stems of a plant of
the pea family, cultivated mainly in Bengal, which


96
IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS, ETC.
supplies most of our indigo. Some is also brought
from the West Indies and Central America. Cutch,
or catechu, extracted from an acacia, is largely
imported from India. Gambier, prepared from the
young astringent leaves of a tree growing round the
Strait of Malacca, and gamboge, a yellow viscid
juice which exudes from the gamboge-tree of Cam-
bodia and is collected in hollow bamboo stems, are
imported from the Indo-China peninsula. The finest
gamboge comes from Siam. Madder was formerly
cultivated for making turkey-red; but alizarin, the
colouring matter of this dye, is now obtained from
one of the coal-tar products. Many dye-woods, such
as logwood, come from Central America.
Of animal dyes, red cochineal is perhaps the
most important. It is made from an insect which
feeds on the cactus, and is obtained mainly from
the Canary Islands. Mineral aniline dyes, made from
coal-tar, are imported from Germany.
Timber and Cabinet Woods.—The forests of our
country have long been exhausted, and nearly all the
timber used in this country is imported.
Redwood and whitewood from the Baltic are used
for all kinds of building purposes. The former is also
employed in paving streets and for finer kinds of
joiner-work, the latter for coarser carpentry. Yellow
pine comes from Canada and the northern United States,
and the beautifully-marked and resinous pitch-pine
from the forests of the east of the Alleghenies. The
great Douglas pines of British Columbia and Oregon,
and the Californian redwood, are magnificent specimens
of timber, being sometimes as much as three hundred
feet in height. The former is used for making masts
andat Doug/rests of thearked andorth


IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS, ETC.
97
and as both are free from knots, they are among
the most valuable timber imported. Oak is brought
both from the continent of Europe and from America,
and the hard and durable teak is shipped from India,
especially from Burma. Walnut from the south of
Europe, the United States, and Canada, and mahogany
from tropical America, are employed in high-class
joiner-work and cabinet-making. Many other beautiful
woods are imported for the latter purpose, mainly from
tropical lands—for example, Brazilian rosewood; the
satinwoods of the West Indies, southern India, and
Ceylon; ebony from Ceylon; and bird's-eye maple from
North America.
Much wood is imported in the form of pulp, mainly
from Scandinavia and Canada. It is used for paper-
making.
The bark of the cork oak, both raw and manu-
factured, is imported from Spain and Portugal.
Furs and other Animal Products. Furs are largely
imported for winter wear. Siberia, northern Russia,
and Canada are the last great fur-preserves of the
world. The ermine, fox, beaver, mink, and sable are
among the animals hunted for their skins. The seal-
fisheries of the Arctic seas employ a large number
of vessels, and the skins fetch a high price. The
whale-fisheries in the same waters are important
for the value of the whalebone and blubber, the
latter used for oil. Much of the catch of the
Canadian and United States sealing fleets in the
North Pacific finds its way to London, which is one
of the great fur-markets of the world. The recent
development of the bicycling trade has created a
great demand for walrus-skins, which make the best
Geog. 1


98
IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS, ETC.
burnishers, and these fisheries will rapidly increase in
importance in Arctic waters. The skins of the tiger,
lion, leopard, and grizzly bear are prepared as orna-
mental and useful rugs. By far the largest number
of skins and hides brought into this country are
those of common animals, such as cattle, sheep, goats.
and horses, to be converted into leather. These are
chiefly obtained from the pastoral regions of Australia,
North and South America, and South Africa.
Elephants' tusks, or ivory, are imported mainly from
Africa, at a terrible cost of human life and suffering.
The teeth of the hippopotamus and the walrus are
also collected for the ivory market.
The feathers of the African ostrich are in great
demand, and ostriches are reared now, not merely in
South Africa and in Algeria, but also in Australia and
Argentina.
The feathers of other birds are also imported for
ornament, and those of the domestic fowls and of the
eider-duck, the down of which is gathered from the
islands of the North Atlantic and from Norway, are
brought to stuff cushions, quilts, and other soft and
warm articles.
Sponges are brought from the Mediterranean and
from the West Indies.
Imported Minerals.
Besides the precious metals—gold, silver, and a
small quantity of platinum—the common metals—
iron, copper, tin, zinc, mercury, lead, and manganese
—are the chief metals imported into the British Isles.
Iron.—Enormous as is the output of iron ore from
British mines, it does not suffice for the numerous


IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS, ETC.
99
furnaces of the United Kingdom, and between 5,500,000
and 6,500,000 tons of ore are annually imported, five-
sixths from Spain. The red hematite iron ores of the
north of Spain are shipped from Bilbao to South
Wales. The black magnetic iron ores of Sweden are
still largely used in making cutlery at Sheffield.
Copper.—The development of electrical engineering
has led to a great increase in the use of copper, which
is found in a pure state in some parts of Russia and
near Lake Superior. About 250,000 tons are annually
imported, the greater part either as ore, as partly refined
ore known as regulus or copper precipitate, or as un-
wrought blocks. It is sent from the Sierra Morena, in
Spain, through Huelva; from the Ookiep mines, in the
west of Cape Colony, through Port Nolloth; and from
the United States, Australia, and Chile. Copper-
smelting is mainly carried on in South Wales (espe-
cially round Swansea), Lancashire, and Lanarkshire.
Lead and Manganese.—Between 220,000 and 230,000
tons of lead are imported annually. Most of the lead
is obtained from Spain, Australasia, and the United
States, where it is found as a sulphur-lead ore known
as galena. Manganese comes from Russia, India, Chile,
Brazil, and Turkey, mainly in the form of the black
oxide, which is used for making manganese steel.
Over 150,000 tons of ore are imported annually.
Zinc.—80,000 tons of crude zinc are annually im-
ported from Belgium, Germany, and the United States;
and between 30,000 and 40,000 tons of zinc ore from
Italy and Greece, and in growing quantities from
Tunis, Spain, and Australia.
Tin.—Over 35,000 tons of tin, in addition to 5000
tons of tin ore, are brought, three-quarters of it from


100
IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS, ETC.
the Malay Peninsula, which supplies most of the world
with this metal, through the port of Singapore.
Mercury is largely used for making alloys, called
amalgams, and in the refining of gold. Nearly all is
derived from Almaden, in the Sierra Morena in Spain.
About 2,500,000 lb. are imported every year.
Many other minerals are imported in smaller quan-
tities, to be used pure or in combination with other
metals.
Platinum is obtained from the Ural Mountains. It
is not acted on by the atmosphere or any single acid,
and it is very ductile and malleable, but not easily
melted. It is used in electrical and chemical works.
Nickel, used in making nickel steel, and alloyed with
copper to form German or nickel silver, comes mainly
from New Caledonia. It is found in the Sudbury
mines near Lake Superior, in Canada, and in various
parts of the United States, as well as of Europe.
Sulphur, used in making sulphuric acid, is brought
from many volcanic regions, more particularly from
those of Italy.
Graphite, or plumbago, forms the lead of our pencils,
and is also used as a lubricator and polisher. Since
the once-famous Cumberland mines were exhausted, it is
imported from Ceylon, Germany, and the United States.
Nitrate of Soda, or Chile saltpetre, found in the desert
regions of South America, is imported for fertilising
purposes. For this purpose many phosphates are
brought from the south-eastern United States, but
they have to be treated with sulphuric acid before
they are used.
The fireproof asbestos is brought from Canada and
Italy.


IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS, ETC.
101
Nearly 300,000,000 gallons of petroleum are brought
to this country from the wells at Baku, east of the
Caucasus, through the Black Sea ports of Batum and
Poti, and from the Pennsylvanian oil-wells in the east
of the United States.
Asphalt is obtained from the pitch-lake in Trinidad.
Both silver and gold are largely imported into this
country, not merely for coinage, but for use in the arts.
Gold is chiefly extracted from the so-called gold quartz.
The quartz is first crushed, and then the gold is taken
out by chemical or mechanical processes. It is also
washed from alluvial sands formed by the decomposi-
tion of gold quartz. The west of North America,
Australia, and South Africa are the principal sources
of the gold imported into this country.
Silver is not usually found pure. Large quantities
are obtained from lead-silver ores, in which it is found
in small quantities. It is abundant in the Andes,
Mexico, Nevada, and Montana in the United States,
and in Australia.
Precious Stones.—Diamonds are found in South
Africa, especially at Kimberley and in the Transvaal,
and also in Brazil. Rubies and sapphires are brought
from Burma and Ceylon.
Pearls are the only precious stones of organic origin,
with the unimportant exception of coral. They come
from the Persian Gulf, Ceylon, the Sulu Archipelago,
and the coasts of New Guinea and Northern Australia.
re the only exception of Sulu Archipelalia.
They rigin,
Sula
Manufactured Articles Imported.,
Many manufactured articles are brought into the
United Kingdom in spite of the great activity of its
factories. Some of these, such as Turkey carpets or


102
IMPORTS OF RAW MATERIALS, ETC.
Sèvres porcelain, are fine articles brought from regions
specially famous for their manufacture. Others are
common articles which other countries can put cheaply
on our market. Many partially manufactured goods,
such as cotton, woollen, and linen yarns, are sent to
Britain for further elaboration.
A considerable proportion of these imported manu-
factured articles is immediately reshipped to our
colonies and other lands with which we trade.
Cotton piece-goods to the length of over 40,000,000
yards, or 23,000 miles, are brought to this country
every year, and about 75,000,000 yards of woollen
cloths and stuffs. Many of the imported fabrics are
of very fine quality and design. The woollens come
mainly from France, where the finest qualities are
made, and from Germany.
Both woollen and cotton goods are introduced in
a further stage of elaboration, as hosiery and other
articles of dress.
We spend on an average £5,300,000 per annum on
imported manufactured cotton goods, and £9,500,000
on imported manufactured woollens, including carpets.
Most of the silk used in this country is manufac-
tured abroad, in France, Germany, or Italy; and
over £13,000,000 are annually paid for manufactured
silk brought into this country.
Paris and Berlin supply mantles and many other
articles of clothing, the French imports being remark-
able for elegance and the German for cheapness.
Over £8,000,000 are spent every year on prepared
leather, and £900,000 on boots. About 20,000,000
pairs of gloves are annually imported from Paris,
Grenoble, Brussels, and Copenhagen.


EXPORTS,
103
Lace, buttons, studs, and much haberdashery are
brought from the Continent.
Many articles of household use are also imported.
China, porcelain, and earthenware are brought from
the great Continental potteries at Limoges and Sèvres.
Kitchen utensils and tin-plate ware are largely
obtained from the United States; cheap cutlery from
the same country and from Germany.
Germany supplies many of the chemical manufac-
tures ; glass is brought from Germany, Bohemia, and
Belgium; paper from Scandinavia, Germany, and U.S.A.
Many scientific instruments are also of German and
French manufacture. £1,400,000 are spent annually
on musical instruments, brought chiefly from Germany.
Cheap wooden matches are imported from Sweden,
and wax ones from Belgium.
About £1,000,000 are spent every year on watches,
and £500,000 on clocks, of foreign manufacture.
The growth in our imports of manufactured iron is
one of the most remarkable phenomena in recent
years. Over £8,000,000 are spent on foreign manu-
factured iron, not much under one-third of the value
of our exports. Much of this comes from the United
States, Belgium, and Germany. Nearly £2,000,000
were spent on motor-cars and cycles in 1903.
CHAPTER VIII.
EXPORTS.
Exports and Imports.—The trade relations of this
country are very complex. Britain plays the part of
a great middleman, acting as an agent between buyers


104
EXPORTS.
and sellers in all parts of the world. It trades not
merely in its own surplus produce—raw and manu-
factured—but in almost every article of colonial and
foreign produce---raw and manufactured-in which a
profitable trade can be done. An immense number of
commodities, therefore, are imported only to be re-
exported at a profit, chiefly through London. The
existence of this entrepôt trade, as it is called, must
always be borne in mind in studying lists of our
imports and exports.
Home and Foreign Produce.—With the exception of
coal, most of our raw exports are first imported.
Cotton, wool, the skins of sheep and other animals,
tallow and animal fat, india-rubber, and many other
forms of raw produce, as well as large quantities of
food-stuffs, which are included among our exports,
are all of foreign origin. On the other hand, manu-
factured articles, which figure so largely among our
exports, are chiefly, though not exclusively, of home
origin.
Mineral Exports—Raw and Manufactured (chiefly of
Home Origin).—Coal is by far the most important
mineral exported, amounting in value to one-fifteenth
of the total exports of the country. About 45,000,000
tons, or 18 per cent. of the total output of British mines,
were exported in 1903, and 36,500,000 tons in 1898.
Large quantities are sent to countries bordering the
North and Mediterranean Seas, which have little or
no coal of their own, such as Scandinavia, Finland,
Denmark, Holland, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Egypt,
and to those parts of coal-producing countries, such as
Germany, France, and Russia, which are more cheaply
reached by boat from Britain than by rail from the


EXPORTS.
105
home collieries. Welsh coal is sent all over the world,
and supplies the coaling stations for the British navy
as well as the vessels themselves.
Between 15,000,000 and 17,000,000 tons of coal are
shipped for the use of steamers engaged in the foreign
trade, and are not usually reckoned among exports
proper.
Iron is exported in many different forms. The
quantity of simple pig and puddled iron averages over
1,000,000 tons per annum. Railroad plant of all kinds
is sent to nearly all the countries of the world, more
particularly to European countries and to the East
Indies. It amounted to 720,000 tons in 1902 and 1903.
Tin plates and galvanised iron sheets together
average annually about 650,000 tons.
Cast and wrought iron, unwrought steel, hoops,
sheets, boiler plates, wire, bar, angle, and rod iron, are
among the other forms in which this metal is exported,
to a weight of about 800,000 tons per annum.
The total weight of iron and steel and manufac-
tures thereof exported in 1903 was over 3,500,000
tons, valued at nearly £30,500,000.
Iron is the principal constituent of such exports
as cutlery, hardware, and tools, of which more than
£4,500,000 worth are annually exported; of cycles
and motor-cars, £1,200,000; of locomotives, agricul-
tural and other steam-engines, in 1903, £5,250,000; of
textile, agricultural, and other machines and imple-
ments. The total amount of all machinery and mill-
work exported, including steam-engines, averaged
about £19,000,000 between 1901-3.
Among miscellaneous exports included under the
head of metals, the most important are wrought and


106
EXPORTS.
unwrought copper, brass, lead, tin, zinc, telegraph
apparatus of all kinds, electroplate, small firearms,
guns and ammunition, clocks and watches, and others
too numerous to mention. ;
The total exports of metals and articles manufactured
from them, including ships, averaged over £67,000,000
in 1901-3, or approximately one-fourth of the total
exports of British origin..
Textile Exports (chiefly of Home Manufacture). —
Our textile exports are numerous and valuable. Cotton
yarns and manufactured goods make up more than
one-quarter of the total exports of this country, and
woollen yarn and manufactures nearly one-tenth, the
exact quantity varying from year to year. Over
5,000,000,000 yards, or 2,750,000 miles, of cotton piece-
goods, nearly half unbleached, are exported annually
to all parts of the world, especially to the hotter
regions, such as Mediterranean lands (more particularly
Egypt and Turkey), the West Indies, South America,
West and Central Africa, India, the East Indies,
China, Japan, and Australia, which are our chief
customers for these commodities. These cotton piece-
goods were worth over £55,000,000 in 1903. If the
cotton yarn, exported mainly to European countries
(Germany, Holland, Turkey), British India, and Japan,
be added, the total cotton manufactures we export are
valued at over £73,000,000 on the average of the three
years 1901-3.
About 90,000 miles of woollen and worsted goods,
about 9,000,000 yards of flannel, and 800,000 pairs
of blankets are exported annually. The woollen
trade is mainly with the cooler countries of the world,
more particularly with European countries (especially


EXPORTS.
107
France, Belgium, and Germany), the United States
and Canada, Australasia, Argentina, and Japan.
The hostile tariff of the United States has lately
diminished the export of woollen goods to that country.
Woollen and worsted tissues exported to the United
States in 1896 were worth £3,500,000; in 1898,
£1,000,000; in 1903, £1,400,000. The total woollen
manufactures of all kinds, including yarns, exported in
1901–3 averaged £23,500,000—in 1903, £25,400,000.
Approximately, 90,000 miles of linen goods are
exported, composed chiefly of white or plain linen.
About 3 per cent. consists of sailcloth and sails.
The chief markets for linen goods are the United
States (which takes about half of the total), Australia,
Germany, Canada, and France. The annual value of
linen goods exported averaged £5,350,000 in 1901-3.
Between 2500 and 3000 miles of silk stuffs are
annually exported. Twist or yarn goes chiefly to the
United States, Germany, and France; broadstuffs of
silk or satin to France; handkerchiefs and shawls to
India. The United States and our colonies receive
all kinds of silk goods. The total exports are worth
over £1,400,000.
Over 120,000 miles of jute piece-goods are exported
to the United States, Argentina, Canada, and other
countries. Over half of the jute yarn exported is
sent to Brazil. Jute articles, excluding bags, were
exported to the extent of over £2,100,000 per annum
in 1901-3.
A large number of miscellaneous textile articles are
exported, including cotton and linen thread for sewing
purposes, lace, hosiery, carpets of wool and jute, and
many others.


108
EXPORTS.
The total value of the textile articles exported
averaged nearly £99,000,000 per annum in 1896–98,
and nearly £108,000,000 per annum in 1901–3.
Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles (chiefly of Home
Manufacture).—A large trade is done in chemical
products (alkalies, bleaching materials, manures, and
medicines), amounting to about £11,500,000 per annum;
in glass and earthenware, to about £3,100,000 per
annum; and in paper and paper articles, to £1,700,000
per annum.
Rubber goods worth £1,300,000 are annually ex-
ported; leather, unwrought and wrought (boots, shoes,
and saddlery, &c.), to £4,500,000 worth per annum;
furniture, haberdashery, millinery, books, and many
other articles are sent abroad in large quantities.
Raw Produce for Manufactures (chiefly of Foreign
Origin).—In addition to coal, iron, and other ores,
which have already been mentioned, a large export
trade is done in textile raw materials. Of these wool,
in all its forms, is by far the most considerable,
averaging in value £10,000,000. From 6,500,000 to
7,800,000 sheepskins and about 2,500,000 cwt. of wool
are exported annually, chiefly to France, Germany,
the United States, and Belgium. Imported cotton
(average, 2,300,000 cwt.), dressed and undressed flax,
and hemp are also exported in large quantities.
Caoutchouc and gutta-percha have grown in recent
years to be among the chief articles of our entrepôt
trade, averaging over £4,000,000 worth in 1901–3.
Food Exports (chiefly of Home Origin).—The export
of fish—one of the few natural products which this
country exports—is very large. Over 2,050,000 bar-
rels of herrings were sent abroad annually in 1901-3,


THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
109
worth £2,550,000. Our largest customers for fish are
those countries where the use of flesh is forbidden
on religious grounds at certain seasons, such as
Germany, Russia, and the Roman Catholic countries
bordering the Mediterranean.
Live-stock is in considerable demand abroad, chiefly
for breeding purposes. Of live-stock used for food,
sheep are the most important; but the number ex-
ported is less than that of horses, which are largely
exported to Belgium.
Of vegetable home-grown exports, the potato is the
most important, the quantity exported varying from
year to year with the size of the crop. In 1898
only about 194,000 cwt. were exported and in 1894,
1,073,000 cwt.
Our food exports include colonial produce of all
kinds; cereals, such as maize, wheat, wheat-flour,
and barley, to which may be added 250,000 cwt.
of biscuits and cake, and a growing quantity of con-
fectionery; foreign beef and pork; dairy produce and
eggs. Colonial produce is the most important.
CHAPTER IX.
THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES FROM THE
BRITISH ISLES. *
For an island country, such as Britain, transport
by sea is all-important, bringing it into contact with
all the maritime countries of the world. We have
seen that much of our raw material and food is
imported, and that we are dependent upon foreign
* See map on page 133.


110
THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
markets for the sale of our surplus manufactures. It
is, therefore, important to understand the main sea-
routes and the principal commodities carried over them.
The North Sea and Baltic Trade.
When population and manufactures were concen-
trated in the south-east of Great Britain, the greater
part of our trade was with the ports on the opposite
side of the English Channel and the North Sea, more
particularly between the Thames and the Rhine ports.
In modern times the North Sea trade is still very
valuable; it is carried on from all the east coast ports,
more particularly from London, Harwich, Grimsby,
Hull, the north of England ports, and from those of
the Forth. The North Sea trade may be divided into
two kinds, the mainland and the Scandinavian trade.
The mainland trade is with France, Belgium, Holland,
and Germany; the chief ports being Dunkirk (Dun-
querque) in France, Antwerp (Anvers) in Belgium,
Rotterdam and Amsterdam in Holland, Bremen and
Hamburg in Germany—much of whose trade also
goes through Holland and Belgium. The Scandi-
navian trade is largely with Bergen, Kristiansund,
Kristiania, and Drammen. The chief exports to the
mainland are cotton and woollen yarn and manu-
factures, coal, metals, and machinery—the Humber
ports doing the largest trade.
From Belgium we receive cotton, silk, woollen, and
linen goods greater in value than our exports to these
countries ; also flax, glass, iron, zinc, sugar (both refined
and unrefined), eggs, and dairy produce. From Hol-
land we obtain butter, margarine, cheese, fresh and
preserved meat (especially mutton), sugar, and colonial


THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
111
produce, such as cacao and rice. We import much
German, Austrian, and Swiss produce through Holland
and Belgium, notably silk, sugar, clocks and watches,
glass, gloves, wine, condensed milk, toys, and aniline
dyes.
To Norway the chief exports are cotton, woollen,
and metal manufactures, and coal, in return for which
we obtain timber, wood-pulp, paper, fish, ice, and
condensed milk.
A large passenger trade is carried on from Harwich
to the Hook of Holland (Hoek van Holland), Rotter-
dam, and Antwerp; from Queenborough to Flushing
(Vlissingen); from Dover to Ostend; and in the
summer months also from Tilbury to Ostend.
The Baltic trade is with regions having large areas
of forest and agricultural land, but little coal or other
minerals, except the iron of Sweden.
Navigation is interrupted from three to five months
every winter, owing to many of the harbours being
ice-bound. The waters of the Baltic are only one-
quarter as salt as those of the ocean, and freeze more
easily, although the whole sea is but rarely completely
covered with ice. The use of ice-breaking steamers in
recent years has helped to keep the Baltic navigable.
Several canals unite the North and Baltic Seas. By
far the most important is the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal
between Brunsbüttel, near the mouth of the Elbe, and
Holtenau, near Kiel, which is large enough to admit
ships of all sizes. This canal saves about 240 miles
(twenty hours) on the journey from London to Baltic
ports other than Danish, 180 miles (fifteen hours) from
the Humber, and over 100 miles (nine hours) from
the Tyne ports. From the Forth, the old route by


112
THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
the Skager-Rak and the Kattegat is as short, but
its navigation is much more dangerous. Copenhagen
(Kjöbenhavn) on the Sound, is the great commercial
centre of the Baltic trade. Coal, metal, and manufac-
tured goods of all kinds are sent thither, and Danish
butter, bacon, and eggs are shipped to Britain.
Coal, metals, textile fabrics, and machinery are the
chief products sent to the Baltic ports, the cold climate
creating a greater demand for woollen than for cotton
fabrics. In return we obtain timber, wood-pulp, iron,
butter, paper, and matches from Sweden through
the ports of Göteborg (usually written in English,
Gothenburg), Malmö, Norrköping, and Stockholm.
Timber, cereals, flax, hemp, linseed, oil-seed cake,
and butter are imported from Russia through St
Petersburg, Riga, and Revel. From Germany, through
Memel, Königsberg, Stettin (with Swinemünde as its
deep-water harbour), and Kiel, we get timber, butter,
and some manufactured and chemical goods; but most
of these pass through the North Sea ports.
The European Atlantic Trade.
A very large proportion of British trade be-
tween the British Isles and the Continent is carried
on across the English Channel, between Dover and
Calais, Folkestone and Boulogne, Newhaven and
Dieppe, Southampton and Le Havre, Weymouth and
St Malo. A large part of the trade between London
and Paris is carried on by direct shipment from
London to Le Havre or Rouen on the Seine, and
steamers regularly ply between London and Paris.
A considerable trade is also carried on between the
coalfields of South Wales and the north of England


114
THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
the articles chiefly in demand. In exchange for these
commodities, our ships bring back subtropical fruits
-oranges, lemons, figs, olives, grapes, and also dates
from the borders of the desert. Minerals are almost
entirely obtained from the south of Spain. A large
trade in cereals passes through the Mediterranean
from the Black Sea ports.
To protect our commerce in the Mediterranean
and to guard the route to India, Britain possesses
three stations in the Mediterranean: Gibraltar, on
the Spanish mainland in the west, guarding the
strait of that name; the island of Malta, com-
manding the passage between Sicily and Africa; and
Cyprus, protecting the eastern Mediterranean. Since
1882 Egypt has been under British control. This
is jealously viewed by our Continental neighbours,
owing to the importance of the Suez Canal as an
international highway.
Spanish Trade. From Malaga, Almeria, Cartagena,
and Valencia in the south of Spain, grapes, raisins,
wines, oranges, lemons, almonds, and copper, mercury,
and other minerals from the Sierra Morena, are sent
to this country, which in return exports coal, metal
goods, and textile manufactures. Barcelona, to the
north of the mouth of the Ebro, is the port for the
rich lands of Catalonia, carrying on a trade with:
Britain similar to the southern ports.
French Trade.—Cette, in the south of France, is the
great wine port of the Mediterranean. Marseilles is
the commercial outlet for Provence and the Rhone
valley. It lies east of the Rhone delta, the shallow
distributaries of that river not being navigable for
large vessels. Wine and olive-oil are exported to


THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
115
this country, coal and metal goods being taken in
return.
Italian Trade.-Genoa (Genova), Leghorn (Livorno),
and Naples (Napoli) receive large quantities of coal
from South Wales, Newcastle, and Scotland; fish
from Scotland and from the south-west of England ;
engines, railway plant, and metallic goods. Through
Genoa itself we import little, our trading-vessels going
farther east for their return cargo, to the Levant, to
the Ægean and Black Seas, or to Algiers. The trans-
porting of coal and other commodities from Britain
is passing into the hands of Italian shippers. From
Naples olive-oil, marble, wine, hides, and hemp are
obtained in return. A considerable trade is done with
the ports of southern Italy, more particularly with
Palermo and Messina, which take cotton, woollen,
and metallic manufactures, and coal, in exchange for
wine, oil, southern fruits, and sulphur.
Adriatic Trade.-From Venice (Venezia), the centre
of a considerable Adriatic trade, our ships bring
back little, usually leaving the harbour loaded
with ballast, to take in wheat, flour, and wine at
Trieste and Fiume, the ports of Austria and Hungary
respectively.
Greek Trade.—Valonia and currants are the chief
exports of Patras and Piræus, which receive industrial
produce in exchange. The Corinth Canal, across the
isthmus of that name, saves the long journey round
the south of the Morea. Syra, or Hermopolis, is the
coaling station and chief port of the Grecian Archi-
pelago, and exports emery and iron ore.
Turkish Trade.—From Salonica (Slavonic, Saloniki;
Turkish, Selanik) cereala, tobacco, wool, and opium


116
THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
are obtained. Constantinople (Turkish, Stambul), on
the Golden Horn, is one of the most important com-
mercial cities in the world. Lying between the Black
Sea and the Mediterranean, and between Europe and
Asia, it is the market through which the products of
two seas and two continents are exchanged. Manu-
factured goods of all kinds are sent out from Britain
in vessels which return with Turkey carpets made by
Armenians, mohair, wool, and opium.
Danube Trade.—From the Danube ports, more par-
ticularly Sulina, Galatz, Braila (or Ibraila), and Varna,
the cereals of the Hungarian and Wallachian plains
are shipped.
Russian Black Sea Trade.—Cereals and flour are the
chief products obtained from Odessa, Kherson, and
Taganrog, the principal ports of southern Russia.
From Batum, in the east of the Black Sea, petroleum-
oil from Baku in the eastern Caucasus is exported.
Asia Minor Trade.—Trebizond distributes most of
the imports intended for Asia Minor and Persia, and
collects much Persian produce, more particularly silk
and woollen, for export to this country.
Smyrna, the great port of Asia Minor, receives from
this country manufactured articles of all kinds—metal
and textile, chemical and leather. Sultana raisins,
barley, beans, figs, olive-oil, valonia, gall-apples, drugs,
cotton- and other seeds, and tobacco are among the
most important exports.
Syrian Trade.-Beirut (Beyrout) and Jaffa, the chief
ports of Syria, send wool to America by Liverpool; but
the chief trade is in fruit.
Egyptian Trade. — From Alexandria the products
of Egypt-cotton, cotton-seeds, sugar, beans, onions,


THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
117
cigarettes—together with gums and ivory from the
Sahara and the Sudan, are shipped.
North African Trade.-Bengazi and Tripoli trade in
gums and other products, brought across the desert,
and, in common with Tunis, Algiers (Alger), and other
ports in northern French Africa, export esparto grass
(for making paper) and barley. Algiers also exports
iron ore. In return we send coal, cottons, and metal
goods.
Extra-European Atlantic Trade.
The Atlantic trade may be divided into the North
American trade, the trade with Central America and
the West Indies, the Guiana and Brazilian trade, the
Plate trade, the West African trade, and the South
African trade.
The North American Atlantic trade is of great im-
portance to Britain. Not merely do we get the greater
part of our food-supply from the United States and
Canada, but a very large proportion of our manu-
factured goods are sent to these countries. The St
Lawrence ports, Quebec and Montreal, are closed in
winter by ice, and the traffic is then diverted to
Halifax, St John, Portland (Maine), Boston, and New
York. With the last two ports, together with Phila-
delphia and Baltimore, a very large proportion of our
trade with the United States is carried on. From
Halifax and St John, cereals, flour, cattle, meat, timber,
cheese and other dairy produce; and from the United
States ports, iron goods in addition, are sent in return
for every kind of manufactured article. High tariffs
and the steady development of American industries are
tending to reduce the importance of our exports to


118
THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
the United States, while the preferential tariff granted
by Canada to the mother-country serves to foster
our trade with that colony. Wilmington, Charleston,
and Savannah send us sea-island cotton, as well as
pitch-pine, turpentine, and resins from the forests of
the southern Appalachians. Pensacola, Mobile, New
Orleans, and Galveston are the chief ports on the
Gulf of Mexico, from which we obtain raw cotton,
cotton seeds and oil, tobacco, wheat and meal, sent
down the Mississippi to New Orleans.
Central American Trade.—Manufactured goods are
the chief exports to Vera Cruz, the principal port of
Mexico, from which metals (more particularly silver),
mahogany, and cigars are brought. Belize, in British
Honduras, and Bluefields, in Nicaragua, export
mahogany and other fine woods from the wet and
densely-forested eastern regions of Central America;
but most of the trade of this region is carried on
from the Pacific ports which are on the side of the
isthmus best situated for agriculture and trade. When
the Nicaragua or Panama Canal is cut these ports
will be brought much nearer Britain.
West Indian Trade.—The West Indies exchange
sugar and tropical fruits for manufactured goods of
all kinds. From Havana, in Cuba, we get tobacco and
cigars; sugar, molasses, and rum from Kingstown in
Jamaica; cacao from Port of Spain, which also exports
the asphalt of the Trinidad pitch lake. Barbadoes is
the British shipping centre for the Lesser Antilles.
The Guiana and Brazil Trades.—From La Guaira, the
port of Caracas, the capital of Venezuela, and the other
ports in the north of South America cacao is the chief
export. Sugar is principally brought from George-


120
THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
Durban on Port Natal, and Lourenço Marques on
Delagoa Bay are the chief ports for the trade of
South Africa.
Indian Ocean Trade.
The trade of the Indian Ocean was formerly carried
on round the Cape of Good Hope; but since the open-
ing of the Suez Canal the shorter route is generally
taken by steamers. The trade carried on across the
Indian Ocean may be divided into East African,
Arabian, Persian, and the Indian and Ceylon trade.
The East African trade is still carried on by both
routes. The principal southern ports have been
already dealt with. Zanzibar is the great trade-centre
of East Africa. From the island itself the chief export
is cloves; but much of the ivory and rubber brought
from the interior to Vitu, Mombasa, and Dar-es-Salaam
is sent to Zanzibar; but Mombasa, connected by rail-
way with the Victoria Nyanza, is the most impor-
tant. Trade is carried on at the mouth of the
Zambesi with the Shiré Highlands, part of the British
Central Africa Protectorate, where coffee has been
cultivated in recent years, and rice, tobacco, cotton,
and tea can be successfully grown. Trade with
Madagascar has diminished since the island became a
French possession. From Mauritius, the Seychelles,
and other islands sugar is the chief export.
The Arabian trade is mainly in gums. These are
exported through Jedda and Aden (the latter a British
possession guarding the entrance to the Red Sea).
Wool, carpets, hides, dates, shells, opium, and gums
are among the chief articles exported from the Persian
Gulf, mainly through Bushire, on the coast and Basra,


THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
121
in Mesopotamia. Dates, gums, and a small quantity
of goats' and camels' hair come from the Arabian
steppes through Persian Gulf ports.
Indian and Ceylon Trade.—India is a very important
market for our manufactures, sending us in return both
raw materials and manufactured articles of every kind.
Karachi, the port of the Indus, exports wheat, oil-
seeds, wool, cotton, and hides; and imports large
quantities of railway plant for the rapidly increas-
ing network of lines.
Cotton and cotton yarn, oil and oil-seeds, wheat and
other cereals, opium, leather, gums, and tea are sent to
this country from Bombay. In return it takes chiefly
cotton goods and machinery, railway plant, metal
goods of every kind, and manufactured articles for
distribution to western and central India.
From Colombo, in Ceylon, are brought all kinds of
tropical products, more particularly tea, cacao, quinine,
spices such as cinnamon, coco-nuts and copra, areca-
nut, tobacco, and vegetable ivory. The export of
coffee, formerly very important, has declined owing to
the destruction of the plants by disease.
Madras does a large export trade in raw cotton,
coffee, seeds, indigo, leather, Palmyra palm sugar for
brewing and for fattening cattle, oil, coco-nuts, copra,
tobacco, and hides, especially goatskins.
Much of our Indian trade passes through Calcutta.
Jute is exported to Dundee both from this port and
from Chittagong in sailing-vessels, which double the
Cape of Good Hope. Tea, rice, wheat, indigo, some
rubber, raw hides of cattle and goats, gunny sacks,
and linseed are other important articles brought from
Calcutta to this country.


122
THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
Rangoon distributes the produce of Burma, includ-
ing rice (which is by far the most important), cutch,
teak, and precious stones such as the ruby.
Pacific Trade.
There are three routes from the British Isles to the
Pacific Ocean: by the Suez Canal and the Indian
Ocean, by the Cape of Good Hope and the Indian
Ocean, and by Cape Horn. The Panama Canal when
completed, or the railway across the isthmus of
Tehuantepec, greatly shortens the distance to many
Pacific ports, more particularly to those on the west
coast of America. It has also been proposed to avoid
the long journey round the south of the Malay Penin-
sula by cutting a canal across the isthmus of Kra.
The Pacific trade may be divided into the East
Indian trade, the China and Japan trade, the North
American trade, the tropical American trade, the
South American trade, and the Australian trade.
The East Indian trade resembles the West Indian in
many respects. The intertropical islands of eastern
Asia are rich in forest products, yielding fancy timbers
and dye-woods, juices such as guttapercha, and fibres
such as Manila hemp. Tin, spices, sago, sugar, gutta-
percha, rubber, cutch, gambier, and fruits are exchanged
for cotton goods and hardware.
Singapore, on an island of the same name at the
southern end of the Malay Peninsula, is the natural
centre for the western ports of the East Indies, and a
port of call for ships passing through the Strait of
Malacca. Local trade is mainly in the tin of the
Malay Peninsula; but all East Indian products are
brought to Singapore for transhipment.


THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
123
Batavia, on the island of Java, occupies a similar
position with regard to the southern part of the group
in the Sunda Strait. It is the capital of the Dutch
East Indies, the rich produce of which is brought to
Batavia for shipment to Europe. - Amboina, in the
Moluccas, is the centre of the spice islands.
Manila, on Luzon, the largest of the Philippines,
is the northern centre of the East Indies. Under
United States control it is growing rapidly in com-
mercial importance. Ships sailing to the China Sea
can seek the shelter of Luzon during the North-
east Trades, and it also lies on the direct route
between Hong-kong and Australia. Sugar, cheroots,
and Manila hemp are the chief articles exported from
the Philippines, in addition to ordinary East India
produce; but the resources of these valuable islands
are still practically undeveloped.
From Bangkok in Siam ships bring back teak, rice,
and tin.
China and Japan Trade.—The populous countries of
eastern Asia are excellent customers, taking more
particularly large quantities of cotton goods and hard-
ware.
The trade of China should develop considerably with
the opening up of the country by railways and the use
of steamers on the Yang-tse-kiang and other navigable
waterways. China will be a customer not merely for
the cottons and hardware which form the bulk of the
trade at present, but a great importing centre for rail-
way plant, machinery, and metal manufactures of all
kinds, to be utilised in the building of new railways
and factories.
Hong-kong, a British island at the mouth of the


124
THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
Si-kiang, in close communication with Canton, the
great southern port of China, is the outlet through
which about 45 per cent. of the foreign trade of
China is carried on. From Hong-kong and Canton
the tea and silks of southern China are largely
exported.
There are many ports on the rocky eastern coast of
China south of the Yang-tse-kiang, such as Amoy,
Fuchau, and Hangchau; but the bulk of the trade of
China passes through the port of Shanghai, near the
mouth of that river. Shanghai is the great importing
centre of central China, and does a large export trade
in tea and silk. :
There are several ports on the Yang-tse-kiang, of
which Hankau ( = Hanmouth) at the mouth of the Han
River, a tributary of the Yang-tse-kiang, is the most
important, although river steamers proceed as high as
Ichang, one thousand miles from the sea
The trade of northern China passes mainly through
the port of Tientsin, on the Gulf of Pechili; that of
Manchuria through Niuchwang, on the Liautung Gulf.
These gulfs are frozen in winter; but during the other
months a vigorous trade goes on, more particularly
from Tientsin, which is the port of Peking, the capital.
Exports from this region are comparatively unim-
portant.
Silk, silk goods, and straw plait are our chief
imports from Japanese ports. Copper, rice, carpets,
lacquer ware, china, and beautiful fabrics are among
the other goods exchanged for the cottons, woollens,
metals, machinery, steamships, engines, and implements
of all kinds sent from this country. The chief ports
are Nagasaki, on the island of Kiushiu, and Yokohama,


THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
125
.
the port of the capital, Tokyo, on the main island,
Honshiu or Nippon.
North American Pacific Trade.-From Vancouver, and
the towns of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and Vic-
toria, on Vancouver Island, passengers and mails are
conveyed to and from the Far East of the Old World,
Australia, and New Zealand. The amount of direct
oceanic communication with the British Isles is not
very great. Manufactured articles are carried out in
vessels which bring back timber from British Columbia,
Tacoma, and Seattle, on Puget Sound, and Portland
(Oregon), from which, as well as from British
Columbia, canned salmon are largely obtained. These
are also grain ports; but most of the wheat
raised in western America is exported through San
Francisco, which also exports gold and silver. In
recent years the fruits, wines, fish, fresh and dried
meat, of the rich Californian valley have been largely
exported from San Francisco, and from Los Angelos
in the south, to which ports clothing, metallic and
textile goods, and sacks to hold grain, are consigned
from this country.
Tropical American Pacific Trade.—Coffee and cacao
are the most important exports from the Pacific ports
in tropical America. Coffee is brought from Puntarenas,
in Costa Rica. Guayaquil, the port of Ecuador, exports
more cacao than any other port in the world.
South American Pacific Trade.—The dry regions of
Peru and Bolivia furnish guano, cinchona (quinine),
sugar, raw cotton, and india-rubber, while alpaca wool
and silver come from the mountains, and vanilla from
the wetter eastern sides. The chief harbours for
imports are Callao, close to Lima (the capital), and


126
THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
Molendo, from both of which railways ascend the
Andes. Antofagasta, the chief port of northern Chile,
is connected with the plateau of Bolivia by a railway,
which brings down silver, copper, tin, cinchona, and
other products of that country, as well as nitrate
of soda from the Atacama desert, across which it
passes.
Valparaiso, the port of Santiago (the capital), is the
chief harbour of Chile. Cotton, mixed cotton and
woollen goods, iron, ironware, and machinery are the
chief articles taken out by our ships in exchange for
the wheat, copper, wool, and guano shipped at these
ports.
Australian Trade.—Australia is reached from Britain
both by the Suez Canal and by Cape Horn. Mails
and passengers from this country can also proceed
to Australia and New Zealand by the Transatlantic
lines to Montreal and New York, by rail to Vancouver
and San Francisco, and thence by steamer across the
Pacific. The exports from this country are chiefly
manufactured goods, which are exchanged for wool,
flesh, hides, southern fruits, butter, tallow, leather, gold,
copper, and lead.
Fremantle, at the mouth of the Swan River, Western
Australia, is the first port touched by vessels from
western Europe, and here West Australian gold, wool,
and hardwood timber are shipped. Fremantle is the
port of Perth (the capital); and Albany, on King
George Sound, which is joined to Perth by railway, is
the southern port.
Port Adelaide, or Glenelg, both ports and suburbs
of Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, is the next
port touched at. Here wool, lead, copper, gold, silver,


THE GREAT TRADE-ROUTES.
127
wine, and skins are shipped in return for textiles,
cotton and woollen clothing, shoes, iron, railway plant,
hardware, tobacco, beer, and spirits.
Melbourne, on Port Phillip, is the chief town of
Victoria. The goods imported from Britain are the
same as in the case of Adelaide, but on a larger
scale. Wool, butter, gold, and copper are the most
important articles we take in return; but tallow
and unworked leather are of considerable importance.
Frozen and preserved meats and a little wheat are
also sent to Britain.
Sydney, on Port Jackson, the capital of New South
Wales, does a very large trade. Gold, silver, and
wool are more, dairy produce less, important than
in the case of Victoria, and a considerable quantity
of meat, leather, tallow, hides, copper, and lead is
exported.
In Queensland there are several ports to which we
ship the same commodities as to the other Australian
ports. The cargoes brought back differ considerably.
Brisbane, in the south, is the capital, and the most
important port. Here wool, hides, tallow, flesh, and
preserved meat are still among the principal exports.
Gold and shell are also important. From Rock-
hampton, Mackay, and Townsville railways run far
into the interior. Townsville receives much gold
from the Charters Towers mines. Wool becomes less
important in the far north, and is replaced by tropical
products.
Tasmania (capital, Hobart) has also a large wool
trade, and Tasmanian fruits, more particularly apples,
are becoming known in British markets.
New Zealand.-Auckland and Wellington are the


1 28
THE TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
husiest ports in North Island; Lyttleton and Dunedin
in Middle Island. Wool, meat, dairy produce, tallow,
sheepskins, and Kauri gum are the chief exports.
Kauri gum is obtained principally from North Island.
The sheep of the Canterbury Downs in the Middle
Island yield exceptionally fine mutton. Leather is
also exported, as well as gold and silver.
-
CHAPTER X.
THE TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
The trade of the British Isles has passed through
three stages. In the first, or primitive stage, which is
of great antiquity, minerals, more particularly the tin
of Cornwall, attracted traders from the Mediterranean.
In the second, or mediæval stage, organic raw products,
more particularly wool and hides, were exchanged for
manufactured goods and articles of luxury. In the
third, or modern stage, the process is to a large extent
reversed, and manufactured goods have become the
commodities chiefly offered in exchange for food, raw
materials, and luxuries.
The trade of the United Kingdom has trebled itself
during the last forty years. During the five years
1855–59 the average value of the imports was
£169,000,000, and of the exports £116,000,000—
making an average total trade of £285,000,000.
Forty years later, during the four years 1895–98,
the average value of the imports was £445,000,000,
and of the exports £292,000,000—making an aver-
age total trade of £737,000,000, or, approximately,


THE TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
129
three times as much as between 1855 and 1859. In
1901–3 the average annual value of imports was over
£530,000,000, and of exports of all kinds £352,500,000,
a total trade of £882,500,000. About one-fifth of the
exports are of foreign and colonial produce. This
trans-shipment trade has long been an important
feature of British commerce, especially of the port
of London.
In the imports the increase has been general. In
the exports an increase has taken place in the case of
most commodities, more particularly under the heads
of machinery, textile fabrics, metals, and raw materials,
more especially coal.
The tonnage of trading vessels engaged in foreign
trade which entered the ports of the United Kingdom
in 1903 amounted to nearly forty million tons, and
over forty-seven million tons of shipping left its ports
during the same period. This is an increase within the
past five years of six million tons in the tonnage of
vessels entering British ports, and of seven million
tons in that of vessels leaving them. The coastal
trade is over thirty-one million tons entered, and as
much cleared.
Over one-fifth of the imports come from British
possessions, and one-third of the exports are sent to
them. By far the most important part of our
import trade is with the United States, amounting to
one-quarter of the whole. One-ninth of our imports
come from France; over 6 per cent. from Australasia,
the Netherlands, * and the German Empire respec-
* It must be noted that the trade of central Europe passing
through Belgian and Dutch ports is reckoned as trade with Belgium
and the Netherlands.
Goog. 1


130
THE TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
tively; nearly 6 per cent. from British India; and
over 4 per cent. from Russia, Belgium, and British
North America respectively.
The German Empire takes over 11 per cent. of our
exports of all kinds, a larger proportion than any
other country. It is followed by British India, over
10 per cent., and by the United States, nearly 10 per
cent.; Australasia accounts for 8 per cent.; France
for 7 per cent.; the Cape of Good Hope and Natal
together for 5 per cent.; Belgium, the Netherlands,
and Russia each for from 4 to 5 per cent.; British
North America for 21 per cent. ; while Italy, Turkey,
Argentina, Brazil, Sweden, China, and Japan each
take about 2 per cent. of our exports.
It will thus be seen that our largest trade is with
the United States, which is not only one of our best
customers, but at the same time the source from
which we derive most of our food products and
raw materials, including a large proportion of all
the wheat we consume and all the cotton we
manufacture. Yet we import four and a half times
as much from it as we export to it. Next comes
British India, to which we send manufactured cotton,
and from which we obtain wheat, raw cotton, and
many other natural products. Our trade with Con-
tinental countries is in the following order: France,
Germany, Holland, Belgium, Russia.
About one-fifth of the trade of the United Kingdom
is an entrepôt trade—that is, a trade in commodities
imported for re-exportation. There is too little trade
between many foreign countries to permit of a direct
exchange of commodities between them. In such
cases it is generally cheaper to use London as an


THE TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
131
entrepôt to which cargoes from various countries are
consigned in vessels which reload in London with
suitable cargoes.
Commercial Advantages and Disadvantages of the
British Isles. It has already been pointed out that
the distribution of high and low land in the British
Isles makes communication easy, except in the High-
lands of Scotland. The productive centres are either
near the coast or connected with it by navigable rivers
whose great tidal estuaries admit ships of large tonnage
to safe harbours. On the west coast of Great Britain,
where most of the rivers are shorter, good natural
harbours are numerous. Coastal navigation can be
carried on uninterruptedly at all seasons. The British
Isles are favourably situated for foreign trade. They
lie facing two of the wealthiest continents, Europe and
North America, and almost in the centre of the land
hemisphere.
The climate is everywhere temperate, permitting
work to be carried on all the year through. The
humidity is sufficiently varied to permit of every
kind of pastoral and agricultural occupation, as well
as the most delicate textile operations, being success-
fully carried on.
The abundance of coal and iron has contributed to
the pre-eminence of the United Kingdom in the modern
industrial world. These minerals occur together near
lime and clay, affording great advantages for iron
manufacture. Shipbuilding naturally developed in
the iron centres near the coast, and the British are
still the greatest ocean carriers.
Besides these natural advantages, Britain has
until recently spent little money in war for


132
THE TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
many decades, nor are its working-men obliged to
render compulsory military service, and thus, from an
industrial point of view, waste three of their best years.
Free-trade admits cheap food and raw materials from
all parts of the world, and, before other nations began
to compete, led to rapid industrial expansion Home
agriculture, however, was less favourably affected, and,
owing to foreign competition, is not so flourishing as
it should be.
Among the hindrances to our prosperity are heavy
rents for land, high royalties on mines, and high trans-
port rates, all adding to the cost of commodities. Still
more serious drawbacks are our present educational
system, which permits children to leave school too early,
and a widely diffused indifference to education among
the classes most in need of it. Agricultural depres-
sion, it has been said, is partly mental depression; and
this is true of more than agriculture.
Much more might be made of our present resources.
The problem of inland waterways must be seriously
faced. Navigable rivers and canals all require to be
widened and deepened. Almost unlimited water-power
is available in mountainous regions for industrial
purposes, while winds, and in many places tides, could
also be subjugated to our needs.
Most extravagant of all is the incalculable waste
of human capacity, which can only be remedied by
a training which develops to the full the diverse
capabilities of each individual, and inculcates in
him an intelligent and sympathetic appreciation of
the importance and utility of his work.



180
120
9
$o_
0
30
30
60
90
120
150
180
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NORTH
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Glasgow 2503
BRITISME
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Quebeca
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to S. Thomas 3570 m
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Crozet Is.
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---- Melbouri
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WORLD ON MERCATOR'S PROJECTION
Showing the principal Ocean Routes.
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150
120
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180
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120
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180


APPENDIX.
STATISTICAL TABLES.
STATISTICS OF CROPS AND LIVE-STOCK, 1902.
Wales. Scotland.
1000 ac. 1000 ac.
Ireland.
1000 ac.
British
Isles. *
1000 ac.
4,777
19,458
20,711 77,682
2,810
4,897 15,240 47,752
48
101
210
47
229
954
44
168
1,082
1,773
2,083
4,157
78
426
Rye............
6
10
405
3
14
2
England.
1000 ac.
TOTAL AREA OF LAND
AND WATER................ 32,551
TOTAL ACREAGE UNDER
CROPS AND GRASS...... 24,680
CORN CROPS-
Wheat..................... 1,631
Barley or Bere ......... 1,579
Oats............
1,893
61
Peas and Beans........
Total Corn Crops of
all kinds ............ 5,569
GREEN CROPS,
Potatoes.......
Turnips and Swedes.. 1,092
Total Green Crops
of all kinds t...... 2,424
CLOVER, SAINFOIN, and
GRASSES under rotation 2,825
PERMANENT PASTURE.... 13,463
Flax .............
Hops................
48
Small Fruit..................... 68
364
1,251
1,307
8,517
13
31
61
130
456
629
289
1,215
1,095
110
614
1,070
4,241
406
1,924
1,601
1,419
1,228
11,576
1
50
6,108
28,409
51
48
80
...
5
1
6
Horses............
Cattle........
Sheep...............
No.
(1000).
1,155
4,612
15.034
1,956
No.
(1000).
154
722
3,463
215
No.
(1000).
195
1,222
7,269
134
No. No.
(1000). (1000).
509 2,023
4,782 11,377
4,215 30,058
1,328 3,640
Pigs......
* Including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.
+ Including some not detailed above.


APPENDIX.
135
FISHERIES, MEAN ANNUAL YIELD, 1901–3.*
England and Wales........................492,000 tons, worth £6,398,000
Scotland .....
..........329,000 .
2,381,000
Ireland...
.............. 33,000 ,
301,000
Total..................854,000 . . £9,080,000
And including shellfish .................. 9,484,000
N.B.-Salmon are not included in this return.
METALS EXTRACTED, 1902. *
Metals
Minerals
METALLIC MINERALS.
Values of
Values. contained
raised.
Metals.
in the Ores.
1000 tons.
£1000.
1000 tons. £1000.
Iron ore and pyrites .........13,435 3,292 4,400 14,245
Tin ore.............
.............
8
514
4
532
Lead ore ......................... 25 176
18
199
Zinc ore............................
25
91
9
175
Copper ore........
•5 27
Value of chief metallic minerals .................£ 4,109,000
Total value of metals from British ores........... 15,287,000
.......
15
MINERALS.
1000
tons.
MINERALS.
NON-METALLIC MINERALS EXTRACTED, 1902.*
Values.
1000
Values.
£1000.
tons. £1000.
Coal.............227,095 93,521 | Gravel, sand..... 2,068
Clays............ 15,304 1,759 Gypsum ........... 225
Sandstone..... 5,483 1,799 | Barytes. .... ....... 24
Slate............ 517 1,502 Ochre, &c.........
Granite, &c... 5,467 1,400 Arsenic and ars.
Limestone..... 12, 173 1,382 pyrites..........
Salt.............. 1,894
578 Others............. 115
Oil-shale....... 2,108 501
Chalk........... 4,396 194 | Total..................... £103,026
* From Statesman's Year-Book, 1904.


136
APPENDIX.
COAL PRODUCTION, 1902. *
1000 tons
DISTRICT.
1000 tons
DISTRICT.
of coal.
of coal,
ENGLAND-
England (continued)-
Durham ........................34,808 | Other districts..............11,991
Yorkshire.....................27,963 WALES-
Lancashire...................24,441 Glamorgan .................. 29,077
Staffordshire.................13,383 Other districts.............. 5,226
Derbyshire ...................15,520 SCOTLAND-
Northumberland. ..........11,619 Lanarkshire.................17,049
Monmouthshire............ 10,175 Other districts ..............17,066
Nottinghamshire .......... 8,657 | IRELAND....
109
Total, United Kingdom (1902), 227,084,871 tons.
PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF IMPORT.
MEAN ANNUAL VALUE, 1901-3.
£1000.
£1000.
Grain and flour ...............67,496 Wine ............................. 4,858
Cotton, raw .....................42,651 Cheese ............................. 6,564
Wool (sheep and lambs')... 20,683 | Eggs.............................. 6,159
Dead meat ......................39,414 Coffee..............
3,051
Sugar, raw and refined..... 16,506 Tobacco .......................... 4,905
Butter and margarine ......22,688 | Metals-
Wood and timber ............25,621 Copper ore, &c. ............ 3,983
Silk manufactures ............ 13,036 . part wrought, &c. 4,439
Flax, hemp, and jute........11,390 Iron ore ...................... 4,789
Tea................................ 9,298 · pig, puddled, bar,
Woollen manuf. and yarn. 12,091
&c. .................... 2,561
Animals (for food)............ 9,150 "I and steel work ...... 5,483
Oils. ...............................11,277 Machinery ................... 4,391
Chemicals, dye-stuffs, &c.. 8,978 Motor-cars and parts..... 1,031
Seeds.............................. 8,457 Lead............................. 3,685
Fruits and hops............... 9,381 |
| Tin...........
... .......... 4,275
Currants and raisins ........ 2,143 Zinc and its manufac-
Leather, dressed hides, &c. 8,169 !
tures........................
* From Statesman's Year-Book, 1904.
.............. 1,973


APPENDIX.
137
£1000.
PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF EXPORT (HOME PRODUCE).
MEAN ANNUAL VALUE, 1901-3.
£1000.
Cotton manufactures.......65,661 | Metals-
" yarn..................... 7,596 Iron, pig ......
3,520
railroad, of all sorts 4,007
Total of cotton..........73,257 I wire.................... 390
I tin plates ............ 4,002
Woollen manufactures ..... 15,121
, and worsted yarn 5,460
. galvanised, &c. .... 3,904
Total iron and steel (in-
Total of woollen and
cluding items not de.
worsted .................20,581 tailed). ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 28,113
Linen manufactures......... 5,331 Hardware, cutlery, &c...... 4,399
yarn ..................... 836 Copper ........................... 3,278
Jute manufactures........... 2,113 Machinery ......................18,878
" yarn....................... 524 Coals, cinders, fuels, &c.*..28,393
Apparel and haberdashery. 9,008 Chemicals, dyes, colours,
New ships......................... 6,435 ! &C...............................11,534
* Coal for steamers engaged in foreign trade, 15,107,000 tons.
TONNAGE OF VESSELS ENTERED AND CLEARED AT
THE PRINCIPAL PORTS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM,
1902.
For, and Col. Coastwise.
For. and Col. Coastwise.
Entd. Cleared. Entd. Cleared.
Entd. Cleared. Entd. Cleared,
PORTS. 1000 1000 1000 1000
Ports. 1000 1000 1000 1000
tons. tons. tons. tons.
tons. tons. tons. tons.
London ........10,267 7,605 6,119 8,063 | Manchester* ..1,002 713 705 1,065
Liverpool...... 6,843 6,326 3,336 3,910 | Grangemouth.. 700 785 427
346
Cardiff ........ 4,750 7,937 4,876 1,747 | Harwich....... 740 693 217 245
Tyne Ports.... 3,615 4,766 5,009 3,597 | Bristol ........ 811 426 905 1,280
Hull.......... 2,515 1,966 657 1,128 Hartlepools.... 572 508 358 454
Glasgow....... 1,619 2,526 2,267 1,753 Goole.......... 532 524 328 360
Southampton.. 2,045 1,808 1,373 1,562 Belfast..... 479 150 2,072 2,211
Newport, Mon. 943 1,522 1,336 715 Dublin ........ 227 147 2,271 2,392
Swansea....... 805 1,595 1,221 547 | Plymouth...... 210 117 770 805
Kirkcaldy..... 911 1,455 648 182 Greenock...... 123 78 1,781 1,965
Blyth ......... 871 1,486 878 276 Cork .......... 164 28 535 597
Dover......... 987 981 198 189 Portsmouth.... 49 36 1,531 1,501
Leith. ......... 990 890 649 683 | Beaumaris t... 16 13 1,325 1,331
Sunderland.... 774 1.066 1.769 1.466 Cowes and 1.).
4 9 1,936 1,928
Grimsby....... 900 898 246 197 | of W. Ports)
Middlesbrough 923 810 824 919
* With Runcorn.
t Including Holyhead.


138
APPENDIX.
TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM WITH DIFFERENT
COUNTRIES IN 1901 AND 1902. *
Imports of
Merchandise.
COUNTRIES.
1901.
British PoSSESSIONS. £1000.
India ............
******............ ...
Australia .......................... 24,218
New Zealand ...................... 10,595
Canada ............................. 19,855
Newfoundland ................... 533
South and East Africa .........
Straits Settlements ............. 6,112
Hong-kong...
British West Indies ............
Ceylon
eylon ..............................
British Guiana...................
442
Channel Islands .................
1,362
West Africa ........................ 1,955
Malta .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .........
84
Mauritius.....
318
All other British Possessions 656
Total British Possessions..... 105,574
Exports of Produce
and Manufactures
of United Kingdom.
1901. 1902.
£1000. £1000.
32,682
21,356 19,530
5,600 5,678
7,785 10,345
358 375
24,619
3,204 2,745
2,613 2,136
1,911
2,009
1,535
1,446
560 619
930 1,003
2,347 2,737
1,143 1,196
989 399
2,243 1,509
1902.
£1000.
28.724
19,734
10,884
22,965
643
5,779
6,053
610
2,149
4,387
540
1,404
1,992
56
243
630
603
1,838
4,477
..........
106,793
104,788
109,029
.............
FOREIGN COUNTRIES.
United States....................141,015 126,962 18,394 23,761
France
51,213 50,643
50,643 16,472 15,587
Germany.................... . . . . . . ... 32,207 33,634 23,574
22,850
Holland .....
32,872 34,843 9,089 8,446
Belgium....
............ 24,666 26,539 8,156 8,410
Russia .............................. 21,904 25,674 8,673 8,635
Spain...
14,040 14,286 4,827 4,785
Egypt................................ 11,906 13,765 6,315 6,162
China .......
.............
2,116 2,407 6,774 7,142
Brazil ......
4,958 6,208 4,152 5,390
Italy .................................
3,384
3,582 7,613 7,410
Sweden ............................... 9,788 9,568 4,457 4,275
Turkey .............................. 5,708 6,111 6 ,767 6,025
* From Statesman's Year-Book, 1904. The order therein is kept to facilitate com.
parisons with future issues.


APPENDIX.
139
COUNTRIES.
Imports of
Merchandise.
.........
1902.
£1000.
14,022
15,557
3,411
7,692
4,524
1,899
5,409
153
1,650
698
1,340
1,351
640
653
1,267
305
2,251
360
45
603
700
249
Exports of Produce
and Manufactures
of United Kingdom.
1901.
1902.
£1000. £1000.
6,752 5,871
· 3,615 3,622
1,711 1,841
1,023 1,224
3,231 2,839
8,132 5,066
3,243 2,919
2,028
2,030
1,679 1,716
1,126 1,133
2,141
1,923
991
948
831 719
1,323 1,532
737
1,551 2,171
814
915
594
509 309
438 416
759 849
285
311
210
196
313 315
745
1,341
1901.
FOREIGN COUNTRIES (continued). £1000.
Argentina
................. 12,415
Denmark .......................... 14,234
Portugal ...
3,305
Romania.............
3,994
Chile ................................. 4,313
Japan............................... 1,830
Norway ............................ 5,564
Java ............. ............... 212
Greece .............................. 1,466
Foreign West Africa........... 599
Austria ............................. 1,191
Peru ................................... 1,814
Central America................. 911
Uruguay .............................
Canary Islands .................. 1,100
Mexico ..............................
264
Philippine Islands.............. 2,702
Colombia .......
505
Venezuela .................... 103
Algeria..............
698
Morocco.
537
Ecuador. ..........
Haïti, Santo Domingo ......... 55
Tunis.
230
Foreign East Africa ............
51
Persia....
200
Siam.....
51
Bulgaria .............................
114
Madagascar.......................
Indo-China...
136
All other Countries .
1,329
Total Foreign countries ......416,416
Grand Total.................521,990
475
820
863
0
......
.
..........
......
208
61
...........................
206
46
211
548
370
89
251
252
284
302
23
56
458
16
292
1,220
51
3,865
...........
421,598
528,391
106
3,490
175,234
280,022
174,395
283,424


140
APPENDIX.
COMPARATIVE PRICES OF COMMODITIES, 1903. *
COMMODITIES.
Mean, circa.
Minimum.
Maximum.
rails ........
£ 3. d.
2 12 9
6 7 9
5 8 0
0 16 0
58 6 0
127 2 0
11 19 6
10 8
£ s. d.
2 8 6
6 2 6
5 0 0
0 15 6
53 7 6
115 100
1 11 1 3
1 0 3
£ s. d.
2 16 9
6 10 0
5 100
0 18 6
63 2 6
137 5 0
13 8 9
1 1 1 0
0 0 57
0 0 81%
0 0 10
0 0 481
0 7
0 0 10
0 0 63
0 097
0 0 10
MINERALS-
Iron, Scotch Pig............ per ton
Cleveland Bars........ "
1 Steel Rails
Coals, Best Wallsend, London
Copper, G. M. B........
Tin, Straits Settlements.....
Lead, English Pig...........
Saltpetre, English Refined .. per cwt.
TEXTILE MATERIALS,
Cotton, Raw, Middling Up-
land ............. per Ib.
Yarn, 40 Mule Twist 11
Wool, South Down Hogs .... "
N. S. Wales Greasy,
Average............ 11
Silk, Cossimbuzar...
Flax, Riga ZK.. ...... per ton
Hemp, Manila ...........
Jute, Good Marks...
Food PRODUCTS,
Wheat, American ............ per qr.
British ............ 11
Barley, I t ............ "
Oats, 1 t............ "
Flour, Town Household...... per 280 lb.
Beef, inferior................ per 8 lb.
o prime.....
Mutton, 11 ...........
Potatoes, Good English...... per ton
Rice, Rangoon .............. per cwt.
FOR DRINKING, LIGHTING, &c.—
Sugar, Beet................. per cwt.
West India Syrups .... "
Tea, Congou, common........ per lb.
Coffee, Ceylon low mid....... per cwt.
Oils, Petroleum .............. per gal.
o Olive, Spanish.......... per tun
Tallow, Town................ per cwt.
0 0 101 TOO 91
0 11 77 10 11 6
33 1 3 31 10 0
36 06 34 10 0
13 14 9 12 5 0
0 0 11
0 12 6
38 100
38 10 0
14 100
119
.
1 11 0
1 7 4
1 3 0
0 17 3
1 4 6
0 2 10
0 4 9
05 94
5 1 8
0 7 5
1 10
1 5
1 0
0 15
1 3
0 2
0 4
0 5
3
0
1
9
3
4
4
8
1 11 6
1 10 3
1 4 3
0 18 8
1 6 0
0 3 6
0.5 2
0
0
0 6 101
7 10 01
0 7 103
0 8 24
0 13 0
0 0 37
3 10 4
0053
32 14 6
1 10 6
0 7 9
0 12 71
0 0 2
3 8 0
0 0 533
32 00
1 7 6
0853
0 13 9
0 0 4
4 0 0
00 77
33 00
1 12 9
* Calculated or quoted from the list published by the Economist, 9th Jan, 1904.
The teacher will find a price list of commodities in the Economist (price 8d.). He
is recommended to buy a mid-month issue, as it contains a supplement giving
monthly trade returns as well as prices.
+ Mean from Gazette Averages, 1903.
New potatoes.


INDEX.
Asia Minor Trade, 116.
Asphalt, 101.
Assam, 88.
Atacama Desert, 126.
Athlone, 74.
Auckland, 127.
Australian Trade, 126.
- Wheat, 83.
- Wine, 90.
Aviemore, 74.
Avon, 15.
- (Bristol), 65.
Aylesbury, 71.
Ayrshire Coalfield, 37-39.
ABERDEEN, 33, 34, 72, 74, 79.
Accrington, 53.
Adelaide, 83.
Aden, 120.
Adriatic Trade. 115.
Agricultural Britain, 18, 19.
Airdrie, 43, 72.
Akassa, 129.
Akra, 129.
Albany, 126.
Alexandria, 93, 116.
Algiers, 117.
Alimentary Industries, 60, 61.
Alizarin, 96.
Allspice, 87.
Almaden, 100.
Alineria, 114.
Alpaca Goat, 92.
Ambergate, 71.
Amboina, 123.
American Cattle, 85.
- Wheat, 82, 83.
Amoy, 124.
Amsterdam, 110.
Anchovies, 85.
Angora Goat, 92.
Aniline Dyes, 59, 96.
Anthracite, 39.
Antofagasta, 126.
Antrim, 74.
Antwerp, 110, 111.
Apples, 86.
Arabian Trade, 120.
Arable Land, 22-26.
Arbroath, 51, 54, 74.
Ardrossan, 79, 80.
Argentina Cattle, 85.
- Wheat, 83.
Armour-plate, 56, 57.
Asbestos, 100.
Ashford, 70.
Ashton, 53.
BACON, 85.
Bahia, 119.
Baku, 107, 116.
Ballachulish, 36.
Baltic Trade, 111.
Baltimore, 117.
Bananas, 86.
Banbury, 65.
Banff, 74.
Bangkok, 123.
Bann River, 66.
Barbadoes, 118.
Barcelona, 114.
Barley, 23, 24, 83.
Barnsley, 51.
Barnstaple, 68.
Barrow, 43, 57, 71, 80.
Basingstoke, 68.
Basra, 120.
Batavia, 123.
Bath, 68.
Bathgate, 72.
Batum, 101, 116.
Beccles, 70.
Bedford, 71.
Beer, 61.
Beet Sugar, 87.


142
INDEX.
Beirut, 116.
| Buenos Aires, 119.
Belfast, 51, 57, 74, 76, 79, 81.
Building Stone, 35, 38
- Lough, 17.
Burgundy, 90.
Belgian Trade, 110.
Burmese Trade, 122.
Belize, 118.
Burnley, 53, 65.
Bengazi, 117.
Burntisland, 79.
Bergen, 110.
Burton, 61, 65, 71.
Berwick, 71, 72.
- Breweries, 77.
Bicycles, 58.
Bury, 50, 53, 57.
Bilbao, 113.
Bushire, 120.
Billinsgate Market, 76.
Butter, 84.
Birkenhead, 68.
Birmingham, 43, 58, 68, 71, 76, 77. CABINET WOODS, 96.
Biscay Trade, 113.
Cacao, 61, 89.
Black Indies, 37.
Cadiz, 113.
Black Sea Trade, 116.
Caithness Sandstone, 30.
Blackband Iron Ore, 42, 43.
Calais, 112.
Blackburn, 53, 65.
Calcutta, 88, 121.
Blackpool, 34.
Calder River, 65.
Blackwater River, 66.
Caledonian Canal, 66.
Blair Athol, 74.
- Railway (C.R.), 72.
Blankets, 50.
Californian Wine, 90.
Bolton, 53, 71.
Callander, 72.
Bombay, 94, 121.
Callao, 125.
Bonny, 119.
Cambrian Mountains, 74.
Bordeaux, 90, 113.
Cambridge, 62, 70.
Boston, 82, 117.
Camel's Hair, 92.
Boulder Clay, 21.
Canadian Pacific Railway (C.P.R.), 125.
Boulogne, 112.
Canalised Rivers, 13-15.
Bradford, 49, 55, 57, 71, 77.
Canals, 64, 65.
- (Wilts), 49.
Candles, 59.
Braila, 83, 116.
Canned Fish, 85.
Brandy, 90.
— Fruit, 86.
Brazil Trade, 118, 119.
Camel Coal, 38.
Brechin, 51.
Canterbury, 124.
Bremen, 110.
- Mutton, 128.
Brentford, 65.
- Plains (N.Z.), 91.
Brewing, 61.
Canton, 84, 124.
Brighton, 70.
Caoutchouc, 95.
Brisbane, 127.
Capetown, 119.
Bristol, 13, 15, 18, 49, 52, 61, 63, 68, | Carboniferous Rocks, 21.
71, 80.
Cardiff, 13, 34, 43, 68, 76, 78.
British Farming, 31; Advantages and Carlingford Lough, 66.
Disadvantages, 31, 32; Decrease of Carlisle, 71, 72.
Cereal Crops, 24; Need for Technical Carpets, 50.
Training, 32.
Carstairs, 72.
Timber Trees, 26.
Cartagena, 114.
- Rivers as Lines of Communication, Castlecomer, 37.
13, 14.
Cattle, 26-28.
Brixham, 34.
Central American Trade, 118.
Brown Hematite, 42.
- Lowlands of Scotland, 13.
Brunsbüttel, 111.
— Plain of England, 13.


INDEX.
143
Central Plain of Ireland, 16.
- Scottish Coalfield, 37, 39.
Cereals, 81-84.
- Decrease in Cultivation of, 24.
Cette, 90, 114.
Chalk, 20.
- Heights, 16.
Champagne, 90.
Charing Cross, 70.
Charleston, 93, 118.
Charleville, 74.
Charters Towers, 127.
Chatham, 70.
Cheese, 84.
Cheltenham, 71.
Chemical Industries, 58-60.
Chepstead, 62.
Chepstow, 62.
Cheshire Plain, 13, 15.
Chester, 62, 68, 71.
Chesterfield, 71.
Cheviots, 13, 90.
(cloth), 50.
Chicago, 83.
Chichiester, 70.
Chiltern Hills, 16.
China Grass, 55, 95.
Chinese Trade, 123.
Chippenham, 62, 68.
Chipping Norton, 62.
Chittagong, 121.
Chocolate, 61.
Cider, 61.
Cigars, 90.
Cinnamon, 87.
Cirencester, 62.
Claret, 90.
Clay, 20.
Clayband Iron Ore, 42, 43.
Clearing of Forests, 11.
Cleveland Hills, 42.
Clifden, 74.
Climate of Britain, 17-20.
Clocks, 103.
Cloves, 87.
Clyde River, 13, 15, 65, 79.
Coal, 37-42.
- Export Trade, 104, 105.
Coatbridge, 43.
Cochineal, 96.
Cocoa, 61, 89.
Coco-nut, 86.
Cod, 32.
Coffee, 89.
Colchester, 70.
Colombo, 14, 88.
Commercial Advantages of Britain, 131,
132.
Communication between England and
Scotland, 14.
Condensed Milk, 80.
Constantinople, 116.
Copenhagen, 112.
Copper, 43, 99.
Copra, 95.
Coral, 101.
Corinth Canal, 115.
Cork, 74, 79, SO.
- Harbour, 17.
Cork Oak, 97.
Corn-flour, 83.
Cornish Heights, 13.
Cotswold Hills, 29, 49.
Cotton, 92-94.
- Imports, 102.
- Manufacture, 51-54.
Covent Garden, 77.
Coventry, 55-58.
Crabs, 34.
Cradley Heath, 56.
Crewe, 71.
Crinan Canal, 66.
Cumberland Coalfield, 37.
Cumbrian Mountains, 13, 14.
Currants, 115.
Cutch, 96.
Cyprus, 93, 114.
Dairy Cows, 28.
-- Produce, 84.
Dairying, 61.
Dalmeny, 74.
Davish Butter, 84.
Danube Trade, 116.
Dar-es-Salaam, 120.
Darjiling, 88.
Darlington, 43, 71.
Dates, 86.
Dead Meat, 85.
Deccan, 94.
Dee River, 15.
Deptford, 77.
Derby, 55, 71.
Derbyshire Coalfield, 37, 40.


144
INDEX.
Ely, 70.
Engineering Works, 56, 57.
English Channel Trade, 112.
Entrepôt Trade, 104, 130.
Erne and Shannon Canal, 66.
Estuaries, 13-15.
Euston, 71.
Exe River, 12.
Exeter, 68.
Exmouth, 62.
Exports, 103-109.
Dewsbury, 49.
Diamonds, 101.
Didcot, 68.
Dieppe, 112.
Dingwall, 74.
Distilling, 61.
Distribution of Rainfall, 17-20.
of Vegetation, 18-20.
District Railway, 76.
Dogger Bank, 31.
Doncaster, 70, 71.
Douglas, 34.
Dover, 70, 78, 111, 112.
Downs, 16, 28.
Drammen, 110.
Dried Fish, 60.
Fruits, 86.
Drogheda, 74, 80.
Droitwich, 44.
Drowned Valleys, 15.
Dublin, 17, 34, 43, 74, 76, 79, 80.
- Wicklow, and Wexford Railway, 74.
Dumbarton, 57.
Dumfries, 50, 74.
Dunbar, 72.
Dunblane, 72.
Dundee, 14, 51, 54, 74, 79.
Dunedin, 128.
Dunfermline, 51.
Dungannon, 37, 51.
Dunkeld, 74.
Dunkirk, 110.
Durban, 120.
Durham, 71, 78.
- Coalfield, 37, 39.
Dutch Trade, 110.
Dye Materials, 95, 96.
Dyeing, 95.
Fairs, 63.
Falinouth Bay, 16.
Fen Country, 15
Fens, 21.
Festiniog, 36.
Fife Coalfield, 37.
Figs, 86.
Finnan Haddocks, 60.
Fish, 84, 85.
- Trains, 33.
Fisheries, 32-34.
Fishing Fleets, 32, 33.
- Grounds, 33.
- Ports, 33, 34.
Fiune, 83, 115.
Flannels, 50.
Flax, 25, 92.
Fleetwood, 34, 71, 80.
Flint, 20.
Flounder, 32.
Flour, 83.
Flushing, 111.
Folkestone, 70, 78, 112.
Food Exports, 108, 109.
- Products, 81.
- Supply, 80-91.
Forest of Dean, 42.
- Coalfield, 37, 41.
Forests, 11.
Forfar, 72.
Forres, 74.
Fort William, 72.
Forth and Clyde Ship Canal, 14, 65..
- Bridge, 14, 74.
— River, 13, 14, 15, 65.
Fraserburgh, 34, 74.
Freetown, 119.
Fremantle, 126.
French Trade, 113, 114.
Frozen Meat, 85.
EASDALE, 36.
East African Trade, 12%.
- Indian Trade, 122
— London, 119.
Eastbourne, 70.
Ebony, 97.
Edinburgh, 60, 72.
Eggs, 84.
Egypt, Occupation of, 114.
Egyptian Trade, 116.
Electroplating, 57.
Elgin, 74.
Elswick, 57.


INDEX.
145
Frozen Salmon, 84.
Gold, 101.
Fruit-growing, 25.
Golden Vale, 80.
Fuchau, 124.
Goole, 13, 77.
Furness Railway, 71.
Göteborg (Gothenburg), 112.
Furs, 97.
Grimsby, 13, 33, 40, 71.
Guayaquil, 89, 125.
GALASHIELS, 50, 72.
Guiana Trade, 118, 119.
Galatz, 83, 116.
Gunmaking, 56, 57.
Galena, 99.
Galveston, 93, 118.
HADDOCK, 32.
Galway, 74.
Hake, 33.
Gambier, 96.
Halibut, 33.
Gamboge, 96.
Halifax, 49, 71, 117.
Genoa, 115.
Hamburg, 110.
Georgetown, 119.
Handloom-weaving, 50.
Gibraltar, 114.
Hangchau, 124.
Ginger, 87.
Hankau, S8, 124.
Glaciation, 20, 21.
Harbours of Britain, 13-17.
Glasgow, 13, 43, 52, 57, 58, 59, 65, 72, 74, Harris Cloth, 50.
76, 79, 80.
Harwich, 70, 78, 110, 111.
— and South-Western Railway (G. & Hastings, 70.
S.W.R.), 74, 102.
Havana, 118.
Glass, 59.
Havre, 90, 112.
Glenelg, 126.
Hawick, 50, 72.
Glenmore, 13, 14.
Hellifield, 71.
Gloucester, 13, 68, 71, 77, 102.
Hemp, 54, 94.
Glycerine, 59.
Heniquen, 94.
Grand Canal, 65.
Hermopolis, 115.
- Junction Canal, 65.
Herring-fishing, 32, 34.
Union Canal, 65.
Hides, 98.
Grangemouth, 14, 65, 79.
Highland Railway, 74.
Granite, 35.
Highlands of Britain, 12-15.
Granton, 33.
Hobart, 127.
Grapes, 86.
Holborn Viaduct, 70.
Graphite, 100.
Holtenau, 111.
Grass-Lands, 21, 22.
Holyhead, 71, 80.
Gravesend, 70.
Hong-kong, 123, 124.
Great Central Railway (G.C.R.), 71. Hook of Holland, 111.
- Eastern Railway (G.E.R.), 70. Hops, 25.
- Northern Railway (G.N.R.), 71, Horses, 29, 30.
- Northern Railway (Ireland), 74. Hosiery, 50.
· North of Scotland Railway Huddersfield, 49, 65, 71.
(G.N.S.R.), 72.
Huelva, 99, 113.
Ouse, 15.
Hull, 13, 77, 78, 110.
- Southern and Western Railway | Humber, 13, 15.
(G.S.W.R.), 74.
Humus, 20.
- Western Railway (G.W.R.), 68. Hungarian Wheat, 83.
- Western Railway (Ireland), 74. Hunstanton, 70.
Greek Trade, 115.
Greenock, 14, 57, 61, 79, 80.
ICE, 88.
Greenore, 80.
Ichang, 124.
Goats' Hair, 92.
Indian Ocean Trade, 120-122.
Geog. 1.


146
INDEX.
Indian Trade, 121, 122.
- Wheat, 83.
India-rubber, 95.
Indigo, 95.
Industrial Towns, 63.
Internal Transport, 64-74.
Inverness, 74.
Ipswich, 70.
Irish Mail Route, 80.
- Railways, 74.
Iron, 42, 43, 98, 99.
- Exports, 105.
- Manufactures, 55-58.
Irwell River, 65.
Italian Trade, 115.
Ivory, 98.
JAFFA, 116.
Jam, 61.
Japanese Trade, 123-125.
Java, 88.
Jedburgh, 50.
Jedda, 120.
Jute, 54, 94.
KAISER WILHELM CANAL, 111.
Kaolin, 36.
Karachi, 83, 121.
Karroos, 91.
Kauri.gum, 128.
Keighley, 57.
Kennet River, 16, 65.
Kherson, 83, 116.
Kidderminster, 50.
Kiel, 112.
Kildare, 74.
Kilkenny, 74.
Kilmarnock, 36, 43, 74.
Kimberley, 101.
King's Cross, 71.
Kingstown, 17, 80, 118.
Kirkcaldy, 51.
Kristiania, 110.
Kristiansund, 110.
Kola, 89.
Lancashire Cottons, 53.
Lancaster, 71.
Langholm, 50.
Larne, 74, 80.
Lead, 43, 99.
Lead Hills, 43.
Leadenhall Market, 77.
Leather, 98.
Lechlade, 65.
Leeds, 49, 57, 71, 76, 77.
- and Liverpool Canal, 65.
Leek, 55.
Leghorn, 115.
Leicester, 50, 65, 71.
Leith, 14, 33, 79, 113.
Lemons, 86.
Lerwick, 34.
Lewes, 70.
Lichfield, 65.
Liddel River, 14.
Liffey River, 17, 65.
Lima, 125.
Lime, 20.
Limerick, 74, 79.
Limestone, 21, 36.
Lincoln, 70, 71.
Linen Centres, 50, 51.
- Manufacture, 50, 51.
- Processes, 50.
Liqueurs, 90.
Lisbon, 113.
Lisburn, 51.
Live Meat, 85.
Liverpool, 13, 34, 52, 70, 71, 77, 78, 80, 113.
Llanberis, 36.
Loam, 20.
Lobsters, 34.
Lockerbie, 72.
Logwood, 96.
London, 13, 70, 76, 78, 110, 113; Advan.
tageous Situation, 63.
- and North - Western Railway
(L.N.W.R.), 71.
- and South - Western Railway
(L.S.W.R.), 68.
- Bridge, 70.
- Brighton, and South Coast Railway
(L.B.S.C.R.), 70.
Londonderry, 74, 80.
Longford, 65.
Los Angelos, 125.
Lough Derg, 65.
LACE, 53.
Lagan River, 66.
Lagos, 119.
La Guaira, 89, 119.
Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway (L. &
Y.R.), 71.


INDEX.
147
Lough Foyle, 17.
Neagh, 66.
Ree, 65.
Lourenço Marques, 120.
Lowestoft, 33, 70.
Lowlands of Scotland, 13, 14, 15.
Lundy Island, 34.
Lurgan, 51.
Lynn, 70.
Lyttelton (N.Z.), 128.
Melbourne, 83, 127.
Memel, 112.
Menai Bridge, 71.
Mercury, 100.
Merino Sheep, 91.
Mersey River, 13, 15, 65.
Merthyr Tydfil, 43.
Messina, 115.
Metropolitan Railway, 76.
Middlesbrough, 42, 43, 57, 78, 79.
Midland Coalfield, 38, 41.
- Railway (M.R.), 71.
Great Western Railway, 74.
Midlothian Coalfield, 37, 39.
Milford, 68.
- Haven, 15.
Minneapolis, 83.
Miscellaneous Exports, 108.
Mixed Soils, 20.
— Woods, 26.
Mobile, 93, 118.
Mohair, 92.
Mollendo, 126.
Mombasa, 120.
Monte Video, 119.
Montreal, 82, 117.
Montrose, 54, 74.
Morecambe, 71.
Mosses, 19.
Motherwell, 43, 72.
MACCLESFIELD, 55, 71.
Mace, 87.
Mackay, 127.
Mackerel, 32, 34.
Madagascar, 120.
Madder, 96.
Madras, 121.
Magnetic Iron Ore, 42.
Mahogany, 97.
Maize, 83.
Malaga, 114.
Malmö, 112.
Malta, 114.
Manaos, 119.
Manchester, 53, 57, 71, 76, 77.
- Ship-Canal, 64, 66, 77.
Manganese, 99.
Mangold, 24, 25.
Manila, 90, 123.
- Hemp, 94.
Manningtree, 70.
Manufactured Imports, 101-103.
Manufactures, 44-61.
Alimentary, 60-66.
- Chemical, 58-60.
- Iron, 55-58.
- Textile, 46-55.
Marble, 35.
March, 70.
Margate, 70.
Market Harborough, 65.
Market-gardening, 26.
Marlborough Hills, 16.
Marmalade, 61.
Marseilles, 114.
Marylebone, 71.
Maryport, 79.
Matches, 102.
Mauritius, 120.
Meat, 85.
Mediterranean Trade, 113.
NAGASAKI, 124.
Nairn, 74.
Naples, 115.
Natal Tea, 88.
Nen River, 65.
New Milford, 80.
Orleans, 83, 93, 118.
- York, 82, 83, 117.
— Zealand Flax, 94.
- Zealand Trade, 127.
Newcastle, 59, 71, 76, 78, 79.
Newhaven, 70, 78, 112.
Newport, 13, 43, 62, 78, 127.
Newry Canal, 66.
Nicaragua Canal, 118, 122.
Nickel, 100.
Nile Delta, 93.
Nith River, 14.
Nitrates, 100.
Niuch wang, 124.
Normanton, 71.


148
INDEX.
Nörrkoping, 112.
North African Trade, 117.
- American Pacific Trade, 125, 126.
- American Trade, 117.
- British Railway (N.B.R.), 72.
- Eastern Railway (N.E.R.), 71.
Sea Trade, 110-112.
Shields, 57, 79.
Staffordshire Coalfield, 37, 40.
- Staffordshire Railway, 71.
- Tyne, 14.
Northampton, 65.
Northern Counties Railway, 74.
Northumberland, 78..
- Coalfield, 37, 39.
Northwich, 44.
Norwegian Trade, 111.
Norwich, 70.
Nottingham, 53, 71.
- Coalfield, 37, 40.
Nuneaton, 65.
Nutmeg, 87.
OATS, 22, 23, 83.
Oban, 72.
Occupations, 10.
Odessa, 83, 116.
Oil-shale, 44, 59.
Old Red Sandstone, 21.
Oldham, 53, 57.
Olive-oil, 88.
Ookiep, 99.
Oolitic Limestone, 35.
Oporto, 113.
Oranges, 86.
Origin of Towns, 62, 63.
Ostend, 111.
Ostrich Feathers, 98.
Ouse (Yorkshire) River, 15, 21, 65.
Oxford, 62, 68.
- Canal, 65.
Oysters, 34.
-- American, 84.
Para, 95, 119.
Paraffin, 59.
Paris, 112.
Pastoral Districts of Britain, 18, 19.
Patras, 115.
Pearls, 101.
Peat, 43, 44.
- Bogs, 19.
Peebles, 49.
Peking, 124.
Pembroke, 68.
Pennine Mountains, 13, 14.
Pensacola, 48, 93.
Penzance, 68.
Pernambuco, 94, 119.
Perry, 61.
Persian Gulf Trade, 120.
Perth, 72, 74.
- (S.A.), 126.
Peterborough, 70, 71.
Peterhead, 34, 74.
Petroleum, 101.
Philadelphia, 117.
Physical Features of Britain, 12-17,
Pigs, 30, 31.
Pilchard, 32, 34.
Pine-apple, 86.
Piræus, 115.
Plaice, 33.
Plate Trade, 119.
Platinum, 100.
Plumbago, 100.
Plymouth, 34, 68, 78.
- Sound, 16.
Porcelain, 103.
Port (wine), 90.
Port Adelaide, 126.
— Elizabeth, 119,
--- Glasgow, 57.
Nolloth, le
of Spain, 89, 148.
Portland (Maine), 117.
(Oregon), 125.
Cement, 36.
Stone, 36.
Ports, 78-80.
Portsmouth, 68, 70.
- Harbour, 16.
Portuguese Trade, 113.
Potato, 24, 25.
Poti, 101.
| Potteries, 36, 77.
Pacific Routes, 122.
- Trade, 122-128.
Paddington, 68.
Paisley, 53, 83.
Palermo, 115.
Palm-oil, 95.
Panama Canal, 118, 122.
Paper-mills, 60.


INDEX.
149
Pottery, 36.
Rum, 90.
Preston, 53, 65, 71.
Runcorn Bridge, 71.
Prevalent Winds, 18.
Russian Wheat, 83.
Pulses, 83.
Rye, 24, 83.
Puntarenas, 125.
Pusztas, 82.
ST ANTHONY Falls, 33.
St Helens, 59.
QUEBEC, 82, 117.
St Ives, 34.
Queenborough, 70, 111.
St John (New Brunswick), 117.
Queensland, 127.
St Malo, 112.
St Pancras, 71.
RABBITS, 85.
St Paul, 70.
Railway Plant, 56, 57.
St Petersburg, 112.
Railways, 66-74; C.R., 72; G. & S.W.R., | Salisbury, 68.
74; G.C.R., 71; G.E.R., 70; G.N.R., Salmon, 32, 79, 80.
71; G.N.S.R., 74; G.W.R., 68; H.R., | Salonica, 115.
74; L.B.S.C.R., 70; L.N.W.R., 71; / Salt, 44.
L. & Y.R., 71; M.R., 71; N.B.R., 72, - Mines, 77.
74; S.E. & C.R., 70; Irish Lines, 74; Sand, 20.
Welsh Lines, 74.
Sandstone, 35.
Rainfall, Distribution of, 17-20.
Santander, 113.
Ramie, 55, 95.
São Paulo, 119.
Ramsgate, 33, 70.
Sapphire, 101.
Rangoon, 84, 122.
Sardines, 85.
Ramnoch Moor, 72.
Satinwood, 97.
Raw Materials, 91-101.
Savannah, 118.
Reading, 68.
Scientific Instruments, 91-103.
Red Hematite, 42.
Scottish Woollen Trade, 49.
Redhill, 70.
Sea-island Cotton, 93.
Retford, 71.
Sea-trout, 32.
Revel, 112.
Seal-fishery, 97.
Rhine Wines, 90.
Seattle, 125.
Rice, 84.
Selkirk, 50.
Riga, 112.
Settle, 71.
Rio de Janeiro, 94, 119.
Severn River, 15, 65.
Rivers, Work of, 21.
Tunnel, 63.
Roads, 64.
Sevres Porcelain, 102.
Rochdale, 50, 53, 57, 65, 71.
Sewing-machines, 58.
Rochester, 70.
Seychelles, 120.
Rockhampton, 127.
Shanghai, 88, 124.
Roman Roads, 11.
Shannon River, 16, 65.
- Towns, 62.
Shap Pass, 16.
Romney Marsh, 28, 29.
Sheep, 28, 29.
Root Crops, 24.
— Breeds, 29.
Rosewood, 97.
- Feeding Regions, 28, 29.
Rotherham, 43.
Sheerness, 70.
Rotterdam, 110, 111.
Sheffield, 56, 57, 71, 76, 77.
Rouen, 112
Sherry, 90.
Royal Canal, 65.
Ship-canals, 14, 64, 66.
Rubber, 95.
Shipbuilding, 57.
Ruby, 95.
Shiré Highlands, 120.
Rugby, 65, 71.
Shrewsbury, 68.


150
INDEX.
70.
Silk, 54, 55, 94.
Stroud, 49, 65.
- Imports, 102.
Sudbury, 100.
Silloth, 79.
Suez Canal, 122.
Silver, 101.
Sugar, 86, 87.
- Lead, 43.
— Beet, 87.
Singapore, 95, 100, 122.
- Refining, 61.
Sisal Hemp, 94.
Sulina, 116.
Sittingbourne, 70.
Sulphur, 100.
Skins, 98.
Sulphuric Acid, 59.
Skipton, 65.
Sunderland, 57, 78, 79.
Slates, 36.
Swansea, 13, 43, 68, 78, 99.
Sligo, 74.
Swindon, 68.
Smithfield Market, 76, 77.
Swinemünde, 112.
Smokeless Coal, 39.
Sydney, 83, 127.
Smyrna, 93, 116.
Syra, 115.
Snuff, 90, 91.
Syrian Trade, 116.
Soap, 59.
Soar River, 65.
Tacoma, 125.
Soils, 20, 21,
Taganrog, 83, 116.
Sole, 32.
Tain, 74.
Solway Firth, 14.
Tamworth, 65.
Sources of Raw Material, 48, 49.
Tanning, 60, 95.
South African Trade, 119.
Tasmania, 127.
Australia, 126.
Tay Bridge, 14, 74.
- Eastern and Chatham Railway, - River, 13, 14, 15.
Tea, 88.
Eastern Plain, 13.
Tees River, 15.
--- Lancashire, 77.
Textile Exports, 106-108.
- Lancashire Coalfield, 37, 40.
- Industry, 46–55; Cotton, 51-54;
- Shields, 57.
Hemp, 54; Jute, 54; Linen, 50, 51;
Southampton, 68, 78, 112.
Silk, 54, 55; Wool, 54, 55.
- Water, 16.
- Machinery, 57.
Southern Uplands, 13, 14.
Thames and Severn Canal, 65.
South port, 34.
- River, 13, 15, 16, 65.
Spanish Trade, 113, 114.
Thurso, 74.
Spey River, 14.
Tientsin, 124.
Spices, 87.
Tilberthwaite, 36.
Spirits, 90.
Timber, 96.
Spitalfields, 55.
Tin, 48, 49, 100.
Sponges, 98.
Tobacco, 90.
Stafford, 71.
Tokyo, 125.
Staffordshire, 77.
Towns, 62–64.
Stalybridge, 53.
and Trade, 62-64.
Stettin, 112.
Townsville, 127.
Stirling, 72.
Trade and Towns, 62-64.
Stockholm, 112.
- Centres, 74-80.
Stockport, 53, 71.
- of United Kingdom, 128-132.
Stockton, 43.
- Routes, 109–127; Atlantic, 112, 113,
Stoke, 71.
117-120; Indian Ocean, 120-122; Medi.
Stornoway, 34.
terranean, 113–117; North Sea and
Stranraer, 74, 80.
Baltic, 110-112; Pacific, 122-128.
Strome Ferry, 34, 74.
| Trading Centres, 74-80.


INDEX.
151
Trawling, 33.
Trebizond, 116.
Trent and Mersey Canal, 65.
— River, 15, 21, 65, 71.
Trieste, 115.
Tripoli, 117.
Tunbridge, 70.
Tunis, 71.
Turbot, 32.
Turkey Carpets, 10L
Turkish Trade, 115.
Turnip, 24, 25.
Tweeds, 50.
Tyne River, 15.
Tynemouth, 79.
ULSTER CANAL, 66.
- Linens, 51.
Union Canal, 65.
VALENCIA, 114.
Valonia, 95.
Valparaiso, 126.
Vancouver, 125.
Vanilla, 87.
Varna, 116.
Vegetation, Distribution of, 18-20.
Venice, 115.
Vera Cruz, 118.
Victoria, 70, 127.
Vitu, 120.
Volcanic Soil, 21.
WALLINGFORD, 62.
Walrus-skins, 97, 98.
Walsall, 43, 56.
Warwick, 62.
and Napton Canal, 65.
Wash, 15.
Watches, 103.
Waterford, 79, 80.
-- Harbour, 17.
Waterloo, 68.
Watford, 65.
Waverley Route, 72.
Weald, 42.
Weaver River, 15, 65.
Wednesbury, 43, 56.
Welland River, 15, 65.
Wellington, 127.
Welsh Coalfield, 37, 38, 41.
- Lines, 74.
Mountains, 13.
Welshpool, 50.
West African Trade, 119.
- Australia, 126.
Indian Trade, 118.
of England Woollen Manufacture,
49.
- Riding, 77.
Westport, 74.
Weymouth, 68, 78, 112.
Whale-fishery, 97.
Whalebone, 97.
Wheat, 23, 82, 83.
- Lands of the World, 82.
Whitby, 12, 34, 61.
Whitehaven, 34, 79.
Wick, 34, 74.
Wigan, 71.
Wilmington, 93, 118.
Wilton, 50.
Winchester, 62, 68.
Wine, 89, 90.
Witney, 50.
Woking, 68.
Wolverhamnpton, 43, 56, 58.
Wolverton, 65.
Wood Pulp, 97.
Woods, 26.
Wool, 91, 92.
Woollen Centres, 48, 50.
- Imports, 102.
- Manufacture, 47-50.
- Ports, 48-50.
Worcester, 65.
- China, 36.
Workington, 79.
YANG-TSE-KIANG, 124.
Yarinouth, 33, 60, 70.
- Bloaters, 60.
Yeovil, 68.
Yokohama, 124.
York, 61, 71.
Yorkshire Coalfield, 37, 40.
- Woollen Manufacture, 49.
ZANZIBAR, 120.
Zinc, 99, 103.


Edinburgh :
Printed by W. & R. Chambers, Limited.





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PREFACE.
This book, while a continuation of the Commercial Geography
of the British Isles published in 1899, is so arranged that it
may be used independently, or even before it. Like the
earlier work, it is based on lectures delivered for the Owens
College and the Geographical Society in Manchester, and at
the Heriot-Watt College, Edinburgh. The lectures have been
rewritten in book form, taking into account recent economic
developments. As far as possible the writer has attempted
to interpret as well as to record the most important geographi-
cal phenomena of economic significance. The aim both of
student and of teacher should be not merely to acquire facts
but to correlate them, not to be a gazetteer but a geographer.
In this short book it is impossible to treat the economic
geography of every country in an exhaustive manner. Nor is
it necessary. It is not important that the beginner should
know all about every country. It is important that he
should know the main facts about the most important and
typical countries, and accordingly certain countries have been
chosen for fuller treatment. Having thoroughly inastered
the facts for one type of country, the student finds it easy to
treat similar but unknown countries in like manner from the
larger geographical and statistical hand-books. This personal
compiling of economic geography of different countries by
the student should be a marked feature in all advanced classes.
The book is divided into two parts—(1) General ;
(2) Regional. A word may be said about the arrangement
of the regional descriptions. An attempt has been made
to arrange the British lands beyond the seas so as to
secure some educational continuity, which is lacking in the
order of treatment usually adopted. The temperate states,
which most resemble in their conditions those of the
British Isles, are taken first, and the tropical lands last.
The student confining his attention to the British Empire
will find the plan of the book suits his requirements, for he


PREFACE.
has only to read straight on to the end of Chapter XIV.,
omitting Chapter XI., which deals with the non-British
temperate lands of the southern hemisphere, and some para-
graphs of Chapters XIII. and XIV., and in addition the
Commercial Geography of the British Isles.
Chapters XV. to the end discuss the economic geography
of non-British civilised lands, beginning in the Far East,
where modern industrial methods are in their initial phase,
passing by Europe to America, where they have been most
fully developed.
Chapters VIII.-XIV. give an account of the regions
producing on the whole mainly raw materials, and the order
adopted is from the better to the less known; Chapters XV.
to the end deal with the countries with considerable or ex-
tensive industrial development, and the order is from the
simpler to the more complex.
Statistics are given for purposes of illustration and not
for memorising. Readers are strongly advised to supple-
ment them by reference to the latest edition of the States-
man's Year-Book, the most complete of geographical statistical
manuals, from which and from official reports the statistics in
this book are taken; or failing that, to Whitaker's Almanack.
Every teacher should himself use, and make his students
familiar with, the methods of employing the more important
blue-books and consular reports, which should be found in all
free libraries. The daily newspaper should be scanned for new
information—which, however, in many cases requires to be care-
fully tested before being fully accepted. Commercial Intelli-
gence is practically indispensable both to students and
teachers, and is very reliable. The Board of Trade Journal,
which costs a penny per week, should be regularly consulted.
It is impossible to give a complete list of references to
official publications and books of all kinds consulted in pre-
paring the lectures on which the book is based. Valuable
bibliographies will be found in Mrs Herbertson's Descriptive
Geographies from Original Sources. Readers desiring fuller
information are referred to Chambers's Encyclopædia and
Chisholm's Handbook of Commercial Geography, of which,
we understand, a new edition will soon appear.
OXFORD, Easter 1903.


CONTENTS.
PART I.-GENERAL ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER I.
LAND AND WATER.
PAGE
Proportions of Land and Water-Routes radiating from the
Lanıl-Centre-Land and Water Hemispheres—Europe-
Asia — Australia — Pacific Islands -- The New World —
South America-West Indies and Central America-North
America.
................. 15
CHAPTER II.
CLIMATE BELTS.
Elements of Climate -Sunshine and Heat Belts — Wind
Regions—Rain Regions ......
....
20
CHAPTER III.
ZONES OF LIFE.
Tundra-Temperate Forests-Clearings in Temperate Forests
-Steppes or Temperate Grass-Lands-Warm Temperate
Forests with Winter Rains-Warm Temperate Forests
with Summer Rains-Dry Deserts, Savanas or Tropical
Grass-Lands-Equatorial Forests.
Forests..
............................
CHAPTER IV.
MINERALS.
Coal-Petroleum-Paraffin-Oil and Wax-Asphalt-Building.
Stones and Clays-Common Salt. Metals : Iron-Tin-
Copper-Zinc-Nickel-Manganese-Aluminium-Lead-
Mercury ---Silver-Gold-Platinum .... ...................
36


d
CONTENTS.
ᏟᎻᎪᏢᎢᎬᎡ V.
MANUFACTURING AREAS.
Hand and Machine Work-Factors determining the Distribu-
tion of Manufacturing Areas....
PAGE
42
CHAPTER VI.
TRANSPORT.
Different Means of Transport - Porters -- Pack - Animals -
Draught-Animals-Mechanical Propulsion-Steam Rail.
ways-Electric and other Motors - River Navigation-
Canals — Isthmian and Inland Ship - Canals — Coasting
Traffic – Ocean Steamships-Harbours - Importance of
Hinderland—Interdependence of Mankind To-day-Rapid
Communication of Ideas......
...........
45
CHAPTER VII.
ECONOMIC MAN.
Man as a Producer of Wealth-Varying Intensity of Human
Activity - Increase of Human Productive Powers —
Economic Influence of Human Associations .......................
PART II.—REGIONAL ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER VIII.
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA : CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND.
Physical Conditions : Configuration–Western Region-Great
Plains-East Canada. Economic Products: Fisheries--
Furs — Lumber-Ranching-Farming-Minerals —Man-
factures. Means of Communication-Internal Trade-
External Trade. Newfoundland .........
........... 58
CHAPTER IX.
AUSTRALASIA.
New Zealand : The Middle Island — The North Island -
Minerals-Routes and Trading Centres— Trade............... 74
Tasmania: Physical Conditions - Economic Productions -
Mineral Wealth-Means of Communication-Trade ........ 78


CONTENTS.
PAGE
The Island of Australia : Position and Configuration Climate.
Economic Divisions: The Desert—The Southern Region
of Winter Rains (Victoria, Southern South Australia,
South-west of Western Australia)—The Eastern Region of
Summer Rains (New South Wales and Southern Queens-
land) — The Northern Hot, Moist, Tropical Regions
(Northern Queensland, North of South and Western
Australia). Australian Minerals : Gold-Silver-Copper-
Coal-Precious Stones. Australian Manufactures-Means
of Communication - The Australian Commonwealth-
Trade.........
......................................... 80
....................................
CHAPTER X.
SOUTH AFRICA.
Physical and Climatic Conditions. Economic Divisions :
South-western Region of Winter Rains - Region of
Summer Rains — High Veld – Rhodesian Plateau.
Minerals : Diamonds — Gold — Copper-Coal. Manufac.
tures—Trade-Means of Communication-Economic Out-
look .......
...........
90
CHAPTER XI.
SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA.
Configuration - Climate. Economic Divisions : North-east
Region of Summer Rains-Dry North-West-Central Chile,
with Wet Winters--Southern Chile, with Rain at all
Seasons- Patagonia. Mineral Wealth. Political Divi.
sions : Chile-- Argentina-Uruguay-Paraguay-Southern
Brazil-Falkland Islands ...........
CHAPTER XII.
INDIA AND CEYLON.
Position and Configuration - Climate. Economic Divisions :
Mountain Barrier — Great Plains - Deccan — Ceylon —
Burma. Minerals : Salt-Coal-Others. Manufactures-
Means of Communication-Rivers-Railways-Irrigation
-Trade.........
.......... 103
CHAPTER XIII.
CENTRAL AFRICA AND INTERTROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA.
Common Economic Characteristics ......
Central Africa : Position and Configuration Climate and
Vegetation - The Congo-Zambezi Plateau — Portuguese
112


CONTENTS.
PAGE
West Africa or Angola-Northern Rhodesia and the
British Central Africa Protectorate-Madagascar—The
Plateau of the Great Lakes-Portuguese East Africa,
German East Africa -- British East Africa - Uganda -
Somali Peninsula-Congo Basin and Independent State-
Guinea Coast-West Africa-Southern Nigeria, Lagos-
Gold Coast - Sierra Leone - Gambia-Sudan - Western
Sudan-Northern Nigeria,French West Africa-German
Guinea-Portuguese Guinea and Islands in West Africa-
Spanish Islands-Liberia — Eastern or Nilotic Sudan—-
Abyssinian Plateau ... ... ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................... 112
Northern South America : Configuration and Economic Divi.
sions – Products - Brazil - The Guianas — Venezuela –
Colombia, Ecuador—Peru, Bolivia ......
...... 122
CHAPTER XIV.
INSULAR AND PENINSULAR LANDS BETWEEN THE TROPICS
(EXCLUDING PENINSULAR INDIA).
Comparison with Intertropical Continental Regions................ 127
The Indo-China Peninsula : Straits Settlements-Siam-French
Indo-China ........................
............... 128
The East India Islands : Dutch East Indies (Java, Sumatra,
Banka and Billiton, Borneo, Celebes, Spice Islands)
British Borneo-British and German New Guinea-The
Philippines ................
Pacific Islands—New Caledonia..
........................ 134
The West Indies : Position and Configuration–Climate-Pro.
ducts—Trinidad-Barbados—British Windward and Lee-
ward Islands-Jamaica- French West Indies — United
States Islands—Santa Cruz-Porto Rico-Santo Domingo
-Haiti-Cuba ...........
............ 135
Central America : Configuration –Climate-Products—Trans-
Isthmian Routes... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 139
Mexico: Configuration -- Climate and Vegetation - Produc.
tions-Trade, Routes, and Towns ...
............
. . . . . . . . ... ...... 130
Tra..........
..........
CHAPTER XV.
EASTERN ASIA.
Position and Configuration–Climate--Subdivisions............... 143
Chinese Empire: China Proper-Its Subdivisions—The Si-
kiang Basin — The Yangtse Basin — Northern Plains-
Minerals - Manufactures — Means of Communication -
Trade-Outlook-Manchuria ........
... 145


CONTENTS.
11
PAGE
Korea........
152
Japanese Empire : Formosa-Luchun Islands-Japanese Islands
--Products - Minerals - Manufactures-Trade-Means of
Communication .............
..... 153
CHAPTER XVI.
THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
Extent-Asiatic Russia-Amuria and Siberia—The Great
Siberian Railway -- Exports --Russian Central Asia-
Transcaucasia
.... 156
European Russia : Configuration Climate-Vegetation Zones
and Productions-Minerals-Manufactures Trade, Towns,
and Routes ...
160
CHAPTER XVII.
MEDITERRANEAN LANDS.
Common Characteristics — Extent- Subdivisions-Routes to
other Regions--Climate and Productions.... ........ . . . . . . ....... 164
Persia-Egypt–The Ottoman or Turkish Empire-Greece...... 167
Italy: Subdivisions-The North---Peninsular Hilly Lands-
Sicily -- Sarilinia - Minerals - Manufactures - Routes-
Towns--Trade... ... ......................................................... 171
Spain and Portugal : Plains--Terraced Hillsides-Mountains
- Plateau -- Fisheries ---- Minerals - Industries - Railway
Lines-Exports of Spain and Portugal........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 173
The Barbary States...
.............. ................ 175
CHAPTER XVIII.
FRANCE.
Position and Configuration - Climate – Products - Minerals
and Manufactures--Internal Communication and Trade-
Centres-Ports-Trade..........
.......................... 177
CHAPTER XIX.
ALPINE AND DANUBIAN LANDS.
Switzerland : Divisions-Alpine Region-Plateau-Minerals--
Water-power--Industrial Activity--Routes-Trade.......... 183


12
CONTENTS.
PAGE
Austria-Hungary : Subdivisions - Austria - Bohemia, Silesia,
and Moravia-Galicia and Bukovina, Eastern Alpine
Provinces and Austria Proper–The Dalmatian Coastal
Region-Bosnia-Herzegovina-Hungary-Trade and Trade-
Routes of Austria-Hungary ...........
The Lower Danubian States : Servia-Bulgaria-Romania, or
Rumania.
185
............ 190
CHAPTER XX.
THE GERMAN EMPIRE.
Position - Configuration - Climate - Plants and Animals -
Minerals-Manufactures—Inland Trade and Trade-Routes
-Ports-Foreign Trade ....
... 193
CHAPTER XXI.
THE LOW COUNTRIES.
Belgium : Divisions-Products-Minerals and Manufactures-
Trade, Towns, and Routes...........
The Netherlands : Configuration and Climate-Plant and
Animal Products — Manufactures — Trade, Towns, and
Routes.
*............. 202
204
CHAPTER XXII.
.......... 206
THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES.
Denmark : Divisions – Productions — Trade, Towns, and
Routes ..................
Norway: Configuration and Climate-Productions and Occupa-
tions—Trade, Towns, and Routes....... ..
.............. 207
Sweden : Configuration and Climate-Products and Manufac.
tures—Trade, Towns, and Routes..........
..... 208
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
Position - Configuration - Climate - Economic Divisions -
Minerals - Manufactures - Internal Communication-In-
ternal and Foreign Trade.......
...... 210
APPENDIX.
Statistics, Money, Weights, and Measures .........
222


COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY OF
THE WORLD
OUTSIDE THE BRITISH ISLES.
INTRODUCTION.
GEOGRAPHY deals with the distribution of things on
the Earth's surface, Economics with the production,
elaboration, exchange, and consumption of wealth.
Economic Geography treats of the distribution on the
Earth's surface of natural products of economic im-
portance, and of the activities arising from their
transportation, elaboration, and exchange. Economic
geography has a twofold function. In the first place,
it presents an accurate picture of the existing economic
resources of the world, and in the second, it suggests
ways in which these may be modified to the benefit
of mankind. Tea, for example, which is gradually
becoming the chief non-alcoholic drink of the world,
will thrive on well-drained slopes receiving abun-
dant showers, heat, and sunshine in summer, and
it is hardy enough to bear a touch of winter
frost. Wherever these conditions are combined, tea
might, geographically speaking, be cultivated. Other
considerations, however, come in. The economic
conditions must also be suitable. Rent must be


14
INTRODUCTION.
reasonable, labour plentiful and cheap, and markets
readily accessible.
Economic conditions are not necessarily unvary-
ing. Thus, to take familiar instances, the applica-
tion of steam - power to manufacture has altered
the distribution of the great industrial centres, and
concentrated population on the coal and iron fields.
The development of electricity, as a motive-power is
increasing the economic importance of abundant water-
power available for generating the current. Among
economic factors, none perhaps is more important
than density of population. So long as Australia was
but sparsely inhabited, manufactures could not develop
except on a small local scale. With the increase of
population — that is, of possible purchasers — their
development has begun.
Geographical conditions are fundamental and rela-
tively unchanging. Climate, the chief geographic
factor of economic importance, depends mainly on
causes beyond human control. Indirectly, indeed,
man can do something towards modifying its in-
fluence. The cutting down of the forests in the
Mediterranean basin, though it cannot be said to
have modified the Mediterranean climate, has appre-
ciably diminished the fertility of large areas. Forests
no longer check the heavy rains from gathering into
torrents, which sweep the soil along with them, ex-
posing bare, unfertile rock. Here man has played the
spendthrift; elsewhere he has toiled to better purpose,
draining the marsh, sinking wells in the desert, or
introducing valuable plants and animals.
The task of economic geography is to select from
the mass of geographic conditions those of economic


LAND AND WATER.
15
importance. In the chapters immediately following
we shall consider the principal facts of the distribu-
tion of land and water, of plain and mountain, of
climates and products, of populations and of their
economic activities. After this has been done for
the world in general, selected typical regions will
be studied in greater detail, and their trade at the
beginning of the twentieth century will be considered.
PART I.
GENERAL ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.
CHAPTER I.
LAND AND WATER.
Proportions of Land and Water.—Five-sevenths of
the Earth's surface is covered by water, which, except
for the fish of the shallow seas near the coasts,
is almost unproductive. Until comparatively recent
times the oceans have proved formidable barriers to
commerce. Of the two-sevenths of the Earth's surface
which consists of land, the greater part, as will be
seen from the globe, is found in a hemisphere whose
pole lies in the west of France, and the commercial
centre of the land hemisphere, or land-centre, may
be taken as coinciding approximately with the
English Channel. Within this hemisphere nearly
half of the surface consists of dry land, whereas


16
LAND AND WATER.
in the other half of the globe nine-tenths of the
surface is covered with water.
Routes radiating from the Land-Centre.— The English
Channel is the centre from which most of the great
world-routes radiate, passing southward and west-
ward across the Atlantic, or eastward by the Suez
Canal. To the north the water-routes are blocked by
ice-bound seas. Great land-routes have been built, the
Great Siberian Railway to the east, and the Canadian
Pacific and the other trans-continental lines of North
America from the end of the northern transatlantic
steamer-routes to the west. The Central American
isthmus will in the near future be pierced by at least
one canal, which will be the western equivalent of the
Suez Canal.
Land and Water Hemispheres.- When we look at a
globe on which the height of the land is shown,
we observe that most of the land slopes towards
the Atlantic, into which, or its bordering seas, the
majority of the great rivers flow. The bulk of the
lowlands of the world are therefore connected with
the Atlantic. The Pacific Ocean, on the other hand,
is bordered by lofty mountain-systems, which leave
but a narrow coastal strip of lowland along that
ocean, and cut it off from easy communication with
the main mass of continental lowlands. This cir-
cumstance is of great economic importance. Not
only is communication easier across lowlands than
across mountains, but the lowland is also, as a rule,
more productive and more populous. The Atlantic
is, therefore, by far the most important ocean, as
the most valuable lands from an economic point of
view slope towards it,


LAND AND WATER.
17
Let us now look more closely at the configuration
of each continent on a good contour map, or on a globe
which shows relief.
Europe is deeply penetrated on all sides by sea, so
that no part is far from the sea and its ameliorating
influences.
The chief European seas are the North and Baltic
Seas, the latter with the Gulfs of Finland and
Bothnia, in the north; and the Mediterranean, with
the Adriatic and Black Seas, in the south. The
northern and southern seas present many contrasts.
The North and Baltic Seas lie in the midst of
the lowlands, which converge towards them. A
great part of these lowlands is fertile; communi-
cation across them is easy; and the North Sea rivers
have tidal estuaries, which give ready access to
waters which are shallow and rich in fish. On the
other hand, the seas are stormy and often foggy,
the shores of the Baltic are frozen in winter, and
powerful ice-breaking steamers are required to keep
the harbours open.
The Mediterranean is surrounded by lofty moun-
tains, and only the north of the Black Sea skirts the
European plains. The alluvial river- valleys and the
deltas of its almost tideless waters are very fertile.
With the exception of the Danube and the Rhone, the
rivers are not of great importance as trade-routes.
A mountain barrier on the north and a desert barrier
on the south shut in the Mediterranean, which has a
narrow exit to the Atlantic by the Strait of Gibraltar,
and also, since the opening of the Suez Canal, to the
Indian Ocean by the Rea Sea.
Asia slopes to the north and to the east from a
Com. Geog. 2


18
LAND AND WATER.
central core of mountains, which rise from two to
four miles above the sea, forming a practically im-
passable barrier lying east and west on both sides of the
parallel of 35° N. The northern plain is extensive,
and is drained by great rivers, which, however, are
frozen in winter, and flow into the ice-bound Arctic
Ocean. The Amur crosses a hillier land, but is also
annually ice-bound. The Hwang-ho and Yangtse-
kiang are the great rivers of the east. Both have
formed rich alluvial regions. The Yangtse-kiang is
navigable for ocean steamers for nearly one thousand
miles. Much of the Indo-Gangetic plain, between the
Deccan and the Himalayas, is equally rich. The festoons
of islands which lie to the east and south-east of Asia
are mountainous and volcanic. The fertility of the
rich volcanic soil is intensified by the monsoonal
climate (see page 24). In the island-dotted eastern
seas navigation is easy, except for the dreaded
typhoon at the change of monsoon, and has long
been important.
Australia consists of a western plateau separated by
central lowlands from the eastern mountains, which
rise above a narrow coastal plain bordering the
Pacific. For climatic reasons the eastern mountain
region and coastal plain are the most productive and
populous (see pages 81, 84, and 85).
The Pacific is dotted with numerous island groups,
of volcanic or coral origin, often fertile, but of no great
extent. New Zealand and New Caledonia, which will
be considered with Australia, are the most important
islands in the south.
The New World turns, as it were, its back to the
Pacific. Mountains border the Pacific coast of both


LAND AND WATER.
19
North and South America from north to south, except
at the isthmuses of Panamá and Tehuantepec.
South America contains a great central lowland,
between the Andes in the west and the Brazil and
Guiana highlands in the east. It is drained by
three mighty river-systems—the Plate, the Amazon,
and the Orinoco-to the Atlantic. These rivers and
their chief tributaries are navigable almost to their
sources. A tidal bore occurs in the Amazon, and is
dangerous to navigation.
Volcanic and limestone rocks, some of coral origin,
predominate in the West Indies and Central America.
The volcanic regions are fertile. The West Indies
belong to the Atlantic region. In Central America,
however, the Pacific slope is the most productive part.
In North America, as in South America, a vast low-
land stretches east from the western mountain barrier.
This is easily penetrated from the Atlantic by the
great rivers Mississippi Missouri and St Lawrence,
which drain the centre and south of the great plains.
The utility of the Mississippi is diminished by the
shallowness of the distributaries crossing the delta.
The St Lawrence is frozen in winter. It is connected
with a great chain of lakes—Superior, Michigan,
Huron, Erie, and Ontario. Below the last-named are
rapids, and above it the great falls of Niagara. Both
obstructions have been avoided by canals. The Hudson,
though small in comparison with the Mississippi or
the St Lawrence, is exceedingly important, for it
makes a break in the eastern or Appalachian high-
lands, and affords a waterway to the St Lawrence
system from the ice-free port of New York at its
inouth. The Nelson and Mackenzie systems have the


CLIMATE BELTS.
21
six months. Mountains greatly diminish the hours
of bright sunshine in the valleys, and the presence
of fog or cloud lessens the quality of the light.
There is also a considerable difference in different
regions in the amount of solar radiations arrested
by a square mile of the Earth's surface; and a
surface sloping towards the Sun is better situated
than one sloping in the opposite direction. Hence
in Germany and France the southern slopes are
planted with vines; in the south of Australia, the
northern slopes.
Heat Belts.—At the equator the rays fall almost
vertically at all seasons, forming the hot belts, where
it is never cold. At the poles they fall more nearly
horizontally, forming the cold belts, where the soil
for the greater part, or even the whole, of the year
is frozen. Between the hot and cold belts lie the
temperate belts-consisting of two warm temperate
belts where the mean annual temperature is over,
and two cool temperate belts where it is under, 50° F.
The temperate belts are the best-cultivated and the
most densely peopled regions of the world; but the
hot belt is that in which vegetation attains its greatest
luxuriance. The cold belts are frozen deserts. The
limits of the cold belts may be traced by drawing
lines (isotherms) through places where the mean tem-
perature of the warmest month does not rise above
50° F., which is necessary for the cultivation of cereals.
The limits of the hot belt may be traced by drawing
lines through places where the mean temperature of
the coldest month is 65° F., which is high enough for
continual growth if there is a sufficient supply of
moisture.


22
CLIMATE BELTS.
Temperature falls very rapidly with altitude (1° F.
every 300 feet). Mountains, therefore, pass through
various heat zones. Even in the hot belt, mountains
of sufficient altitude have eternal snow on their upper
slopes. A mountainous land in temperate or tropical
latitudes has greater variations of temperature than
a plain in the same latitudes.
Wind Regions.—The winds are of great economic
importance, especially on and near the ocean. They
may determine the wet or dry weather on which
the growth or maturation of plants depends, and
which regulates the flow of the rivers. They directly
control the movements of sailing-vessels, and to a
certain extent even of steamers. They also indirectly
affect them through the surface currents of the ocean,
which are driven by the winds.
The regions of calms approximately coincide with
the equator, the tropics, and the polar circles. The
doldrums, or calms of the equator, used to be greatly
dreaded in days when ships depended entirely upon
their sails. The tropical regions of calms are known
as the horse latitudes.
Between the equatorial and tropical calms are the
zones of steady or trade winds, which blow constantly
from the north-east in the northern, and from the
south-east in the southern, hemisphere. In these two
zones, however, certain lands near the equator have
alternately north-east and south-west winds in the
northern, and alternately south-east and north-west
winds in the southern, hemisphere. These winds are
monsoon winds.
Between the tropical and polar calms are the belts
of stormy westerly winds, which in the southern


CLIMATE BELTS.
23
to
hemisphere are known as the brave west winds
of the roaring forties. Here the winds are not con-
stant, but variable; winds from a westerly direction,
however, predominate.
The courses of sailing-ships, and to a certain
extent those of steamers, are planned so as to take
full advantage of favourable, and to avoid adverse,
winds. A ship sailing southward from the English
Channel keeps near the west coast until it feels the
influence of the north-east trade-winds, before which
it scuds towards Brazil. It skirts the eastern coast
of South America, making use of the Brazil current
until near the horse latitudes, and then turns west-
ward and takes advantage of the brave west winds
in the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans if its
destination is Australasia. A ship returning from
Australasia does not come back in the opposite
direction, but sails still eastward with the west
winds across the Pacific, and enters the Atlantic
round Cape Horn, makes for the eastern coast of
the South Atlantic, utilises the south-east trades,
crosses the north-east trade belt near the western
side of the ocean, where the current flows north-
ward, and traverses the North Atlantic to the
Channel before the stormy west winds.
Rain Regions.--In most regions rain falls most
abundantly in summer, when the heated air can
contain the greatest quantity of water as vapour
and tends to ascend to cooler regions, where the
vapour is condensed. Equatorial regions, which have
perpetual summer, are the rainiest in the world. The
seasonal variations which characterise other regions
are almost entirely absent, though there are short dry


24
CLIMATE BELTS.
periods, or rather breaks, when the Sun is overhead
at the tropics.
North and south of the equatorial belt, extending
from about 10° to 20°, there are two seasons in a year,
the wet when the Sun is exactly or nearly overhead
at noon, and the dry during the rest of the year. The
Sudan and the monsoonal regions lie in this area.
They are warm at all seasons, and the rainy season
almost coincides with the hottest period of the year.
In the case of India and south-eastern and eastern
Asia the summer winds blow over the ocean, and
become abundantly laden with moisture, causing tor-
rential summer rains, and the region of alternate
rainy summers and dry winters extends to much
higher latitudes.
Dry deserts are found round both tropics in the
centre and west of the continents. In the case of
some, as, for example, the desert of Sahara in Africa,
or the Australian deserts, the winds blow from cooler
to warmer regions and mainly over land. They there-
fore contain little moisture, and do not readily part
with what they have. Other deserts, like Tarym and
Gobi in Asia, are surrounded by mountains which
arrest the rain.
Temperate coastal regions, in latitudes higher than
about 40°-45°, where westerly storm-winds prevail,
have rain at all seasons, but especially in winter,
when the winds are strongest and the land towards
which they blow is coldest.
Regions like the Mediterranean, California, central
Chile, the south-west of Cape Colony and of Western
Australia and Victoria, lie in the dry area in summer,
and in the moist west-wind area in winter. The


ZONES OF LIFE.
25
combination of mild wet winters and hot dry summers
leads to very special economic characteristics.
Up to a certain height, which varies in different
parts of the world, mountains receive more rain than
the lands at their base. A cloud-belt is found girdling
most lofty mountains, in which it is always damp.
Above this belt the precipitation steadily diminishes.
C Η Α Ρ Τ Ε R ΙΙΙ.
ZONES OF LIFE.
CORRESPONDING to the climatic belts are equally well-
defined zones of plant and animal life, for climate
controls the great divisions, while differences of soil
determine merely secondary divisions, of the world
of life.
Tundra.—The surface of parts of the frozen deserts
thaws in summer. Water accumulates in the hollows,
forming a marshy land known as the tundra. Rein-
deer moss, the food of the reindeer, is the only plant
of economic importance. The dog and the reindeer
have been domesticated by the inhabitants, who are
partly pastoral, and partly hunters and fishers. They
wander northwards in summer, and southwards in
winter, towards the confines of the forest, to hunt
fur-bearing animals such as the sable and the lynx,
or larger game such as the stag and the elk.
Temperate Forests.-Except where the rainfall is
too small, the cool belt is forested. The forest belt
stretches across the northern hemisphere between
50° and 60° N., in eastern Asia crossing the arctic


26
ZONES OF LIFE.
circle, in central Asia having its southern limit at
55° N. In the east both of the Old and New Worlds
it skirts the coast, and gradually becomes more and
more tropical in character. In the southern hemi-
sphere, Tasmania, New Zealand, and southern Chile
are covered with temperate woods. The trees are
conifers in drier or colder regions, and deciduous in
wetter or warmer regions. Conifers predominate on
the polar border of the forest, the interior, and the
upper mountain-slopes; deciduous trees on the equa-
torial border and nearer the coasts. Many of the
trees yield excellent timber. Among the pines, white,
yellow, and red woods, and pitch-pine from the North
American or European forests, are more used in
buildings than any other wood. Conifers also yield
resin and turpentine. The chief deciduous trees are
the oak, beech, ash, walnut, maple, and hickory.
Clearings in Temperate Forests.—Much of the agri-
cultural land of temperate regions is found where
forests have been cleared, as in our own islands
and most of western Europe. On the equatorial and
oceanic borders of the temperate forests the hardier
cereals flourish, such as oats, rye, barley, and wheat.
Of these the hardiest is barley, which grows both
farther north and farther south than the others.
Oats and rye grow best in the cooler, wheat in the
warmer areas of this belt, which afford the warm and
comparatively dry summers necessary for ripening
that grain. Potatoes, turnips, and beet are the chief
root-crops, and flax and hemp the principal indus-
trial plants. All kinds of vegetables, such as carrots,
onions, peas, beans, cabbage, &c., are successfully cul-
tivated. Fruit-trees do best in regions where the


ZONES OF LIFE.
27
summers are late and the early part of autumn is dry.
The chief fruits are the cherry, apple, pear, and plum;
the gooseberry, raspberry, blackberry, and currant;
and smaller plants, such as the strawberry.
Rich grasses, which yield excellent hay, are among
the most important temperate crops. On the plains
they grow luxuriantly in meadows near the streains,
and in the troughs of the valleys. Grasses also
clothe the upper slopes of mountains above the tree-
limit, and below the more barren area in which heather
and bracken are interspersed with peat-bogs. Sheep
thrive especially well on mountain and upland pas-
tures, but are also kept in lowland meadows. Cattle
and horses do better on lowland pastures. Pigs,
poultry, and other animals are also domesticated in
many parts. Few wild animals still remain in the
forests of the settled region. Stags, foxes, and fur-
bearing animals are hunted in the wilder parts.
The south temperate forests are denser than the
northern ones, which they resemble in most charac-
teristics. They cover a much smaller arca, and have
been exploited only in comparatively recent times.
Fruits, timber, and, in the case of New Zealand, gum
from the Kauri pine are the chief economic products
of regions still forested, and sheep of the grass-lands.
The north temperate forests and their clearings are
thus self-supporting regions, supplying all the needs of
life. The uncleared forests have but few inhabitants.
The clearings support a great number, in some of the
richer agricultural lands more than two hundred per
square mile. On the whole the density increases from
pole to equator, and from the interior towards the
coast.


28
ZONES OF LIFE.
Steppes or Temperate Grass-lands. – Grass-lands
cover vast areas on the equatorial side of the tem-
perate forests. In the Old World they extend from
Hungary to Manchuria, between 35° and 50°, occa-
sionally reaching as far north as 55° N. In the New
World they lie between the Mississippi and the Rocky
Mountains south of 55° N., and also cover much of the
land east of the Andes and south of the Plate estuary.
The steppes have scorching summers and severe
winters, with relatively little rain, which falls only in
summer. The grass rushes up in the spring to more
than a man's height, and is shirivelled up and often
burned before winter. The most fertile tracts of
steppe-land are on the forest side. The equatorial
side of the steppe gradually merges in the desert.
The steppes support innumerable flocks and herds,
sheep and goats, cattle and horses, and, on the confines
of the desert, camels. Milk, cheese, and wool are the
chief products of commercial value, in exchange for
which the steppe-dwellers, who are nomadic or semi-
nomadic in the Old World, obtain tea and such
manufactured articles as they require.
The steppes lend themselves readily to economic
development. The constant decay of successive crops
of grass forms an abundant supply of rich vegetable
mould, which renders the soil exceedingly fertile.
Where the rainfall is sufficient and the inhabitants
have enough skill and energy to engage in agricul-
ture, heavy crops can be obtained. The wheat of
Hungary and southern Russia, and of the Dakotas and
Manitoba, is grown on steppe-land. As the virgin soil
becomes exhausted, rotation of crops is introduced, and
inixed farming and stock-rearing are also carried on.


ZONES OF LIFE.
29
With the spread of agriculture the density of popula-
tion increases, and with it commercial possibilities.
The farmers of the steppe find it profitable to grow
grain for the market as well as for home consumption,
and the development of steppe cultivation has been
rapid since modern means of communication provided
a cheap ready means of placing produce on the
market.
Warm Temperate Forests with Winter Rains.—The
Mediterranean type of climate-hot dry summers and
mild winters, with the heaviest rain early and late in
the season-gives rise to a Mediterranean type of
vegetation, whose distribution has already been noted
(see page 24). The resting period of this vegetation
is not in winter, as in our own country, but during the
dry summer. The leaves of most plants are tough and
evergreen, and thorny aromatic plants abound. Cork
and evergreen oaks, cedar, and pines of various species
are valuable either for their bark or timber; the mul-
berry is grown for its leaves, on which the silkworm
feeds; and a very large number of fruits, which the
dry, warm summer brings to perfection, are cultivated.
Among these are the chestnut, walnut, acorn (furnish-
ing valonia), carob (furnishing the locust-pod), olive,
orange, lemon, fig, pomegranate, almond, apricot, and
peach; but the most important of all is the vine.
Barley and wheat are cultivated, but are not suited
to the climate so well as maize. Even rice can be
grown in the well-watered alluvial river flood-plains
and deltas.
Except on the mountain-sides, grass requires careful
irrigation. Sheep are driven to the mountains in
summer, and to the plains in winter, Cattle, which


30
ZONES OF LIFE.
are not numerous, are used as draught animals rather
than for supplying milk. Goats and donkeys are
proportionally more numerous, and horses less so, than
in the forest clearings. In general, animals which
live in drier conditions and need less succulent food
are more numerous.
The valleys and coasts are agricultural; the moun-
tains and plateaus are pastoral. The former are
densely, the latter sparsely peopled. Commerce is
chiefly in agricultural produce, such as the olive, the
orange, and the produce of the vine, which are much
in demand, and which require climatic conditions
found only in a relatively limited area.
Warm Temperate forests with Summer Rains.—The
warm temperate forest regions have a dry and cool or
cold winter, which forms a resting period. They cover
the eastern portions of the continents on the polar
sides of the tropics to about forty degrees, and are
in the monsoonal rainy regions north of the tropics
in Asia, and in the normal trade-wind rainy regions
elsewhere.
The great heat and moisture of summer promote the
rapid growth of plants, whose leaves, many of which
are evergreen, and timber are on the whole more
valuable than their fruits; although fruits, especially
of a succulent sort, are common. Rice, the most
important cereal, is grown on all low-lying lands that
can be fooded. Inferior varieties flourish on terraced
mountain-sides. Wheat and millet are both cultivated.
All kinds of citrons—oranges, lemons, &c.—flourish.
Mulberries, many of which are planted as shade-trees,
feed large numbers of silkworms. Tea is the charac-
teristic plant of eastern Aşią. It has been grown


ZONES OF LIFE.
31
with success in Natal, and could probably be cultivated
in other regions with a similar climate. In South
America it is replaced by maté, or Paraguay tea.
Many valuable timber-trees are used locally. Cedars
are imported from North America for making pencils,
and Eucalyptus from Australia for paving. Tur-
pentine is obtained from the pines of the eastern
United States. The bamboo can be used for food,
for clothing, for building, for drainage, and indeed
for almost every conceivable purpose. Eucalyptus,
castor-oil, and croton trees yield oil. Hemp is grown
both for oil and fibres. Cotton, by far the most
important textile plant, flourishes in this region,
especially in North America, where the sea-island
variety of the coastal swamps is long, strong, and
fine. The ramio or China grass, a great nettle, yields
what is perhaps the silkiest and strongest of vege-
table fibres, and one which will be used more and
more is improvements are made in the processes of
preparing it for spinning. In China a laurel is used
for making paper, and ginseng, opium, and other
drugs aro cultivated, as well as tobacco, which is
grown in all parts. Many of these plants require
careful cultivntion. Agriculturo is more carefully
and laboriously carried on in eastern Asia than any-
where elso in the world. The flood-plains and
deltas of the great rivers II wang and Yangtse are
naturally very fertile, and the crops are greatly in-
creased by elaborato methods of irrigation. Domestic
animals are few, the pig, dog, and poultry being the
most important. Population is very denso; in many
provinces of China the number is over four hundred
to the square mile. Notwithstanding this density, the


32.
ZONES OF LIFE.
methods employed in manufactures are of an anti-
quated type.
The North and South American, South African, and
Australian regions of this character are not nearly
so thickly peopled, but in comparison with regions
farther west in the same latitudes the population is
dense. Most of the more laborious work is done by
negroes, Indian coolies, or Polynesians, under Euro-
pean overseers. The higher lands, where the more
temperate climate is suited to vegetation belonging to
higher latitudes, especially in the lee of the moun-
tains where the rainfall is lower, can be cultivated
by Europeans.
The Dry Deserts are deserts for want of rain, and not
from natural infertility. On the contrary, the soil is
exceedingly fertile wherever irrigation is possible. The
growth of date-palms, vegetables, cereals (maize, wheat,
and millet), and pulses is restricted to the few oases,
whither water is carried underground from some wadi,
or where a spring exists. Acacias and other gum-
yielding trees, frankincense, myrrh, and other spices
grow in specially favoured spots. The richest lands
are those where water is available, as, for instance,
along the Nile or Euphrates; or where artesian wells
have been sunk, as in southern Algeria, western Queens-
land, and parts of the western United States near the
poorer grass-lands. Cotton, pulses, and cereals are
among the products of Egypt, Turan, and Mesopo-
tamia. In irrigated regions, such as Mildura and
Renmark in Australia, fruits of all kinds flourish,
more particularly Mediterranean species.
The desert is very sparsely inhabited. On the
poor pastures at its edge goats and camels are kept.


ZONES OF LIFE.
33
In the desert itself caravan-driving is the chief occu-
pation of all who are not settled in the cases.
Gums, dates, and hides are the chief products, but
commerce will long be small except in the favoured
strips of fertile land flooded by the great rivers.
Savanas or Tropical Grass-lands.— On the equatorial
side of the deserts, where the single rainy season of
summer becomes marked, vegetation increases, and
rich grass-lands intersected by tree-bordered streams
predominate. These are savanas, which are distin-
guished from steppes by having hot instead of cold
winters. Savanas are also found throughout inter-
tropical lands above the lowlands. They can be traced
in Central America and in the West Indies, in the
llanos, campos, and catingas of South America, and
also in the northern part of the pampas. They form a
complete ring outside the Congo basin and the Kala-
hari Desert in Africa, which has therefore a certain
unity from the southern veld to the park-lands of
Uganda and the Senegal. Tropical grass-lands are
also found in southern Asia and Persia, in the Deccan,
on the uplands of the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago,
and in the northern part of Australia.
In Africa herds of big game still wander about many
parts of the savana, but the cattle-keeping races are
gradually encroaching from both north and south.
In America and Australia stock-farmers occupy many
thousand square miles. The first step towards the ex-
ploitation of the savanas is the keeping of sheep and
goats on the drier, and of cattle on the wetter parts.
This will probably always be the most important occu-
pation on the fringe of savana nearest to the desert.
The savana, however, on the other side gradually
Coin. Geog. 2


84
ZONES OF LIFE.
passes into dense tropical forest. This richer region
is capable of very intense cultivation, and is already
cultivated by the native tribes. Banana palms and
coffee shrubs are the typical economic plants. Millet,
and in Africa maize, on the higher lands, rice on the
moister lowlands, especially of the East Indies, sugar-
cane in all parts, and cotton are the chief crops.
Coffee is widely grown.
Europeans cannot endure hard manual work in
tropical savana and forest lands without suffering
greatly in health, and hard work is at present left,
and probably will long be, to the native races. The
economic possibilities of those lands are great, but as
yet they are comparatively little developed.
The Equatorial Forests are always hot and moist.
Rain falls at most seasons, but most abundantly when
the noonday sun is overhead. Equatorial forests of
the densest description cover the lowlands within
fifteen degrees of the equator, and near the east
coast extend to higher latitudes. They contain many
valuable timber-trees, such as mahogany, ebony, and
ironwood. The oil-palm is the most important tree
in the African region. The coco-nut palm flourishes
round the coast, especially of coral islands. Its dried
kernels form the copra of commerce. The sago-
palm is characteristic of the Malayan region, and
mandioca or manioc, from which tapioca is made, of
the South American one. Rubber and caoutchouc are
tapped from innumerable lianas that wind about the .
forest-trees. Spices abound, such as cloves in Zanzi-
bar and Pemba, and allspice, nutmeg, and cinnamon in
the Moluccas and other eastern islands. The banana
grows rapidly from cuttings planted in forest clearings.


ZONES OF LIFE.
35
Coffee and cacao flourish on the hill-slopes, the latter
at higher elevations than the former. Neither can
stand frost, and both require much heat, but are
usually protected from direct sunshine by planting
shade-yielding trees. Coffee is widely distributed, and
may be grown throughout the forest and savana areas
where sufficiently moist. Cacao, while cultivated a
little in Ceylon and Java, is grown mainly in the
West Indies (especially Trinidad) and Central and
South America. Cotton and sugar-cane are important
crops on the lowlands.
The unhealthiness of the tropical forests is the chief
drawback to their exploitation. When first cleared
the forest becomes even more unhealthy than before,
but afterwards grows less noxious. Even the scanty
inhabitants are not proof against the climate.
Ivory, long the chief trade in the African forests, is
still playing a great part in the opening up of the
Congo, and is inextricably associated with the slave-
trade, which is not yet quite suppressed in Central
Africa.
The resources of the vast intertropical regions are
as yet hardly tapped, and constitute a most valuable
reserve which will be exploited as means of transport
are improved, routes are opened up, and the pressure
of economic needs becomes greater.*
* See Commercial Geography of the British Isles, Chaps. VI. and
VII., where the distribution of economic products imported into
Great Britain is given under each product.


36
MINERALS,
CHAPTER IV.
MINERALS.
The distribution of minerals cannot, like that of vege-
tation, be considered in a series of zones.
Coal, the only important mineral of organic origin,
is very widely distributed, but is not at present found
or used in any quantity between the tropics. This
may be explained partly by our ignorance of the
mineral wealth of many tropical lands, and it may
also be that equatorial conditions do not favour the
production of coal, which is composed of highly com-
pressed vegetation, reduced to almost pure carbon by
the removal of most of the oxygen and other gases, as
well as of the water. At present most coal is worked
between 35° and 57° N. in the United States, the
United Kingdom, and the German Empire, but coal-
mining is becoming increasingly important in all parts
of the world, from Spitsbergen to New Zealand, from
China to Chile, and from Klondike to Natal. Three
kinds of coal are found_common black or bituminous
coal, anthracite, and brown coal or lignite. Anthracite
gives off no flame when it burns, most of the inflam-
mable gases having been distilled from it. When this
process is carried still further, graphite (plumbago or
black-lead) is formed, which is plentiful in Siberia
and Ceylon. Brown coal or lignite is vegetation less
consolidated than in coal. Peat is a carbonised mix-
ture of marsh plants.
Petroleum, mineral or rock oil, is formed by the slow
distillation of organic matter in the rocks. In some


MINERALS.
37
places this rises to the surface; elsewhere it forms
reservoirs, which can be pumped to the surface by
boring the overlying strata. It is abundant in Pennsyl-
vania and surrounding states in North America, the
eastern Caucasus, Galicia, Hungary, Romania, Burma,
Sumatra, Japan, Peru, and many other localities.
Paraffin-oil and wax are extracted from bituminous
shales in Scotland, France, and New South Wales.
Asphalt, or pitch, found in the Pitch Lake, Trinidad,
as well as near the Dead Sea and in several parts
of Europe, is used for paving and as a damp-proof
material. The Val de Travers asphalt; extensively
used for paving, is a bituminous limestone found in
Switzerland.
A large number of the rocks composing the earth's
surface are used as building-stones, especially those
which are durable and easily quarried. Soft clays
are fired into bricks. Clays of special fineness are
used for making porcelain—e.g. kaolin, a decomposed
granite.
Common Salt (sodium chloride) is found as a solid on
parts of the surface of the land, and in solution in sea-
water, from which it is extracted by evaporation, or, in
very cold regions, by freezing. It is the only mineral
used as food, and is so valuable that in some countries
it is made a government monopoly—e.g. in India. In
a solid form it is found (a) efflorescent in dry regions
such as the salt deserts of Iran or Turan, or of the Great
Basin of the North American Cordilleras, and round
lakes with no outlet, where evaporation is at least as
rapid as the inflow of fresh water, such as Lake Eyre
in Australia ; (b) as rock-salt, usually accompanied by
sulphate of lime, especially in triassic rock, as in the


38
MINERALS.
Salt Range of India, so called from its deposits of salt;
and (c) in underground deposits, from which it is ob-
tained by pumping water into a small mine, allowing
it to become saturated, and then pumping it out and
evaporating it. Brine-springs are found in many
parts. The older rocks contain no salt, the original
deposits having probably been washed out in the
course of ages. In much of Africa it is practically
non-existent, and is so valuable as to be used for
money.
The metals, the most valuable of the minerals, are
found mainly in igneous and crystalline rocks, unlike
the preceding, which are found in stratified rocks.
Most metals are found as ores, either pure or in
combination with others. They occur (a) in regions
which have been disturbed by crustal movements, the
veins of ore lying in fissures in which it was deposited
in solution ; (b) in volcanic regions. They are rare in
undisturbed rocks, and consequently the great alluvial
plains of the world are poor in minerals.
Iron, by far the most important metal, is very widely
distributed in different forms. The black or magnetic
oxide, which is richest in iron, is found in central and
northern Sweden, the Urals, Canada, Pennsylvania;
red hæmatite, consisting of more than two-thirds of
iron, is found as kidney ore in the north of Spain, in
the Furness district of Lancashire, and as crystalline
specular ore in the island of Elba. Brown hæmatite
is similar in composition to the red, with a larger pro-
portion of water, and is the most important ore of
South Wales, Antrim, France, and Germany. Spathic
iron ore, a carbonate of iron, forms the famous iron
mountains, the Erzberg, in Styria. The same carbonate


MINERALS.
39
in an impure form occurs in the clayband and black-
band ironstones common in Britain.
The ironfields most worked are either near coal, as
in Britain and Pennsylvania, or near the sea, by which
ore can be cheaply transported to coal, as in Spain and
Sweden.
Tin is less liable to decompose than iron, and is there-
fore largely used for covering iron to form tin-plate.
Tinstone (or cassiterite, a binoxide of tin) is found
abundantly in the Malay Peninsula and islands, and
in Australia, Tasmania, and Bolivia.
Copper is rapidly growing in importance with the
developments of electricity, as it forms an admirable
conductor. The pure metal is found in Russia and
near Lake Superior. There are numerous ores, which
are mined in south-west Spain, Germany, the United
States, Mexico, Chile, South Africa, South Australia,
and Japan.
Zinc is a bluish-white metal used for plumbing and
other purposes, and, in combination with copper, for
making brass. It is found as blende (sulphide of zinc)
in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Aus-
tralia, and as calamine (carbonate of zinc) on the
borders of Belgium and Prussia, in Upper Silesia,
northern Spain, and the United States.
Nickel is a bright metal which possesses great
strength and malleability, and does not readily tarnish.
It is alloyed with steel to strengthen it, and many
articles are nickel-plated to preserve them from rust.
It is found in combination with magnesia in New
Caledonia, and in combination with copper pyrites
near Lake Superior.
Manganese is chiefly found as black manganese, a


MINERALS.
binoxide. It is used to colour glass purple, and as an
alloy in making strong steel.
Aluminium is light, very strong and hard, and always
remains white. In recent years it has been much used
in making torpedo-boats and bicycles. It is usually
obtained by electrolysis from a clay called bauxite,
found at Baux in France, and in the north of Ireland,
or from cryolite, a mineral found in Greenland; the
electric power being often derived from waterfalls,
such as those of Niagara, Schaffhausen, and Foyers.
Lead, chiefly used for plumbing purposes, is ex-
tracted from galena (the sulphide), which is usually
associated with some other metal, often silver, which
it also pays to extract. Galena is found in most
countries with old rocks, and is extensively produced
in the United States, Spain, Germany, Mexico, Aus-
tralia, and the United Kingdom.
Mercury is a liquid metal greatly used for making
amalgams of other metals. It is found as cinnabar
(the sulphide), from which vermilion is obtained, at
New Almaden in California, Almaden in Spain, and
Idria in Austria. It is much used in modern gold-
mining and in medicine.
Silver is very ductile and malleable, and takes a
beautiful polish. It is much used for table articles,
ornaments, and coins, as well as for electro-plating,
but it tarnishes very readily in the presence of even
minute quantities of sulphur.
Native silver is found in Nevada, Mexico, Peru, and
Chile, and at Kongsberg in Norway. Half the silver
annually produced is obtained from silver-lead ores.
The number of ores containing a sufficient propor-
tion of silver, especially in the form of sulphides and


MINERALS,
41
chlorides, to repay extraction is great. The world
supply of silver has greatly increased in the past
half-century.
Gold is heavy, ductile, constant in colour, and so
malleable that it can be beaten out into leaves 750000
of an inch thick. It is used for coins, for plating all
kinds of ornaments, and for gilding. It is found in
all rocks in all lands, in rivers, glacial and sea sands
and gravels, as well as in the ocean waters. The
alluvial or placer' gold is isolated by a series of
washings, which float off the lighter materials, leaving
the heavier gold as a residuum. In recent years much
gold has been obtained from quartz-veins. In regions
where means of transport are well developed it is
profitable to extract the gold when an ounce can be
obtained from a ton of quartz. This is done by
crushing the ore, then washing it like alluvial gold,
or extracting it by amalgamation.
Gold is abundant, and very widely distributed. It
is exceptionally abundant in the western Cordilleras
of North America, in the mountains east and south of
Siberia, in South Africa, in Australia, the Urals, and
Hungary.
After the exhaustion of the then known placer-
mines, the annual production of gold sank in 1881-90
to about £22,000,000 per annum. Since 1890 it has
risen again, and the mean for the five years 1897–1901
was £56,120,000.
Platinum, the third heaviest metal, resembles gold
in most of its properties. It is much rarer, and is
principally obtained from the Urals. It is used for
making chemical and electrical apparatus and in
photography.


MANUFACTURING AREAS
CHAPTER V.
MANUFACTURING AREAS.
Some kind of manufacture is carried on by almost
every people, and among many a special taste and
skill are developed which give their work local or
even world-wide fame. Thus China has become
noted for its silks, embroidery, pottery, &c.; Japan
for beautiful textiles and pictures, pottery, lacquer,
and bric-à-brac of all kinds; India for finely carved
ivory, rich inlays, brass-work, and fine textiles, such
as the world-famous shawls of Kashmir. The work
is manufactured in a literal sense—that is to say,
made by hand, with a care and skill which gives
it great beauty and durability. The increased
demand which results from the opening of foreign
markets has led to greatly increased production at
the expense of quality, and to the degeneration of
once artistic manufactures.
In the Western industrial world manufacturing has
come to mean making by machinery, which at the
present time is generally driven by steam. A machine
turns out with great rapidity a large number of articles,
which, however, are inferior in durability, and are
marked by a uniformity which is inferior in artistic
value, to the variety introduced by the living hand.
This monotonous uniformity may perhaps become
less universal if the more general use of electricity
leads to the setting up of small motors to do the
necessary mechanical work for the master crafts-


MANUFACTURING AREAS.
43
man, who nevertheless personally inspires and directs
every operation.
At the present time it is roughly true that
Asia produces handwork, but is in a state of tran-
sition, and that Europe and North America are
in the mechanical stage. In the other continents
the manufactures are not yet of much commercial
importance.
The distribution of manufacturing areas, in the
narrower sense, depends on a variety of conditions,
of which the chief are: (1) easy access to raw
material, which may be either (a) locally produced
or (6) readily and cheaply obtainable ; (2) available
source of power, of which the commonest are
(a) coal, for supplying steam-power, or (b) water,
for supplying water or electric power; (3) abundant
and not too costly labour; (4) ready access to markets,
which may be (a) home or (b) foreign, or both. Of
these conditions the second is the most essential, it
being generally less costly and difficult to bring
raw material to the source of power than to bring
the source of power to raw material. Where all
the conditions are fulfilled, as in our own island
country, the industrial outlook is in the highest
degree favourable.
Up to the present time it has been commonly
stated that the presence of coal is the first essential
for industrial development. In this rough generali-
sation there is much truth, as may be seen by
considering the relation between the distribution of
manufactures and the distribution of coalfields. In
the case of Britain this has already been described
(Commerciul Geography of the British Isles, Chap. IV.).


MANUFACTURING AREAS.
The Franco-Belgian coalfield supplies fuel for the
woollen, linen, glass, and steel factories of north-
east France and Belgium. The Westphalian field
yields coal for the iron, cotton, and silk manufactures
carried on east of the Rhine, and for the woollen
manufactures carried on west of that river. The
Saxon, Silesian, Polish, and south Russian coalfields
all produce coal which is applied to industrial pur-
poses. Cotton, woollen, and linen are the chief
textiles manufactured, and iron is the chief mineral
industry.
Similarly, in the eastern United States, the Appa-
lachian coalfield supports Pittsburg and many other
manufacturing centres. There are, however, a great
number of manufacturing centres which depend not
on abundant coal, but on abundant water-power, which
at the present time is chiefly used for generating
electricity, the motive-power of the future. In
Europe the best example is Switzerland, where coal
is absent and water-power is abundant. In the
United States the presence of coal has created the
Allegheny industrial region. Water-power, on the
other hand, in the New England Highlands and also
along what is known as the Appalachian fall-line,
has determined the site of the New England textile
towns and the rapidly growing cotton-factories of the
cotton-growing states.


TRANSPORT
CHAPTER V I.
TRANSPORT.
HITHERTO we have but incidentally referred to the
movement of produce from place to place. The study
of this movement constitutes that branch of economic
geography which is properly termed commercial geog-
raphy, and forms its most dramatic chapter. This
movement is partly determined by human needs and
partly by facilities of transport. The development of
transport enlarges the supplies and desires of man, so
that we may say that as a rule increase of commerce
and development of easy means of communication
proceed hand in hand.
The means of transportation are very numerous,
and differ in different parts of the globe. The chief
methods are (1) porters; (2) baggage-animals; (3)
draught animals; (4) mechanical propulsion, utilising
(a) wind and current, (b) steam-power or other source
of energy depending upon heat, or (c) electric energy.
Human beings are the most expensive agents of
transportation, as they inust not merely be fed, but in
most cases paid as well, while their carrying power
is relatively small. Human transport cannot be
employed unless the route lies through fertile regions,
where food is easily obtained, for a porter cannot
carry his food as well as his load for any length of
time. It is resorted to chiefly where no roads but
footpaths exist, or under such special conditions as
those in intertropical Africa, where the tsetse fly is
a fatal enemy to horses and cattle.


TRANSPORT.
The use of pack-animals, though more satisfactory,
leaves much to be desired, both in the weight carried
and the cost of transporting it. The food problem
becomes an important one, especially in infertile
regions. Narrow tracks are the characteristic road-
ways of regions where pack-animals are used, and this
mode of transport is commonest in mountainous or
densely wooded countries.
Among the animals used for carrying baggage are
the yak in the cold snowy regions of Tibet; the
llama in the Andes; the camel across the arid
desert and the poor steppes which border it; the
horse, mule, or donkey mainly in temperate lands.
With the introduction of a wagon which can be
drawn, the transporting power of animals becomes
very much greater, but the quantity which can be
carried and the rate of transport largely depend on
the nature of the roads. Over the roadless karroos of
South Africa the ox-wagon is the chief means of
transport beyond the railway; but in countries where
roads exist horses are most commonly employed for
haulage.
In the nineteenth century mechanical traction by
means of steam-engines was gradually extended over
great areas, chiefly in the temperate zone. This has
proved a cheaper and more rapid means of transport
on land than any other. The chief disadvantage is
the preliminary outlay involved in surveying and
constructing a carefully made permanent way with
slight gradients. Expensive engineering works have
been necessary, especially in mountainous districts,
where innumerable ravines have to be bridged, and
where the road has often to be tunnelled for long


TRANSPORT.
47
distances through the solid rock. Europe and North
America are now traversed by many lines of railway,
and India, Japan, and the southern temperate lands
have been opened up by them. The building of trans-
continental lines has been of great economic import-
ance. The first across America, the Union Pacific,
was opened in 1869, the Canadian Pacific in 1885, and
with the dawn of the twentieth century the Siberian
Railway began to convey passengers across Eurasia
from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
The use of electric and other motors is rapidly
extending, and tends to replace horse haulage in streets
and on roads.
A similar revolution has taken place in facilities
of transport by water. A fertile country with a
navigable river has always had the advantage of
possessing a great natural route. On large rivers, the
current can be utilised in descending, but oars and
sails, and haulage by men or animals, are still used to
propel boats up-stream. On the Amazon the constant
up-stream wind blows the craft up the river. On
the Yangtse-kiang the boats are hauled up the rapids
above Ichang
The advantage of water transport is great, for much
larger quantities can be carried in boats than in
wagons. This has led to the construction of canals
for navigation, of which the Imperial Canal of China,
seven hundred miles long, constructed in the seventh
century, is one of the most remarkable. Canals must
be level, and until locks were invented in the
fifteenth century, they could not be built across very
uneven ground without immense excavations. Just
before the introduction of railways the canal system


TRANSPORT.
was rapidly extended in our country to facilitate the
transport of passengers and goods. Canals are greatly
used for inland navigation, especially on the Continent,
at the present day; and it is a matter of national
importance that our canal system should be reorganised
and extended.
The most recent developments of canals are con-
nected with ocean navigation, and consist of (a)
isthmian canals and (b) inland canals. The isthmian
canals have been cut to save long detours, and are
large enough to permit great ocean steamers to pass
through them. The most famous is that of Suez, one
hundred miles long, which shortens the journey from
England to Bombay by sea by some 4500 miles.
Smaller ones cross the isthmus of Corinth and that
at the south of Schleswig-Holstein. The central
American isthmus will be cut for a canal at Panamá
or at Nicaragua, and perhaps at both places. A ship-
canal should be cut across the isthmus between the
Forth and Clyde to permit more direct communication
between many North Sea and all Baltic ports and the
ports of the northern United States and southern
Canada. The isthmus of Kra will perhaps be pierced
to shorten the sea-route from India to the Far East.
The inland canals are too numerous to mention in
detail. A simple form of canalisation is to dredge a
river and regulate its outflow by dikes. Glasgow
was thus converted into a port. In recent years
canals have been excavated across the land to make
Manchester a seaport, to permit large vessels to pass
directly to Amsterdam from the North Sea at
Ijmuiden, and to avoid Niagara Falls and other
obstacles on the St Lawrence system of waterways,


TRANSPORT.
the most remarkable inland navigable tract in the
world.
Coasting traffic has been important from the earliest
historic times in the eastern Mediterranean and south-
eastern Asia. Oars and sails were used before the
application of the steam-engine to the propulsion of
vessels revolutionised navigation. Larger and larger
ships are now being built, and the speed of many
of these great vessels is marvellous. The quicker
Atlantic liners travel over twenty-three sea-miles per
hour. Steamers ply between the chief ports of the
world, and have largely replaced sailing-vessels.
For the development of over-sea commerce proper
land communications are necessary. (1) There must
he harbours where vessels can easily and safely load
and unload. These may be natural or artificial. Of
the natural harbours, landlocked inlets, island-pro-
tected shores, and river estuaries are the most im-
portant. The last are exceptionally valuable where
the tide regularly rises and falls and permits vessels to
sail some distance inland. (2) Behind the harbours
must be a productive land. Many of the finest natural
harbours in the world, especially on fiord coasts, are of
no economic value at present, owing to their having
no economic hinderland, except where minerals exist
in the mountains which rise above them. The
economic value of many hinderlands will rise in
value with the increased use of water-power for
generating electricity. Harbours where the hinder-
land is a fertile alluvial plain (e.g. Tientsin), a great
river-basin where the chief streams are navigable
(Rotterdam, Le Havre), or a busy industrial region
(Liverpool), are the most important,
Com. Geog. ?


50
TRANSPORT.
The importance of a particular port may wax or
wane. We have already mentioned the tendency for
the port to be located as near the heart of the indus-
trial region as possible (e.g. Manchester, Houston in
Texas, Montreal, Duluth, or Chicago replacing Quebec),
so as to take the utmost advantage of the cheaper
and more commodious ship transport. The other
change is the rise of ports as near the land's end as
possible (Le Havre, Rimouski) for the transference
of passengers, mails, and goods which require to be
transported with the maximum speed.
The economic conditions of the world to-day present
a great contrast to those of a century ago, owing to
the marvellous expansion of cheap and rapid means
of communication. In the past, as in some parts of
the world at the present, facilities of communication
could scarcely be said to exist. Transport was slow,
difficult, and dear. It costs 10d. per ton per mile to
transport coal on the backs of donkeys in north-east
China. Mr Chisholm states that before the opening of
the railway it cost nearly 2{d. per ton per mile to carry
coal from Kilmarnock to Troon or Irvine in carts; and
that it costs from d. to 1d. per ton per mile to carry
coal by train in England, and very much less in the
United States. It costs only about d. per ton per
mile to carry building-stone across the Atlantic.
This cheapening of transport has revolutionised the
commerce of the world. In olden times it was not
possible to obtain any articles from distant places
except those whose intrinsic value was high relatively
to their bulk. Thus precious stones, silks, and spices
were brought from the East, and gave rise to those
exaggerated ideas of the wealth of the Indies, which


TRANSPORT.
stimulated the great discoverers of new routes over-
seas. Now food-stuffs, raw materials such as wool,
and minerals such as coal and iron ore, of relatively
little value per unit mass, are freely transported.
Another stage in the growth of commercial relations
between the most distant parts of the Earth has
resulted from the introduction of methods of pre-
serving perishable goods, by refrigeration, rarefac-
tion, &c. This has greatly increased the available
food-supply of densely peopled industrial regions
dependent on outside sources for sustenance, and per-
mitted their continuous expansion. It has also led
to a growth of trade between tropical and temperate
lands which is of great economic significance. The
moist tropical regions so prolific of plant life may be
made to yield a food-supply immeasurably greater
than required by the present population of the world,
especially if, as some authorities predict, sugar-yield-
ing foods obtained from fruits gradually become of
greater importance than starch-yielding foods derived
from cereals, obtained mainly from temperate regions.
The interdependence of mankind has been greatly
increased by the development of transport facilities.
The intercourse of mankind has also been promoted,
not merely by the transference of material com-
modities, but through the interchange of ideas
by means of the telegraph and the telephone,
which permit almost instantaneous communication
of thought. Wires connect all the great centres
of the world, many passing along the beds of
the oceans; and at the beginning of the twentieth
century new inventions have made it feasible to trans-
mit words over immense distances without wires.
nect all along the tw


52
ECONOMIC MAN.
CHAPTER VII.
ECONOMIC MAN.
Man as a Producer of Wealth.-In the first four
chapters the fundamental distributions with which
man has to deal were discussed. In many regions
man can live on the spontaneous productions of the
earth; but where he relies on these alone, where
only hunters and fishers live, the population is
scanty. Man must produce as well as destroy, and
the modern economic world, with which we have to
deal in this book, is composed mainly of producers
of wealth. Breeders of stock and cultivators of the
ground use the reproductive powers of animals and
plants to replenish and increase their stock and pro-
duce. They are limited in their distribution by the
climate and life-zones described in Chapters II.
and III. The manufacturer elaborates crude pro-
ducts into more useful articles. Without easy trans-
port his sphere of influence is local; but with the
use of mechanical power in manufacture and trans-
port it may become world-wide.
A volume could profitably be written on the subject
of this chapter, a subject not sufficiently considered in
many courses on commercial geography. Only three
aspects of it can be examined here, and these in the
briefest way: (1) the effect of material surroundings
on the intensity of man's work ; (2) the influence of
man's thought and ingenuity in increasing his pro-
ductive powers; and (3) the effect of human associa-
tions in promoting and hindering economic, and
especially commercial, expansion,


ECONOMIC MAN.
(1) Varying Intensity of Human Activity due to
Material Surroundings. — In calculating the cost of
production the intensity of human activity, manual
and mental, must be taken into account. Climate
and food are two of the most important factors.
Education we will consider under another heading.
The efficiency of the negro in Africa is much
less than that of the white man in Europe. This
is not merely a matter of racial difference, nor
even a matter of easy satisfaction of the essential
wants of food and shelter. The damp heat of
the equatorial jungles is extremely enervating; the
colder air of our continent is much more stimulating.
The northern races in the northern hemisphere are,
speaking generally, more energetic than the southern
ones, and this is probably due to the influence of
cold, which compels action to ensure warmth. To
the invigorating effect of winter is due the contrast
between the intense activity of the Chinaman rela-
tively to that of the Hindu, in regions where the
summer climates closely resemble each other. We
can eliminate racial differences by considering the
output of an Irish labourer at home and in the
United States; and, indeed, contrast generally the
greater initiative and energy of the North American
of the centre and east compared with his brothers
of the same stock in western Europe. It is worth
noting that the climatic conditions where the Euro-
pean stock seem to attain their most intense activity
are somewhat similar to those where the Asiatic people
are most energetic.
A sufficient supply of nourishing food is another
factor which is often neglected. The following


54
ECONOMIC MAN.
account of a contractor's experience in Jamaica is
an excellent illustration of the importance of this
factor. An American contractor building a railway
in Jamaica found Jamaica negro labour excessively
dear at one shilling a day, and that Alabama negroes
did ten times as much ; but a Jamaican negro who
secured American food increased in strength until
he was as good as the Alabama negroes (see R. T.
Hill, Cuba and Porto Rico, p. 228).
(2) Increase of Human Productive Powers due to
Increased Thought and Ingenuity.—It is less necessary
to insist on the importance of mental training for
economic progress, but it is needful to point out
that mental alertness in practical affairs is obtained
through dealing with concrete problems. A scientific
training is essential for the economic man, who has to
deal with the concrete facts of the world. The know-
ledge of natural phenomena and the development of
modern labour-saving methods have grown together.
It is unnecessary to recapitulate these advances
here—from the securing of proper shelter and food
to the latest developments of wireless telegraphy,
experiments in fertilisers of the soil, or attempts to
make unhealthy areas healthy. All have a pro-
found economic significance, commonly recognised
in the case of mechanical improvements, but too
often neglected in the case of biological advances.
We may briefly classify the more important of
these applications of human thought and ingenuity as
follows:
(a) Attempts to increase the natural productiveness
of the soil directly by improved drainage and water-
ing, food-supply (fertilisers), and the wider effects


56
ECONOMIC MAN.
regions in the days of the wandering Red Indians and
Kirghiz, but these tribes were not in a sufficiently
advanced state of civilisation to utilise them; they
have been pushed aside by a more highly developed
people who could. Of course, such changes have
taken place both in the past and in the present
without the potent aid of modern mechanical means
of transport. In Manchuria the nomadic pastoral
Manchus have given way before the industrious
Chinese farmers, who now form by far the greater
part of the population of this prosperous province.
This, however, has not affected the world's commerce
as the settlement of the plains of North America has
done. We may find the converse of this in Meso-
potamia, where a flourishing agricultural civilisation
has been overthrown by pastoral conquerors, and
a fertile land temporarily turned into a wilderness.
Retrogression is not unknown in the world's history.
In intertropical lands other aspects of recent
transformations due to the intervention of a higher
economic civilisation can be seen in parts of Africa,
where railways have been built, plantations formed,
and the fruitful land made to yield not merely
enough to supply the modest needs of the relatively
few inhabitants, but produce of many kinds sought
for by the complex civilisations of temperate lands.
The initiative and supervision in this case also have
come from Europeans or their descendants. Here
the native is not displaced, for he alone can healthily
perform the necessary manual labour; but his work
is organised by the European, who also ensures the
peace without which sound economic progress is
impossible, whether in equatorial or temperate lands.


ECONOMIC MAN.
57
Finally, we have to mention the influence of political
groupings and policies in the economic world. With
few, and these not perfect, exceptions, political boun-
daries are barriers to economic circulation—(a) through
the tariffs imposed on many commodities crossing them;
(b) through the different languages, customs, weights
and measures, and monetary systems, which in many
cases hamper exchanges. The extension of such
boundaries promotes expansion of trade. The unifi-
cation of the German Empire has been a potent
factor in its economic development. The internal
freedom of trade over an area yielding nearly every
kind of produce is of first importance in the economic
expansion of the United States of America. The
policy of Free Trade has been an important factor
in the growth of the foreign trade of the United
Kingdom to the largest in the world; and the fact
that the greater and more compact natural resources
of so vast a country as the United States will
undoubtedly in time deprive us of the first place
need not affect the bulk of our trade, nor is it an
argument against the soundness of our policy. The
ideally healthiest community from an economic point
of view is that which makes the most of its own
resources for its own wants, and permits the freest
interchange with other communities. Differences in
weights, measures, and coinages are unnecessary
restrictions; while tariffs must be regarded as tem-
porary expedients, which in some cases may promote
local economic development.


58
PART II.
REGIONAL ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY.*
CHAPTER VIII.
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA : CANADA AND
NEWFOUNDLAND.
Physical Conditions.
Configuration.—The separation of Canada from the
rest of North America is purely artificial, but a variety
of causes have combined to favour its independent
existence. The most important are the great estuary
of the St Lawrence, the Great Lakes and other navi-
gable waterways to which it is the eastern entrance,
and the fact that the rugged and forested eastern
highlands of North America south of the St Lawrence
acted, before the construction of railways, as natural
barriers, difficult to cross except by two narrow
passages up the Hudson and Potomac. Canada
consists of the St Lawrence basin, with a great
area of wooded hilly land to the north, and of vast
grassy, forested, or frozen plains to the west, whither
until recent years only the fur-trader penetrated.
Beyond the plains are the western Cordilleras, a
barrier so formidable that, before the construction
of the interoceanic Canadian Pacific Railway (C.P.R.),
* The reasons for adopting the following order in the treatment
of the Regions of the World are given in the Preface.


BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
59
communication between east and west was easier
by the long voyage round Cape Horn than over
the high passes of the Rocky Mountains and the
Selkirks.
Economically, as well as physically, Canada consists
of three great physical divisions—(1) the mountainous
west, (2) the plains of the centre, and (3) the uplands
of the east—and in each we have to distinguish be-
tween the more temperate south and the colder north.
The Western Region is a sea of mountains, forming
a great climatic barrier. Three ranges are of special
importance—the Northern or Canadian Cascades, which
border the coast and arrest much of the rain from
the ocean; the Gold Ranges, rich in minerals, in the
centre; and the loftier eastern Rocky Mountains,
which rise like a huge rampart above the central
plains. Except the south of Vancouver Island, all
this part of Canada lies north of latitude 49° N.,
approximately that of Jersey and Paris. Lying in the
west of the continent, it is in the track of the westerly
storm-winds, and the climate of southern British
Columbia may be compared to that of southern
England or Ireland. The temperature is never very
high nor very low, except in the inland valleys.
On the western slopes of the northern Cascades, and
on the higher and more exposed western slopes of
the inland ranges, the rainfall is very great (about
sixty inches a year), especially in winter; but on the
lower eastern slopes and in sheltered valleys it is very
low (under ten inches a year). British Columbia has,
therefore, a great variety of climates. From the
mild moist coasts to the snow-covered summits of
the mountains, most of the land is densely forested,


60
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
leaving only the narrow flood-plains of the rivers
available for cultivation. These rivers are the
Fraser, Upper Columbia, and its tributary the
Kootenay, which here and there form long, narrow
lakes where the steep-sided valley slightly widens
and flattens. The northern part of this western
region is loftier. The St Elias or Sea Alps rise
18,000 or 19,000 feet above the coast, but the inland
mountains are lower. The coastal region is always
bleak and wet, but the interior is much drier, though
extremely cold in winter, and only moderately warm
in summer. It is ill fitted for cultivation, and pro-
duces only a low scrub. It is drained by the upper
waters of the Yukon, known as the Lewes and Pelly
Rivers.
The Great Plains gradually descend from the slopes
of the Rocky Mountains to the east. They are
crossed by many sluggish rivers, and are fed by
the snows of the mountains. The surface is
broken by low morainic heights, which here and
there dam the rivers, causing them to expand into
great lakes. The climate is one of extreme tem-
peratures—cold in winter, hot in summer in the
south, though, of course, cool in the north. The
rainfall is low, and mainly in summer. The cereal
crops derive their moisture in spring, not from
showers, but from the thawing water in the soil,
which has been frozen hard during the severe
winter. The dry and warm chinook or fæhn winds,
known sometimes by the expressive name of 'snow-
eaters,' blow in the west from over the Rockies in
spring, causing the rapid disappearance of the snow
from the surface, and allowing of early grazing.


BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
61
The forest belt runs diagonally across the plain
from south-east to north-west, with grass-land to
the south-west, and to the north and north-east
the icy desert, or tundra, including the Barren
Lands.
East Canada consists of the Laurentian uplands,
north of the Great Lakes and the St Lawrence,
and the north-eastern part of the Appalachians,
including the northern part of the New England
highlands and the uplands of Nova Scotia, to
which may be added those of the colony of
Newfoundland. The climate, while neither so ex-
treme in temperature nor so dry as that of the
plains, is still much less mild and wet than that
of British Columbia. In the Lake peninsula, in the
latitudes of Rome and Turin, the summer tempera-
ture is high, and the rainfall is uniform and
moderate at all seasons. The east coast is much
wetter, with less marked extremes of climate. The
waters round the edge of the Gulf of St Lawrence
are frozen in winter, but the eastern and southern
coasts of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are not
ice-bound. The Labrador Highlands have a very
severe climate, and are at present of little economic
importance, except for fur-hunters.
Economic Products.
The natural wealth of British North America is
very great. Fish abound in its sea and river waters;
fur-bearing animals are still numerous on the edge of
the tundra nnd in the forests, which also yield valu-
able timber; the dry grass-lands of the plains make


62
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
fine ranching-grounds, while minerals are very widely
distributed.
Fisheries.—The eastern sea-fisheries are the most
important in the world. The shallow waters south
of Newfoundland and east of Nova Scotia, in the Gulf
of St Lawrence and the Bay of Fundy, and off the
Labrador coast are the feeding-grounds of innumer-
able fish. Cod, halibut, mackerel, and herring are
caught on the Banks, and lobsters and oysters round
the coasts, especially off Prince Edward Island. The
populous centres of eastern North America form
markets for a portion of this harvest. The surplus
fish are either salted (cod), or canned (lobsters), or
packed in ice and sent to Europe and the West Indies.
Seal and whale fishing is carried on in summer in
ships which sail from St John's, Newfoundland.
The sea-fisheries in the western sounds and fiords-
where herring, black cod, and halibut abound—would
be more valuable were markets nearer. The river
(fresh-water) fisheries are here more important than
sea-fisheries. Salmon, which are caught in vast quan-
tities as they rush up the Fraser and Columbia Rivers
in great shoals, making for the spawning-grounds, are
largely canned for export.
Most of the Canadian rivers abound in trout and
other fish. The Great Lakes contain lake-trout, salmon,
herring, black bass, and many other species, which are
sent in ice to the large cities of the interior.
Furs.—The northern forests are the home of many
animals whose thick, furry coats protect them against
the inclement winter. The fur-trade has been impor-
tant for centuries, and still continues to be so. The
Hudson Bay Company, formed to trade in valuable


BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
63
furs, was formerly sovereign over much of the
Dominion, but is now only a great trading com-
pany. The fur-traders, many of them French or
British half-breeds, penetrate the great North-west,
and either trap the animals or buy their skins from
the red men. Through these fur-traders much of
the interior has come to be known.
Lumber.- The great forests of Canada produce excel-
lent timber in immense quantities. Pines yield the
most valuable timber, but much of excellent quality
is obtained from hard-wood trees such as maple, beech,
ash, oak, and birch. Lumbering is carried on in
winter, when the frost has hardened the marshes, and
the snow furnishes a uniform hard surface over which
it is easy to drag the logs to the nearest river. In
the following spring these logs are formed into rafts,
carried down by the flooded rivers, rowed across the
lakes, and deposited finally at saw-mills, which are
usually built where water-power can be obtained from
neighbouring falls, and where, in addition, railways or
ships are at hand to carry away the sawn timber.
The Ottawa and the St John are the busiest timber
rivers in Canada. At the towns of Ottawa, Hull,
and St John lumber is sawn and manufactured into
furniture and into agricultural and other implements,
or transformed into pulp for paper-making.
In British Columbia the tall Douglas or Oregon
pines and cedars are cut and sent across the Pacific as
far as Australia, and are even brought to Europe.
Ranching.–The rainfall in many parts of the plains
of the far west is too low to permit cultivation without
irrigation. In the drier parts of south Alberta the
grass grows in isolated tufts. The climate in winter,


64
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
however, is 'so mild that stock can be allowed to run
at large, and the prairie grasses, gradually cured by
the autumn chinooks, are as good food for cattle as
they were for buffalo.
'Since 1894 more than 150,000 acres within the
“arid regions” have received irrigation, so that in
numerous cases the rancher, who had to import the
grain he required from Manitoba, now raises it for
himself, or saves the freight by purchasing it near
at hand.' .
Farming.–Agriculture is the most important occu-
pation. With the opening of the railway across the
western plains it has become possible to send farm
products to market, as well as to carry settlers to
new centres of cultivation. Thousands of square
miles are now under cultivation, and the area of
arable land is increasing yearly. Nevertheless, vast
districts of the North-west are still unbroken by the
plough.
Wheat is the cereal most cultivated, especially in
the rich soils of the old lake basin known as the Red
River Valley of Manitoba. The grain is sown in April
and harvested in August, when it is thrashed and
stored in an elevator close to the railway, ready to
be transported to the Great Lakes for shipment
to Europe. In the east, where wheat-growing was
formerly important, farmers can no longer compete
with the settlers on the virgin soil of the west,
and little grain is now grown except as food for
stock. Dairy and poultry farming is found to
pay better, and butter, cheese, and eggs, as well as
chickens and turkeys, are exported, preserved when
necessary by means of cold storage,


BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
65
The district round the Bay of Fundy, protected
from strong and cold winds, is a great apple-growing
region. The Lake peninsula, in the latitude of
northern Italy, is famous for its fruits-apples, pears,
plums, peaches, apricots, grapes, and many small fruits.
Large quantities are sent to the big cities by express
fruit-trains, and the surplus is preserved.
Minerals.-Canada is rich in minerals, both useful
and precious. In the east, Nova Scotia is the most
important mineral region, yielding some gold, but being
more noted for coal and iron. The richest mineral
region of Canada is in the western mountains, where
nearly all the precious and useful minerals are found.
In the middle of the nineteenth century, when the
gold rush took place to the Rocky Mountains, many
miners penetrated into the Cariboo district, where
they found alluvial gold. This placer gold, as it is
called, is still mined, more particularly in the Klon-
dike district, where the soil is frozen most of the year,
and has to be thawed before it can be washed and
the gold extracted. In other parts of Canada gold is
obtained from rocks, of which it forms but a small
percentage. If an ounce of gold occurs in a ton of
rock, it pays to crush the rock and extract the gold,
provided routes exist by which machinery and food
can be easily brought to the mining centre.
The most important of the quartz gold-mining
regions are: (1) West Kootenay, in the south of British
Columbia, where Rossland, on the Columbia River, has
grown with the development of the mines; (2) the Rainy
River district of Ontario; and (3) Nova Scotia. Silver-
lead is found to the north of Lake Ontario and in the
Kootenay district. Nickel is found at Sudbury, in
Com. Geog. ?


66
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
Ontario, north of Georgian Bay. The mines here are
among the most valuable in the world. Copper is
associated with nickel, and is found elsewhere round
the Great Lakes and in the Kootenay district.
Canada is exceptionally well provided with useful
minerals. A vast petroleum-field exists in the great
plains. Excluding the undeveloped areas of the far
north, Canada has nearly 100,000 square miles of
coalfields. These may be arranged in four groups—
(a) Eastern, (b) North-west Territories, (c) Rocky
Mountains, and (d) Pacific Coast.
In the east the coalfields occur in the north of
Nova Scotia, where they are associated with great
deposits of iron, which have scarcely yet been
touched. At Sydney, in Cape Breton Island, the
shafts of the mines are close to the shore, and
the coal is taken from under the sea. In the western
plains brown coal, or lignite, is also widely distributed,
supplying fuel in the treeless regions. In recent
years important coalfields have been opened up
in the Crow's Nest Pass in the Rocky Mountains,
across which a railway now passes to the Kootenay
district, where the coal, which luckily yields good
coke, is used for smelting. The Rocky Mountains
also contain anthracite of good quality, found at
Anthracite, on the Canadian Pacific Railway. The
coal-mines at Nanaimo, on Vancouver Island, the first
opened in the west, export over a million tons annu-
ally. This is one of the few coal-producing regions of
the eastern Pacific. Anthracite is known to occur on
Queen Charlotte's and Vancouver Islands.
Coal, charcoal, and water-power are used in sinelting
Canadian iron ores. Large ironworks have lately been


BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
67
started at Sydney, in Cape Breton Island, the ore
being brought from Newfoundland, where it is very
plentiful. At Pictou and New Glasgow, on the main-
land, local iron is smelted with local coal. Nova
Scotia promises to be one of the great iron-producing
regions of the world. Steel as well as iron is now
manufactured in Ontario, at the Sault Sainte Marie
Falls, between Lakes Superior and Huron. Texada
Island, between Vancouver and the mainland, contains
much iron.
The mineral development of Canada will inevit-
ably be great. British Columbia, with its wealth
of minerals of all kinds, will grow in importance
as population increases, and routes are opened up
to many districts known to be rich in precious and
useful minerals, but hitherto almost inaccessible.
Manufactures.—The principal manufactures of Canada
are the elaboration of food products, the making of
agricultural machinery and transport material, the
manufacture of paper, the weaving of cloth, and the
incipient working in metals just mentioned. Except
for textiles, india-rubber, and cane-sugar, Canada
supplies the raw materials for its manufactures,
a circumstance which in some measure determines
their character. Most of them have already been
referred to in the section dealing with natural
resources.
Fish-canning on the Fraser River; flour-milling at
Winnipeg, in the centre of the wheat-growing area,
and at numerous towns in Ontario; the butter and
cheese making which has become so important in
the eastern provinces, are all typical examples of
manufactures resulting from Canada's wealth of raw


BRITISH NORTH AMERICA,
69
manufactured at Montreal, but sugar-refining and the making
of railway plant are more important, while the manufactures of
apparel, of cottons, india-rubber, tobacco, and malt liquors are
also among its industries. Hull, at the Chaudière Falls of the
Ottawa River, opposite Ottawa, is a great saw-milling and
paper-making town. South of the St Lawrence, Sherbrook,
St Hyacinthe, and Valley field have cotton or woollen manufac-
tures, and Sorel is a steamer-repairing town near Lake St Peter.
Toronto is the largest city in Ontario, with saw, flour, and paper
mills, breweries, distilleries, foundries, and furniture manufac-
tories. Ottawa, at the Chaudière Falls of the Ottawa River, has
many saw-mills. Kingston at the east and Hamilton at the west
of Lake Ontario, and Peterborough at the Fifty Feet Falls of the
Otenabee River, north of the Lake, London on the Thames,
Guelph, Brentford, and numerous other smaller towns in the
Lake peninsula, manufacture textiles, iron, machinery, and rail-
way plant. The petroleum found in the region round Petrohia
is refined in London, Ontario.
At Sydney, on Cape Breton Island, large ironworks have
recently been started. Local coal and limestone are used for
smelting the iron ore brought from Bell Island in Conception
Bay, Newfoundland.
Means of Communication.—Canada has the most
magnificent inland waterways of any country in the
world, though they are unfortunately frozen during
the winter months. The St Lawrence system is by
far the most important. Since the river was dredged
great ocean liners steam past Quebec through Lake St
Peter to Montreal, over 1000 miles from the Atlantic.
Above that city the Lachine rapids prevent further
navigation by large vessels. They can be shot
by river steamers coming from Lake Ontario, or
avoided by the Beauharnois Canal leading to Lake
St Francis. Most vessels, however, go by the Ottawa
River to Ottawa, and follow the Rideau Canal to
Kingston on Lake Ontario. The Niagara Falls bar


70
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
the passage between Lakes Ontario and Erie, but the
Welland Canal is cut across the Niagara peninsula.
From here navigation is uninterrupted as far as the
St Mary River, which issues from Lake Superior as
a great rapid (the Sault Sainte Marie, locally known
as the Soo), at the side of which canals have been
cut both in Canadian and United States territory.
The recent deepening of these canals permits steamers
drawing fourteen feet of water to penetrate to the
western end of Lake Superior, 2250 miles from the
Atlantic.
The traffic along this route is very great indeed,
and if the United States vessels be included with the
Canadian ones, the tonnage passing through the Soo
canals during the months when they are open for
navigation is considerably greater than that passing
through the Suez Canal. The other rivers have long
been used by the Indian or the half-breed boatman,
who carries his canoe over short portages from river
to river. The upper Columbia and Kootenay Rivers,
joined by canal, and the lower Fraser are navigable.
The advance of Canada in recent years has been
the result of a great development of the railways.
The Canadian Pacific line, which now joins the chief
ports in the east with Vancouver in the west, the
longest railway, except the Siberian Railway, under
one control, has carried emigrants to the rich virgin
prairies in the west, and now transports the grain
which they grow to Fort William or Port Arthur
on Lake Superior. The building of railways in all
directions across the western plains is progressing very
rapidly, and a new transcontinental line is projected
which will run north of the Canadian Pacific Railway.


BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
71
Winnipeg is the most important centre. It has been
proposed to build a line from Manitoba to Hudson
Bay, which would bring this great region much nearer
Europe, but the impossibility of navigating the Bay,
except for a month or two in summer, renders the
financial success of the scheme somewhat doubtful at
the present time. In the east the Canadian Pacific
has a rival in the Grand Trunk Railway, and the
lines cross and recross each other in the Lake penin-
sula. The Intercolonial line joins Montreal and
Quebec to Halifax and St John by the banks of the
St Lawrence, and is entirely in British territory.
The Canadian Pacific not merely unites the pro-
vinces of Canada, but is an important line of com-
munication between different parts of the British
Empire. While the distance from Montreal to Van-
couver is 600 miles shorter than from New York to
San Francisco, it is nearly 1000 miles shorter from
Liverpool to Japan and China by the Canadian
than by the other route. Steamers ply regularly
between Vancouver and Japan and China, and the
mails are carried from London to Yokohama by
Canada in half the time they took by the Suez
Canal. The Canadian route is being superseded as
a mail route to the Far East by the Great Siberian
Railway, as the latter is the shortest route from
Britain to Japan.
In summer Montreal is the terminus of the Atlantic liners
which call at Quebec. The mails are taken up and landed at
Rimouski, nearer the mouth of the St Lawrence, from and to
which they are despatched by rail. From November to May the
St Lawrence is blocked by ice, and Halifax or St Jolin becomes
the winter port. Some Canadian traffic is also carried on through
Portland, Maine, and Boston, Massachusetts, in the United States.


BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
The frontier between Canada and the United States
being almost purely artificial, the lines of communica-
tion are numerous. Railways cross the frontier at
many points both in east and west, and the steamers
on the Great Lakes call at ports in both countries.
A tunnel has now been cut beneath Lake St Clair at
Sarnia, and huge ferries carry the trains from Windsor
to Detroit at all seasons of the year. The Niagara
River is bridged, and also the St Lawrence at
Montreal. A canal follows the Richelieu River to
Lake Champlain and the Hudson Valley. A con-
siderable traffic is carried on along the east coast.
The Internal Trade.— The internal trade of Canada
is very great. All manufactured articles are made
or imported by the eastern centres, and sent to the
western plains in exchange for cereals. Coal from
the Rocky Mountains is sent eastward across the
plain as far as Regina, beyond which United States
coal, brought across the Great Lakes, is found to
be cheaper.
External Trade.—The exports of Canada are mainly
forest products, wheat and flour, cheese, fish, gold and
other minerals, and cattle. Canada can supply itself
with most temperate products, but imports those of
subtropical and tropical origin. These are largely
food-supplies—more particularly sugar, tea, and coffee
—and raw materials, especially cotton and india-
rubber. Notwithstanding the abundance of coal,
many parts round the Great Lakes find it cheaper
to import United States coal. The bulk of the
imports, however, are manufactured goods, including
textiles of all kinds, and iron goods.
More than half the revenue is obtained from duties


BRITISH NORTH AMERICA.
73
levied on imports, which fall most heavily on luxuries,
which in some cases pay about two-fifths of their
value. The duties on other commodities average a
little over a quarter of their value. Most raw
materials and a considerable proportion of partially
manufactured articles and foods are admitted duty
free. A preferential tariff, reducing the duties by one-
third, is applied to goods brought in from the United
Kingdom, Bermuda, the British West Indies, India,
Ceylon, the Straits Settlements, and New South,
Wales.
The countries with which Canada does most trade
are the United Kingdom and the United States. For
the five years 1897–1901 the average annual trade
with the United Kingdom was £28,000,000, and
with the United States £30,000,000. Nearly three-
quarters of the trade with the former is an export
trade; seven-tenths of the trade with the latter is an
import trade. To the United Kingdom Canada sends
54 per cent. of its products; to the United States,
37 per cent. From the United States it obtains most
of its manufactured articles and coal.
In the twenty-three years period 1878–1901 the
percentage of Canadian imports from the United
Kingdom has decreased from forty-one to twenty-.
three, while those from the United States have in-
creased from fifty-three to sixty-three, from France
from one and a half to three, and from Germany
from less than a half to three and a half.
Newfoundland.—The whole island of Newfound-
land is rich in minerals, including gold, silver, lead,
copper, coal, and important iron ores, which are at
present worked on Bell Island in Conception Bay.


74
AUSTRALASIA,
The mineral wealth is otherwise little exploited. The
fine pine-forests supply lumber in increasing quanti-
ties. The island is threaded by rivers, widening here
and there to great lakes, and all are rich in fish.
The climate is cold and moist. Oats, barley, and root
crops are the chief agricultural productions.
Fishing is the most important industry, not, how-
ever, in the inland waters, but off the Great Bank
which lies to the south. Over £1,000,000 worth of
fish are exported annually to the United Kingdom,
Portugal, Brazil, United States, and Canada.
The railway runs from St John's across the island,
and a six hours' passage from Port aux Basques, near
Cape Ray, joins it to Sydney in Cape Breton Island
and the Canadian system.
CHAPTER I X.
AUSTRALASIA.
The economic conditions of our Australasian colonies
resemble those of southern Canada in many respects.
Australia lies nearer the equator than Canada. The
extreme south of the North and all the Middle Island
of New Zealand and Tasmania extend south of 40° S.
—that is, into latitudes corresponding with those of
the Lake peninsula of southern Canada. The North
Island of New Zealand and southern Australia
form a transition from these cool temperate to the
intertropical conditions which characterise northern
Australia.


AUSTRALASIA.
NEW ZEALAND.
The self-governing colony of New Zealand consists
of two large islands, the North and Middle (popularly
called the South) Islands; the smaller Stewart Island,
to the south of the latter; and a number of distant
and smaller groups.
The Middle Island.—The Middle Island, popularly
described as the antipodes of England, lies in the
latitude of Italy north of the Gulf of Taranto, but
owing to its insular position in the water hemisphere
(see page 16), it enjoys a cooler and more equable
climate, resembling that of southern England in the
extreme south, and that of the west coast of France
in the north.
The most important physical feature is the
western mountain-range--the Southern Alps—which
traverses the island from north to south. This
range, which rises to the height of 12,000 feet, is of
economic importance not merely as a barrier to com-
munication, but because of its influence on the rainfall
of the island. The west winds striking against this
lofty barrier are deflected upwards, causing heavy rains
on the western or windward slopes. On the eastern or
lee side they descend as warm, dry winds, resembling
the chinooks of Canada (see page 60), and shake the
ears from the too rapidly ripened corn. The rainfall
of the Middle Island, therefore, presents a general
resemblance to that of Great Britain (Commercial
Geography of the British Isles, page 18).
The western slopes of the Southern Alps are covered
with dense forests. Pines, cedars, and zimus are the
principal timber -trees cut for sawing. Cattle are


76
AUSTRALASIA.
fed on the forest undergrowth in the lower regions,
but the upper mountain pastures are scarcely used.
The eastern portion of the island is pasture-land, on
which sheep, cattle, horses, and other stock are grazed.
The value of the plains is being greatly increased by
irrigation, and wheat, oats, barley, grass, clover, and
root-crops are cultivated, wheat and oats being the
most important. Sheep-rearing, however, is the chief
occupation, especially on the Canterbury plains, which
produce the famous Canterbury mutton and lamb, in
which a large export trade is done.
The Middle Island, therefore, somewhat resembles
British Columbia in its economic condition. It is
essentially a pastoral country, with a little coal and
gold mining. Agriculture will probably develop in the
clearings of the eastern inountains, and fruit-growing
may be extended in the east.
The North Island lies in latitudes corresponding to
those of Portugal and northern Marocco. The moun-
tains are lower and less continuous than those of the
Middle Island, and are volcanic. The surface is irregu-
lar, and the quality of the soil varies greatly from
district to district, fertile volcanic and alluvial soils
alternating with barren clays.
The northern part lies in the summer track of the
trade-winds, but elsewhere the climate resembles that
of the southern island except that it is warmer.
The south and south-west, with good soil and heavy
rainfall, are forested. Where the forests have been
cleared excellent grass-lands are formed on the hill-
sides, and agricultural lands in the valleys.
In the south-west cattle and cows are kept, and
butter and cheese are made. The south consists


AUSTRALASIA,
77
mainly of forests or grass-land. The east, with a
low rainfall, has rich grass-lands on which millions
of sheep are fed. In the north the rain falls in
winter and spring. Mediterranean fruits of all kinds
flourish, such as the vine, olive, orange, and lemon,
as well as fruits of more temperate lands. Great
forests of kauri exist, and yield much valuable
timber. Kauri-gum, an ingredient of most varnishes,
is as important as the timber. It is obtained after
burning the forest, a practice greatly to be depre-
cated, or dug in a fossil condition. The broad leaves
of New Zealand flax, or phormium, supply strong
fibres, which are manufactured into rope, mats, and
other articles.
Minerals. In the Middle Island gold and coal are the
most important minerals. Both alluvial and reef gold
are mined. The chief coal-mines are near Westport.
In the North Island gold-yielding quartz is found in
the peninsula east of Hauraki Gulf, and is crushed
chiefly in the Thames county. Some coal is found
both north and south of Auckland, and north of Mount
Egmont.
Routes and Trading Centres.-The chief towns of
New Zealand are ports. Invercargill and Dunedin
in the south, Lyttelton and Timaru (the outlets of
the Canterbury plains), Hokitika, Westport, and
Nelson are in the Middle Island; and Wellington,
Napier, and Auckland in the North Island.
The railways in the Middle Island run from Invercargill
through Dunedin, Omaru, Timaru, to Christchurch and Lyttel-
ton, its port, with numerous branches to the north and west.
There are short lines from Hokitika, Westport, Nelson, Blenheim,
and Picton,


AUSTRALASIA.
kinds do well, and apple-orchards are numerous in
the south. Grapes are cultivated for wine in Maria
Island, in the east. Sheep are the most important
stock.
The mineral wealth is considerable, but not yet fully
exploited. Tin is found in Mount Bischoff, in the west,
and smelted at Launceston, on the Tamar. Gold is
widely distributed, and is mined at Beaconsfield, on the
Tamar; at Mount Lyell, near the west coast; and at
other centres. Copper and silver-lead are found at
Mount Lyell. Coal for local use is mined at Fingal,
in the east.
Manufactures are in a rudimentary state, and
entirely devoted to utilising local raw material. Saw-
mills, jam-factories, and other workshops have been
started.
Means of Communication.—A considerable coasting
trade is carried on, and regular lines of steamers run
from Hobart, in the south, and Launceston, in the north,
to Victoria and New South Wales, New Zealand, and
the United Kingdom. A railway joins Hobart to
Launceston, with a branch up the South Esk River,
past the Fingal coal-mines, to St Mary. Another
line passes through the Westbury and Deloraine agri-
cultural regions to Hamilton, on the north coast.
Lines also run from the western gold and tin mines
to the coast.
Trade. — The exports are minerals — copper, gold,
silver, and tin-wool, fruit, and potatoes.
The imports are clothing, machinery and hardware,
tea and sugar. The trade is mainly with Victoria,
from which Tasmania is distant only 120 miles, New
South Wales, and the United Kingdom.


80
AUSTRALASIA.
THE ISLAND OF AUSTRALIA.
Position and Configuration. The continent-island of
Australia lies between 40° and 10° S. (cf. Lisbon to
Sierra Leone, Baltimore to Trinidad). It is a compact
island, broken by few bays. The west is a plateau,
above which rise numerous low ranges. The east
consists of mountains, with steep slopes to the coast
and gradual slopes to the interior. These mountains
are lower, wider, and more irregular in Queensland
than in New South Wales and Victoria, where they
act as important barriers. A band of low ground,
scarcely reaching above 1000 feet in the highest part,
stretches across the island south of the Gulf of Car-
pentaria, which may be regarded as a submerged
northern continuation of this lowland. In the south,
the Gawler, Flinders, and Stanley Ranges rise above
the plain.
The eastern coast north of the tropic is fringed
by a great coral barrier reef, which forms a huge
natural breakwater, 1200 miles long. The entrances
across it are usually opposite the river-mouths, but
navigation inside it, while smooth, is somewhat dan-
gerous, owing to the existence of innumerable islets.
Climate.—Australia stretches almost as far north as
south of the tropic. Most of it, therefore, lies in the
trade-wind region. In the centre of the continent
considerable extremes of temperature are felt, both the
daily and the annual range being great. In the south
it is cool in winter, especially on the higher lands,
where snow sometimes falls; but in the north it is hot
throughout the year. The trade-winds are laden with
rain, which falls abundantly on the east coast, espe-


AUSTRALASIA.
81
cially during the summer months, but they precipitate
most of it on the eastern mountains, and the centre
and west of Australia are often rainless for long
periods. When rain does fall, it is in heavy torrential
thunder-showers, which do as much harm as good.
The south lies in the winter track of the stormy west
winds, and receives most of its rain at that season.
The north has the sun overhead at noon in the
summer months, during which it is in the equatorial
rain-belt.
The rainfall of Australia, therefore, is confined to
the north, east, and south coasts; the west coast is
comparatively dry, and the centre is almost rainless.
The rainfall varies greatly from year to year. In
some years damage is done by floods, while in others
millions of animals perish through drought. The
rivers vary greatly in size at different seasons, some
drying up altogether except during and after the
rains.
The following table shows the number of sheep that
can feed on a square mile of land in regions with
different rainfalls :
Inches of rain ... ... ... ... 8-10 13 20
Sheep per square mile... ... ... 8-9 96 640
It is easy to see how great a loss may have to be
borne by a stock-raiser in a district where the
average rainfall is fifteen inches, if during one or
more years the precipitation falls to twelve inches
or under.
From official figures for South Australia, it is cal-
culated that the yield of wheat per acre is about
six bushels less than the number of inches of rain-
fall in the winter six months, so that if this rainfall
Com. Geog. ? .


82
AUSTRALASIA.
is eighteen inches the yield will probably be twelve
bushels per acre. With the extension of cultivation
into the drier parts of the colony, the average yield
has diminished.
Economic Divisions. — The economic divisions are
dependent on the rainfall. It is necessary to dis-
tinguish (1) the practically unproductive desert;
(2) the southern strip moistened by winter rains;
(3) the regions of summer rains in the east; (4) the
hot, wet, tropical regions of the north.
The Desert.—Much of the desert is covered with
prickly scrub. Towards its edges is the salt bush, on
which a few sheep can he fed. Most of its vast area
is, however, wholly unproductive, except where irriga-
tion is possible, when almost anything can be grown.
The centre of South Australia and a very large portion
of Western Australia are desert. The only inhabited
parts are the goldfields (see page 86).
The Southern Region of Winter Rains.—The extreme
south-west of Western Áustralia-between Perth and
Albany, the extreme south of southern Australia
east of Spencer Gulf, Victoria, and the extreme south
of New South Wales all lie within this region, which
is the most temperate part of the continent, and best
suited to settlers from the United Kingdom.
The colony of Victoria, the smallest and most
southern of the Australian states, lies entirely within
this région, and is typical of a country with a
Mediterranean climate and productions in an early
stage of economic development.
Victoria has approximately the area of Great Britain,
and lies south of 34º S. It is traversed by a range of
mountains running from east to west parallel to the


AUSTRALASIA.
83
south coast, which is indented by the great bay of Port
Phillip, dividing the southern coastal region into two
parts, of which the eastern is called Gippsland.
The north-western flat land between the Murray
River and the mountains receives little rain, and is
covered with mallee scrub. This is now cleared and
broken by a plough which rises over stumps in the
ground. Some wheat is grown. The most valuable
parts, however, are irrigated by the waters of the
Murray River.
The rainfall is greatest on the southern slopes of the
mountains, which are covered with forests, but are less
fertile than the northern slopes, which face the sun.
Gippsland receives both winter and summer rains, and
the whole region is well wooded.
The characteristic products of warm temperate lands
with winter rains do best on the northern slopes of the
mountains. Wheat and oats are grown in the upper
valleys and slopes, while on the northern plains maize
can be cultivated. Fruit of all kinds, including the
apricot, peach, fig, olive, orange, and especially the
grape, is grown in the Murray and Goulburn valleys,
especially where irrigation is possible.
The yield both of cereals and fruits varies from year
to year with the rainfall.
The principal occupations are the raising and fatten-
ing of cattle and sheep for the market, dairy-farming
in the west, horse-breeding, and hop-growing.
In the irrigated regions of Mildura and Renmark,
along the lower Murray, much fruit is grown and
dried.
The southern part of South Australia resembles
Victorią in its winter rains. The crops are sowņ when


AUSTRALASIA.
85
barley, rye, millet, and other cereals are grown both
for their grain and for their straw. Farther west
the grassy downs feed millions of sheep and cattle,
and horses in smaller numbers. Wheat-growing, how-
ever, is increasing in importance in the southern part
of the slope to the Lachlan and in the Riverina dis-
trict beyond. The yield per acre, however, is low.
Where irrigation is possible, agriculture is developing.
Numerous artesian wells have been sunk, especially
in Queensland.
Dairy-farming has developed considerably in New
South Wales in recent years. It was formerly con-
fined to the southern coastal region, but is now pro-
gressing in the north, where the mild winters allow
cattle to remain out of doors all the year round.
The Northern Hot, Moist Tropical Regions.—Northern
Queensland is typical of the hot, moist, densely wooded
part of Australia. Rice, sugar, bananas, coco-nuts,
mangoes, coffee, and other tropical products are raised.
Sugar can be grown all along the coast. The Mackay
region is the most important sugar district north, and
Bundaberg south, of the tropic. Its cultivation is
profitable only with very cheap labour. Kanakas-
that is, Melanesians from the Pacific islands—are im-
ported for this purpose, as the climate is too moist and
hot for whites to engage in hard manual work. The
yield of sugar is large, and by judicious irrigation the
crop can be greatly increased.
Sheep and cattle are reared along the Flinders and
Cloncurry Rivers.
The northern parts of Northern Territory of South
Australia and of the Kimberley Division of Western
Australia are similar in climate and products to


86
AUSTRALASIA.
northern Queensland, except that the rainfall is
hardly so great, and that the forest-land does not
stretch so far inland.
Agriculture, which is done by Chinese labour,
is possible only under irrigation. Fruits, such as
bananas, coco-nuts, pine-apples, and mangoes; and
cereals, such as maize and rice, as well as a little
tapioca and tobacco, are cultivated.
Australian Minerals.—The discovery of rich placer
gold mines in the fifties led to a great influx of
gold-seekers to Victoria and New South Wales.
Later, gold attracted immigrants to Queensland,
and in recent years to Western Australia. In
Victoria the chief gold-centres are round Ballarat
and Bendigo (formerly Sandhurst). The gold is
now mainly obtained from quartz. Gold is less
important in New South Wales, where it is mined
chiefly at Bathurst and Wyalong, the latter in the
Lachlan district. The Queensland gold-mines are very
important in the south, round the Gympie; in the
centre where the famous Mount Morgan mines exist
near Rockhampton; and in the north round Charters
Towers, Ravenswood, Croydon, and Cloncurry. Gold
is widely distributed in Western Australia, in the Kim-
berley district in the north, and in the Murchison and
other goldfields in the west. The greatest develop-
ment, however, has taken place in the south, round the
Coolgardie goldfields, the chief centres of which are
Coolgardie, Kalgoorlie, and Menzies. Food and water
are scarce in these desert regions, and the gold is ex-
pensive to extract, but the opening of railways and
the bringing of water from the Helena River, twenty-
three miles from Perth, have improved the economic


AUSTRALASIA.
87
conditions. The Mount Margaret goldfield, to the
north-east of Coolgardie, is growing in importance.
Silver is found in many parts of the continent. The
most important mines are in the Stanley Range, in the
west of New South Wales, where the town of Willyama
has grown up round the Broken Hill. Considerable
quantities are also found in northern Queensland. In
both these regions a little tin is mined.
The most important copper-mines are in South
Australia, at Moonta and Wallaroo, on Spencer Gulf,
and round Cobar in New South Wales.
The most important coalfields are those of the
Hunter River district in New South Wales, of which
Newcastle and Maitland are the chief centres. South
of Sydney, the mines in the Illawarra district are
growing in importance. Mines have recently been
opened round Ipswich near Brisbane, at Howard near
Maryborough, and Clermont in Queensland; and on
the Collie River in Western Australia. In Gippsland
great deposits of brown coal, in some places over
200 feet thick, have been discovered.
Opals are found at White Cliffs, north of Wilcannia
on the Darling, in New South Wales, and in western
Queensland. Sapphires are obtained in central Queens-
land. Diamonds exist in Western Australia, and pearls
are obtained by divers off the northern coasts.
Australian Manufactures. The population is still too
small and widely scattered to permit of a great
development of manufactures. In Victoria and New
South Wales, where population is densest, manu-
factures are most developed. The number of hands
employed is about the same in each state, and in both
the making of textiles and clothing, of metal and


88
AUSTRALASIA.
machinery, and the preparation of foods and drinks,
rank first, followed by the manufacture of transport
materials, paper, leather and leather goods.
The preservation of food for export is everywhere
an important industry. The elaboration of dairy
produce is important in the south, and sugar-refining
in the north. Saw-mills are numerous both in the
east and in the south-west. The other manufactures
are concentrated in the larger towns, more particularly
in Melbourne and Sydney and the other capitals,
Geelong (woollen manufactures), Ballarat, and Bendigo
in Victoria, Newcastle and Maitland in New South
Wales, Maryborough and the sugar-producing towns of
Queensland.
Means of Communication.—Australia, unlike Canada,
is deficient in waterways, and the coasting traffic is
much more important than that by river. Several of
the eastern rivers are navigable for short distances.
The Murray and the Darling are both navigable by
light-draught steamers in the rainy season, the former
to Albury, the latter to Bourke, but communication
with the sea is prevented by the sand-bar at the
mouth.
The railway system of Australia is gradually being
extended, but unfortunately different gauges have
been adopted for the lines in different states, involv-
ing break of bulk at the frontier. Adelaide, Mel-
bourne, Sydney, and Brisbane are all connected by
rail. From Adelaide the railway runs to the Broken
Hill mines in the Stanley Range, and northward by
the Flinders Range to the Alberga River beyond Lake
Eyre. In New South Wales branches run to Murrum-
bidgee and Bourke on the Darling. From Brisbane


AUSTRALASIA.
the line passes northward through Gympie and Mary-
borough to Rockhampton. A branch runs westward
from Brisbane through agricultural centres as far as
Charleville and Cunnamulla on the Warrago River.
Two other lines run due westward to the centre of
Queensland from Rockhampton and Townsville re-
spectively. Numerous smaller railways have been
built from several ports, such as Mackay, Bowen,
Cairns, Cooktown, and Normantown, through sugar-
growing regions to the mines. The railway network
is densest in Victoria, especially north of the moun-
tains. In Western Australia the lines radiate from
Perth northward to Geraldton, and thence to Cue, on
the Murchison goldfields; eastward through Yilgarn
to Kalgoorlie, Coolgardie, Menzies, and other mining
centres; and southward to Albany on King George
Sound, and to Busselton on Geographe Bay. A
short line also runs inland from Palmerston, on
Port Darwin, in the northern territory of South
Australia.
· The Australian Commonwealth is composed of the
six states, New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland,
South Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania,
between which since 1901 perfect freedom of trade is
allowed, except that Western Australia can still use
higher tariffs. Statistics of trade for the Common-
wealth have not yet been published, and the informa-
tion available at the end of 1902 was derived from
the various state returns. There is a protective tariff
on imports from other countries, the details of which
were not published when this was sent to press.
Trade.—Wool and gold are the most important
exports of Australia, followed by meat, dairy pro-


90
SOUTH AFRICA.
duce, hides and skins, and sugar. The most important
imports are textile fabrics and dress, ironwork of all
kinds, foods and drinks, books, and articles of luxury.
About 40 per cent. of the exports and imports of each
state are from the United Kingdom or the continent
of Europe, or other countries by way of the United
Kingdom.
About 45 per cent. of the imports and 35 per
cent. of the exports are from or to other Australian
colonies, so that 16 per cent. of the imports are
from, and 20 per cent of the exports are to, other
countries. British weights, measures, and coinage
are used. The statistical tables at the end give
further details, and should be consulted.
CHAPTER X.
SOUTH AFRICA.
AFRICA south of the Congo-Zambezi divide lies
between the same latitudes as Australia north of the
Murray and Murrumbidgee. It is much narrower and
much higher. Except north of Delagoa Bay, the
coastal plain is very narrow, and most of the land lies
above 3000 feet. It is a plateau land, bordered by
lofty mountains only in the south-east.
The climatic conditions are similar to those of
Australia south of the tropic. A small region of
winter rains exists in the south-west, which may be
compared with the south-west of Western Australia.
In the east there is a narrow strip of land receiving a
considerable rainfall in summer. The rainfall gradu-


SOUTH AFRICA.
91
ally diminishes from the top of the eastern escarp-
ments towards the west. The climatic differences are
that, owing to its greater elevation, South Africa has
a lower mean temperature and colder nights and
winters than Australia, and that, owing to its smaller
breadth from east to west, the desert area is much less
extensive. North of the tropic the temperature con-
ditions resemble those of northern Australia; but the
rainfall is lower, owing to the presence of Madagascar
on the east, and the absence of sea to the north.
South Africa is therefore not so favoured as Aus-
tralia. It has no equivalent for Victoria and the
southern part of the east of New South Wales. The
region with more than forty inches of rain, suitable for
subtropical and tropical cultivation, is smaller; but
the area with over ten inches, where stock can be
kept, is proportionately as great as in Australia. The
variations of rainfall and the frequency of droughts
are as great as in Australia.
Economic Divisions.—The natural economic conditions
also resemble those of Australia. The west of Cape
Colony, Bechuanaland, and German South-west Africa
are practically semi-desert regions, though in parts
the land can be stocked with about one sheep to
ten or twelve acres. Underground water exists, and
the land may be rendered productive by irrigation,
which, however, has not been found profitable up to
the present.
The South-western Region of Winter Rains is more
limited than in south-western Australia, extending,
roughly speaking, from the Orange River to Mossel
Bay. This is the wine-producing part of Cape Colony,
in which all Mediterranean fruits except the olive can


92
SOUTH AFRICA.
be cultivated. Vines flourish best on the slopes of the
Table and Drakenstein Mountains. Wine and brandy
are both manufactured, especially at Paarl. The flat
lands produce cereals. Malmesbury is the centre of the
wheat-farming region. Oats and barley are cultivated
in the same district, and in the valley of the Breede
and its tributaries. Fruit and vegetables also do well,
but the supply of agricultural and farm produce is
not sufficient to meet local demands.
The coastal region, the Lange and Outeniquas
Mountains, and the Little Karroo behind receive
about as much rain in summer as in winter. The
rainfall is greatest on the southern slopes of the
mountains, where half of the few forests of Cape
Colony are found in the Knysna region. Yellow
and stink woods, the chief timber-trees, are felled
in autumn, the former for railway sleepers, the
latter for carpentry, furniture, and wagon-building.
The eastern half of the Little Karroo has a lime-
stone soil, which favours the growth of tobacco round
Oudtshoorn.
At East London the Region of Summer Rains begins.
Some forests exist in the south-east of Cape Colony,
but they are less important than those in Natal, where,
however, they have been too indiscriminately cleared.
Yellow-wood, stink-wood, sneeze-wood, and iron-wood
are the most important trees. The coastal region of
Natal resembles that of northern New South Wales.
Maize and sugar are the chief crops on the coastal
plains. In the higher 'midland districts,' which cor-
respond to the edge of the plateau in New South
Wales, wheat, barley, oats, and rye are cultivated,
and much land is devoted to stock-grazing. This
worn


SOUTH AFRICA.
93
last becomes the chief occupation in the treeless
upper districts, where the winters are cold and
the country is covered with thick grass. Parts of
this region have recently been planted with black
wattle, which yields valuable bark for tanning, and
also inproves the land.
The High Veld of South Africa is at present almost
purely pastoral, except round the Caledon River and
in the east of the Transvaal, where wheat is culti-
vated. In both regions the conditions resemble those
of the eastern Downs of Australia. Sheep, the most
important live-stock, are reared chiefly for their wool,
while cattle are bred mainly for draught purposes.
In the higher western regions the native sheep are
kept, but in the more favoured parts the merino
sheep is bred for its wool. The hardy goat, which
can live in much less favourable regions than the
sheep, is widely distributed, and the Angora goat
from Asia Minor is reared, especially on the Great
and Upper Karroos of Cape Colony, for its hair
(mohair).
Horses cannot be used unless 'salted'—that is, pro-
tected from the fatal horse-sickness, to which they
are very liable. Ponies, however, are reared in the
Basuto highlands and in some parts of Natal and
Cape Colony, in the extreme east of which horse-
sickness is fortunately unknown.
The conditions on the Rhodesian plateau, between the
Limpopo and the Zainbezi, resemble those of Queens-
land immediately north of the tropic. Only the land
above 4000 feet is healthy for Europeans. All kinds
of subtropical and tropical cereals, vegetables, and
fruits can be raised.


94
SOUTH AFRICA.
The conditions in Nyasaland and British Central
Africa are those of a purely tropical country, where
white men cannot settle permanently, except in a few
favoured spots. Coffee has been planted with great
success. Rice, maize, wheat, and other cereals, pulses,
and many fruits can be grown.
Minerals.—Gold and diamonds are the all-important
minerals in South Africa. Diamonds are found in the
filled pipes of old volcanoes, which are scattered about
the region near the confluence of the Vaal and the
Orange. The finest are found at Jagersfontein, in the
Orange River Colony. The discovery of diamonds in
the seventies produced a rush of emigrants and
fortune-seekers. Kimberley is the chief diamond-
mining centre. Gold is found in many parts of the
Transvaal and the Rhodesian plateau. The most im-
portant mines are those of the Witwatersrand, or
Rand, where the metal occurs in a conglomerate locally
known as 'banket. The proportion of gold extracted
is maintained as the reefs are followed under-
ground, indicating that gold-mining will probably
remain an important industry for at least two or
three generations. Johannesburg is the centre of the
gold-mining region, and the largest town in South
Africa.
Copper occurs south of the mouth of the Orange,
and is mined at Ookiep, whence it is carried by a
railway to Port Nolloth.
Seams of poor coal are found in the Stormbergen, in
Cape Colony. The best coal is obtained from the
mines of Dundee and Newcastle in Natal, of Middel-
burg and the Witwatersrand in the Transvaal. Coal
from the former is partly exported, and partly used


SOUTH AFRICA.
95
along with the Transvaal coal at the gold-mines.
Coal has recently been found in North-west Rhodesia,
and between the Shangani and Zambezi Rivers, in
Southern Rhodesia.
Manufactures. — There are scarcely any manufactures
in South Africa. The most important are those of
wine and brandy in the south-western Cape Colony,
and of sugar and rum in Natal. Some tanneries and
saw-mills exist, and the Cape ox-wagon is a notable
local product.
Trade.—Gold and diamonds are by far the most
important exports. Wool, hair, and ostrich feathers,
hides and skins are also exported from Cape Colony,
and sugar and coal from Natal. Every kind of manu-
factured article is imported, as well as food, under
which head are included not merely luxuries, but
the necessaries of life.
Means of Communication. — The natural means of
communication in South Africa are bad. No good
harbour exists except at Delagoa Bay and at Sal-
danha Bay, and at the latter no fresh-water exists.
The harbours of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, East
London, and Durban have been constructed at very
great expense, and are not yet entirely satisfactory.
Cape Town, on Table Bay, the nearest port to
Europe, is the port for much of the passenger
traffic, especially since the building of the line
across the Karroos and the Veld to the diamond-
mines of Kimberley, a line now extended northward
to beyond Bulawayo in Rhodesia. The produce of
the mines is sent to Cape Town, Port Elizabeth,
and East London. From the two latter ports a
great part of the wool is shipped,


96
SOUTH AFRICA.
The development of the gold-mines round Johannes-
burg has led to the building of railways from all the
African ports mentioned. The main line from Cape
Colony passes through the centre of the Orange River
Colony, that from Durban by the Newcastle coalfields,
and that from Lourenço Marques, on Delagoa Bay, by
the Middelburg goldfields and Pretoria, with an ex-
tension north to the Petersburg goldfields. Branches
have been built from these lines to districts in the
process of development. New lines are projected, but
their construction has been retarded by the war of
1899-1902.
Salisbury, in Southern Rhodesia, is joined to the port
of Beira through the Manika goldfields, on which New
Umtali is built. This line will join that from Bula-
wayo, which is to be extended to the Zambezi. Where
the railway has not penetrated, the ox-wagon is the
common mode of transport.
The economic conditions of South Africa are much
more complex and much less satisfactory than those of
Australia. The plateau configuration of South Africa
militates against ready communication with the coast.
The rivers flow in deep gorges, so that water cannot be
easily reached for irrigation purposes ; and not merely
does their volume vary, as in Australia, but they are
broken by rapids. On the other hand, the supply of
underground water, especially in Bechuanaland, re-
sembles that of western Queensland and northern New
South Wales. In the colonies south of the Limpopo
only a quarter of the population is white. In the
other parts of South Africa the blacks outnumber the
whites by millions to thousands. The presence of
this black population has led to their employment


SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA.
97
for almost all manual labour, even in parts where
whites can live and work without injury to health.
The economic disturbance due to the Anglo-Boer
war, following on plagues of rinderpest and locust, has
retarded the economic development of the land, and
intensified the antagonism, partly economic, partly
cultural, of the white peoples, without whose har-
monious co-operation no civilisation in South Africa
can be stable or satisfactory, in view of the pressing
problems resulting from the great preponderance of
coloured inhabitants.
.
CHAPTER X I.
..en,
SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA.
SOUTH AMERICA tapers acutely south of the tropic of
Capricorn. In latitudes corresponding to those of
South Africa it has almost the same breadth, but its
configuration is very different. The central band is a
vast plain, penetrated by the shallow La Plata estuary,
and bordered on the east by the southern highlands
of Brazil, which are not so high as the tableland of
eastern South Africa, and on the west by the chains
of the Andes, which, north of the Uspallata pass, do
not descend below 10,000 feet, and form a practically
insuperable barrier. South of this pass and the Plate
estuary the eastern highlands practically disappear,
the plain rises to the Patagonian plateau, the western
mountains become lower, and rivers flow from their
eastern slopes across them in deep gorges to the
Pacific.
Com. Geog. ?


98
SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA.
The climate presents great contrasts in east and west
and in north and south. The eastern region round
and north of the Plate receives wet summer winds;
the western region here, as in Africa, is dry and semi-
desert. To the south the southern New Zealand con-
ditions are found in a more intense phase; the west is
very wet with rain brought by western storm winds;
but east of the mountains the climate is very dry,
except close to the coast, where the winter storm
winds bring a little rain. The chinook or fohn winds
are common at the eastern base of the Andes, as of
the Rockies or the Southern Alps of New Zealand.
Economic Divisions.—The North-east Region of Summer
Rains resembles south-east Australia, with this ex-
ception, that the plains to the east of the Highlands
are much better watered and more fertile than the
corresponding lowlands of Australia south of the
tropic. It is of interest to note that in North
America the analogous plains north of the Gulf of
Mexico are likewise well watered, the configuration
in both cases favouring instead of hindering the
inward movement of moisture-bearing air. Coffee
is the chief crop of the Highlands close to the
tropic, while farther south cattle and sheep roam
on the campos. On the plains of the Uruguay
and Paraguay maize and wheat are cultivated in
ever-increasing quantities; and in the north oranges,
olives, vines, tobacco, and other warm temperate
crops are grown. The thick forests are confined
to the coast and wetter valleys; the Gran Chaco
consists of opener woodland. From these much
timber might be obtained if transport facilities were
greater. The yerba maté, or Paraguayan tea, is the


SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA.
99
most notable spontaneous product. On the western
and southern margins, where the rainfall is small,
cultivation gives place to stock-raising, or the pampas
are occupied by semi-wild horses.
The dry north-west must be divided into three parts.
(1) The lands east of the Andes, whose snows supply
water for irrigating the land, on which cotton, sugar,
vines, and Mediterranean fruits of all kinds grow.
This is a more favoured Mildura region. (2) The
mountain area itself, with silver and other mineral
ores. (3) The Chilean deserts, with important nitrate
deposits.
Central Chile, with wet winters, resembles Victoria
and the Cape peninsula regions in its Mediterranean
type of climate and products, which make this the
most flourishing part of Chile.
Southern Chile, with rain at all seasons, is a moun-
tainous land cut up by many fiords, as in southern
New Zealand, and bordered by islands separated
from each other and the mainland by sounds. Here
Scandinavian conditions are found nearly 10° nearer
the equator. The fishing industry and the exploita-
tion of the thick forests are not developed for lack of
a market.
Patagonia is the dry south-western region, and is as
yet hardly occupied. Stock-raising may well become
important, and the lands where the chinook (cf.
western Canada) influence is felt will become of
agricultural importance when routes are opened to
them. Sheep-farming is becoming important in dis-
tricts within easy reach of Magellan Strait.
The mineral wealth is considerable in the Andes
and in southern Brazil. Gold, silver, and copper are


100
SOUTHERN SOUTH AMERICA.
found in the Andes, and coal occurs in Chile near
Concepcion
Political Divisions.—The republic of Chile occupies
the western regions, Argentina the eastern, except
where Paraguay, Uruguay, and southern Brazil extend
in the north-east. The Falkland Islands are British.
Chile.—The dry northern region, where nitrates,
largely worked by aid of British capital, and precious
metals are the source of wealth, extends north of
the tropic. Antofagasta is the outlet for Bolivian
as well as Chilean produce. Iquique and Taltal
export nitrates, Caldera (port of Copiapo) silver, and
Coquimbo (port of La Serena) copper. All have rail-
ways to the interior, that from Antofagasta crossing
the Andes to Bolivia.
The central valley of Chile is the agricultural
region. Santiago, the capital, in the north, and
Valdivia, in the south, are joined by a railway with
branches to the coast. Valparaiso, the chief port,
is near the former; Concepcion, farther south, is the
outlet of the coal-mines.
Nitrates, copper and copper ores, iodine, gold, silver,
leather, and wool are the chief exports; coal, manu-
factured articles, and subtropical produce the chief
imports. Most trade is carried on with the United
Kingdom, followed by the German Empire, the United
States, and France.
Argentina is a republic with a great variety of
physical and economic conditions. At present the
stock-raising of the Pampas and the agriculture of
the regions around the lower Plate basin and at the
foot of the Andes are the most important occupations.
Wheat, maize, flax, and sugar are the chief crops.


INDIA AND CEYLON.
103
CHAPTER XII.
INDIA AND CEYLON.
Position and Configuration.—India consists of the
central of the three southern peninsulas of Asia, and
the regions immediately to the north as far as the
Himalaya Mountains. Physically it is made up of
three very different parts : (1) the mountains of the
north ; (2) the broad band of the alluvial and sandy
Indo-Gangetic plains, never rising over 1000 feet,
and varying in width from 100 to 400 miles ;
(3) the peninsular plateau of the Deccan, south of
25° N.
The rivers Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra all rise
in the Himalaya Mountains and flow across the
northern plains to the sea, which they reach across
great deltas. The Deccan plateau is much higher in
the west than in the east. It has a steep slope to the
Arabian Gulf, and a long slope to the Bay of Bengal,
down which flow the rivers Mahanadi, Godaveri,
Krishna, and Kaveri. The only important rivers to
the west are the Narbada and Tapti, in the north. In
the south the low Palghat Pass lies south of the
Nilgiri and north of Cardamom Mountains, which
form part of the Western Ghats or Sahyadri escarp-
ment, and joins the eastern and western coastal
regions.
Climate.—India occupies similar latitudes to the
continent of Australia. If Ceylon be added to the
former, we must add British New Guinea to the latter.


104
INDIA AND CEYLON.
India, however, has the mountain barrier of the
Himalayas on the polar side, whereas the polar side
of Australia is bounded by the open ocean. This
circumstance makes a great difference in the climate
of the more temperate parts of the two countries. The
mountains hinder, the ocean favours, the inflowing of
winds from cooler regions. India is, therefore, hotter
than Australia in the same latitudes.
The temperature of India varies comparatively little
with latitude. The extra-tropical regions are, how-
ever, coolest in the northern winter, when their
temperature is like that of England in June, and
the north-west is hottest in summer. It therefore has
the greatest range of temperature. The peninsular
portion is uniformly warm at all seasons.
The north-west of India, like the south-west of
Australia or South Africa, receives most rain in
winter. So do the south-east of India and the
east of Ceylon, lying in the track of the north-east
trades, which have absorbed moisture in crossing the
Bay of Bengal. The north-east trade-wind is the
normal wind of the winter half-year; but in summer,
instead of being intensified as is the south-east
trade-wind of Australia, it disappears, and is replaced
by a south-westerly or south-easterly monsoon wind,
which moves towards the low-pressure centre formed
over the region of greatest temperature in the north-
west.
For most of India this summer monsoon brings the
rain, so that, as in the greater part of Australia and
South Africa, most rain falls in summer. In the
extreme south-west of India and western Ceylon rains
diminish in intensity towards unidsummer, so that we


INDIA AND CEYLON.
105
may speak of two rainy seasons. The single rainy
season in the north is the equivalent of the equatorial
rains of northern Australia.
The temperature in most parts of India, therefore,
is favourable for all kinds of tropical and subtropical
produce. The distribution of plants depends on the
distribution of rain. There is no equivalent to the
Mediterranean climate and produce of Australia or
Africa, except in the extreme north-west, for the
temperature of the south-eastern region, which re-
ceives rains during the northern winter, is never
under 75° F. Owing to the configuration of India,
the dry conditions which produce desert, found in
Western Australia and South Africa, are confined to
the region round the lower Indus. The peninsular
part is exposed to the over-sea wind of summer,
and only the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats
are comparatively dry.
Economic Divisions. The mountain barrier which en-
closes the north of India is wettest in the east, where
it reaches farthest south, and is driest in the north-
west. The vegetation therefore becomes less luxuriant
from east to west. At the foot of the mountains in
the east is a dense useless jungle called the Terai.
Sal is the most important timber-tree in the forests
of the lower slopes, followed by the deodars and
other conifers of the higher forests, above which are
rhododendron scrub and meadows moistened by the
melting of the eternal snows. Tea is cultivated on
the mountain-slopes of Darjiling and Kumaun, the
latter in the basin of the upper Ganges. The moun-
tains west of the Indus plain receive very little rain,
and that mainly in winter. Wheat, millets, and many


INDIA AND CEYLON.
107
seeds (linseed and gingelly) are grown in all parts of
the Deccan. In the hillier central region wheat
flourishes, and cotton is grown south of the Narbada
on a rich black volcanic soil which holds moisture
easily, as well as in the lowlands of the Kathiawar
peninsula. Sugar-cane also grows on this peninsula
and in Mysore. Tobacco and indigo are cultivated
on the eastern coastal plains. Rice is grown on all
the low ground, and even on the hilly lands of the
Mysore and the Central Provinces. Tea and a little
coffee are cultivated in the Nilgiri and Cardamom
Hills, and the cinchona is grown for the protection
it affords to the young tea-plants, as well as for the
'Peruvian bark,' yielding quinine. Coco-nut palms
flourish round the southern coasts.
In Ceylon the mountains are heavily clad with
forests, and in the clearings tea, cacao, and cinchona
ure cultivated. Rice is of importance on the coastal
plains, where the coco-nut and Palmyra (sugar-yield-
ing) palms flourish, and cinnamon and tobacco are
cultivated.
The hills of Burma are covered with immense
forests of teak. Rice is the principal crop of the
plains, where tobacco, millets, and pulses, and in the
north some cotton and wheat, are also grown.
Minerals. Salt is the most important mineral in
India. The greater part is obtained by evaporating
sea-water in the Rann of Kutch, on the Bombay coast
in the west, and on the Madras coast in the east. It
is also obtained from Lake Sambhar and other parts of
arid Rajputana, and in the mines of the Salt Range of
the Punjab. Coal, which is little needed for domestic
purposes, and used mainly to drive engines, is not


108
INDIA AND CEYLON.
widely distributed. It is found near Quetta, in
Baluchistan, at Raniganj and Karharbari, west of the
Ganges delta, in Bengal, at Umaria in Rewa, Singareni
in Haidarabad, and Makum in Assam. Some petroleum
has been found in Burma. Iron is widely distributed,
the most important ores being found at Salem, in
Madras. It has been proposed to smelt these at or
near Calcutta with Bengal coal. Tin is mined in the
north of the Malay Peninsula Gold is found in
Mysore. Precious stones come from Burma and
Ceylon, Burina rubies and Ceylon sapphires being
celebrated.
Manufactures.—A country so populous as India
naturally requires an immense supply of manufac-
tured articles of many kinds. The great bulk of these
is provided by native labour. In the nineteenth cen-
tury, however, vast shipments of textiles, especially
cottons and hardware, were made from the factories
of Europe, especially from the United Kingdom.
Towards the end of that century numerous factories
were built in India itself to manufacture locally-grown
cotton and jute into cloths. In addition to the advan-
tages of producing the raw material and having a
large market for the manufactured goods, India has
plenty of cheap labour. Its disadvantages are (1) that
this labour is not nearly so efficient as that of Europe,
and in the long-run is almost as costly ; (2) there is no
local supply of coal in and around Bombay and Poona,
where most cotton is manufactured; and (3) during
the dry season the air is too dry for successful spin-
ning, and has to be artificially moistened. Cotton
is also made in Bengal, but the manufacture of
jute at Howrah, a suburb of Calcutta, is more


INDIA AND CEYLON.
109
important. There are also a few modern woollen and
paper mills.
Means of Communication.—The rivers of southern
India fluctuate greatly in volume in the dry and wet
seasons, and enter the sea across flat deltas, so that
they are of little use as means of transport, although
invaluable for irrigation.
The Indus has a swift current and many shifting
sand-banks, and can be used only by very shallow
craft. The Ganges, on the other hand, is navigable to
the very base of the mountains at Hardwar. The
Ganges Canal, the upper part of which joins Hardwar
to Cawnpore, and the lower part to Allahabad, with
several thousand miles of branches, is used for irri-
gation, and on its main course also for navigation.
The Hugli is the distributary of the Ganges most
used for navigation. It has a strong bore and many
shifting sand-banks, and is kept open for ocean vessels
as far as Calcutta only by constant dredging.
The Irawadi is navigable for river steamers as far
as Bhamo, near the Chinese frontier. Ocean vessels
sail by its western distributary to Bassein, and by
its eastern one to Rangoon. The Salwin is navigable
only for about eighty miles. Moulmein is the port on
its left bank.
Railways.—The railway system of India is rapidly
being extended. Two gauges are used—the standard
(5 ft. 6 in.) gauge and the mètre gauge. Standard-
gauge lines run from Karachi to Lahore and Peshawar
through Multan, over which the produce of the Punjab
is brought to the coast. An important branch runs
through the Bolan Pass and Quetta to the Afghan
frontier. From Bombay a railway runs northward


110
INDIA AND CEYLON.
through Surat and Baroda to Ahmadabad. A second
line passes through the Khandwa Gap in the Satpura
Mountains to Allahabad and Cawnpore. A third runs
south of the Satpura Mountains through Nagpur
direct to Calcutta. A fourth connects Bombay and
Madras, and is continued across the peninsula to
Calicut by the Palghat Gap. There are many mètre-
gauge lines in the southern part of the Deccan, which
reach the west coast at Goa. From Calcutta a standard-
gauge line skirts the east coast to Madras. Another
runs by the Ganges and Punjab to the north-west
frontier, with many branches to the foot of the hills,
and with a mountain railway to Darjiling and to
Simla, the headquarters of the Government during the
rains. The Bengal and Assam lines are being con-
nected with those of Burma, which run from Rangoon
through the Sittang valley and Mandalay to Bhamo.
A short line follows the Irawadi from Rangoon to
Prome. A railway is built in Ceylon from Colombo
to the tea-plantations in the mountains.
Irrigation.—The Indus is to Sind what the Nile is
to Egypt, and a great network of canals makes it and
the Punjab fertile. The Ganges Canal, from Hardwar
to Cawnpore, on the right bank of the main river,
is 1000 miles long, with several thousand miles of
branches, which irrigate the Doab (the region between
two rivers) between the Ganges and the Jumna. The
deltas of the great eastern rivers Mahanadi, Godaveri,
Krishna, and Kaveri (Cauvery) are all canalised.
Artificial lakes have been formed, and wells have been
sunk in many parts for irrigation purposes. At least
between three and four million acres of India are
rendered fertile by irrigation.


INDIA AND CEYLON,
111
Trade.—The land frontiers of India are difficult to
traverse, and the trade carried over them is small.
From Quetta, goods of eastern manufacture are sent to eastern
Persia by Seistan. Trade with Afghanistan is carried on from
Quetta with Kandahar, and by the Khaibar Pass with Kabul.
Leh, on the upper Indus, trades with Chinese Turkestan over
high passes more than two miles above the sea-level, but the
trade is declining, owing to Russian competition. Cottons, mainly
brought from Europe, are the chief import, and hides, skins,
and carpets, and the drug charas, are the chief exports across
these frontiers. The most trade with Tibet is carried on by the
Chumbi through the frontier port of Yatung, and is slightly in-
creasing. Some trade is done with eastern China through Kunlong
Ferry:
The main trade of India, however, is sea-borne. In
spite of its immense population, India exports large
quantities of food-stuffs, more particularly wheat, that
from the Punjab passing through Karachi, that from
the Deccan through Bombay. Little rice is avail-
able for export in Bengal, but great quantities are
shipped from the less densely peopled Burma. Tea
from Assam and Darjiling, indigo, opium, jute, oil-
seeds, and hides are exported from Calcutta. The
tea, coffee, and tobacco of southern India are exported
mainly from Madras. Cotton is one of the chief
exports of Bombay. Cotton manufactures, hardware,
machinery, and railway plant are by far the most
important articles imported; next come sugar, pro-
visions and drinks of all kinds, chemicals, silk and
woollen goods and apparel.
Most of the import and export trade is with Europe,
especially with the United Kingdom. It is increasing
with Germany, and also with America, Australia, and
Asia.


INTERTROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA.
113
ascends by steep escarpments to the plateau. The
coastal plain, however, extends a considerable distance
up the Zambezi and Niger valleys, both of which are
difficult of access from the sea, from the shallowness
of the distributaries of their mangrove-fringed deltas,
and the dense, wet jungles of their lower basins. The
Congo, on the other hand, enters the sea by a deep
estuary, but the passage up the river is barred by a
succession of magnificent cascades and rapids. Once
the higher ground is reached, both the Niger and the
Congo offer extensive waterways, to which the great
lakes of the East African Plateau must be added.
Railways are now being built from the coast to these
internal waterways, and are described in the pages
which follow.
Climate and Vegetation.—Throughout this region the
air is always hot, except on the higher plateaus, where
it is often cold at nights. Near the equator there
are two dry and two wet seasons, the latter occurring
when the sun is nearest the zenith at noon—that is,
near the two equinoxes. Between Victoria Nyanza
and Tanganyika there is no completely dry period.
Towards the northern and southern limits of the
region the rainy season occurs at midsummer, while
midwinter is dry. In the lowlands the rainfall is
plentiful, and round the Guinea coast it is very abun-
dant. Here the dense tropical forests are found. The
higher plateaus have a much smaller rainfall, and
are grass-lands (savanas) with wooded belts along
the river-courses, and clumps of trees in the moister
regions between the rivers.
The Congo-Zambezi Plateau is a rich savana-land,
with dense river-woods. It is supposed to contain
Com, Geog. 2
н


114
CENTRAL AFRICA AND
many economic minerals. At present it is practically
unoccupied by the white man except in the Nyasa
region and in the extreme west. In both coffee
flourishes, and other tropical plants are cultivated
on a smaller scale. Ivory is still obtained from the
interior. In most regions roads are absent, and goods
are carried by porters over narrow footpaths. A road
has been cleared between Lakes Nyasa and Tanganyika,
and other roads have been made in southern Nyasa-
land. That to Chiromo on the Shiré connects with the
steamers plying on the lower Zambezi, most of which
use the Chinde distributary to reach the sea. A short
railway connects St Paul de Loanda with the coffee
plantations of Ambara, in Portuguese West Africa.
Politically the plateau is divided between Portugal
and Britain.
Portuguese West Africa, or Angola, lies in the west.
It is dry along the coast, but wetter on the loftier
highlands, where coffee is cultivated. Its main exports
are coffee, rubber, vegetable oils, coco-nuts, and sugar,
exported through St Paul de Loanda, Benguela, and
Mossamedes.
North of the upper Zambezi is Northern Rhodesia,
formerly known as British Central Africa, administered
by the British South African Chartered Company,
and subdivided into North-western and North-eastern
Rhodesia. It is little known and practically quite un-
developed. It must not be confused with the British
Central African Protectorate, or Nyasaland, which lies
to the east of Northern Rhodesia and to the west and
south of Lake Nyasa, and is one of the most success-
fully organised and administered of intertropical
colonies. Coffee is successfully grown, especially on


INTERTROPICAL SOUTII AMERICA.
115
the Shiro Highlands, and rice, whent, and other
cercals are cultivated. Blantyro is the chief settle-
ment.
Madagascar in a largo island off this coast, twice the
area of the United Kingdom. Its mountains run
from north to south, and are steepost on the eastern,
which is also the wettest and most densely forested
side Savanas prevail on the summit and in the
Houth-west. The forests yield rubber, cattle feed on
the grass-Innds, the cultivated aron produces all kinds
of tropical plants, and the mineral wealth is believed
to be great.
Gold, raphia fibro, india-rubber, cattle and hides,
wax and vanilla, are the chief exports. The British
trado, which was formerly very important, has been
reduced two-thirds since the island becamo French.
The chief ports are Tamatavo in the east, and Majunga
in the north-west.
The Plateau of the Great Lakes is over 4000 foot high,
and is relatively dry. It is an open havana, which
feeds immense numbers of cattle and shoop. Millet is
the principal grain cultivated. In the lower lands
round the Victoria Nyanza the banana flourishes.
The highlands to the east, rising to greater heights,
aro relatively healthy, and it is believed that the
Nandi platonu of British East Africa is suitablo for
European sottlement. The wet and malarial cant-
const plain producos rubber.
The islands of Zanzibar and Pomba are noted for
their spices, especially cloves.
Politically, the plateau is divided between Portugal,
Germany, Britain, and Itnly.
South of the Rovuma and east of Lake Nyasa is


116
CENTRAL AFRICA AND
Portuguese East Africa, which extends up the Zambezi
valley. The chief ports are Quilimane, the port of
the Zambezi, and Mozambique. From Beira, south
of the Zambezi, a railway is built to Southern
Rhodesia. South of the tropic of Capricorn, Delagoa
Bay, with its port Lourenço Marques, is also within
Portuguese East Africa.
German East Africa lies between the Rovuma and
the Umba. Rubber, ivory, and horns are the chief
exports. Many plantations have been formed on or
near the coast, where coco-nuts, coffee, cacao, vanilla,
and other tropical plants are grown. The ports are
Dar-es-Salaam, the capital, and Pangani. A short
railway runs from Tanga to Pongwe.
The British territories consist of the protectorates
of (a) Zanzibar; (6) British East Africa Protectorate,
between the Umba and Juba Rivers; (c) Uganda,
round the Victoria Nyanza; (d) British Somaliland,
south of the Gulf of Aden.
The town of Zanzibar is the commercial centre of
East Africa.
British East Africa is opened up by a railway from
Kilindini, one of the two ports of Mombasa, which
runs by Kibwezi and Nairobi to Kisumu and Port
Florence on Victoria Nyanza (570 miles).
Transport from the coast to the lake, which was
formerly done by porters and took several weeks, is
reduced to three days. The present exports are
ivory, rubber, cattle, hides, and gum.
The Uganda region is fertile round the Victoria
Nyanza, and is rich in minerals, especially iron and
copper.
The Somali Peninsula, partly Italian, partly British,


INTERTROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA.
117
is grass-land, in some parts very poor. It is a pastoral
land, and also produces myrrh and other fragrant
woods. The British ports are Berbera and Zeila.
The valleys of the Congo Basin are all covered with
dense forest, supplying rubber. The higher ground
between the river-courses is less densely wooded
and better peopled. The chief exports are rubber and
ivory; the imports are cotton goods and hardware.
On the Congo estuary are the ports of Banana,
Boma, and Matadi, above which there are numerous
rapids. A railway joins Matadi to Leopoldville on
Stanley Pool, above which the river is navigable as
far as Stanley Falls. All the tributaries within the
circle of which this is a diameter are navigable,
affording over 6000 miles of waterway. Near the
2000-feet contour line nearly all the rivers have
rapids, which prevent communication by water with
their upper courses, many of which have also long
navigable reaches.
Most of the Congo basin south of the Ubangi-Welle
and the main river from Stanley Pool to its mouth
forms the Congo Independent State. It is bounded on
the north by French Congo.
The Guinea Coast is one of the hottest and wettest
regions in the world. The forests are consequently
very dense, and the climate most unhealthy for all
men, especially for Europeans—who have called parts
of it the White man's grave.' This unhealthiness
is a serious difficulty in the way of its being opened
up by Europeans, who in the twentieth as in the
fifteenth century are here still mainly traders.
The local trade is in palm oil and kernels and
india-rubber. Coffee plantations flourish in Liberia,


118
CENTRAL AFRICA AND
and have been planted in the German Kamerun
colony, but most of the produce is still the natural
growth of the forest. Any cultivated or manufactured
articles at the ports have come across the unhealthy
forest belt from the fertile and relatively healthy
savanas of the Sudan.
The British colonies in West Africa are Northern
and Southern Nigeria, Lagos, the Gold Coast, Sierra
Leone, and Gambia.
Northern Nigeria lies in the Sudan, and is discussed
on pages 119, 120.
Southern Nigeria consists of the lower deltaic por-
tion of the Niger basin, of which Asaba, at the apex
of the delta, is the capital. It exports rubber, palm-
oil, and oil-seeds from Akassa and other ports.
Lagos is an island, and with the adjacent coastal
lands west of the Niger delta forms a British colony
and protectorate. Lagos is the chief port of the
lower Niger basin. A railway connects it to the
mainland, and runs for 122 miles to Ibadan, with
a short branch to Abeokuta.
The Gold Coast still deserves its name, for gold
is obtained from the sands of its shores, as well as
inland. Railways are being constructed towards the
gold-mines and the higher lands of Ashanti from
Sekondi. Akra is the chief port.
Sierra Leone is bordered by lagoons with much local
traffic. The capital, Freetown, is built on the best
harbour in West Africa.
The small Gambia colony is completely surrounded
by French territory.
The Sudan is the North African region having a rainy
summer and a dry winter season, with rich grass-lands


INTERTROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA.
119
in the south, and poor grass-lands in the north, passing
gradually into the desert. It has greater extremes
of temperature, a smaller rainfall, and a more healthy
climate than the Guinea coast. It is fruitful and
well cultivated, producing sorghum and other millets.
Flocks and herds are numerous, and the natives in
the Niger basin are skilled workers in leather, as well
as expert manufacturers of cloth. It may be divided
into three parts—the Western, drained by the Niger;
the Central, drained to Lake Chad ; and the Eastern,
drained to the Nile.
The Western Sudan consists of the Niger basin,
the upper part of which is French, the lower part
British. Of the British Niger protectorates, Southern
Nigeria belongs to the Guinea coast region, Northern
Nigeria to the Sudan. The natural productions of
the Sudan are many and varied. Rubber and palm
oil and kernels in the south of the western portion,
gums from the desert confines, the manufactured
leather and cloth, and even some slaves, from the
central populous strip, are exported. Cotton goods,
hardware, and vile alcohol are the chief imports, most
coming through the Guinea ports. The French have
built a railway from Kayes and Bufalube on the upper
Senegal to Kulikoro on the upper Niger, which taps
much of the trade of the Western Sudan, for-
merly reaching the Guinea coast or going north-
ward across the desert. Caravans still cross the
desert, starting from centres such as Timbuktu, in
French territory, at the northern bend of the Niger.
In Northern Nigeria are some of the largest towns
of Africa, with a flourishing trade entirely in native
hands. The Hausas are the great traders of the


120
CENTRAL AFRICA AND
Sudan, and their trade-routes extend to the Mediter-
ranean and Red Seas, as well as to the Gulf of
Guinea. Sokoto, on the Sokoto; Kano, farther east;
Bida, near the bend where the Niger turns south-
ward to its delta; and Yola, at the head of navigation
on the important Benué, a left bank tributary of the
Niger, are the chief centres.
The Niger is an international waterway, whose
chief trading centres, in addition to those mentioned
above, are Idda, Asaba, Akassa, and other ports on
the delta in Southern Nigeria.
French West Africa, in the widest sense, reaches the
coast in French Congo, Dahomey, the Ivory Coast
(Côte d'ivoire), French Guinea, and Senegal, which
extend a considerable distance inland, beyond which
the greater part of the French Sudan, west of the
middle Niger and east of Lake Chad, and the Sahara
west of the Tibesti or Tarso Mountains, form the
military territories and protectorates of the Chad.
These territories are slowly being developed, and the
older colonies now pay their way. French Congo is
densely forested, and this prevents easy communication
from Loango, the chief port, to Brazzaville on Stanley
Pool. A railway is projected from Kotonu to Say on
the Niger in Dahomey. Grand Bassam is the chief
port on the Ivory Coast. French Guinea includes
the Futa Jallon Highlands, where cattle are reared.
A wharf is being built at Konakry, and a railway
constructed to the Niger. St Louis, the capital of
Senegal, is joined by railway to the excellent port
of Dakar ‘at Cape Verd, and the Senegal River can
be ascended to Kayes in the rainy season, from
which a railway is built to the upper Niger. The


122
CENTRAL AFRICA AND
of the falls at Lado to Khartum, but occasionally
navigation is interrupted by masses of vegetation-
the sudd—which block the river. This region is now
controlled by Anglo-Egyptian authorities.
The Abyssinian plateau is high enough to have
a temperate climate in its upper districts. Rain
falls heavily in summer, and the flooded rivers carry
away large quantities of the rich volcanic soil, to be
deposited as fertilising mud on the plains of Egypt.
Tropical fruits, such as the banana, and vegetables,
such as sweet potatoes and yam, can be cultivated in
the tropical and subtropical valleys; and cotton, coffee,
and sugar are also grown. Temperate fruits and
cereals are grown at higher elevations. Barley yields
the chief crop. Shepherding, however, for which the
country is admirably suited, is the chief occupation,
sheep and goats being largely kept. The country
is not yet developed in the European sense, and pro-
gress is hindered by bad roads and over-taxation.
The king claims a tithe of such produce as ivory,
coffee, beeswax, and musk. The imports are various
kinds of manufactured articles. The French have
built a railway from Harar, the eastern trade centre,
to their growing port of Jibuti (Fr. Djibouti), nearly
opposite Aden, at the entrance to the Red Sea.
NORTHERN SOUTH AMERICA.
Configuration and Economic Divisions.—South America
north of 15° S. is bounded by the lofty Andes on the
west. The east consists of the lowlands of the Amazon
and Orinoco, with the Guiana Highlands and the
northern portion of the Brazilian Highlands. It thus
contrasts with Africa, the Congo basin lying from


INTERTROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA.
123
1500 to 2000 feet higher than that of the Amazon.
South America is more subject to oceanic influences
than Africa, and has a smaller range of temperature
and a greater rainfall. The forests of the Amazon
and of the north-east coastal plains are even denser
than those of the Central African valleys. They
abound in rubber, and yield much more timber,
which is floated down the great rivers. The deltaic
lagoons of the Guiana coast produce excellent sugar.
The Eastern Highlands and the lowlands farthest
away from the equator, both with a marked dry season,
are savana-lands. Cattle and horses are kept, especi-
ally on the llanos of the Orinoco. Coffee is cultivated
in the south of the Brazilian Highlands and on the
wetter eastern slopes of the Andes. The Andes are
so high that products of every climate can be culti-
vated on their sides. The most important, in addition
to coffee, cacao, and sugar round the base, is cinchona.
South America, like North America, is a continent
of excellent waterways. The Amazon is navigable
for 2300 miles from its mouth to Iquitos for ocean
steamers, and for nearly 500 miles higher to Ackual
Point at the foot of the Andes for vessels drawing
14 feet of water. Beyond this the Manseriche rapids
practically arrest navigation, but occasionally a small
steamer ascends them. All the great tributaries are
also navigable for a considerable distance from the
main river. A line of falls, which can be traced both
south and north on any good map, separates the
lower from the upper navigable reaches. The Madeira
is the most important of the tributaries. The
Orinoco and its tributaries, the Apure and Meta, are
also navigable, so that the whole of the eastern slopes


124
CENTRAL AFRICA AND
of the Andes are most economically reached by the
great rivers. The Magdalena and Cauca are routes
to the branching ranges of the Colombian Andes
from the north. Few railways have yet been built.
The eastern states of this region are Brazil, French,
Dutch, and British Guiana, and Venezuela. The
western or Andean states are Colombia, Ecuador,
Peru, and Bolivia.
Brazil is a vast country, larger than Australia or the
United States without Alaska. It occupies the southern
and eastern slopes of the Guianas, nearly all the low-
lands of the Amazon basin with their dense wet jungle,
and the Brazilian Highlands. The forests yield much
india-rubber, but the area from which it is obtained
is farther and farther from the main streams, and
attempts are made to cultivate it round Pará. Sugar,
cotton, tobacco, and cacao are the most important
crops of the northern Highlands, and coffee of the
regions on or near the tropic, especially of the states
of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and Minas Geraes.
Cattle flourish on the opener campos. Brazil diamonds
were famous before those of South Africa were dis-
covered, and gold, silver, mercury, copper, and many
other metals are found, but are little worked. Iron is
not smelted owing to lack of good fuel. Cotton and
woollen manufacturing is increasing, especially at Rio
de Janeiro, the chief town and port, built on one of
the most beautiful and commodious harbours in the
world. From it many railway lines run across the
plateau, one passing through the coffee districts of
São Paulo to the port of Santos, from which much of
the crop is shipped. In addition to coffee, sugar, and
cotton from Bahia and Pernambuco, rubber is exported


126
CENTRAL AFRICA AND
most important means of transport. The mineral
wealth is considerable. Silver ore, rubber, and sugar
are the chief exports; the imports are manufactured
goods of every kind. Bogotá, the capital, lies on a
lofty plateau. Medellin is the centre of the mining
province of Antioquia. Barranquilla, near the mouth of
the Magdalena, and Puerto Colombia are the outports
of that river-basin. The ports of Aspinwall or Colon
on the Atlantic, and of Panamá on the Pacific side of
the Panamá isthmus, are connected by a railway and
by a half-finished canal (see pages 140–141). Ecuador
is even more backward in respect of means of com-
munication. Cacao is the chief agricultural product
and principal export from Guayaquil, the chief port.
Rubber is cultivated, and every sort of tropical
produce can be grown. Minerals are abundant, but
little worked. A railway is being made from Guaya-
quil towards Quito, the capital, built on a lofty
plateau. Much of western Peru is a rainless desert,
fertile where irrigated by water from the many
rivers from the Andes. Cotton, coffee, and sugar
are the chief agricultural products of the eastern
slopes of the Andes. The tropical forests supply
many commodities of economic importance, such as
rubber, dye-woods, and medicinal plants, including
the world-famous cinchona or Peruvian bark. Wool
is obtained from the sheep, llama, and the alpaca goat,
and exported in considerable quantities. Minerals
are known to be important, but cannot be profitably
worked till better facilities exist for transport. Most
of the trade of Peru is done with the United Kingdom,
followed by the United States and Germany. The
capital is Lima, and its port Callao,


INTERTROPICAL SOUTH AMERICA.
127
Bolivia consists of a plateau, the eastern ranges and
slopes of the Cordilleras, and the lowlands at their
foot. It yields every variety of produce that Peru
does, and is especially famous for its silver-mines and
its tin and rubber. The rubber is sent by the eastern
rivers, and most of the silver and tin to Antofagasta
or Mollendo on the Pacific by railway over the Andes.
Most imports come from Germany, which takes but
little less of the exports than Britain.
CHAPTER XIV.
INSULAR AND PENINSULAR LANDS BETWEEN
THE TROPICS
(Excluding Peninsular India).
THESE differ from the regions described in the last
chapter in being islands, and not parts of vast con-
tinents. Oceanic influences are all-important. The
temperature is uniformly high, and differs little from
day to night or from season to season, and the rainfall
is usually high.
The East Indies are the insular equivalents of the
Congo and Amazon basins. The West Indies and the
Philippines, lying nearer the tropic, are the insular
equivalents in the northern hemisphere of tropical
Queensland.
In the East Indies the native population is large
and at different stages of civilisation. In the West
Indies the native population has been exterminated
and its place filled by negroes of African descent.
The West Indies and the northern Philippines can be


128
INSULAR AND PENINSULAR
settled by whites, but cultivation is entirely carried on
by native labour. The exports are tropical timber,
fruits and other agricultural products. Cottons and
hardware are the chief imports.
THE INDO-CHINA PENINSULA.
The Straits Settlements consist of the islands of
Penang and Singapore; Wellesley, the Dindings
(partly insular), and Malacca on the Malay Peninsula;
and the Federated Malay States, under British protec-
tion, of Perak, Pahang, Selangor, and Negri-Sembilan,
to which must be added the state of Johore. The
centre of the Malay Peninsula is traversed by a
mountain-range, from 3000 to 6000 feet high. It is
colder and wetter (100 to 200 inches per annum) on
its upper slopes than nearer the coast; but every-
where the climate is equable, with cool nights.
Rainy seasons occur over the whole region when
the sun is at the zenith, and in the east there
is also a rainy season when the north-east trades
prevail. The forests produce gutta-percha, rubber,
resin, rattans, and excellent dye-woods and hard
timbers, especially between 1000 and 2000 feet above
sea-level. Cattle are reared for draught purposes.
Tin is the most valuable mineral product of the
Malay Peninsula.
The native Malays are hunters and collectors of
forest produce. Most of the agriculture and mining
is done by Chinamen and Tamils from southern
India.
Railways of mètre gauge are made or are being
made from the ports of Butterworth in Wellesley, Port
Weld in Perak, Klang in Selangor, and Port Dickson


LANDS BETWEEN THE TROPICS.
129
in Negri-Sembilan to a line running parallel to the
coast from twenty-five to fifty miles inland, with two
long branches to the upper and middle parts of
the Pahang River. Bullock-carts carry merchandise
beyond the railways.
Tin and spices are the chief exports.
Penang and Singapore are the chief commercial
centres and ports of call for steamers passing through
the Malacca Straits. Singapore is one of the greatest
‘shipping junctions' in the world. It is a free port, in
regular communication with Japan and China in the
north-east, the Malay Archipelago and Australia in
the east and south-east, with India and, by the Suez
Canal, with Europe in the north-west, and with South
Africa and with Europe by the Sunda Strait in the
south.
Siam is a mountainous land with alluvial plains
occupying the basin of the Menam, and having under
tribute the states in the middle part of the Malay
Peninsula. It has a monsoonal climate. The most
important product of its damp, fertile, alluvial plains
is rice; of the dense forests which cover much of
the country, teak. Gold, rubies, and sapphires are
found, and the mineral wealth is supposed to be very
great. Rice and teak are the chief exports, and
manufactured articles, treasure, sugar, and opium the
chief imports. Bangkok, the capital, is the trading
centre on the Menam. A railway joins it to Paknam
at the mouth of the river, and is continued to Korat;
another is being built northward to Chiengmai ;
others are projected.
French Indo-China consists of Cambodia, Cochin-
China, Annam, Tongking, Laos, and the French terri-
Com. Geog. 2
ucu.


130
INSULAR AND PENINSULAR
tory in China at Kwangchou east of the Leichou
peninsula. The Mekong River runs along its western
margin, and will form an important route to a yet
practically unopened land. The hilly land to the
east is well wooded, and supplies teak, camphor, and
rubber. Coco-nuts grow round the coast, and the
Mekong, Red River, and other deltas are fertile if
unhealthy regions, producing much rice, sugar, and
cotton. The narrow Annam coast is less fertile, and
fish form the chief food of the inhabitants. Coal is
mined in Annam (at Tourane) and in Tongking (at
Hongay and Kebao).
Saigon, north of the Mekong delta in Cochin-China,
is the chief port in the south ; Hué, in Annam, is
the leading town in the centre; Hanoi and its port
of Haiphong are the chief places of Tongking.
Great railway construction is contemplated. The
chief line already made runs from Hanoi to the
Chinese frontier at Nacham, and another is being
built beside the Red River to tap the trade of
Yunnan in China.
The trade is in rice, exported to the Philippines,
Hongkong, and even China, as well as to France. The
imports of manufactured goods come mainly from the
United Kingdom, United States, and Japan.
THE EAST INDIA ISLANDS.
Except Borneo and Celebes, most of these mountain-
ous islands are volcanic. The soil is fertile. Always
hot, and almost always wet, they are covered with
rich forests on the plains and in the valleys, with open
woods and savanas on the higher ground. The coastal
lands produce coco-nuts, and the low lands bananas


LANDS BETWEEN THE TROPICS.
131
and tropical fruits, sago, bamboo, and many useful
timbers. Coffee, tobacco, sugar, and rice are cultivated.
The Dutch East Indies form the most important part
of the East India Islands. They consist of Sumatra,
Java, part of Borneo, Celebes, the Moluccas, the
western part of New Guinea, and the smaller Sunda
Islands, with the exception of the eastern part of
Timor, which is Portuguese. Java, although not the
largest, is the most important of these possessions,
and a brief account of it may be applied with modi-
fications to most of the others.
Java is a volcanic island about the size of England,
with a uniformly high temperature and an abundant
rainfall, which is heaviest in the south and west. Its
rich soil is very fruitful, and is carefully irrigated,
drained, and cultivated, so that this 'garden of the
East,' although a purely agricultural country, supports
a population resembling in density that of England.
A quarter of the land is cultivated. Rice and maize
occupy the greatest area. Sago is found in the west,
and coco-nuts round the coast. Above the plains
coffee, tea, cacao, sugar, tobacco, indigo, and cinchona
are cultivated. Coffee, sugar, and cinchona are of
especial importance. Since the troubles in Cuba, Java
has been the greatest producer of cane-sugar, and it
is by far the most important source of quinine. The
forests contain many valuable trees, such as teak,
bamboo, camphor, and rubber. The higher grass-
lands support many cattle and buffaloes, whose hides
form an important export.
The leading port is Batavia, from which a railway
runs to all the chief centres of the island.
Sumatra is more extensively covered with dense


134
INSULAR AND PENINSULAR
PACIFIC ISLANDS.
The intertropical isles of the Pacific are either low
coral atolls with coco-nut palms, or volcanic islands,
which in many cases are girdled with coral-reefs.
The temperature is constant and warm, the rainfall
as a rule sufficient, and the volcanic islands especially
fertile. Copra is the most important product in all
the islands, but sugar is cultivated in Fiji, Samoa, and
Hawaii, where bananas, rice, maize, cacao, and even
tea are also grown.
It is hardly necessary to enumerate all the islands.
The Tonga, Fiji, and many smaller islands are British.
The most fertile of the Samoan islands are German.
France owns Tahiti. Britain and France prevent
each other from controlling the New Hebrides. The
Hawaiian Islands, part of the United States of
America, are the most important group, and with
Guam and the excellent Samoan harbour of Tutuila
give the chief strategic positions in the Pacific islands
to that country. Honolulu in Hawaii, Apia in Samoa,
and Suva in Fiji are the most important commercial
and transport centres.
New Caledonia is an island of a very different type,
lying between New Zealand and New Guinea. It has
a mountainous axis, in which nickel, cobalt, copper,
and chromate of iron are found, and on whose sides
are thick forests. Coffee, maize, tobacco, sugar, and
practically all tropical products can be cultivated.
Minerals, especially nickel, and tinned meats are the
chief exports. The trade is chiefly with France.
Nouméa is the chief port, and a railway is built
from it to the interior.


LANDS BETWEEN THE TROPICS.
135
THE WEST INDIES.
The West Indies consist of the Great Antilles—the
four large islands of Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola
(divided into Haiti and Santo Domingo), and Porto
Rico, the low coralline Bahamas lying north-west of
Cuba and mainly north of the tropic, and the Lesser
Antilles stretching north and south at their eastern
extremity between 10° and 20° N. With the excep-
tion of Barbados, which is a low island of coral
limestone, the Antilles are mountainous, most of the
Lesser Antilles being volcanic.
Climate. Considerable differences of temperature
are found at different heights within a small area,
but everywhere the daily and seasonal variations are
small. The heat is tempered by a sea-breeze during
the day, and by a hill-breeze during the night.
The trade-winds prevail at all seasons over the
West Indies. February and March are the driest
months. There are two rainy seasons, the rainfall
being heaviest in May and October in the north,
and a month or more later in the south, and in
Trinidad there is one maximum in August. The
eastern and northern sides exposed to the winds are
the wettest.
Products.—The windward sides of the islands are
wetter, cooler, and more densely wooded than the
leeward sides. The forests produce mahogany, ebony,
and other cabinet hardwoods and valuable dye-woods.
Wide stretches of savana are found in the upland
regions. Sugar-cane is almost the only crop in Bar-
bados, Antigua, and St Kitts, and is important in
almost all the islands. The cultivation of cacao and


136
INSULAR AND PENINSULAR
of the banana, pine-apple, and other tropical fruits
for the United States and British markets is being
extended. Cuba is famous for tobacco. Sugar, rum,
and cigars are the chief articles manufactured.
Trinidad is a square island with three peninsulas,
two forined by the northern and one by the southern
mountains. The rainfall is heavy from June till
December. Sugar is the chief product, the estates
being in the hands of large capitalists. Many cacao-
trees have been planted in recent years, and coffee is
also grown. Coco-nuts are a source of profit along the
sandy shores of the south and east. Mahogany, log-
wood, and other timber and dye-woods are obtained
from the forests.
A large pitch-lake supplies asphalt, which, with
sugar, cacao, and Angostura bitters, is the chief
export. Coolie labour is employed, most of the over-
seers being British. Port of Spain, the capital and
chief port, is joined to San Fernando by a railway.
Barbados has a climate similar to that of Trinidad.
Every acre is cultivated with sugar by negroes, who
form the bulk of the dense population and own most
of the land. There is a steady emigration of the
surplus population from Bridgetown, the capital.
The British Windward Islands are Grenada, St
Vincent, and St Lucia Grenada grows cacao and
some spices and cotton St Vincent produces sugar
and arrowroot. The sugar crop was destroyed by a
hurricane in 1898, and the sugar industry has not yet
been reorganised with efficient central factories. In
1902 there were several violent eruptions of the
Soufrière volcano, which destroyed much property
and many lives. Live-stock are raised. St Lucia


LANDS BETWEEN THE TROPICS.
137
exports sugar and cacao from Castries, one of the
best harbours in the West Indies.
Sugar is the most important product of the British
Leeward Islands—i.e. those of the Lesser Antilles from
Dominica northwards which are British. Dominica
presents a marked physical contrast to Barbados.
It is very mountainous and volcanic; but in spite
of its fertility, only one-twentieth is cultivated.
Sugar is replaced by limes; coco-nuts, cacao, spices,
and fruits are also cultivated. There are few good
roads. Roseau is the capital. Limes and cacao are
grown on Montserrat; sugar, coffee, cacao, and tobacco
on St Kitts; and sugar and pine-apple on Antigua.
Jamaica is an elliptical island which consists of the
Blue Mountains in the east, separated by a valley from
the limestone plateau of the west. It is hot in the
lowlands and cool on the mountains. Rain falls in
the summer months, and most abundantly in the east
and north.
The limestone region is bare in many places. The
alluvial lowlands are the most fertile part of the
island. Cattle, sheep, horses, and mules are fed on
the pasture-lands.
Bananas are by far the most valuable crop. Next
comes coffee, the best of which is grown on the Blue
Mountains, and sugar, now decreasing in importance.
Oranges, allspice or pimento, logwood, rum, ginger,
and coco-nuts are the other important exports.
Railways join Kingston, the capital, to Port Antonio
and Montego on the north coast.
Half the imports come from, and more than half
the exports go to, the United States of America; the
United Kingdom accounting for less than half the


138
INSULAR AND PENINSULAR
former, and taking a little more than a quarter of
the latter. Trade with the United Kingdom will
undoubtedly grow since the establishment of a direct
quick service in January 1901. Jamaica owes its
prosperity to the variety of the products cultivated.
Reliance on sugar alone has long been given up.
The breaking up of large estates into small pro-
perties cultivated by their owners has added to the
wealth of the island.
The French West Indies consist of volcanic Martinique,
where disastrous eruptions destroyed the northern half
of the island and killed over 30,000 people in 1902;
and the half-volcanic, half-limestone Guadeloupe, both
densely peopled, and producing, in addition to sugar,
pine-apples, bananas, cacao, and tobacco.
The Dutch own several small islands, of which
Curaçao, famous for a liqueur made from the orange,
is the most important. It lies off the South American
coast.
Saint Croix, or Santa Cruz, the strategic key to the
eastern part of the West Indies, St John, and St
Thomas are Danish, but there are negotiations for
their sale to the United States.
Porto Rico, formerly Spanish, now belonging to the
United States, is very fertile, producing sugar, coffee,
tobacco, and fruits. These are cultivated by peasant
proprietors, the majority of whom are of Spanish
descent. The change in political ownership was fol-
lowed by tariff modifications, which have diverted the
trade of Porto Rico to the United States.
Santo Domingo, the eastern half of Hispaniola, is
peopled by Spanish mulattoes, who cultivate sugar,
tobacco, cacao, coffee, and bananas. Haiti, the French-


140
INSULAR AND PENINSULAR
Three climatic regions can be distinguished—the
lowest or hot region (tierra caliente), the middle or
temperate region (tierra templada), and the highest
or cold region (tierra fria). Most rain falls on the
eastern slopes, where the normal zenithal rainy season
is supplemented by rains during the north-east trades.
Products. The hot regions of the eastern side are
covered with thick forest of valuable timber and dye-
woods—such as mahogany and logwood-and rubber.
The forests are much less dense and important on the
drier western slopes, and give place to open savanas,
on which cattle are fed. This is the region where
coffee, cacao, sugar, cotton, and fruits are cultivated.
British Honduras exports mahogany and logwood,
which, with some rubber, are the staple exports from
all the east-coast ports of Central America—Limon,
in Costa Rica; Greytown, or San Juan del Norte,
and Bluefields, in Nicaragua; Puerto Barrios, in
Guatemala; and Belize, in British Honduras.
Coffee and cacao, bananas and hides, are the chief
exports from the western ports, which are the most
important. The ports are Punta Arenas, in Costa Rica;
Corinto, in Nicaragua; Amapala, on Fonseca Bay, in
Honduras; La Libertad, the port of San Salvador, in
Salvador; and San José, in Guatemala.
The narrow isthmuses of this region permit easy
communication between the Atlantic and Pacific.
Railways cross the isthmuses of Tehuantepec and
Panamá. A great ship-canal is being cut from
Colon on the Atlantic to Panamá on the Pacific.
It has entailed enormous sacrifices of life and money,
and is not yet finished. The climate is very un-
healthy, and the engineering difficulties very great,


LANDS BETWEEN THE TROPICS.
141
the most serious being the river Chagres, which is
heavily flooded during the rainy season and very
difficult to regulate. The canal will probably be
completed under the control of the United States of
America. It has also been proposed to construct a
canal across a depression in Nicaragua, starting from
Greytown on the Atlantic and reaching the Pacific at
Brito. The canal would utilise part of the course
of the San Juan River, which would require to be
dammed, and Lake Nicaragua. The lake will act
as a regulator in the rainy season and diminish the
dangers of flooding ; but a volcano, which is not
extinct, forms an island in the lake, not far from
the proposed steamer track.
MEXICO.
Configuration.—Mexico extends from 15° to 32° N.,
but, although the northern portion is outside the
tropics, it will be convenient to consider the whole
country here. It consists of an elevated plateau,
rising from north to south, where it is called the
Anahuac Plateau. This plateau is bordered east and
west by mountain-ranges, the Eastern and Western
Sierra Madre, at whose base a narrow coastal plain
fringes the ocean. The southern parapet of the
plateau is a region of lofty volcanic mountains,
which tower above the Tehuantepec isthmus, beyond
which the greater part of the limestone peninsula of
Yucatan is still in Mexican territory.
Climate and Vegetation.—Except in the north, north-
west, and centre, where it is very dry, the climate
and vegetation of Mexico resemble that of Central
America, and the three zones, tierra caliente, tierra


142 TROPICAL INSULAR AND PENINSULAR LANDS.
templada, and tierra fria, are all found, the last two
in greater proportion than farther south.
Economic Productions.—Henequin is a characteristic
product of the drier regions. Mexico also produces
rice, sugar, cotton, coffee, and cacao in the lower
slopes and plains, where logwood and timber are
obtained from the forests; and higher up maize, wheat,
and tobacco. Cattle ranches abound in the north, but
the goat, which can live on the very dry herbage
which characterises so much of the interior of Mexico,
is the domestic animal kept in greatest numbers.
Mexico is exceptionally rich in minerals, especially
in silver and gold, and also produces lead, copper, iron,
antimony, and many other metals in smaller quantities.
Trade, Routes, and Towns.- Minerals, tropical pro-
duce, and animals are the chief exports; manufactured
articles of all kinds, machinery, and coal are the chief
imports. Trade is carried on chiefly with the United
States; next with the United Kingdom, France, and
Germany.
The chief ports are Vera Cruz and Tampico (where
much of the silver is shipped) on the Gulf of Mexico,
and Mazatlan (wheat) and Acapulco on the Pacific.
Railways run from Mexico northward to the United
States, to Manzanillo and Sihuatanejo on the Pacific,
and to Tampico and Vera Cruz on the Atlantic.
Zacatecas and Guanajuato are among the chief silver-
mining centres. A railway runs across the Tehuante-
pec isthmus from Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf of Mexico
to Salina Cruz on Tehuantepec Bay of the Pacific.
This line is connected through Vera Cruz to the
Mexican railway system,


144
EASTERN ASIA.
the Japanese Islands the mean temperature varies
from 75° to 40° F., and the mean range is from
20° in the south to 70° in the north. The summers
are everywhere warm, with a temperature of over 80°
in the south, and over 60° in the north. In winter,
while the temperature does not fall below 60° on
the southern coasts, it is as low as 0° in the north.
Much lower winter temperatures, therefore, are ex-
perienced than in similar latitudes in the south of
Australia.
The east of Asia, like the east of Australia, has its
maximum rainfall during the summer months, except
on the western coast of Japan, which receives heavy
rains from winter storms blowing across the Sea of
Japan. These winter rains affect all the southern
Japanese Islands, and make the climate of Japan,
which has a well-distributed rainfall, very different
from that of China, where the rainfall is almost
entirely confined to the summer six months.
The summer rains of Eastern Asia, like those of
Australia, are due to winds which blow from the
ocean to the continent; but whereas in the case
of Australia these winds may be considered as
the normal trade-winds intensified, in the case of
Eastern Asia they are comparable with the monsoons
of India. The cold, invigorating winter climate of
Eastern Asia, however, is totally unlike that of
India.
Destructive typhoons make the South and East
China Seas dangerous to navigate in summer and
autumn.
It will be convenient to consider the economic
geography of this region under its main political


EASTERN ASIA.
145
divisions—the Chinese Empire (with special refer-
ence to China Proper and Manchuria), Korea, and
Japan.
THE CHINESE EMPIRE.
China Proper.—Three great rivers cross China from
west to east—the Si-kiang, in the south, flowing
under the Tropic of Cancer; the Yangtse-kiang, in
the centre, with a course which nearly coincides
with the parallel of 30° N.; and the Hwang-ho, in
the north, which flows in every direction except
west between 35° and 40° N. The Yangtse rises in
Tibet, and with its tributaries drains the centre of
China, forming the most important route to the
interior, as it is navigable for many hundreds of
miles from its mouth. South of the Yangtse the
country consists of mountain-ranges running from
south-west to north-east, between which great tribu-
taries of the Yangtse flow northward, the Yuen and
the Siang entering the Tungting Lake, and the Kan
entering the Poyang. In the summer months, when
the main river is in flood, these lakes act as regu-
lators by receiving a portion of the surplus waters,
and thus preventing them from inundating the lower
parts of the Yangtse basin, which is relatively flat
from a little above the Tungting Lake to the mouth
of the estuary. The Han is an important tributary
from the north-east.
The Hwang-ho also rises in Tibet. Unfortunately
it has no regulating lakes to act as reservoirs, and
consequently the river, which flows over 400 miles
across the plains before reaching the sea, often
floods vast areas, doing havoc both to life and
Com. Geog. 2


146
EASTERN ASIA.
property. It has earned the double name of
* China's blessing' and `China's sorrow,' for it is
invaluable as a means of irrigating and rendering
fertile the northern plains, while its frequent changes
of course not merely cause disastrous floods at the
time, but also ruin the farms round its deserted
course by depriving them of irrigation. The
Hwang-ho is shallow and rapid; it flows through
deep gorges, and, unlike the Yangtse, is of little
use for navigation. The valley of its tributary the
Wei-ho, which rises in Tibet and flows due east, is,
however, an important route to the west.
Economically, China Proper falls into three divi-
sions: (1) the Si-kiang basin; (2) the Yangtse basin;
(3) the northern plains, including the basin of the
Hwang-ho, or Yellow River.
The Si-kiang Basin.—The basin of the Si-kiang, or
West River, lies south of the Nanling Mountains,
and corresponds in latitude with the Fitzroy River
in Queensland or the Limpopo in South Africa.
Tropical vegetation flourishes, but in diminished size,
including bananas and other palms, and many valu-
able timber-trees in the mountain forests. In the
valleys rice and sugar are cultivated. Silk is pro-
duced in large quantities. A little tea is cultivated
in the northern part.
The Yangtse Basin corresponds in latitude with the
south of Queensland and the north of New South
Wales. The climate, however, is more extreme,
with very cold, invigorating winters and hot, moist
summers, becoming cooler in the west, where the
land rises towards the lofty plateau of Tibet. Tea and
silk are the most important products of the moun-


EASTERN ASIA.
147
tains between the West River and the Yangtse. Rice
and sugar are cultivated in the valleys of the Yangtse
between the Poyang Lake and the east coast. Opium
is grown in all the provinces, more particularly in
the west. Camphor, wax, and lac are among the
products of the forests.
The Northern Plains have a still more extreme
climate. In the north of the eastern plains the
rivers are frozen in winter, though they correspond
in latitude to south Italy, or to south Victoria
and north Tasmania. A loose, fertile, yellow soil
called loess, blown from the desert, covers much of
the plains, and even the hollows of the mountains,
which can consequently be cultivated to a very
great height. Temperate cereals and grains of all
kinds are grown, while the hot, moist summers
permit tropical and subtropical produce, such as
sugar, indigo, rice, and cotton, to be raised on the
same fields, at least south of the Gulf of Chili.
Minerals.—At the present time we know little of
the mineral resources of China, except that they are
very great, especially in coal and iron, the most
important minerals in modern industry. Coal is
abundant in the mountains immediately west of the
great plains north of the Hwang-ho, where the best
anthracite and bituminous coal occur in great seams,
which, in the province of Shansi, can be quarried.
The whole of south-eastern Hunan—that is, the
valley of the Siang-may not unfitly be called one
great coalfield. Besides these two vast coalfields, in
united area greater than the whole of Ireland, coal is
found in many of the western mountains, especially in
Sechwan. It also occurs in the higher land both north


148
EASTERN ASIA.
and south of the Gulf of Pechili. It is worked by
the Chinese, more particularly in Sechwan, and in
recent years at Kaiping. The mines of Pechili have
been worked by European methods. Iron occurs in
the Shansi and western coalfields, but is not abundant
in Hunan. The south-western district of Yunan is
rich in copper, tin, silver, lead, and other minerals,
and copper is found to the north of Canton.
Manufactures.—China has long been famous for
exceedingly fine porcelain, bronze, and textiles.
Domestic manufactures of many kinds are carried
on. In recent years factories of European type
have been started, mainly in and around Shanghai,
to manufacture textiles, especially cotton and silk,
and munitions of war. In the future China will
probably take rank as one of the chief manufac-
turing countries of the world; and with its com-
mand of coal, iron, and cheap labour, its varied
products, and its proximity to the sources of many
important raw materials, such as wool, cotton, jute,
&c., and in spite of the disadvantage of the winter
air being dry, it may prove a serious rival to Europe
and America.
Means of Communication.—Water is the most im-
portant means of communication. The Si-kiang is
navigable for large vessels as far as Wuchou, beyond
which smaller boats continue the navigation almost to
the frontier. A canal connects the Si-kiang with the
Yangtse-kiang by joining the Kwei, a tributary of the
former, to the Siang, a tributary of the latter. A
great part of the trade of western and central China
passes through the basin of the Yangtse. The main
stream is navigable for ocean steamers as far as Ichang,


EASTERN ASIA.
149
over 900 miles from its mouth. The favourable
period for navigation above Ichang is when the river
is low in winter; while below this point flood-time,
when the shoals are well covered, is best. Above
Ichang are great gorges where navigation is impeded.
Smaller steamers can, however, ascend as far as
Chungking, the most important river-port in Sech-
wan, at the mouth of the Kialing. The Kialing and
the Min drain this fertile province, comparable with
England in its area, population, and the well-being of
its people.
The canal system of China is highly developed.
Many centuries ago the Grand Canal was constructed
across the great plains between Hangchou, on a gulf
of the same name, and Peking, the northern capital.
This canal unites the lower Yangtse and Hwang Rivers,
and although much of it has fallen into bad repair, the
section south of the Hwang-ho is still navigable, at
least for small boats. The Hwang-ho is of little
use for navigation, but the Pei-ho and its tributaries
form an important means of communication across
the northern portion of the plains, and join Peking
to its port of Tientsin.
Railways are as yet of little importance. A short
line connects Shanghai with Wusung. The longest
line yet built runs from Paoting by Peking, Tientsin,
and the Kaiping coal-mines into Manchuria. Many
lines are projected between great towns not already
connected by waterways. A line from Peking to
Hankou is under construction, and will be continued
to Canton. Ningpo will be joined to Peking via
Shanghai, and a line may be carried by the valley
of the Wei-ho through Singan to Langchou and the


EASTERN ASIA.
151
As merchants they are unsurpassed, and most of the
trade of the Far East is in their hands. They are
noted for commercial probity. Each hong, or asso-
ciation of traders, is liable for the obligations of any
of its members, and defaulters are rare.
China is so vast a country, with such diverse
climatic and economic conditions, that it may well
remain self-supporting. As railways develop, how-
ever, its external trade should increase. The possi-
bilities of China proving an economic rival have
already been alluded to.
Manchuria is a great undulating lowland, lying
between the Khingan Mountains and the mountains
which form the northern border of Korea. It is
drained in the north by the Sungari and its tribu-
taries, and in the south by the Liau. The extremes
of temperature are very great. The winter is cold,
and the soil is frozen for four months. At the end
of March ploughing begins. Wheat and barley are
sown, and are harvested before midsummer, and a
crop of millet or beans is planted in time for the
summer rains.
Millet is the chief food of the people, but much
wheat is grown in the north; barley is cultivated for
distilling; maize, root-crops, vegetables, opium, tobacco,
and many fruits are raised. Beans are used not
merely for food but for the oil, expressed under great
granite wheels. The mountains, especially in the
south and east, are covered with forests, which con-
sist of deciduous trees at low levels, and of conifers at
greater altitudes. Many trees are felled, and the logs
are floated down the rivers, especially the Sungari, to
the plain.


EASTERN ASIA.
153
crops of temperate lands, such as barley and potatoes.
Ginseng is in great demand for export to China, which
also takes rice and beans. Gold is found and mined.
Between £300,000 and £400,000 worth was exported
in 1900. Coal, iron, and copper are known to exist,
but are not yet exploited. Textiles and hardware are
the principal imports. The chief ports are Chemulpo
in the west, Fusan in the south, opposite Japan,
with Gensan in the Broughton Bay in the east. The
country, however, is still little opened up, although
the Japanese and their rivals, the Russians, are striv-
ing to control its great resources.
JAPANESE EMPIRE.
The Japanese Empire extends from the south of
Formosa, south of the tropic, to the north of the
Kurile Islands, 50° N.
Formosa.—Formosa is mountainous, and receives
heavy rains from the trade-winds on its eastern
slopes, which are densely forested with camphor and
other useful trees. On the western plains rice, sugar,
and tea are cultivated.
The chain of the Luchu (Riukiu) Islands, which
produce sugar and rice, connect Formosa with Japan
Proper.
The Japanese Islands consist of four large and many
small islands, lying between 30° and 45° N.—that is,
almost in the latitudes of New Zealand. The moun-
tainous northern island of Yezo, or Hokkaido, corre-
sponds in latitude with the Middle Island of New
Zealand, but is smaller and has a colder winter. It is
thickly forested.


154
EASTERN ASIA.
The wealth of Japan is concentrated in the southern
islands, Honshiu (Hondo), Shikoku, and Kiushiu. All
are very mountainous, with loose volcanic soil, which
is easily carried away by the rivers when in flood.
The climate is extreme, especially in the north of
Honshiu. Most rain falls in summer, except on the
western slopes, where snow falls heavily in winter,
borne by the north-west winds across the Sea of Japan.
The north of Japan is covered with woods, in which
camphor, lacquer, wax, paper, and mulberry are the
most important trees. Two-fifths of the land is under
cultivation, more than half the cultivated area pro-
ducing rice. Barley, millet, pulses, and other foods
are grown, and in central Japan are great tea-
plantations.
'Agriculture is the chief occupation of the Japanese,
and they are very careful farmers, thoroughly under-
standing cropping and the rotation of crops. The
soil is not naturally very fertile, being mostly volcanic
or derived from igneous rocks, but it is made pro-
ductive by careful manuring, especially with night-
soil from the villages and towns. Rice is the staple
production, while barley, millet, wheat, buckwheat,
maize, and many varieties of beans and peas are
also everywhere produced. The rice harvest com-
mences in September; wheat is sown in drills in
November and December, and is reaped in May and
June.'*
Cotton and tobacco are also grown, and silkworms
are reared.
Minerals.-Silver, copper (found at Ashio, not far
from Nikko), antimony (obtained in Shikoku), and iron
* Chambers’s Encyclopædia, vol. vi. p. 283.


EASTERN ASIA.
155
are the chief metals. Coal is plentiful. The most
important coalfields are near Nagasaki in Kiushiu and
Poronai in Yezo (Hokkaido). Sulphur, petroleum, and
fine clay for porcelain are also utilised.
Manufactures.—Japan has long been famous for its
manufactures, among which are exquisite tissues, por-
celain (especially near Nagoya), bronzes, hardware, and
wooden and lacquer ware (at Kyoto and Tokyo).
Japan opened its doors to foreign influence a genera-
tion earlier than China. Its manufactures on modern
lines are considerably developed, especially at Ozaka
(cottons) and Tokyo, but the artistic quality has
declined. Silk, cotton, wool, sugar, paper, glass,
matches, chemicals, machinery, and even ships are
now made by modern methods.
Trade.—Japan has a large foreign trade. Silk and
silk manufactures are the chief exports, followed by
cotton-yarn, coal, copper, tea, and matches. Japan
imports a large proportion of the raw cotton it
manufactures, as well as cotton and woollen goods,
sugar, iron and steel, arms, and petroleum.
*The principal exports to Great Britain from Japan
are rice, copper, silk tissues (habutce), silk handker-
chiefs, raw silk, porcelain, earthenware and lacquer-
ware, carpets, straw mats, and camphor. An enormous
rise in the quantity of copper sent is to be seen from
the returns.
• The United States used to be an excellent customer
of Japan, but only supplied in return a limited
quantity of commodities. During the past few
years, however, this state of things has changed, and
although America still remains the chief market for
Japan's staple products, the former now competes


156
THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
successfully for a large share of the import trade of
the latter.' *
Means of Communication.-Few parts of Japan are
more than sixty miles distant from the sea, and the
coasting trade is very important. A railway runs
from Nagasaki, in Kiushiu, through a coal-mining
region to the growing port of Moji, opposite the port
of Akamagaseki, on Honshiu, from which a railway
runs along the whole of the south and east coasts to
Aomori, in the extreme north of Honshiu, connecting
the important ports of Kobe, Ozaka, and Yokohama,
and the ancient and modern capitals, Kyoto and Tokyo.
In Yezo the chief port is Hakodate, and a railway
runs from Saporo to the Poronai coalfield.
CHAPTER XVI.
THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
The vast Russian Empire, nearly 9,000,000 square
miles, or more than seventy times the British Isles, in
area, stretches from 35° N. to beyond the polar circle,
and from the Baltic to the Pacific. It lies farther
north than any of the lands yet considered, with the
exception of Canada. The Crimea and Transcaucasia
correspond approximately with the Lake peninsula
of Canada, the great plains of Siberia with those of
central Canada, and the Amur highlands with those
of British Columbia. The Transcaspian, or Turkestan,
provinces have no analogue in Canada.
* Board of Trade Journal, vol. xxix. p. 209.


THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
157
Asiatic Russia.
Amuria and Siberia.—Amuria consists of the forested
Trans-Baikal plateau and the eastern mountain region
drained to the Pacific. Its climate is one of great
extremes. The rainfall is heavy near the coast, but
small in the interior..
Siberia extends west to the Urals as a vast low-
land, drained to the Arctic Ocean. It is crossed
by the great rivers Lena, Yenisei, Ob, and their
tributaries. All are navigable for many hundreds of
miles in summer, but are ice-bound in winter. The
two latter have vast estuaries opening into the
Arctic Ocean, which can be reached by vessels from
Europe in favourable summers, and which might
perhaps be kept open every summer by means of
ice-breakers. The climate of Siberia is drier and
even more extreme than that of Amuria. In the
north the surface consists of tundra, where the
frozen soil produces only dwarf vegetation, in which
lichens predominate. This zone is succeeded to the
south by a forest zone, giving place in its turn to
grassy steppes gradually passing into desert.
Both Amuria and the mountains of southern Siberia
are rich in minerals. Gold is found in the Altai, the
Trans-Baikal plateau, and the eastern mountains of
Amuria. Coal is known to exist east of Lake Baikal
and near the Usuri, but is as yet little worked.
The economic development of Siberia is only
beginning. Half a century ago it was little more
than a penal settlement, but since the opening of the
Great Siberian line its colonisation by Russian immi-
grants is proceeding rapidly. The steppes are fast


THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
159
ransit, tea as
2 000 tons). The on railway
Reval, Libau, St Petersburg, and Riga. Next comes
the produce of cattle-raising, &c.—meat, butter (chiefly
for the London market; sent in special refrigerator
wagons), tallow, hides, wool, eggs, and game. Of
goods in transit, tea as yet forms the principal item
(1897, 28,000 tons; 1898, 36,000 tons). The chief com-
modities brought into Siberia by the new railway
are iron and ironware, sugar, cottons and woollens,
machinery, and petroleum.'*
Russian Central Asia.—Russian Central Asia is a
desert fertilised by rivers which have their source
in the melting snows of the surrounding mountains,
bordered on the north by the zone of the Steppes.
The Syr Daria and its tributaries create the fertile
regions of Ferghana and Tashkent; the Zerafshan,
the oases of Samarkand and Bokhara; the Amu
Daria, the oasis of Khiva; and the Murghab, the
oasis of Merv. The winters are long and very cold,
but the summers are so warm that cotton is the
most important crop under cultivation, covering over
half a million acres in Ferghana. Rice, maize, and
sorghum are summer, and wheat and barley are
winter, crops on the oases, and every kind of Medi-
terranean fruit can be grown; and the silkworm
is reared, especially in Bokhara and Ferghana. On
the steppe-lands are many flocks and herds, which
yield hides and wool. The minerals are numerous,
but are as yet scarcely utilised. A railway connects
Tashkent, Andijan, and Kokan by Samarkand and
Bokhara with Krasnovodsk on the Caspian, tapping
the trade of north-east Persia at Ashabad. A line
is being made from Tashkent across the Steppes to
* Board of Trade Journal, vol, xxix. p. 546.


160
THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
Orenburg which will connect it with the Russian
railway system.
Transcaucasia. — Transcaucasia lies south of the
Caucasus, and extends east to Ararat and the middle
Aras. Its climate is less severe than that of Central
Asia, the Caucasus acting as a barrier to the cold
north winds. The rainfall is very low east of Tiflis,
the capital and chief town, but is heavy in the western
Caucasus. The mountains are forested. Cultivation
is carried on in the valleys. Tea has been planted on
the slopes of the Caucasus, but the scarcity of labour
militates against its success. Every kind of Medi-
terranean fruit, including the vine, can be cultivated.
Some cotton is grown, more particularly in the south.
The Baku region is rich in petroleum, which is
either sent across the Caspian to the Volga by steamers,
which make use of it as fuel, or is carried by huge
pipes for a distance of five hundred miles to the Black
Sea ports of Batum and Poti.
European Russia.
Configuration.—European Russia is a vast undulating
plain, extending 1700 miles from north to south, and
900 miles from east to west. Across this plain flow
the longest rivers of Europe—the Volga to the Caspian,
the Don to the Sea of Azov, the Dnieper (with falls
near its mouth) to the Black Sea, the Western Dvina
to the Baltic, and the Northern Dvina to the White
Sea.
Climate.—There is great diversity of climate, vary-
ing from Arctic conditions in the north, where the
winter lasts for many months and the rivers are ice-
bound, to a Mediterranean climate in the southern


THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
161
Crimea. Russia may be profitably compared with
Canada, from Lake Erie to the Mackenzie delta.
Vegetation Zones and Productions.—The tundra of the
Arctic coast is succeeded to the south by coniferous
forests, which stretch from the Gulf of Finland to the
south of the Urals. South of the conifers come forests
of mixed woods, extending from the north of the
Karpathians to the confluence of the Kama and the
Volga. Still farther south are grassy steppes, passing
into desert salt steppes towards the south-east. The
southern boundary of the forests agrees with that
of morainic soils, while the steppe-lands are covered
with loess, which, when mixed with humus, forms a
rich black earth.
One-fifth of the surface of European Russia is un-
productive; nearly two-fifths are forested; the remain-
ing two-fifths consist of meadow and arable land. More
than one-fourth of the whole surface is under culti-
vation. The extreme north and the extreme south-east
are pastoral. The reindeer is kept on the tundra;
sheep, cattle, horses, pigs, and goats on the steppes.
In the clearings of the coniferous forests the principal
cereal is oats, with the addition of wheat in the Kama
basin. Flax is grown in the west, and hemp in the
centre of this zone. In the south-west, near the Kar-
pathians, and between the Oka and the Dnieper, large
crops of sugar-beet are raised. Except in the south-
east, the steppes are composed of fertile black earth
(chernoziom), and form the great wheat-growing
region of European Russia. Flax is also cultivated
in the chernoziom, as well as along the lower Don
and in Bessarabia. The vine flourishes in the Crimea
and along the Kuban. Rye is grown everywhere for
Com. Geog. 2
к


162
THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
food, except in the salt steppes of the south-east,
where the rainfall is too scanty.
Russia is well supplied with minerals. The Urals
are exceedingly rich in both precious and useful
metals, including platinum, gold, silver, copper, iron,
and coal. The most important coalfields are those of
the Urals, the Oka (of which Tula is the centre), the
Donets, and Poland. On all these iron is plentiful.
Lead and zinc are found in Poland. Salt is obtained
from the salt lakes and seas, and in the centre and
north from rock-salt.
In manufactures, the domestic industries are still
the most important, almost every article, from the
coarsest to the finest, being produced, generally under
some system of co-operation. In recent years, how-
ever, there has been a great extension of the factory
system, more particularly in the Moscow district in
south Russia and in Poland round the coalfields,
and at St Petersburg. Many of these factories are
financed by foreign capital - German in Poland ;
British, Belgian, and French in south Russia. Cotton
(the most important), wool, and hemp are the chief
textiles manufactured. Iron and engineering works
are increasing in number. Spirits, soap, candles,
paper, earthenware, tobacco, and inany other manu-
factures are increasing rapidly.
Trade, Towns, and Routes. — With the industrial
development of Russia, the population, which already
numbers nearly 110,000,000 in Europe alone, is in-
creasing very fast, more especially in Poland and in
the south, where the towns are growing very quickly.
In the matter of internal communication, Russia is
magnificently supplied with lakes and navigable rivers,


THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE.
163
the only drawback being that they are frozen during
the winter months. The Volga, the longest and most
important river of European Russia, is connected by
canal with the great lakes in the north-west.
St Petersburg, the capital, on the canalised Neva, is
an important manufacturing and commercial centre,
its trade being largely in German hands. Moscow, in
the heart of the country, the physical, ecclesiastical,
political, and commercial centre of the empire, stands
at the head of navigation on the Moskva, which flows
into the Oka, a tributary of the Volga. From Moscow
railways radiate in all directions, connecting it with
Vienna, Berlin, and St Petersburg, and the ports of
Archangel on the White Sea, Port Arthur and Dalnyi
on the Pacific, Petrovsk and Baku on the Caspian, and
the various Black Sea and Baltic ports. The main line
to the south passes through the manufacturing and
mining region round Tula to Kieff and to Kharkoff,
the centre of the Donets industrial region. This and
the other southern lines carry large freights of wheat
for export from the ports of Odessa, Nicolaieff, Kherson,
and Taganrog. The most important industrial centres
of Poland are Warsaw, on the Vistula, and Lodz, both
growing rapidly. Great fairs are held annually in
many towns, that of Nizhni-Novgorod being the most
important.
The export trade of European Russia is in cereals-
wheat, barley, rye, oats, and maize-shipped chiefly
from the Black Sea ports; petroleum from Batum
and Poti; flax, timber, linseed, eggs, and dairy produce
principally from the Baltic ports of Libau, Riga,
Reval, and St Petersburg. The imports are raw
materials, wholly or partially manufactured goods


164
MEDITERRANEAN LANDS.
(including hardware and textiles), tea from China and
in recent years from Ceylon, spirits, coffee, and other
colonial produce. The largest trade is with Germany,
and next with the United Kingdom, which takes
cereals, timber, tow, flax, linseed, and eggs, and sends
in return machinery and iron goods, coal, wool from
Australia, woollens, and fish.
CHAPTER XVII.
MEDITERRANEAN LANDS.
THERE is a similarity in the climate and productions
of the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea which
makes them one great natural region. The southern
boundary is formed by the arid Sahara, a far more
formidable barrier than the mountainous regions of
the Pyrenees, the Central Plateau of France, the Alps,
the Balkans, and the Caucasus, whose southern slopes
are its northern limit. The waters are deep, the
coasts are broken, and the inland regions are moun-
tainous, so that the configuration favours communica-
tion by sea, which has always played an important
part in the history of the Mediterranean region. The
eastern limit of the region is naturally the Syrian
and Arabian deserts in the south, but as the climate
and productions of Persia are very similar, the eastern
boundary may be extended in the north to the Persian
deserts.
The peninsula of Italy divides the sea into two
basins, the Eastern and Western Mediterranean. The
Eastern Mediterranean consists of the sea extending


MEDITERRANEAN LANDS.
171
ITALY.
The Apennines divide Italy into three lowland
regions—the Paduan (Lombard-Venetian) Plain, the
Western Foreland between Tuscany and Campania,
and the Eastern Apulian Foreland—to which must be
added the islands of Sicily and Sardinia.
The north is economically by far the most important
part of Italy. Cattle feed on the meadows of the
surrounding mountains, and on the rich, moist, low-
lying lands near the Po, and silkworms on the mul-
berries of the forests, whose trees yield timber. Olive-
groves and vineyards exist on the southern slopes of
the Alps turned to the sun, but not on the northern
slopes of the Apennines. The alluvial lands are irri-
gated by a great canal system, which the melting
Alpine snows keep well supplied with water even in
the driest summer, permitting two, three, or even more
crops to be gathered every year. Rice can be grown,
and maize (for polenta), pulses, flax, and other plants
used for food or in industry. The irrigated meadow-
lands can be cut four or five times a year, and supply
food to the cows, whose milk is made into Gorgonzola
and other cheeses.
The peninsular hilly lands are terraced and cultivated,
especially in western Italy round the Arno and in
the Alban Hills. Olive-groves abound, and olive oil is
manufactured, that of Lucca being noted. Here the
flocks and herds are driven to the upper grass-lands of
the Apennines in summer and to the plains in winter.
The goats and their keepers have destroyed much of
the old forested land, and caused great deterioration
in the productivity of the hilly land.


172
MEDITERRANEAN LANDS.
In Sicily the irrigated lands are of exceptional
fertility, yielding crops at all times. Excellent crops
of wheat, maize, and rice are raised, and olive, orange,
lemon, and fig groves and vineyards are found on the
terraced lands. Even cotton is grown.
The resources of Sardinia have not been greatly
developed, but cereals, wine, oil, and cheese are pro-
duced and exported, and the south-west has a store of
minerals.
Italy has few minerals except the salt of its lagoons,
the sulphur of the volcanic regions, the white marble
of Carrara, and the iron ores of Elba and Sardinia.
Silver, lead, and zinc are also found in Sardinia.
Coal is almost absent, but some brown coal is mined
in Tuscany.
Manufactures.—The water-power of the Alpine
rivers is utilised, especially for generating electricity,
which is perhaps more used in northern Italy than
elsewhere. Silk-spinning is carried on in all the
villages and towns at the mouths of the Alpine valleys,
and great silk-factories have been built at Bergamo,
Brescia, Como, and Milan. Cotton, wool, and jute are
also manufactured in the northern towns. Milan and
Turin (Milano and Torino) are important engineering
centres, and Brescia is famous for its knives and
arms. Straw-plaiting is the characteristic industry
of Tuscany. Venice (Venezia) is noted for the manu-
facture of lace and glass, Padua (Padova) for stringed
musical instruments, and most of the large towns,
especially Florence, Rome, and Naples (Firenze, Roma,
and Napoli), for mosaics, sculptured figures, furniture,
coral and other jewellery, and objets d'art.
The routes from Italy to the north run on the


MEDITERRANEAN LANDS.
173
east and west sides of the peninsula. A great line
crosses the Apennines from Florence to Bologna, where
it meets that running parallel to the old Æmilian Way
from Ancona to Piacenza. From Turin the Mont
Cenis, from Milan the St Gotthard, from Verona the
Brenner lines cross the Alps; and the eastern routes
diverge from Venice by Udine and Pontafel to Klagen-
furt and Vienna, and by Görz to Triest, Laibach, and
the Save.
Venice (Venezia) is the eastern and Genoa (Genova)
the western port of the northern region, Leghorn
(Livorno) of Tuscany, Naples of the Campagna,
Palermo and Messina of Sicily, and Cagliari of Sar-
dinia. Brindisi and Naples are ports used by vessels
for the Far East, and Genoa for trans-Atlantic liners.
Since the opening of the Alpine tunnels the over-
land trade with northern Europe, especially with
Germany, has developed, partly at the expense of
the sea-borne trade with the United Kingdom. The
exports are silk and silk goods, wine, olive-oil, fruit,
straw ware, and sulphur; the imports, coal, raw
cotton, silk and wool, machinery, wheat, and timber.
Most trade is done with the German Empire, the
United Kingdom, France, Austria, Switzerland, and
the United States.
SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
The bulk of the Iberian Peninsula is a plateau,
separated from the Pyrenees by the plains of the Ebro,
and from the Sierra Nevada by the plains of the
Guadalquivir or Andalusia. These two plains and the
smaller ones on the west and Mediterranean coasts


174
MEDITERRANEAN LANDS.
are carefully irrigated and cultivated, while the hills
around them are elaborately terraced. On these
terraced hillsides and coastal plains oranges, lemons,
grapes, figs, olives, and other fruits are grown. Maize,
wheat, and tobacco also flourish on the alluvial plains.
Great groves of cork-oak are found in the extreme
south of Portugal and of Spain. The north-western
and northern mountains receive abundant rain at most
seasons, and climatically belong to central Europe.
They yield timber. The climate of the plateau is one
of extreme temperatures and great dryness, which pre-
vents cultivation without irrigation. In Old Castile,
which is crossed by numerous rivers from the rainy
regions of the extreme north, great irrigation-works
have been carried out, and the region is noted for its
excellent wheat. Elsewhere on the plateau the tend-
ing of merino sheep and goats is the most important
occupation. Sardine and tunny fisheries are carried on
round the coast.
Spain is rich in minerals. Iron, coal (in Asturias),
manganese, and other metals occur in the Cantabrian
Mountains of the north ; copper, silver-lead, mercury,
iron and other ores, and coal are mined in the Sierra
Morena in the south. The crude or half-refined ores
are exported to Britain, Germany, Belgium, and other
countries to be refined.
The recent loss of its colonies has temporarily
checked Spanish industries. The chief centre is
Barcelona, noted for its manufactures of silk and
cotton. Cloth is made at Palencia, pottery at the
royal works at La Granja north of Madrid, and
tobacco is manufactured at Seville.
The railway lines radiate from Madrid, in the centre,


MEDITERRANEAN LANDS.
175
but, with few exceptions, the important towns are on
the coast. Barcelona is the chief Mediterranean port,
and acts as the outlet for the Ebro valley. Valencia,
Malaga, on the Mediterranean, and Cadiz, on the
Atlantic, are important fruit and wine ports. Seville
can be reached by steamers. In the north, Gijon is
the outport of the Asturias coalfield, and Santander
and Bilbao of the iron-mines in the Cantabrian
Mountains.
The chief exports of Spain are the products of its
vineyards, orchards, and mines, live-stock, and food
substances. Cotton, raw and manufactured, machinery
and other manufactured iron goods, and chemicals
are the most important imports.
The chief exports of Portugal are wine from Oporto,
sardines, cork, fruits, olive-oil, and copper ore from
the south through Lisbon, from which cottons are
exported to Portuguese colonies. Cereals, cotton and
other textiles, coal, cod-fish, sugar, and other colonial
products are the chief imports. Lisbon, on the estuary
of the Tagus, is an important port for vessels plying
between South America and Europe.
THE BARBARY STATES.
Tunis, a French protectorate, and Algeria, which
forms part of France, are at present the most im-
portant of the Barbary States. They consist of a
coastal range, behind which stretches the fertile Tell,
drained in the east by the Majerda, and in the west
by the Shelif. Here vines and olives, cereals, in-
cluding wheat, maize, and to a smaller extent tobacco,
colza and other oil-seeds, are grown. On the high


176
MEDITERRANEAN LANDS.
plateaus between the Mediterranean Atlas and the
Saharan Atlas the alfa or esparto grass is the chief
economic product. Goats and sheep are the most
important animals of the plateau, cattle and horses
of the Tell, and camels in the desert, where the oases,
natural or formed round artesian wells, support date-
palms under whose shade maize, millet, root-crops, and
fruits mature. Iron, copper, lead, and zinc are found.
The chief railway route traverses the Tell from
Tunis by Constantine and Algiers to Oran. Long
lines branch from it southwards to the desert, in the
east to Biskra, in the west to beyond Ain Sefra, and
shorter ones northward to the ports of Bône, Philippe-
ville, and Bougie. It has been proposed to extend one
of the southern lines across the desert to the Sudan.
Marocco is an independent sultanate in the west,
consisting of a coastal plain, bordered by an undu-
lating country, which gives place in the south-east to
the lofty mountains of the Great Atlas. The north-
western slopes of the Atlas and the land at their base
are well watered and very fertile. All Mediterranean
produce might be cultivated, but the resources of the
country are little developed. The valley of the Wadi
Draa and other intermittent rivers lies between the
Great and Little Atlas, the latter a lofty plateau of
the desert which extends to the eastern slopes of the
Great Atlas. Tafilet and other cases are noted for
dates.
The chief exports are wool and hides, dates and
almonds, gums and eggs. The caravan routes diverge
from Marakesh or Marocco city in the south, whose
port is Mogador, or Fez in the north, where the chief
port is Tangiers.


FRANCE.
177
CHAPTER XVIII.
FRANCE.
Position and Configuration.-France lies in the centre
of the land hemisphere, between 43° and 51° N. lat.
On three of its sides it is bordered by water—the
Mediterranean in the south-east, the Atlantic in the
west, and the English Channel on the north-west. On
the south-west it is separated from Spain by the
Pyrenees; on the east from Italy and Switzerland by
the Alps and the Jura; and on the north-east from
Germany, Luxemburg, and Belgium by the Vosges
and the Ardennes. A great Central Plateau rises in
the southern half of the country, separated from the
Alps by the valley of the Rhone, and from the
Pyrenees by the valley of the Garonne, and drained
by the Garonne and the Loire and their tributaries.
From this plateau north-eastward to the Vosges runs
a line of higher ground, the plateau of Langres, from
which flow the Seine and its chief tributaries. The
north of France is a plain, with low hills rising above
it, especially in Normandy and Brittany.
Climate.—The climate of the north of France re-
sembles that of the south of England. The winters
are not very cold; the summers are not excessively
hot. Rain falls all the year round, but most abun-
dantly in autumn and winter, and more heavily near
the coast than farther inland. South of the Loire
there is a marked dry summer, which is of great
importance for ripening the vine. In the south the
climate is of the Mediterranean type-almost rainless
Com, Geog. 2


178
FRANCE.
in June, July, and August, and with most rain in
spring and autumn.
Products. — Forests occur on the slopes of the moun-
tains, on the edge of the Central Plateau, and in
scattered groups, sometimes of considerable size, on
the plains. Great pine-woods have been planted on
the sandy Landes, south of the Gironde; oak and
beech are characteristic of the northern plains, pine-
woods of the mountain forests, the chestnut of the
Cevennes, the walnut of Poitou, and cork-oak and
olive-groves of the Mediterranean region.
The pasture-lands of France consist of mountain
meadows in the Pyrenees, on the Central Plateau, and
in the Alps, and of grassy plains and hills in the
north. Horses, cattle, and pigs are reared in Brit-
tany and Normandy. Cattle are kept on the upper
meadows and on the wetter lower slopes of the moun-
tains, but are replaced on the higher regions facing
the Mediterranean by sheep, which are grazed on the
mountains in summer and on the deltaic plains of
the Rhone in winter.
The north of France is famous for its apple-
orchards and for its cider. Industrial plants, espe-
cially sugar-beet and flax, are cultivated in the
north-east. The upper Allier and Saône and the
middle Seine basins and the extreme north-east of
France produce excellent wheat. The lower lands
of Aquitaine produce some wheat, and maize and
tobacco are also grown. Almost everywhere in
France, except in the north, the vine is important,
and is made into wine south of a line from the mouth
of the Loire to the Ardennes. The vineyards of
Medoc, west of the Gironde estuary, produce the


180
FRANCE.
where the raw material is easily obtained from
America, Brazil, and elsewhere.
Shipbuilding is important at Marseilles, Rochefort,
Nantes, Le Havre. The great naval shipyard is at
Toulon. Round Bordeaux and Nantes cane-sugar is
refined, and at Marseilles soap is made from raw
materials discharged at the wharves of these ports.
Paris is the centre for the manufacture of objets d'art,
clothing, &c., and near it are the famous porcelain-
works of Sèvres.
Internal Communication and Trade Centres.—Water-
traffic is exceedingly important, and great attention
is paid to the canalisation of rivers and the con-
struction of canals. The heaviest water-traffic is
between Paris and the northern industrial region
by the Oise, from which canals run to the Somme,
Sambre, Schelde, Lys, and other northern rivers, as
well as to Dunkirk, on the North Sea. The Aisne
is connected by canal with the Marne, from which
canals communicate with the upper Saône and with
the Rhine at Strassburg. The Seine is canalised from
the Yonne to its mouth, and connected by canals
with the Loire and the Saône, the latter continuing
the traffic down the Rhone to the Mediterranean and
up the Doubs to the Rhine. The Canal du Midi joins
the Mediterranean to the Garonne.
A network of railways covers the country, converg-
ing from all parts upon Paris. The Western line opens
up Normandy and Brittany, and is connected with the
chief northern ports, Brest, Cherbourg, Le Havre-
the most important—and Dieppe. The Northern line
connects the capital with the northern industrial
district and the northern countries of Europe, and


182
FRANCE.
outlet for the wine of the district, and the chief centre
of the trade with South America, where finer manu-
factured articles of French, and particularly Parisian,
origin are in great demand. Wool and hides from the
Plate basin, oil from West Africa, and iron and lead
from Spain are the chief cargoes brought into its
wharves.
Nantes, at the mouth of the Loire, has a large
trade with the West Indies and Central America,
importing sugar in large quantities, and timber and
coffee from Brazil. Its chief export is preserved fruit
of various kinds.
Le Havre, at the mouth of the Seine, is the outlet
for the cottons manufactured in the lower Seine.
Raw cotton, wheat, and tobacco are brought from the
United States, and coffee from Brazil. Le Havre and
Cherbourg are the passenger ports for the United
States. St Malo, Cherbourg, Dieppe, Boulogne, and
Calais are important packet-stations for England, to
which dairy produce and other goods are exported.
All these are fishing-stations.
Boulogne and Dunkirk (Dunquerque or Dunkerque)
are great fishing-ports, the former sending vessels
to the Irish and Newfoundland fishing-grounds, the
latter to the North Sea fisheries. Dunkirk exports
the produce of the northern industrial region, and
imports wool from the Plate, jute from India, iron
from Spain, and timber from Canada and Scandinavia.
Trade. The foreign import trade by land is chiefly
in coal, iron, and zinc along the north-east frontier;
cattle from Austria; cheese, clocks, and watches from
Switzerland; and cattle, raw silk, and ice from
northern Italy through the Mont Cenis tunnel.


ALPINE AND DANUBIAN LANDS.
185
important trade-routes. Those from the west enter
at Geneva or Basel at the south and north ends of
the Jura, or else cross these mountains to Lausanne
and Neuchâtel. Geneva and Basel are joined by a
line at the eastern base of the Jura, which passes
through Neuchâtel, and by another which runs by
Lausanne and Bern. From Basel or Bern the line to
the east passes by Zürich through the Vorarlberg
tunnel; that to the south by Luzern, the St Gotthard
tunnel, and the Ticino valley by Lugano to Milan;
and a third route will be opened by the Rhone
valley to northern Italy when the Simplon tunnel is
completed.
Trade.—The chief trade is with Germany, France,
Britain, and Italy; and the imports, many of which are
re-exported, are worth nearly one and a half times
the exports. Notwithstanding the disadvantage of
its internal situation, Switzerland does a large trade
with the United Kingdom, of which 75 per cent.
consists of exports. A considerable trade is also
carried on with America. Most of the food of the
country is imported, as are also the raw materials
of its manufactures, raw silk, cotton and wool, coal,
and useful metals and minerals of all kinds. Manu-
factured goods, especially silks and cottons, watches
and clocks, machinery, and elaborated food products
are the chief exports.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.
Austria - Hungary consists of two great states,
differing widely both in physical and ethnic characters.
The Austrian Empire is made up of the Bohemian and


186
ALPINE AND DANUBIAN LANDS.
Moravian plateau, north of the Danube; Galicia and
Bukovina, on the northern foreland of the Karpathians;
the various provinces of the eastern Alps, south of it;
Austria Proper, occupying the valley of the Danube
between the Inn and the Leitha; and the coast-lands
of Istria and Dalmatia on the Adriatic. Hungary
consists of the plain of Hungary, surrounded by the
Karpathians, and Kroatia, by which access is had
to the Adriatic. The mountainous region of Bosnia-
Herzegovina, which is part of the Balkan Peninsula,
while nominally still Turkish territory, is administered
by Austria.
AUSTRIA.
Bohemia, Silesia, and Moravia.—Bohemia is a plateau,
bordered by the mountains of the Bohemian Forest
(Böhmerwald), the Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge), and
the Sudetes Mountains. It is drained to the north by
the Moldau, the chief tributary of the Elbe, which
rises in the Sudetes Mountains. The climate is ex-
treme, with cold winters and hot summers. The
rainfall is small except in the mountains, and is
heaviest in summer. One-third of the surface is
forested, and more than one-half is under cultivation.
Wheat, oats, rye, barley, flax, hops, and sugar-beet are
the principal crops. Minerals are abundant in the
mountains, including silver, lead, copper, tin, and iron.
Coal is widely distributed, and extensively worked in
the north.
Industrially, Bohemia is one of the most active
regions of Europe. Sugar, beer, and brandy are manu-
factured, Pilsener beer having a world-wide reputation.
Paper, porcelain, glass of fine quality, iron and steel


188
ALPINE AND DANUBIAN LANDS.
Minerals are abundant in the eastern portion of the
eastern Alps. Iron is found in Eisenerz in Carinthia,
lead at Bleiberg, mercury at Idria, and some lignite
near Graz.
Manufactures of very varied kinds are carried on
in and around Vienna, including shipbuilding for the
Danube trade. Silk is manufactured in the south of
Tirol and in Vorarlberg.
The Dalmatian Coastal Region is mountainous, and
fringed by islands. Cereals are cultivated, as well as
the vine and olive. About one-third of the surface
is forested, and nearly one-half is pasture. Cattle-
raising and fishing are important occupations.
Trieste, the seaport of Austria, lies on the Adriatic,
at the north of the Istrian peninsula.
Bosnia-Herzegovina is a forested, mountainous land,
with deep fertile valleys. It is noted for its oak-trees
and plums. Cattle are reared. Coal and salt are
mined.
HUNGARY.
Hungary lies between 45º and 51° N., and is about
equal to the British Isles in area. It is a vast grassy
plain, surrounded by forest-clad mountains. In climate
and products it somewhat resembles southern Man-
churia in the same latitudes. It is crossed by the
Danube and its tributaries, the Tisza (Theiss), with
its whole course in Hungary and receiving the Maros
from the Transylvanian Alps, and the Drave and
Save, which border Kroatia and Slavonia. It consists
of two plains, separated by the Bakony Forest and
surrounded by the North Hungarian Ore Mountain
in the north, the Karpathians in the north-east, the


ALPINE AND DANUBIAN LANDS.
189
mountainous Transylvania in the south-east (Bihar
Mountains and Transylvanian Alps), and the High-
lands of Kroatia and Slavonia in the south-west.
The forests yield excellent timber. The grassy
plains, or pusztas, support vast numbers of horses,
cattle, and pigs. Many parts have been brought under
cultivation, yielding rich crops of wheat, maize, barley,
and rye.
The mineral wealth of Hungary is very great.
Gold and mercury are found in the Transylvanian
Alps. The Karpathians are rich in iron, silver, and
lead.
Economically, Hungary is in a state of transition.
Until recently it was a pastoral, lumbering, mining,
and agricultural country, but at the present time manu-
factures are developing at a very rapid rate. Budapest
mills flour, manufactures jute for flour-sacks, and also
makes machinery, spirits, and transport material. At
Pressburg, where very similar manufactures are carried
on, there is a great dynamite factory. Agram (Zagrab),
the capital of Kroatia, manufactures tobacco and
leather. From Fiume, the port of Hungary on the
Adriatic, flour is exported, the bulk of the unmilled
grain, however, as well as large quantities of flour,
being exported down the Danube. The dry air of
Hungary is favourable to the manufacture of excel-
lent flour, much better than can be obtained from
Hungarian wheat ground in Britain.
Trade and Routes of Austria-Hungary.—The staple
exports of Austria-Hungary are timber from the
mountains, wheat and flour from the plain of Hungary,
sugar and manufactured goods, among which the glass
of Bohemia is especially famous, eggs, cattle, and


190
ALPINE AND DANUBIAN LANDS.
horses. The imports are cotton goods, coal, tobacco,
coffee, wool, wine, and manufactured articles.
The chief trade is with Germany, the United King-
dom, Italy, Russia, Switzerland, Romania, France, and
the Balkan States.
The Danube is the great commercial artery of the
country, across which it flows from north-west to
south-east. It is navigable throughout its course
within the empire, from which it issues through a
narrow gorge or klissura, at the end of which a canal
has been constructed to avoid the shallow rapids at
the Iron Gates, where Orsova is built.
Vienna and Budapest are the chief centres of com-
munication, and the Oriental Express route passes
through both, following the valley of the Danube
to Belgrad. From Vienna lines run north to Berlin
through Prag, north-east into Russia by Krakow,
and south-west by the Semmering Pass to the longi-
tudinal valleys of the eastern Alps and the Adriatic.
At Innsbruck the Brenner Pass route to Italy diverges
down the Etsch (Adige) valley, and the Vorarlberg
route runs westward to Switzerland. From Budapest
lines pass across the Karpathians to Russia, across the
Transylvanian Alps to Romania, and to the Adriatic
at Fiume.
SERVIA.
Servia is a mountainous land south of the Save and
Danube, drained by the Morava. It abounds in oak
and beech forests, in which feed vast herds of swine.
Maize is grown for food, wheat for export, while vines
are cultivated in the north-east. Plum-orchards are
found in all parts, whose fruit forms prunes when


ALPINE AND DANUBIAN LANDS.
191
dried, and brandy (slivovitsa) when fermented and
distilled. The mineral wealth is great, but little use is
made of it at present through lack of good roads and
capital. Belgrade, on the Danube, at the mouth of the
Save, is the capital and chief town, from which the
railway follows the Morava to Nish, where it branches
to Sofia and Constantinople in the east and to Salonica
in the south. Domestic manufactures are still by far
the most important.
BULGARIA.
Bulgaria lies to the east of Servia, and includes the
Balkan Mountains, a limestone foreland to the north,
and the Tunja and upper Maritsa valleys (Eastern
Rumelia) to the south. The deeply incised valleys of
the Balkan foreland are fertile strips across a bare
plateau, which ends in a more fruitful belt of loess
near the Danube. Wheat, maize, and barley are the
chief crops. In the southern valleys there are many
fragrant rose-gardens, whose flowers are used to make
the famous attar of roses. Vineyards are numerous,
tobacco cultivation is of some consequence, and plum-
orchards are common in the north. Silkworms are
reared. The mountains are forested, oak and beech
predominating. Sheep, goats, and cattle are the most
important live-stock.
The industrial development of Bulgaria is beginning.
Coal (at Pernik) and iron are the chief minerals
worked. Modern factories exist in Sofia, the capital.
The river-ports are Vidin, Rushchuk, and Silistria.
Varna to the north and Burgas to the south of the
Balkans are the Black Sea ports, and both are joined


192
ALPINE AND DANUBIAN LANDS.
to Sofia by railways, one to the north, the other to the
south, of the Balkans.
ROMANIA, OR RUMANIA.
Romania lies between the Transylvanian Alps and
the Danube, between the Eastern Carpathians and the
Pruth, and includes the delta of the Danube and the
Dobruja to the south. It is a well-forested mountain
land, sinking to a fertile loess-covered foreland, across
which the rivers cut their way in deep valleys. One-
fifth of the land is forested and two-fifths cultivated.
Wheat and maize are by far the most important crops,
but barley and other cereals, grapes and plums, beet-
root, colza, and flax are also grown Live-stock are
numerous, and, as in Servia, pigs are exceptionally
abundant. Petroleum (at Ploesci), salt (at Craiova),
coal, and iron are the chief minerals. Paper, sugar,
tobacco, and other factories are being built. The
industrial expansion which characterised the lower
Danubian states in the last decade of the nineteenth
century was greatest in Romania.
The chief trade is with Austria-Hungary, the German
Empire, and the United Kingdom; after which come
Turkey, France, Italy, and Belgium. Cereals are by
far the most valuable export, fruits, wood, and mineral
fuel coming next. Manufactured goods of all kinds,
colonial produce, and chemicals are the chief imports.
Bukarest (or Bucuresci), the capital, close to the
border of the Walachian and Moldavian plains, is
the commercial and industrial centre, from which
railways radiate. Lines cross the mountains to Hun-
gary, the Danube to Constanţsa (Kustenje), a porç


THE GERMAN EMPIRE.
193
on the Black Sea, and through Moldavia, of which
Yassy (Iasi) is the chief town, collecting agricultural
produce. The cereals are brought to Braila and Galats
on the Danube for exportation, through the Sulina
distributary of the Danube, which is that most used
by steamers.
CHAPTER XX.
THE GERMAN EMPIRE.
THE German Empire, popularly but incorrectly called
Germany, lies between the northern slopes of the Alps
on the south and the Baltic Sea on the north, and
between the mouth of the Ems on the west and the
Niemen on the east. Lying between 471° and 55° N.,
it is farther from the equator than any part of the
southern hemisphere considered except Patagonia, and
corresponds in latitude with Newfoundland in the
northern hemisphere.
Configuration.—Physically, Germany consists of two
very different regions, the Southern Highlands and
the Northern Plains.
The Southern Highlands are formed of rounded hills
covered with thick forests, except on the highest
summits, and well-developed valleys, whose lower
slopes and bottoms are cultivated. The upper
Danube and its tributaries flow across a plateau to
the south of which rise the Alps, and to the north the
German Juras. The middle Rhine passes down a very
fertile plain, twenty to twenty-five miles wide, between
the Black Forest (Schwarzwald) and the Vosges, before
it enters a gorge in the Lower Rhine Highlands. The
Com. Geog. ?


THE GERMAN EMPIRE.
195
increases and the rainfall diminishes from west to
east and from north to south. The mean annual
temperature varies little from north to south, as the
gradual rise of the land from the Baltic to the Alps
compensates for the lower latitude. The climatic con-
ditions are comparatively uniform, the main divisions
being the colder, drier east; the milder, wetter west;
and the south-west, with its very dry autumns.
Plants and Animals.—Less than one-tenth of Germany
is unproductive, one-quarter is covered with forests,
one-sixth with meadows, and nearly one-half consists of
arable land. Three-quarters of the forests are pine-
woods, which clothe the upper slopes of the Southern
Highlands, and are also found in parts of the Northern
Lowlands; the remainder is composed of mixed woods,
wherein beech predominates, on the lower slopes of
the hills. The forests of Germany are regarded as a
valuable national asset, and they are under highly-
skilled supervision.
The eastern half of the plain, especially Prussia, and
the Bavarian plateau are noted for horses. Sheep are
kept on the undulating heights south of the Baltic.
In Saxony and Silesia sheep are relatively few in
number, but their wool is famous for its quality.
Cattle are most numerous in the meadows of the high-
lands and the western plains. The eastern plains
support pigs and poultry of all kinds, geese being a
specialty of Pomerania. The lowlands south of the
Baltic Heights, the lower part of the Danube plateau,
and the Rhine plains are the most important agri-
cultural regions. Of cereals, rye is the most exten-
sively cultivated, and is still the staple cereal food in
many parts of Germany, especially in the east. Except


196
THE GERMAN EMPIRE.
in the extreme north-west, more than 10 per cent. of
the lowlands are cultivated with rye. Wheat is chiefly
grown in the valleys, and oats on the hillsides of the
highlands. Some buckwheat is grown in the sandy
soils of the north, and some maize in the extreme
south. The sugar-beet is extensively grown on the
plains. Flax is cultivated in the east of the Baltic
Heights, and to a smaller extent in upper Silesia.
Hops are grown on the Bavarian plateau and in the
upper Rhine district. The vine is widely cultivated,
but does best on the hilly slopes above the Rhine and
its chief tributaries, which face the sun.
Both the North and Baltic Seas are well stocked
with edible fish. Herring-fishing and cod-fishing
are important occupations. Fresh-water fish are
numerous in the rivers and lakes.
Minerals.—Germany is very rich in minerals, more
particularly in coal and iron. The chief coalfields are
in Silesia, Saxony, the Ruhr valley of Westphalia, and
the valley of the Saar. The Harz Mountains produce
silver, lead, and copper, and much iron is mined in
Lorraine. The Ore Mountains (Erzgebirge) yield tin.
Silesia and west Prussia are noted for zinc. Salt is
mined at Stassfurt and Halle, in Prussia, and in Saxony.
Many varieties of excellent building-stone are found, as
well as clay suitable for bricks, pottery, and porcelain.
Manufactures.—More people are now engaged in
manufacture than in agriculture. The modern factory
system has developed greatly since the formation of
the Empire. The chief industrial regions are Rhenish
Prussia, Westphalia, Saxony, Silesia, and the district
round Berlin. All kinds of steel and iron goods are
manufactured at the three great coalfields, Westphalia,


THE GERMAN EMPIRE.
197
the Rhine provinces, and Saxony. The total number
of spindles employed in the various textile industries
has been more than doubled in the last ten years, and
in the case of the woollen industry trebled. The
woollen industry is still the most important, more
particularly in Saxony and Silesia, where cotton and
linen are also manufactured, the latter from locally-
grown flax. The water-power of the Southern High-
lands is increasingly used. In many cases it is first
converted into electricity, which is employed for
driving machinery, illumination, traction, and an in-
creasing number of industrial and domestic purposes.
Beer is largely made in all parts of Germany.
The distilling of alcohol, especially from potatoes,
is an important industry along the lower Rhine and
the lower Elbe. The extraction of sugar from beet-
root is of great consequence in Silesia and in the
lowlands between the Elbe and the Weser, where the
chief centres are Halle, Magdeburg, and Hamburg.
Germany has become the most important manu-
facturer of chemicals of all kinds, an achievement
due to the careful training of experts.
Germany takes a foremost place in what may be
called the higher industries, such as the making of
scientific and musical instruments. Leipzig ranks
with Paris and London as the great book-market of
the world.
Inland Trade and Trade-Routes. The main trade-
routes of Germany either follow the rivers, which
flow from south-east to north-west, or pass east and
west across the Northern Lowlands and the valleys
of the Main and the upper Danube. The large
towns are all on navigable waterways.


200
THE GERMAN EMPIRË.
is cut by the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, which joins Kiel,
on the Baltic, to Brunsbüttel, near the mouth of the
Elbe. The canal recently made from the Elbe to
Lübeck has greatly increased the trade of that port.
Hamburg, together with its outport, Altona, is the
most important port not merely in Germany but in
continental Europe. The fine estuary of the Elbe
permits great sea-going vessels to reach the city.
Hamburg has a magnificent hinderland in the pro-
ductive central portion of the German plain and in
the industrial region of Saxony, and even in upper
Silesia, and is the outlet for two-thirds of North
Germany. Bremen, at the head of the Weser
estuary, has no water-communication with such an
extensive hinderland, but the proposed great canal
to join the Elbe to the Rhine would give it a
greater share of the eastern traffic. The imperial
government is fully alive to the value of cheap
water-navigation, and has matured plans for the
extension and deepening of the canals. Germany
has the further advantage of most of the railways
being in the hands of the State.
German ports are favourably situated for over-sea
trade with Scandinavia, the British Islands, and the
seaboard countries of the world. The produce of the
Rhine, however, has either to be shipped from the
ports of Belgium and the Netherlands, especially
Antwerp, Rotterdam, and Amsterdam, or else to be
sent by a roundabout way to Bremen and Hamburg,
the two German ports on the North Sea. In spite
of this disadvantage, the German oceanic trade is
increasing by leaps and bounds.
Foreign Trade.--Its central position in the heart of


THE GERMAN EMPIRE.
201
Europe gives the German Empire a great advantage
in trading with countries bordering its frontier, and
even beyond, as the railways, except in Russia, are of
one gauge, and goods can be transported without break
of bulk. An illustration of the importance of this
is afforded by the growth of German trade with
Italy since the opening of the St Gotthard tunnel
permitted direct railway communication. The upper
navigable waters of the Danube, the international
waterway from Eastern Europe, are within the
Empire, and canals join the Rhine to the Rhone and
to the Marne in the west.
Manufactured goods of all kinds form the chief
exports and also the chief imports. The most im-
portant are metals, chemicals, machinery, and leather
goods, of which more are exported than imported,
and food-substances, textiles, and wooden wares, of
which more are imported than exported. Although
much German agricultural produce is exported,
between three and four times as much is imported.
Sugar is by far the most important commodity ex-
ported to the United Kingdom, and wood, woollen
and cotton manufactures, eggs, cereals, and glass
rank next. The most important articles imported
from the United Kingdom are woollen and cotton
goods, machinery, coal, iron, yarns, and herrings.
The trade with Britain is the most valuable, the
exports and imports being nearly of equal value.
Next comes that with Austria-Hungary, Russia,
the Netherlands, France, Belgium, Switzerland, and
Scandinavia. Of the extra-European trade, that
with North America is the most important, but the
imports, chiefly cereals and raw cotton, far exceed


202
THE LOW COUNTRIES.
the exports in value. Imports from Central and
South America, the West Indies, and British India
are likewise more valuable than the exports. With
the other countries of Asia the imports and exports
are almost of equal value.
CHAPTER XXI.
THE LOW COUNTRIES.
BELGIUM.
BELGIUM, like Germany, consists of a forested region
in the south-the Ardennes-bordered by a northern
plain. The temperature is equable, the rainfall moder-
ate and uniform.
Products.—The Campine, or eastern part of the plain,
is marshy and infertile, except where it has been re-
claimed. Flanders, the western part of the plain, is
fertile. In parts it lies below the level of the sea,
which, as in Holland, has to be kept out by dikes.
The land thus reclaimed forms moist, rich meadows.
The plains of Flanders, Brabant, and Hainault are
cultivated with cereals, pulses, flax, tobacco, hops,
chicory, and sugar-beet. Sheep are fed on the grass-
lands of the Ardennes. The horses of Belgium are
famous.
Minerals and Manufactures. — Belgium is rich in
minerals, more especially coal and iron. The coal-
fields lie on the Meuse and Sambre, round Liége and
Charleroi, and in the region west of Mons. East of
Liége are large zinc-mines.


204
THE LOW COUNTRIES.
for which it is the outlet. A line of railway runs
south from Antwerp through Brussels and Namur to
Luxemburg and Alsace-Lorraine, Switzerland, and
Italy by the St Gotthard tunnel. From Brussels
a line passes south-westward by Mons to Paris, west-
ward to Ostend (Ostende), the packet-station for
Dover, through Bruges, Ghent, and eastward by
Liége and Cöln (Cologne) for North Germany by
lines across the plain, or for South Germany by the
Rhine.
THE NETHERLANDS.
Configuration and Climate. — The Netherlands, or
Holland, consists of the delta of the Rhine, together
with the marshes between the Rhine and the Ems.
Much of the country has been reclaimed from the sea
by means of dikes and powerful pumps. This land,
which is saturated with water, forms rich meadows
known as polders. Canals intersect the land in all
directions, and serve to drain the water-logged land,
and as means of communication. So important are
the dikes and canals for the very existence of Holland,
that a special department of State is charged with
the protection of the dikes and the regulation of
the canals. Reclamation is still going on, and it is
proposed to drain most of the shallow Zuider Zee, a
great inland gulf running far into the heart of the
country, which would add a million of acres to the
Netherlands at a cost of about £27,000,000.
Plant and Animal Products. The rich meadow-
lands are admirably suited for grazing, and cattle-
raising and dairy-farming are the chief occupations.
The principal agricultural crops are cereals, chiefly rye
20.


206
THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES.
port Amsterdam, the other great port of Holland, is
joined to the North Sea by two canals, one running due
west to Ijmuiden, the other northward to the Helder.
Important passenger routes run from west to east, one
from Flushing (Vlissingen) to Venlo, on the frontier,
opposite to the Ruhr valley, and the other from the
Hook of Holland (Hoek van Holland) to Rotterdam,
whence lines diverge in all directions.
CHAPTER XXII.
THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES.
DENMARK.
DENMARK consists of the peninsula of Jutland and
of the islands between it and Sweden, of which the
largest are Fyen, Zealand (Sjeland), Falster, Laaland,
and the more distant Bornholm. Except in the latter,
the land is low, gently undulating, and covered with
meadows. One-fifth of the land is covered with peat-
mosses, and one-third is under cultivation, mainly
on the Baltic islands. Oats, barley, rye, beet, and
potatoes are the chief crops. Dairy, pig, and poultry
farming is the most important occupation, and pro-
vides over two-thirds of the exports in the form of
pork, butter, eggs, and lard. The fisheries are of con-
siderable importance. Cereals, textiles, minerals, wood,
and colonial produce are the principal imports. Britain
is the best customer of Denmark; next come Germany,
Sweden, and Norway. Germany is the most important
source of the imports; next the United Kingdom, and
third the United States.


THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. 209
temperature are more marked; the rainfall is low,
and comes chiefly in summer.
Products and Manufactures. — The southern plains
are cultivated with oats, barley, wheat, potatoes, and
sugar-beet. Dairy-farming is increasing in import-
ance. Two-fifths of the surface is forest, which is
utilised in the same way as in Norway. Minerals are
abundant, more particularly very pure iron ores, copper
(Falun), lead and silver (Sala), and zinc (Ammeberg).
The iron-mines are in the extreme north, at Gellivara,
and near Dannemora, to the north of Lake Mälar.
The manufacture of steel and iron goods is the
principal industry in the region between Lake Mälar
and the Dal. Sugar and textiles are manufactured at
Stockholm, and textiles at Norrköping and Göteborg.
Fishing is important round the skerry-bordered coast.
Trade, Towns, and Routes.—Timber alone accounts
for one-half of the exports. Live animals and dairy
produce and metals rank next. Coal, metal goods and
machinery, raw and manufactured textile materials,
colonial produce, and cereals head the imports. The
best customer of Sweden is the United Kingdom,
which takes three-sevenths of its exports, mainly in
the form of timber and butter. Germany, Denmark,
and France rank next. The imports are chiefly from
Germany and the United Kingdom, followed by Den-
mark, Russia, and the Low Countries.
The most important port is Göteborg (in German,
Gothenburg), on the Göta. Stockholm, on Lake Mälar,
the capital, ranks as the second. From Stockholm a
railway runs north by Upsala, with a branch to
Trondhjem in Norway, to Gellivara, whence it is
being continued to Port Victoria, in Norway, on the
Coin. Geog. 2


210
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
North Sea, which will permit the exportation of iron
ore all the year round. Lines run west to Kristiania
and Göteborg, and south to Malmö and Karlskrona,
through the manufacturing town of Norrköping. The
routes to Germany are from Trelleborg to the island
of Riigen, or from Malmö to Copenhagen and through
Denmark (q.v.).
CHAPTER XXIII.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
The United States lie between 25° and 49° N.—that is,
between the latitudes of the Canary Islands and the
English Channel on the opposite side of the Atlantic,
or of Argentina in South America. The area of the
United States, excluding Alaska, is over 3,000,000
square miles, about that of the Australian Common-
wealth, or a little less than the mainland of Europe.
They are bounded on the east by the Atlantic, on
the west by the Pacific, on the north by Canada, and
on the south by Mexico and the gulf of that name.
Configuration.—Physically the United States consist
of the Appalachian Highlands in the east, the Great
Plains in the centre, and the lofty Western Mountains.
The eastern Appalachian Highlands are fringed by a
coastal plain, which is broadest in the south. In
the north, where the region has been submerged,
the drowned valleys form excellent harbours, such
as Chesapeake Bay and the Delaware and Hudson
estuaries. Transversely, the Appalachian Highlands
are broken only by the Hudson valley, which leads
by Lake Champlain to the St Lawrence, and by the


THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
211
Mohawk valley to the Great Lakes. These lakes form
the northern boundary of the eastern part of the great
Central Plains, and are a waterway into the heart of
the country comparable to that formed by the Gulf of
Mexico in the south. The great Central Plains stretch
across the continent from the Appalachians to the foot
of the Western Mountains, rising gradually to the base
of the easternmost range, the Rocky Mountains. The
Mississippi flows almost due south across the centre
of the plains, receiving mighty tributaries, the Ohio
from the east, and the Missouri, Platte, Arkansas, and
Red Rivers from the west. The Western Mountains
consist of a broad plateau, with numerous ranges
rising above it, whose eastern parapet is formed by
the Rocky Mountains, and western boundary by the
Cascades and the Sierra Nevada. West of the latter
is the Sacramento valley, bounded on the west by the
Coast Range. The coast ranges follow the west
coast throughout the United States territory, and are
terminated in the north by the Strait of Juan de
Fuca, which opens into Puget Sound, the drowned
northern end of the valley between the Cascades and
the coastal range, a continuation of the Sacramento
valley in the south. Two rivers break through the
coastal ranges—the Columbia in the north, and the
Sacramento in the south.
Climate.—On the west coast the temperature is
equable, but elsewhere it is one of extremes. The
summer temperatures are specially high, but it must
be remembered that the most northern part of the
United States is nearer the equator than the most
southern part of the British Isles. The warm
summers rather than the cold winters determine the


212
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
nature of the plants which can be cultivated. In the
extreme south the inflowing winds bring summer
rains, which fall over the whole of the Central Plains.
Depressions pass over the plains in winter, drawing
moist air from the Gulf of Mexico, and causing
winter rains. Thus, east of a line drawn from the
west of the Gulf of Mexico to Lake Michigan, the
precipitation is considerable at all seasons. California
has a Mediterranean climate of dry summers and cold
winters.
Economic Divisions.—In the north the economic divi-
sions are the same as in southern Canada. In the
west the slopes of the Western Mountains are densely
forested, but the arable plains of the Columbia and
Sacramento Rivers are wider than those of British
Columbia. On the Plains the ranching area is greater,
owing to the extension eastward of the region of low
rainfall. The forest belt extends along the borders of
the Great Lakes, and is continued over the whole of
the Eastern Highlands to the Atlantic coastal plain.
In the extreme south the economic conditions are
of an entirely different type. The Gulf coastal plain
produces cotton, rice, and, farther north, tobacco and
maize. Maize is grown in every state of the Union
except in the extreme north. It is most important
between the Ohio and the lower Missouri and in
eastern Nebraska and Kansas. Tobacco can be culti-
vated as far north as the Connecticut valley. For
export it is grown principally in Kentucky, Virginia,
and North Carolina, and in the adjacent states.
Wheat is cultivated most extensively between the
Appalachians and 100° W. to the north of 36° N.,
and in the Sacramento and Oregon valleys. In Cali-


THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
213
fornia the vine comes to perfection on the hill-slopes,
especially in the south, where all Mediterranean fruits
are cultivated. In the drier states of the west, irri-
gation is leading to a considerable development of
agriculture.
Minerals.—The mineral regions described in southern
Canada extend across the frontier into the United
States. Gold is found in small quantities in the east,
and is very abundant in the Western Mountains,
especially in Colorado and California Silver is very
important, and is mined in Colorado, Montana, Nevada,
and many other states. Mercury is obtained from
New Almaden in California, copper from Montana
and the north of Michigan, zinc from Kansas and
Missouri. In addition to building stone and clay,
the most useful minerals are oil, coal, and iron, all
of which are found in large quantities. The oil region
is in Ohio and western Pennsylvania. The most im-
portant coalfield is in north-east Pennsylvania, where
fine anthracite is mined. Coal, however, is very
widely distributed all along the western margin of
the Appalachians, round the lower Missouri, and
between this region and the Ohio. Iron is most
abundant in the States of Michigan, Wisconsin, and
Minnesota. It is sent across Lake Erie to be smelted
with coal and oil fuel from the eastern coalfields,
especially at Pittsburg (Penn.) and at Cleveland (O.),
the latter of which receives abundant limestone to act
as a flux from neighbouring islands in Lake Erie.
The Appalachian region from the Delaware to the
Gulf of Mexico is the other iron-producing region.
The ore is smelted at Birmingham (Ala.), where coal
and limestone are also found.


216
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
the cold winters. The chief centre is Philadelphia (Pa.),
but at Lawrence and Lowell in Massachusetts, Provi-
dence (R.I.), New York City, and other towns of the
coastal states from Pennsylvania northward woollen
goods are made. The woollens are manufactured into
ready-made clothes at New York, Philadelphia, Chicago,
Boston, and all the great cities. Many New England
towns are noted for their machine-made boots and
shoes (Lynn, Mass.), and for hardware of all kinds
(Hartford, Conn.).
The metallurgical industries are carried on in the
coal and iron regions. The great iron-manufactur-
ing centres are Pittsburg, in eastern Pennsylvania;
Chicago, in Illinois; and Birmingham, in Alabama.
The making of machinery is carried on in all the
great cities, especially Philadelphia, Chicago, and New
York. Chicago, Buffalo, Detroit, and Worcester (Mass.)
make railway plant. Philadelphia is noted for its
locomotives, and here and at San Francisco steel ship-
building is developing
The United States is only at the beginning of its
career as a manufacturing nation. Its enormous com-
mand of raw material, of fuels, such as coal and oil,
and its great and growing population fit it to take
the leading place in the future. The industrial de-
velopment of the United States, however, should not
be compared with that of one of the states of Europe,
but with the whole. The great advantages of the
American United States is that the highest intelli-
gence is brought into industrial life, which is un-
hampered by the undue conservatism of the Old
World. New and improved methods are promptly
adopted; machinery and processes are never allowed


THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
217
to become antiquated; and though labour is more
costly per head, it is more intelligent and energetic,
and consequently, in the long-run, cheaper than
in the older manufacturing countries of the world,
although it may not be so persistent nor so thorough.
Internal Communication.—There are over 20,000 miles
of navigable waterways in the United States, the most
important of which are the Great Lakes and the
Mississippi. Over 9000 miles of river are navigable
in the Mississippi basin, and the tonnage transported
on the Ohio system is over 15,000,000 tons per annum.
Only the lower courses of the Appalachian rivers
across the coastal plain are important, except in the
case of the Hudson, which crosses the Appalachian
barrier from north to south, is navigable for ocean
steamers for 100 miles, and carries over 18,000,000
tons per annum. On the Pacific coast the Columbia
is navigable for 500 miles, and the other large rivers
for 100 to 150 miles.
The traffic on the Great Lakes is vast, and continually
increasing. The annual tonnage passing through the
Soo Canal, between Huron and Superior, is 25,000,000
tons (=21 times that of the Suez Canal). The Lakes
bring east the produce of the western plains, the
lumber of the surrounding forests, and the minerals
of Wisconsin and Montana, while they carry west the
textiles, machinery, and other manufactured goods
of the east. The chief ports are Duluth, on Lake
Superior; Milwaukee and Chicago, on Lake Michigan;
and Cleveland and Buffalo, on Lake Erie. The Erie
Canal avoids the Niagara Falls, and connects Lakes
Erie and Ontario with the Hudson by the Mohawk
valley.


218
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
.
.. os ng
The coasting traffic is also very great, and is car-
ried on only by vessels flying the United States flag.
The railway system of the United States is very
highly developed, especially in the east and north-
east of the central plain, radiating from Boston, New
York, Philadelphia, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Chicago, St
Louis, and many other centres, with ramifications too
complex for summary here. From Chicago, the greatest
railway and transport centre in the world, four lines
cross the continent. The first in order of construction
was the Union Pacific, which goes by Omaha and the
Great Salt Lake to San Francisco, with a branch line
which runs north-west to Portland in Oregon. The
Great Northern runs parallel to the Canadian frontier,
at no great distance south of it, to Tacoma on Puget
Sound. The North Pacific also runs parallel, but farther
south, by Bismarck in Missouri, and Helena in Mon-
tana, to Portland. The Topeka and Santa Fé line goes
by New Mexico and Arizona to southern California.
A line connects San Francisco with Portland, Tacoma,
and other Pacific cities. A fifth trans-continental line,
the Southern Pacific, starts from San Francisco, and
skirts the Mexican frontier and Gulf to New Orleans,
from which radiates a network of lines to every
part, through Cairo and St Louis to Chicago, through
Louisville to Cleveland, and through Atlanta to New
York and Boston.
Internal and Foreign Trade.—Until the closing decade
of the nineteenth century, the exports of the United
States were mainly the produce of its forests, farms,
plantations, and ranches, swollen at times by consider-
able quantities of gold and silver. These are still
the most important, but no longer the sole exports.


THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
219
Cereals, especially wheat and maize, rank first in
value, followed by raw cotton. Tinned meats and
other products of the ranches, and cheese from the
east, where dairy-farming is largely carried on, live-
stock, leather, hides, timber, minerals, and oils are all
important.
The closing years of the nineteenth century were
marked by a remarkable development of the export
trade in manufactured articles, more especially iron.
In 1885 the exports of iron and steel were worth only
half as much as the imports. In 1890 they had risen
in value to five-eighths; in 1895 they had reached
half as much again as the imports, and in 1900 the
extraordinary figure of six times as much. Iron and
steel goods now rank fourth in value on the list of
American exports. The imports are manufactured
goods, more particularly textiles, sugar, coffee, hides,
india-rubber, and other raw materials. With the
development of the last ten years the imports are
changing in character and relative value. Raw mate-
rials for manufacture amounted in 1900 to half the
total value of the imports, against one-third in 1890.
The chief trade of the United States is with Europe,
and more particularly with the United Kingdom,
which accounts for from two-fifths to one-half of its
total domestic exports, while supplying only one-third
of the imports—a larger proportion, however, than any
other country. Germany is the next best customer of
the United States. France, the Low Countries, and
Italy are next on the list, and direct communication
has recently been started between New York and
Genoa. The trade with Canada is a little more than
that with France. In the case of Mexico the imports


THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
221
New York, although access is not so easy to the
central plain.
Galveston has increased in importance with the
development of Texas, of which it is the port. Taking
into account both export and import trade, the follow-
ing are the percentages of the different ports, in which
the predominance of New York, the chief importing
centre, is much more marked than when exports alone
are considered :—New York, 47.0 per cent.; Boston,
8.2 per cent.; Baltimore, 6 per cent.; New Orleans,
5.9 per cent.; Philadelphia, 5.4 per cent.; Galveston,
3.9 per cent.; and San Francisco, 3.4 per cent.
In 1901 the first through steamer sailed for Chicago,
which is now practically an ocean port, from Man-
chester, which is also naturally an inland town.
The trans-Pacific service is less important at present
than the trans-Atlantic, but regular lines of steamers
sail from San Francisco to Japan, China, the Philip-
pines, and Australasia. The export trade of San
Francisco, however, is still chiefly with Europe, and a
relatively large proportion of the trade with Britain
is carried on by sailing-ships. The opening of the
Panamá Canal will give a great impetus to the trade
between the eastern ports and ports on the Pacific.


224
APPENDIX.
NEW ZEALAND.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
3,699 | 4,749 4,325
2,253 2,124 2,089
1,754 1,440 1,513
1,294 1,049 732
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
Clothing, and
Materials
for. ........... 2,475 2,420 2,123
Iron and Steel
Goods, Ma-
chinery, &c. 2,462 | 2,133 1,579
Sugar .......... 490
Paper, Books,
Stationery. 439
369
Beer, Spirits,
Wines....... 343 288 306
Fruit ........... 249 226 181
Oils ............ 238 207 127
335
Wool..
Frozen Meat.
Gold ............
Grain, Pulse,
Flour .........
Butter and
Cheese ......
Kauri Gum...
Hides, Skins,
Leather.....
Tallow .........
Phormium
(N.Z.hemp)
1,12416
970
622
714
608
477
352
476
368
484
312
196
332
184
Coinage, Weights, and Measures.— British.
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA.
(Money, Weights, and Measures as in Britain.)
TASMANIA.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
£1,000 £1,000. £1,000.
Drapers'Goods 437 | 437 380
Hardware ...... 131 | 131 106
Sugar............ | 114 | 114 104
Machinery ..... 112 112
Copper and
Copper Ore.
Fruit..
1,027
331
213
280
Tin..
902
280
271
261
762
244
282
358
99
Wool.
Silver and Sil-
ver Ore.
Gold............
252
209
325
204
207
206


APPENDIX.
225
COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA-Continued.
VICTORIA.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
10
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
4,351 4,217 | 5,701
Imports. 1901. 1900. | 1899.
£1,000. £1,000.
Wool (raw)... 1,840 1,928
2,351
Gold (mostly
Bullion).... 919 | 1,264 2,626
Cottons........ 1,032 1,045 986
Iron and Steel 897 936 847
Live-Stock ... 1,092 898 767
Woollens...... 722 774 674
Sugar........... 877 697 684
Timber ........ 600 569 441
Coaland Coke 450 407 280
Wool...........
Gold (mostly
Specie)......
Butter .........
Wheat .........
Live-Stock....
4,297 4,132 4,387
1,245 1,490 1,405
1,444 892 1,252
688 706 352
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
£1,000. £1,000.
1,029 1,003
£1,000.
1,512
Ore...............
Apparel and
Drapery.....
Coaland Coke
Sugar ...........
1901. 1900. 1899. Exports.
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
1,551 2,300 1,666 || Wool..
Wheat and
400 428 375 Flour.....
362 396 307 Silver...........
364 375 139 Lead............
Copper .........
1,280
659
497
469
837
638
674
372
761
585
461
406
QUEENSLAND.
Imports.
1901.
1900. | 1899.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
Gold............
Wool..........;
Textiles and
Apparel......
Metals and
Metal Goods
Flour...........
1,227 1,435
959 1,258
240 270
1,549
957
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
2,197 2,475 2,614
2,1392, 1993,391
Meat and
Meat Ex-
tract......... 1,320 1,562 1,494
Sugar ....
669 1,163
Live-Stock...
927
Hides and
Skins........ 419 552
275
| 713
597
700
Com. Geog. 2


APPENDIX.
227
NATAL.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
312
| 669
328
409 421
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
254 161 609
114 148 147
139 155
639
Machinery....
Haberdashery
Apparel and
Slops........
Iron and
Hardware..
Flour, Grain,
&c............
Wool.
Sugar
Coal.
Bark
Gold..
46
58
534
353
253
403
375
368
268
337
512
347
Coinage, Weights, and Measures.-British.
CEYLON.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
|| Tea.........
1,000 Rs. 1,000 Rs.
47,611 | 53,735
1,000 Rs. 1,000 Rs.
Rice and other
Grains........... 36,972 40,125 Coco-Nut Pro-
Coal and Coke... | 12,721 | 12,243 || ducts. ............
Cotton Goods..... 6,192 7,918 Plumbago .........
Salt Fish .......... 3,264 3,357 Cacao..
Spirits and
Areca Nuts .......
Wines ........... 1,045
Coffee.
17,971 | 16,438
9,610 9,792
2,321 1,651
1,612 1,598
593
1,892
537
Money.—1 rupee=100 cents=ls. 4d. Weights and Measures. - British.
THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
Rice..........
Opium..............
Cotton Piece
Goods...
Coal.....
Fish....
1,000 Dol. 1,000 Dol.
31,436 25,101
Tin.......….…………
14,617 | 15,496 Gums ...........
..........
14,824 | 14,789 Gambier ...........
7,677 7,979 || Rattans ............
7,367 6,757 Tapioca and Sago
1,000 Dol. 1,000 Dol.
60,231 | 60,768
19,281 | 19,136
14,762 | 14,527
7,251 16,681
6,611 6,780
6,716 6,780
Money.-The silver Mexican dollar=ca. 2s. The British or Hong-
kong dollar is also legal tender. Weights and Measures. -1 picul=
100 kati=133} lb. Other values are also used.


230
APPENDIX.
WEST AFRICAN COLONIES.
LAGOS.
Imports.
1900.
1899.
Exports.
| 1901.
1900.
1899.
511
404
£1,000. £1,000 £1,000.
Palm Kernels 511
413
Palm Oil...... 207 | 190
168
Rubber .........
15
160
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
Cotton Goods 327 331 308
Spirits ......... 61 54 62
Tobacco ....... |
19
18
GOLD COAST.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
285 307
150 108 101
25 30
Cotton Goods
Spirits .........
Tobacco .......
343
£1,000.
104
178
£1,000.
328
238
96
Rubber ........
Palm Oil...
Palm Kernels
Kola Nuts. ...
Gold-Dust....
£1,000.
556
183
106
34
SIERRA LEONE.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
| 1899.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
Cotton Goods
Spirits .........
Tobacco.......
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
138 134 185
48
16
£1,000. £1,000
Palm Kernels 162 172
Kola Nuts.... | 51
Rubber ........
£1,000.
163
61
44
79
29
GAMBIA.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
Cotton Goods ! 44
Spirits
.........
Tobacco .......
61
£1,000. £1,000. £1,000.
Ground Nuts. 172 222 200
Rubber..........
Currency, Weights, and Measures.-British.


232
APPENDIX.
HUNGARY.
Iinports.
1901.
1900.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
Cotton Goods ...
Woollen Goods.
Clothing..........
Silk Goods........
Wine (in casks)
Coal...
1,000 Cr. | 1,000 Cr.
133,466 | 124,518 Flour ............
85,214 81,233 Oxen.............
36,817 37,441 Wheat.............
24,554 | 28,194 || Pigs ............
19,018 24,124 Barley .............
22,287
20,316
Eggs..
1,000 Cr. 1,000 Cr.
166,992 | 156,628
88,360 92,361
79,480 84,646
63,345 59,477
44,063 56,720
34,135 47,807
30,634 34,497
Rye ....
Money.—The unit is the krone or crown=10d. (cf. the franc). Formerly
the gulden or florin was used = ls. 8d.
Weights and Measures.-Metric.
BELGIUM.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
Exports.
1901.
1.900.
1,000 Fr. | 1,000 Fr.
112,235 V
127,708 111,796
1,000 Fr. 1,000 Fr.
Cereals ...
328,038 297,872 | Raw Textiles ...
Raw Textiles ... 209,659 214,904 Coal.
Resins, Bitumen
92,873 || Yarns, Linens,
Timber.
| 12,551 85,515 | &c. ..............
Chemicals........ 65,431 | 72,401 || Glass................
Coal.
54,954 70,486 Cereals ............
Raw Hides ...... 54,755 64,696
Machinery ........ 42,379 54,861
Machinery ......
Caoutchouc...... 45,370 52,057
Drugs...........
31,238 47,051 || Raw Hides......
Oil Seeds ...........
40,256 | Iron.
Iron and Ore....
29,731
| || Sugar.......
79,347
72,271
54,627
71,285
44,156
51,069
66,675
79,406
76,840
65,413
59,520
57,711
49,617
47,856
75,656
Zinc......"
Money.-Latin Monetary Unions unit is the franc; 254 francs = £1.
Weights and Measures.—Metric.


236
APPENDIX.
EGYPT.
Imports.
1901–1902. 1900-1901.
Exports.
1901-1902. 1900–1901.
1,000 £E.
1,000 £E. 1,000 £E.
4,581 | 4,642
1,000 £E.
Textiles, main-
ly Raw Cotton 13,949
Cereals, Vege-
tables, &c.....
Provisions and
Drugs.......... 1
601
11,892
2,650
2,026
2,139
Textiles.........
Wood and
Coal, Cane
work, &c......
Metals and
Metal Goods.
Cereals, Vege-
tables, &c. ...
Spirits, Oils,
2,658
1,726
804
1,714
1,706
1,418
&C.........
799
813
685
Animals and
Animal Food
Products......
Tobacco.........
Provisions and
Drugs..........
702
604
596
466
415
.
Money.-1 gold Egyptian pound= 100 piastres= £1, Os. 6411.
Weights and Measures. -1 kantar=100 rottles = 36 okes=99 lb. ; '
1 ardeb=5.45 bushels.
FRANCE.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
1,000,000
Francs.
426
1,000,000
Francs.
1,000,000
Francs.
407
657
1,000,000
Francs.
362
343
273
239
213
185
228
660
228
185
Wool .....
Coal and Coke..
Raw Silk.........
Raw Cotton .....
Oil Seeds... .....
Cereals.
Timber and
Wood.
Hides and Furs.
Wine .......
Textiles ............
248
248
189
127
183
Textiles, Wool,
Silk, Cotton..
Wine ..............
Smallware
Raw Wool and
Yarn ............
Raw Silk anil
Yarn.
Linen and
Clothes.........
Skins and Furs.
164
202
...........
Oo
.
...........
117
136
178
151
85
152
177
161
155
152
127
136
139
110
Currency.-The unit of the French coinage is the franc, worth about
9 d., and divided into 100 centimes. The gold and silver coinage of
Belgium, Italy, Switzerland, and Greece are based on the same units,


APPENDIX.
237
and being of the same fineness, size, and weight, are generally accepted.
The same monetary system has been adopted, either wholly or par-
tially, in Spain, Romania, Bulgaria, Servia, Finland, and several South
American states.
Weights and Measures.—The unit of length is the meter, 39.4 inches
approximately. It is subdivided into tenths or decimeters, hundredths
or centimeters, and thousandths or millimeters. A centimeter is and
a millimeters of an inch. The unit of distance is the kilometer,
measuring 1000 meters, or śmile. The square kilometer is about of a
square mile, and contains 100 hectares, each about 24 acres.
The unit of weight is the gram (gramme). 1000 grams, or about 21 lb.
avoirdupois, make a kilogram. In ordinary retail trade most goods are
sold by the demi-kilo of 500 grams, otherwise known as the livre or
pound, and weighing 17lb. avoirdupois. The metrical ton, or tonnean,
consists of 1000 kilograms, or 2205 lb., against the English ton of 2240 lb.
The measure of capacity is the litre, 14 pints.
GERMAN EMPIRE.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
Articles of Consumption...........
Textiles ............
Metals and Metal Ware.
Fats and Oils..
Wooden Wares ........
Chemicals, Drugs, &c. ......
Leather, &c. .............
Fuel.
Animal Products...........
Machinery, Instruments, &c. ....
1,000 Marks.
1,710,249
1,139,603
640,232
344,326
270,725
331,593
272,935
182,742
216,501
95,861
1,000 Marks.
1,584,429
1,273,311
768,216
359,958
337,275
331,365
281,544
222, 157
211,063
138,313
1,000 Marks.
1,541,984
1,273,185
713,027
306,240
384,657
316,265
251,125
160,679
191,166
Exports.
1901.
1900.
1899.
1,000 Marks.
1,051,092
739,949
433,019
408,366
Textiles ............
Metals and Metal Wares....
Articles of Consumption ..........
Chemicals, Drugs, &c......
Machinery, Instruments, &c. ....
Fuel .....................
Leather, &c. ...........................
Stone, Clay, and Glass. ... ... ... ...
Wooden Wares.
1,000 Marks. | 1,000 Marks.
1,098,750 1,034,616
783,282 745,517
496,467 459,079
397,617 409,869
344,294
286,216 235,861
266,298 270,817
201,635 169,560
169,582 148,612
275,080
266,407
190,745
157,502
Weights and Measures and Coinage.—Metric weights and measures
are used. The monetary unit is the mark, which is equal to our shilling.
It is divided into a hundred parts or pfennigs.


APPENDIX.
239
JAPAN.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
1,000 Yen. 1,000 Yen.
1,000 Yen. 1,000 Yen.
79,136 48,818
60,650
59,472
Cotton and
Seed...........
Iron and Steel
Manufactures
Sugar ............
Cotton Manu-
factures.......
Wool and
Manufactures
Petroleum......
Arms, Ma-
chines, &c....
19,971
33,530
14,145
31,665
26,692
Silk, raw.......
Silk and Manu.
factures.......
Cotton Yarn...
Coal.............
Copper ..........
Tea.............
30.001
21,466
17,542
13,905
8,854
23,512
20,589
20,032
12,864
9,036
25,699
11,837
14,943
23,474
14,163
16,604
13,767
Money, Weights, and Measures. --The monetary unit is the yen, worth
about 2s. O}d., and divided into 100 sen. The metric weights and
measures are legal. The native weights are the kwan, a little over
88 lb., and the kin, about 1} lb. The kin of 6 shaku measures nearly
two yards, so that a sliaku is practically one foot. A ri is nearly
24 miles.
KOREA.
Imports.
1900.
1899.
Exports.
1900.
1899.
1,000 Yen. 1,000 Yen.
5,526 5,385
592
560
Cotton Goods.
Kerosene. .......
Silk Piece
Goods.
Metals..
1,418
1,000 Yen. 1,000 Yen.
3,633
3,626
2,369 1,975
1,548 380
Gold
Rice
Beans..
Ginseng.........
422
261
362
Money.—Copper cash as in China. A silver dollar is minted. The
Japanese yen is commonly used.


APPENDIX.
241
NORWAY
Imports.
1901.
1900.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
1,000 1,000
1,000 1,000
Kronor. Kronor.
Kronor. | Kronor.
Bread-Stuffs........ 45,805 52,818 || Wooden Goods
Minerals, un-
and Timber....... 59,613 67,721
wrought............ 37,041 | 42,611 | Animal Produce
Textile Manu.
(malty food)...... | 53,413 | 54,424
factures ............ 24.803 24.989 Paper and Paper
Groceries ............. 24,980 24,633 Manufactures.... 9,875 8,747
Vessels, Carriages,
Vessels, Carriages,
Machinery ........
23,819 30,534 Machinery, &C... 4,181 7,304
Metals, manu-
Hair, Skins, &c... 6,095 5,610
factured ............ 22,566 23,017 Tallów, Oils, Tar..
6,593
5,445
Tallow, Oils, Tar,
Minerals, un-
&c. ............. ..... 19,046 18,405 wrought. ............ 3,806 3,951
Yarn, Rope, &c.... 16,782 15,626
Metals, un wrought
or partly wrought 11,239 | 13,634
Wooden Goods
and Timber ....... | 9,206 11,788
Money.-1 Norse kroneri Swedish krona=100 öre = ]s. 1d.
Weights and Measures.-Metric.
PERSIA.
No satisfactory figures.
Money.—1 kran=1000 dinars (in which accounts are kept)=formerly
I franc, now less than 5d.
PERU.
Imports.
1900.
1889.
Exports.
1900.
1899.
1,000 Soles. 1,000 Soles.
Small Wares,
&c. .............
Cottons .........
Provisions......
Furniture, &c.
Woollens .......
Other Tissues.
11,768
3,613
2,529
1,692
1,478
7,989
3,770
2,381
1,324
1,451
Ores. ............
Sugar...........
Cotton..........
Wool......
Cocaine ........
Hides ............
1,000 Soles. 1,000 Soles.
16,951 10,667
14,558 10,104
3,261 1,787
2,967 3,118
1,162
1,086
783
675
665
Money.-1 gold libra = 10 soles = £l.
Weights and Measures. -Metric legal, and used for Customs returns.
Old Spanish weights and measures common. l quintal= 100 libra=
107.4 lb. l arroba=25.4 lb, =607 gallons. I vara=.93 yard,
Coin. Geog, 2
P


APPENDIX.
245
SWEDEN.
Imports.
1900.
1899.
Exports.
1900.
1899.
1,000
Kronor.
1,000
Kronor.
104,052
82,388
65,010
51,793
Minerals, mostly
Coal...............
Metal Goods,
Machinery, &c.
Corn and Flour..
Raw Textiles
and Yarn .......
Textiles...........
Colonial Wares.
Hair, Hides, &c.
Live Animals
and Animal
Food .............
1,000 1,000
Kronor. Kronor.
Timber, wrought
and un wrought 200,559 | 178,554
Live Animals
and Animal
Food.............. 43,162 48,129
Metals, raw or
partly wrought 52,395 43,513
Metal Goods,
Machinery, &c. 25,317 22,585
Paper and Paper
Manufactures.. | 14,392
14,392 11,707
74,605
49,328
47,818
46,738
38,635
24,459
46,166
41,959
45,584
20,439
29,196
23,542
Money.—1 Norse krone=1 Swedish krona= 100 öre=ls. 11d.
Weights and Measures. --Metric.
SWITZERLAND.
Imports.
1901.
1900.
Exports.
1901.
1900.
1,000
Francs.
1,000 1,000
Francs. Francs.
232,149 224,510
150,961 | 167,615
Silk..
276,735
145,073
77,036
Food-Stuffs, To-
bacco, Spirits..
Useful Metals...
Mineral Sub.
stances .......
Cottons
Wools..
Animals ..........
Machinery, Car-
riages .....
1,000
Francs.
Silk
272,833
Cottons ...........
145,155 || Clocks and
104,574 Watches........
Food-Stuffs, To-
93,028 bacco, Spirits .
30,369 || Machinery, Car-
55,856 riages ............
43,508 | Wools .....
Colours............
36,785 || Drugs, Chemi-
cals, &c. ... ... ...
130,769 122,823
107,602 104,029
85,369
65,274
49,511
45,043
47,144
17,743
15,272
49,511
18,768
15,915
26,323
13,203
13,044
Money, Weights, and Measures.—As in France.


250
INDEX.
Alberga River, 88.
| Antimony, 142, 154.
Alberta, 63.
Antioquia, 126.
Albury, 88.
Antofagasta, 100, 127.
Aleppo, 170.
Antwerp, 200, 203, 204.
Alexandretta, 169.
Anvers, see Antwery.
Alexandria, 168.
Aomori, 156.
Algeria, 175, 176.
Apennines, 165, 171, 173.
Algiers, 176.
Apia, 134.
Allahabadl, 106, 109, 110.
Appalachian Coalfield, 44.
Allegheny Industrial Region, 44, 214. Appalachians, 19, 61, 210, 212, 213, 215.
Allier River, 178.
Apples, 65.
Allspice, 34.
Apricot, 29, 65.
Almaden, 40.
Apulia, 165, 171.
Almond, 29.
Apure River, 123.
Alpaca Goat, 126.
Aquitaine, 178.
Alpine Passes, 165.
Arabia, 169.
- Switzerland, 184,
Arabian Desert, 164.
- Tunnels, 173, 185.
Ararat, Mount, 160.
Alps, 164, 171, 177, 193.
Archangel, 158, 163.
Alsace-Lorraine, 204.
Arctic Ocean, 18.
Altai Mountains, 157.
Ardennes, 177-179, 202.
Altmuhl River, 198.
Argentina, 100.
Altona, 200.
Arizona, 218.
Aluminium, 40.
Arkansas, 211.
Amazon Forest, 123.
Armenian Plateau, 166.
- River, 19, 47, 122, 123.
Arno River, 171.
Ambara, 114.
Arrowroot, 136.
America, Central, 19, 33, 35, 139-141 ; Artesian Wells, 32, 85.
Climatic Zones, 140; Products, 140; Asaba, 119, 120.
Proposed Cavals across. 140. 141 : | Ashabad, 159, 168.
Railways, 140.
Ashanti, 118.
- North, Physical Description of, 19; | Ashio, 154,
see Canada and United States.
Asia, Physical Characteristics, 17, 18.
- South, Physical Description of, 19. - Eastern, 143-156; Chinese Empire,
- Southern South, 97-102 ; Intertropi. 145–153; India and Ceylon, 103-112;
cal, 122-127.
Indo-Chinese Peninsula, 128 - 130;
Amoy, 150.
Japanese Empire, 153–156 ; Persia, 167,
Amsterdam, 48, 200, 205, 206.
168; Russian Central Asia, 159, 160;
Amu Daria, 159.
Siam, 129; Siberia, 157, 158; Turkey
Amur Highlands, 156.
in Asia, 169, 170.
— River, 18.
— Minor, 165, 169.
Amuria, 157.
Asphalt, 37, 136.
Anahuac Plateau, 141,
Aspinwall, 126.
Ancona, 173.
Assam, 106, 108, 110, 111.
Andalusia, 165, 173.
Assuan, 168.
Andes, 97-100, 122, 123.
Asturias, 174, 175.
Andijan, 159.
Asuncion, 102.
Angola, 114.
Asyut, 168.
Angostura Bitters, 123.
Athens, 170.
Annobon, 121.
Atlanta (Georgia), 215, 218.
Anthracite, 66.
Atlantic Ocean, 16, 17.
Antigua, 135.
Atlas Mountains, 165, 176.
.
.


INDEX.
251
Atolls, 134.
Batum, 160, 163.
Auckland (N.Z.), 77, 78.
Bauxite, 40.
Australasia, 74-90.
Bavaria, 195, 196.
Australia, Island of, 80-90; Climate, so; Beaconsfield, 79.
Desert, 82; Economic Divisions, 82; Beans, 151-154.
Manufactures, 87; Minerals, S6; Moist Beauharnois Canal, 69.
Tropical, 85; Physical Description, 18; Bechuanalanı, 91, 96.
Position and Configuration, S0; Region Beeswax, 122.
of Summer Rains (Eastern), 34; Region Beira, 96, 116.
of Winter Rains (Southern), 82; Routes, Beirut, 169.
88; States, 89; Trade, 89.
Belgium, 202-4; Manufactures, 203;
Austria, Provinces of, 186–188; Agricul. Minerals, 202; Physical Characters,
ture of, 186-188; Economic Products, 202; Products, 202; Railways, 204 ;
186–188; Manufactures and Chief Routes, Towns, and Trades, 203.
Towns, 186–188.
Belgrade, 190.
Austria-Hungary, 185-190.
Belize, 140.
Bell Island, 69.
BADEN, 198.
Bendigo, S6, S8.
Bahia, 124.
Bengal, 108, 110, 111.
- Blanca, 101.
Benguela, 114.
Bahr-el-Gazal, 121.
Benué River, 120.
Baikal, Lake, 157, 158.
Berbera, 117.
Bakony Forest, 188.
Bergamo, 172.
Baku, 160.
Bergen, 208.
Balearic Isles, 165.
Berlin, 163, 190, 196, 193.
Balkan Mountains, 164, 191.
Bern, 185.
- Peninsula, 165, 167.
Bessarabia, 161.
Ballarat, 86, 88.
Bhamo, 109, 110.
Baltic Heights, 194, 195.
Bida, 120.
- Sea, 17, 160, 163, 193, 196, 206, 207. Bihar Mountains, 189.
Baltimore, 220, 221.
Bijagos, 121.
Baluchistan, 168.
Bilbao, 175.
Bamboo, 31, 129.
Birmingham (Alabama), 213, 216.
Bananas, 34, 115, 117, 122, 129, 134, 135, Biskra, 176.
137, 138, 140, 146.
Bismarck (Missouri), 218.
Banana Town, 117.
Bissagos, 121.
Banket, 94.
Black Forest, 193.
Barbados, 135, 136.
- Sea, 17, 160, 163, 165, 168, 170.
Barbary States, 175, 176.
Blagovyestchensk, 158.
Barca, 169.
Blantyre, 115.
Barcelona, 174, 175.
Blanzy, 179.
Barley, 26-29; see also Agriculture. Bleiberg, 188.
Barmen-Elberfeld, 198.
Blende, 39.
Baroda, 110.
Blenheim (New Zealand), 77, 78.
Barquisimeto, 125.
Bluefields, 140.
Barranquilla, 126.
Bogotá, 126.
Barren Lands, 61.
Bohemia, 186, 187, 189.
Basel, 184, 185.
Böhmerwald, 186.
Bassein, 190.
Bokhara, 159.
Basutoland, 93.
Bolan Pass, 109.
Bathurst, so.
Bolivia, 100, 127.
Batu, 163.
| Bologna, 173.


INDEX.
253
Canals, 47.
| Charleroi, 202.
Cantabrian Mountains, 174, 175.
Charleville, 89.
Canton, 149, 150.
Charters Towers, 86.
Caoutchouc, 34.
Chaudière Falls, 69.
Cape Colony, Configuration and Climate, Chaux de Fonds, 184.
91-93; Means of Communication, 95, Cheese, 28.
96 ; Minerals, 94.
Chelyabinsk, 158.
- Town, 95.
Chemnitz, 199.
- Verd, 120, 121.
Chemulpo, 153.
Caracas, 125.
Chengtu, 150.
Caravans, 119.
Cherbourg, 180, 182.
Carcassonne Gap, 165.
Chernozoim, 161.
Cardainom Mountains, 103.
Chesapeake Bay, 210.
Cariboo District, 65.
Chestnut, 29.
Carinthia, 188.
Chicago, 50, 215-218, 221.
Carmaux, 179.
Chifu, 150.
Carob, 29.
Chile, 24, 26, 99, 100.
Carolina, 212, 215.
Chilean Deserts, 99.
Carpets, 111.
China, 31, 145–152.
Carrara, 172.
- Grass, 31.
Cascade Mountains, 59, 211.
Proper, 145; Agriculture, 146, 147;
Caspian Sea, 160, 163, 167, 168.
Canals, 149 ; Divisions, 146, 147 ; Man.
Cassel, 198.
churia, 151, 152; Manufactures, 148 ;
Cassiterite, 39.
Means of Communication, 148-150 ;
Castor Oil, 31.
Minerals, 147, 148; Railways, 149;
Castries, 137.
Trade, 150, 151.
Catengas, 33.
Chinde River, 114.
Cattle, 27-29, 33, 46, 64, 72, 75, 76, 83-85, Chinese Emigrants, 56.
93, 98, 101, 102, 115, 116, 119, 123-125, Turkestan, 111.
128, 129, 131, 136, 137, 139, 142, 159, 161, Chinkiang, 150.
167, 171, 178, 181, 182, 184, 189, 191, 195, Chinook Winds, 60, 75, 98.
204, 208, 213.
Chiromo, 114.
Cauca River, 124.
Christchurch, 77, 78.
Caucasus, 160, 164.
Chumbi, 111.
Cauvery, see Kaveri River.
Chungking, 149.
Cawnpore, 109, 110.
Cienfuegos, 139.
Ceará, 125.
Cigars, 133, 139.
Central Africa, 112-122.
Cinchona, 123, 126.
- African Lakes, 115.
Cincinnati, 215, 218.
America, 139-141.
Cinnabar, 40.
- Plains of U.S.A., 211, 212.
Cimamon, 34.
- Plateau of France, 164, 165, 177 Clays, 32.
179.
Clearings in Temperate Forests, 26.
- Provinces (India), 107.
Cleveland (Ohio), 213, 217, 218.
Cette, 181.
Climate, 20-25. The climate of ench
Cevennes Mountains, 178.
region is described in detail under
Ceylon, 107, 108, 112, 164.
each region.
Chad, Lake, 112, 119, 120.
Cloncurry River, 85, 86.
- Protectorate, 120.
Cloves, 34, 115.
Chagres River, 141.
Coal, 36, 147, 155; Anthracite, 36 ; Black
Champagne, 179.
or Bituminous, 36; Brown, 36; ini
Champlain, Lake, 72, 210.
Australia, 87; in Austria-Hungary,


254
INDEX.
186, 187, 188; in Belgium, 202; in Copenhagen, 207, 210.
Borneo, 132; in Bulgaria, 191 ; in Copiapo, 100.
Canada, 66 ; in Chile, 36, 40, 100; in Copper in Anstralia, 39, 87; in Brazil,
China. 36. 42, 147, 148: in France, 179; 124; in Canada, 66 ; in Chile, 39, 100;
in German Empire, 36, 196 ; in India, in China, 148; in Japan, 39, 154, 155 ;
108; in Indo-China, 130 ; in Japan, in Korea, 153; in Mexico, 39, 142; in
155; in Klondike, 36; in Korea, 153; Russia, 39, 162; in South Africa, 39,
in Natal, 36; in New Zealand, 36, 77; 94 ; in South America, 99; in Spain,
in Romania, 192; in Russia, 162; in 174; in United States, 39.
Siberia, 157; in South Africa, 94, 95 ; Copra, 34, 112, 134.
in Spain, 174 ; in Spitsbergen, 36; in Coquimbo, 100.
Tasmania, 79 ; in United Kingdom, 36, Coral Islands, 134.
39, 40; in United States, 36, 39, 40, Corinth, 170; Canal, 170.
212.
Corinto, 140.
Coalfields as Manufacturing Centres : 1 Costa Rica, 140.
Appalachian, 44, 212; Franco-Belgian, Cotton, 31-33; in Brazil, 124; in China,
43, 179, 202, 203; Polish, 44, 162; 147, 152; in Egypt, 168; in Hon.
Russian, 44, 162, 163; Saxon, 44, 199; duras, 140; in India, 106, 107, 111; in
Silesian, 44, 199; Westphalian, 44, 198. Japan, 154, 155; in Mexico, 142; in
Coasting Traffic, 49.
Peru, 126; in Russian Central Asia,
Coatzacoalcos, 142.
159; in United States, 211, 213; in
Cobalt, 134.
West Indies, 136; in Venezuela, 125.
Cobar, 8.
Courtrai, 203.
Coco-nuts, 34, 129, 136, 137.
Craiova, 192.
Coffee, 34, 35, 111, 114, 116, 117, 121–126, Crefeld, 198.
129, 134, 137-140, 142.
Crete, 169.
Cold Belts, 21.
Crimea, 156, 161.
- Storage, 51.
Croton, 31.
Collie River, 87.
Crow's Nest Pass, 66.
Cöln, 198, 204.
Croydon, 86.
Cologne, 198, 204.
Cryolite, 40.
Colombia, 125.
Cuba, 139.
Colombian Andes, 124.
Cue, 89.
Colombo, 110, 112.
Cunnamulla, 89.
Colon, 126.
Curaçao, 138.
Colorado, 213.
Cyprus, 169.
Columbia River, 211, 212, 217.
Czernovitz, 187.
Comentry, 179.
Como, 172.
DAHOMEY, 120.
Concepcion, 100.
Dairy Farming and Produce, 64, 83, 159,
Congo Basin, 33, 117.
167, 171, 182, 184, 204, 206, 208, 216.
- Independent State, 117.
Dakar, 120.
— River, 112, 113.
Dakota, 28.
- Zambezi Plateau, 113, 114.
Dal, 209.
Connecticut Valley, 212.
Dalmatia, 186, 188.
Constantine, 176.
Dalnyi, 152, 163.
Constantinople, 170, 181, 191.
Damascus, 169.
Constantsa, 192.
Dannemora, 209,
Cooktown, 89.
Danube River, 17, 187–193, 197, 198, 201.
Coolgardie, 86, 89.
Danzig, 199.
Coolie Labour, 112, 136.
Dardanelles, 165.
Copaiba Balsam, 125.
Dar-es-Salaam, 116.


INDEX.
255
Darfur, 121.
Darjiling, 110, 111.
Darmstadt, 198.
Dates, 32, 33, 176.
Deccan, 18, 33.
Delagoa Bay, 95, 116.
Delaware River, 210, 213.
Deloraine, 79.
Denmark, 206, 207.
Density of Population, 14.
Detroit, 72, 216.
Diamonds, 124, 125.
Dieppe, 180, 182.
Dijon, 181.
Dindings, 128.
Djibouti, see Jibouti.
Dnieper River, 160, 161.
Doab, 110.
Dobruja, 197.
Doldrums, 22.
Dominica, 137.
Don River, 160, 161.
Donets, 162, 163.
Doubs River, 180.
Drakenstein Mountains, 92.
Drammen, 208.
Drave River, 188.
Dresden, 199.
Dry Deserts, 32.
Duisburg, 198.
Duluth, 50, 217.
Dundee (Natal), 94.
Dunedin, 77.
Dunkirk, 180, 182.
Durban, 95, 96.
Dusseldorf, 198.
Dvina, 158, 160.
Dyewoods, 126, 128.
Elbeuf, 179.
Elburz, 167.
Elster, 199.
Ems, 204.
- River, 193.
Engadine, 187.
English Channel, 23.
Ensenada, 101.
Equatorial Climate, 23.
Erie Canal, 217.
- Lake, 19, 161, 213, 217.
Erzgebirge, 186, 196.
Esbjerg, 207.
Essen, 198.
Etsch Valley, 187, 190.
Eucalyptus, 31.
Euphrates, 32, 165.
Europe, Physical Characteristics of, 17.
Eyre Lake, 37.
FALKLAND ISLANDS, 102.
Fall-line of Appalachians, 44, 215.
Fall River, 215.
Falster, 206.
Falun, 209.
Farming in Canada, 64.
Ferghana, 159.
Fernando Po, 121.
Fez, 176.
Figs, 29.
Fiji, 134.
Fingall, 79.
Finland, Gulf of, 161.
Fisheries of Canada, 62; of Dalmatia,
188; of France, 182; of Gerinany, 196 ;
of Holland, 205; of Newfoundland,
74; of Norway, 207.
Fiume, 189, 190.
Flanders, 202, 203.
Flinders River, 85.
Florence, 172, 173.
Flushing, 206.
Folm Wind, 98; see also Chinook.
Food and Work, 53.
Forests and Climate, 14.
-- Equatorial, 34.
- Temperate, 25, 29, 30; Clearings in, 26.
- of the Amazon, 122; of Brazil,
124; of British Columbia, 63; of
Bulgaria, 190; of Canada, 61-63;
of Central Africa, 113; of Central
America, 140; of Ceylon, 107; of
EAST INDIES, 127.
- London, 92, 95.
Ebony, 34, 135.
Ebro, 165, 173, 175.
Economic Geography, 13, 14.
- Influence of Human Associations, 55.
- Man, 52.
Ecuador, 126.
Egypt, 122, 168, 169.
Eidsvold, 208.
Eisenerz, 188.
Elba, 172.
Elbe River, 186, 194, 197, 199, 200.


264
INDEX.
Rimouski, 50, 57.
Sahara, 120, 164.
Rio de Janeiro, 124.
Sahyadri, 103.
Riverina, 85.
Sailing-vessels, 23, 49.
Riviera, 165, 181.
St Clair, Lake, 72.
Rochefort, 180.
St Croix, 138.
Rockhampton, 89.
St Elias Alps, 60.
Rocky Mountains, 28, 59, 60, 65, 66, 98, | St Étienne, 179.
211.
St Gallen, 184.
Romania, 190, 192, 193.
St Gotthard Route, 173, 185, 201, 204.
Rome, 172.
St Hyacinth, 69.
Root Crops, 26.
St John (New Brunswick), 68, 71.
Röros, 208.
St John's (Newfoundla
Rosario, 101.
St Kitts, 135, 137.
Roseau, 137.
St Lawrence River, 19, 58, 61, 210.
Rosslanıl, 65.
- Gulf, 61, 62.
Rostock, 207.
- Waterways, 48.
Rotorua, 78.
St Louis, 218.
Rotterdam, 205, 206.
- (Senegal), 120.
Roubaix, 179.
St Malo, 182.
Rouen, 179.
St Nazaire, 181.
Routes from the Land-Centre, 16. St Paul de Loanda, 114.
Rovuina, 115, 116.
St Peter, Lake, 69.
Rubber, General Distribution, 34, 112; St Petersburg, 158, 159, 162, 163.
in Angola, 114; in Bolivia, 127 ; in St Thomas (West Africa), 121.
Central America, 140; in the Congo St Vincent, 136.
Basin, 117; in East Africa, 116; on Sala, 209.
the Guinea Coast, 121; in Madagascar, Saldanha Bay, 95.
115; in the Malay Peninsula, 128; in Saiisbury (Rhodesia), 96.
Nigeria, 118; in the South American Saloniki (Salonica), 170.
Forests, 123-126 ; in the Sudan, 119. Salt, 37.
Rügen, 210.
- Range, 107.
Ruhr Coalfield, 196, 198.
- Steppes, 161, 162.
- Valley, 206.
Salta, 101.
Ruhrort, 198.
Salvador, 140.
Rum, 136.
Salwin, 109.
Rumania, see Romania.
Samara, 158.
Rumelia (Eastern), 191.
Samarkand, 159.
Rushchuk, 191.
Sambhar, 107.
Russia in Europe, 160–164; Climate and Sambre River, 180, 202.
Configuration, 160 ; Manufactures and Samoa, 134.
Minerals, 162; Towns, Trades, and San River, 187.
Routes, 162–164; Vegetation Zones Sandhurst (Victoria), see Bendigo.
and Productions, 161, 162.
San Fernando, 136.
Russian Empire, 156–164 ; in Asia, 157– - Francisco, 216, 218, 221.
160.
- José, 140.
Rye, 26.
Juan River, 141.
Juan de Fuca Strait, 211.
SAALE RIVER, 194, 199.
Salvador, 140.
Saar River, 196.
Santa Fé, 101.
Sacramento River, 211, 212.
Santander, 175.
- Valley, 211, 212.
Santiago, 100, 101.
Sago, 34, 129.
- (Cuba), 139.


266
INDEX.
Steppes, 28.
Tanganyika, Lake, 113, 114.
Stettin, 199.
Tangier, 176.
Stockholm, 209.
Tapioca, 34.
Stormbergen, 94.
Tariffs, 37.
Straits Settlements, 128.
'Tarso Mountains, 120.
Strassburg, 180.
Tashkent, 159.
Stretensk, 158.
Tasmania, 78, 79.
Sudan, 118-121, 176.
Tea : Climatic Conditions, 13, 14, 31; in
- Railway, 119.
Ceylon, 107, 112; in China, 146, 150;
Sudbury, 65.
in India, 105, 107, 111; in Japan, 155 ;
Sudd, 122.
in Java, 131 ; in Natal, 31.
Sudetes Mountains, 186.
-- Paraguay, 31.
Suez Canal, 16, 17, 168.
Teheran, 168.
Sugar, 121-126, 129, 134-140, 142, 147. Tehuantepec, 141, 142.
Sulina River, 193.
Telegraphs, 51.
Sulitelma, 208.
Telephones, 51.
Sulphur, 155.
Tell, 175, 176.
Sungari, 151.
Temperate Belts, 21.
Sunshine, 20.
Texada Islands, 67.
Superior, Lake, 19, 214, 217.
Texas, 215.
Surat, 110.
Theiss River, see Tisza River.
Sutlej, 106.
Thessaly, 170.
Suva, 134.
Thrace, 169.
Swatou, 150.
Thuringia, 194, 199.
Sweden, 208-210; Climate and Configu. Tibesti (Tarso) Mountains, 120.
ration, 208; Manufactures, Products, Tibet, 111, 143.
Routes, Towns, and Trade, 209.
Ticino Valley, 183-185.
Swinemünde, 199.
Tientsin, 149, 150.
Switzerland, 183–184; Abundant Water | Tierra Caliente, 140, 141.
power, 184; Alpine Regions, 183, 184; - Fria, 140, 142.
as a Tourist Centre, 184; Configura. - Templada, 140, 142.
tion, 183 ; Industrial Condition, 184; | Tiflis, 160.
Minerals, 184; Railways, 185.
Timaru, 77.
Sydney, 84, 88.
Timber, 26, 30.
- (Nova Scotia), 66, 67, 69, 74.
Timbuktu, 119.
Syra, 170.
Tin, 39; in Bolivia, 127; in Straits Settle-
Syria, 169.
ments, 128, 129.
Syrian Desert, 164.
Tirol, 188.
- Tableland, 166.
Tisza River, 188.
Tobacco, 31, 121, 124, 129, 134, 135, 137,
TABLE MOUNTAIN, 92.
138, 142, 152.
- Bay, 95.
Togoland, 121.
Tabriz, 168.
Tokyo, 155, 156.
Tafilet, 176.
Tonga, 134.
Taganrog, 163.
Topeka and Santa Fé Line, 218.
Tagus River, 165, 175.
Toulon, 81.
Talifu, 150.
Toulouse, 181.
Taltal, 100.
Tourcoing, 179.
Taluti, 134.
Townsville, 89.
Tamatave, 115.
Trade Winds, 22, 23.
Tampico, 142.
Trans-Baikalia, 157.
Tanga, 116.
- Caspian Railway, 159, 168.


INDEX.
267
Trans-Caucasia, 156, 160.
Usuri, 157.
- Continental Railways, 47.
Transport, Cost of, by various Methods, VALDIVIA, 100.
50.
Valencia, 175.
— Methods of, 45.
Valenciennes, 179.
- of Perishable Goods, 51.
Valleyfield, 69.
Transvaal, 94, 96.
Valonia, 29.
Transylvania, 189.
Valparaiso, 100.
Transylvanian Alps, 189, 190, 192. Vancouver Island, 59, 66.
Trebizond, 168.
Vanilla, 115, 116, 121.
Trelleborg, 210.
Vardar Valley, 165, 170.
Trieste, 173, 188.
Vardö, 208.
Trinidad, 136.
Varna, 191.
Tripoli, 169.
Veld, 33, 93.
Tromsö, 208.
Venezuela, 125.
Trondhjem, 208, 209.
Venice, 172, 173.
Tropical Forests, 113, 126.
Venlo, 206.
- Labour Conditions, 56, 57.
Vera Cruz, 142.
Trujillo, 125.
Vermilion, 40.
Tsinan, 150.
Verona, 173.
Tucuman, 101.
Verviers, 203.
Tula, 162, 163.
Victoria, 84.
Tundra, 25, 157, 161.
- Nyanza, 113, 115, 116.
Tungting, Lake, 145.
Vidin, 191.
Tunis, 175, 176.
Vienna, 163, 173, 188, 190.
Tunja Valley, 191.
Vine, 21, 29, 30, 83, 84, 91, 92, 98, 99, 101,
Turan, 37.
161, 166, 169, 170-172, 174, 175, 178,
Turin, 172, 173.
179, 184, 187, 188, 190-192, 196, 212.
Turkestan, 156.
Virginia, 212, 213.
Turpentine, 31.
Vistula River, 163, 187, 194, 199.
Tutuila, 134.
Vladivostok, 152, 158.
Typhoons, 144.
Vlissingen, 206.
Vogelsberg, 198.
UBANGI-WELLE, 117.
Volga River, 160, 161, 163.
Udine, 173.
Volo, 170.
Uganda, 33, 116.
Vorarlberg Tunnel, 185, 188, 190.
Ulm, 198.
Vosges Mountains, 177, 179, 193.
Umaria, 108.
Umba, 116.
WADI DRAA, 176.
Uitali, New, 96.
Walachian Plain, 166.
Union Pacific, 218.
Wallaroo, 87.
United States, 210-221 ; Climate, 211, | Walnut, 29.
212 ; Configuration, 210, 211 ; Economic | Warnemünde, 207.
Divisions and Products, 212, 213; | Warte River, 199.
Foreign and Internal Trade, 218-221 ; | Washington, 214.
Internal Communication, 217, 218; | Water Transport, 47.
Manufactures, 214-217; Minerals, 213; | Wax, 147, 154.
Railways, 218.
Weiho River, 146, 149.
Upsala, 209.
Welland Canal, 70.
Ural Mountains, 161, 162.
Wellesley, 128.
Uruguay, 98, 101.
Wellington, 78, 79.
Uspallata Pass, 97.
| Weser River, 194, 196–200.