3 3433 06642340 6 r THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK 18 9 5 PREPARED UNDER INSTRUCTIONS FROM THE HONOURABLE R. J. SEDDON PREMIER / KY ->fE. J. VON DADELSZEN REGISTRAR-GENERAL WELLINGTON, N.Z. BY AUTHORITY: SAMUEL COSTALL, GOVERNMENT PRINTER. LONDON: EYBE AND SPOTTISWOODE, FLEET STREET, E.C. ' 4 189.' THENEW YORK PUBLIC".RARY 1.934 0 4 ASTOR, I ENOX AND TILDEN FOUNDATIONS. 1900. ורו 170 Agruttepe he Great Barrior is +5 Is 0 1 H NIE OCEAN 176 177 ize 180 PEEFACE. The statistical report belonging to this Year-book will be found more complete and elaborate than the previous one, covering, as it does, 178 pages. In fact, the official and statistical portion of the work is now sufficiently large to form a volume by itself, and it is question for consideration whether the special articles composing the descriptive and more popular part of the book should not be bound up separately. The plan of placing the special articles in the same volume as the remarks on statistics may indeed help to bring the figures under notice, but is apt to give rise to the idea that the statistics are not fully dealt with, or, at any rate, subordinated to the other matter. Referring to Part III., seventeen of the special articles given in the volume for 1894 have been omitted on this occasion, and a number of new ones inserted, including an account of the Cook Islands. Difficulty has been again experienced in preparing and printing the Year-book during the session of Parliament, while new laws are being passed and departmental reports coming out. The demand for the work has, so far, steadily increased. E. J. von Dadelszen. fjfr> Registrar-General's Office, Wellington, 7th October, 1895. /" V CONTENTS. Page 19 19 23 25 25 PART 1.-INTRODUCTORY ; OFFICIAL. New Zealand .. Successive Governors Supreme Court Judges, Past and Present Executive Councils, 1843-56 Parliaments .. Successive Ministries .. Premiers Speakers of the Legislative Council .. Speakers of the House of Representatives Foreign Consuls Agents-General in London The Colonial Office Crown Agents for the Colonies Honours held by Colonists Governor of New Zealand Executive Council, 1895 .. The General Assembly .. Representation, June, 1895 "The Electoral Act, 1893”. The General Election, 1893 Official List .. Ecclesiastical .. Judicial Defences, Military and Naval Annual Pensions "Civil Service Insurance Act, 1893”. New Zealand Newspapers 25 20 27 ::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::: 27 35 35 ::::::::::. 39 51 55 86 PART II.--STATISTICAL INFORMATION. Population .. Vital Statistics Trade and Interchange .. Postal and Electric Telegraph Finance, Accumulation, and Production Law and Crime Education Local Governing Bodies, &c. Miscellaneous Licenses and Licensed Houses-Fire Brigades-Co-operative Public Works ::::: 121 143 146 211 225 232 245 VI CONTENTS. Diagrams. Population, Births, Marriages, Deaths Wool Exported Frozen Meat Exported Butter Exported Cheese Exported Grain Exported Trade Life Assurance Agriculture Live Stock Production of Coal Production of Kauri-gum Production of Gold Education Part III.—Articles on Special Subjects Section I. Land System of New Zealand Purchase of Native Lands by Government Digest of Land-laws Native Land (Validation of Titles) Act The Cheviot Estate Advances to Settlers New Zealand Consols Department of Industries and Commerce Land-and Income-tax State Insurance in New Zealand, Further Facts about Public Trust Office of New Zealand .. State Instruction The School of Medicine, Otago The School of Mines, Otago The School of Agriculture, Lincoln .. The School of Engineering and Technical Science Section II. Agriculture Dairy Industry New Zealand Forests and the Timber Industry Kauri-resin Fish and Fisheries Gold-mining .. Section III. Railways in New Zealand Wellington-Manawatu Railway Company Graving Docks and Patent Slips Lighthouses Depots for Shipwrecked Mariners Union Steam Ship Company New Zealand Shipping Company Shaw-Savill and Albion Company Distances by Sea Distances by Rail Section IV. Climate. Temperature, and Rainfall Mineral Waters of New Zealand Thermal-Springs District and Government Sanatorium at Rotorua A Scenic Wonderland The Cook Islands Page Facing 86 130 IOC, I'JO lid 150 " CONTENTS. Vll Part IV.—Descriptions op Land Districts. Auckland Land District .. Taranaki Land District .. Hawke's Bay Land District Wellington Land District Marlborough Land District Nelson Land District Westland Land District .. Canterbury Land District Otago Land District Southland Land District .. Page 4G7 475 479 483 491 496 501 806 515 524 General Index .. .. .. .. .. 529 Synopsis of Statistics, showing Progress of Colony, 1840-94 (two tables) Broadsheet Australasian Statistics .. .. .. .. Broadsheet Map .. .. .. .. .. Before Title Illustrations. The Sanatorium at Rotorua Taupo and the Volcanic Mountains Franz Josef Glacier—From Camp No. 6' Franz Josef Glacier—In the Rough Ice Facing 422 ... 442 .. „ 446 .. „ 452 THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. 18 9 5. Since the First Part of the Year-book was printed the following changes have taken place :— Supreme Court Judges (See p. 19). C. W. Richmond, died 3rd August, 1895. Foreign Consuls (See p. '21). H. G. Simms appointed Acting-Consul for the German Empire at Christ- church. Legislative Council (See p. 29). Hon. W. B. D. Mantell, died 7th September, 1895. House or Representatives (See p. 31). Right Hon. Sir George Grey, K.C.M.G., P.C., resigned. Mr. Thomas Thompson, elected for City of Auckland, '27th July, 1895. Customs Duties (See p. 129). The Tariff in force in 1894 has now been altered by " The Customs and Excise Duties Act, 1895." > THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1895. PART I—INTRODUCTORY: OFFICIAL. NEW ZEALAND. The Colony of New Zealand consists of three main islands, with several groups of smaller islands lying at some distance from the principal group. The main islands, known as the North, the Middle, and Stewart Islands, have a coast-line 4,330 miles in length—North Island, 2,200 miles; Middle Island, 2,000 miles; and Stewart Island, 130 miles. The other islands now included within the colony are the Chatham, Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes, Bounty, and Kermadec Islands. A protectorate over the Cook Islands (Hervey Group) is exercised by the Imperial Government, the Governor of New Zealand acting as responsible adviser. New Zealand is mountainous in many parts, but has, never- theless, large plains in both North and Middle Islands. In the North Island, which is highly volcanic, is situated the famous Thermal-Springs District, of which a special account will be given. The Middle Island is remarkable for its lofty mountains, with their magnificent glaciers, and for the deep sounds or fiords on the western coast. New Zealand is firstly a pastoral, and secondly an agricultural country. Sown grasses are grown almost everywhere, the extent of land laid down being upwards of eight millions of acres. The soil is admirably adapted for receiving these grasses, and, after the bush has been burnt off, is mostly sown over without previous ploughing. In the Middle Island a large area is covered with native grasses, all used for grazing purposes. The large extent of good grazing-land has made the colony a great wool- and meat- producing country; and its agricultural capabilities are, speaking generally, very considerable. The abundance of water and the quantity of valuable timber are other natural advantages. 1 I NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. New Zealand is, besides, a mining country. Large deposits of coal are met with, chiefly on the west coast of the Middle Island. Gold, alluvial and in quartz, is found in both islands, the yield having been over forty-nine millions sterling in value to the present time. Full statistical information on this subject is given further on, compiled up to the latest dates. Discovery and Early Settlement. The first authentic account of the discovery of New Zealand is that given by Abel Jansen Tasman, the Dutch navigator. He left Batavia on the 14th August, 1642, in the yacht "Heemskirk," accompanied by the "Zeehaen" (or "Sea-hen") fly-boat. After having visited Mauritius and discovered Tasmania, named by him "Van Diemen's Land," in honour of Anthony van Diemen, Governor of the Dutch possessions in the East Indies, he steered eastward, and on the 13th December of the same year sighted the west coast of the Middle Island of New Zealand, described by him as "a high mountainous country, which is at present marked in the charts as New Zealand." Tasman, under the belief that the land he saw belonged to a great polar continent, and was part of the country discovered some years before by Schouten and Le Maire, to which the name of Staaten Land had been given, gave the same name of Staaten Land to New Zealand; but within about three months afterwards Schouten's " Staaten Land " was found to be merely an inconsider- able island. Upon this discovery being announced, the country that Tasman had called Staaten Land received again the name of " New Zealand," by which it has ever since been known. Tasman sailed along the coast to a bay, where he anchored. To this he gave the name of Murderers (now Massacre) Bay, on account of an unprovoked attack on a boat's crew by the natives, and the massacre of four white men. Thence he steered along the west coast of the North Island, and gave the name of Cape Maria van Diemen to the north-western extremity thereof. After sighting the islands of the Three Kings he finally departed, not having set foot in the country. There is no record of any visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until the time of Captain Cook, who, after leaving the Society Islands, sailed in search of a southern continent then believed to exist. He sighted land on the 6th October, 1769, at Young Nick's Head, and on the 8th of that month cast anchor in Poverty Bay. After having coasted round the North Island and the Middle and Stewart Islands—which last he mistook for part of the Middle Island—he took his departure from Cape Farewell on the 31st March, 1770, for Australia. He visited New Zealand again in 1773, in 1774, and in 1777. M. de Surville, a French officer in command of the vessel "Saint Jean Baptiste," while on a voyage of discovery, sighted the north- east coast of New Zealand on the 12th December, 1769, and re- COLONISATION. 3 mained for a short time. A visit was soon after paid by another French officer, M. Marion du Fresne, who arrived on the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand on the 24th March, 1772, but was, on the 12th June following, treacherously murdered at the Bay of Islands by the Natives. In 1793 the "Daedalus," under the command of Lieutenant Hanson, was sent by the Government of New South Wales to New Zealand, and two chiefs were taken thence to Norfolk Island. There was after this an occasional intercourse between the islands of New Zealand and the English settlements iD New South Wales. In 1814 the first missionaries arrived in New Zealand—Messrs. Hall and Kendall — who had been sent as forerunners by Mr. Marsden, chaplain to the New South Wales Government. After a short stay they returned to New South Wales, and on the 19th November of that year again embarked in company with Mr. Marsden, who preached his first sermon in New Zealand on Christ- inas Day, 1814. He returned to Sydney on the 23rd March, 1815, leaving Messrs. Hall and Kendall, who formed the first mission station at Rangihoua, Bay of Islands, under the auspices of the Church Missionary Society. Six years later, in 1821, the work of evangelization was put on a more durable basis; but the first station of the Wesleyan mission, established by Mr. Leigh and his wife, at the valley of the Kaeo, Whangaroa, was not taken possession of until the 10th June, 1823. Colonisation. The first attempt at colonisation was made in 1825 by a company formed in London. An expedition was sent out under the command of Captain Herd, who bought two islands in the Hauraki Gulf and a strip of land at Hokianga. The attempt, however, was a failure, •owing to the savage character of the inhabitants. In consequence of frequent visits of whaling-vessels to the Bay of Islands, a settle- ment grew up at Kororareka—now called Russell—and in 1833 Mr. Busby was appointed British Resident there. A number of Europeans—generally men of low character—gradually settled in different parts of the country, and married Native women. In 1838 a colonisation company, known as the New Zealand Company, was formed to establish settlement on systematic prin- ciples. A preliminary expedition, under the command of Colonel William Wakefield, was despatched from England on the 12th May, 1839, and arrived in New Zealand in the following August. Having purchased land from the Natives, Colonel Wakefield selected the shore of Port Nicholson, in Cook Strait, as the site of the first settle- ment. On the 22nd January, 1840, the first body of immigrants arrived, and founded the town of Wellington. About the same time — namely, on the 29th January, 1840 — Captain Hobson, R.N., arrived at the Bay of Islands, empowered, with the consent of the Natives, to proclaim the sovereignty of the Queen over the islands 4 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. of New Zealand, and to assume the government thereof. A compact called " The Treaty of Waitangi," to which in less than six months five hundred and twelve names were affixed, was entered into, whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights being secured to the chiefs and their tribes. New Zealand was then constituted a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales, but on the 3rd May, 1841, was pro- claimed a separate colony. The seat of Government had been previously established at Waitemata (Auckland), round which a settlement was formed. The New Zealand Company having decided to form another settlement, to which the name of "Nelson" was to be given, de- spatched a preliminary expedition from England in April, 1841, for the purpose of selecting a site. The spot chosen was the head of Blind Bay, where a settlement was established. About the same time a number of pioneers arrived in Taranaki, despatched thither by the New Plymouth Company, a colonising society which had been formed in England, and had bought 50,000 acres of land from the New Zealand Company. The next important event in the progress of colonisation was the arrival at Port Chalmers, in March, 1848, of two emigrant ships sent out by the Ota.go Association for the foundation of a settlement by persons belonging to or in sympathy with the Free Church of Scotland. In 1849 the " Canterbury Association for founding a Settlement in New Zealand" was incorporated. On the 16th December, 1850, the first emigrant ship despatched by the association arrived at Port Cooper, and the work of opening up the adjoining country was set about in a systematic fashion, the intention of the promoters being to establish a settlement complete in itself, and composed entirely of members of the then United Church of England and Ireland. The Maoris. Prior to the colonisation of New Zealand by Europeans, the- earliest navigators and explorers found a race of people already inhabiting both islands. Papers written in 1874 by Mr. (after- wards Sir) William Fox, and Sir Donald McLean, then Native Minister, state that at what time the discovery of these islands was made by the Maoris, or from what place they came, are matters of tradition only, and that much has been lost in the obscurity enveloping the history of a people without letters. Nor is there anything on record respecting the origin of the Maori people them- selves, beyond the general tradition of the Polynesian race, which seems to show a series of successive migrations from west to east, probably by way of Malaysia to the Pacific. Little more can now be gathered from their traditions than that they were immigrants, and that they probably found inhabitants on the east coast of the ~ BOUNDABIES AND AREA. O North Island belonging to the same race as themselves—the descend- ants of a prior migration, whose history is lost. The tradition runs that, generations ago, the Maoris dwelt in a country named Hawaiki, and that one of their chiefs, after a long voyage, fetched the northern island of New Zealand. Returning to his home with a flattering description of the country he had discovered, this chief, it is said, persuaded a number of his kinsfolk and friends, who were much harassed by war, to set out with a fleet of double canoes for the new land. The names of most of the canoes are still remem- bered, and each tribe agrees in its account of the doings of the people of the principal canoes after their arrival in New Zealand; and from these traditional accounts the descent of the numerous tribes has been traced. Calculations, based on the genealogical staves kept by the tohungas, or priests, and on the well-authenticated traditions of the people, indicate that about twenty-one generations have passed since the migration, which may therefore be assumed to have taken place about five hundred and twenty-five years ago. The position of the legendary Hawaiki is unknown, but many places in the South Seas have been thus named in memory of the mother- land. The Maoris speak a very pure dialect of the Polynesian language, the common tongue, with more or less .variation, in all the Eastern Pacific Islands. When Captain Cook first visited New Zealand he availed himself of the services of a native from Tahiti, whose speech was easily understood by the Maoris. In this way much information respecting the early history of the country and its inhabitants was obtained which could not have otherwise been had. Boundaries and Akea. The Proclamation of Captain Hobson on the 30th January, 1840, gave as the boundaries of the colony the following degrees of lati- tude and longitude: On the north, 34° 30' S. lat.; on the south, 47° 10' S. lat.; on the east, 179° 0' E. long.; on the west, 166° 5' E. long. These limits excluded small portions of the extreme north of the North Island and of the extreme south of Stewart Island. In April, 1842, bv Royal Letters Patent, and again by the Imperial Act 26 and 27 Vict., c. 23 (1863), the boundaries of the colony were altered so as to extend from 33° to 53° of south latitude and from 162° of east longitude to 173° of west longitude. By Pro- clamation bearing date the 21st July, 1887, the Kermadec Islands, lying between the 29th and 32nd degrees of south latitude and the 177th and 180th degrees of west longitude, were declared to be annexed to and to become part of the Colony of New Zealand. The following now constitute the Colony of New Zealand :— 1. The island commonly known as the North Island, with its adjacent islets, having an aggregate area of 44,468 square miles, or 28,459,580 acres. 6 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. 2. The island known as the Middle Island, with adjacent islets, having an aggregate area of 58,525 square miles, or 37,456,080 acres. 3. The South or Stewart Island, and adjacent islets, having an area of 665 square miles, or 425,390 acres. 4. The Chatham Islands, situate 536 miles eastward of Lyttel- ton in the Middle Island, with an area of 375 square miles, or 239,920 acres. 5. The Auckland Islands, about 200 miles south of Stewart Island, extending about 30 miles from north to south, and nearly 15 from east to west, the area being 210,650 acres. 6. The Campbell Islands, in latitude 52° 33' south, and longitude 169° 8' west, about 30 miles in circumference, with an area of 45,440 acres. 7. The Antipodes Islands, about 458 miles in a south-easterly direction from Port Chalmers, in the Middle Island. These are detached rocky islands, and extend over a distance of between 4 and 5 miles from north to south. Area, 12,960 acres. 8. The Bounty Islands, a small group of islets, thirteen in num- ber, lying north of the Antipodes Islands, and about 415 miles in an east-south-easterly direction from Port Chalmers. Area, 3,300 acres. 9. The Kermadec Islands, a group lying about 614 miles to the north-east of Russell, in the Bay of Islands. Eaoul or Sunday Island, the largest of these, is about 20 miles in circuit. The next in size is Macaulay Island, about 3 miles round. Area of the group, 8,208 acres. The total area of the colony is thus about 104,471 square miles, of which the aggregate area of the outlying groups of islands that are practically useless for settlement amounts to about 438 square miles. A protectorate is exercised by the Imperial Government over the Cook Islands (or Hervey Group) by Proclamation dated the 27th October, 1888. The British Resident"' is appointed on the recom- mendation of the New Zealand Government. He acts as Govern- ment Agent for the colony in all matters of trade. Area of the Australian Colonies. The areas of the several Australian Colonies, as given by different authorities, vary considerably. The total area of the Australian Continent is given as 2,944,628 square miles, according to a com- putation made by the late Surveyor-General of Victoria, Mr. J. A. Skene, from a map of Continental Australia compiled and engraved under his direction; but the following areas are taken from the official records of each colony :— * Frederick J. Moss, Esq., late M.H.R., is now British Resident. His salary is paid by this colony. AREA OF AUSTRALIAN AND NEW ZEALAND COLONIES. Square Miles. Queensland .. .. .. .. .. 668,497 New South Wales .. .. .. .. 310,700 Victoria .. .. .. .. .. 87,884 South Australia .. .. .. .. 903,425 Western Australia .. .. .. .. 1,060,000 Total Continent of Australia .. .. 3,030,506 Tasmania .. .. .. .. .. 26,215 New Zealand (including the Chatham and other islands) .. .. .. .. .. 104,471 Total Australasia .. .. .. 3,161,192 The size of these colonies may be better realised by com- parison of their areas with those of European countries. The areas of the following countries—Austria - Hungary, Germany, France, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Sweden and Norway, Portu- gal, Spain, Italy (including Sardinia and Sicily), Switzerland, Greece, Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia, Eastern Roumelia, and Turkey in Europe—containing on the whole rather less than 1,600,000 square miles, amount to little more than half the extent of the Australian Continent. If the area of Bussia in Europe be added to those of the other countries the total would be about one-seventh larger than the Australian Continent, and about one-twelfth larger than the Australasian Colonies, including New Zealand. Area of tlie Colony of New Zealand. The area of the Colony of New Zealand is about one-seventh less than the area of Great Britain and Ireland, the Middle Island of New Zealand being a little larger than the combined areas of Eng- land and Wales. United Kingdom. Square MUes. England and Wales .. .. .. .. 58,311 Scotland .. .. .. .. .. 30,463 Ireland .. .. .. .. .. 32,531 Total .. .. .. .. .. 121,305 New Zealand. Sq.Si'les. North Island Middle Island .. Stewart Island .. Chatham Island* Other islands 44,468 58,525 665 375 4:-W Total .. .. .. .. .. 104,471 Physical Features op the North Island. The North Island extends over a little more than seven degrees of latitude—a distance in a direct line from north to south of 430 geographical or 498 statute miles; but, as the northern portion of the colony, which covers more than three degrees of latitude, 8 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. trends to the westward, the distance in a straight line from the North Cape to Cape Palliser, the extreme northerly and southerly points of the island, is about 515 statute miles. This island is, as a whole, hilly, and, in parts, mountainous in character, but there are large areas of plain or comparatively level country that are, or by clearing may be made, available for agricul- tural purposes. Of these, the principal are the plains in Hawke's. Bay on the East Coast, the Wairarapa Plain in the Wellington District, and a strip of country along the West Coast, about 250 miles in length, extending from a point about thirty miles from the City of Wellington to a little north of New Plymouth. The largest plain in the North Island, Kaingaroa, extends from the shore of Lake Taupo in a north-north-easterly direction to the sea-coast in the Bay of Plenty; but a great part of it is covered with pumice- sand, and is unfitted for tillage or pasture. There are several smaller plains and numerous valleys suitable for agriculture. The level or undulating country in this island fit, or capable of being made fit, for agriculture has been roughly estimated at 13,000,000 acres. This includes lands now covered with standing forest, and swamps that can be drained; also large areas of clay-marl aud pumice-covered land. The clay-marl in its natural state is cold and uninviting to the farmer, but under proper drainage and culti- vation it can be brought to a high state of productiveness. This kind of land is generally neglected at the present time, as settlers prefer soils more rapidly remunerative and less costly to work. The larger portion of the North Island was originally covered with forest. Although the area of bush-land is still very great, yet year by year the amount is being reduced, chiefly to meet the requirements of settlement, the trees being cut down and burnt, and grass-seed sown on the ashes to create pasture. Hilly as the country is, yet from the nature of the climate it is especially suited for the growth of English grasses, which will flourish wherever there is any soil, however steep the land may be; once laid down in grass very little of the land is too poor to supply food for cattle and sheep. The area of land in the North Island deemed purely pastoral or capable of being made so, while too steep for agricul- tural purposes, is estimated at 14,200,000 acres. In the centre of the island is a lake, about twenty miles across either way, called Taupo. A large area adjacent to the lake is at present worthless pumice-country. The Waikato Biver, the largest in the North Island, flows out of its north-eastern corner, and runs thence north- westward until it flows into the ocean a little distance south of the Manukau Harbour. This river is navigable for small steamers for about a hundred miles from its mouth. The Maori King-country, occupied by Natives who for several years isolated themselves from Europeans, lies between Lake Taupo and the western coast. The Biver Thames, or Waihou, having its sources north of Lake Taupo, flows northward into the Firth of Thames. It is navigable for about fifty miles, but only for small steamers. The other navigable 10 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. of hydrothermal action appears to be in the neighbourhood of Lake Rotorua, about forty miles north-north-east from Lake Taupo. By the destruction of the famed Pink and White Terraces and of Lake Rotomahana during the eruption of Mount Tarawera on the 10th June, 1886, the neighbourhood has been deprived of attractions unique in character and of unrivalled beauty; but the natural features of the country—the numerous lakes, geysers, and hot springs, some of which possess remarkable curative properties in certain complaints—are still very attractive to tourists and invalids. The world-wide importance of conserving this region as a sanatorium for all time has been recognised by the Government, and it is now dedicated by Act of Parliament to that purpose. Notwithstanding the length of coast-line, good harbours in the North Island are not numerous. Those on the west coast north of New Plymouth are bar-harbours, unsuitable for large vessels. The principal harbours are the Waitemata Harbour, on which Auckland is situated—this is rather a deep estuary than a harbour; several excellent havens in the northern peninsula; and Port Nicholson, on the borders of which Wellington is situated. This is a land- locked harbour, about six miles across, having a comparatively narrow but deep entrance from the ocean. The water is deep nearly throughout. Cook Stkait. Cook Strait separates the North and Middle Islands. It is some sixteen miles across at its narrowest part, but in the widest about ninety. The strait is invaluable for the purpose of traffic between different parts of the colony. Physical Featubes of the Middle Island. The extreme length of the Middle Island, from Jackson's Head, in Cook Strait, to Puysegur Point, at the extreme south-west, is about 525 statute miles; the greatest distance across at any point is in Otago (the southernmost) District, about 180 miles. The Middle Island is intersected along almost its entire length by a range of mountains known as the Southern Alps. Some of the summits reach a height of from 10,000ft. to 12,000ft., Mount Cook, the highest peak, rising to 12,349ft. In the south, in the neighbourhood of the sounds and Lake Te Anau. there are many magnificent peaks, which, though not of great height, are, owing to their latitude, nearly all crowned with perpetual ice and snow. Further north the mountains increase in height—Mount Earnslaw, at Lake Wakatipu; and Mount Aspiring, which has been aptly termed the New Zealand Matterhorn, nearly 10,000ft. in height, at Lake Wanaka. Northward of this again are Mount Cook (or Aorangi), Mount Sefton, and other magnificent peaks. For beauty and grandeur of scenery the Southern Alps of New Zealand may worthily compare with, while in point of variety they are PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE MIDDLE ISLAND. 11 said actually to surpass, the Alps of Switzerland. In New Zealand few of the mountains have been scaled; many of the peaks and most of the glaciers are as yet unnamed; and there is still, in parts of the Middle Island, a fine field for exploration and discovery—geogra- phical, geological, and botanical. The wonders of the Southern Alps are only beginning to be known; but the more they are known the more they are appreciated. The snow-line in New Zealand being so much lower than in Switzerland, the scenery, though the moun- tains are not quite so high, is of surpassing grandeur. There are extensive glaciers on both sides of the range, those on the west being of exceptional beauty, as, from the greater abrupt- ness of the mountain-slopes on that side, they descend to within about 700ft. of the sea-level, and into the midst of the evergreen forest. The largest glaciers on either side of the range are easily accessible. The following gives the sizes of some of the glaciers on the eastern slope:— Name. of Glacier. Area Length Greatest Average of Glacier. Width. Width. Acres. Miles ch. Miles ch. Miles ch. Tasman 13,664 18 0 2 14 1 15 Murchison 5,800 10 70 1 5 0 66 Godley 5,312 8 0 1 55 1 3 Mho Hit 3,200 8 0 0 61 0 50 Hooker 2,410 7 25 0 54 0 41 The Alletsch Glacier in Switzerland, according to Ball, in the "Alpine Guide," has an average width of one mile. It is in length and width inferior to the Tasman Glacier. Numerous sounds or fiords penetrate the south-western coast. They are long, narrow, and deep (the depth of water at the upper part of Milford Sound is 1,270ft., although at the entrance only 130ft.), surrounded by giant mountains clothed with foliage to the snow-line, with waterfalls, glaciers, and snowfields at every turn. Some of the mountains rise almost precipitously from the water's edge to 5,000ft. and 6,000ft. above the sea. Near Milford, the finest of these sounds, is the great Sutherland Waterfall, 1,904ft. high. The general surface of the northern portion of the Middle Island, comprising the Provincial Districts of Nelson and Marlborough, is mountainous, but the greater part is suitable for grazing purposes. There are some fine valleys and small plains suitable for agriculture, of which the Wairau Valley or Plain is the largest. Deep sounds, extending for many miles, break the coast-line abutting on Cook Strait. The City of Nelson is situated at the head of Blind Bay, which has a depth inwards from Cook Strait of about forty statute miles. The Provincial District of Canterbury lies to the south of the 12 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Marlborough District, and on the eastern side of the island. To- wards the north the land is undulating; then there is a stretch of almost perfectly level country extending towards the south-west 160 miles, after which, on the south, the country is undulating as far as the borders of the Otago District. On the east a block of hill-country rises abruptly from the plain and extends for some miles seaward. This is Banks Peninsula, containing several good harbours, the principal being Port Cooper, on the north, on which is situated Lyttelton, the chief port of the district: the harbour of Akaroa, one of the finest in the colony, is on the southern coast of this peninsula. The District of Otago is, on the whole, mountainous, but has many fine plains and valleys suitable for tillage. The mountains, except towards the west coast, are generally destitute of timber, and suitable for grazing sheep. There are goldfields of considerable extent in the interior of this district. The inland lakes are also very remarkable features. Lake Wakatipu extends over fifty-four miles in length, but its greatest width is not more than four miles, and its area only 114 square miles. It is 1,070ft. above sea-level, and has a depth varying from 1,170ft. to 1,296ft. Te Anau Lake is somewhat larger, having an area of 132 square miles. These lakes are bounded on the west by broken, mountainous, and wooded country, extending to the ocean. The chief harbours in Otago are Port Chalmers, at the head of which Dunedin is situated, and the Bluff Harbour, at the extreme south. The District of Westland, extending along the west coast of the Middle Island, abreast of Canterbury, is more or less auriferous throughout. The western slopes of the central range of mountains are clothed with forest-trees to the snow-line; but on the eastern side timber is scarce, natural grasses covering the ground. The rivers in the Middle Island are for the most part mountain- torrents, fed by glaciers in the principal mountain-ranges. When the snow melts they rise in flood, forming, where not confined by- rocky walls, beds of considerable width, generally covered by enor- mous deposits of shingle. The largest river in the colony as regards volume of water is the Clutha. It is 154 miles in length, but is only navigable for boats or small river-steamers for about thirty miles. The Kivers Buller, Grey, and Hokitika, on the West Coast, are navigable for a short distance from their mouths. They form the only "ports in the Westland District. In their unimproved state they admitted, owing to the bars at their mouths, none but vessels of small draught; but, in consequence of the importance of the Grey and Buller0 Kivers as the sole ports available for the coal-export trade large harbour-works have been undertaken, resulting in the deepening of the beds of these rivers, and giving a depth of from 18ft. to 24ft. of water on the bars. The area of level or undulating land in the Middle Island avail- able for agriculture is estimated at about 15,000,000 acres. About THE OUTLYING ISLANDS. 13 13,000,000 are suitable for pastoral purposes only, or may become so when cleared of forest and sown with grass-seed. The area of barren land and mountain-tops is estimated at about 8,000,000 acres. Foveaux Stkait. Foveaux Strait separates the Middle from Stewart Island. This last island has an area of only 425,390 acres. It is mountainous, and for the most part covered with forest. The Outlying Islands. The outlying group of the Chatham Islands, 480 statute miles east-south-east from Wellington, and 536 miles eastward of Lyt- telton, consists of two principal islands and several unimportant islets. The largest island contains about 222,490 acres, of which an irregularly-shaped lake or lagoon absorbs 45,960 acres. About one- quarter of the surface of the land is covered with forest, the rest with fern or grass. The hills nowhere rise to a great height. Pitt Island is the next in size; the area is 15,330 acres. The greater portion of both islands is used for grazing sheep. The Kermadec group of islands, four in number, are situated between 29° 10' and 31° 30' south latitude, and between 177° 45' and 179° west longitude. They are named Raoul or Sunday Island, Macaulay Island, Curtis Island, and L'Esperance or French Rock. The principal island, Sunday, is 600 miles distant from Auckland. The islands are volcanic, and in two of them signs of activity are still to be seen. The rainfall is plentiful, but not excessive. The climate is mild and equable, and slightly warmer than the north of New Zealand. The following are the areas of the islands and islets of the group: Sunday Island, 7,200 acres; Herald group of islets, 85 acres; Macaulay Island, 764 acres; Curtis Islands, 128 acres and 19 acres; L'Esperance, 12 acres: total, 8,208 acres. Sunday Island is twenty miles in circumference, roughly triangular in shape, and at the highest point 1,723ft. above the sea-level. It is rugged and broken over a very large extent of its surface, and, except in a few places, covered with forest. The soil everywhere on the island is very rich, being formed by the decomposition of a dark-coloured pumiceous tuff and a black andesitic lava, with which is closely mixed a fine vegetable mould. The great luxuriance and richness of the vegetation bear witness to the excellence of the soil, which is everywhere—except where destroyed by eruptions, and on the steep cliffs—the same rich loam. Want of water is one of the drawbacks. Three of the four lakes on the island are fresh, but so difficult of approach as to be practically useless. The Auckland Islands are about 290 miles south of Bluff Har- bour, their position being given on the Admiralty chart as latitude 50° 31' 29" S., and longitude 166° 19' 12" E. They have several good harbours. Port Ross, at the north end of the principal island, was described by the eminent French commander, D'Urville, as one of the best harbours of refuge in the known world. At the 14 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. southern end of the island there is a through passage extending from the east to the west coast. It has been variously named Adam's Strait and Carnley Harbour, and forms a splendid sheet of water. The largest of the islands is about 27 miles long by about 15 miles broad, and is very mountainous, the highest part being about 2,000ft. above the sea. The west coast is bold and pre- cipitous, but the east coast has several inlets. The wood on the island is, owing to the strong prevailing wind, scrubby in charac- ter. The New Zealand Government maintains at this island a depot of provisions and clothing for the use of shipwrecked mariners. Constitution. British sovereignty was proclaimed over New Zealand in January, 1840, and the country became a dependency of New South Wales until the 3rd May, 1841, when it was made a separate colony. The seat of Government was at Auckland, and the Executive included the Governor, and three gentlemen holding office as Colonial Secre- tary, Attorney-General, and Colonial Treasurer. The successors of these gentlemen, appointed in August, 1841, May, 1842, and January, 1844, respectively, continued in office until the establishment of Responsible Government on the 7th May, 1856. Only one of them—Mr. Swainson, the Attorney-General—sat as a member of the first General Assembly, opened on the 27th May, 1854. During the session of that year there were associated with the permanent members of the Executive Council certain members of the General Assembly. These latter held no portfolios. The Government of the colony was at first vested in the Governor, who was responsible only to the Crown; but in 1852 an Act granting representative institutions to the colony was passed by the Imperial Legislature. Under it the constitution of a General Assembly for the whole colony was provided for, to consist of a Legislative Council, the members of which were to be nominated by the Governor, and of an elective House of Representa- tives. The first session of the General Assembly was opened on the 27th May, 1854, but the members of the Executive were not respon- sible to Parliament. The first Ministers under a system of Respon- sible Government were appointed on the 18th April, 1856. By the Act of 1852 the colony was divided into six provinces, each to be presided over by an elective Superintendent, and to have an elective Provincial Council, empowered to legislate, except on certain specified subjects. The franchise amounted practically to household suffrage. In each case the election was for four years; but a dissolution of the Provincial Council by the Governor could take place at any time, necessitating a fresh election both of the Council and of the Superin- tendent. The Superintendent was chosen by the whole body of electors of the province; each member of the Provincial Council by the electors of a district. The Provincial Governments, after- wards increased to nine, remained as integral parts of the Con- stitution of the colony until the 1st November, 1876, when they GOVERNMENT. 15 were abolished by an Act of the General Assembly, that body having been vested with the power of altering the Constitution Act. On the same day an Act of the General Assembly which subdivided the colony (exclusive of the areas included within municipalities) into counties, and established a system of local county government, came into force. Government. The Governor is appointed by the Queen. His salary is £5,000 a year, and is provided by the colony. Members of the Legislative Council hold their seats under writs of summons from the Governor. Till the year 1891 the appoint- ments were for life ; but in September of that year an Act was passed making appointments after that time tenable for seven years only, though Councillors may be reappointed. In either case seats may be vacated by resignation or extended absence. Two members of the Council are aboriginal native chiefs. The members of the House of Representatives are elected for three years from the time of each general election; but at any time a dissolution of Parliament by the Governor may render a general election necessary. Four of the members are representatives of Native constituencies. An Act was passed in 1887 which provided that, on the dissolution of the then General Assembly, the number of members to be thereafter elected to the House of Repre- sentatives should be seventy-four in all, of whom four were to be elected, under the provisions of the Maori Representation Acts, as representatives of Maori electors only. For the purposes of Euro- pean representation the colony is divided into sixty-two electoral districts, four of which—the Cities of Auckland, Wellington, Christ- church, and Dunedin—return each three members, and all the other electorates one each. Members of the House of Representatives are chosen by the votes of the inhabitants in every electoral district appointed for that purpose. In 1889 an amendment of the Representation Act was passed, which contained a provision prohibiting any elector from giving his vote in respect of more than one electorate at any election. "The Electoral Act, 1893," has extended to women of both races the right to register as electors, and to vote at the elections for mem- bers of the House of Representatives. The qualification for regis- tration is the same for both sexes, and remains, under the Act of 1893, substantially unaltered. No person is entitled to be regis- tered on more than one electoral roll within the colony, what- ever the number or nature of the qualifications he or she may possess, or wherever they may be. Women are not qualified to be elected as members of the House of Representatives. The changes iu the electoral laws, with remarks on the results of the election of November, 1893, are the subject of special comment further on in this work. Every man registered as an elector, and not coming within the meaning of section 8 of 16 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. "The Electoral Act, 1893," is qualified to be elected a member of the House of Representatives for any electoral district. For Euro pean representation every adult person, if resident one year in the colony and three months in one electoral district, can be registered as an elector. Freehold property of the value of £25 held for six months preceding the day of registration also entitles a man or woman to register, if not already registered under the residential qualification. Maoris possessing £25 freeholds under Crown title can also register; but, if registered on a European roll, cannot vote for representatives of their own race. For Maori representation every adult Maori resident in any Maori electoral district (of which there are four only in the colony) can vote. Registration is not required in Native districts. The proportion of representation to population at the last general election for the House of Repre- sentatives, in November, 1893, was one European member to every 9,604 inhabitants, and one Maori member to every 10,498 Natives. The Seat of Government. Up to the year 1865 the seat of Government of New Zealand was at Auckland. Several attempts were made by members of Parliament, by motions in the Legislative Council and House of Representatives, to have it removed to some more central place; but it was not until November, 1863, that Mr. Domett (the then ex-Premier) was successful in carrying resolutions in the House of Representatives that steps should be taken for appointing some place in Cook Strait as the permanent seat of Government in the colony. The resolutions adopted were: "(1.) That it has become necessary that the seat of Government in the colony should be transferred to some suitable locality in Cook Strait. (2.) That, in order to promote the accomplishment of this object, it is desirable that the selection of the particular site in Cook Strait should be left to the arbitrament of an impartial tribunal. (3.) That, with this view, a Bill should be introduced to give effect to the above resolu- tions." On the 25th November an address was presented to the Governor, Sir George Grey, K.C.B., by the Commons of New Zea- land, requesting that the Governors of the Colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania might each be asked to appoint one Commissioner for the purpose of determining the best site in Cook Strait. Accordingly, the Hon. Joseph Docker, M.L.C., New South Wales; the Hon. Sir Francis Murphy, Speaker of the Legislative Council, Victoria; and R. C. Gunn, Esq., Tasmania, were appointed Commissioners. These gentlemen, having made a personal inspection of all suit- able places, arrived at the unanimous decision "that Wellington, in Port Nicholson, was the site upon the shores of Cook,Strait which presented the greatest advantages for the administration of the government of the colony." The seat of Government was, therefore, in accordance with the SUCCESSIVE GOVERNORS. 17 recommendations of the Commissioners, removed to Wellington in February, 1865. Public Works. Nearly all the public works of New Zealand are in the hands of the Government of the colony, and in the early days they simply kept pace with the spread of settlement. In 1870, however, a great impetus was given to the progress of the whole country by the inauguration of the " Public Works and Immigration Policy," which provided for carrying out works in advance of settlement. Railways, roads, and water-races were constructed, and immigration was con- ducted on a large scale. As a consequence, the population increased from 267,000 in 1871 to 501,000 in 1881, and 686,128 at the close of the year 1894, exclusive of Maoris. SUCCESSIVE GOVERNORS. Succession of Governors of New Zealand, and the Dates on which they assumed and retired from the government. Captain William Hobson, R.N., from Jan., 1840, to 10 Sept., 1842. ^British sovereignty was proclaimed by Captain Hobson in January, 1840, and New Zealand became a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales until 3rd May, 1841, at which date it was proclaimed a separate colony. From January, 1840, to May, 1841, Captain Hobson was Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand under Sir George Gipps, Governor of New South Wales, and from May, 1841, Governor of New Zealand; the seat of Government being at Auckland, where ho died in September, 1842. From the time of Governor Hobson's death, in Sep- tember, 1842, until the arrival of Governor Fitzroy, in December, 1843, the Government was carried on by the Colonial Secretary, Lieutenant Shortiand.] Lieutenant Shortiand, Administrator, from 10 Sept., 1842, to 26 Dec, 1843. Captain Robert Fitzroy, R.N., from 26 Dec, 1843, to 17 Nov., 1845. Captain Grev (became Sir George Grey, K.C.B., in 1848), from 18 Nov., 1845, to 31 Dec, 1853. [Captain Grey held the commission as Lieutenant-Governor of the colony until the 1st January, 1848, when he was sworn in as Governor- in-Chief over the Islands of New Zealand, and as Governor of the Pro- vince of New Ulster and Governor of the Province of New Munster. After the passing of the New Zealand Constitution Act, Sir George Grey was, on the 13th September, 1852, appointed Governor of the colony, the duties of which office he assumed on tho 7th March, 1853. In August, 1847, Mr. E. J. Eyre was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of New Munster: he was sworn in, 28th January, 1848. On 3rd January, 1848, Major - General Goorge Dean Pitt was appointed Lieutenant- 2 18 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Governor of New Ulster: he was sworn in, 14th February, 1848; died, 8th January, 1851; and was succeeded as Lieutenant Governor by Lieutenant -Colonel Wynyard, appointed 14th April, 1851; sworn in, 26tli April, 1851. The duties of the Lieutenant-Governor ceased on the assumption by Sir (ieorge Grey of the office of Governor, on the 7th March, 1858.] Lieutenant-Colonel Robert Henry Wynyard, C.B., Administrator, from 3 Jan., 1854, to 6 Sept., 1855. Colonel Thomas Gore Browne, C.B., from 6 Sept., 1855, to 2 Oct., 1861. Sir George Grey, K.C.B., Administrator, from 3 Oct., 1861; Go- vernor, from 4 Dec, 1861, to 5 Feb., 1868. Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.M.G., from 5 Feb., 1868, to 19 Mar., 1873. Sir George Alfred Arney, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 21 Mar. to 14 June, 1873. Sir James Fergusson, Baronet, P.G., from 14 June, 1873, to 3 Dec, 1874. The Marquis of Normanby, P.C., Administrator, from 3 Dec, 1874; Governor, from 9 Jan., 1875, to 21 Feb., 1879. James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 21 Feb. to 27 Mar., 1879. Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, G.C.M.G., Administrator, 27 Mar., 1879; Governor, from 17 April, 1879, to 8 Sept., 1880. James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 9 Sept. to 29 Nov., 1880. Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, G.C.M.G., from 29 Nov., 1880, to 23 June, 1882. Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 24 June, 1882, to 20 Jan., 1883. Lieutenant - General Sir William Francis Drummond Jervois G.C.M.G., C.B., from 20 Jan., 1883, to 22 Mar., 1889. Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 23 Mar to 2 May, 1889. The Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G., from 2 May, 1889, to 24 Feb., 1892. Sir James Prendergast, Chief Justice, Administrator, from 25 Feb to 6 June, 1892. The Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G., from 7 June, 1892. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 1843-56. 19 SCJPKEME COUET JUDGES. Supreme Court Judges, past and present, with Dates of Appointment, and of Resignation or Death. Sir W. Martin, appointed Chief Justice, 10 Jan., 1842. Resigned, 12 June, 1857. H. S. Chapman, appointed, 26 Dec, 1843. Resigned, 30 July, 1850. Reappointed, 23 Mar., 1864. Resigned, 31 Mar., 1875. S. Stephen, appointed, 30 July, 1850. Appointed Acting Chief Justice 20 Oct., 1855. Died, 13 Jan., 1858. Daniel Wakefield, appointed, Oct., 1855. Died, Oct., 1857. H. B. Gresson, appointed temporarily, 8 Dec, 1857. Permanently, 1 July, 1862. Resigned, 31 Mar., 1875. Sir G. A. Arney, appointed Chief Justice, 1 Mar., 1858. Resigned. 31 Mar., 1875. A. J. Johnston, appointed, 2 Nov., 1858. Died, 1 June, 1888. C. W. Richmond, appointed, 20 Oct., 1862. J. S. Moore, appointed temporarily, 15 May, 1866. Relieved, 30 June, 1868. C. D. R. Ward, appointed temporarily, 1 Oct., 1868. Relieved. Mav, 1870. Appointed temporarily, 21 Sept., 1886. Relieved, 12 Feb., 1889. Sir J. Prendergast, appointed Chief Justice, 1 April, 1875. T. B. Gillies, appointed, 3 Mar., 1875. Died, 26 July, 1889. J. S. Williams, appointed, 3 Mar., 1875. J. E. Denniston, appointed, 11 Feb., 1889. E. T. Couolly, appointed, 19 Aug., 1889. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 1843-56. Members of the Executive Council of the Colony of New Zealand previous to the Establishment of Responsible Government (not including the Officers Commanding the Forces). Willoughby Shortland, Colonial Secretary, from 3 May, 1841, to 31 Dec, 1843; succeeded by Mr. Sinclair. Francis Fisher, Attorney-General, from 3 May to 10 Aug., 1841; succeeded by Mr. Svvainson. George Cooper, Colonial Treasurer, from 3 May, 1841, to 9 May, 1842; succeeded by Mr. Shepherd. William Swainson, Attorney-General, from 10 Aug., 1841, to 7 Mav, 1856. 20 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAK-BOOK. Alexander Shepherd, Colonial Treasurer, from 9 May, 1842, to 7 Mav, 1856. Andrew Sinclair, Colonial Secretary, from 6 Jan., 1844, to 7 May. 1856. [The three gentlemen last mentioned were nominated by Her Majesty as ex officio members of the Executive Council. Two of them, the Colonial Secretary and the Colonial Treasurer, were not members of the General Assembly, opened for the first time 27th May, 1854, but all three remained in office until the establishment of Responsible Government.] James Edward FitzGerald, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 14 June to 2 Aug., 1854. Henrv Sewell, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 14 June to 2 Aug., 1854. Frederick Aloysius Weld, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 14 June to 2 Aug., 1854. Francis Dillon Bell, M.L.C., without portfolio, from 30 June to 11 July, 1854. Thomas Houghton Bartley, M.L.C., without portfolio, from 14 July to 2 Aug., 1854. Thomas Spencer Forsaith, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 31 Aug. to 2 Sept., 1854. Edward Jerningham Wakefield, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 31 Aug. to 2 Sept., 1854. William Thomas Locke Travers, M.H.R., without portfolio, 31 Aug. to 2 Sept., 1854. James Macandrew, M.H.R., without portfolio, from 31 Aug. to 2 Sept., 1854. PARLIAMENTS. Numbeh of Parliaments since the Constitution Act passed for conferring representative institutions upon the Colony of New Zealand, with the Dates of Opening of Sessions and Dates of Closing or Dissolution. vo „i Parliament Date of Opening of Date of Closing or No. of Parliament. Sessions. Dissolution First Parliament Second Parliament I 27 May, 1854 .. 9 August, 1854. 31 August, 1854 .. I 16 September, 1854. 8 August, 1855 .. | 15 September, 1855. 15 April, 1856 .. 116 August, 1856. (There was no session held in the year 1857 ) 10 April, 1858 .. 21 August, 1858. (There was no sessionjheld inithe year 1859 ) 80 July, 1860 .. 5 November, 1860. PARLIAMENTS. 21 Parliaments—continued. No. of Parliament. Third Parliament Fourth Parliament Date of Opening of Sessions. 3 June, 1861 7 July, 18C2 19 October, 1863 24 November, 1864 26 July, 1865 Fifth Parliament Sixth Parliament Seventh Parliament Eighth Parliament 30 June, 1866 9 July, 1867 9 July, 1868 1 June, 1869 14 June, 1870 14 August. 1871 16 July, 1872 15 Julv, 1873 3 Julv, 1874 20 July, 1875 15 June, 1876 19 Julv, 1877 26 July, 1878 11 July, 1879 Date of Closing or Dissolution. 7 September, 1861. 15 September, 1862. 14 December, 1863. 13 December, 1864. 30 October, 1865. 8 October, 1866. | 10 October, 1807. I 20 October, 1868. 3 September, 1861). 13 September, 1870. 24 September, 1879 28 May, 1880 9 June, 1881 18 May, 1882 14 June, 1883 5 June, 1S84 16 November. 1871. 25 October, 1872. 3 October, 1873. 31 August, 1874. 21 October, 1875. 31 October, 1876. 10 December, 1877. 2 November, 1878. 15 August, 1879. 19 Decomber, 1879. 1 September, 1880. 24 September, 1881. 15 September, 1882. 8 September, 1883. 24 June, 1884. Ninth Parliament 7 August, 1884 11 June, 1S85 13 May, 1886 20 April, 1887 10 November, 1884. 22 September, 1885. 18 August, 1886. 15 July, 1887. Tenth Parliament fl 6 October, 1887 10 Mav, 1888 I 20 June, 1889 ( 19 June, 1890 23 December, 1887. 31 August, 1888. 19 September, 1889. 3 October, 1890. Eleventh Parliament ( 23 January. 1891 | 11 June, 1891 i 23 June, 1892 [ 22 June, 1893 31 January, 1891. 5 September, 1891. 12 October, 1892. 8 November, 1893. Twelfth Parliament 21 June, 1894. 20 June, 1895. 24 October, 1894. 22 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES Since the Establishment of Responsible Government in New Zealand in 1856. Name of Ministry. Assumed Office. Retired. 1 Bell-Sewell .. 7 May, 1856 20 May, 1856. a Fox 20 May, 1856 2 June, 1856. 8. Stafford 2 June, 1856 12 July, 1861. 4. Fox : 12 July, 1861 6 August, 1862. 5. Domett '6 August, 1862 .. 30 October, 1863. 6. Wlii taker-Fox 30 October, 1863 .. 24 November, 1864. 7. Weld 24 November, 1864 16 October, 1865. 8. Stafford 16 October, 1865 .. 28 June, 1869. 9. Fox 28 June, 1869 10 September, 1872. 10. Stafford 10 September, 1872 11 October, 1872. 11. Waterhouse 11 October, 1872 .. 3 March, 1873. 12. Fox 3 March, 1873 .. 8 April, 1873. 18. Vogel 8 April, 1873 6 July, 1875. 11. Pollen 6 July, 1875 15 February, 1876. 15. Vogel 15 February, 1876.. 1 September, 1870. 16. Atkinson 1 September, 1876 13 September, 1876. 17. Atkinson (reconstituted) 13 September, 1876 13 October, 1877. 18. Grey 15 October, 1877 .. 8 October, 1879. l'J. Hall 8 October, 1879 .. 21 April, 1882. 20. Whitaker 21 April, 1882 25 September, 1883. 21. Atkinson 25 September, 1883 16 August, 1884. 22. Stout-Vogel .. 16 August, 1884 .. 28 August, 1884. 2:!. Atkinson 28 August, 1884 .. 3 September, 1884. 34. Stout- Vogol 8 September, 1884 8 October, 1887. 25. Atkinson 8 October, 1887 .. 24 January, 1891. 26. Ballance 24 January, 1891 .. 1 May, 1898.' 27. Seddon 1 May, 1893. * Owing to the death of the Premii jr. the Hon. J. Ballance, on 27th April, 1893. PREMIERS OF SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES. Xauie of Premier. Name of Premier. Henrv Sewell. William Fox. Edward William Stafford. William Fox. Alfred Domett. Frederick Whitaker. Frederick Aloysius Weld. Edward William Stafford. William Fox. Hon. Edward William Stafford. George Marsden Waterhouse. Hon. William Fox Hon. Julius Vogel, C.M.G. Daniel Pollen, M.L.C. Sir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G. Harry Albert Atkinson. Harry Albert Atkinson (Ministry recon- stituted). Sir George Grey, K.C.B. Hon. John Hall. Frederick Whitaker, M.L.C. Harry Albert Atkinson. Robert Stout. Harry Albert Atkinson. Sir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G. Sir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G. John Ballance. Richard John Seddon. SPEAKERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL, ETC. 23 SPEAKERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL, With Dates of theik Appointment and Dates of Retirement or Death. Name of Speaker. Hon. William Swainson Hon. Frederick Whitaker Hon. Thomas Houghton Bartley Hon. Sir John Larking Cheese Richard- son, Kt. Hon. Sir William Fitzherbert, K.C.M.G. Hon. Sir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G. Hon. Henry John Miller Date of Appointment. Date of Retirement or Death. 16 May, 1854 .. 8 August. 1855 .. 12 May, 1856 .. 1 July, 1808 .. 14 June, 1879 . 23 January, 1891 8 July, 1892. 8 August, 1855. 12 Mav, 185(1. 1 July, 1868. 14 June, 1879. 23 January, 1891. I 28 June, 1892. SPEAKERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, With Dates of theib Election and Dates of Retirement. Name of Speaker. Date of Election, i Date of Retirement. Sir Charles Clifford, Bart. Sir David Monro, Kt. Bach. Sir Francis Dillon Bell, K.C.M.G., C B. Sir William Fitzherbert. K.C.M.G. Sir George Maurice O'Rorke, Kt. Bach. Hon. Major William Jukes Steward .. Hon. Sir George Maurice O'Rorke, Kt. Bach. 26 May, 1854 15 April, 1850 .. 3 June, 18G1 30 June, 1800 .. 14 August, 1871 .. 15 June, 187G 11 July, 1879 24 September, 1879 18 Mav, 1882 7 August, 1884 0 October, 1887 23 January, 1891 21 June, 1894. 3 June, 1861. 13 Sept., 1870. 21 October. 1875. 13 June, 1879. 3 October, 1890. 8 November, 1S93. FOREIGN CONSULS. Consuls of Foreign Countries residing in, ob with Jubisdio tion over, New Zealand, June, 1895. Country represented. Office held. Name. Place of Residence. Austria-Hungary Belgium ■Chili Consul Consul-General Consul Consul-General Consular Agent Julius Mergell liustave Beckx diaries John Johnston Alexander Beck Arthur Masy William Henry Kldred Edmund Quick Sydney. Melbourne. Wellington. Christchurch. Auckland. Sydney. Dunedin. ■2i NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAH-BOOK. Fobeign Consuls—continued. Country represented Denmark France German Empire Office held. Consul (for North Island) | Consul (for South Island) Vice-Consul .. Consul (for New Zealand) Consular Agent Consul-General Consul Name. Place of Residence. Hawaiian Islands Italy .. Netherlands Nicaragua Portugal pain.. Sweden and Nor way United States .. Vice-Consul Consul - General (for Australasia) Consul Consul-General (in Australia) Consular Agent Consul-General Consul Vice-Consul .. Consul -General (for Australasia) Consul Vice-Consul .. Consul Vice-Consul .. Consul-General Consul (for New Zealand) Vice-Consul .. Consular Agent Ed ward Valdemar Johansen Emil Christian Skog Francis Henry Dillon Bell.. Edmund Quick Viscount Alexandre Louis Ferdinand De Jouffroy D'Abbans Thomas Russell Percival Clay Neill Hon. Edmund William Parker A. Pelldram (C. L. Sahl act- ing till end of 1995) Bendix Hallenstein Heinrich von Hiiusi Friedrich August Krull Carl Seegner Augustus Friedrich Castendyk VV. E. Dixon (Vacant) Reynolds Driver Cavaliere P. Corte.. (Vacant) George Fisher Edward Bowes Cargill Geraldo Guiseppe Perotti R. Rose (acting) Dr. Laon Adrian de Vicq Charles John Johnston Edward Bowes Cargill J. H. Amora John Duncan Henry Rees George Edmund Quick Don Francisco Arenas Bonct Edward Pearce Auckland. Christchurch. Wellington. Dunedin. Wellington. Edward Valdemar Johansen Frank Graham Daniel W. Maratta John Darcy Connolly Leonard A. Bachelder Albert Cuff Robert Wyles Thomas Cahill, M.D. W. G. Neill Auckland. Dunedin. Christchurch. Sydney. Dunedin. Christchurch. Wanganui. Auckland. Wellington. Sydney. Auckland. Dunedin. 'Melbourne. Christchurch. Wellington. Dunedin. Greymouth. I Auckland. Melbourne. Wellington. Dunedin. Sydney. Wellington. Auckland. Dunedin. Christchurch. Wellington. Auckland. Christchurch. Melbourne. I Auckland. Auckland. Cliristchurch. Mongonui. Wellington. Dunedin. THE COLONIAL OFFICE. AGENTS-GENERAL IN LONDON (With their Addresses). NEW ZEALAND. Sir W. B. Perceval, K.C.M.G., Westminster Chambers, 13, Victoria Street, S.W. SecretaryWalter Kennaway, C.M.G. AUSTRALIA. Queensland.—The Hon. Sir James F. Garrick, K.C.M.G., West- minster Chambers, 1, Victoria Street, S.W. Secretary-Charles Shortt Dicken, C.M.G. New South Wales.-The Hon. Sir Saul Samuel, K.C.M.G., C.B., Westminster Chambers, 9, Victoria Street, S.W. Secretary-S. Yardley, C.M.G. Victoria.—The Hon. Duncan Gillies, 15, Victoria Street, S.W. Secretary- South Australia.-The Hon. Thomas Playford, Victoria Cham- bers, 15, Victoria Street, S.W. Secretary-T. F. Wickstead. Western Australia.--The Hon. Sir Malcolm Fraser, K.C.M.G., 15, Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W. Secretary-Reginald Hare. T'asmania.-The Hon. Sir Robert G. W. Herbert, G.C.B., West- minster Chambers, 5, Victoria Street, S.W. Secretary- THE COLONIAL OFFICE, JULY, 1895. (DOWNING STREET, S.W., London), with Dates OF APPOINTMENT. Principal Secretary of State for the Colonies—The Right Hon. Joseph Chamberlain, P.C. Under-Secretaries : Permanent—The Hon. Sir Robert Henry Meade, K.C.B., 1st February, 1892; Parliamentary- The Earl of Selborne. Assistant Under-Secretaries-John Bramston, D.C.L., C.B., 30th June, 1876; Edward Wingfield, B.C.L., C.B., 19th July, 1878; Edward Fairfield, C.M.G., C.B., 1st February, 1892. CROWN AGENTS FOR THE COLONIES. DOWNING STREET, S.W. CITY OFFICE : 1, TOKENHOUSE BUILDINGS, E.C., LONDON. Crown Agents—Sir Montagu Frederick Ommaney, K.C.M.G., and Ernest Edward Blake. 26 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. HONOURS HELD BY COLONISTS. Bell, Hon. Sir Francis Dillon, Knt. Bach., 1873; K.C.M.G., 1881 ; C.B., 1886. Buckley, Hon. Sir Patrick Alphonsus, K.C.M.G., 1892. Buller, Sir Walter Lawry, F.R.S., C.M.G., 1875; K.C.M.G., 1886. FitzGerald, James Edward, Esq., C.M.G., 1870. Grace, Hon. Morgan Stanislaus, C.M.G., 1890. Grey, Right Hon. Sir George, K.C.B., 1848; P.C., 1894. Hall, Hon. Sir John, K.C.M.G., 1882. Hector, Sir James, F.R.S., C.M.G., 1875; K.C.M.G., 1887. Larnach, Hon. William James Mudie, C.M.G., 1879. O’Rorke, Hon. Sir George Maurice, Knt. Bach., 1880. Perceval, Sir Westby Brook, K.C.M.G, 1894. Prendergast, Sir James, Knt. Bach., 1881. Richardson, Hon. Edward, C.M.G., 1879. Roberts, John, Esq., C.M.G., 1891. Stafford, Hon. Sir Edward William, K.C.M.G., 1879; G.C.M.G., 1887. Stout, Hon. Sir Robert, K.C.M.G., 1886. Vogel, Hon. Sir Julius, C.M.G., 1872; K.C.M.G., 1875. Whitmore, Hon. Colonel Sir George Stoddart, C.M.G., 1869 ; K.C.M.G., 1882. PERSONS ALLOWED TO RETAIN THE TITLE OF “HONOURABLE" WITHIN HER MAJESTY'S DOMINIONS. By despatch from the Secretary of State for the Colonies, dated Downing Street, 15th June, 1893, His Excellency the Governor was apprised that the title of “ Honourable," appertaining to Mem- bers of the Executive and Legislative Councils in colonies possessing Responsible Government, whether confined to duration of office or continued for life, is approved by Her Majesty for use and recogni- tion throughout her dominions, either during office or for life, as the case may be. By further despatch of 10th March, 1894, the Secretary of State announces that he is prepared in future to submit for the approval of the Queen the recommendation of the Governor of any colony having Responsible Government that the President of the Legislative Council or the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly may, on quitting office after three years' service in their respective offices, be per- mitted to retain the title of “Honourable.” This title has since been conferred on Sir F. D. Bell, Sir G. M. O'Rorke, and Maior William Jukes Steward. Besides the Members of the Executive and Legislative Councils. the following ex-Ministers whose names do not appear in the list given above are allowed, as such, to retain the title of “Honourable": Bryce, John, 1884 ; Dick, Thomas, 1884; Fergus, Thomas, 1891 : Gisborne, William, 1873; Haultain, Colonel T. M., 1870; Hislop. Thomas W., 1891; Johnston, Walter 11., 1884; Mitchelson, E- win, 1891; Oliver, Richard, 1884; Reynolds, William H., 1876 : Richardson, George F., 1891; Rolleston, William, 1884 ; Tole. Joseph A., 1888. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, 1S95. 27 GOVERNOR OF NEW ZEALAND. Glasgow, His Excellency the Rijjht Honourable David, Earl of, G.C.M.G., a Captain of the Royal Navy, served in the White Sea during the Russian war, and in the Chinese war of 1857, and re- tired in 1878; born, 1833; married, in 1873, Dorothea Thomasina, daughter of Sir Edward Hunter-Blair; appointed February 24, and assumed office June 7, 1892, as Governor and Commander-in-Chief in and over Her Majesty's Colony of New Zealand and its Depend- encies. Salary, £5,000. Residences: Government House, Welling- ton; and Government House, Auckland. Private Secretary and Aide-de-Camp—Edward Hay Mackenzie Elliot (Major, South Lancashire Regiment). Assistant Private Sec- retary—Hon. Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy. Aide-de-Camp — Edward Francis Clayton (Lieutenant, Scots Guards). Extra Aide-de-Camp—R. W. P. Clarke-Campbell-Preston (Captain, 3rd Battalion Black Watch Royal Highlanders). Administrator of the Government.—A dormant commission empowers the Chief Justice of the Colony for the time being to administer the Government in case of the death, incapacity, re- moval, or departure of the Governor. EXECUTIVE COUNCIL, JULY, 1895. His Excellency the Governor presides. Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier, Minister for Public Works, Minister of Defence, and Native Minister. Hon. Sir P. A. Buckley, K.C.M.G., Attorney-General and Colonial Secretary. Hon. W. P. Reeves, Minister of Education, Commissioner of Stamp Duties, Minister of Labour, and Minister of Justice. Hon. A. J. Cadman, Minister of Mines and Minister of Railways. Hon. J. McKenzie, Minister of Lands and Immigration, Minister of Agriculture, and Commissioner of Forests. Hon. J. G. Ward, Colonial Treasurer, Postmaster-General, Electric- Telegraph Commissioner, Commissioner of Customs, Minister of Marine, and Minister of Industries and Commerce. Hon. J. Carroll (without portfolio), representing the Native race. Hon. Wr. Montgomery (without portfolio). Clerk of Executive Council—Alexander James Willis. THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY. Legislative Council. The number of members at present constituting the Legislative Council is forty-four. The number cannot be less than ten, but is otherwise unlimited. Prior to 1891 Councillors summoned by the Governor held their appointments for life, but on the 17th of Sep- 28 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. tember of that year an Act was passed making future appointments to the Council tenable for seven years only, to be reckoned from the date of the writ of summons of the Councillor's appointment, though every such Councillor may be reappointed. The qualifications are that the person to be appointed be of the full age of twenty-one years, and a subject of Her Majesty, either natural-born or naturalised by or under any Act of the Imperial Parliament or by or under any Act of the General Assembly of New Zealand. All con- tractors to the public service to an amount of over £50 and Civil servants of the colony are ineligible as Councillors. Payment of Councillors is at the rate of £150 a year, payable monthly. Actual travelling-expenses to and from Wellington are also allowed. A deduction of £1 5s. per sitting day is made in case of an absence, except through illness or other unavoidable cause, exceeding five sitting days in any one session. Under "The Legislative Council Act, 1891," a seat is vacated by any member of the Council—(1), If he takes any oath or makes any declaration or acknowledgment of allegiance, obedience, or adherence to any foreign Prince or Power; or (2), if he does, or concurs in, or adopts any act whereby he may become a subject or citizen of any foreign State or Power, or is entitled to the rights, privileges, or immunities of a subject of any foreign State or Power; or (3), if he is a bankrupt, or compounds with his creditors under any Act for the time being in force; or (4), if he is a public defaulter, or is attainted of treason, or is con- victed of felony or any infamous crime; or (5), if he resigns his seat by writing under his hand addressed to and accepted by the Gover- nor; or (6), if for more than one whole session of the General Assembly he fails, without permission of the Governor notified to the Council, to give his attendance in the Council. By the Standing Orders of the Council, the presence of one-fourth of the members of the Council, exclusive of those who have leave of absence, is necess- ary to constitute a meeting for the exercise of its powers. This rule, however, may be altered from time to time by the Council. The ordinary sitting-days are Tuesdays, Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, from 2.30 p.m. to 5 p.m., resuming again at 7.30 when necessary. Roll of Members of the Honourable the Legislative Council of New Zealand, June, 1895. Speaker—The Hon. Henhy John Millkb. Chairman of Committees—The Hon. William Douglas Hall Baillie. Name. district! I Date of Appointment. A eland, the Hon. John Barton Arundel , Baillie, the Hon. William Douglas Hall . Barnicoat, the Hon. John Wallis Bolt, the Hon. William Mouat Canterbury .. 8 July, 1865. Marlborough 8 March, 1861. Nelson .. 14 May, 1883. Otago .. 15 October, 1892. Bonar, the Hon. James Alexander .. Westland .. 27 June, 1868. Bowen, the Hon. Charles Christopher .. Canterbury .. 23 January, 1891. LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL. 29 Roll of Members ok the Legislative Council—continued. Name. Provincial District. Buckley, the Hon. Sir Patrick Alphonsus, K.C.MG. Fcldwick, the Hon. Henry Grace, the Hon. Morgan Stanislaus, C.M.G. Holmes, the Hon. Mat hew Jenkins-on, the Hon. John Edward Jennings, the Hon. William Thomas Johnston, the Hon. Charles John Kelly, the Hon. Thomas Kenny, the Hon. Courtney William Aylmer Thomas Kerr, the Hon. James McCullough, the Hon. William.. MacGregor, the Hon. John McLean, the Hon. George Mantell. the Hon. Walter Baldock Durant Miller, the Hon. Henry John (Speaker) .. Montgomery, the Hon. William.. Morris, the Hon. George Bentham Oliver, the Hon. Richard Onnond, the Hon. John Davies Peacock, tho Hon. John Thomas Pliarazyn, the Hon. Robert Pollen, the Hon. Daniel Reynolds, the Hon. William Hunter Richardson, the Hon. Edward, C.M.G. .. Rigg, the Hon. John Scotland, the Hon. Henry Shephard, the Hon. Joseph Shrimski, the Hon. Samuel Edward Stevens, the Hon. Edward Cephas John.. Stewart, the Hon. William Downie Swanson, the Hon. William Taiaroa, the Hon. Hori Kerei .. Wahawuha, the Hon. Major Ropata, N.Z.C. Walker, the Hon. Lancelot Walker, the Hon. William Campbell Whitmore, the Hon. Sir George Stoddart, K.C.M.G. Whyte, the Hon. John Blair Williams, tho Hon. Henry Wellington .. Otago Wellington .. Otagn Canterbury .. Auckland .. Wellington .. Taranaki Marl borough Westland .. Auckland .. Otago Otago Wellington .. Otago Canterbury .. Auckland .. Otago Hawke's Bay Canterbury .. Wellington .. Auckland .. Otago Wellington .. Wellington .. Taranaki Nehon Otago Canterbury .. Otago Auckland .. Otago Auckland .. Canterbury .. Canterbury .. Hawke's Bay Auckland Auckland .. Date of Appointment. 25 July, 1878. 15 October, 1892. 13 May, 1870. 19 June, 18GG. 6 June, 1893. 15 October, 1892. 23 January, 1891. 15 October, 1892. 15 May, 1885. 15 October, 1892. 15 October, 1892. 15 October, 1892. 19 December, 1881. 19 June, 1866. 8 July, 18G5. 15 October, 1892. 15 May, 1885. 10 November, 1S81. 23 January, 1891. 3 June, 1873. 15 May, 1885. 12 May, 1873. 6 May, 1878. 15 October. 1892. 6 June, 1893. 24 Februarv, 18G8. 15 Mav, 188.5. 15 May, 1885. 7 March, 1882. 28 January, 1801. 15 May, 1885. 15 May, 1885. 10 May, 1887. 15 May, 1885. 15 October, 1892. 31 August, 1863. 23 January, 1891. 7 March,"l882. Clerk of Parliaments, Clerk of the Legislative Council, and Examiner of Standing Orders upon Private Bills—Leonard Stowe. Clerk-Assistant—Arthur Thomas Bothamley. Second Clerk-Assistant—George Moore. Interpreter—Henry S. Hadheld. House of Representatives. The number of members constituting the House of Represen- tatives is seventy-four—seventy Europeans and four Maoris. This number was fixed by the Act of 1887, which came for the first time into practical operation at the general election of 1890. Pre- 30 SEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Fously from 1901the House consisted of ninety-five members nicer-oce Europeans an i four Maoris. The North Island returns intr-ore European members, and the Middle Island thirty-nine. Toe Cities of lakind, Wellington. Christchurch, and Dunedin return each bree 1.-60s, and ail other electoral districts one each. The ceediscs are iniai tIcept in the case of a dissolution by the 15072rnor. Esery registere i elector, being of the male sex, and free * Of le suascations mentioned in seetion 3 of “The Exod . 13." is envie for membership. All contractors to seconda se t o New Zealani to whom any pub.ic money above Se ci ispirare, vireeriv or indirectly, in any one finan- :: as we as ECT. XITAL:s oi the colocv, are incapable of Cer t ies C: oi situs or voting as meinbers. Toe payment e neste forse of Representatives is £20 per month, eior every sitting-lay exceeding Te s barco donn.: of absence during session not due to Sme 00: 10:03.e casse. Traveling-expenses to and Te use a s chei. This scale of payment came 20 orse se ide :31 ZT. 153. under the provisions of "The Farei Versi in Twenty members, exclusive site seaser, slità Cern. Triess o:terwise ordered, re s ide Esse are Izeslavs. Wednesiays. Thursdays, Hi Fris : 0 3 . Tescing at .3) pn. Onder of Oce: Ide Se s Giet is by ticket obtained from - SET TEX T T is open free to be pablic. S H PROFITIS FEE EOISE OF REPRESENTATIVES, NE, : . SR2-TE E:. -erge scrive O'Rorke, KL C: X S 4:1:ar Robert Gerness Daze Sot saation of - ----- -- - - - -- Il-mit. I vec ber. :333. I. FULL- :r ule V.com Cardcross. &ta U Cardell, San DE -- Carrol Blon. De Collins, Vilist W ie CrowIDET, han ISILL. HOtras - CLI.16 LL Iunitiew, T AI Flatman, Frederick Robert sinds Loron t HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. 31 ROLL OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES- continued. Yame. Electoral District. Date of Notification of Return of Writ. | 13 December, 1893. ::: Fraser, William .. .. Wakatipu Graham, John .. .. City of Nelson Green, James .. .. Waikouaiti Grey, Right Hon. Sir George, P.C., City of Auckland K.C.B. Guinness, Arthur Robert.. Grey .. Hall, Charles .. .. / Waipawa.. Hall-Jones, William . Timaru .. Harris, Benjamin Franklin .. Hogg, Alexander Wilson Masterton Houston, Robert Morrow Bay of Islands Hutchison, George Patea .. Hutchison, William .. .. 'City of Dunedin Joyce, John .. .. Lyttelton.. Kelly, James Whyte .. Invercargill - Kelly, William .. Bay of Plenty Lang, Frederic William .. Waipa .. Larnach, Hon. William James Tuapeka .. Mudie, C.M.G. Lawry, Frank .. Parnell.. McGowan, James Thames .. McGuire, Felix .. Egmont .. Mckenzie, Hon. John Waihemo McKenzie, Roderick Buller Mackenzie, Thomas Clutha .. Mackintosh, James Wallace .. McLachlan, John .. Asliburton ::::::::::::: 17 July, 1894. .. 13 December, 1893. ::::::::: Mataura .. ::::::::::::::::: :: Maslın, William Stephen .. Rangitata Massey, William Ferguson .. 'Waitemata 17 April, 1894. Meredith, Richard Ashley .. 13 December, 1893. Millar, John Andrew .. Chalmers.. Mills, Charles Houghton.. Waiinea-Sounds Mitchelson, Hon. Edwin. Eden .. Montgomery, William Hugh Ellesmere Morrison, Arthur .. Caversham Newman, Alfred Kingcome .. Wellington Suburbs O'Regan, Patrick Joseph.. .. Inangahua O'Rorke, Hon. Sir George Maurice, Manukau.. Kat. Bach. Pinkerton, David City of Dunedin ... Pirani, Frederick Palmerston Reeves, Hon. William Pember City of Christchurch Russell, George Warren .. .. Riccarton Russell, William Russell Hawke's Bay Saunders, Alfred Selwyn .. Seddon, Hon. Richard John Westland Smith, Edward Metcalf .. New Plymouth .. Smith, George John City of Christchurch Stevens, John .. .. Rangitikei Steward, Hon. William Jukes .. Waitaki .. Stout, Hon. Sir Robert, K.U.M.G. 'City of Wellington Tanner, William Wilcox.. Avon .. Thompson, Robert .. Marsden .. 3:2 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Boll of Members of the House of Representatives— continued. Name. Electoral District. Ward, Hon. Joseph George Willis, Archibald Dudingston Wilson, James Glenny .. For Maori Electorates. Hoke, Hone Ptirata, Tame Pure, Wi Te Ao, Ropata .. I Awarua .. Wanganui Otaki Northern Maori Southern Maori Eastern Maori Western Maori Date of Notification of Return of Writ. 13 December, 1893. I 11 January, 1894. 30 December, 1893. 11 January, 1894. 2 January, 1894. Clerk of House of Representatives—G. Friend. Clerk-Assistant—H. Otterson. Second Clerk-Assistant—A. J. Rutherfurd. Reader and Clerk of Bills and Papers—Thomas Bracken. Chief Hansard Reporter—C. C. N. Barron. Interpreters—L. M. Grace, . Sergeant-at-Arms—W. Fraser. Clerk of Writs—H. Pollen. Deputy Clerk of Writs—R. H. Govett. Acting Librarian—H. L. James, B.A. REPRESENTATION.—(JUNE, 1895.) On the basis of the results of the census of 1891 the colony is divided in accordance with the Representation Act Amendment Acts 1887 and 1889 into sixty-two districts for purposes of Euro- pean' representation, fifty-eight rural districts having one member each and four city electorates three members each. The names and boundaries of these districts were duly proclaimed in the New Zealand Gazette of the 26th January, 1892. The Act of 1889 directed that in computing for electoral purposes the population of the colonv 28 per cent, should be added to the country population —ie alfoutside towns of 2,000 inhabitants and over. The total population of the colony (other than Maoris), with the addition aforesaid having been ascertained, was then divided by the number of members (70), and the quotient thus obtained formed the quota. The four city electoral districts (which have three members each) were so defined in extent that the population should be three times the auota Inasmuch as it would be impossible to divide the country into a given number of districts all having exactly the pre- 1 . -i z. .-.lot-inn the law Dernnts the (InnimiBoinnnw. ._ country into a given «—-~- — ---—e .-v "«= rise quota of population, the law permits the Commissioner,, u make an allowance of 750 persons by way of addition to or deduc s to REPRESENTATION. 33 tion from the population of rural districts, and of 100 in case of city electorates; and due consideration is given to community of in- terest, facilities of communication, and topographical features, as far as possible, in forming the districts. A table showing the names of the electoral districts as at the the last general election, with the number of members returnable, the actual town and rural population as at the census of April, 1891, and the nominal population for each district, was given on page 30 of the Official Year-book for 1893. The North Island with its adjacent islands includes 27 electoral districts, having 31 members; the Middle and Stewart Islands having 35 districts and 39 members. These districts are, as above stated, for purposes of European representation. But the colony is again divided into four districts for purposes of Maori representation, under Part V. of “ The Elec- toral Act, 1893,” each district having one Native member elected by the Maoris : so that the House of Representatives consists of 74 members altogether—70 Europeans and 4 Maoris. GENERAL ELECTIONS FOR EUROPEAN REPRESENTATIVES HELD FROM THE YEAR 1853. Average Number of Parliament. Date of General Election. Number of Names on Roll of Elec- tors. Number of Mem- bers returned. Number of Mem- bers returned unopposed. Number of Votes recorded (or of Voters record- ing Votes). Population of the Colony. Persons to each Member, - Persons to each Elector. Electors to each Member. 5:1 36 5-9 5.7 5:3 First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth Ninth Tenth Eleventh Twelfth 1853 45,934 | 1655 610,324 1861 13,466 1861 €33,338 1671 47,275 1875 i 61,755 1879 82,271 1881 120,972 1884 1 137.686 | 1887 175,410 1890 183,171 ... 1893 0302,997 | 70 30,000 37,192 79,711 190,607 248, 400 375,856 463,729 500,910 564,304 603,361 625,508 672,265 6.1 811 1,005 1,504 2,647 3,357 4,474 5,521 5,505 6,201 6,630 8,936 9,604 160 279 254 463 639 735 979 1,329 1,513 1,928 2,617 4,328 43,776 69.985 74,672 111,911 136,337 de220,082 5-6 4.1 4:1 34 3:4 2.2 * Information not obtainable. . Including 100, the estimated number in Akaroa District, for which there is no return. Including 800, the estimated number in the electorates of Town of New Plymouth, Grey and Bell, and Omata, for which districts there are no returns. Electors for the Electoral District of "The Otago Goldfields" not included. Men and women. e Voters recording votes. 34 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. THE ELECTORAL ACT, 1893. By this Act, which came into force on the 19th September, 1893, the great step was taken of admitting women to the franchise, and other changes were made in the electoral law, the most im- portant of which are here referred to. By section 3, the word "person," wherever it occurs throughout the Act, includes "woman," and the words and expressions in the Act importing the masculine gender include women, except when otherwise expressly stated. Under the provisions of section 6 the qualifications of electors are the same for each sex. European Representation. These qualifications are possessed by— 1. Every adult (not a Maori) who has a freehold of the value of £25 in his (or her) own right, to which" he has been entitled for six months before the registration of his vote, and who is not registered in respect of a freehold or residential qualification in the same or another district. 2. Every adult (not a Maori) who has resided for one year in the colony, and in the electoral district for which he claims to vote during the three months preceding the registration of his (or her) vote, and is not registered in respect of a freehold or residential qualification for the same or any other district. An important clause is added, bringing into force what is known as the " one-person-one-roll" principle. It runs :— "No person shall be entitled to be registered on more than one electoral roll within the colony, whatever the number or nature of the qualifications he may possess, or wherever they may be." There is a penalty under section 13 for breach of this. [What is termed the "one -man -one -vote" principle, which prohibits an elector from voting in more than one electorate has been in force since 1889.] Maori voting has been restricted, in accordance with the " one- person-otie-roll" principle, by the provisions of section 7: Every Maori possessed of a £25 freehold, and every half-caste having either the freehold or the residential qualification, may demand to be regis- tered on the roll of electors for European representation; but cannot while so registered vote at elections of Maori members, or become a candidate for a Maori district. By section 9 any registered elector is qualified to stand for a seat in the House of Representatives. But it is expressly declared that women shall not be capable of being nominated as candidates, or of being elected members of the House of Representatives, or of being appointed members of the Legislative Council. Seamen and commercial travellers (section 61) and shearers (" Electoral Laws Amendment Act, 1893," section 3), whose names are entered on the roll for any electoral district, may take out elec- GENERAL ELECTION OP 28th NOVEMBER, 1893. 35 tors' rights enabling them to vote in any part of the colony at the election for that district. They may record their votes—seamen with any Collector of Customs, the others with any Postmaster—at any time between the date of issue of the writ and the hour for closing the polling-booth. Under section 126, the name of every qualified elector who fails to record his vote is to be removed from the roll after the election. The Returning Officer must mark a fair copy of the roll so as to indi- cate every voter who has voted at an election, and must write, where necessary, the words " candidate " or " prohibited from voting." He is then to transmit the roll, so marked, to the Registrar of Electors, who must erase the names of all electors not shown to have voted. But electors whose names have been so removed can at once apply to be replaced on the roll. Maori Representation. "Maori" is by section 148 of the Act defined to mean an aboriginal inhabitant of New Zealand, and to include half-castes and their descendants by Natives. The four Native members are chosen by votes of the Maoris inhabiting the four Maori electoral districts into which the colony is divided, and every Maori of twenty-one years of age and upwards and not specially disqualified is entitled, without registration, to vote as an elector for the district he resides in, provided he (or she) be not registered on any European roll. Every Maori male elector is qualified to be a member of the House of Representatives for any Maori electoral district. THE GENERAL ELECTION OF 28th NOVEMBER, 1893. For European Representatives. For this election 1,440 polling-places were appointed. This num- ber is 418 in excess of the number made use of at the previous elec- tion in the year 1890. A table was given on page 254 of the Year-book of 1894, showing the electoral districts, the number of electors on each roll, the numbers of voters who recorded votes, and the number to be struck off the roll. It will be seen that the total number of electors on the rolls was 302,997. Of these, 193,536 were stated to be men, and 109,461 women. There is no doubt that the number of names of males on the rolls was considerably in excess of the actual fact, for the total adult male population of the colony at the census of 1891 was only 167,762, and an estimate for the date of the election shows this number to have increased only to 180,247. The total number (302,997) must therefore be regarded as too high, owing to repetition of names of persons who had moved s 36 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. from one district to another, and other causes. It was, however, shown in the table that there were 72,376 electors in the contested districts who did not vote, and whose names will since have been struck off the rolls, thereby purging them. The voters who re- corded their votes numbered 220,082. In the case of the four city constituencies each elector had the right of voting for three members. The subjoined table gives the population of each electoral dis- trict as shown by the census, and the number of male and female voters at the election :— Number Population, Number of Voters who recorded Electoral Districts. of Census, Votes. Members. 1891. Men. Womeu. Total. North Island— Bay of Islands .. 8.G81 2,202 «s 3,030 Marsden 8,231 1,937 903 2,900 Waitemata 8,209 2,005 1,126 3,131 Edon .. 9,001 1,950 1,571 3,521 City of Auckland 31,444 6,045 5,283 11,328 Parnell 9,299 1,571 1,095 3,266 Manukau 8,992 1,426 1,377 2,803 Franklin 8,720 1,798 1,481 3,279 Waipa.. 8,240 1,820 1,073 2,893 Waikato 7,880 1,401 840 2,241 Thames 9,247 1,718 1,271 2,989 Bay of Plenty .. 8,283 1,832 1,003 2,835 Waiapu 8,750 2,593 1,312 3,905 Hawke's Bay 8,790 2,600 938 3,598 Napier 10,147 2,048 1,000 3,708 Waipawa 8,805 2,690 1, 299 3,989 New Plymouth .. 9,103 1,947 1,289 3,2-16 Egniont 8,080 1,80? 803 2,670 Patea .. 7,728 1,670 901 2,631 Masterton 9,026 2,552 1,212 3,704 Wairarapa 7,877 2,236 1,313 3,549 Wanganui 9,179 2,050 1,454 3,504 Rangitikei 8,769 2,009 1,355 4,024 Palmerston 9,453 2,244 1,443 3,687 Otaki .. 8,757 1,698 707 2,465 City of Wellington 31,690 7,238 6,146 13,384 Wellington Suburbs 9,005 1,932 1,622 8,554 Totals, North Island 81 281,446 63,799 42,085 105,884 Middle Island— City of Nelson .. 9,452 1,814 1,473 8,287 Buller 8,383 2,137 1,284 3,421 Inangab.ua 7,843 1,965 916 2,881 Waimea-Sounds 7,724 1,368 022 1,990 Wairau 8,892 1,912 1,314 3,226 Grey 9,290 2,252 1,198 3,450 Westland 9,215 • * • Ashley.. 8,390 1 703 1,072 2,835 Kaiapoi 8,562 1,788 1,299 3,087 Avon 9,461 1,747 1,443 3,190 City of Christchurch 31,454 6,313 5,989 12.302 Lyttelton 9,778 1,465 1,324 2,789 Biccarton • No contest. 8,665 1,511 1,417 2,928 ELECTORAL DISTRICTS. 37 Population, Census, 1891. Number of Voters who recorded Votes Men Women. Total. :::::::: Number Electoral Districts. of Members. Middle Island continued. Ellesmere Selwyn Ashburton Rangitata Pareora Timaru Waitaki Oamaru Waihemo Waikouaiti Chalmers City of Dunedin Caversham Taieri .. Bruce .. Tuapeka Clutha Mataura Wakatipu Wallace Invercargill Awarua COPHEHE :::::::::::::::::::::: 1,693 1,432 2,086 1,602 1,800 1,809 1,576 1,685 2,001 1,240 1,805 6,571 1,305 1,607 2,859 2,438 3,466 2,560 2,971 3,421 2,570 3,108 3,268 2,188 8,794 8,160 8,599 7,660 7,728 8,999 7,788 9,419 7,742 7,820 9,793 31,157 9,760 7,781 7,667 7,667 8,696 8,623 8,508 8,223 9,052 8,168 1,166 1,006 1,380 958 1,171 1,612 994 1,423 1,267 948 1,584 6, 306 1,277 1,117 2 – 2,724 :::::::: 1,858 1,942 2,088 1,967 1,935 1,956 1,007 1,168 993 923 906 1,648 2,865 3,110 3,081 2,890 2,841 3,604 E Totals, Middle and Stewart Islands .. 39 344,913 65,993 48,205 114,198 Totals, all Electoral Districts 70 626,359129,792 90,290 220,082 The voters and votes recorded in the four city electorates where the electors had the right of voting for three members are next given, with the full number of votes exercisable, showing that some of the voters avoided voting for more than one or two candidates. Number of Number Number of Number of Number Voters who Electors on Votes of Votes Members recorded Roll. Votes. recorded. exercisable. Auckland 16,788 11,328 30,584 33,984 Wellington 16,497 13,384 36,102 40,152 Christchurch .. 14,612 12,302 32,715 36,906 Dunedin 16,936 12,877 34,584 38,631 City. of on .. low coco Totals .. 64,833 49,891 133,985 149,673 The next table shows the total number of women on the rolls to have been i09,461 out of an estimated adult female population of 139,915: the proportion of women who registered as electors is thus found to be 78.23 per cent. The nuunber who voted was 90,290, being the high percentage of 85.18 of the number on the rolls, excluding the districts in which there was no contest. * No contest. 38 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Women on Bolls, and Number who voted. Electoral Districts. Bay of Islands Marsden Waitemata Eden .. City of Auckland Parnell Manukau Franklin Waipa Waikato Thames Bay of Plenty Waiapu Hawke's Bay Napier Waipawa Masterton Wairarapa New Plymouth Kgmont Patea .. Wanganui Rangitikei Palmers ton Otaki .. Citv of Wellington 7,280 Wellington Suburbsl,860 City of Nelson .. 1,629 Waimea-Sounds 740 Wairau Buller Inangahua Number of Women on Rolls. 1,051 1,267 1,335 1,777 6,660 1,925 1,679 1,679 1,306 987 1,387 1,172 1,437 1,278 1,849 1,482 1,458 1, 503 1,460 1,126 1,600 1,548 1,702 964 1,428 1, 431 998 Number of Women who voted. 828 963 1,126 1,571 5,283 1,695 1,377 1,481 1,073 840 1,271 1,003 1,312 938 1,600 1,299 1,212 1,318 1,289 803 961 1,454 1,355 1,443 767 6,146 1,622 1,473 622 1,314 1,284 91G Electoral Districts. Number of Women on Rolls. Number of Women who voted. Grey .. . 1,376 1,198 Westland . 1,278 * Ashley . 1,263 1,072 Kaiapoi . 1,420 1, 299 Avon .. . 1,732 1,443 CityofChristch'ch 6,710 5,989 Lyttelton . 1,581 1,324 Riccarton . 1,634 1,417 Ellesmere . 1,373 1,166 Selwyn . 1,207 1,006 Ashburton . 1,573 1,380 Rangitata . 1,119 958 Pareora . 1,277 1,171 Timaru . 1,804 1,612 Waitaki . 1,227 994 Oamaru . 1,638 1,423 Waihemo . 1,357 1,267 Waikouaiti . 1,291 948 Chalmers . 1,818 1,584 City of Duuedin 7,644 6,30C> Caversham . 1,552 1,277 Taieri.. . 1,356 1,117 Bruce .. . 1,200 * Tuapeka . 1,115 1,007 Clutha . 1,353 1,168 Mataura . 1,348 993 Wakatipu . 1,142 <.m Wallace . 1,186 900 Invercargill . 1,968 1,648 Awarua 979 • Totals 109,461 90,290 A feature of the election was the orderliness and sobriety of the people. Women were in no way molested. In many places can- vassing was carried on by the women electors with considerable energy. The Election for Maori Members.—Polling-day, 20th December, 1893. Out of a total Maori population amounting to 41,993 persons (the census figures are used), 11,269 voted at the general election. This number includes persons of both sexes. At the election of 1890, when women did not possess the franchise, 7,086 males gave their votes, the population being then about the same as it was in 1893. Of the four districts into which the colony is divided, the voting was highest in proportion to population in the Eastern, and lowest in the Western District. • No contest. OFFICIAL LIST. 39 Per cent. of Population at all Ages. Electoral Districts. Number who voted. North Island Northern Maori Electoral District .. 1,674 Eastern Maori 6,305 Western Maori 2,741 South Island- Southern Maori , .. 549 18.66 43.66 16.75 24.75 MDN OFFICIAL LIST. (June, 1895.] CIVIL ESTABLISHMENT AT SEAT / REGISTRAR-GENERAL'S OFFICE. OF GOVERNMENT. Registrar-General E. J. Von Dadelszen PREMIER'S OFFICE. Chief Clerk-G. Drury Premier--Hon. R. J. Seddon Clerks--- W. C. Sproule, F. H. Machattie, Secretary to Premier and to Cabinet- E. F. Norris, S. Coffey A. J. Willis Cadet-W. W. Cook. Shorthand- and Type-writer-J. Gray PRINTING AND STATIONERY DEPART. MENT. Government Printer, Stationery Office COLONIAL SECRETARY'S DE- Munuger, and Controller of Stamp PARTMENT. Printing-S. Costall CHIEF OFFICE. Superintending Overseer-J. Burns Colonial Secretary-Hon. Sir P. A. Buck- Chief Clerk and Accountant-B. B. Allen ley, K.C.M.G. Clerk and Computer-B. K. Manley Under-Secretary-Hugh Pollen Clerks — F. Barraud, J. W. Hail, R. Chief Clerk--R. H. Govelt Watts, A. Stace, A. Williams Clerks-R. F. Lynch, J. F. Andrews, Cadet-R. A. Gray L. W. Loveday Overseers--J. J. Gavible, B. Wilson Housekeeper and Chief Messenger-W. Sub-overseer, Jobbing-room-G. Tattle H. Hennah. Overseer, Machine-room-C. Young Overseer, Binding Branch--W. Franklin AUDIT OFFICE. Sub-overseer, Binding Branch — G. H. Controller and Auditor-General-J. E.; Broat FitzGerald, C.M.G. Night Foreman J. F. Rogers Assistant Controller and Auditor-J. C. Stamp Printer--H. Hume Gavin Stereotyper and Electrotyper - W. J. Chief Clerk-J.G. Anderson Kirk Clerks-L. C. Roskruge, W. Dodd, H. Readers--J. W. Henley, W. Fuller, M. S. Pollen, W. G. Holdsworth, E. J. F. Murks, H. S. Mountier A. Stevenson, C. M. Georgeson, A. W. Forewoman, Binding Branch -- Miss Eames, B. A. Meek Marsden Extra Clerks-D. C. Innes, J. Swift, A. Engineer- E. Bybles, J. Ward, A. A. Bethune, W.H. Carlyle. COLONIAL TREASURER'S DE. Audit Officer, Agent-General's Office, London-C. F. W. Palliser PARTMENT. Audit Travelling Inspectors - P. P. CHIEF OFFICE. Webb, A. H. Maclean, J. King, W. Colonial Treasurer-Hon. J. G. Ward 7 R. Holmes, E. T. Greville, G. H. I. Secretary to the Treasury, Beceiver- Easton, J. M. Glasgow, C. P. Johnson, General, and Paymaster-General J.T. Dumbell. James B. Heywood 40 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL TEAB-BOOK. Accountant to the Treasury—Robert J. Collins Cashier—C. E. Chittey Corresponding Clerk—H. Blundell Private Secretary and Shorthand-writer to Colonial Treasurer—F. Hyde Clerks—C. Meaeham, R. B. Vincent, W. E. Cooper, J. Driscoll, J. R. Duncan, E. L. Mowbray, A. O. Gibbes, T. H. Burnett, J. Radcliffe, J. Holmes, H. N. W. Church, J. Eman Smith, A. J. Morgan, T. J. Davis, F. H. Tuckey, C. E. Matthews, H. Hawthorne Cadets—W. Jeff, W. Wilson, F. Danes Officer for Payment of Imperial Pensions at Auckland—B. J. Devaney Friendly Societies' and Tbades Unions' Registry Office j also Office of the Registrar cndeb the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. Registrar—E. Mason Revising Barrister for Friendly Societies and Trades Unions—L. G. Reid Clerk—C. T. Benzoni DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE. Minister—Hon. J. G. Ward Clerk—A. If. Smith LAND AND INCOME TAX DE- PARTMENT. Commissioner of Taxes—J. McGowan Deputy Commissioner of Taxes—G. F. C. Campbell Chief Clerk—F. J. M. D. Walmsiey Accountant—P. Heyes Clerks—G. Maxwell, H. Nancnrrow, A. ,r. McGowan, J. P. Dugdale, J. M. King, D. R. Purdie, A. F. Oswin, G. W. Janisch, J. Stevenson, C. V. Kreeft, J. W. Black, H. H. Seed, D. G. Clark. T. Oswin, J. R. Smyth, H. L. Wig- Kins Cadets— W. J. Organ, R. Hepworth, J.J. Hunt, C. de K. Andrews, M. J. Croni- bie, W. A. Tanner DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE. Head Office. Minister of Justice—Hon. W. P. Reeves Under-Secretary—C.J. A. Haselden, J.P. Chief Clerk—F. Waldegrave Translator—G. H. Daries Clerks—C. B. Jordan, K. C. Sim, B. M. Wilson, R. Hirter Cbown Law Office. Attorney - General — Hon. Sir P. A. Buckley, K.C.M.G. Solicitor-General—W. S. Reid Assistant Law Officer—L. G. Reid Law Draftsman — F. Fitchett, M.A., LL.D. Clerk—E. Y. Redward Patent Office. Registrar of Patents, Designs, and Trade- marks—C. J. A. Haselden, J.P. Deputy Registrar—F. Waldegrave Clerks—J. C. Lewis, F. J. Stewart Judicial. Supreme Court Judges. Cihef Justice— Wellington—Sir J. Prendergasl, Knt. Puisne Judges— Wellington—C. W. Richmond Auckland—E. T. Conolly Christchurcli—J. E Deuniston Dunediu—J. S. Williams District Court Judges. Wairarapa, Wanganui, New Plymouth, llawera, and Palmerston North—C. C. Kettle Nelson—H. W. Robinson Ashburton, Timaru, Oamaru, Queens- town, Xasehy, Lawrence, Invercargill, Hokitika, Greymouth, Westport, and Reefton—C. D. R. Ward Registrars of the Supreme Court. Auckland—H. C. Brewer New Plymouth—W. Stuart Wanganui—C. C. Kettle Napier—A. Turnbull Gisborne—W A. Barton Wellington—D. G. A. Cooper Nelson—H. W. Robinson Blenheim—J. Allen Christchurcli—A. R. Bloxam Hokitika—A. H. King Dunedin—C. McK. Gordon Invercargill—F. G. Morgan Sheriffs, Auckland—H. C. Brewer Taranaki—W. G. P. O'Callaghan liawke's Bay—A. Turnbull Poverty Bay—W. A. Barton OFFICIAL LIST. 41 Wellington-D. G. A. Cooper | Nelson, &c.—H. W. Robinson, Wilson Wairara pa-T. Hutchison Heaps Wanganui and Rangitikei-A. D. Thom. Westport, Collingwood, &c.-A. Green- son field* Nelson-W. Heaps Blenheim, &c.-J. Allen* Westland North-A. Greenfield Christchurch, &c.-R. Beetham Central Westland-H. Lucas Kaiapoi, &c.-H. W. Bishop Marlborough-J. B. Stoney Timaru, &c.—C. A. Wray Canterbury-A. R. Bloxam Greymouth, &c.-H. A. Stratford* Timaru-C, A. Wray Hokitika, &c.-D. Macfarlane Westland-A. H. King Dunedin, &c.—E. H. Carew Otago--C. McK. Gordon Oamaru, &c.-J. Keddell* Southland-W. Martin Milton, &c.—R. S. Hawkins* Clyde, &c.— C. E. Rawson Crown Solicitors. Naseby-S. M. Dalgleish* Auckland-Hon. J. A. Tole Invercargill, &u.-J. W. Poynton* New Plymouth-A. Standish Chatham Islands-F. J. W. Gascoyne Gisborne-J. W. Nolan Napier-A. J. Cotterill Official Assignees in Bankruptcy. Wellington-H. Gully Auckland-J. Lawson, J.P. Wanganui-S. T. Fitzherbert Wellington--J. Ashcroft, J.P. Nelson-C. Y. Fell Christchurch-G. L. Greenwood Blenheim-R. McCallum Dunedin-C. C. Graham, J.P. Christchurch-T. W. Stringer Timaru-J. W. White Clerks of District and Magistrates' Hokitika- Courts. Dunedin-- B. C. Haggitt New Plymouth-W. G. P. O'Callaghan Invercargill-T. M. Macdonald Hawera --A. Trimble Oamaru— A. G. Creagh Wanganui - A. D. Thomson Palmerston North-W. Matravers Crown Prosecutors (District Courts). Masterton-F. H. Ibbetson New Plymouth-A. Standish Nelson-C. H. Webb-Bowen Hawera-E L. Barton Hokitika-C. A. Barton Wanganui and Palmerston North-S. T. Greymouth-B. Harper Fitzherbert Westport-E. C. Kelling Westport and Reefton--C. E. Harden Reefton-H. Lucas Hokitika-J. Park Timaru-T. Howley Greymouth-M. Hannan Ashburton-J. R. Colyer Timaru-J. W. White Oamaru-W. G Filleul Oanaru- 1. G. Creagh Invercargill-W. Martin Nelson-C. Y. Fell Queenstown—H. N Firth Queenstown-Wesley Turton Lawrence-H. J. Abel Invercargill—T. M. Macdonald Naseby- E. Rawson Stipendiary Magistrates. Receivers of Gold Revenue, Mining Auckland--H. W. Northcroft Registrars, and Clerks of Wardens' Pokeno, Waikato, &c.—T. Jackson and Magistrates' Courts. Onehunga, &c.-R. S. Bush* Thames-E. W. Porritt Russell, &c.-J. S. Clendon Coromandel-T. M. Lawlor Tauranga, &c.-J. M. Roberts Te Aroha-J. Jordan Thames, &c.-H. E. Kenny Whangarei-T. W. Tavler Gisborne, &c.-J. Booth Havelock and Cullensville (Marlborough) New Plymouth, &c.-W. Stuart -T. A. Moresby Hawera, &c.-H. W. Brabant Nelson-C. H. Webb-Bowen Wanganui, &c --C. C. Kettle Motueka-H. E. Gilbert Palmerston North, &c.-R. L. Stanford Collingwood-S. J. Dew Wellington, &c.-J. C. Martin Westport-E. C. Kelling Wairarapa, &c.—T. Hutchison Xapier, &c.-A. Turnbull • Are also Wardens of Goldfields, 4-2 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Charleston—John Bird Reefton—II. Lucas Greymouth—B. Harper Kumara—J. McEnni? Hokitika—C. A. Barton Naseby, &c.—E Rawson Wyndham—D. Bogue Clyde, Blacks, and Alexandra—F. T. D. Jeffrey Cromwell—J. Fleming Queenstown and Arrowtown — H. N. Firth Lawrence—II. J. Ahel Riverton — A. M. Eyes Clerks of Magistrates' Courts. Auckland—F. J. Burgees Tauranga—J. Thomson Gisborne—W. A. Barton Hamilton—T. Kirk Napier—A. S. B. Foster Hastings—P. Skerrett Marlon, &c.—F. M. Deigliton Wellington —W. P. James Blenheim—J. B. Stoney Christchurcli— W. G. Walker Lyttelton—W. Slianaghan Kaiapoi—M. Lynskey Dunedin—W. Somerville Native Land Court. Chief Judge—G. B. Davy Judges—A. Mackay, D. Scanuell, R. Ward, W. E. Gudgeon, W. J. Butler, H. F. Edger, W. G. Mair, L. O'Brien, J. A. Wilson, H. W. Brabant Registrars — Auckland, J. VV. Browne; Gisborne. J. Brooking; Wellington, H. D. Johnson Commissioners of the Native Land Court. R. S. Bush, J. Booth, A. Turnbull, J. S. Clendou. T. Jackson, C. C. Kettle, J. M. Roberts. VV. Stuart, II. W. Bishop. E. II. Carew, F. J. W. Gas- covne. H. E. Kenny Government Native Agent, Otorobanga —G. T. Wilkinson- Validation Copht. Judge-G. E. Barton Registrar and Clerk -H. C Jackson Coroners. Coroners-Auckland, T. M. Ph.lson, H VV Northcroft, R. 8. Bush, E. Baker • Akaroa, G. H Saxton; Blen- heim J- Allen; Christchurch, R. Beetlmm and H. W. Bishop; Clyde. C. E. Rawson; Collingwood, E. Davidson; Coromandel, A. R. H. Swindley; Dunedin. E. H. Uarew; Foxton. E. S. Thynne; Gisborne, J. Booth; Greymoiith, H. A. Stratford; Hamilton; VV. N. Searancke; Hawera, C. E. Major; Hokitika, D. Mac- farlane and K. W. Wade; Invercnr- gill, J. W. Poynton; Lawrence, R. S. Hawkins; Malturangi, M. Angove; Morton, A. Simpson; Masterton, T. Hutchison; Napier, A. Turnbull; Naseby, S. M. Dalgleish; Nelson, O. Curtis, H. W. Robinson, VV. Gibbs, and L. G. Boor; New Plymouth, W. Stuart; Oamaru, J. Keddell; Ohine- muri, J. N. E. Kenny; Opotiki, S. Bates; Otahuhu, S." Luke; Otaki, W. H. Simeox; Palmerston North. J. Linton; Pokeno, T. Jackson; Port Albert, J. Shepherd; Pahi, VV. VV. Ariell; Queenstown, L. Hotop; Rag- lan, W. H. VVallis; Southbridge, R. B. Willis; Tauranga, A. C. H. lovey and J. M. Roberts; Te Awamutu, T. Gresham; Timaru, C. A. Wray; Te Kopuru, T. Webb; Thames, C. Hasel- den, A. Bruce, and H. E. Kenny; Waimate, E. M. Williams; Waipawa, S. Johnson; Wellington, J. Ashcroft and J. 0. Martin; Westport, A. Greenlield; Wangunui, H. VV. Bra- bint and C C Kettle; Whungarei, J. Bell; VVoodville, E. J. Gothard: Chatham Islands, F. J. VV. Gasooyue. PRISONS DEPARTMENT. Inspector—Lieut -Colonel Arthur Hume N.Z.M. Clerk—T. E. Richardson Gaolers — Auckland, George Sinclnir Reston; Dunedin, Samuel Charles Phillips; Hokitika,Bartholomew Llovd O'Brien; Iuvereargill, John Heti'rv Brat by j Lyttelton, Matthew Michael Clearv; Napier. Francis Edward Severne; New Plymouth, Edward Rickerby; Wanganui, Robert T. Noble Beasley; Wellington, Patrick Samuel »arvey; Nelson, Thomas R. Pointon DEPARTMENT OF LABOUR I Minister of Labour—Hon. VV P Reeves Secretary for Labour and Chief In- spector of Factories-E. Tregear Chief Clerk—James Mackav OFFICIAL LIST. 43 Record Clerk—V. L Willeston Cadet—F. W. T. Rowley (Ttiere are over 20n Bureau Agencies in different parte of the colony.) Inspectors of Factories. Wellington—J. Mackay. J. Shanagban; Christchurch—J. Loinns; Auckland— H. Ferguson; Dunedin—H. Maxwell; and 137 local Inspectors. PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT. Head Opficb. Minister for Public Works—Hon. R. J. Seddon Under-Secretarj—H. J. H. Blow Engineer-in-Chief—W. H. Hales Resident Engineer (Head Office)—P. S. Hav, M.A., M.Inst..C.E. Chief'Clerk—J. A. McArthur Accountant—Q. J. Claphnm Land-purchaae Officer—H. Thompson Record Clerk—H. W. H. Millais Clerks—W. D. Dumbell, L. F. Tegner, H. R. Rae, J. Williams, N. Jacobs, E. Horneman, F. E. Banks Chief Draughtsman—W. O. Rutherford Architectural Draughtsman—.1. Campbell Draughtsmen—T. Perham, E. Jackson, W. Withers, W. G. Swan Engineering Cadet—J. Meenan District Offices. District Engineer—Dunedin, E. R. Cssber, M.Inst.CE. Resident Engineers — Auckland, C. R. Tickerman; Hunterville, W. A. 8hain; Wellington, J. A. Wilson, jun. ; West- port, T. H. Rawson; Greymouth, J. Thomson, B.E.; Hyde, G. L. Cook, M.Inst.CE. In charge of North Island Main Trunk Railway survey, R. W. Holmes Assistant Engineers—J. D. Louch, A. C. Koch, H. Macandrew, F. M. Hewson, J. J. Hay, M.A., W. H. Gavin, J. W. Richmond, J. S. Stewart Engineering Cadets—J. H. Lewis, H. Dickson, J. E. W. McEnnis, F. W. Furkert, A. Jack Clerks, Draughtsmen, ic.—W. Black, C. T. Rushbrook, C. Wood, J. Young, F. G. Ince, A. Biddell, W. W. Spots- wood, T. Douglas, J. H. Denton, E. C. Fair, A. R. Stone, E. Waddell, P. S. Waldie Inspection of Machinery Branch. Inspectors of Machinery and Engineer Surveyors of Steamers — Chief Inspec- tor and Principal Engineer Surveyor, W. M. Mowatt; Auckland, W. J. Jobson, L. Blackwood; Wellington, H. A. McGregor, P. J. Carman; Christchurch, G. Croll; Dunedin, R. Duncan, A. Morrison Clerk-R. P. Milne Cadet —B. Anderson RAILWAY DEPARTMENT. Minister for Railways—Hon. A. J. Cad- man Under-Secretary—H. J. H. Blow General Manager—T. Ronayne Assistant General Manager—C. Hudson Chief Clerk -T. W. Waite Clerks—R. W. McVilly, C. Isherwood, E. J. Andrews, L. C. E. Hamann, J. E. Widdop, W. H. Giflbrd, W. S. W. McGowan, H. D. Dansey Audit Inspectors — C. Wallnutt, D. Munro, C. L. Russell Railway Accountant—A. C. Fife Clerks—H. Davidson. G. G. Wilson, M. C. Rowe, J. H. Davies, S. P. Curtis, J. McLean, E. Davy, A. Morris, R. Allen, V. Jiinisch, E. P. Brogan, W. B. Fisher, J. Filth, E. J. Fleming, E. R. Nicholson, R. J. Loe, F. W. Lash, A. H. Hunt, W. Bourke, W. H. Hales, W. E. Ahem Stores Manager—G. Felton Clerks—A. M. Heaton, R. E. Mackav, J. Webster, J. E. Haslooh, S. Alpe, H. W. Barbor, W. Bushill, E. J. Maguiness District Managers — Whangarei, H. B. Dobbie; Knwnkawa, J. D. Harris; Kaihu, T. II. Barstow; Auckland, A. Giant; Wanganui, H. Buxton; Napier, E. G. Pilcher; Wellington, T. E. Donne; Greymouth, D. T. Mc- intosh; Westport, T. A. Peterkin; Nelson, II. St. J. Christophers; Christchurch, W. H. Gaw; Dunedin, T. Arthur; Invercargill, S. F. Whit- combe; Pieton, A. Duncan (Station- master in charge) Chief Engineer for Working Railwavs— J. H. Lowe, M.Inst.CE. Assistant Engineer—F. W. MacLean Land Officer —E. G. H. Mainwnring Chief Draughtsman—G. A. Troup 44 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Draughtsmen—J. A. Henderson, J. Besant. C. T. Jeffreys, T. McFarlane, F. C. Widdop Clerks —W. P. Hicks, G. McCartney, W. 8. Ridler, J. T. Ford, W. A. Mirams, H. Jessup, H. W. Rowden Resident. Engineers — Auckland, A. V. Macdonald; Napier-Taranaki, J. I. Lawson; Christohurcli, James Bur- nett; Dunedin, J. Coom; Invercar- gill, C. H. Biss (Assistant Engineer) Locomotive Superintendent—T. V. Ro- t.heram Clerks— B. Triggs, W. H. Butterworth, J. White, F. T. Murison, C. G. Ed- wards, W. B. Sinclair, J. Rumgay Chief Draughtsman—G A. Pearson Draughtsmen — R. Pve-Smith, E. E. Gillon Locomotive Engineer—H. H. Jackson Locomotive Managers—Auckland, J. H. Fox; Wanganui, A. L. Beuttie POST OFFICE AND TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENT. General Post Office. Postmaster-General and Commissioner of Electric Telegraphs—Hon. J. G. Ward Secretary—W. Gray Superintendent of Electric Lines—J. K. Logan Assistant Secretary and Inspector—T. Rose Controller of Money-orders and Savings- banks, and Accountant—G. Gray Assistant Inspector of Post Offices—- Sub-Inspectors of Post Offices—D. Cum- ming, C. J. A. Tipping Chief Clerk—D Robertson Clerks—W. R. Morris, E. V. Senn, F. V. Waters, H. Plin.mer, J. C. Wil- liamson, W. Beswick, G. Cenci, L. Ledger, V. J. Brogan, W. Callnghan, G. W. Moorhouse, W. Chegwidden, II. S. B. Miller. II Hoggins, G. V. Hudson, F. Perrin, H. 1). Grocott, J. Brennan, H. Cornwall, R. J. Thomp- son, R. E. Hates, D. A. Jenkins, E. Fitzsinions, H. N. McLeod, J. C Redmond, C. B. Harton, W. J. Drake, R. F. Smith, J. D. Averv, H. E. Duff, J. G. Roache, J. Covle.'F. W. Faber, W. H. Carter, J.'J. Murray, P. Tyrrell, A. T. Markmann, E. Ber- mingham, C. Bermingham, S. Brock, W. Menzies, F. Menzies, E. Harris, B. Kenny, V. Johnston, M. A. McLeod Electrician—W. C. Smythe Mechanician—H. F. Smith Assistant Mechaniciau—A. W. M&can- drew Storekeeper—J. Black Assistant Storekeeper—C. B. Mann Cadet—C. Nicholls Circulation Branch (Post Office)—J. Hoggard, Chief Clerk Inspectors of Telegraphs. Auckland—E. H. Bold Christchurch—W. G. Meddings Dunedin—J. Orchiston Sub-Inspector of Telegraphs. Nelson—J. W. Gannaway Chief Postmasters. Auckland—S. B. Biss •Thames—.T. E. Coney •Gisborne—W. W. Beswick Napier—S. J. Jngo •New Plymouth—F. D. Holdsworth •Wanganui—J. F. McBeth •Blenheim—J. G. Ballard •Nelson—H. Calders •Westport—J. H. Sheath •Greymouth—C. J. Berry •Hokitika—A. E. Cresswell Christchurch—R. Kirton •Timaru—R. J. Goodman •Oamaru — J. A. Hutlon Dunedin—E. Cook •Invercargill—J. WT. Wilkin Officers in Charoe of Telegraph Offices. Auckland—W. S Furby Napier—H. W. Harrington Wellington—C. C. Robertson Christchurch—J. W. Mason Dunedin — A. D. Lubecki DEPARTMENT OF TRADE AND CUSTOMS. Commissioner of Trade and Customs— Hon. J. G. Ward Secretary and Inspector of Customs and Secretary of Marine—W. T. Glasgow Chief Clerk—T. Larchin Clerks, Customs—H. J. Marsh, G. Craig. Audit—H. W. Brewer, H. Crowther (Writer) "These are combined post- aud telegraph- offices. OFFICIAL LIST. 45 COLLECTORS OF CUSTOMS. | Engineer Surveyors and Examiners of En. Auckland-A. Rose gineers, Wellington-W. M. Mowatt Poverty Bay-E. Pasley (Principal), H. A. McGregor, and P. New Plymouth-0. S. Nixon Carman Napier-E. R. C. Bowen Engineer Surveyor and Examiner of En- Wellington-D. McKellar gineers, Christchurch-G. Croll Wangapui-A. Elliott Evgineer Surveyors and Examiners of Wairau-A. Carter Engineers, Dunedin-R. Duncan and Nelson-W. Heaps A. Morrison Westport-J. Mills Master of 8.8. “Hinemoa”—J. Fairchild Greymouth- A. McDowell INSPECTORS OF SEA FISHERIES. Russell-H. Stephenson Lyttelton and Christchurch-E. Patten Whangarei–J. Munro Timaru-A. Hart Wellington-F. Moorhouse Oamaru-R. Thompson Hokitika–J. Duncan Dunedin-C. W. S. Chamberlain Invercargill and Bluff Harbour - D. HARBOURMASTERS.* Johnston, jun. Collingwood—J. E. Fletcher Foxton-A. Seabury OFFICERS IN CHARGE OF PORTS, AND Hokianga-G. Martin COASTWAITERS. Russell--H. Stephenson Thames—T. C. Bayldon, Coastwaiter Kaipara–J. Christy Smith Russell-H. Stephenson, Coastwaiter Manukau-J. Robertson Tauranga–J. Bull, Officer in Charge Nelson-J. P. Low Whangaroa—A. G. Ratcliffe, Coast waiter Okarito-G. Thomson Whangarei-J. Munro, Coastwaiter Picton-A. Duncan Mongonui — A. D. Clemett, Officer in Port Robinson-J. Sinclair Charge Waitapu-S. G. Robinson Hokianga-G. Martin, Coastwaiter Kaipara-J.C. Smith, Officer in Charge Waitara--J. Cameron, Coast waiter STAMP DEPARTMENT. Forton-J. B. Imrie, Officer in Charge Commissioner of Stamp Duties--Hon. Patea–J. W. Glenny, Officer in Charge W. P. Reeves Picton-J. B. Gudgeoni, Officer in Charge Secretary for Stamps-C.A. St.G. Hickson Chatham Islands-F. J. W. Gascoyne, Chief Clerk and Accountant - H. O. Officer in Charge Williams Custodian and Issuer of Stamps-W. H. Shore MARINE DEPARTMENT. Record and Receiving Clerk — J. P. Murphy Minister of Marine-Hon. J. G. Ward Clerk-J. Murray Secretary-W.T. Glasgow Chief Stamper-C. Howe Chief Clerk-G. Allport Clerk--J.J. D. Grix DEPUTY COMMISSIONERS OF STAMPS. Cadet-G. Sinclair Auckland-Thomas Hall Nautical Adviser and Chief Examiner of Gisborne-W. W. Beswick Masters and Mates-G. Allman Taranaki-W. Stuart Examiners of Masters and Mates-R. A. Hawke's Bay-G. G. Bridges Edwin, Com. R.N. Wellington-C. A. St. G. Hickson Weather Reporter-R. A. Edwin, Com. Wanganui - J. F. McBeth R.N. Nelson-W. W. de Castro Examiners of Masters and Mates, Auck Marlborough-A. V. Sturtevant land-T. C. Tilly and J. Robertson | Canterbury-E. Denham Examiner of Masters and Mates, Timaru-Å. J. Goodman Lyttelton- Otago-P. C. Corliss Examiner of Masters and Mates, Dun. Southland-F. G. Morgan edin-W. J. Grey Westland-A. H. King Engineer Surveyors and Examiners of * The more important barbours are controlled Engineers, Auckland-W. J. Jobson by local Boards, not by the Marine Department. and L. Blackwood (See " Ports and Harbourg.") 46 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. LAND TRANSFER DEPARTMENT AND DEEDS REGISTRY. Registrar-General of Land and Deeds— G. B. Davy Secretary, Land and Deeds—C. A. St. G. Hickson District Land Registrars and Registrars of Dkkds. Auckland—E. Bamford Taranaki—W. Stuart Wellington—G. B. Davy Hawke's Bay—G. G. Bridges Nelson—H. W. Robinson Marlborough—J. Allen Canterbury — J. M. Butliain and E. Deuhani Otago—H. Turton Southland—F. G. Morgan Westland—A. H. King Examiners op Titles. Auckland—Thomas Hall Taranaki—W. Stuart Wellington—G. B. Davy, H. Howorth Hawke's Bay—G. G. Bridges Nelson—H. W. Robinson Marlborough—G. B. Davy Canterbury—J. M. Buthaui Otago—H. Turton Southland—F. G. Morgan Westland—A. H. King Registrar or Joint-stock Companies. C A. St. G. Hickson Assistant Registrars of Joint stock Companies. Auckland—Thomas Hall Taranaki—W. Stuart Hawke's Bay—G. G. Bridges Wellington—H. O. Williams Nelson—W. W. de Castro Marlborough—A. V. Sturtevant Canterbury—E. Denham Otago—P. C. Corliss Southland—F. G. Morgan Westland—A. H. King EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. Minister of Education (administering also Native schools, industrial schools, and the institution for deaf-mutes)—Hon. W. P. Reeves Secretary for Education and Inspector- General of Schools — Rev. W. J. Habens, B.A. Chief Clerk—Sir E. O. Gibbes, Bart. Clerks—F. K. de Castro. H. B. Kirk, M.A.. R, H. Pope, F. L. Severne, E.C. Banks, F. D. Thomson Organizing Inspector of Native Schools— James H. Pope. Assistant Inspector, H. B. Kirk, M.A. Education Boards. Auckland—V. E. Rice, Secretary Taranaki—E. Veale. Secretary Wanganui—A. A. Browne, Secretary Wellington—A. Dorset, Secretary Hawke's Bay—G. T. Fannin, Secretary Marlborough—I. Smith, Secretary Nelson—S. Ellis, Secretary Grey—W. Riemenschneider, Secretary Westland— A. J. Morton, B.A., Secretary Canterbury North—J. V. Colborne-Veel, M.A., Secretary Canterbury South — J. H. Bamfield, Secretary Otago—P. G. Pryde, Secretary Southland—J. Neill, Secretary School Commissioners (Administrators of Education Reserves). Auckland—H. N. Garland, Secretary Taranaki—E. Veale, Secretary Wellington—W. H. Warren, Secretary Hawke's Bay—E. P. A. Platford, Secre- tary Marlborough—J. Smith, Secretary Nelson—A. T. Jones, Secretary Westland—A. J. Morton, Secretary Canterbury—H. H. Pitman, Steward of Reserves Otago—C. Macandrew, Secretary Industrial Schools. Auckland Industrial School—Mibs S. E. Jackson, Manager St. Mary's Industrial School, Ponsonby —Rev. G. M. Lenihan, Manager St. Joseph's Industrial School, Welling- ton—Rev. T. G. Dawson, Manager St. Mary's Industrial School, Nelson— Rev. W. J. Mahoney, Manager Burnham Industrial School (Canterbury) —T. Palethorpe, Manager Caversham Industrial School (Otago)— G. M. Burlinson, Manager Institution for Deaf-mutes, Sumner. Director—G. Van Asch Steward—H. Buttle OFFICIAL LIST. 47 LUNATIC ASYLUMS. 1 Denniston; and William Shore, of Inspector - Duncan MacGregor, M.A., Kaitangata I.B., C.M. BOARD OF EXAMINERS UNDER “THE Deputy Inspector-Mrs. Grace Nel MINING ACT, 1891." Medical Superintendent, Auckland Asy- lum-Gray Hassell, M. D. Same official members as above Board, Medical Superintendent, Christchurch with the following private members: Thomas Dunlop, of Thames ; Patrick Asylum-E. G. Levinge, M.B. Medical Superintendent, Wellington Quirk Caples, of Reefton; George Asylum-E. E. Fooks, M.B. Casley, of Reefton Medical Superintendent, Porirua Asylum The Director of the Geological Survey - Thomas Burns, L.R.C.P., &c. of New Zealand is Chairman of both Medical Superintendent, Seacliff Asylum Boards. -F. Truby King, M.B. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, MUSEUM, AND Superintendent, Hokitika Asylum -- H. OBSERVATORIES. Gribben Minister in Charge-The Hon. Minister Superintendent, Nelson Asylum--J. Mor- of Mines rison Ashburn Hall, Waikari (private asylum) Director — Sir J. Hector, K.C.M.G., | M.D., F.R.S. - Joint proprietors, Dr. Alexander and Clerk, Curator, and Meteorological Ob- J. Hume server for Wellington-R. B. Gore Astronomical Observer--T. King MINES DEPARTMENT. Meteorological Observer, Auckland–T. 1 F. Cheeseman, F.L.S. CHIEF OFFICE. | Meteorological Observer, Dunedin - H. Minister of Mines-Hon. A. J. Cadman Skey Cnder-Secretary for Mines-H. J. H. Meteorological Observer, New Plymouth Eliott -E. Veale Inspecting Engineer-H. A. Gordon Meteorological Observer, Hokitika-A. Chief Clerk-T. H. Hamer D. Macfarlane Clerks-- T. S. M. Cowie, H. E. Radcliffe Analyst--W. Skey NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Assistant Geologist--Alexander McKay, Manager-Sir J. Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.G.S. F.R.S. Draughtsman-C. H. Pierard Hon. Treasurer -- W. T. L. Travers, F.L.S. INSPECTORS OF MINES. Secretary-R. B. Gore Thames and Aucklund Districts - G. Wilson; Canterbury, Dunedin, and Southland Districts-J. Gow; West DEFENCE DEPARTMENT. Coast Districts, N. D. Cochrane Minister of Defence-Hon. R. J. Seddon MANAGERS OF WATER-RACES. Military Adviser and Inspector of the Waimea-Kumara--A, Aitken N.Z. Forces - Colonel F. J. Fox, Mount Ida-R. Murray N.Z.M., late Major, R.A. Under-Secretary-Major Sir A. P. Doug- Scho018 OF MINES. las, Burt. Lecturers and Instructors : Thames -- Chief Clerk-H. Stratton Royle James Park; Assistant, F. B. Allen. Clerk-T. F. Grey Reefton-R. M. Aitken HARBOUR DEFENCE. BOARD OF EXAMINERS UNDER “THE | Chief Engineer-W. H. Hales COAL-MINES ACT, 1891.". New ZEALAND PERMANENT Militia. The Director of the Geological Survey of New Zealand ; the Surveyor-General ; Artillery. the Inspecting Engineer of Mines; Major F. Y. Goring W. M. Mowatt, Chief Inspector of Major W. B. Messenger Maebinery, Wellington; James Bishop, Major Sir A. P. Douglas, Bart. of Brunnerton; Thomas Brown, of Captain H. C. Morrison NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Captain J. Coleman DEPARTMENT OF LANDS AND Lieutenant J. E. Hume SURVEY. Minister of Lands and Immigration- Inspector of Submarine Mining Hon. J. McKenzie Establishment. Secretary for Crown Lands and Surveyor. Captain J. Falconer General—S. Percy Smith Torpedo Corps. Under-Secretary for Crown Lands and Captain J. Falconer Superintending Surveyor – Alexander Captain W. T. Powell Barron HEAD OFFICE. Quartermaster, Permanent Militia. Chief Draughtsman-E. W. Flanagan Captain S. C. Anderson Road Surveyors-C. W. Hursthouse (Te Kuiti), G. T. Murray (Wanganui), R. Surgeon, Permanent Militia H. Reaney (Pabiatua) (Wellington). Auditor of Land Revenue – C. O'H. John Teare, M.B. Smith Surgeon, Permanent Militia Chief Clerk-W. S. Short Chief Accountant-H. J. Knowles (Auckland). Superintendent of Village-settlements- John Wilkins, M.R.C.S.E. J. E. March Honorary Surgeon, Permanent Militia.'' Overseer of Works, Rotorua Sanatorium -C. Malfroy Patrick J. O'Neill O'Carroll Caretaker, Hanmer Springs—J. Rogers Honorary Chaplain, Lyttelton Detach. ATCKLAND DISTRICT. ment Permanent Vilitia. Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of The Rev. E. E. Chambers Crown Lands-G. Mueller District Surveyors-L. Cussen, J. Baber, Honorary Chaplain, Wellington Detach. jun., G. A. Martin ment Permanent Militia. Road Surreror-A. B. Wright The Rer. W. C. Waters, M.A. Chef Draughts'na 2-1.c. Kensington Recrirer of Land Rereaue-T. J. Taylor Oficers Commanding Vilitia and robune teer Districts, and adjutants. Hawke's Bar DISTRICT. Aurekland - Lieut-colonel Forster Yel Chef Surveyor and Commissioner of verton Goring, X.ZU. Acting Adu Crown Lands-T. Humphries tant: Lieut. John Grant, N.2 Focs District Surrerors-E. C. Gold-Smith, Wellington – Lieu: - Colone: Stuart J. Har Newall, X.ZN. Chief Draughtsmsn-F. Simpson Canterburr-Lieut-colonel Heug Gor Receirer of Land Revenue - F. Bull don, NZU., late H . 4 Foot ChaguLieut-Clonei W a TarasaKI DISTRICT. Hudes Webb. N.ZN., late H., 1 Foot Care Surrepor ani Commissioner of Nelson – Leut. - Conei Albert Pius, Crown Landis-J. Struha Dret SurrererH. M. Skeet SZU. Ad utsnt : Wm. Lite Rusi Surrerur G. F. Robinson john (Captain, Veison Ceceye Cadets' " et Draustsenar-F E Clarke SsW ZEALAND Pozics FOBCE Receirer of Lazdi Rereum G.P. Doile WEL!NuroS DISTRICT. Cuensioner - Lieuterst-Coules .. Ass.15 Surrere. Gece He szer vf Crown Lands J. Beser . Ceris Jok: Ersrs John Taster r r eron-L Swea, W. D. B. Fie Dagermest Verrar, J. D linze. F. A. Thomp- Ir-specten Ist 15-reza Briam. Die Bes Thomson Peter Pender. Che Doucetsers Raul Server 3. Stoce Party Turner Jin Buen , Recerter o an Emerge, Receive Iuspectors, the l Land RereameW. G. James Hielsen, Francis MeGovern OFFICIAL LIST. 49 Nelson District. Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—J. S. Browning District Surveyors—J. A. Montgomerie, F. S. Smith.'j. Snodgrass, R. T. Sadd Chief Draughtsman—H. Trent Receiver of Land Revenue—J. T. Catlev Marlborough District. Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—S. Weetman Cliief Draughtsman and Receiver of Land Revenue—G. Bobinson Westland District. Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—David Barron District Purveyor—W. G. Murray Road Surveyor—F. B. Wither Chief Draughtsman and Receiver of Land Revenue—G. J. Roberts Canterbury District. Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lauds—J. W. A. Marchant District Surveyors—T. N. Broderick, G. H. M. McClure Chief Draughtsman—C. B. Shanks Receiver of Land Revenue—A. A. McNab Otago District. Commissioner of Crown Lands —J. P. Maitland Chief Surveyor—C. W. Adams District Surveyors—J. Laugmuir, E. H. Wilmot Chief Draughtsman—P. Treseder Receiver of Land Revenue—G. A. Reade Southland District. Chief Surveyor and Commissioner of Crown Lands—G. W. Williams District Surveyor—John Hay Chief Draughtsman—J. G. Clare Receiver of Land Revenue—H. L. Welch Native Land-purchase Branch. Land - purchase Officers — P. Sheridan (Officer in Charge), G. Mair, G. T. Wilkinson Members op Waste Lands Boards. Auckland—G. Mueller, R. Thompson, B. Harris, D. Lundon, L. J. Bagnall Hawke's Bay—T. Humphries, C. Hall, T. Hyde, R. R. Groom, G. Mathewson Taranaki—J. Strauchon, T. Kelly, C. K. Stock, J. Heslop, R. B. Roy Wellington — J. H. Baker, W. A. Fitzherbert, A. W. Hogg, T. W. Fisher, F. Pirani Marlborough—S. Weetman, A. P. Sey- mour, C. H. Mills, J. Redwood, J. A. Parsons Nelson—J. S. Browning, J. Kerr, D. Bate, F. Hamilton Westland — D. Barron, J. Bevan, L. Northcroft, A. Matheson Canterbury—J. W. A. Marchant, W. C. Walker, A. C. Pringle, R. Meredith, D. McMillan Otago—J. P. Maitland, A. McKerrow, H. Clark, J. Duncan, W. Dallas Southland—G. W. Williams, C. Cowan, A. Kinross, J. Mclntyre Land for Settlements. Land Purchase Inspector — James McKerrow, F.A.3. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Chief Office. Minister in Charge—Hon. J. McKenzie Secretary of Agriculture and Chief In- spector of Stock—John D. Ritchie Assistant Chief Inspector of Stock—W. A. Scaife Chief Clerk—Richard Evatt Clerk and Biologist—T. W. Kirk, F.L.8. Veterinary Surgeon — J. A. Gilrutb, M.R.C.V.S. Produce Commissioner, London— Chief Dairy Expert—J. B. MacEwan Dairy Instructors—John Sawers, S. M. Robbins, B. Wayte Pomologists — W. J. Palmer, J. C. Blackmore, Joseph Mayo Inspectors op Stock. Auckland — E. Clifton (in charge), F, Schaw, Auckland; G. S. Cooke, Wha ngarei j D. Ross, Hamilton Napier—J. Drummond (in charge), H Oldham, Napier; C. Thomson, Gis borne; J. Harvey, Woodville Wairarapa — W. Miller, Masterton Wellington, W. G. Rees, Wellington West Coast—Richard Hull (in charge) Wunganui; A. Monro, Hawera; A K. Blundell, Palmerston North Nelson—H. M. Campbell, Nelson (in charge); F. E. Orbell, Foxhill Marlborough—John Moore, Blenheim Westland—V. A. Huddleston, Hokitika Canterbury-Kaikoura—R. F. Holdcrness (in charge), E. A. Dowden, Christ- church; C. A. Cunningham, Rangiora; J. C. Huddleston, Rotherham; Blair Fullarton, Ashburton 50 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. South Canterbury—H. S. Thomson (in charge), Timaru; J. W. Deem, Fairlie; R. H. Hassall, Kurow Otago—J. E. Thomson, Dunedin; J. S. Nichol, Outram ; J. C. Miller,Oamaru; J. L. Bruce, Palmerslon j A. Ironside, Clyde; D. Kerr, Naseby; C. C. Empson, Lawrence; H. G. J. Hull, Balclutha; E. A. Field, Gore j H. T. Turner, Invercargill; J. W. Raymond, Bluff GOVERNMENT LIFE INSURANCE DEPARTMENT. Commissioner—J. H. Richardson Assistant Commissioner—D. M. Luckie Actuary—Morris For Secretary—W. B. Hudson Chief Medical Officer—T. Cahill, M.D. Accountant— G. W. Barltrop Assistant Actuary—G. Leslie Chief Clerk—R. C. Ni»en Office Examiner—G. A. Kennedy Clerks—J. C. Young, J. W. Kinniburgh, D. J. McG. McKenzie, W. 8. Smith, R. V. Blacklock, A. H. Hamerton, F. B. Bolt, G. G. Schwartz, C. E. Galwev, P. Muter, H. Spackman, T. L. Bnrker, A. L. B. Jordan, R. T. Smith, J. A. Thomson, F. K. Rolling, H. S. Manning, A. de Castro, F. M. Leckie, C. W. Palmer, J. B. Young, A. Averv, R. P. Hood, G. C. Fache, S. P. Hawthorne, W. H. Woon Chief Messenger—W. Archer Auckland Agency. District Manager—W. J. Speight Chief Clerk—J. K. Blenkhorn Clerk—J. B. Watkis Napier Agency. Resident Agent—J. H. Dean Wanganui Agency. Resident Agent—J. Fairburn Wellington Agency. District Manager—G. Robertson Clerks—G. Crichton, W. C. Marchant Nelson Agency. Resident Agent—A. P. Burnes Blenheim Agency. Agency Clerk—C. H. Ralph Gbeymoi-tii Agency. Resident Agent—A. E. Allison Christchurcii Agency. District. Manager—J. C. Prudhoe Chief Clerk—J. W. H. Wood Clerk—H. Rose Timaru Agency. Agency Clerk—S. T. Wicksteed Oamaru Agency. Resident Agent—O. H. Pinel Dunkdin Agency. District Manager—R. S. McGowan Chief Clerk—M. J. Hevwood Clerk—G. A. N. Campbell Invercargill Agency. Agency Clerk—J. Findlay PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE. Public Trustee—J. K. Warburton Solicitor—F. J. Wilson Chief Clerk—A. A. Duncan Accountant—T. S. Ronaldson Clerk in Charge of Wills, Trusts, 4c.— T. Stephens Examiner—M. C. Barnett Clerks—M. Townsend, P. Fair, P. Her- vey, E. C. Reeves, J. MeLellan, T. D. Kendall, W. A. Fordhara, H. Oswin, A. Purdie, G. A. Smyth, A. J. Cross, E. G. Hyde, M. E. Harrap, S. Dimant, J. Skerrett, E. A. Smythe, J. Allen, W. Barr, E. O. Hales, C. Morris, S. W. Smith, J. B. Jack, K. Brown Messenger—H. Redmond District Agent, Christchurch—J. J. M. Hamilton District Agent, Auckland—E. F. Warren District Agent, Dunedin—F. H. Morice District Agent, Greymouth—J. C. Mathe- son District Agent, Napier—E. P. Watkis West Coast Settlement Reserves Agent —Wilfred Rennell Clerks—C. Zachariah, T. R. Saywell ADVANCES TO SETTLERS. OFFICE. Superintendent—J. K. Warburton Chief Valuers—Auckland, W. Duncan; Wellington, T. K. Mncdonald; Christ- church, J. W. A. Marchant; Inver- cargill, H. Carswell Clerks, Head Office - H. Lamb, E. Mc- Fadden, W. Waddel, T. C. Somers, H. O'Rorke, E. Holloway, J. T. Bolt, W. Gilmore, S. Saunders, W. Reid, L. A. '] readwell, W. Garrett, H. Masters, C. A. Goldsmith Clerks at Agencies — Messrs. Millar, Smith, Walker, Powell. ECCLESIASTICAL. ECCLESIASTICAL. There is no State Church in the colony, nor is State aid given to any form of religion. Government in the early days set aside certain lands as endowments for various religious bodies, but nothing of the kind has been done for many years past. CHURCH OF THE PROVINCE OF NEW ZEALAND, COMMONLY CALLED THE “CHURCH OF ENGLAND.' Bishops. The Most Rev. William Garden Cowie, D.D., Auckland; conse- crated 1869 (Primate). The Right Rev. William Leonard Williams, B.A., Waiapu ; consecrated 1895. The Right Rev. Frederic Wallis, D.D., Wellington; consecrated 1895. The Right Rev. Charles Oliver Mules, M.A., Nelson; consecrated 1892. The Right Rev. Churchill Julius, D.D., Christchurch; consecrated 1890. The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt Nevill, D.D., Dunedin ; conse- crated 1871. The Right Rev. Cecil Wilson, M.A., Melanesia; consecrated 1894. Roman CATHOLIC CHURCH. Archbishop. The Most Rev. Francis Redwood, S.M., D.D., Archbishop and Metropolitan, Wellington; consecrated 1874. Bishops. The Right Rev. John Edmund Luck, O.S.B., D.D., Auckland ; consecrated 1882. The Right Rev. John Joseph Grimes, S.M., D.D., Christchurch ; consecrated 1887. Bishopric of Dunedin vacant (June, 1895). ANNUAL MEETINGS AND OFFICERS. The principal present heads or officers of the various churches, and the places and times of holding the annual or periodical assem- blies or meetings, are as follow :- Church of England.-For Church purposes, the colony is divided into six dioceses-viz., Auckland, Waiapu, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, and Dunedin. The General Synod meets every third year in one or other of the dioceses. - President, the Bishop of Auckland, Primate; Secretary, Rev. J. P. Kempthorne, Nelson ; Lay Secretary, James Allen, Esq., B.A., M.H.R., Dunedin. The Diocesan Synods meet once a year, under the presidency 52 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Bishop of the diocese. The next General Synod will be held in Christchurch, in February, 1898. Raman Catholic Church.—The diocese of Wellington, established in 1848, was in 1887 created the metropolitan see. There are three suffragan dioceses—Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin. A Ketreat is held annually in each of the four dioceses. Presbyterian Church of New Zealand.—The Assembly meets annually, in February, at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, in succession. Moderator, the Very Rev. Ralph Joshua Allsworth; Clerk and Treasurer, Rev. David Sidey, D.D., Napier. Presbyterian Church of Otago and Southland. — The Synod meets annually in October at Dunedin. Moderator, Rev. R. R. M. Sutherland, Kaikorai; Clerk, Rev. W. Bannerman, Roslyn, Dun- edin ; Church Factor, Mr. Edmund Smith, High Street, Dunedin. Theological Professors, Rev. John Dunlop, M.A., D.D., and Rev. Michael Watt, M.A., D.D. Wesley an Methodist Church.—The annual Conference meets on or about the 1st March, the exact date being determined by the President, who holds office for one year. Each Conference deter- mines where the next one shall assemble. President (1895-96), Rev. J. H. Simmonds, Principal of Wesley College, Three Kings, Auckland; Secretary, Rev. D. J. Murray, Waimate, Canterbury. The next Conference is to meet in the Pitt Street Church, Auck- land. Baptist Union of New Zealand.—President, Rev. W. R. Woolley, Thames; Secretary, Rev. A. H. Collins, Auckland. The Union comprises 31 churches, 3,066 members, 4,937 scholars in the Sunday schools, with 569 teachers. There are also 104 local preachers, and 28 preaching-stations. This religious body has a newspaper of its own—the New Zealand Baptist—published in Christchurch. Congregational Union of New Zealand.—The annual meetings are held during the second week of February, at such place as may be decided on by vote of the Council. Chairman for 1895, Rev. B. L. Thomas, Auckland; Chairman Elect, Rev. W. M. Fell, Ravensbourne, Otago; Secretary, Mr. J. Bowdeu, Auckland; Trea- surer, Mr. W. H. Lyon, Auckland; Registrar, Rev. C. H. Bradbury, Wellington; Head Office, 314, Victoria Arcade, Auckland. In 1896 the meeting of the Council will be held at a place to be fixed by the Committee. The Executive Committee of the Union meets in Auckland on the second Tuesday of each month. Primitive Methodists.—A Conference takes place every January. The next is to be held in Timaru, commencing 10th January, 1896. The Executive Committee of the Church sits in Auckland. The Conference officials for the present year are: President, Rev. Wil- liam Laycoek, Dunedin; Secretary, Rev. Thomas H. Lyon, Wad- dington, Canterbury; Secretary of Executive Committee, Mr. D. Goldie, Auckland. United Methodist Free Churches.—The Assembly meets annually in February, in Canterbury, Auckland, Wellington, or Hawke's Bay. ECCLESIASTICAL. 53 For 1895 the President is the Eev. J. J. Pendray, Waipawa, and the Secretary Mr. J. A. Flesher, Christchurch. Hebrews.—Ministers, Eev. S. A. Goldstein, Auckland; Rev. Louis J. Harrison, Dunedin; Eev. H. van Staveren, Welling- ton; Mr. Alexander Singer, Hokitika. Annual meetings of the general Congregations are held at these places on the third Sunday in Elul (about the end of August). Bible Christians.—A District Meeting of the Connexion is held annually. President, Eev. B. H. Ginger, Addington; Connexional Bepreseritative and Treasurer, Eev. J. Orchard, Christchurch; Trust Secretary, Eev. J. G. W. Ellis, Templeton; School and Tem- perance Secretary, Eev. F. Quintrell, Palmerston North; Editor of Magazine, Eev. W. Grigg, Belfast; Publisher, Rev. B. H. Ginger. Religious Denominations, Churches and Chapels, Officiating Ministers, etc. The following shows the number of persons (exclusive of Maoris) belonging to the different religious denominations in New Zealand, and the number of churches and chapels, according to the census of April, 1891; also, the number of officiating ministers under "The Marriage Act, 1880," on the 15th June, 1895 :— Religious Denominations. Churches Persous. and 1 Chapels. Officiating Ministers Episcopalians— Church of England, and Episcopalians not otherwise defined Protestants (undescribed) .. Presby terians— Church of Scotland, Free Church of Scotland, Free Presbyterians, Presbyterian Church of New Zealand, Presbyterian Church of Otago and Southland, and Presbyterians otherwise defined Methodists— Wcsleyan Methodists Methodists (undefined) Primitive Methodists United Methodist Free Churches, Free Me- thodists, United Methodists Bible Christians Others Baptists Congregational Independents Lutherans, German Protestants Unitarians Society of Friends Other Protestants— Church of Christ (including Christian, Church of Christ, Christian Disciples, Disciples of Christ, Disciples) 250,945 2,386 308 31.-) 5,241 345 281 41,477 246 183 53,001 213 119 2,071 5,220 41 30 1,905 18 14 1,069 9 10 14,825 89 1 . . 32 20 0,685 21 22 5,610 13 12 15 10 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Religious Denominations-continued. Persons. Churches and Chapels. Officiating Ministers. 34 700 178 181 Other Protestants-continued. Brethren (including Brethren, Christian Bre- thren, Exclusive Brethren, Open Brethren, Plymouth Brethren) .. .. 3,537 Believers in Christ 193 Evangelists (including Evangelical Union, Evangelical Church, Evangelical Christians, Evangelical Brethren) ... 93 Nonconformists .. Salvation Army .. 9,383 Christadelphians .. Swedenborgians (including New Church, New Jerusalem Church) Seventh-day Adventists .. 415 Students of Truth ... 325 Other Protestants (variously returned) 536* Catholics- Roman Catholics 85,856 Catholics (undefined) 1,416 Greek Church .. Catholic Apostolic .. Other sects- Hebrews 1,463 | Mormons, Latter-day Saints 206 Spiritualists Buddhists, Pagans, Confucians 3,928 Others (variously returned) 154 No denomination- Freethinkers 4,475 Agnostic Deists, Theists .. Doubtful 405 No denomination (variously returned) 2,999+ No religion 1,5587 Unspecified 1,288 Object to state 15,342 Totals 626,658 56 150 :::::::::: 339 : 322 51 1,197$ 864 CHURCHES, CHAPELS, SCHOOLHOUSES, ETC. The following return shows the number of churches and chapels, schoolhouses, and other buildings used for public worship by the different religious denominations, in April, 1891; also the number of persons for whom there was accommodation, and the number usually attending, in each provincial district :- * Including 42 Dissenters; 55 Christian Israelites. + Including 2,326 of No denomination, so described. Including 1,269 of No religion, so described ; 123 Atheists; 65 Secularists. $ In addition to the number of churches and chapels here given, there are about 400 schoolhouses, dwellings, or public buildings used for public worship, besides 20 buildings open to more than one Protestant denomination, JUDICIAL. 55 i Provincial Districts. Auckland Taranaki HaAke's Bay - Wellington Marlborough .. Nelson Westland Canterbury Otaso Totals Churches and Chapels. School- houses used for Public Worship. Dwellings or Public Buildings used for Public Worship. Number of Persons For whom Accom- modation. Attending Services. 1 268 68 43 60,167 37,0,50 4G 17 11 1 8,472 5,322 58 8 6 l 11,274 7,064 178 18 19 40,192 25,631 30 1 5,310 3,335 76 6 10 15,030 8,879 ::', 2 3 0,705 4.445 250 33 19 60,755 41,771 232 88 50 | 64,20'J 42,958 • • 1,197 241 161 278,114 j 177,055 JUDICIAL. The Minister of Justice is charged with all matters relating to the Supreme, District, Magistrates', and Wardens' Courts. Crown Law Office, Coroners, patents, designs, and trade-marks, bankruptcy, criminal prosecutions in the higher Courts, Justices of the Peace, Licensing Committees, and prisons. The Supreme Court is presided over by a Chief Justice and four Puisne Judges. The Chief Justice and one Puisne Judge reside in Wellington, one Judge resides at Auckland, one at Christchurch, and one at Dunedin. They all go on circuit periodically within their districts. Circuit sittings of the Supreme Court are held at fourteen places. There are four District Court Judges, holding Courts at seventeen towns. At nearly every town in which sittings of the Supreme or District Courts are held there is a Crown Prosecutor, paid by fees, and a Sheriff. In the District Courts the Crown Prosecutor exercises the function of a Grand Jury. The Magistrates' Courts are presided over by thirty Stipendiary Magistrates, and Courts are held daily in the principal centres, and at convenient times in the smaller towns. The jurisdiction of these Courts may be "ordinary" (which includes, practically speaking, all claims not exceeding £100 in value, except claims for damages for false imprisonment or illegal arrest, malicious prosecu- tion, libel, slander, seduction, or breach of promiss of marriage); "extended," under which money-claims to an amount not ex- ceeding £200 may be entertained; and "special," which, while including all the powers of the " extended " jurisdiction, enables the Court to deal also with partnerships, injunctions, and other equity suits. At present twenty-seven of the Stipendiary Magistrates exer- cise the "extended" jurisdiction, but none the " special." When, however, owing to increase of settlement, or pressure of business in 56 JSEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. the Supreme Court, necessity arises, the power to exercise either the extended or special jurisdiction can be conferred by Order in Coun- cil on any Court. The Magistrates exercising the special jurisdiction must be barristers or solicitors. The procedure of the Courts is remarkably simple, no pleadings being required beyond a statement by the plaintiff sufficient to in- form the defendant of the nature and extent of the claim. Due provision is made for counter-claims, and the joinder at any stage of the proceedings of all necessary parties, so that all questions arising in connection with the subject-matter before the Court may be finally dealt with at once. Appeal to the Supreme Court is allowed on points of law, and of law only, in cases where not more than £50 is concerned, and on points of either law or fact in cases above that amount. Generally, the procedure is so simple and elastic that in the majority of cases heard it is not necessary to retain the services of a professional man, but, where solicitors are employed, the Court in its judgment settles the costs to be paid according to a prescribed scale. In places where there is not a Magistrate's Court Justices of the Peace have power to hold a Court and deal with claims not exceeding £20 in value, giving judgment "according to equity and good conscience." In criminal cases the Supreme or District Court may reserve any question of law for the Court of Appeal; and, if the Court refuse to reserve a question, the Attorney-General may give leave to move the Court of Appeal for leave to appeal. The Court may give leave to any person convicted before it to apply to the Court of Appeal for a new trial on the ground that the verdict was against the weight of evidence, and the Court of Appeal may direct a new trial. In cases where the clemency of the Crown is sought, the Governor in Council, if he entertains a doubt whether the convicted person ought to have been convicted, may direct a new trial at such time and before such Court as he may think proper. Fourteen of the Magistrates are also Wardens, holding Wardens' Courts in the various goldfields. There are fifty civilian Clerks of Courts, and eighty-nine who are also police sergeants or constables. Every Stipendiary Magistrate holds the office of Coroner, and is paid 10s. 6d. for each inquest, in addition to mileage at Is. per mile. Besides these, there are thirty-eight Coroners, who are paid £1 Is. for each inquest, and mileage. Bankrupt estates are administered by four Official Assignees, stationed at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, respectively; and by twenty Deputy Assignees, resident at as many other towns. The Supreme and District Courts have jurisdiction in bankruptcy proceedings, and the Governor has power to confer similar jurisdiction in small estates on any of the Magistrates' Courts, but as yet this has not been found necessary. The Commission of the Peace contains about seventeen hundred names, and additions are frequently made. A rota is kept in every borough and town of Justices residing within three miles of the DEFENCES, MILITARY AND NAVAL. 57 Courthouse, and the Justices are required either to attend the Court when summoned, or to furnish a satisfactory excuse; failing this, they are struck off the Commission. Medical practitioners, Civil servants, and others are exempt from such attendance. Witnesses in Criminal Courts are paid 6s. per diem, and in addi- tion 4s. for every night they are absent from home. Witnesses in civil cases are paid variously from 6s. to £1 Is. a day, according to their condition in life. Intestate estates in New Zealand are dealt with by the Public Trust Office, and are referred to in the article on that institution. The Attorney-General of the colony is a Cabinet Minister hold- ing other portfolios, but the Solicitor-General is a permanent officer and a member of the Civil Service. Jury lists are compiled annually by the police, revised by the Bench of Justices, and forwarded to the Sheriffs, who prepare from them special and common jury panels. DEFENCES, MILITARY AND NAVAL. The defence forces consist of the Permanent Militia (Artillery and Torpedo Corps), and the auxiliary forces of Volunteers (Cavalry, Mounted Rifles, Naval Artillery, Field Artillery, Engineers, and Rifle companies). There is a Military Adviser and Inspector of these Forces, who is an ex-Imperial officer. To the Under-Secretary for Defence all questions of expenditure are referred; while the Chief Engineer of the Public Works Department has charge of the defence-works. Militia and Volunteer Districts. The two islands (North and Middle) are divided into five dis- tricts, each commanded by a Field Officer of Militia or Volunteers, with a competent staff of drill-sergeants. Permanent Militia (Artillery). This Force is divided into four batteries, which are stationed at Auckland, Wellington (head-quarters), Lyttelton, and Dunedin; their principal duties are to look after and take charge of all guns. stores, ammunition, and munitions of war at these four centres, The Force consists of three majors, two captains, one subaltern, with an establishment of 144 of all ranks. Permanent Militia (Torpedo Corps). This branch, like the Artillery, is divided amongst the four centres, for submarine and torpedo work, and consists of two cap- tains, with a total establishment of 64 of all ranks. They have charge of four torpedo-boats and four steam-launches, and of all submarine-mining and torpedo stores. They are likewise employed in blowing up rocks and wrecks, and generally improving harbours. Volunteers.—Cavalry. There are three troops of Cavalry, one in the North Island and 58 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. two in the Middle Island. These corps are kept in a state of efficiency by going into camp for six days' training annually. The total strength of the three troops is 191 of all ranks. Volunteers.—Mounted Rifles. There are ten corps of Mounted Rifles, seven in the North Island and three in the Middle Island, with a total strength of 548 of all ranks. These corps go into camp for an annual training of six days. Volunteers.—Naval Artillery. There are seventeen batteries of this branch of the service, eight in the North Island and nine in the Middle Island, having a total strength of 1,145 of all ranks. These corps are divided into port and starboard watches; one watch is trained to assist the Perma- nent Artillery in working heavy ordnance, the other in submarine and torpedo work, as auxiliaries to the Torpedo Corps. These corps have cutters and other boats provided and kept up for them, and are instructed in rowing, knotting, splicing, signalling, and such- like duties. Volunteers.—Garrison Artillery. There is one corps of Garrison Artillery in the South Island, with a strength of 49 of all ranks. Volunteers.—Field Artillery. There are nine batteries of Field Artillery, three in the North Island and six in the Middle Island, with a total of 512 of all ranks. They are armed with 6-, 9-, and 12-pounder Armstrong breech-loading rifled guns on field-carriages. Volunteers.—Engineers. This branch consists of two corps, with a total of 124 of all ranks, both in the Middle Island. Besides carrying rifles they are provided with entrenching tools and all appliances for blowing up bridges or laying land-mines. Volunteers.—Rifle Corps. In this branch of the service there are forty-six corps (including one honorary reserve), fourteen being in the North Island and thirty- two in the Middle Island, with a total strength of 2,691 of all ranks, including garrison bands. Volunteers.—Cadet Corps. There is a force of thirty-six cadet corps—viz., eight in the North Island and twenty-eight in the Middle Island, with a total strength of 1,984 of all ranks. Ordnance, Arms, etc. The armament at the forts of the four centres consists of Bin. 13-ton breech-loading rifled Elswick Ordnance Company's guns, with 6in. 5-ton of like pattern, all mounted on hydro-pneumatic disappearing carriages; Tin. 7-tou inuzzle-loading rifled guns, on DEFENCES, MILITARY AND NAVAL, 59 traversing slides ; 64-pounder rifled muzzle-loading converted 71cwt. guns, on garrison standing carriages and traversing slides ; 64- pounder rifled muzzle-loading 64cwt. guns on traversing slides; 6-pounder quick-firing Nordenfeldts, on garrison pillar-mountings, and field-carriages; and Hotchkiss and Maxim quick-firing guns. The Volunteer Field Artillery are armed with 6-, 9-, and 12- pounder Armstrong breech-loading rifled guns, and the whole of the Force have carbines or rifles (short) of Snider pattern. There is a large stock of Whitehead torpedoes, contact- and ground- mines, in charge of the Torpedo Corps, as well as four Thorneycroft torpedo-boats. ENROLMENT, ETC. Members of the Permanent Militia are enrolled for three years' service, and Volunteers for one year. The Permanent Militia is recruited from men who have one year's efficient service in the Volunteers, and after passing the gunnery course in the Permanent Militia the men are eligible for transfer to police and prison service. INSTRUCTORS. The Instructors for Permanent Artillery and Torpedo Corps are obtained from the School of Gunnery at Shoeburyness, and from the Royal Engineers, under a three years' engagement, on comple- tion of which they return to their regiments. CAPITATION. An annual capitation of £2 10s. is granted to each efficient Volun- teer, and a sum not exceeding £20 to each efficient cadet corps. One hundred and fifty rounds of Snider ball-cartridge are issued each year free to every Volunteer, and twenty-five rounds to each cadet over thirteen years of age. ADMINISTRATION. The defence forces of New Zealand are administered under “The Defence Act, 1886." EXPENDITURE ON THE ESTABLISHMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF DEFENCES FROM 1884–85 to 1893–94. Year. Military Expenditure. Harbour Defences. Total. . .. 1884-85 1885-86 1886-87 1887-88 1882-89 1889-90 1890-91 1891-92 1892-93 1893-94 1894-95 :::::::::::. ::::::::::: 90,816 91,242 89,927 122,061 53,591 63,614 80,891 75,343 59,808 56,570 62,181 9,601 127,167 139,429 73,458 50,089 15,752 10,798 7,644 11, 205 3,976 2,495 100,417 218,409 229,356 195,519 103,680 79,366 91,689 82,987 71,013 60.546 r,0 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. ANNUAL PENSIONS Paid by the Government of New Zealand, as on 31st March, 189-3. "By an Act passed in 1871 the pension system was abolished in New Zealand. In 1803 the Civil Service Insurance Act was passed, the main provisions of which are described at the end of this table.] Date from which Pen sinn commenced. Name. Date from which Pension commenced. Under "Tlie Civil Service Act, JOliO." ]• Under " T)ie Civil Service Act, 1866' Allan, A. S. Arrow, H. Aubrey, H. R. . Austin, A. D. Baddeley, H. C. . Bailie, P. Baker, E. Barnard, W. H. . Barr, A. Batkin, C. T. Bicknell, P. Blomlield, J. Bridson, W. Brown, W. H. E. Buchanan, J. Bull, E. Burgess, A. Burn, J. F. Butts, E. D. Campbell, F. E. ., Canington, O. Chapman, K. Chcesmau, G. H. Cheeseman, W. F Clarke, H. T. Clarke, H. Cooper, G. S. Costall, J. Creeke, W. Crowe, A. Culpan, \V. Cunningham, J. . Daniell, H. C. •• DeCastro, C. D. Dick, S. J. Dickey, A. J. Earle, J. Eliott, (i. E. Ensor, J. Falck, F. Fenton, F. D. Freeth, J. J- Gill, H.J. Gisborne, W. Graham, G. H. Gregory, J- £ s. ;195 5 d. 1 Sept .,1888 0 i Greenway, J. H.. ! 1 Aug , 1881! 26 0 0 Giles, J. 1 Nov ,1880 223 0 0 Halliday, C. 1 Oct. 1887 247 10 0 Hamilton, M. 12 Jan. , 1888 225 0 0 1 Harsant, W. 1 Feb. , 1893 77 8 8 Hart, J. T. 1 1 Nov. , 1880 214 17 1 Hartwright, H. . 1 Junt ,1880'101 18 1 Heddell, P. 1 Oct. 1888,306 13 ■1 Henn, J. 1 Apri ,181)0 533 6 () Hill, E. 1 Feb. , 18S2 96 13 1 ! Hill, P. J. 21 Mar , 188!) 101 15 o Hill, T. 1 Aug. , 1893 146 8 7 Holden, T. 1 Aug. ,1892 205 16 s Jackman, S. J. . 1 July 1886 127 18 0 Johnston, D. 1 July 18871105 14 :; Judd, A. 1 June ,1886 110 13 1 Keetley, E. 1 July 1887 51 0 0 Kelly, J. D. 1 Apti , 1893 258 6 8 Kissling, T. 1 Mar. , 1890 466 13 0 Laing, E. B. 1 Feb. 1878 800 0 (1 Lang, A. 1 Jan. 18C8 255 19 (1 Leahy, J. 1 Mar. , 1893 82 10 0 Lincoln, R. S. 1 Apri ,1890 154 15 1 Lockwood, W. H. 1 Jan. 1879 400 0 0 Lodge, W. P. 1 Oct., 1879 98 13 0 Lundon, D. 1 Aug. 1892 533 6 8 Lusher, R. A. 10 July 1892 131 3 in Meikle, A. M. . 1 Apri ,1891 52 15 8 Mills, VV. 81 Dec. 1885 68 12 8 Mitford, G. M. . 1 Dec, 1868 62 10 0 Monson, J. R. 1 Feb., 1888 175 0 1) Monro, H. A. H.. 1 Jan., 1878 266 13 4 Morpeth, W. J. . 1 Mar. 18921172 10 II Morrow, H. 1 Feb., 18931250 0 li Macarthur, J. 1 Nov. 1875 122 0 :> McCulloch, H. 13 Nov. 1888 104 10 II MacDonnell.R. T 30 Nov. 1872'400 0 II McKellar, H. S.. 1 Feb., 18931 51 6 s O'Connor, li. 1 Mar., 1893)125 13 1 Parker, T. W. '. 3 Nov., 18811030 19 0 Parris, R. 1 Mar., 1894 116 13 1 Pauling, G. \V. 1 Sep., 1886 228 11 5 Pearson, W. H. 1 Oct., 1876 166 13 4 Phillips, W. M.' '. 8 Sep., 1891 52 10 " Pickett, R. 16 Feb., 1881 53 6 8 Pinwill, A. £ 1 Nov., 1891 116 1 Feb., 18941238 31 Aug., 18861 9G 11 July, 18801200 11 June, 18781151 12Nov.,1890;i98 1 Jan., 18861152 17 Oct., 1894 1 90 1 April, 1893 j 88 13 Sep., 1871 100 1 Aug., 1892; 95 1 Mav, 18921400 13 Oct, 1878' 31 1 May, 1892; 149 15 Dec, 1880 366 1 April, 1887 1173 1 July, 1884 18 1 July, 1891 [ISO 1 Jan., 1894 J317 1 April, 1887 1112 1 Feb., 1893 1 Mar., 1895 1 Mar., 1889 1 Jan., 1880 1 Oct., 1881 1 Mav, 1892 31 Aug., 1880 1 May, 1887 23 Sept., 1875 1 Feb., 1869 1 Oct., 1882 1 Nov., 1880 4 Aug., 1894 1 June, 1890 1 Jan., 1876 1 Aug., 1890 23 July, 1890 1 Aug., 1892 1433 1 Sept,1892 147 1 June, 1881 1 Jan., 1877 1 Feb., 1887 130 Sept., 1884 1 Dec,1894 1 Aug., 1806 1 July, 1891 5 67 68 22 185 210 76 145 385 196 271 342 19.-, 120 233 1.-.0 242 314 —ctd. 8. d. 16 0 6 13 0 13 7 7 ii 3 '.' o '.' 5 6 i 13 4 6 8 12 10 19 0 5 i 10 0 15 3 3 i) 17 0 18 4 0 0 0 (I 16 S 14 3 14 i 15 0 16 0 17 2 4 9 16 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 S 0 6 3 9 5 s 91 340 69 209 120 1 .1 9 I. 4 :. 10 (I 17 0 ANNUAL PENSIONS. 63 ANNUAL PENSIONS—continued. Name. Date from which Pension commenced. Amount. Vnder The Civil Service Act, 1866' continued. Name. . N. Pitt, H. Plimpton, R. E. E. Pollen, D. Powell, D. Rich, E. P. Robertson, J. Rcdger^on, \V, Rogan. J. Rough,D. Rowe, C. Sealy, H. B. Searancke, W. Sheath, A. B. Shrimpton, J. Sinclair, A. Smith, J. Smith, J. E. Smith, T. H. Snoswell, T. Snow, C. H. Stevens, F. Stewart, J. T. Tavlor, G. Thomas, G. W. Tidmarsh, W. Tizard, E. P. Tucker, W. Veal, J. Veale, J. S. Wardell, H. S. Watson, R. White, W. White, \V. B. Wilkin, J. T. W. Willcocks,E. S. Williams, E. M. £ s. 1. I May 1881 100 0 0 4 Dec. 1883 110 M 3 ,30 Oct., 1870 ,418 15 0 1 July 1893 44 1 8 1 June 18921217 0 0 6 Oct., 1892 155 0 0 1 July, 18921248 G 8 1 Jan., 1878 !4G6 13 ■i 1 May 1868 277 1 8 1 Oct., 1894 109 16 0 1 Nov. 187C 285 14 3 1 Feb. 1879 240 0 0 31 Mar. 1880 129 9 0 16 July 1889 146 11 0 1 June ,1878195 0 0 1 June 1894 49 6 6 1 July 1877 484 11 6 1 July, 1870 371 8 7 5 Dec. 1891 83 14 0 1 Dec. 1887 157 10 0 1 Dec. 1892 183 0 0 1 May, 1889 300 0 0 1 Mar. 1893 121 0 0 1 Nov. 1875 38 15 0 1 Aug. 1867 09 7 3 1 Julv 1888 180 19 11 31 Dec. 1880 104 13 4 1 Sept. ,1885 49 15 3 1 Sept. ,1887 50 •1 10 1 July, 1888 306 13 0 1 Oct., 1892 145 0 0 1 July, 1881 36 5 0 1 July, 1873 375 4 9 1 Feb. 1874 127 19 1 1 Nov. 1880 250 0 0 1 April ,1880 135 0 0 Date from which Pension commenced. Vnder "The Civil Service Act, 1866 "- Wilson, W. W. Woon, J. G. Wrigg, H. C. W continued. £ s. d. 1 Feb., 1881 ilOO 14 3 1 July, 18921209 10 6 1 Aug., 1889 157 2 10 Under " 2Vic Hamerton Pension Act, 1891." Hamerton, R. C. 111 Sept., 18911 250 0 0 Under " The Meredith and Others Pensions Act, 1870." Collins, Mary .. 113 Nov., 1809 | 65 0 0 Hamlin,RhodaB.| 1865 j 50 0 0 Under " Tlie Military Pensions Arapera te Reo.. 1 1 July, 1870 Brown, M. R. .. | Buck, Cath. M... Hastings, L. Iritona, Hanita. Marara, Ngakoa McDonald, E. .. McDonnell, W... Morrison, Ann .. 20 Oct., 1806 Percy, J. A. Ross, Edward O. Russell, C. Von Tempsky, A 8 Nov., 1868 3 Dec, 1860 17 Nov., 1860 3 Oct., 1868 Act, 1866." 20 0 0 75 0 0 70 0 0 55 0 0 12 0 0 36 0 0 36 0 0 150 0 0 30 0 0 150 o 0 75 0 0 36 0 0 120 0 0 Adamson,T. Beamish, J. G... Corbett, George Crawford, C. F Crosbv, H. Dore.'G. H. Gibbons, M. C Hamblyn, J. Hope, E. L. (•) l"l (■■I ('") C) 2 2* 6* n 0* 0- 0- ■J- 2* 12 Oct., 1869 1 Oct., 1872 (') <;• 'Per diem. <■) U. «d. from 25th October, 1869; increased to 2s. 2d.. 7th December, 1870. li. from 17th December, 1868, to 17th December, 1869; Is. 6d. from 17th December, 1869, to >'th December, 1870; 8d. from 17th December, 1870, to 30th September, 1871; increased to Is. (id.. '« October, 1874. l«) it. from 5th Jnne, 1867, to 5th June, 1808; 2s. from 5th June, 1868, to 5th Juno, 1869; per- osuc-nt from 9th November, 1869. ,di 3s. for two years, from 9th April, 1670; renewed for twelve months ; again renewed for twelve Eotithn; permanent from 1st May, 1874. "12s. from 1st January, 1809, for eighteen months; permanent from 18th May. 1872. Ills. 6d. for twelve months, from 20th April, 1869; renewed for twelve months, 1870; renewed. ■or twelve months, 1871; permanent from 12th May, 1872. NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. ANNUAL PENSIONS--continued. Date Name. Amount. Name. Date from which Pension commenced. from which Pension commenced. Amount B: Under “The Military Pensions Act, Under “ The Walsh and Other Pensions 1866"-continued. Act, 1869." & s. d. £ s. d. Kelly, T. .. 9 April, 1870 0 2 "Hewett, Ellen A. (10 Feb., 1865| 50 0 0 Kershaw, P. .. 9 Aug., 1869 Lacey, Garrett .. Under “ The Militia Act Amendment Act, Lake, T. 1862." Bending, W. .. 0 2 0 Lloyd, T. 0 Bilton, F. 2 McKay, G. 0* .. McMahon, T. .. Callaghan, D. Cody, w. Monck, J. B... 1 April, '72 (1) Dunn, A. J. N... Shanaghan, J... Herford, A. Shepherd, R. .. King, E. M. .. Timms, W. .. Leaf, R. Tuffin, G. .. (n) Vance, R. .. 8 April, 1870 Oxenham, W. .. 1864 Walsh, W. Sarten, Lucy .. .. 15 Nov., 1866 0 2 0* Waslev, Edw. 0. Skinner, W. H... Vickery, W. Williamson, F... 1 June, 1869 Woolfe, T. Anaru Patapu .. 14 May, 1865 Anaru Taruke .. 1 Jan., 1867 0 Apera te Keunga (14 May, 1864 0 Under “ The Schafer, McGuire, and Honi Parake .1 Jan., 1867 0 Others Pensions Act, 1872." Karena Ruatani-| 1 July, 1870! 0 McGuire, E. .. 29 Sept., 1871010* wha Russell, W. .. 1 July, 1871 0 1 0* Matiu Whitiki .. 1 April, 1885 0 0 Schafer, C. .. 1 July, 1871, 30 0 0 Mauparoa ..' 1 July, 1867 0 1 0* Mebaka Kepa .. | 2 Aug., 1865 0 0 9* Under “ The Supreme Court Judges Act, Pera Taitimu ..12 Oct., 1869 0 1 0* 1874." Raniera Ngoto .. 1 Oct., 1884 0 0 6* | Gresson, H. B. ../ 1 April, 1875|750 0 0 GO 3088 080 80 80 80 --- - - - -- * Per diem. (K) 2nd October, 1869; ceased on 9th April, 1870; renewed, 22nd April, 1874. (h) 1s. 6d. from –, 1867; increased to 2s. from 14th February, 1868. • A for twelve months. from 15th March. 1869 : ls, for twelve months, from Marcb. 1870 : 1s. for twelve months, from March, 1871; permanent from 1st April, 1872. (k) 3s. for twelve months, from 9th April, 1870; 25. 8d., permanent, from 1st May, 1871. (1) 1s. 6d. for twelve months, from 18th October, 1869 ; 1s. 6d. for twelve months, from October, 1870; permanent from 5th November, 1871. (m) 1s. 6d. for eight months, from 20th September, 1869 ; 2s. 20. for twelve months, from 11th June, 1870; 28. ed. for twelve months, from 11th June, 1871; 2s. 2d. from 11th June, 1872; per- manent from 12th June, 1873, (n) Is, from 10th May, 1865; renewed for twelve months, April, 1866; again renewed for twelve months; sd. for twelve months, from 1868, to 10th May, 1869; 6d. for twelve months, from May. 1869 ; permanent from 11th May, 1870. NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS. 63 "THE CIVIL SERVICE INSURANCE ACT, 1893." It is provided by the above-named Act that every person ap- pointed to the Civil Service under "The Civil Service Reform Act, 1886," or afterwards, shall retire at the age of sixty years; but the Governor in Council may, nevertheless, require any officer who has attained such age to continue to perforin his duties, unless unfitted by reason of ill-health or other cause. Every officer appointed after the passing of this Act is required to effect a policy with the Government Life Insurance Commissioner (on his life), providing for the following combined benefits :— (1.) The payment of a sum of money on the death of such officer, should it occur before he attains the age of sixty years; and (2.) The payment to such officer of an annuity until death should he survive the age of sixty years. The premiums are paid in the form of deductions from the salaries of officers effecting policies according to the following schedule. The policies and moneys secured thereby are not assignable, and cannot be charged or attached. There are provisions for payment of surrender value of policies to officers whose services are dispensed with, or who voluntarily leave the Service. Annual Deductions fob Policies. £ s. d. i £ s. d. Under £150 ..5 0 0 £500 and under £550 ..25 0 0 ±150 and uu der£200 .. 7 10 0 £550 £000 .. 27 10 0 £200 £250 .. 10 0 I) £000 £650 ..30 0 0 £-250 £300 .. 12 10 0 £C50 £700 .. 32 10 0 £300 £350 ..15 0 (i £700 £750 .. 35 0 0 £350 £400 .. 17 10 0 £750 £800 .. 37 10 I) £400 £400 .. 20 0 0 £800 .. 40 0 (1 £450 £500 .. 22 10 0 NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS. There are (January, 1895) 188 publications on the register of newspapers for New Zealand. Of these, 52 are daily papers, 16 are published three times a week, 28 twice a week, 61 once a week, 3 fortnightly, and 25 monthly. The names of the newspapers, with the postal districts and towns in which they are printed, are given in the following list, the second column showing the day or period of publication. M. signifies morn- ing paper; E., evening paper :— Aratapu- Auckland. Wairoa Bell .. .. .. .. .. Friday. Auckland— Auckland Evening Star (E.) .. ■ .. .. .. Daily. Auckland Weekly News and Town and Country Journal .. Saturday. (11 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Auckland—continued. Bible Standard Church Gazotte Helping Hand New Zealand ABC Guide Now Zealand Craftsman New Zealand Farmer, Bee and Poultry Journal .. New Zealand Graphic, Ladies' Journal, and Youths' panion New Zealand Herald (M.) Observer Produce Circular and Monthly Report Searchlight Sharlaiul's Trade Journal Sporting Keview Coromandel— Coromandel County News (E.) Dargaville — Northern Advertiser Hamilton— Waikato Times and Thames Valley Gazette (M.) .. Kawakawa— Northern Luminary Onehunga— Manukau Gazette and County Times Rotorua— Hot Lakes Chronicle .. Whangarei— Northern Advocate Com- Monthly. Wednesday. Daily. Saturday. Monthly. Saturday. .. Tuesday, Friday .. Friday. .. Mon., Wed., Sat. .. Saturday. .. Wednesday. .. Friday. Opotiki- Thames. Korimako Hou Opotiki Herald, Whakatane County and East Ga/ette (K.I Paeroa — Hauraki Tribune and Thames Valley Advertiser (M.) Ohiuemuri Gairit* Tauranga— Bav of Plenty Times and Thames Valley Warden (E.) Te Aroha— Te Aroha and Ohinemuri News and Upper Thames cate ,M.i Thames— Despatch .. .. •• Thames Star (K.) Thames Advertiser and Miners' News jM.) Coast Monthly. Tuesday. Friday .. Saturday. .. Mon., Wed., Fri. Advo- .. Wed., Saturday. Saturday. .. Daily. Qisborne— Poverty Bay Herald \K.) GlSBORXK. New Plymouth. Inglewood— Record and Waitara News (M.t .. Weekly Record New Plymouth— Budget and Taranaki W eekty Herald Daily News (M.) Taranaki Herald VF.) • Taranaki News Daiiv. Wed., Saturday. Saturday. Daily. S»:urdav. NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS. 65 Opunake- Opunake Times (E.) Stratford- Egmont Post (E.) Egmont Settler (E.) .. .. .. .. Tuesday, Friday. .. Mon., Wed., Fri. .. Daily. : : : .. Tues., Thur., Sat. .. Saturday. : Daily. NAPIER. Danevirke- Bush Advocate (E.) .. Hastings- Huia Tangata Kotaki .. .. Napier- Daily Telegraph (E.) .. Evening News and Hawke's Bay Advertiser (E.) Hawke's Bay Herald (M.) Hawke's Bay Weekly Courier New Zealand Fire and Ambulance Record Waipawa- Waipawa Mail (E.) .. Wairoa- Wairoa Guardian and County Advocate (M.) ::::: ::::: Friday: .. Monthly. Tues., Thur., Sat. .. Wed., Saturday. : : : WANGANUI. Eltham- Eltham Guardian, Kaponga, Ngaire, Te Roti, Hawera, Stratford, and Cardiff Advertiser (M.) .. .. Wed., Saturday. Hawer&- Egmont Star .. .. Saturday. Hawera and Normanby Star, Patea County Chronicle, and Waimate Plains Gazette (E.) .. .:: Daily. Hawera Morning Post, Manaia, Normanby, Opunake, Okai. awa, Patea, Eltham, and Stratford Advertiser (M.) .. Tues., Thur., Sat. Hunterville- Paraekaretu Express, Hunterville, Ohingaiti, Moawhango, and Rata Advertiser (M.) .. Tuesday, Friday. Manaia Waimate Witness (E.) Wed., Saturday Marton- Mercury (M.) .. Daily. Rangitikei Advocate and Manawatu Argus (E.) ... Patea- Patea County Press (E.) .. .. .. .. Mon., Wed., Fri. Wanganui Wanganui Chronicle and Patea.Rangitikei Advertiser (M.) Daily. Wanganui Herald (E.)... Weekly Chronicle and Patea-Rangitikei Record .. . Saturday. Yeoman .. .. " .. .. .. .. .. Friday. WELLINGTON. Carterton- Wairarapa Observer, Featherston Chronicle, East Coast Advertiser, and South County Gazette (E.) .. .. Tues., Thur., Sat. Eketahuna- Eketahuna Express and North Wairarapa Courier (M.) .. Wed., Sat. Feilding-- _ Feilding Star (E.) .. .. .. .. .. Daily. Foxton- Manawatu Herald (E.) .. Tues., Thur., Sat. Greytown- · Wairarapa Standard (E.) .. .. .. .. Mon., Wed., Fy : 66 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Masterton- Eketahuna and Pahiatua Mail (M.) Daily. Wairarapa Daily Times (E.) .. Wairarapa Star (E.) .. Wairarapa Weekly Times .: Wednesday. Weekly Star and Wellington District Advertiser.. .. Thursday. Otaki- West Coast Mail and Horowhenua County Advertiser (M.).. Tuesday, Friday. Pahiatua Pahiatua Herald (E.) .. .. .. .. .. Mon., Wed., Fri. Palmerston North- Manawatu Daily Standard, Rangitikei Advertiser, and West Coast Gazette (M.) .. ". .. .. .. Daily. Manawatu Daily Times (E Manawatu Weekly, and Oroua and Rangitikei Record .. Thursday. Petone- Hutt and Petone Chronicle .. .. .. .. Wednesday. Shannon- Manawatu Farmer and Horowhenua County Chronicle (E.) Mon., Wed., Fri. Wellington- Church Chronicle .. Weekly. Daybreak . .. Fortnightly, Sat. Evening Post (E.) .. Daily. Fair Play .. Monthly. New Zealand Mail, Town and Country Advertiser.. Friday. New Zealand Times (M.) Daily. Register and Property Investors Guide .. .. Monthly. Southern Sunbeam .. Saturday. Monthly. Wellington Price Current and New Zealand Trade Review Woodville- Woodville Examiner (E.) .. .. .. .. Mon., Wed., Fri. BLENHEIM. Blenheim- Evening Star .. .. Saturday. Marlborough Daily Times and Town and Country Adver- tiser (E.) Daily. Marlborough Express (E.) . Marlborough Weekly News . . .. Friday. Havelock- Pelorus Guardian and Miners' Advocate (M.) .. .. Tuesday, Friday. Kaikoura- Kaikoura Star and North Canterbury and South Marl- borough News (E.) .. Picton- Marlborough Press, County of Sounds Gazette (M.) NELSON. Collingwood- Golden Bay Argus .. .. .. .. .. Friday. Nelson - Colonist (M.) .. .. .. .. .. Daily. Nelson Evening Mail (E.) Nelson Evening Star (E.) .. Takaka- Takaka News and Collingwood Advertiser .. Thursday. Charleston- WESTPORT. Charleston Herald, Brighton Times, and Croninville Re. porter (M.) .. .. .. Wed., Saturday. NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS. Lyell- Lyell Times and Central Buller Gazette .. Saturday. Westport- Buller Miner Friday. Westport News (M.) .. Daily Westport Times and Evening Star (E.) . GREYMOUTH. Brunnerton- Brunnerton News, Blackball Courier, and Grey Valley Advertiser (E.) .. Daily. Greymouth- Evening Star and Brunnerton Advocate (E.) .. Grey River Argus (M.) ... Weekly Argus .. Weekly. Reefton Inangahua Herald and New Zealand Miner (M.) .. Daily. Inangahua Times and Reefton Guardian (E.) ... HOKITIKA. Hokitika- Hokitika Guardian and Evening Star (E.) .. Daily. Leader .. Thursday. West Coast Times (M.).. .. .. Daily. Kumara- Kumara Times and Dillman's and Goldsborough Adver- tiser (E.) . . Ross and Okarito Advocate and Westland Advertiser (M.) .. Wed., Saturday. Ross- ::: CHRISTCHURCH. Akaroa Akaroa Mail and Banks Peninsula Advertiser (M.) Tuesday, Friday. Ashburton- Ashburton Guardian (E.) Daily. Ashburton Mail, Rakaia, Mount Somers, and Alford Forest Advertiser (M.) .. .. Tues., Thur., Sat. Christchurch- Canterbury Times .. Friday. Lyttelton Times (M.) .. Daily. Mercantile and Bankruptcy Gazette of New Zealand Friday. New Zealand Baptist .. Monthly. New Zealand Butcher .. New Zealand Church News . New Zealand Railway Review New Zealand Schoolmaster New Zealand Volunteer and Civil Service Gazette and Naval and Military Chronicle New Zealand War Cry and Official Gazette of the Salvation Army Tuesday. New Zealand Wheelman Fortnightly, Sat. Press (M.) Daily. Prohibitionist .. Fortnightly, Sat. Star (E.) Daily. Tribune Monthly. Truth (E.) Daily. Weekly Press Friday. Young Soldier .. Saturday. Oxford (East)- Oxford and Cust Observer ::::::::: ::::::::: : : 68 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Rangiora- Standard and North Canterbury Guardian (M.) .. Southbridge- Ellesmere Guardian (M.) . .. Wea., Saturday. TIMARU. Tues., Thur., Sat. Temuka, Geraldine Guardian (M.) Temuka Leader (M.) .. Timaru- South Canterbury Times (E.) Timaru Herald (M.) ... Waimate- Waimate Times (M.) .. .. Daily. .. Wed., Saturday. OAMARU. Oamaru- North Otago Times (M.) Oamaru Mail (E.) .. .. Daily. DUNEDIN. Balclutha- Clutha Leader . . .. Friday. . . Free Press . ** Clinton- Clutha County Gazette and Popotunoa Chronicle and Clinton Advertiser .. Clyde- Dunstan Times, Vincent County Gazette, and General Goldfields Advertiser Cromwell- Cromwell Argus and Northern Goldfields Gazette.. Tuesday. Dunedin-- Advocate Saturday. Christian Outlook Evening Star (E.) .: Dailý. . Farmers' Circular Thursday. Katipo Monthly New Zealand Insurance, Finance, and Mining Journal New Zealand Tablet .. .. Friday, Otago Daily Times (M.) .. Daily Otago Witness .. Thursday. Otago Workman, Dunedin and Suburban Advertiser Saturday. Phonographic Magazine and Typewriting News .. Monthly. Temperance Standard .. Triad .. Weekly Budget .. Saturday. Lawrence- Tuapeka Times (M.) Wed., Saturday. Milton - Bruce Herald (M.) ... Tuesday, Friday. Mosgiel- Taieri Advocate (M.) .. Wed., Saturday. Naseby- Mount Ida Chronicle (Thurs. E. and Sat. M.) Thur., Saturday. Palmerston Palmerston and Waikouaiti Times Friday. Roxburgh Mount Benger Mail .. .. Saturday. Tapanui, Tapanui Courier and Central Districts Gazette .. .. Wednesday. NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS. 69 : : : :: :: :: :::::. ::::: ::::: : : INVERCARGILL. Arrowtown- Lake County Press .. .. Thursday. Gore- Mataura Ensign (M.) .. .. Tuesday, Friday. Southern Standard (M.) Invercargill- Southern Cross Saturday. Southlander. Friday. Southland Daily News (E.) .. Daily. Southland Times (M.) .. Weekly Times Friday. Queenstown- Lake Wakatipu Mail (E.) Riversdale- Waimea Plains Review and Market Report Riverton- Western Star and Wallace County Gazette (M.) .. .. Wed., Saturday. The foregoing towns are arranged according to the postal dis- trict in which they are situated. Taking the provincial districts, Auckland has 33 publications registered as newspapers, Taranaki 9, Hawke's Bay 9, Wellington 41, Marlborough 7, Nelson 10, Westland 11, Canterbury 29, and Otago 39. : : : : : PAKT II.-STATISTICAL INFORMATION. [The progress of the colony from the beginning is shown in the statistical broadsheets which follow the General Index.] Population. The estimated population of New Zealand on the 31st December, 1894, with the increase for the year by excess of births over deaths and by immigration over emigration, was as under :— Persons. Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris) on 31st Males. 357,635 Females. 314,630 December, 1898 .. .. .. .. 672,265 Increase during the year 1894— Persons. Males. Females. Excess of births over deaths .. .. 11,610 5,461 6,149 Excess of arrivals over departures .. 2,253 667 1,586 13,863 6,128 7,735 Estimated population (exclusive of Maoris) on 31st December, 1894 .. .. .. ..686,128 363,763 322,365 Maori population, census 1891 .. .. .. 41,993 22,861 19,132 Total estimated population of the colony on 31st December, 1894 .. .. .. 728,121 386,624 341,497 The estimated number of Chinese in the colony at the end of the year 1894 was 4,145 persons, of whom 17 were females. These are included in the above table. At the census of April, 1891, the number in the colony was 4,444, so that in the space of three years and nine months a reduction of 299 persons had taken place, caused mainly by the excess of departures over arrivals. The Maori population can be given only for the date of the census, as very few births or deaths of Natives are registered; but the movement of Native population, judged by the results of the enumeration of 1886 (when the number was 41,969) compared with the number in 1891 (41,993), is so small that to use the same figures for several years in succession does not give rise to any great degree of error. Over 100 Maoris lost their lives at the eruption of Tara- wera, which occurred between the census of 1886 and that of 1891. 72 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Persons. Males. Females. 310,340 164,657 145,683 375,263 216 198,813 124 176,450 92 303 7 165 187 S 4 Included in the population, as stated above, are the half-castes, who numbered 4,865 at the time of the census; 2,681 of thesa were living as members of Maori tribes, and 2,184 as Europeans. The half-castes living as Europeans increased between 1886 and 1891 by 227, or at the rate of 116 per cent. The number of Maori wives of Europeans was 251 in 1891, against 201 in 1886. The estimated European population of the principal divisions of the colony on 31st December, 1894, was— North Island and adjacent islets (exclusive of Maoris) Middle Island and adjacent islets (exclusive of Maoris) Stewart Island Chatham Islands (exclusive of natives) Kermadec Islands Total for the colony (ex- clusive of Maoris) .. 686,128 363,763 322,365 To obtain these estimates of population in the different islands the census figures have been corrected (1) by adding the natural increases, that is, the excess of births over deaths, to the population of each island, and (2) by allocating the excess of immigration over emigration for the whole colony proportionately to the population of each island at census time. By this plan, no doubt, the North Island has suffered somewhat. But as the arrivals are all counted at the first, and the departures at the last port touched at, no other method of distributing the total gain can" be employed. A more serious difficulty arises from the want of records concerning the movements of population from one island to another. In all likeli- hood the North Island population is in reality decidedly greater than is here shown, and that of the Middle Island less. During the interval between the censuses of March, 1886, and April, 1891, the increase of population in the North Island was far in excess of the increase in the Middle Island. The figures are: North Island, 1891, 281,455 persons, against 250,482 in 1886, a difference of 30,973, or at the rate of 12-36 per cent.; Middle Island 1891, 344,711 persons, against 327,592 in 1886, a difference of only 17,119, or 522 per cent. The European population of Stewart Island did not increase, but that of the Chatham Islands rose from 199 to 271 persons. The Kermadec Islands appeared for the first time in 1891 as part of New Zealand, with a population of 19 persons. The Australian Colonies as a whole contained on the 31st December, 1894, an estimated population of 4,153,766 persons (ex- clusive of the aboriginal natives of Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia, and 41,993 New Zealand Maoris) RELIGIONS AND BIRTHPLACES. AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES.- ESTIMATED POPULATION ON 31st DECEMBER, 1894. Males. Females. Total. Queensland 250,834 194,321 445,155 New South Wales 672,950 578,500 1, 251, 450 Victoria 607, 259 571,844 1,179, 103 South Australia 179,442 168,278 347,720 Western Australia .. 55,072 27,000 82,072 Tasmania .. 83,266 74,190 157,456 New Zealand 363,763 322,365 686, 128 Religions and Birthplaces, 1891. The subjoined table gives a summary of the results of the census of 1891 as to the religions of the people, with the proportion of each denomination to the whole population then and at each of the three previous censuses:- Number of Denominations. Adherents Proportions per Cent. of Population. in 1891. 1878. 1881. 1886. 1891. Church of England, and Pro- testants (undefined) 253,331 42:55 41-50 40.17 40-51 Presbyterians 141,477 22.95 23.08 22:59 22.62 Wesleyan Methodists 53,061 7.79 8.07 7.81 8:49 Other Methodists .. 10,354 1.35 1.46 1.74 1.65 Baptists .. 14,825 2-21 2.34 2.48 2.37 Congregational Independents.. 6,685 1:34 1.38 1.35 1.07 Lutherans .. 5,616 1.36 1.18 1.02 0.90 Salvation Army 9,383 0.91 1.50 Society of Friends .. 315 0.04 0.05 0 05 0.05 Unitarians .. 308 0:11 0.10 0.08 0.05 Other Protestants .. 11,295 1.08 1.26 1:55 1.82 Roman Catholics, and Catholics (undefined) 87,272 14.21 14.08 13.94 13.96 Greek Church 56 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.01 Hebrews 1,463 0:34 0.31 0.27 0-23 Buddhists, Confucians 3,928 1:05 1:01 0.77 0.63 Other denominations 849 0.05 0.11 0.10 0.12 No denomination 8,252 0:53 0 89 1.05 1.32 No religion 1,558 0-05 0.06 0.17 0.25 Unspecified 1,288 0:42 0.27 0:50 Object to state 15,342 2:55 2.85 3:44 2:45 Totals 626,658 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 The returns of religions show that 81.03 per cent. of the people belonged to various Protestant denominations ; 13.96 were Roman Catholics; and the remainder belonged to other sects, were of no denomination, or objected to state their religious views. The pro- portion of Roman Catholics is much less in New Zealand than in Australia. Methodists increased between 1886 and 1891 at the rate of 14:61 per cent.; Church of England adherents increased 9:02 per cent.; Presbyterians, 8:29 per cent. ; Roman Catholics, 8:12 per cent. ; ::::::::: • Excluding the Northern Territory, which had a population of 4,682 persons. + In calculating the proportions for 1891 the "Unspecified " have not been taken into account. 74 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. while the Salvation Army had the highest rate of increase, 77-84 per cent. Freethinkers numbered 4,475 persons in 1891 against 3,925 in 1886. They are included above in the numbers for "No denomi- nation." The returns of birthplaces gave the following particulars :— Born in Persons. 1886. 1891. Census 1891. Per Cent. Per Cent New Zealand 366.716 51-89 58-61 England 117,070 21-72 18-71 Scotland 51,916 9-48 8-30 Ireland 47,634 8-89 7-61 Wales 2,214 0-34 0-35 Australia and Tasmania 15,943 2-98 255 Other British possessions 3,703 0-68 0-59 Denmark, Sweden, and Norway 4,755 0-86 0-77 Germany 4,663 0-87 0-75 China 4,470 0-79 0-71 Other countries, and at sea 6,557 1-50 105 Unspecified 1,017 •• Totals 626,658 10000 10000 The New-Zealand-born population increased between 1886 and 1891 at the rate of 22-16 per cent., but the numbers born in the Mother-country, Australian Colonies, other British dominions, and foreign parts diminished more or less in each case during the quin- quennium. Education, 1891. Of both sexes, 77-25 per cent, of the persons could read and write, 398 could read only, and 1877 could not read. Comparing with previous censuses, and for each sex separately, the proportion per cent, able to read and write will be found to rise steadily, while the proportions of those reading only, and unable to read, diminish. The figures next quoted illustrate this :— Proportion per Cent. (MaleB). Proportion per Cent. (Females). Census. Bead and Write. Bead only. Cannot Bead. Read and Write. Bead only. Cannot Bead. 1881 1886 1891 73-31 501 21-68 68-94 75-40 4-36 2024 7241 77-95 3-74 1831 76-47 6-39 2467 5-81 22-28 424 19-29 i Occupations of the People, 1891. The number in each class of occupation as at the census of 1891, and the proportion per cent, of the total, will be found in the following table, which also shows the population divided into two- sections, A and B, breadwinners and non-breadwinners, or de- pendents :— OCCUPATIONS OF THE PEOPLE. 75 Numbers. Proportions per Cent. Occupations. Persons. Males. Females. Persons. Males. Females. Total population .. .. 626,658 332,877 293,781 100·00 10000 100.00 2:52 3.98 3.03 1.66 1.95- 6-60 0.60 3.67 0.17 2:46 1.03 6.19 0:31 4:59 0.12 0.81 0.00 0.05 11.25 17.78 3.86 9:42 17.03 0.81 Section A.-Breadwinners. Class I. Professional .. | 15,821 10,082 5,739 II. Domestic .. .. 24,928 5,537 19,391 III. Commercial- Sub-cl. A. Property 3,756 3,414 342 and finance Sub-cl. B. Trade .. | 22,992 20,613 2,379 Sub-cl. C. Storage . 1,035 1,034 Sub-cl. D. Tracsport 15,413 15,269 144 and communica- tion IV. Industrial .. 70,521 59,196 11,325 V. Agricultural, pastoral, and other primary producers- Sub-cl. A. Agricul. 59,058 56,671 2,387 Sub-cl. B. Pastoral.. 9,549 9,279 270 Sub-cl. C. Mineral .. 16,929 16,906 23 Sub-cl. D. Other pri. | 5,010 5,004 6 mary producers . VI. Indefinite .. .. 7,751 4,341 7,751 4,3413,410 3,410 Section B.-Dependents (Non- breadwinners). Class VII. Dependents- Sub-cl. A. Dependent 369,178 122,410 246,768 on natural guar- dians Sub-cl. B. Dependent 4,717, 3,121 1,596 upon the State, or upon public or pri- vate support tural 1.52 2.70 0.80 2.79 5.08 1:50 0:09 0.01 0.00 1024 1.24 1.30 1.16 58.92 36.77 84:00 0.75 0.94 0.54 No less than 37.71 per cent. of the male and 84:54 per cent. of the female population are here shown to be dependent. 122,410 males and 246,768 females were maintained by natural guardians, and 3,121 males and 1,596 females by the State or by public or private support. The greater number of those dependent upon natural guardians were scholars and students. There were also a large number of dependent relatives not stated to be performing domestic duties, and a large number of females performing domestic duties for which no remuneration was paid. The classes are divided into 24 orders, which again are divided into 103 suborders. The items of the suborders are the specific occupations. In the tables belonging to Part VII. of the census 76 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. volume is given the total number of persons engaged in each occu- pation, with notes explaining their several positions and employ- ments. Conjugal Condition, 1891. Of persons of both sexes, 6762 per cent, were found to be unmarried, 29-18 married, and 320 widowed. Taking the male sex, and comparing the results of three censuses, the proportions of unmarried and married diminish, but the proportion of widowed increases. On the female side, the proportions of unmarried and widowed increase, while the married diminish. The figures are as under:— Census. Proporti on per Cent. (Males). Proportion per Cent. (Females). Unmarried. Married. Widowed. Unmarried. Married. Widowed. 1881 1886 1891 7039 70-35 7002 27-73 27-61 2701 1-88 2 04 237 0364 04-59 04 95 33 05 31-74 30-94 331 367 411 The Chinese are not included in the figures from which these calculations are made. The number of bachelors aged 20 and upwards was 70,197, and of spinsters aged 15 and upwards 67,000, being 105 bachelors to every 100 spinsters. Only in Canterbury and Otago were the spinsters in excess of the bachelors, but notably so in Canter- bury. The number of husbands was 90,371, and of wives 90,765, giving an excess of 394 of the latter. Proportions of the Sexes. Excluding the Maori population, the females in the colony are now in the proportion of 8862 to every 100 males. At the time of the census the proportion of females to males was greater in New .Zealand than in Queensland, New South Wales, and Western Aus- tralia, but less than in Victoria, South Australia, and Tasmania. Females to every 100 Mai Queensland New South Wales at Census. 1891. 7004 8412 Victoria ■• 9016 9233 South Australia Western Australia 66-79 Tasmania New Zealand 89-10 88-25 Populations of Provincial Districts. The following table gives the population in each provincial dis- trict estimated for the 31st December, 1894. It must, however, be pointed out that at a distance of three years and nine months from the POPULATIONS OF COUNTIE8. 77" census it is impossible to guarantee the correctness of these figures. There are no records of interprovincial arrivals and departures, and therefore in times of change the further the date from the last census the greater the liability to error. New Zealand being in- sular, the excess of arrivals over departures for the whole colony can be fairly well arrived at, and the excess of births over deaths, or natural increase, can also be found, giving a close estimate of the total population for any year; but the movement of population within the colony cannot be determined, and the subjoined figures must therefore be accepted as approximations only. As stated pre- viously, the provincial districts of the North Island have no doubt been under-estimated in the allocation of the excess of arrivals over departures:- 31st December, 1894. Persons. Males. Females. Auckland .. .. 145,431 76,241 69,190 Taranalci .. .. 24,767 13,139 11,628 Hawke's Bay 31,784 17,403 14,381 Wellington .. 108,358 57,874 50,484 Marlborough 14,103 7,778 6,325 Nelson .. 37,796 20,974 16,822 Westland .. 16,657 9,561 7,096 Canterbury .. 140,108 72,378 67,730 Otago .. 166,815 88,246 78,569 Chatham Islands 302 165 137 Kermadec Island I .. 7 4 3 Totals .. .. 686,128 363,763 322,365 Populations of Counties. These can be given only as at the date of the last census.* The same objections that may be lodged against the endeavour to estimate the populations of the provincial districts at a distance of time from the census will apply with still greater force to any calculation of the numbers at present resident in the several counties and boroughs. The figures are therefore left as they were determined by the census. For statistical, as for administrative purposes, each borough is treated as distinct from the county wherein it lies. In April, 1891, the number of the counties was 78. (This number has since been increased to 81 by the creation of three new counties—Kiwitea and Pohangina, both cut out of Oroua County, and Levels, taken out of Geraldine.) Of these the North Island had 45, with a county population amounting altogether to 155,057 persons. The Middle Island had 32, the population being 196,838. Stewart Island is a county in itself. The names and populations of the various counties in the colony were as under at the date of the census:— * In April, 18?G, a new census will be taken, so that the next Year-book should contain populations of all diviaiona of the colony brought up to date. 78 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. F. ... 967 - 12.396 195 WW Counties. Persons, M. Counties. Persons. M. F. Mongonui ... ... 1.399 788 601 i Waipawa ... 7,906 4,432 3,474 Whangaroa . 878 487 391 : Patangata ... ... 2,044 1,378 666 Hokianga 1,494 871 623 Pahiatua... 2,365 1.414 951 Bay of Islands ... 2,562 1,437 1,125 Wairarapa North ... 5,143 3,092 9051 Hobson ... ... 3,998 2,154 1,144 Wairarapa South 4.980 2,863 2,117 Whangarei 6,120 3,456 2,664 Hutt ... ... 6,114 3,942 2,872 Otamates 9.054 1.190 64 Sounds... 720 294 Rodney ... .. 3,170 1,681 1,499 Marlborough 6,520 3,827 2,693 Waitemata 6.184 3.492 2,092 Kaikoura 1,460 817 643 Eden ... 13,789 6,791 6,991 Collingwood 2,103 1,174 929 Nanukau 11,935 6.111 5,814 Waimes ... 8,942 4,740 4,902 Coromandel ... 2.846 1.694 1.159 Buller ... 4,659 2,823 1,836 Thames... 4,340 2,35 1,987 Inangahus 4,648 2,892 1,756 Ohinemuri 1,516 534 Grey ... 2,950 1,380 Piako ... 2,517 1,428 1,089. Westland 5,031 3,191 1,840 Waikato... . 2.738 1,473 1.285 Amuri .. 679 Waips. 1,761 1,634 Cheviot ... 164 120 Raglan. 1,090 634 43 Ashley 5,819 Kawhis. 11: Selwyn ... ...38,375 18,699 17,676 West Taupo 119 91 Akaros ... 3,771 2,083 1,658 East Taupo 152 100 5 Ashburton - 9,501 5,335 4,166 Rotorua... 165 Geraldine - 14.588 7.543 7,045 Taurangs 610 Nackenzie 1.180 689 491 Whsdatane 673 Wsimste 4,043 2.364 1,679 Wsiapu ... 133 Waitaki 8.375 4.609 3,766 8.943 1.706 Waihemo 2.045 1,181 859 Chifton Waikousiti 2.321 2,013 Taranski SAN Peninsula 2701 1,361 1,340 Stratton 1. Talerie 1.079 3,873 3,906 Bruce 2.567 2,129 Pates - Cluths 5.5.4 3,246 2,328 Waitotara 98 Taapel 3.830 2,497 Naantato 1.722 1.195 3118 1,338 2919 1855 1,034 194.373 10.970 8,403 1 Wasce -- 3.06 3.089 2,208 5 6 Hawke's Nar - 4K: A Severt Isasi - 2 15 87 The countr pupalasia amanti so jo is per eens of the total.* In quoties are inca al towns that are no maziipal govern- mens, we, ou de waer bazie Pepe Linz in many of the bus can banisi el towed . The population in bw a ren in dess further was 3.353 persons, or 4.14 per veni ine le Fureret penas resident in Wir sene Wiium In 1886 the antas S ni mis su..:); or, for every I nereineken word is a burocs Thus it will han has r e e dhe cok population . dorea There were se of 1201 was taken. sence when the census POPULATION OF BOROUGHS. 79 :::: :::::::: 1,379 ::::::::::::: 300 Since the time of the census seven new boroughs have been con- stituted, as under :- Population. Boroughs. Census, April, 1891. Danevirke, taken from Waipawa County 838 Pahiatua, Pabiatua 782 Karori, Hutt 966 Richmond, Waimea 452 Linwood, Selwyn .. 4,580 Sumner, Selwyn 614 Woolston, Selwyn .. 2,088* A complete list of the boroughs in the colony as in April, 1891, with populations, is here given :- Population, Boroughs. Boroughs. Population, 1891. 1891. Birkenhead 455 Christchurch 16,223 Devon port 2,455 Sydenham 9,680 Auckland 28,613 Akaroa .. 571 Newton .. 2,087 Ashburton 1,900 Newmarket 1,586 Timaru .. 3,668 Parnell .. 3,967 Waimate Onehunga 2,924 Oamaru .. 5,621 Thames 4,618 Hampden Hamilton 1,212 Palmerston South 790 Cambridge 850 Hawkesbury 743 Tauranga 1,055 Port Chalmers .. 2,028 Gisborne 2,158 North-East Valley 3,337 New Plymouth 3,350 Maori Hill 1,426 Hawers .. 1,284 West Harbour 1,297 Patea .. 676 Dunedin 22,376 Wanganui 5,011 Roslyn .. .. 3,845 Marton .. 976 Caversham 4,690 Feilding .. 1,583 Mornington 3,523 Palmerston North 4,303 St. Kilda 1,153 Foxton .. 1,223 South Dunedin 4,222 Hastings 2,303 Green Island 687 Napier .. 8,341 Mosgiel .. 1,304 Woodville 971 Milton .. 1,158 Masterton 3,114 Kaitangata 1,145 Carterton 1,112 Balclutha 867 Greytown 1,141 Lawrence 1,026 Wellington 31,021 Roxburgh 410 Onslow .. 979 Tapanui .. 428 Melrose .. 1,224 Naseby .. 496 Petone .. 2,178 Cromwell 474 Lower Hutt 1,329 Alexandra 310 Picton 788 Arrowtown 426 Blenheim 3, 294 Queenstown 779 Nelson .. 6,626 Invercargill 4,950 Westport 2,622 Invercargill North 717 Greymouth 3,787 Invercargill East .. 736 Brunner .. 2,231 Invercargill South 1,559 Hokitika 2,178 Avenal .. 302 Ross .. 822 Gladstone 287 Kumara .. 1,176 Campbelltown .. 650 Kaiapoi .. 1,371 Gore .. 1,618 Rangiora 1,783 Winton .. 288 Lyttelton 4,087 Riverton 843 St. Albans 5,247 • Population, 1893. ::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::. ::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::: 80 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAK-BOOK. There is not in New Zealand, as in each of the other Australasian Colonies, one metropolitan centre of population over- shadowing, by comparison, all other towns. The peculiar con- figuration of the country made it specially adapted for the establish- ment of settlements comparatively remote from one another. Aa a result the colony was formerly divided into nine provinces, each having its capital town. Of these, the principal are the Cities of Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Auckland City, situate in the northern part of the North Island, had in April, 1891, a population of 28,613. As the population of the suburbs amounted to 22,674, the total number of persons dwell- ing in and around Auckland was 51,287. The City of Wellington, the seat of Government, is situated on the border of Port Nicholson, at the southern extremity of the North Island. It contained in April, 1891, as many as 31,021 persons. The suburban population is small, amounting, at the above date, to 3,169 persons only. The whole population in and around Wellington thus numbered 34,190. The City of Christchurch is situated in the Canterbury Dis- trict of the Middle Island. The census returns gave a population of 16,223 in the borough, and of 31,623 in the suburbs—that is, within the boundaries of the Christchurch Health District—making the total number in the Borough and suburbs of Christchurch 47,846. The City of Dunedin, the principal town of the former Pro- vince of Otago, is the centre of a population amounting to 45,869, of which the borough itself contained 22,376; the remainder being distributed among eight surrouuding boroughs, which are practically suburbs of Dunedin. The estimated populations of these four chief centres, as on 31st December, 1894, were as under :— Estimated Population. December. 1891. Auckland City .. .. .. .. .. 31,402 Wellington City .. .. .. .. 35,040 Christchurch City .. .. .. .. 17,636 DuneilinCity .. .. .. .. .. 23,807 These estimates will be superseded next year by the actual facts shown in the census results, in which the" populations of the suburbs will also be correctly stated. 7ncrefl.se of Population. The increase of population duiing 1894 was 13,863. As the number of births exceeded the number of deaths by 11 610 the difference between that number and 13,863 represents the excess of arrivals over departures, amounting to 2,253. There is good reason to believe that few of the births or deaths that occur remain unregistered. Where a limit of time is given within which a birth has to be registered it follows as a matter of course that there will be occasional instances of neglect of INCREASE OF POPULATION. 81 13,612 1890 .. 12,284 13,164 1891 .. 11,755 12,998 1892 .. 11,417 13,194 1893 .. 11,420 12,685 1894 .. 11,610 the requirements of the law; but it would appear that such neglect is very exceptional, and that the number of unregistered events is so small as not appreciably to affect the numbers given. The following shows the excess of births over deaths in each of the past ten years :— 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 In 1894 the population of the colony was greater than in 1885 by 19-29 per cent. Nevertheless the excess of births over deaths for 1894 is less than for 1885 by 14-71 per cent. The excess of births over deaths in 1894 was equivalent to 1-71 per cent, of the mean population for the year, the actual increase of population being at the rate of 206 per cent. A table is given showing the increase of population for ten years. Although the large increase shown for 1893 was not maintained during 1894, the arrivals in the colony during the latter year at all events exceeded the departures by 2,253. Notwithstanding the attractions of the Coolgardie goldfields and other disturbing in- fluences, the colony not only retained the population drawn to it in the two previous years, but also absorbed more than two thousand persons from other countries. Estimated Increase during the Year Centesimal Increase Year. Population on the By Excess of By Excess of Immigration Net on Population of Previous Year December. 31st Births over Deaths. over Emi- ' Increase. gratlon.* | 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 575,172 13,012 13,164 12,998 13,194 12,685 12,284 11,755 11,417 11,420 11,610 -2,744t 10,868 1-93 ■ 539,380 003,361 607,380 616,052 025,508 034,058 050,433 072,265 685,128 -17,194f 58,886 1024 4,958 16,375 21,832 13,863 2-58 3-30 206 10,412 2,253 It will be observed that in the period 1885 to 1891 the total increase of the population was less than the natural increase by excess of births over deaths, owing to the fact that the outgo of population by departures was greater than the gain by arrivals. But another state of things prevailed in 1892-94, when, in addition to the natural increase, there was a gain of 17,623 excess of arrivals over departures. * Corrected in accordance) with census results of lH^C and 1891. The amount of loss by departures, though correct in the aggregate, cannot be allocated with exactness to the respective years. t Loss. 6 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Arrivals and Departures. The number of persons who arrived in the colony in the year 1894 was 25,237, a decrease of 898 on the number for the pre- vious year. Of the arrivals in 1894, 22,196 persons were classi- fied as adults, being above the age of twelve years, and 3,041 as children. The total number of males was 16,375, and of females 8,862. The arrivals from the United Kingdom numbered 2,846, from Victoria 4,417, from New South Wales and Queensland 15,970, from Tasmania 904. Thus the arrivals from Australia amounted to 21.291. Besides these, 377 persons came from Fiji, and 723 from the South Seas and other ports, including arrivals by mail-steamers from San Francisco. The practice of nominating immigrants to be brought out partly at the Government expense has been discontinued since the 16th December, 1890, and there was no free immigration in the year 1894. Tiro hundred and seventy-eight Chinese arrived in and 143 left the colony during 1894, the number of arrivals thus exceeding the departures by 135. The following table shows the immigration for twenty-one years -stating separately arrivals from the United Kingdom, the Aus- tralian Colonies, and other places. The arrivals during 1893 and 1994 wiil le found to exceed those in any other years comprised in the period e feept isit and isie), when the numbers were largely sireilen by assistei immigrants from the Unitei Kingdom; and it wil also be notioned that the years 1593 and 1594 had by far the langest number of arrivals from Australia :- reinst hitel Kien Total Arrivals. 4. , 23*24; . a, sto 43,965 31,737 18,414 12.987 16,263 23.957 15.154 9,688 10,945 19.915 20.021 16,199 16.101 13.689 13,606 15,392 15,028 14.431 15, 35, 135 35,237 they are do My ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES. 83 Here the arrivals increase from 15,028 in 1890 to 25,237 in 1894, and those from Australia from 11,539 in the former year to 21,291 in the latter, being nearly twice as many in 1894 as in 1890. In 1881 an Act was passed imposing a tax on every Chinese land- ing in the colony, except in the case of any one of the crew of a vessel not intending to remain. The object of the Act—so to hamper Chinese immigration as to prevent the number of Chinese in the colony from increasing—was until last year successfully attained. In 1881 the Chinese population amounted to 5,004, in 1886 the number had fallen to 4,542, and at the census of 1891 there were only 4,444 Chinese in the colony. The estimated num- ber for December, 1894, was 4,145 persons against 4,044 in 1893, the arrivals during 1894 having exceeded the departures and deaths by 101. The numbers of arrivals and departures of Chinese in each of the past fourteen years were :— Year. Arrivals. Departures. Year. Arrivals. Departures. 1881 .. 1,029 371 1888 . 308 211 1882 23 1G8 1889 . 10 104 1883 44 297 1890 . 18 169 1884 84 306 1891 . 5 160 1885 94 104 1892 . 58 197 188G 289 181 1893 . 110 134 1887 354 24G 1894 . 278 143 Laws restricting Chinese immigration have been passed in the Australian Colonies as well as in New Zealand. In New South Wales, an Act of 1888 raised the poll-tax im- posed in 1881 to £100, and vessels were prohibited from carrying to the colony more than one Chinese passenger to every 300 tons. Chinese cannot engage in mining without express authority, and -are not allowed to become naturalised. The Act is stated to have resulted in the complete stoppage of Chinese immigration. Every effort is made to obtain correct statements of the migra- tion to and from the colony, but there is still difficulty in regard to the departures. The arrivals are doubtless correct, but many people leave the colony for Australia without booking their passages, paying their fares on board after the steamer has cleared: in these cases the returns from the Customs authorities are deficient. The difficulty is in great measure overcome by an arrangement under which the pursers of the intercolonial steamers belonging to the Union Steamship Company, on their return to this colony, post to the Registrar-General a statement of the number of passengers on the previous outward voyage. But during any period of cheap fares and keen competition between rival companies steamers may carry more passengers than should lawfully be taken, and of the number in excess no return is likely to be made. The number of persons who left this colony in 1894 was 22,984, of whom 20,737 were over and 2,247 were under twelve years of age. The males numbered 15,708, and the females 7,276. The 84 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. .. 1,177 Australia .. departures for the United Kingdom amounted to 1,669 persons. 2,897 left for Victoria, 16,955 for New South Wales and Queensland, and 636 for Tasmania — making altogether 20,488 for Australia. 198 persons left for Fiji, and 629 for other ports (including pas- sengers for San Francisco). The total excess of arrivals over departures—2,253 persons—is. made up as under :- Excess of Arrivals. From United Kingdom 803 Fiji 179 Other places 94 Comparing the arrivals and departures for 1894 with those of the previous year, it will be observed that, whereas the arrivals fell from 26,135 to 25,237, the departures rose from 15,723 to 22,984. No fewer than 20,488 persons left New Zealand last year for Aus- tralia, very many, no doubt, tempted by the rich finds of gold in. Western Australia ; but, notwithstanding this large exodus, there was (according to the returns) an excess of arrivals in New Zealand from the Continent in the year amounting to 803, so that this colony held its own against Australia in spite of special inducements for miners to leave. The following table shows the recorded movements of population between New Zealand and the United Kingdom in each of the past. ten years :- UNITED KINGDOM. Arrivals Departures therefrom. thereto. 1885 7,241 1,857 1886 6,893 2,385 1887 4,906 2,086 1888 4,138 1,964 1889 3,275 2,039 1890 2,812 1,863 1891 2,435 1,705 1892 2,555 1,612 1893 2,929 1,583 1894 2,846 1,669 Totals 40,030 18,763 These figures, which inay be taken as correct, show a gain of 21,267 persons through intercourse with the United Kingdom ; nevertheless there was during the ten years a loss by excess of departures over arrivals of 2,315 persons. It follows, therefore, that the loss to Australia and other places amounted to 23,582 during the decennial period, of which number at least 90 per cent. must have gone to Australia. The figures for 1892–94 give a dif- ferent result for the last three years of the decennium, showing a net gain from intercourse with Australia of 13,882 persons. Of the loss prior to 1892, by far the largest amount in any one year oc- curred in 1888, when the expenditure of loan-money by the General Government was suddenly reduced by one-half. :::::::::: :::::::::: :::::::::: ::::::::: : : ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES. 85 The returns published by the Board of Trade do not distinguish between the departures from the United Kingdom for New Zealand -and those for Australia. Only the departures for Australasia as a whole are given. In 1894 these amounted to 11,151. The number of persons who arrived in New Zealand direct from the United Kingdom was 2,846, or equal to nearly 26 per cent, of the entire direct emigration from the United Kingdom to the Australasian Colonies. This proportion is greater than in any previous year except 1893; but the number does not represent all the persons who come from the United Kingdom to this colony, as many travel by •way of the Suez Canal or San Francisco, and thus appear as arrivals -either from Australia or foreign ports. According to the foregoing table the arrivals from the United King- dom fell in number in regular annual sequence, from 7,241 in 1885 to 2,435 in 1891; but New Zealand has since then somewhat in- creased her gain of population from the Old Country, the arrivals for 1892 numbering 2,555, for 1893 2,929, and for 1894 2.846 persons, while the departures for the United Kingdom fell year by year from 1889 to 1893, and rose only slightly in 1894. In 1894 the excess of arrivals from the United Kingdom over the departures thereto was as high as 1,177 persons. In 1891 it was only 730 persons. There has been of late years a large annual decrease in the number of persons who leave the United Kingdom for these southern colonies :— Emigration Arrivals in Now Zealand from United Arrivals in New Zealand per Year. from United 100 Departures for to Australasia. Kingdom Kingdom. Australasia from 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 40,689 44,055 35,198 31,725 28,834 21,570 19,957 16,183 11,412 11,151 7,241 6,893 4,906 4,138 3,275 2,812 2,4:35 2, 555 2,929 2,846 United Kingdom. 1780 1565 13-94 1304 11-36 1303 12-20 1579 25-67 25-52 .. As the population of New Zealand (exclusive of Maoris) com- prises no more than 16-54 per cent, of the population of Australasia, not including Fiji, it is evident from the above figures that this -colony during 1893 and 1894 offered greater attractions to emigrants than did Australia; and it must be remembered that as remarked before the above numbers do not include persons who arrive from England via Australia and the United States. The following shows the immigration and emigration for each of the Australasian Colonies during the year 1894. The emigration 86 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. figures are, for all the colonies, adınittedly imperfect, as no record is obtained of a number of departures by sea :- Colony, Arrivals, 1894. Excess of Departures, Arrivals over De- 1894. partures, 1894. l Queensland .. New South Wales Victoria (by sea only) South Australia Western Australia Tasmania New Zealand .. ::::::: ::::::: 25, 247 118,397 84,261 62,399 25,858 17,009 25,237 21,070 114,051 90, 110 62,285 9,892 16,891 22,984 4,177 4,346 -5,849* 114 15,966 118 2, 253 VITAL STATISTICS. Births. The births registered in the colouy during 1894 numbered 18,528, or at the rate of 27:28 per 1,000 of the mean population. Numeri- cally, the births registered in 1894 are found to be 341 in excess of the number for 1893 ; nevertheless the birth-rate fell from 27.50 in the former year to 27.28 in the latter. From the year 1884, when the births were 19,846, to 1892, when they numbered only 17,876, there was a regular annual decrease, notwithstanding the increase of population. In 1893 came a change; but the numerical increase in the registrations of births has not been sufficient to raise the birth-rate per 1,000 of the population. That there should be a continuous fall in the birth-rate of New Zealand is only what might be expected, as the same process is going on in Australia ; but the fall here has been greater, and it is noticeable that New Zealand has now a lower birth-rate than any of the colonies of Australia. The following table shows that, with increasing population and, since 1886, a numerical increase of marriages, there has been for many years an annual decrease in the birth-rate :- Mean Population Norm Number of Births per 1,000 Number of Year. (excluding Marriages. Births, of the Maoris). Population, 1881 493,482 3,277 18,372 37.95 1882 509,309 3,600 19,009 37.32 1883 529,292 3,612 19,202 36.28 1884 552,590 3,800 19,846 35-91 1885 573,362 3,813 19,693 34-35 1886 582,117 3,488 19,299 33.15 1887 596,374 3,563 19,135 32-09 1888 605,371 3,617 18,902 31.22 1889 612,716 3,632 18,457 30.07 1890 620,780 3,797 18,278 29.44 1891 629,783 3,805 18,273 29.01 1892 642,245 4,002 17,876 27.83 1893 661,349 4,115 18,187 27:50 1894 679,196 4,178 18,528 27-28 :::::::::::::: * Excess of departures. Mean Population. Births Exdusive of Maoris) Year. Mean Population (excluding Maoris). No. of No. of No. of Births. Marriages. Deaths. 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 493,482 509,309 529,292 552,590 573,362 582,117 596,374 605,371 612,716 620,780 629,783 642,245 661,349 679,196 18,372 19,009 19,202 19,846 19,693 19,299 19,135 18,902 18,457 18,278 18,273 17,876 18,187 18,528 3,277 3,600 3,612 3,800 3,813 3,488 3,563 3,617 3,632 3,797 3.805 4,002 4,115 4,178 5,491 5,701 6,061 5,740 6,081 6,135 6,137 5,708 5,772 5,994 6,518 6,459 6,767 6,918 Deaths. ALE OF THOUSANO Marriages. 509,309 562.500 605371 6226 620 780 629,783 642,245 661,349 679, 196 19 202 19.846 19,693 19 299 981'61 18,902 18678 18.273 17,876. 18.167 18,528 18.457 3,277 3.600 178 0196 4.002 4115 6.491 67701 6.061 5,740 6,081 6135 6,137 5,708 6.772 6,518 6,767 6,918 6489 1081 1889 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1681 1892 6681 1894 1881 8881 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 0681 1891 1892 1893 1894 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 POPULATION, BIRTHS, MARRIAGES AND DEATHS. Compared for 14 Years. Troudate BIRTHS. 87 A fall in the birth-rate in a young country is to a certain point a natural result of the increase in the proportion of the population under twenty-one years of age; but in New Zealand the proportion under twenty-one at the census of 1891 was found to be slightly lower than in 1886, so that there must be further reasons to account for such a decrease in the actual number of births as is found up to the year 1893. Inquiry was made of District Eegistrars to discover whether many births escaped registration, through the colony not being sufficiently subdivided for registration purposes; but the replies did not tend to show that the decrease could be assigned to this cause, though it is nevertheless desirable to subdivide further when repre-' sentations are made of fresh requirements. Whenever it is reported to the Kegistrar-General that a birth has not been registered, an authority is issued to the District Registrar to prosecute the responsible party for neglect. Registrars are all under instructions to watch closely for cases of negligence, so that proceedings may be taken. Seventeen convictions were secured in the year 1891, and fines inflicted. The decrease in the birth-rate all over the civilised world has been freely and openly commented on of late, and the voluntary limitation of families is no doubt largely resorted to in communities ■where the spread of education has created a high standard of com- fort in living, and multiplied wants tenfold. In 1881 there were in New Zealand 5-72 births to every marriage in the previous year, and in 1894 the proportion had fallen to 4-50 births to each mar- riage. It was ascertained, after the census of 1881 had been compiled, that the married women of reproductive age in the colony averaged 314 to every 100 of legitimate births, which is equal to an average of one birth to every married woman at the age for child-bearing in every 314 years. In 1886 the average was found, on calculation, to be 333 wives to 100 births, or an average of one birth to each wife in 3-33 years. In 1891 there were 17,635 legitimate births, and the number of married women at the time of the census at the period 15 to 45 years was 63,165, which gives an average of 358 wives to each 100 births, or, deducting one child in each case of twins, the average becomes 362 wives to every 100 births, being a birth to each wife every 362 years. The census results therefore prove that the average interval between each birth in the case of married women at the child-bearing ages advanced from 314 years in 1881 to 333 years in 1886, and 362 years in 1891; so that this factor must evidently be taken into account in considering the question of the causes of the falling birth-rate. In the United States the proportions per 1,000 for 1880 and 1890 were respectively 360 and 30-7; in England and Wales, 34-2 and 30-2; in Scotland, 336 and 302; in Ireland, 247 and 223; in France, 24-5 and 21-8; in Belgium, 31T and 287; in the German Empire, 37'6 and 357; in Austria, 380 and 367; in Switzerland, 88 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. 29.6 and 26:6; in Denmark, 31.8 and 30:6; in Norway, 30.7 and 30:3; and in the Netherlands, 35.5 and 32.9. The fall in the birth-rates of the Australian Colonies during a period of ten years is shown in the following table :- BIRTH-RATES PER 1,000 OF POPULATION. Colony. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1899. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. Queensland .. New South Wales Victoria South Australia Western Australia Tasmania New Zealand ... 36.66 40-21 38.09 37.77'36.27 40-95 36.35 35.84 33 7331.86 .. 37.64 37:03 36.42 36 18 33.7335-35 34.50 34:41 32.23 31.47 ... 30.7431.23 32.39 32:49 32.95 33.60 33.5732.54 31.25 29-16 .. 37.30 35-32.34.63 33:34 3237 32-75 33.92 32 32 31.71 30-49 .. 35.22 39.21137.34 35.88 37-14 32 55 34:85 33:01 34.14 27.49 ..35 08 34:15 33.87 33.10 31.94 33:49 3337 32:48|3392 31.13 .. 34:35 33-15 32:09 31:32 30-07 29:44 29.01 27.83 27:50 27-28 In the year 1880 New Zealand had the highest birth-rate of any in these colonies, 40-78; but since 1887 the position has been re- versed, and the rate is now the lowest of all. The birth-rates for seven years in Great Britain and certain coun- tries of the European Continent are given from the report of the Registrar-General of England. The rates in England and Wales, and in Scotland, are higher than those in New Zealand, but the rate for Ireland is lower. For 1892 France has the lowest rate of all quoted. BIRTH-RATES IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES, 1887 TO 1893. | Number of Births per 1,000 of Mean Population. Countries. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. Hungary Austria Italy .. German Empire Netherlands England and Wales Scotland Norway Sweden Belgium Switzerland France Ireland :::::: :::::: 44:1 438 43.7 38.2 37.9 37.9 3901 37.6 38.4 36.9 36.6 364 33.7 | 33.7 33.2 .. 31.9 31.2 31.1 ..! 31.8 31.3 30.9 ..! 30.8 30-8 ! 29.7 29.7 | 28 8 27.7 29.4 '29'11 | 29.5 27.9 | 27.7 i 27.6 ..'23.5 23.1 23.0 .. 231 22:8 22:7 40.3 42. 3 40- 3 42-5 36:7 38:1 36.2 35.9 37.3 36.3 36-6 35.7 37.0 35.7 | 36.7 329 33.7 320 33.8 30.2 31.4 | 30-5 30-8 30.4 31.2 30.8 31-0 30-3 | 30.9 29.6 30-7 28.0 28.3 270 28.7 29.6 28.9 29-5 26 6 28 3 28.1 28.5 21.8 / 22.6 | 22:1 22:3 23:1 22.5 23-0 The male births in New Zealand in 1894 numbered 9,472, and the female 9,056: the proportion was thus 104:59 males to 100 females. In 1893 the proportion was 104.88 males, and in 1892, 103.72. There are on an average more male to female births in each of the Australasian Colonies than in England, but the pro- portion of male births is still greater in many European countries, ILLEGITIMATE BIKTHS. 89 There were 17G cases of twin births (352 children) in 1894; and Also two cases of triplets. The number of children born was 18,528; the number of mothers was 18,348: thus on an average 1 mother in every 103 gave birth to twins. In 1893 the proportion was one in 95, in 1892 one in 102, in 1891 one in 101, and in 1890 -one in 94. The births of 704 children were illegitimate: thus 38 in every 1,000 children born were born out of wedlock. The following table gives the rates of illegitimacy in each of the Australasian Colonies. The rate in New Zealand is less than in any other of the Australasian Colonies except South Australia:— Proportion op Illegitimate Births in every 100 Births. Year. Queens- land. Xow South Wales. Victoria. South Australia. Western Australia. Tasmania. New Zealand. 1885 408 460 4-86 2-42 455 820 1886 3-97 46.3 475 238 413 312 1887 449 4-59 478 249 3-40 323 1888 413 508 480 207 362 305 1889 468 533 497 247 4 02 332 1890 4-a5 526 509 250 4-05 330 1891 465 536 536 2-93 372 3'49 1892 505 571 559 2-93 5-89 475 332 1893 4-97 616 546 2-84 4-17 441 870 1894 4-52 614 5'50 305 4-66 5 09 380 The rates in the Colonies of Queensland, New South Wales, "Victoria, Western Australia, and Tasmania are somewhat higher than the rate in England, which was 4-2 in 1893. The rate for New Zealand is less. In Scotland the rate was as high as 7'6 in the year 1890. In Ireland it was only 2-7 in 1891. Of European continental countries Austria has the highest rate, 14-7. In the German Empire it is 93, in France 8-1, in Italy 6'8, and in Switzerland 46. An important Act was passed last year, entitled "The Legiti- mation Act, 1894," which makes provision for the legitimation of •children born before marriage on the subsequent marriage of their parents. Under this Act any child born out of wedlock, whose parents afterwards marry, is deemed to be legitimised by such mar- riage on the birth being registered in the manner prescribed by the Act. For legitimation purposes Registrars must register a birth when called upon to do so by any person claiming to be the father -of an illegitimate child; but such person is required to make a solemn declaration that he is the father, and that at the time of the birth there existed no legal impediment to his marriage with the mother of the child. He has also to produce the evidence of his marriage. It will thus be seen that in cases dealt with under the Act registration becomes the test of legitimacy. In the December quarter of 1894, 11 children were legitimised; in the March quarter -of 1895 the number was 33. It appears likely that the Act will •often be taken advantage of in case of half-castes. 90 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. It is held that the average number of children to a marriage may be ascertained by comparing the total of legitimate births for a series of years with the total of marriages during a series of years of the same number, but beginning one year earlier; for, although in the earlier years births will be included that are the fruit of marriages solemnised prior to the commencement of the period, yet there will be omitted the children born subsequently to the period, of parents married within the given time. This method probably gives results approximately true :- Proportion of Births Year. Marriages. Legitimate Births. to every Marriage solemnised in • the Preceding Year. 1889 3,632 1890 3,797 17,675 487 1891 3,805 17,635 464 1892 4,002 17,283 4-54 1893 4,116 17,514 437 1894 18,528 450 Sums and proportit m (five 19,351 88,635 458 years) For the last five years the average number of births per marriage has been 458, the number falling during the period from 4-87 to- 4-50; at the same time the rate for 1894 is higher than it was in 1893 (4-37). In the Australian Colonies a similar decrease is notice- able. It has been remarked that in all the Australian Colonies, except Tasmania, and possibly New South Wales, the average number of children to a marriage tends to decrease. In Victoria the number for the year 1880 was 499, but fell to 397 in 1891. In New South Wales the figures are 50 for 1880, and a mean of 4-72 for the period 1890-91. The following statement of the average number of children to a marriage in various European countries is taken from the Victorian Year-book for 1893 :— Children to each Marriage .. 5 46 England .. 456 I Sweden .. .. 443 !Denmark 434 France ., .. 421 per cent, of births over deaths Australasian Colonies for a mean of ten years ending with 1893> is stated in the Victorian Year-book as under:— Excess per Cent, of Births over Deaths. New Zealand .. ■ • ^ Tasmania. .. ..131 South Australia .. • • 1 ™ Western Australia .. ]i6 New South Wales •• lo6 Victoria.. .. ..in Queensland ■• "lu For the year 1893 New Zealand again occupies the first place. Ireland Italy Scotland Holland Belgium The excess Children to each Marriage. .. 416 .. 401 .. 3-55 .. 2-98 in each of the NATURALISATION. 91 Naturalisation. Aliens residing in the colony may, on taking tbe oath of allegiance to Her Majesty, obtain letters of naturalisation en- titling them to enjoy all the rights and privileges that a natural- born subject of the United Kingdom can enjoy or transmit within this colony. Chinese seeking naturalisation must pay a fee of £1. Two hundred and fifty-seven aliens were naturalised in 1894. As the diversity of nationalities is considerable, the following statement is given of the number belonging to each :— Numbeb op Aliens naturalised in 1894. Nativos of Natives of China .. 96 France .. S German Empire .. 44 Italy 3 Sweden and Norway .. 28 Netherlands .. 3 Syria .. .. 28 United States of America 2 Denmark . .. 26 Bulgaria 1 Austria . .. 8 Greece 1 Russia Poland . 2) 2\ 8 Samoa 1 Switzerland Finland a .. 5 Total .. 257 . The number of n atives of each country naturalised during the last thirteen years is Natives of shown hereunder:— Natives of Germany .. 959 Netherlands .. 27 Sweden and Norway .. 661 Greece .. 22; Denmark .. 499 Portugal .. 19 China .. 298 United States of America .. 13 Switzerland .. 110 Belgium .. 11 Russia .. 107 Other countries.. .. 53 Italy .. .. 104 Austria .. 95 Total 3,026 France .. 48 Of the number naturalised in the period 1883-94, natives of China comprised 3735 per cent., Germany 17-12 per cent., Sweden and Norway 1090 per cent., Denmark 10-12 per cent., and Syria 10-90 per cent. By section 2 of "The Aliens Act Amendment Act, 1882," re- pealed and re-enacted by section 2 of "The Aliens Act Amendment Act, 1892," it is provided that when the father, or mother being a widow, has obtained naturalisation in the colony, every child who- during infancy has become resident with them in New Zealand shall be deemed to be naturalised and shall have the rights and privileges of a natural-born subject. Marriages. The number of marriages in 1894 was 4,178, an increase of 63 on the number in 1893. The marriage-rate was 6-15 per 1,000 persons living, being higher than that which obtained in 1891 (604), but lower than the rates for 1892 and 1893—6-23 and 6-22 92 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. respectively. The marriage-rate was lowest in the year 1889 (5.94). Since then it has risen again somewhat; but New Zea- land has not so far regained the position she held in 1874. In that year the figures for the Australasian Colonies stood as follow :- MARRIAGE-RATES IN 1874. New Zealand .. .. 8.81 per 1,000 of mean population. Queensland .. 8.62 South Australia .. 8.00 New South Wales .. 7.70 Western Australia .. 6.96 Tasmania 6.83 Victoria .. 6:33 The respective rates for the Australasian Colonies for the last ten years are shown in the following table :- MARRIAGES PER 1,000 OF THE POPULATION. Year. Queens- New South land. Wales. Victoria. i South Western Tas- į New · Australia. Australia. mania. Zealand. 7.97 7.26 671 6:58 6.50 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 8.93 8.67 8.21 8.63 8:37 8.49 7.18 6.67 5.91 5.70 8.18 7.99 7:42 737 6.76 7.14 7.39 6.77 6.40 6:20 7.72 7.84 7.62 8.03 8:14 8.21 7.69 6.64 5.99 5.99 7.66 6.24 6:31 6.70 6:47 7.06 7.31 6:51 6.26 6:09 751 7.98 7.58 7.18 6.99 5.80 8.00 7.29 6.34 6.24 6.64 6 63 6:51 5-51 5.43 6.65 5.99 5.97 5.97 5.94 6.12 6.04 6.23 6.22 6.15 Taking this range of years, the marriage-rate is shown to be less in New Zealand than in the colonies of Australia, and it is also lower than in most European countries. 7.0 p :::::: ::::::: MARRIAGES IN EVERY 1,000 OF THE POPULATION. Hungary, 1893 ... 9:3 Switzerland, 1893 .. German Empire, 79 Denmark, Austria, 1892 7.8 Scotland, Belgium, 1893 7.6 Norway, France, 1892 7:6 Sweden, 1892 England and Wales, 1893 .. 73 Spain, 1887 Italy, 7.3 Ireland, 1893 .. .. 4.7 Netherlands, .. 731 The greatest number of marriages in 1894 occurred in the autumn quarter, ending the 30th June, and the smallest number in the winter quarter, ending the 30th September. Of the marriages solemnised in 1894, 3,669 were between bachelors and spinsters, 179 between bachelors and widows, 227 between widowers and spinsters, and 103 between widowers and widows. Divorced men and women have been classified as bachelors or spinsters: 8 divorced men and 2 divorced women were married during the year. MARRIAGES. 93 1888. 1691. 86 04 87-82 4-75 4-28 647 5-43 2-74 247 The proportion of each class of marriage to all the marriages varies but little from year to year, as shown by the figures for 1888 and 1894. Proportion' tf.r 100 Marriages. Marriages between Bachelors and spinsters Bachelors and widows Widowers and spinsters Widowers and widows 10000 10000 The number given above does not include marriages where both parties are of the aboriginal native race, such persons being exempted from the necessity of complying with the provisions of the Marriage Act, although at liberty to take advantage thereof. Only 10 mar- riages in which both parties were Maoris were contracted in 1894 in terms of the Act. Of the marriages in the past year, 2286 per cent, were solemnised by ministers of the Church of England, 2530 per cent, by ministers of the Presbyterian Churches, 1599 per cent, by ministers of the Wesleyan and other Methodist Churches, 1008 per cent, by ministers of the Roman Catholic Church, 665 per cent, by ministers of other denominations, and 1912 per cent, by Registrars. The following shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the principal denominations in the past seven years, and the per- centages of these denominations to the total population :— Percentage Percentage of Marriages. of Denomina- Denomination. tion to Total Popu- 1888. 1 1880. 1 1890. 1891. 1892. 1MB. 1894. lation in 1891. Church of England .. 2195 2311 21-60 2-218[ 20-78 2300 22-86 40-51 Presbyterians 24 33 20 75 27 59 27-23' 29-88 26-58 25-30 2202 Wesleyans and other 14 10 1508 1558 14-72 14-82 1613 1599 1014 Methodists Roman Catholics 11-69 10-40 10-45 1007 9-74 899 1008 13-96 Other denominations 5-70 523 527i 5-67 6-34 6-66 665 j- 12-77 By Registrars 22-23 100 00 19-43 19-45 2013 10000 1894 18-58 1912 100 00 10000 10000 10000 10000 10000 It will be observed that the proportions of marriages by ministers of the Presbyterian and Wesleyan Churches are greater than the percentages of these denominations to the total population. Clearly, therefore, among the persons married by them are included members of other religious bodies, while many of those married before Regis- trars must be nominally members of the Church of England. As all marriages between members of the Roman Catholic Church are, by requirement of that church, solemnised by the ministers thereof, it appears that fewer marriages in proportion to their numbers occur 94 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. among Roman Catholics than among members of other bodies. The percentage of marriages (1008) solemnised by the Roman Catholic clergy in 1894, although higher than in any one of the years 1891- 93, was yet much below the proportion borne by Roman Catholics to the total population—viz., 1395 at the census of 1886, and 13-96 in 1891. Marriages by Registrars, which increased from 10-50 per cent, in 1875 to 2322 per cent, of the total in 1887, were 19-12 per cent, in 1894. Of the men married in 1894, 43, or 1029 in every 1,000, and of the women 63, or 1508 in every 1,000, signed the register by marks. The illiteracy of the people, as measured by the proportion of married persons who affix marks instead of signatures to the mar- riage register, has greatly decreased of late, having fallen since 1881 about 64 per cent, among men, and about 66 per cent, among women. This is shown in a very striking manner by the following table :— Persons in every 1,000 Married who signed by Mark. Denomination. Church of England Presbyterians Wesleyan and other Metiiodists Roman Catholics .. Other denomina- tions By Registrars 16-59 10 25 32-41 117-78 10-36 39-22 Total marriages 3204 27-15 29-61 41-79 133 33 20-72 93-51 50 20 1886. M. 9-33 9-79 6-33 46-45 11-49 35 98 19-21 6. 1890. 1804. P. M. "i M. ' F. 1200 608 4-86 5-24 6-23 7-62 8-59 15-27 662 662 14-78 15-20 ! 1014 749 893 65-57 22-99 6203 85 2G 1500 29-77 4282 1900 28-50 0 00 3 60 14-39 40-60 21-28 35 04 28-96 10-33 19-23 1029 15-08 The proportion of illiterates in 1894 was greatest among those married before Registrars, but it must be remembered that, as previously stated, a large proportion of the persons married before Registrars are nominally members of the Church of England. Previously the proportion was largest among Roman Catholics'- but since 1881 it has, as shown by the table, most remarkably de- creased. . Of the persons married in 1894, 60 bridegrooms and 816 brides were under 21 years of age—7 of the bridegrooms were between 18 and 19. Of the brides, 289 were under 19: of these, 2 were between 15 and 16, and 23 between 16 and 17 years of age. The proportion of men married is greatest at the ages of 25 to 30, and of women at from 21 to 25 years The following are the proportions of men and women married at each age-period to every 100 marnages in the years 1888 and 1894:— MARRIAGES. 95 Age. F. Under 21 vears 21 and under 25 25 „ 30 30 40 40 ,. 50 50 ^ 60 60 „ 70 70 and upwards 1-85 24-30 1-44 2817 4205 26-45 33-81 2115 36-74 20-02 898 25-82 669 2-74 6-25 2-52 0-61 2-49 0-88 014 067 006 003 014 Begistrars of Marriages are prohibited by law from issuing cer- tificates for the marriage of minors without the consent of their parents or lawful guardians, if there be any in the colony. If a declaration be made in any case that there is no parent or law- ful guardian in the colony, then a certificate may be issued after the expiration of fourteen days following the date on which the notice of intended marriage is given. A marriage may not be solemnised except after the delivery to the minister or Registrar who officiates of a certificate issued by a Registrar authorising such marriage, and if any persons knowingly and wilfully intermarry without such certificate the marriage is null and void; and no clergyman or minister of any denomination is em- powered to solemnise marriages until his name has been placed on the Registrar-General's list of officiating ministers for the year. The ages at which persons may contract binding marriages are the same as in England—12 years for females and 14 for males. Marriage may be contracted at earlier ages than those stated, but would be voidable at the discretion of either of the parties upon reaching the age of 12 or 14, as the case may be, and without the necessity of proceedings in Court. Although in New Zealand the age at which girls may legally marry is as above, nevertheless by the criminal law to unlawfully carnally know a girl under the age of 15 years is a punishable offence, and this age will probably be raised to 16. The ages at which persons can contract binding marriage in the United States are 21 for males and 18 for females, according to the "Annual Statistician" (McCarty, San Francisco). In France and Belgium the ages are 18 and 15 respectively; in Germany, 18 and 14; in Austria, 14 and 14; and in Russia, 18 and 16. The average age of the men married in this colony in 1894 was 29-79 years, and of the women, 2523 years. In England the mean age of those whose ages were stated was (in the year 1893) 2851 years for men, and 26-23 years for women. Thus the average age at marriage in the colony is higher for men, but lower for women, than the age in England. The proportion of bridegrooms under 21 is much greater in Eng- 96 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. in Year. under 21 .. 1:52 1890 land than in New Zealand; but the proportion of brides under 21 is much greater in the colony. In England, in 1893, of every 1,000 bridegrooms whose ages were stated, 56 were under 21 years of age, and of every 1,000 brides 187 were under 21 years of age. In New Zealand, in 1894, the proportions were 14 bridegrooms and 195 brides in every 1,000 married. While in New Zealand the proportion of bridegrooms under 21 years of age fluctuates within narrow limits, the propor- tion of brides under 21 years of age is steadily decreasing : this is shown by the following proportions for each sex under 21 years of age in every 100 married :- Bridegrooms Brides under 21 | Bridegrooms Brides under 2 Year. under 21 in every 100. every 100. in every 100. every 100. 1883 27:18 1889 1.62 23.02 1884 1.87 27.10 1.89 22.75 1885 1.97 26.49 1891 1.55 20.79 1886 1.95 26.09 1892 1.62 20:14 1.91 25.49 1893 1.75 19.73 1888 1.85 24.30 1894 1.44 19:53 DEATHS. The deaths in 1894 numbered 6,918, being equivalent to a rate of 10.19 in every 1,000 persons living. This is lower than the rate (10-23) in 1893, but higher than in 1892 (10:06). In 1891 the rate was 10:35. In each of the years, 1888, 1889, 1890, the rate was under 10 per 1,000. The death-rate in New Zealand contrasts very favourably with those in the other Australasian Colonies and in European countries, and shows how healthful is the climate of the colony. The follow- ing table gives the death-rates for a series of years in the several countries named :- 1887 Country. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. New Zealand .. Queensland .. New South Wales Victoria South Australia* Western Australia Tasmania England Scotland Ireland Denmark Norway Sweden Austria Hungary Switzerland German Empire Netherlands .. France Italy .. .. .. 10.76 10:54 10-29 9.43 9.44 9.66 10:35 10:06 10-23 10:19 19:58 1729 14:56 14.66 15:44 14.98 12.77 12.66 13:34 12.08 16.4114.89|13:15 13.54 13:42 12.90 14:24 13:22 13:25 12:30 14.98 15:15 15.70 15:34 1754 16:10 16-24 13.63 14:11 13:13 12:48 13:38 12.77 12:52 11:49 12:40 13:26 11:38 13:42 11.64 17.61 21:56 168315.91 14:19 11.26 16.96 16.63 15-27 14:00 15:40 14:58 15:45 14:11 14:10 14.7415.00 13:53 13:47 12:43 19.0 19:3 18.8 17.8 17.9 19.5 20.2 19.0 19.2 19.1 18.6 187 17.6 18.0 19.7 20:7 18.5 19.4 18:4 179 18:3 180 175 18.2 18.4 19.4 17.9 179 18.2 18.3 19.7 18.6 19.0 20.0 19.4 18.9 16.5 16.1 16.0 16.9 17.4 17.9 17.5 17.7 16.4 17.8 16-6 16.1 16.0 16.0 17.1 16 8 179 .. .. 29 9 29 4 28.9 29.2 273 29.4 27.9 28.8 .. 31.6 31.4 33.5 31.7 29.9 324 33:1 35.0 31.1 21.3 20.7 20-2 19.9 20-3 20.9 20.7 19:3 20-5 .. 25.7 26.2 24.2 23.8 23.8 24.4 23 4 24:1 246 .. 21.0 21.5 19.7 20 4 20 1 20.5 20:7 21:0 (19.2 21.9 22.5 22.0 21.8 20.5 22:6 22-6 226 ... 26-6 28 3 275 27.0 24.9 26.4 26.2 26 3 25-3 * Excluding Northern Territory. DEATH-KATES OF FOUB PBINCIPAL CITIES. 97 A comparison of the above rates appears to place the Australasian Colonies as a whole in the foremost rank for salubrity of climate and healthiness of people, New Zealand standing well in front of the rest; but it must be admitted that the ratio of all deaths to the 1,000 of population living in the middle of the year, although a good test of the sanitary condition of any one country year by year, and also useful for comparing the healthfulness of such countries as contain the same or nearly the same proportionate numbers of persons living at each age-period of life, cannot be regarded as a perfectly fair index when new countries are compared with old, or even when new countries are compared one with another, should the proportions living at the several age-periods vary consider- ably. The truest rates of mortality are obtained by ascertaining the proportion of deaths at each age-period to the numbers living at those ages. Deaths and Death-rates of Four Principal Cities. In previous annual reports on the vital statistics of the four chief towns the central boroughs alone were dealt with, particulars respecting the suburbs not having been obtained. But this omission was held to be a grave defect, as the suburban death-rate may differ much from the death-rate at the centre. Steps were there- fore taken early in 1894 to collect statistics of the suburban boroughs as well as of the four chief cities. As regards Auckland and Christ- church, the whole of the area usually recognised as suburban has not yet been brought under municipal government, and the statistics given below do not deal with such portions as still remain in road districts. The omission, however, is not very important, for there are in either case quite enough suburbs included within borough boundaries to give a fair idea of the death-rate of greater Auckland and greater Christchurch. As further boroughs are formed the vital statistics will be made to include them. The total number of deaths registered in 1894 as occurring in the four chief towns, with their suburban boroughs, was 1,964—viz., 1,354 in the cities and 610 in the suburbs. By including the suburbs the death-rate for the year is lowered at each of the four centres, the difference being considerable in Auckland (1-30) and in Dunedin (1-20). The rates for the year are,— Auckland City and five suburban boroughs Wellington City and three suburban boroughs Christchurch City and four suburban boroughs Dunedin City , and eight suburban boroughs Death-rate per 1,000 of Population. . 15-41 11-82 1055 11-38 1411 11-43 10-19 10-18 7 98 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. The death-rate is thus shown to be highest in Auckland and lowest in Dunedin, Wellington and Christchurch taking second and third places respectively. The death-rate for the colony is 10:19 per 1,000 of mean population; and it is worthy of note that in Dunedin the rate is even lower (10.18) than this, while at Christchurch it is exactly the same. The death-rates for Auckland and Wellington are considerably higher than those for Dunedin and Christchurch, but in the two North Island cities the birth-rates are also higher, and, as the mortality among infants is always greater than among adults, a high birth-rate will generally increase the death-rate. If the num- ber of deaths of infants under one year be excluded, the mortality among the rest of the population would be in the following ratio to the 1,000 living :- Auckland (including suburbs) Wellington 8.98 Christchurch 7.85 Dunedin 8.80 Excluding the suburbs, the deaths registered in 1894 (1,354) at the four chief centres were 20 below the number for 1893 (1,374), and 103 in excess of the number for 1892 (1,251). The decrease on the figures for 1893 is sufficiently accounted for by the cessation of the measles epidemic. The deaths and death-rates for three years are given :- 10.50 Deaths, 1892. Deaths, 1893. Deaths, 1894. No. Per 1,000 No. of Population. No. Per 1,000 of Population. 0. Per 1,000 of Population Auckland Wellington Christchurch Dunedin ::: 382 405 197 267 12:52 12:27 11.89 11.59 404 462 219 289 12.90 13.43 12.80 12:26 484 414 185 271 15.41 11 82 10-55 11:38 The rate at Auckland is shown by the above figures to have been higher in 1894 than in 1893 and 1892, while the rates at Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin were lower last year than in either of the two previous years. Excluding the infantile mortality, the death-rate of Auckland still stands as the highest in 1894, but Dunedin takes second, Wellington third, and Christchurch the last place. Deaths per 1,000 of Population, excluding Infants (under One Year of Age). 1892. 1893. 1894. Auckland (excluding suburbs) 9.05 9.66 11:53 Wellington 9.32 10.26 9.40 Christchurch 8.51 9.24 8.69 Dunedin 9.51 10.18 9.66 DEATHS AT VARIOUS AGE-PEKIODS. 99 The degree of infantile mortality may be exhibited in the propor- tion of deaths of children under one year of age to every 100 births. The results for five years are given, showing that the mean rate is highest at Christchurch and lowest at Dunedin, and less at Welling- ton than at Auckland. For the year 1894 the rate is highest at Auckland; Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin following in the order named. Deaths of Children under One Year to every 100 Births. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. iqoj Mean of lw»- Five Years Auckland (excluding suburbs) .. 989 1336 14-28 12-64 15-12 1306 Wellington .. 9-77 1214 11-50 12-26 949 1103 Christchurch „ .. 1194 1271 10-81 18-60 900 13-81 Dunedin . .. 8-22 9-87 9-51 1116 8-73 9-50 A comparison of the death-rates of the chief towns of New Zea- for 1894 with those of Australian capitals shows the rates in this colony to be generally lower:— Deaths per Deaths per Principal Cities. 1,000of Principal Cities. Population. Population. 1,000 of 1894. 1894. Perth (including suburbs) .. 21-76 Brisbane (including suburbs) 12-47 Hobart » .. 18 53 Auckland 1411 Melbourne » .. 15-53 Wellington 1143 Sydney „ .. 1412 Christchurch 10-19 Adelaide , .. 1384 Dunedin Vital Statistics op Australasian Capitals, 1894. Births. Deaths. 1018 Excess Chief Cities ^including Mean Suburbs). Population.! Kate Rate of Births Total per 1.000 of Toial per 1,000 of over Deaths. Number. Popula- tion. Number. Popula- tion. Melbourne .. .. | 442.110 13,672 30-92 I 6,864 1 15-53 6,808 Sydney .. ..' 422,315 13,367 31-65 5,961 1412 7,040 Adelaide .. .. 141,606 4,340 30-65 1,900 13-84 2,380 Brisbane .. .. 94,000 3,261 3469 1,172 1247 2,089 Perth 14,063 552 39-25 306 21.76 246 Hobart 34,368 1,034 30-09 637 1853 397 Wellington 88,503 1,101 28-60 440 11-43 661 Deaths in the Colony at Various Age-periods. Of the persons who died in 1894, 374 men and 257 women were at or over 75 years of age. Of these, 211 men and 118 women were under 80 years of age, 95 men and 88 women between 80 and 85, 56 men and 37 women from 85 to under 90, 10 men and 12 women from 90 to 95, 2 men and 2 women between 95 and 100 years. 100 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. The combined ages of all the males who died amounted to- 145,205 years, and of the females to 91,040 years, giving an aver- age age at death of 3664 years for the males and 31-59 years for the females. The average age at death of persons of either sex, in each of the past five years, was as follows :— 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 Males. 33-81 years 3311 „ 32-97 . 31-86 , 36-64 , Females. 28-62 years. 29-25 » 28-95 , 27-79 „ 31-59 , It will be observed that the average age fell in 1893, and rose again last year with almost startling suddenness. But on com- paring the figures for the two years it is found that in 1893 the measles epidemic carried off 525 persons, of whom 382 were children under 5 years of age. Last year there were no more than 14 deaths- from measles (8 under 5), and the total number of deaths of children under 5 fell in consequence from 2,371 to 2,003. At the same time the deaths at 50 years and upwards increased from 2,091 to 2,519. More males than females are born annually, and more male than, female infants die in proportion to the number of each sex born. In 1894 the number of male children born was 9,472, and the number of deaths of male infants under one year of age was 845, being at the rate of 89 in every 1,000 born; the number of females born was 9,056, and the number that died under one year of age was 662, being in the proportion of 73 in every 1,000 born. Subjoined is a classified statement of the deaths of infants under one year during 1894, with the ratio of the deaths in each class to the 1,000 births during the year :— Uuder 1 Month. 1 and 1 3 and under 3 , under 6 Months. ' Months. 6 and under 12 Months. Total Year Sex. uuder 13 Number of Deaths. Months 1894 .. 11 Male 11 Female .. 1 320 1 163 1 172 .. | 237 129 152 190 144 1 845 662 Deaths to the 1,000 Births. 1894 .. ,' Male '( Female ..1 33-78 1 17-21 1 18-16 .. | 26-17 | 14-24 1 1679 2006 15-90 | 89-21 | 73-10 It will be seen from these figures that the chances of living during the first year of age are far greater in favour of female than, of male infants. Thus, during the year 1894 there were— 100 deaths of males to 74 deaths of females under 1 month of age; 100 , 79 „ from 1 to 3 months of age; 100 , 88 from 3 to 6 months of age; 100 » 76 . from 6 to 12 months of age; 100 78 . uuder 12 months of age. DEATH-RATES OF MARRIED MEN AND ORPHANHOOD OF CHILDREN. 101 The rates of infantile mortality—that is, the proportion the deaths of children under one year of age bear to the births—are higher in the Australian Colonies than in New Zealand. The following table gives the rate in the several colonies named for each -of the ten years 1883-92 :— Number of Deaths of Children under One Year of Age to every 100 Births. Year. Queens- land. New South Wales. Victoria. South Tas- Zealand. New Australia. mania. 1883 13-34 11-48 11-44 14-56 12-39 10-39 1884 14 74 12-62 11-37 1342 998 7-93 18S5 14-85 1312 12-57 11-34 11-26 8-92 1886 12-59 12-85 12-73 12-62 1048 9-84 1887 11-29 10-59 1300 11-12 1009 9-38 l&SS 1207 1109 12-75 9-59 9-43 707 1889 13-62 1250 15-21 9-42 10-64 7-89 1890 10-0.5 1045 11-74 965 10-55 7-87 1891 10-12 11-89 12-62 909 9-45 912 1892 10-68 1060 10-68 967 9-91 8-92 Infantile mortality is as a rule greatest in large towns, where the population is dense and the sanitary conditions are less favour- able than in country districts. The absence in New Zealand of any such large centres of population as are found in some of the Austra- lian Colonies may partially account for the lower rates of infantile mortality in this colony. Death-rates of Married Men and OrphanJwod of Children. "The Registration of Births and Deaths Act Amendment Act, 1882," requires that on the registration of the death of any person the age of each living child of the deceased shall be entered in the register. The particulars so recorded for several years have been tabulated, and the detailed results are shown in the two tables on pages 62 and 63 of the "Statistics of New Zealand, 1894." One of those tables deals with the year 1894 only; the other gives the aggregate results for the five years 1890 to 1894 inclusive. They show the total number of men who died at each year of age from 20 to 65, the number of married men (husbands and widowers) stated in the registers to have died childless, the number who died leaving children, and the number and ages of the children so left. From the first of these tables it is found that during 1894 there died 1,782 men between the ages of 20 and 65, of whom 957 were married; 805 married men left children at their deaths, while 152 are stated to have been childless. The proportions of married men and bachelors in every 100 males dying were 5370 and 4630 respectively. The proportions at the census of 1891 for the total number living at the above ages were: Married men, 5681 per cent.; bachelors, 42-92 per cent.; and unspecified, 0-27 per cent. 102 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. The difference here shown would seem to prove that the death-rate amongst married men at the ages under review is lighter than amongst bachelors; but it must be borne in mind that when registering a death the informant is not always in possession of full particulars as to the conjugal condition of the deceased, and that therefore the number of married men as shown in the tables may be somewhat short of the actual fact. Assuming the ratio of married men at 20 to 65 to the total male population at those ages to be the same in 1894 as at the census of 1891, the death-rate among married men is found to be 9.68 per 1,000 living, whereas the rate for all men at the same age-period was in 1894 10:61 per 1,000. 1891 1894. Ages. Estimated Total Number Number Number of Total Death-rate Death-rate of Males living of Married Deaths of Number of per 1,000 at each Age Men (and per 1.000 Married Male Deaths. living. living. period. Widowers) Men. living. 5:22 2-36 .. 37 59 100 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 60-65 28,337 23,704 22,021 20,513 17,755 17,028 16,770 10,945 7,685 148 108 114 139 139 183 272 252 227 2,541 9,460 14,044 15,457 13,815 13,940 13,903 9,180 6,491 4.56 5.18 6.78 7.83 10 75 16.22 23.02 29.54 93 3 91 4.20 6 47 6.73 7-32 11.51 20-91 32-04 102 160 192 208 .. .. 164,758 1,582 9 60 98,831 957 9-68 Here the death-rate for married men (9.68) must not be com- pared with the death-rate for all men at the same age-period found to obtain in 1891 (9.60), but with the same rate for 1894 (10.61). The total number of children left by the 957 married men who died in 1894 was 3,892. Of these, 1,679 were under 15 years of age, 743 between 15 and 21, and 1,359 over 21, leaving 111 about whom no information could be obtained. Thus the average number of children of all ages left by each married man dying between 20 and 65 is 4:07, or 1:75 under 15, 0.78 between 15 and 21, 1:42 over 21 years of age, and 0.12 of unspecified age. Discarding the number (152) of fathers said to have died childless, the average number of children left by each of the others is 4.83 of all ages—2:08 under 15, 0.92 between 15 and 21, 1.69 over 21, and 0.14 of unspecified age. Very similar results are obtained if the figures for the five years 1890-94 be used instead of those for 1894 only. CAUSES OF DEATH. 103 Estimated Number of Hus- bands and Widowers living in 1894. Number of Married Men who Number and Ages of Children left. Ages. Total Number of Male Deaths. died. Child- less. Leaving Child- ren. Under 15. 15 to 21 and upwards. Unspe- cified. Total. 20-25 2,541 152 1 5 6 21. 6 25-30 9,460 137 15 22 41 41 30-35 14,044 138 10 49 121 . 4 125 35-40 15,457 187 19 81 270 6 11 287 40-45 13,815 151 19 74 289 41 . 8 3 336 45-50 13,940 161 11 91 274 121 46 13 454 50-55 13,903 258 28 132 307 180 201 30 718 55-60 9,180 279 25 167 234 219 448 14 915 60-65 6,491 319 24 184 137 176 661 36 1,010 98,831 1,782 152 805 1,079 743 1,359 111 3,892 An important fact brought out by the statistics quoted above is that every year upwards of 1,500 children under 15 years of age are left fatherless—how many without adequate means of living it is not possible to say. Causes of Death. . The deaths registered during the last five years, when distributed among the several classes according to their assigned causes, give the rates shown hereunder:— Bate per 10,000 living. 1800. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. Zvmolic diseases 1326 17-38 15-67 17-95 14-12 Parasitic diseases 032 0-21 042 0 36 0-32 Dietetic diseases 0-74 098 1-31 107 0-63 Constitutional diseases 17-19 1689 17-61 17 56 19-42 Developmental diseases 768 7-43 7-83 765 804 Local diseases 44-33 47-48 4510 46-40 45-22 Violence 8-39 803 824 8-24 10-26 Hi-defined and not-specified causes .. 4-64 508 4-34 309 8-84 All causes 96-55 103-48 100-58 102-32 101-85 The fall in deaths by zymotic disease is due to the disappearance of measles; the rise in deaths by violence to the loss of the s.s. "Wairarapa." The following statement gives the number of deaths for 1894 according to the various classes of disease, the proportion of deaths in earh class and order to the total number of deaths, and the pro- portion of deaths in each class and order per 10,000 living in 1894 :— 104 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Number of Deaths. Causes of Death. Proportion to Total Deaths. Proportion Proportion per per 10,000 living, 10,000 living, Male Fema'e. Total. 1894. 1893. Male. Female. Total. 338 124 321 83 659 207 Class I. Specific febrile or zymotic diseases, - Order 1. Miasmatic diseases 2. Diarrheal diseases 3. Malarial diseases 4. Zoogenous diseases 5. Venereal diseases 6. Septic diseases Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. 8 43 11.04 9:53 9.70 3:09 2.86 2.99 3:05 0.08 0-03 0.06 0:06 0:03 0.01 0-02 0:42 0.38 0:40 0:41 0:37 1:55 . 087 0 88 Per Cent. 13.87 2.92 0.06 1 11 0:30 0.80 15 45 60 497 462 959 12:39 15 89 13.86 14.12 17-95 16 0:40 0.21 0:32 0:32 0.36 28 15 43 0.70 0 52 0.62 0-63 1.07 708 611 1,319 17.65 21.02 19:06 19:42 17:56 298 248 546 7:43 8:53 789 8:04 7.65 Total Class I. ... Class II. Parasitic diseases Class III. Dietetic diseases Class IV. Constitutional diseases Class V. Developmental diseases Class VI. Local diseases,- Order 1. Diseases of nervous system 2. Diseases of organs of special sense 3. Diseases of circulatory system 4. Diseases of respiratory system 5. Diseases of digestive system 6. Diseases of lymphatic system 7. Diseases of urinary system 8. Diseases of reproductive system, (a.) of organs of generation (b) of parturition 9. Diseases of locomotive system 10. Diseases of integumentary system 277 382 379 505 323 659 16 561 858 603 16 210 182 353 280 9:52 0:18 9.45 12:59 8.05 0.22 3:54 9.53 0:31 6.26 12:14 9.63 0-24 2:34 9:53 0.23 8:11 12:40 8.72 0-23 3:04 9.70 0 24 8.26 12.63 8.88 0-24 3-09 11:31 0.15 7.86 13.70 8.18 0-22 2.98 142 34 34 73 73 1.17 2:51 0.24 0-24 0:49 1.06 0:33 0.26 050 1.07 0:34 0-27 0:56 0.82 0:32 0.30 16 11 0.40 0-28 18 1,774 1,297 3,071 44 23 44.61 44.40 45.22 46.40 138 617 Total Class VI. Class VII. Violence, Order 1. Accident or negligence 2. Homicide ... 3. Suicide 4. Execution ... Total Class VII. Class VIIL II-defined and not-specified causes 11.94 0.15 1:47 4.75 0.03 0-48 8.92 0-10 1.06 9.09 0.10 1:07 14 7:12 0.04 1.06 0.02 73 544 153 697 13:56 6.26 10-08 10-26 8.24 146 115 261 8.64 3-96 3.77 3.84 3:09 Grand totals 4,011 2,907 6,918 100.00 100.00 100.00 101.85 102:32 CAUSES OF DEATH. 105 The following table exhibits the number of deaths in 1894 from each specific disease :- CAUSES OF DEATH. Causes of Death. Causes of Death. Class. Males. Females. Total. Class. Males. Females. Total. Orders and Diseases. Orders and Diseases. II.--PARASITIC DISEASES. . Thrush ... Other diseases from vege- table parasites Hydatid disease Worms ... Other diseases from ani- mal parasites ... Total Class II. ORDER 1.-Miasmatic. Small-pox Chicken-pox Measles ... Epidemic rose-rash, ru- beola ... Scarlet fever, scarlatina*** Typhus ... Dengue ... Relapsing fever ... Infiuenza Whooping-cough Mumps ... Diphtheria ... Cerebro-spinal fever Simple and ill-defined fever .. Enteric fever, typhoid ... 1 Other miasmatic diseases Total Order 1 III.-DIETETIC DISEASES. Starvation Want of breast-milk Scurvy ... Intemperance- Chronic alcoholism Delirium treniens Other dietetic diseases ... 76 Total Class III. ORDER 2.-Diarrhæal. Simple cholera ... Diarrhæa Dysentery 9 5 14 69 170 923 DISEASES. Total Order 2 ... 124 0 1. - SPECIFIC FEBRILK OR ZYXOTIO DISKASUS. Rheumatic fever Rheumatism Gout Rickets ... Cancer ... Tabes mesenterica, tu- bercular peritonitis ... Tubercular meningitis, acute hydrocephalus ... Phthisis... Other forms of tubercu: losis, scrofula ... Purpura, hæmorr diathesis Anæmia, chlorosis, leuco- cythæmia Diabetes mellitus Other constitutional dis- eases ... ORDER 3.-Malarial. Remittent fever... Ague Beriberi IV.-CONSTITUTIO Total Order 3 :: Tel: ORDER 4.--Zoogenous. Hydrophobia Glanders Splenic fever Cow-pox and other effects of vaccination... Total Class IV. ... 214 18 32 Total Order 4 Premature birth Atelectasis Cyanosis Spina bifida Imperforate anus Cleft palate, hare-lip Other congenital defects ORDER 5.–Venereal. Syphilis ... Gonorrhea, stricture of urethra, ulcer of groin Total Order 5 V.DEVELOPMENTAL DISEASES. Old age ... 3 258 Talo Total Class V. 298 248 546 ORDER 6.--Septic. Phagedæna ... Erysipelas 1 Pyæmia, septicæmia Puerperal fever, pyæmia, septicæmia ... VI.- LOCAL DISEASES ORDER 1.- Diseases of Ner- vous System. Inflammation of the brain or its membranes 1 Cerebro-spinal meningitis Apoplexy Softening of brain 39 2 105 39 1 Total Order 6 Total Class I. ... 497 462 959 sis ... ... 12 13 25 106 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. CAUSES OF DEATH-continued. Causes of Death. Causes of Death. Class. Males. Females. Total. Class. Males, Females. Total Orders and Diseases. Orders and Diseases. 28 27 55 ORDER 1.-Diseases of Nervous System-contd. Paralysis (undescribed)... Paralysis agitans Insanity, general paraly- sis of insane ... Chorea Epilepsy Convulsions Laryngismus stridulus ... Idiopathic tetanus Paraplegia, diseases spinal cord Locomotor ataxia Other diseases of nervous system S 8 21 382 2 10 277 10 31 659 ORDER 5.-Diseases of Digestive System. Stomatitis, cancrum oris Dentition Sore throat, Dyspepsia Hæmatemesis Melæna ... Diseases of stomach, gas- tritis ... Enteritis Ulceration, perforation, of intestine Ileus, obstruction of in- testine Stricture or strangulation of intestine Intussusception of intes- tine Hernia . Fistula Peritonitis Ascites ... Gall-stones Cirrhosis of liver Other diseases of liver, hepatitis, jaundice .. Other diseases of diges- tive system ... ... Total Order 5 ... Total Order 1 ... 7 6 13 ORDER 2.- Diseases of Organs of Special Sense. Otitis, otorrhea... Epistaxis, and diseases of nose ... Ophthalmia, and diseases of eye ... Total Order 2 13: 11 323 980 603 VI.-LOCAL DISEASES-continued. VI.-LOCAL DISEASES-continued. n ORDER 3.—Diseases of Circulatory System. Endocarditis, valvular disease Pericarditis Hypertrophy of heart ... Fatty degeneration of heart ... Angina pectoris ... Syncope Aneurism Senile gangrene... Embolism, thrombosis ... Phlebitis Varicose veins, piles Other diseases of circula- tory system දිය co o no ORDER 6.-Diseases of Lymphatic System and Ductless Glands. Diseases of lymphatic system Diseases of spleen Bronchocele Addison's disease CP Total Order 6 ... a 19 379 6 25 182 561 13 57 90 7 36 Total Order 3 ... ORDER 7.- Diseases of Urinary System. Acute nephritis ... Bright's disease Uræmia Suppression of urine .. Calculus Hæmaturia Diseases of prostate Other diseases of urinary system (kidney diseases undescribed) ... 10 31 10 24 20 55 14 10 94 ORDER 4.-Diseases of Respiratory System. Laryngitis Croup Other diseases of larynx and trachea Asthma, emphysema Bronchitis Pneumonia Pleurisy ... Other diseases of respira- tory system ... Total Order 7 142 68 327 322 ORDER 8.-Diseases of Reproductive System. (a.) Diseases of organs of generation, Ovarian disease Total Order 4 ... 505 353 858 1 CAUSES OF DEATH. 107 CAUSES OF DEATH-continued. Causes of Death. Causes of Death. Class. Males, Females. Total. Class. Males. Females. Total. Orders and Diseases. Orders and Diseases. ORDER 1.- Accident or Negligence. Fractures, contusions Gunshot wounds Cut, stab Burn, scald Sunstroke Poison ... Drowning Suffocation Otherwise 3292** 5 11 73 6 15 293 24 39 1 24 479 Total Order 1 138 617 ORDER 2.-Homicide. Murder, manslaughter ... Wounds in battle 6 1 7 VII.-VIOLENCE. Total Order 2 Tol 1 7 21 VI.-LOCAL DISEASES- continued. ORDER 8.-Diseases of Re- productive System-ctd. a.) Diseases of organs of generation-cta. Diseases of uterus and vagina Disorders of menstrua- tion .. Pelvie abscess .. Perineal abscess Diseases of testes, penis, scrotum, &c. ... b.) Diseases of parturi- tion, Abortion, miscarriage ... Puerperal mania Puerperal metritis Puerperal convulsions ... Placenta previa (flood- ing) Phlegmasia dolens Other accidents of child- birth ... Total Order 8 ... 107 107 ORDER 9.-Diseases of Organs of Locomotion. Caries, necrosis ... Arthritis, ostitis Other diseases of organs of locomotion ... Total Order 9 ... ORDER 10.-Diseases of Integumentary Systeni. Carbuncle Phlegmon, cellulitis Lupus Ulcer, bed-sore Eczema... Pemphigus Other diseases of integu- mentary system Total Order 10 ... 11 Total Class VI. ... 1,774 1,297 3,071 ORDER 3.-Suicide. Gunshot wounds Cut, stab Poison Drowning Hanging Otherwise 21 2 12 8 6 14 5 38 15 3 18 3 13 Total Order 3 ... 59 14 73 ORDER 4.-Execution. Hanging Total Class VII. ... 544 153 697 113 . VIII.-ILL-DEFINED AND NOT-SPECIFIED CAUSES. Dropsy... Marasmus, &c. 139 Mortification, gangrene.. Tumour... Abscess ... Hæmorrhage Sudden (cause unascer- tained) Other ill-defined and not- specified causes 5 2 7 Total Class VIII. ... 146 115 261 General totals ... 1,011 2,907 6,918 The deaths in 1894 from specific febrile or zymotic diseases amounted to 959, a proportion of 141 in every 100,000 persons living, and a decrease of 228 on the number of deaths in 1893 from the same causes. The following are the diseases in this class that have caused the greatest mortality during the past ten years :- 108 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Diseases. 1885. 1886. 1887. 1888. 1889. I 1890. 1891. 1992. 1903. 1894. Measles .. Scarlet fever and 7 | 18 21 19 31 1 24 4 1 5 scarlatina Diphtheria 104 78 / 92 143 113 116 | 86 | 195 | 128 92 Whooping-cough .. 91 132 138 72 | 1982 242 | 115 55 190 Influenza 11) 9 9 9! 70 210 144 106 233 Diarrhæal diseases 399 455 475 | 214 355 ' 290 319 329 193 207 Enteric or typhoid ! 118 | 123 | 158 130 | 118 145 119 | 134 | 97 | 115 fever Puerperal fever .. 33 24 39 25 19 27 29 24 38 48 From smallpox there were no deaths. The total vaccinations registered rose from 7,412 to 9,322, and the proportion of successful vaccinations of children under fourteen years of age to the total of births, from 40.75 to 50:31. The number of children under one year of age successfully vaccinated, and the proportion to the total number of births, are given for 1894 and the seven preceding years :- Proportion of Proportion of Successful Vacci- Successful Vacci- Total Number nations of nations of Provincial Districts. Vaccinations of Births Children under Children under registered. registered 1 Year of Age to 14 Years of Age Total Births. to Total Births. Per Cent. Per Cent. Auckland .. 1,542 4,042 25.48 38.15 Taranaki ... 497 854 28.92 58.20 Hawke's Bay 617 1,074 29.33 57.45 Wellington 1,147 3,354 24.15 34.20 Marlborough 43 368 3.53 11.68 Nelson 500 881 12:71 56.75 Westland ... 250 2.40 Canterbury 2,534 3,516 56.97 72.07 4,180 35.31 58:28 Chatham Islands .. 9 ::::::::: 6 Otago 2.436 Totals, 1894 9,322 18,528 32:42 50-31 Totals, 1893 7,412 18,187 28.09 40-75 1892 8,216 17,876 32.41 45.96 1891 9,284 18, 273 38.81 50.81 1890 .. 9,357 18,278 42.66 51:19 1889 .. 11,913 18,457 48:37 64.55 1888 ... 12,782 18,902 51.10 67.62 , 1887 .. 12,919 19,135 53.79 67:52 The figures for last year show some improvement when compared with those for the two previous years—1892-93—but in themselves they are most unsatisfactory, for they go to prove that only one child in every three born is successfully vaccinated, which is a serious matter enough when the possibility of an epidemic of smallpox is taken into consideration. * Including rubeola (14). CAUSES OP DEATH. 10& In England, after three years practical immunity from smallpox, the deaths rose in 1892 to 431, or 15 per million persons living. In 1893 there was a further rise to 1,457, or a rate of 49 per million living. The Eegistrar-General remarks that "of the 1,457 persons who died from this disease only 150, or 103 per cent., were described as having been vaccinated, 253, or 17-4 per cent., were returned as not vaccinated, and with respect to 1,054, or 72-3 per cent., no statement as to vaccination appeared in the certificates. In addition to the above, 127 deaths were attributed to chicken- pox, and 59 deaths to 'effects of vaccination.' Thus, the total number of deaths either certainly or possibly caused by variola, and of deaths alleged to have been caused by the means taken to prevent that disease, during the year 1893 was 1,643, or 55 per million persons living." A system, described as "moderate com- pulsion," has been recommended in England, under which persons who had been fined £1, or had been fined in two penalties of any amount, for neglecting to have their children vaccinated would be exempted from any further proceedings. Measles, which was epidemic in 1893, caused only 14 deaths in 1894, and there was also last year a fall in the deaths by diphtheria from 128 to 92. On the other hand, there was an increase in deaths from whooping-cough from 55 to 190. The mortality from influenza (233 deaths) was the highest recorded, being more than double that of 1893. In the last five years the deaths from this cause have numbered 753. Deaths from diarrhoeal diseases in 1894 (207), although slightly more numerous than in the previous year, were not so fatal as in 1892, and much fewer than in 1886 (455), and 1887 (475). The death-rate for 1894 from this class of disease was 3 05 per 10,000 persons. This is much less than the rate in England, which was 999 for 1893, and, for the decennium 1883-92, 653. Deaths from tvphoid or enteric fever increased from 97 in 1893 to 115 in 1894; but in 1890 with a smaller popula- tion the number was as high as 145. The death-rate from typhoid fever per 10,000 persons living in 1894 was 169 in New Zealand. In England it was 2-29 for the previous year (1893), and 1-84 for the decenmum 1883-92. The following table showing the proportions for the several Aus- tralasian Colonies for the years 1887-92 is taken from the Victorian Year-book:— Deaths from Typhoid Feveb, 1887-92, per 10,000 Persons livino. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. lh92. Queensland . 707 6-31 10-28 340 311 3-05 New South Wales . 4-32 4-20 5-85 2-82 235 281 Victoria . 6-21 513 835 546 3-10 2.59 South Australia . 4-92 3-84 4-37 3 13 2-52 270 Western Australia . 312 1-65 116 0-42 234 9-83 Tasmania . 8-37 6-12 806 341 557 301 New Zealand . 2-82 2-30 1-98 240 1-89 220 110 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. There were 22 deaths from parasitic diseases, the proportion per 10,000 living being 032. Six men and three women died from hydatids. The deaths from constitutional diseases in 1894 numbered 1,319, or 19-42 per 10,000 of population. The most fatal diseases in this class were phthisis and cancer. From phthisis there are more deaths than from any other cause. The number of deaths was 576 in 1894—315 males and 261 females —against 545—295 males and 250 females—in 1893. The deaths in 1894 were in the proportion of 8-48 in every 10,000 persons living. The rate among males was higher—873 per 10,000 persons living— than among females, 8-19 per 10,000. The death-rate from phthisis in New Zealand is the lowest for the Australasian Colonies, as will be seen from the figures quoted below:— Death-bates from Phthisis per 10,000 Persons living. 1890. 1891. 1892. Queensland.. .. 13-35 1238 1017 New South Wales .. 934 921 862 Victoria .. .. 1458 1293 1360 South Australia .. 9 29 1036 941 Western Australia .. 897 956 8 40 Tasmania .. .. 960 900 844 New Zealand .. 838 786 8-16 In all the Australasian Colonies the rate is materially increased by the deaths of persons who have come out either already suffering from phthisis or predisposed thereto. There is no reason for believing that this circumstance has more effect on the death-rate in Australia than in New Zealand; so that the lower rate obtaining in this colon v mav be taken as proof of the superiority of its climate for withstanding consumptive tendencies. The death-rate of England and Wales from phthisis is far higher than that of New Zealand. In 1893 it stood at 14-68 per 10,000. The Eegistrar-Geueral of England remarks in his report that " up to the year 1888 the mortality from phthisis had shown a steady de- cline for many vears, but in 1889, 1890, and 1891 it rose somewhat. In 1892 and 1893, however, the rate fell again to 1,468 in a million, which is the lowest rate on record." Phthisis is now known to be and is treated as an infectious pre- ventive disease caused by the bacillus tuberculosis, which is com- municable in many ways. Certain constitutions are far more pre- disposed than others to receive this bacillus, especially under con- ditions of life unfavourable to robust health, when a nidus is formed for the development of the bacillus. Legislative action has been recommended to safeguard the life and health of the people from tubercle, and the complete isolation of consumptive patients, with the disinfecting of their sputa, and of everything that has been in contact with them, is suggested from time to time as a necessary measure. DEATHS FROM PHTHISIS. Ill A table is given, as in previous years, to show the ages, with the length of residence in the colony, of persons who died from phthisis in 1894 :— Deaths prom Phthisis. Length of Residence in the Colony. U5 o Age at Dentil. in 3 id ~ CD I f S S a q S S 3 0 0 - = 3 z E-i Males Under 1 month 1 to 6 months . 6 to 12 months M3 a — —< 3 8 s 2 1 2 2 1 1 i 1 4 2 1 2 3 1 4 1 1 1 4 1 to 2 years 5 2 to 3 years 5 3 to 4 years 1 1 2 4 to 5 years 2 2 5 4 -7 1 2 3 2 5 17 4 4 3 5 to 10 years . 10 to 15 years . 15 to 20 years . 20 to 20 years . 25 years and up Not known Bom in colony 1 4 5 1 1 1 1 3 26 5 13 14 14 27 2 28 10 6 5 8 2 4 1 1 2 1 30 9 64 2 47 9 27 3 3 4 4 29 11 99 Totals 2 69 72 76 39 37 9 4 315 Female Under 1 month 1 to 6 months . € to 12 months s. 1 2 1 2 1 1 4 3 3 1 to 2 years 1 2 1 2 to 3 years 3 to 4 years 4 to 5 years 1 1 2 7 6 2 6 , 9 3 11 17 19 28 27 5 to 10 years . 10 to 15 years . 15 to 20 years . 20 to 25 years . 25 years and up Not known Born in colony 3 4 4 3 7 7 7 7 1 4 1 4 8 G 1 1 1 3 5 1 4 4 7 1 1 3 10 11 5 71 47 ;; 7 138 Totals 92 84 38 21 9 1 261 Totals of bo th sexes 15 1G1 156 114 60 46 9 5 576 From other forms of tuberculosis the deaths in 1894 were 176 or 259 per 10,000 of population. Cancer was returned as the cause of 408 deaths in 1894, showing the large increase of 76 on the number for the previous year. In 1893 the deaths stated were 332; in 1892, 307; in 1891, 295- in 1890, the same number; and in 1889, 260. The death-rates'for 112 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. :::::::::::: :::::::::::::: :::::::::::::: :::::::::::: England and New Zealand, given below, would lead to the belief that there has been of late years a most serious increase in mortality from this cause. DEATHS FROM CANCER IN EVERY 10,000 PERSONS LIVING. Year. New Zealand. England. 1881 .. 2.69 5.20 1882 .. 2.89 5.34 1883 .. 2.99 5.49 1884 .. 3-46 5.63 1885 .. 3.13 5.72 1886 .. 3-68 5.90 1887 .. 3.99 6.15 1888 .. 4.34 6.21 1889 4.25 6.56 1890 4.75 6.76 1891 4.68 6.92 1892 4.78 6.90 1893 .. 5.02 7.11 1894 .. 6:01 It has been held, however, that the apparent increase in cancer is the result of more careful definition of the causes of death, and of improved diagnosis. To this the Registrar-General of England replies : “ In the face of the constant and great growth of mortality under the head of cancer, and the expressed belief of medical practitioners especially engaged in dealing with this class of diseases that they are becoming more and more common, it seems scarcely possible to maintain the optimistic view that the whole of the apparent increase can be thus explained ; and it must be admitted as at any rate highly probable that a real increase is taking place in the frequency of these malignant affections.” But a careful investigation made by Mr. George King (Honorary Secretary, Institute of Actuaries), and Dr. Nensholme leads to conclusions differing from the above, and it is now, on the contrary, argued that there has been no increase of cancer whatever, as will be seen by the following extract from the “ Proceedings of the Royal Society, London":- The statistics for Frankfort-on-the-Main enable us to classify cancer in accordance with the part of the body primarily affected. We have therefore classified the returns into two groups, according as the cancer is “ accessible" or easy of diagnosis, and “inaccessible" or difficult of diagnosis. The results of this classification show that in those parts of the body in which cancer is easily accessible and detected there has been no increase in cancer mortality between 1860 and 1889. It is true that the majority of the deaths from“accessible "cancer are among women--the deaths from “ accessible" cancer among men at Frank. fort-on-the-Main being too few to be, when considered alone, trustworthy; but we know of no reason for supposing that, while female cancer of "accessible" parts has remained stationary, male and female cancer of the other parts of the body has really increased. The general conclusions arrived at are these :- 1. Males and females suffer equally from cancer in those parts of the body common to man and woman, the greater prevalence of cancer among females being due entirely to cancer of the sexual organs. DEATHS FROM CANCER. 113 2. The apparent increase in cancer is confined to what we have called inac- cessible cancer. Tliis is shown (a) by the Frankfort figures, (6) bv the fact that the difference between Die rates for mal« s and females respectively is approximately constant, and does not progressively increase wth the apparent increase in cancer in each of the sexes, and (c) becnu.se the apparent increase in cancer among the well-to-do assured lives, who are presumably attended by medical moi of more than average skill, is not so great as among the general population. 3. The supposed increase in cancer is only apparent, and is due tn improve- ment in diagnosis and more careful certification of the causes of death. This is shown bv the fact that the whole of the increase has taken place in inaccessible cancer difficult of diagnosis, while accessible cancer easily diagnosed has re- mained practically stationary. As to the nature of cancer, Dr. R. G. Macdonald, of Dunedin, in his notes on Cancer Statistics, writes,— The German schools assert that cancer can be inoculated, and is conta- gious, while some of our English schools as positively assert that it is not, but is due to the exigencies of cell life. . . . Tue contest now lies between the bacillus and the cell, and it remains to be seen who shall win the day. The one is a foreigner, ab extra, of desperately evil repute ; the other a Dative product, per excrssnm, which has thrown off allegiance t" the parent stock, and has set out on a madcap career of its own. It is difficult for the individual attacked to say whether the cell or the bacillus would be preferable, and, indeed, it matters not, as it would be a choice between Scylla and Charvbdis. To the great majoiity of humanity, however, it is of the utmost importance that the battle should be decided, as, should the bacillus theory prevail, much can be done to destroy its potency. Our food supplies, and those alieady affected, would be much more carefully attended to, and general hygiene would acquire afresh stimulus. It would, doubtless, be dealt with much the same as tubercle, and with the prospect of gradually eradicating it. Should the cell theory be triumphant, we must clamour for the millennium or "Looking Backward " at once; as, while the woi Id goes as it d'-es. it is impossible to get i id of worry or other neurotic causes; and it is equalK impossible to get rid of the majoiity of cases arising from local injury or irritation. He gives also, as conclusive proof that the evil is not attributable to flesh-eating, Surgeon Major Hendley's account of cancer at the Jeypore Hospital: — The records of the Jeypore Hospital, which is ttndermv charge, show no such immunity of vi geiarians from cancer. From January, 1880, to the present date, 102 major operations have been performed in the hospital in cases of cancer. Of these, forty-one were on the persons of meat-eaters, anil sixty-one on those of strict vegetarians, who had never eaten meat, since th< ir biith. Amongst them are six Sitraogis, a class of Jains who even reject many kinds of vegetables. The following table gives the death-rates from cancer in New Zealand of males and females for the past eleven years :— Tear. 1884 1K85 18S6 1887 18«8 1889 Deaths fhom Cancer in every 10,000 Persons op each Sex living in New Zealand. Year. Males. Females. 1890 .. .. 472 4-79 1891 .. .. 4-61 4-77 1892 .. .. 508 4-44 1893 .. .. 5-35 4 65 1894 .. .. GG5 527 Males. Females 3"26 369 2-82 343 309 367 3-96 4 03 419 4-53 347 4 06 Deaths from diabetes mellitus were more numerous in 1894 than in any previous year. In 1887, when the European population of 8 114 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. the colony was 596,374 persons, the deaths were only 17, but in 1894 the total was 49, with a population of 679,196. The death rates were, for 1887, 29 out of every million persons living, and 72 per million for 1894. The total of deaths from developmental diseases was 546, or 8-04 per 10,000 persons living. The mortality from premature birth comprised 214 deaths. Below is given the proportion for the last five years of deaths from this cause to the total births in the colony. Deaths from congenital defects were 74, and the proportion of these to the total births is also given below. It will be noticed that both proportions show an increase during the period. Number and Proportions per 1,000 Births. Deaths by Premature Birth. Deaths by Congenital Defects. Year. No. 1890 205 1891 188 1892 201 1893 228 1894 214 Or, stating the resuh 'roportion No. 53 Proportion per 1.000. per 1,000. 11-22 2'JO 1029 51 2-79 11-24 57 319 12-54 69 3 79 11 55 74 399 the result in another way, there was one death from premature birth to every 89 births in 1890, and one to 87 in 1894. Similarly the deaths by congenital defects show one to every 345 births in 1890, and one in 250 in 1894. In England the proportion of deaths by premature birth to every 1,000 births was as high as 18-88 in the year 1893. Deaths from old age in 1894 numbered 258, against 209 in 1893. Deaths by diseases of the nervous system (659) were 9-53 per cent, of the total mortality last year, and 9-70 per 10,000 of persons living. Of the 659 deaths, 175 were credited to apoplexy, 135 to convulsions, and 78 to inflammation of the brain and its membranes. A comparison of the deaths from nervous diseases (excluding con- vulsions of children) for the last five years does not give any reason for supposing that these complaints are on the increase. Proportion per 10,000 Persons living. 842 835 8-66 909 7-72 Deaths from Bright's disease of the kidneys (albuminuria) num- bered 93 in the year 1894. In the year 1891, with a smaller population, the mortality was greater (102 deaths); but for the years 1885-86-87 the deaths were only 53, 57, and 46 respectively. The proportions per million of population were: 1885, 92 ■ 1886 98 • 1887; 77; 1891, 162; 1894, 137.' Deaths by violence form a very large item in the total mortality In 1894 the proportion per 10,000 of males living was 1508, and the proportion in the same number of females 4-80. In other words Deaths from Nervous Year. Convulsions of Children.) Diseases(excluding No. 1890 527 1891 526 1892 556 1893 601 1894 .. 524 DEAF-AND-DUMB. 115 one out of every 663 males living, and one out of every 2,082 females, met with a violent death. About 125 persons—76 males and 49 females—lost their lives at the wreck of the s.s. " Wairarapa," on Great Barrier Island. Of 544 males who died violent deaths, 59, or 1085 per cent., were suicides. The deaths of females by violence were far fewer, amount- ing to no more than 153, and out of these only 14 committed suicide, a proportion of 9-15 per cent. The table on page 107 gives the full list of deaths from external or violent causes for the year 1894. Accidental deaths numbered 617—males 479 and females 138. Of the total male deaths, 160 resulted from fractures or contusions, and 220 from accidental drowning. Of the female deaths, 73 were due to drowning. The accidental deaths in 1893 were 380 males and 91 females; and suicides, 55 males and 15 females. The following figures, taken from the Victorian Year-book of 1894, show the death-rate from violence in the Australasian Colonies and the United Kingdom, from which it would appear that the rate in New Zealand is higher than in the Home-country, South Aus- tralia, Victoria, and Tasmania, but lower than in New South Wales, Queensland, and Western Australia :— ColonipR or Countries Proportion per 100,000 living « ,„..,.,,.,„ lountriM. of Deaths by Violence. Queensland Western Australia New South Wales New Zealand Victoria.. United Kingdom Tasmania South Australia .. 163 16] 111 95 '.il 77 74 71 Deaf-and-dumb. The number of deaf-and-dumb of both sexes returned at the census of 1891 was 166, the males being 93 and females 73. Included amongst these are 26 persons described as "dumb" only. Out of a total number of 166, 134 were under 30 years of age. It would appear that the proportion of the deaf-and-dumb in the colony is increasing with time, but not to any very great degree. The figures are given for five census periods :— Deaf-and-dumb. —Pbopoktions PER 10,000 OP Population. Persons. Males. Females. Census 1874 1 90 205 1-71 1878 2-22 2-25 2-18 1881 2 33 223 2-45 1886 2-30 237 2-22 1891 205 280 249 The number of deaf-and-dumb under 15 years of age was 75. Of these, 50 were at the end of 1891 inmates of the Deaf-and-dumb Institution at Sumner. (See Eeport of the Hon. the Minister for Education, 1892.) 116 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAK-BOOK. The number of the population of the colony under 15 years of age was 250,368 at the date of the census, so that, with a total number of 75 deaf-mutes at that period of life, there was 1 deaf- mute in every 3,338 children. The proportion of deaf-mutes of all ages to the total population of the colony was 1 in every 3,775 persons. The proportion of deaf-mutes to the total population at the census of 1S91 for each of the Australasian Colonies was— South Australia .. 1 deaf-mute to every 1,369 persons. Queensland .. .. , . 2.557 Tasmania .. .. , . 2.716 New South Wales .. . . 2,867 Victoria .. .. . . 3,133 New Zealand .. .. . . 3,775 Western Australia .. „ , 4,526 Blind. In the 1891 census .274 persons were returned as "blind" or "nearly blind." Of these, 164 were males and 110 females. The results of five censuses are compared in the following table, which shows a steady rise in the numbers of the blind considered in pro- portion to population, and also that in New Zealand blindness is somewhat more prevalent among males than amongst females:— Pbopobtioss op Blind to evbby 10,000 of the Population. Persons. Males. Females. Census 1874 „ 1S78 . 1881 1SSS . i$yi The proportion of the blind per 10,000 persons living is—for England, about 879; for Ireland, 1130; for Scotland, 695; for Germany, 793; for France, 8 37; and for Italy, 763. For the Australian Colonies the figures are: Victoria, 872; New South Wales, 6-59; Australian Continent, 7-SS. The greater prevalence of blindness in Australia than in New- Zealand is best seen by the following comparison for 1891:— Tasmania .. .. 1 blind person to every 889 persons. Western Australia . . 923 Victoria South Australia New South Wales Queensland New Zealand - - Of 274 blind persons, only 66 were fouud to be under 40 years of age, blindness being a disease more couuuoa to the later periods of life. , • v Blind persons are returned in the census under many heads of occupation, as might be expected, considering the fact just mentioned, that blindness is more common in later life than in youth. No doubt the occupations stated must be looked upon in. 2i»4 2-45 2-18 256 242 273 2 82 293 268 3-22 3-65 270 4 37 4-91 3-74 * 1 146 , : 297 . t 517 . . l 97S . . -j 2S7 . BLIND. 117 many instances as past occupations—to which the persons referred to were brought up, and which they followed before thev became blind. The occupations for 1891 are as follow : — Occupations (Past and Present) of the Blind. M. F. M. F. * S > S P< D O S -Justice of the Peace Monthly nurse .. 1 1 School-teacher .. 2 .. 1 .. 1 Instructor to the blind Photographer .. Music-teacher .. Boarding-house keeper Housekeeper .. 1 1 Capitalist .. 3 2 .. 1 Proprietor of land News vendor Bootlaces and match vendor Draper Butcher Greengrocer Grocer Labourer in coal- yard Storekeeper General dealer .. Hawker Commission agent Clerk Assisting carrier Piaoo-tuner Basket-maker .. Coach painter .. Boatbuilder Chair-mender .. Boot- and shoe- maker Baker Brewer Cordial-maker .. Sawyer Brickinaker Lunacy. The lunatics returned in the census sexes, 1,088 being men and 710 women. a. Tinsmith .. 1 Blacksmith .. 1 Moulder .. 1 Carpenter .. 4 Labourer on roads 1 Engineer .. 1 Labourer (unde- fined) .. 13 Farmer .. 11 Relative assisting farmer .. 1 Farm labourer .. 2 Gardener .. 1 Dairy-farmer .. 1 Gold-miner .. 2 Quarryman .. 1 Gum-digger .. 1 Pensioner .. 3 Annuitant .. 2 Independent means and retired .. 11 Not stated, and no occupation .. 87 Domestic duties 41 Governmt. scholar 1 Receiving tuition at home .. 3 Dependent rela- tives .. 8 Tnmate of hospital 3 Inmate of benevo- lent asylum .. 29 Inmate of indus- trial school .. 1 Receiving chari- table aid .. 1 1 Totals 1 1 1 1 1 13 11 1 2 1 1 ■j 1 1 8 1 C 35 25 39 39 .. 274 15 149 15 95 numbered 1,798 of both As in the case of the blind, the census results exhibit continuous increase in the proportion to population, and also show that lunacy is more prevalent amongst men than amongst women. 118 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. ::::: LUNATICS.--PROPORTIONS PER 10,000 OF POPULATION. Persons. Males. Females. Census 1874 19.93 23.28 15.48 1878 .. 20.85 25.07 15:54 1881 22.86 27.30 17.43 1886 26-50 31.03 21.18 1891 .. 27.82 31.28 23.92 The number of lunatics stated in the asylum returns as for the 1st January, 1891, was 1,797, or just one fewer than the number brought out by the census. Although the asylum returns include certain idiots and inebriates not included in the census figures as lunatics, the figures are sufficiently close to show that, saving per- haps one or two here and there, the lunatics of the colony are all cared for in the various institutions set apart for their reception, of which there are seven under Government, and one private asylum licensed by the Governor. On examining the numbers at the several age-periods, it is found that, taking both sexes, the proportion of lunatics in every 10,000 persons was only 2.61 at 15–20 years, but from that period onwards rose rapidly to 96.67 at 45-50 years, after which it diminished some- what. The proportion of lunatic females of all ages to the total female population was considerably less than the proportion of males ; nevertheless at the period 45-50 years 98.89 per 10,000 women were lunatics, while the highest proportion shown for men is 96.85, at the period 55-60 years. The number of idiots at the date of the last census was 128. These are not included as lunatics in the census numbers. The pro- portion of idiots to population was 2:03 per 10,000 of both sexes; for males 2:32, and for females 1.7. At the census of 1886 only 89 persons were returned as idiots. Insanity, including idiocy, exists in Ireland at the rate of 45.04 insane persons per 10,000 persons living. The rate in Scotland is 38.43; in Victoria, 36.17; in England, 32-53; in New South Wales, 30-38; in New Zealand, 29.85; in France, 25:1; in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, 20-59. HOSPITALS, LUNATIC ASYLUMS, BENEVOLENT ASYLUMS, AND CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS. Hospitals. Prior to the abolition of provinces the hospitals of the colony were supported mainly out of provincial revenues. After that event, the expenditure for hospitals was for the most part charged against the revenue of counties and municipal corporations, until October, 1885, when “The Hospitals and Charitable Institutions Act, 1885," came into force. The portion of the colony included within the three principal islands--the North, Middle, and Stewart Islands-was by the above Act divided into twenty-eight hospital districts, each consisting of HOSPITALS. 119 one or more counties with the interior boroughs, to be presided over by elective Boards, designated " Hospital and Charitable-aid Boards." The revenues of these Boards accrue from the following sources:— (1.) Rents and profits of land and endowments vested in the Board, or set apart for the benefit of particular institu- tions; (2.) Voluntary contributions; (3.) Grants from contributory local authorities; and (4.) Subsidies from the Consolidated Fund (these being at the rate of 10s. for every £1 of bequests, but in no case ex- ceeding £500 in respect of any one bequest; £1 4s. for every £l of voluntary contributions; and £1 for every £1 received from any local authority). The contributory local authorities—being the County and Borough Councils, and Boards of road and town districts where the Counties Act is not in force—are empowered by the Act to raise by special rates the amounts assessed by the Hospital District Boards as their proportionate contributions to the Hospital and Charitable - aid Fund. The District Boards undertake the general management and control of those hospitals that are not incorporated in terms of the Act, and are required to contribute to the support of the incor- porated hospitals. To be incorporated a hospital must have as many as 100 subscribers, contributing not less than £100 annually by amounts of not less than 5s., and must have been declared by the Governor in Council, after receipt by him of a duly signed petition, to be a body politic and corporate, under the government of trustees. There are 39 hospitals in the colony, of which 21 are incor- porated institutions, vvhi'e 18 are directly managed and controlled by District Boards. In 1894 these hospitals afforded accommodation for 1,019 male and 484 female patients, a total of 1,503. The number of cubic feet of space included within the walls of all the sleeping- wards was 2,058,588, which gave an average of 1,370 cubic feet to each bed. 6,386 males and 2,848 females were admitted as patients during the year 1894, and 595 male and 245 female patients were inmates at the end of the year. The total number of indoor patients during the year was 10,012—viz., 6,979 males and 3,033 females. Outdoor relief was also given to a very large number of persons; but, as in some of the hospitals no records are kept of the outdoor patients, it is impossible to state the number of distinct persons who received such relief. Benevolent Asylums and Charitable Institutions. The various benevolent asylums and charitable institutions are placed on a similar footing to the hospitals. Most of the Boards of hospital districts are also Charitable-aid Boards; but, for the 120 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. purpose of distributing charitable aid only, some of the hospital districts have been united into larger districts, so that, although there are 28 Boards for hospital purposes, there are only 21 for charitable-aid purposes. A Returns were received in 1894 from 16 benevolent asylums (not including orphanages), established for the support of indigent persons. The number of inmates in these institutions at the end of 1894 was 925, of whom 611 were males and 314 females. Out- door relief was given by three of these institutions to 3,312 persons, including 2,122 children. Auckland Sailors' Home. There is a Sailors' Home at Auckland for the use of seafaring men resident in or visiting the town. The late Edmund Costley having left a large sum for charitable purposes, it was resolved to employ the bequest in building and endowing an institution where sailors might be received without distinction of race or religious belief, and board, lodging, and refreshments provided for them, together with such instruction and amusements as might tend to promote their sucial comfort and general welfare. The Home, built in 1887, has room for 35 inmates, who are charged 15s. a week for board and lodging. It is managed by a council of eight members elected by the subscribers to the institu- tion, with the Anglican Bishop of Auckland (the Right Rev. W. G. Cowie), who first originated the scheme, as life president. Orphan Asylums. There were in 1894 five orphan asylums in the colony, one main- tained by a District Hospital Board, one by the Church of England authorities, and three by clergy of the Roman Catholic Church : three of them receiving, at the charge of the State, orphan, des- titute, and other children committed to them by a Stipendiary Magistrate. Exclusive of the children so committed, 12 male and 27 female orphans were received during the year 1894, and 45 male and 81 female orphans remained as inmates at the end of the year. Orphanages receiving committed children are, for that purpose, constituted “industrial schools,” and mention of these will be found in the article “ State Instruction.” Lunatic Asylums. There are seven public lunatic asylums in the colony, maintained wholly or in part out of the public revenue. There is also one private asylum, licensed by the Governor for the reception of lunatics. There were, at the end of 1894, 1,308 male and 860 female patients belonging to these asylums. Of these, 1,203 males and 780 females were regarded as incurable, 14 males and 23 SHIPPING. 121 females were out on trial, and 91 males and 57 females were sup- posed to be curable. 125 male and 91 female patients were dis- charged during the year. The following shows the proportion of insane—or, rather, of inmates of lunatic asylums—to the population (exclusive in each case of Maoris) at the end of the years stated :— 1884, 1 insane person to every 393 of population. 1885, , 382 1886, „ 370 1887, . „ 360 1888, „ 365 1889, „ 349 1890, „ 348 1891, „ „ 343 1892, . „ 339 1893, „ 330 1894, „ 816 It must not be overlooked that the proportions are increased by the admission into the asylums of inebriates, idiots, and others, who should not properly be there. The Inspector of Hospitals and Asylums, in his report for the year 1894, specifies the causes of insanity in 349 cases (males, 205; females, 144) admitted during the year. In 58 of these (29 of either sex) the cause is given as "congenital or hereditary," and in 47 (males, 32; females, 15) as " drink." The proportion of eases due to drink to the total number of specified cases was there- fore 1347 per cent. Trade and Interchange. Shipping. The shipping entered inwards during 1894 comprised 609 vessels, of 631,100 tonnage; while entered outwards were 614 vessels of 631,250 tons. Comparison with the figures for the previous year shows in the entries a decrease of 8 vessels, but an increase of 15,496 tons, and in the clearances a decrease of 21 vessels and 11,216 tons. Of the vessels inwards, 141, of 271,994 tons, were British; 423, of 306,547 tons, colonial; and 45, of 52,559 tons, foreign. Those outwards numbered 140, of 270,464 tons, British; 432, of 310,050 tons, colonial; and 42, of 50,736 tons, foreign. There was a rise of 18 in the number and 34,297 in the tonnage of colonial vessels entered, but a fall in the British shipping entered ■of 25 vessels and 18,329 tons. Of the entries, 279, of 133,836 tons, were sailing-vessels, and 330, of 497,264 tons, steamers. Of the clearances, 285, of 136,463 tons, were sailing-vessels, and 329, of 494,787 tons, steamers. The shipping inwards and outwards for ten years is given in the table following :— 122 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. VESSELS ENTERED, 1885–94. Total Number. British. I Colonial. Foreign. Year. Vessels, Tons. Crews. Vessels. Tons. Crews. Vessels. Tons. Crews. Vessels. Tons. Crews. 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 ... 786 519,700 20,252 140 179,944 6,130 586 299,88112,613 60 39,8751,509 .. 725 502,572 19,525 116 149, 167 4,418534 294,859'12,660 75 58,546 2,447 .. 653,489,754 19,806 109 144,482 4,202 472 275,085 11,828 72 70,187 3,056 .. 683 526,435 20,783 130,182,020 5,352 497 276,624 12,4015667, 791 3,030 .. 781 602,634 22,649 158 206,825 5,348 547 319,131 14,162 76 76,678 3,139 .. 744 662,769 23,475 190 280,105 6,786 477 298,497 13,598 77 84,167 3,091 .. 737 618,515 21,889 169 265,164 6,817 507 291,800,12,951 61 61,551 2,121 686 675,223 22,038 203 335,577 8,274411 265,769 11,303 72 73,877 2, 461 .. 617 615,604 20,935 166 290,323 7,289 405 272,250 11,745 46 53,031 1,901 .. 609 631,100 21,834 141 271,994,6,456 423 306,54713,279 45 52, 559 2,099 VESSELS CLEARED, 1885-94. 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 .. 780 513,000 19,882 135 177,1866,052 589 297,432 12,393 56 38,3821,437 707 488, 33119,052 102 134,660 3,870 530 295,469 12,77175 58,202 2,411 675 493,583 19,155 113 142,890 4,070494 282,499 12,098 68 68, 1942,987 701 531,478,20,961 109 157,871,4,509 533305,264 13,3965968, 3433,056 762 593,252 22,647 160 211,8725,714 527 307,083 13,762 7574,297 3,171 745 649,705 23, 260 195 284,635 7,168 477 283,735 13,076 73 81,335,3,016 744 625,807,22,080168 271,533 7,002 515291,938 12,947 61 62,336 2,131 .. 689 656,100 21,679 189 315,633.7,934 424263,504 11,241 76 76,963 2,504 .. 635 642,466 21,448 186 317,130 7,839,400 270,308 11,665 49 55,028 1,944 .. 614 631,250 21,934 140 270,464 6,437 432 310,050 13,527 42 50,7361,970 Note.-Coasting-vessels are not included in the above table. The above figures apply to the foreign trade only; but in a new country such as New Zealand, as yet deficient in roads, but having an extensive seaboard and a number of good harbours, the coastal trade must be relatively very large, as is evidenced by the figures next given :- SHIPPING ENTERED COASTWISE, 1894. · Number. Sailing-vessels .. 4,203 Steamers .. 13,389 Tons. 237,795 4,365,048 SHIPPING CLEARED COASTWISE, 1894. Sailing-vessels Steamers .. .. .. Number. 4,061 13,323 Tons. 231, 702 4,336,477 The total number of vessels entered coastwise was thus 17,592, of 4,602,843 tons, being an increase of 115 vessels and 271,708 tons. IMP0KTS AND EXPOKTS. 123 on the figures for 1893. The clearances coastwise were 17,384 vessels, of 4,568,179 tons, an increase of 16 vessels and 287,705 tons on the number for the previous year. The number and tonnage of the registered vessels belonging to the several ports on the 31st December, 1894 (distinguishing sailing-vessels and steamers), was as under :— Registered Vessels, 31st December, 1894. Ports. Sailing-vessels. Steam-vessels. VohsbIs Gross Net Vi,«i«li sseis. Tounago To„naRo.j vessels. Gross Tonnage Net Tonnage. Auckland 162 10,609 10,397 68 8,366 5,354 Napier 9 1,081 1,055 12 959 575 Wellington 13 4,207 4,082 22 3,913 2,321 Nelson 18 509 509 12 995 025 Lyttelton 81 ■ 5,549 5,417 9 1,336 592 Dunedin 46 11,127 10,974 58 48,308 29,101 Invercargill 17 2,325 2,240 3 304 190 Totals . 296 35,407 34,674 179 64,181 38,808 Imports and Exports. The quantities and values of imports used in making up the figures given in this portion of the statistical report are obtained from Customs entries, verified, where necessary, as with goods subject to an ad valorem duty, by examination. For exports, the "free on board in New Zealand" value is given; but, as regards the main items, the Collector of Customs examines carefully the amounts Btated, and compares them with current price-lists, to prevent any over-estimate. Goods transhipped at a foreign port are regarded as imported from the country where they were originally shipped, and exports as destined for the country where it is intended to land them. The countries named, however, may not be those of origin or destination, as no attempt is made to trace the goods beyond the ports disclosed by the documents presented to the Customs. Very little cargo in transitu passes through New Zealand. The total declared values of the imports in 1894 amounted to £'6,788,020, being a decrease on the corresponding total in 1893 of £123,495. These figures are, however, somewhat misleading, as they include.speeie. The coin brought into the colony in 1894 was nearly double the value of that imported in the previous year, and, if this item be deducted in either case, the decrease on the values of all other articles will be found to reach the sum of £504,102. The following table gives the value of imports for each of the past ten years :— 124 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Imports, Imports. Year. inclusive of exclusive of Specie. Specie. £ £ 1885 .. 7,479,921 7,278,101 1886 .. 0,759,013 6,319,223 1887 .. .. 6,245,515 6,064,281 1888 .. 5,941,900 5,430,050 1889 .. .. 6,308,803 5,980,583 1890 .. .. 6,260,505 5,928,625 1891 .. .. 6,503,849 6,431,101 1892 .. 6,943,056 6,742,544 1893 .. 6,911,515 6,494,279 1894 .. .. 6,788,020 5,990,177 It will be seen that the value of imports, exclusive of specie, fell Jay degrees from £7,278,101 in 1885 (the first year of the series) to £5,430.050 in 1888; from, the latter vear it rose till it reached £6,742,544 in 1892; while in 1893 it again showed a decline— 3-68 per cent., and in 1894 a further decline of 7'76 per cent. Since 1885 the value of New Zealand produce exported has been every year in excess of the value of the imports, and since 1887 (despite the fall in prices of wool, mutton, &c.) very greatly in excess. This being the case, it might have been expected that the rise in the value of imports observable during the five years 1888-92 would be maintained in 1893 and 1894. The fall in the two latter years is due to a variety of causes, not by any means indicating generally decreased consumption. Of £5,990,177, total value of goods imported during 1894, the chief items were as under :— Articles. Clothing, drapery, 041 17 5 Amount applied in aid of Public Works Fund ..250,000 0 0 Unapplied released sinking funds transferred to Public Works Fund .. .. .. 17 11 8 250,017 11 8 Surplus at 31st March, 1895 .. .. .. £180,024 5 9 Besides expenditure out of revenue, there was also an expendi- ture out of the Public Works Fund of £360,787. Of this amount £200,545 was for construction of railways (including £1,000, pur- chase of Kaihu Valley Eailway, but excluding £47,000, amount •of the debentures taken over by Government on default of the railway company), £68,121 for roads, £54,190 for public buildings, £19,229 for telegraph extension, £8,680 for the Public Works De- partment, £5,865 for the development of goldfields, £3,146 for lighthouses and harbour-works, £561 for rates on Native lands, £349 for purchase of Native lands, and £101 for immigration. In addition to the above, £89,207 were spent on roads and bridges under "The Lands Improvement and Native Lands Acqui- sition Act, 1894"; under the same Act, and "The Native Land Purchases Act, 1892," £101,009 were expended in buying Native lands; while a further sum of £27,715 was paid in acquiring estates under provisions of the Land for Settlements Acts; and £21,939 were disbursed for surveys, roads, &c, on the Cheviot Estate. Besides the revenue raised by the General Government, all the County and Borough Councils, Town, Eoad, River, Harbour, and Drainage Boards have power to levy rates and obtain revenue from other sources. The colony is divided into 94 boroughs and 81 counties; within the latter there are 247 road districts and 40 town districts, not including the special town district of Rotorua, constituted under '* The Thermal-Springs Districts Act, 1881." The following table shows the receipts from rates and other 148 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. sources, with the expenditure and outstanding loans, of the local governing bodies for six financial years :— Receipts of Local Bodies. Year. From Government From Rates, and other Sourcos, including Loans. Expenditure. , 0»£»?«* £ £ £ £ 1887-88 433,831 1,306,661 1,819,787 5,812,803 1888-89 445,928 992,567 1,560,604 5,892,050 1889-90 460,302 914,413 1,470,539 5,978,059 1890-91 .. 403,581 899,666 1,381,319 6,042,693 1891-92 488,824 907,420 1,400,467 6,081,934 1892-93 .. 508,157 1,050,214 1,482,548 6,203,869 1893-94 .. 551,412 1,304,869 1,589,124 6,614,824* 1 Full particulars relating to local finance will be found under the- head " Local Governing Bodies." Taxation. The direct taxation prior to 1892 consisted of a property-tax of Id. in the pound on all assessed real and personal property (with an exemption of £500) and the stamp duties; but in 1891 a Land and Income Assessment Act was passed repealing the property-tax. A full description of the system of the land- and income-tax is given by the Commissioner in a special article in Part III. of this book, and to this attention is particularly directed. The leading features only are briefly stated here. The Assessment Act of 1891 provides for an ordinary land-tax on the actual value of land, and an owner is allowed to deduct any amount owing by him secured on a registered mortgage. Under the original Act the deduction for improvements might not exceed £3,000; but, by the Amendment Act of 1893, the value of all improvements whatsoever is exempted from liability to land-tax. Besides this, an exemption of £500 is allowed when the balance, after making deductions as above stated, does not exceed £1,500; and above that a smaller exemption is granted, but ceases when the balance amounts to £2,500. Mortgages are subject to the land- tax. The revenue from the ordinary land-tax is, in round numbers, about £200,000 per annum. The rate of ordinary land-tax for 1894-95 was Id. in the pound. In addition to the ordinary land-tax, there is a graduated land- tax which commences when the unimproved value is £5,000. For the graduated land-tax, the present value of all improvements is deducted; but mortgages are not deducted. The Act of 1893, while reducing the ordinary taxation on land by exempting all improve- • Not including loans amounting to £350,304. repayable to General Government by annual instalments. TAXATION. 149 ments, increased the graduated-tax, and the revised rates are now ■one-eighth of a penny in the pound sterling when the value is £5,000 and is less than £10,000, from which the rate increases with the value of the property by further steps of an eighth of a penny until the maximum of 2d. in the pound is reached, payable when the value is £210,000, or exceeds that sum. This graduated tax yields, in round numbers, £80,000 per an- num, which is not included in the sum of £200,000 given above. Twenty per cent, additional tax is levied in case of persons who have been absent from the colony for three years or more prior to the passing of the yearly taxing Act. This amounts to about £1,000, and is included in the £80,000 shown above. Income-tax is levied on all incomes above £300, and from taxable incomes a deduction of £300 is made. The rate of income-tax for 1894-95 was 6d. in the pound on the first taxable £1,000, and Is. in the pound on taxable incomes over £1,000. Companies pay Is. in the pound, and are not allowed the £300 exemption. The Act of 1893 further disallowed the £300 exemption in the ease of persons not domiciled in New Zealand. The indirect taxation is made up of Customs duties, and excise duty on beer made in the colony. The following statement shows the amount raised by taxation in each of the past thirteen years :— Amount of Kevenue rained Amount per Head of Popala by Taxation. tion (excluding Maoris). £ £ e. d. 1882 .. . 1,956,557 3 16 10 1883 . 1,957,080 3 13 11 1884 .. . 1,815,674 8 5 9 1885 .. . 2,016,730 3 10 10 1886 . 1,882,050 3 4 8 1887 . 1,876,235 3 2 11 1888 . 2,031,658 3 7 1 1889 . 2,090,405 3 8 4 1890 . 2,173,985 3 10 0 1891 . 2,179,739 3 9 2 1892 . 2,339,511 3 12 10 1893 .. . 2,353,250 3 11 -2 1894 . 2,000,350 3 7 9 As the Maoris contribute somewhat to the Customs revenue, an allowance should be made on that account to ascertain more cor- rectly the amount of taxation per head of the rest of the people. By including Maoris the Customs and excise duties per head of the rest of the population would be reduced by 2s. lOd. for the year 1894. If this amount be deducted from the taxation per head given for that year, the rate would be reduced from £3 7s. 9d. to £3 4s. lid. This latter rate may fairly be used for comparison with the rates in the neighbouring colonies. The following were the rates of taxation per head in the Austra- lasian Colonies in 1893, specifying the proportions derived from Customs and other taxes :— 150 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Rate of Taxation per Head of Mean Population. ! Proportion of Taxation by Ratio of Colonies. Taxation Customs Customs. £ s. d. Other Taxes. Total. from Customs Duties. Value of In)ports. to £ b. d. £ s. d. 3 2 7 Per Cent. 79-61 Per Cent. 24-43 Queensland 2 y 10 0 12 9 New South Wales 1 15 2 0 11 8 2 6 10 75 00 11-75 Victoria 1 9 9 0 13 4 2 3 1 (18 94 1309 South Australia 1 10 3 1 0 13 4 2 3 7 69-39 6-41 Western Australia 4 8 0 0 10 10 4 13 10 88-46 17-36 Tasmania 1 17 2 0 14 10 2 12 0 71-42 26-99 New Zealand 2 10 9 ! 1 0 5 3 11 2 71-34 24-29 The various local bodies levied taxation during the year ended 31st March, 1894, to the amount of £646,560, or 19s. 5d. per head of European population. Of the total sum, £362,591 were raised by general rates, £188,821 by special and separate rates, £80,106 by licenses, and £15,042 by other taxes. Loans for Government Advances to Settlers. A notable feature in the legislation of the year 1894 was the passing of the Government Advances to Settlers Act, of which a description will be found in the next part of this volume. The Act authorised the raising of three millions sterling, in sums not ex- ceeding a million and a half in each financial year, within two years from the date of the passing of the Act. The Loan Agents in London accordingly called for tenders for a million and a half of 3-per-cent. inscribed stock, to be lodged at the Bank of England on or before the 3rd May, 1895. The average price realised was £94 8s. 9d., applications having been made for £5,960,400, at prices varying from £100 to £90, of which about 33 per cent, of the tenders at £94 8s. were accepted, those above that price being allotted in full. The total cash receivable was £1,416,601 2s. New Zealand Consols. Another important financial Act, termed the New Zealand Con- sols Act, was also passed in 1894, with the intention of providing further means of investment for the savings of persons resident in the colony. This subject is fully dealt with in Part III. Public Debt. The gross public debt of the colony on 31st March, 1895, was £40,386,964, an increase of £560,549 on the amount at the close of the preceding year. Of this increase, the large sum of £411,100 was made up of debentures issued for the purpose of giving immediate returns: viz., £152,000 for loans to local bodies; £234,000 for land improvement, purchase of Native lands; and £25,100 for pur- chase of land for settlements. The total issue of bonds and inscribed stock during the year was- PUBLIC DEBT. 151 £1,522,363. On the other hand, debentures amounting in all to £961,814 were redeemed or converted, leaving, as stated above, an increase to the gross public debt of £560,549. Details of the increase in the public debt are shown here- under:- 9 Co1884 Gross debt, 31st March, 1894 39.826.415 | Debentures redeemed- Debentures issued for- Consolidated Stock Act, Loans to local bodies ... 152,000 Land improvement and Lyttelton and Christ- purchase of Native church Railway Loan lands 234,000 Ordinance, 1860 ... Purchase of land for Cheviot Estate purchase 264,414 and Loan 15,200 The figures given in the last column of the table on page 151 are the annual charges on the amount of stock and debentures of the public debt (exclusive of Treasury bills) outstanding at the end of each year, and not the moneys actually paid for interest and sinking fund. The actual payments during each year are shown hereunder :- Interest and Sinking Funds, Amounts actually paid for. Year ended 31st March. Public Debt. Treasury Bills. Total. Interest. Sinking Funds. Total. Interest. L 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1,752,020 1,718,618 1,747,376 1,662,029 1,711,583 1,619,925 115,781 112,540 107,469 117,535 123, 703 57,979 1,867,801 1,831,158 1,854,845 1,779,564 1,835, 286 1,677,904 29, 801 1,897,602 27,094 1,858, 252 38,084 1,892,929 41,564 1,821, 128 50,410 | 1,885,696 38,985 i 1,716,889 To face page 150. 318t and Stock in I European March. Circulation. Population. una accrued. devredness. "European Population. Sinking Fund). | £ s. d. £ £ 8. d. 1890..! 38,667,950 62 10 1 | 1,386, 185 37,281,765 60 5 3 1,851,421 1891.. 38,830,350 61 19 4 | 1,486,427 37,343,923 | 59 11 11 | 1,864,575 1892.. 38,713,068 60 14 8 1,037,862 37,675, 206 59 2 0 1,842,686 1893..! 39, 257,840 59 16 7 1,113, 770 38,144,070 58 2 7 1,837,169 1894.. 39,826,415 58 17 0 951,924 | 38,874,491 | 57 8 10 1,873,682 1895.. 40,386,964 58 11 6 751,932 39,635,032 57 9 9 1,656,970 150 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Rate of Taxation per Head of Mean Population. i of Taxation Proportion Taxation by Ratio of Colonies. from Customs to Customs Value of Imports. Customs. Otlior Taxes. Total. Duties. £ B. d. £ s. d. 0 12 9 £ s. d. 1 Per Cent. 7961 7500 0894 69-39 Per Cent. Queensland New South Wales Victoria South Australia 2 9 10 1 15 2 1 9 9 1 10 3 * a n 3 2 7 2 6 10 2 8 1 24-43 Oil 8 0 13 4 0 13 4 0 10 10 11-75 1309 2 3 7 6-41 4 i3.oo_ Public Debt. The gross public debt of the colony on 31st March, 1895, was £40,386,964, an increase of £560,549 on the amount at the close of the preceding year. Of this increase, the large sum of £411,100 was made up of debentures issued for the purpose of giving immediate returns: viz., £152,000 for loans to local bodies; £234,000 for land improvement, purchase of Native lands; and £25,100 for pur- chase of land for settlements. The total issue of bonds and inscribed stock during the year was- PUBLIC DEBT. 151 £1,522,363. On the other hand, debentures amounting in all to £961,814 were redeemed or converted, leaving, as stated above, an increase to the gross public debt of £560,549. Details of the increase in the public debt are shown here- under :— £ £ £ £ Gross debt, 31st March, 1894 39,820,415 Debentures redeemed— Debentures iBsued for— Consolidated Stock Act, Loans to local bodies ... 152,000 1884 264,414 Land improvement and Lytielton and Christ- purchase of Native lands church Railway Loan 234,000 Ordinance, 1860 15,200 Purchase of land for Cheviot Estate purchase settlement 25,100 debentures ... 200,000 Old soldiers'claims 1,180 New Zealand Loan Act, Sinking-fund accretions Raihu Valley Kailway... 117,800 1856 50,000 47,000 Consolidated Loan Act, Conversions and re' 1867 33,300 demption 787,258 1,364,3J8 Conversions— 562,914 Inscription— New Zealand Loan Act, New Zealand Consols ... 158,025 1863 78,700 Consolidated Loan Act, 1867 297,100 1,000 Auckland Loan Act, 1863 Otago Loan Ordinance, 1862 9,100 Canterbury Loan Ordin- ance, 1862 1,000 District Railways Pur- chasing Act, 1885 12,000 898,900 Gross debt on 31st March, 1895 ,380,964 £41,348,778 £11 ,348,778 The net public debt, after deducting the accrued sinking fund (£751,932), was on 31st March, 1895, £39,635,032, an increase of £760,541 during the year. The increase is accounted for by the addition to the gross debt of £560,549, and by £334,295 of released sinking fund, appropriated according to law, less the natural accre tions, amounting to £134,303. The net indebtedness per head in this colony has a tendency to decrease. In March, 1890, it was £60 5s. 3d.; in 1891, £59 lis. lid.; in 1892, £59 2s.; in 1893, £58 2s. 7d.; in 1894, £57 8s. lOd.; and in 1895, £57 9s. 9d. ; the increase of the population having been pro- portionally greater than the increase of debt. Years ended 31st March. Amount of Debentures and Stock in Circulation. Gross In- I j debtedness\ | per Head of i European I Population.' Amount of Sinking Fund accrued. Net In- debtedness. Not In- Annual debtedness Charge (In- per Head of, teres't and , European Sinking Population, j Fund). £ £ a. d. £ £ 1890.. 38,667,950 02 10 1 1,386,185 37,281,705 1891.. 38,830,350 61 19 4 1,480,427 37,343,923 1892.. 38,713,008 60 14 8 1,037,802 37,675,200 1893.. 39,257,840 59 16 7 1,113,770 38,144,070 1894.. 39,826,415 58 17 0 951,924 38,874,401 1895.. 40,386,964 58 11 6 751,932 39,635,032 £ s. d. 60 5 3 59 11 11 2 0 2 7 8 10 9 9 59 58 57 •r»7 1,851,421 1,864,575 1,842,686 1,837,109 1,873,682 1,056,970 152 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Since the 31st March, 1891, the increase in the gross puhlic debt amounts to £1,556,614; but of this sum no less than £1,335,591 earns a higher rate of interest than the Treasury has to pay. £1,177,566 is earning something like 5 per cent., while an average rate of £18s. 2d. is paid for the use of the money, and £158,025 is earning 4 per cent., while the deposits carry only 3£ per cent, interest. The debt of the colony as above stated does not include the un- paid loans raised bv the several local bodies, amounting at the end of March, 1894, to £6,614,824, of which sum £5,416,050 were raised outside the colony. These will be referred to in dealing with the finance of local bodies. Of the existing loans some portions were raised by the several Provincial Governments, while others represent Joans raised for the purpose of paying off provincial liabilities. It is now almost im- possible to ascertain the exact expenditure by these Governments on public works, or the allocation of the proceeds of the loans raised by them. The following shows the debt of each of the Australasian Colo- nies ou the 31st December, 1893 :— Bate of Net Amount of Debt. Accrued Sinking Fund. Net Indebtedness. Indebtedness Colony. Queensland .. per Head of Population at Endof Y'ear. £ . 30,689,534 f £ 30,039,534 £ s. d. 70 17 6 New South Wales' . . 58,079,033 58,079,033 47 9 6 Victoria! . 46,033,227 63,238 45,960,989 39 3 2 South Australia . 21,697,000 13,750 21,683,250 62 10 2 Western Australia 2,873,098 129,099 2,743,999 42 3 6 Tasmania 7,645,604 136,591 7,509,013 48 12 6 New Zealand . 39,729,376 828,046 38,901,3:30 57 17 4 The amount of net indebtedness per head of population was thus greater in Queensland and South Australia than in New Zealand. The burden of a public debt depends greatly on the measure in which it is expended on reproductive works, and on the degree of prosperity enjoyed by the people. The generally rugged character of this country, and the natural difficulties appertaining to the sites of many of the towns, soon necessitated a large outlay on roads and public works. The need was fully recognised, and to some extent met, by the Provincial Governments, which have justly received great credit for their far-seeing and liberal exertions. A great deal of road-making, often of a very costly character, was accomplished, harbour and other improvements begun, and immigration encou- raged. Some railways were made in Canterbury, Otago, and South- land. The City of Christchurch and the Canterbury Plains were connected with the Port of Lyttelton by a railway, which required • On 1st January, 1894. t Excluding £7SO,000 Treasury Bills in aid of reveuue, and £2,419,900 available for re- demption of loans about to fall due. 154 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. roads, and other public works, together with the amounts expended out of loan by the Provincial Governments on immigration, and public works other than railways. The expenditure on directly repro- ductive works—railways, telegraphs, and waterworks—has been £17,203,217. Expenditure on land is also partly reproductive, and that on immigration, roads, bridges, and lighthouses indirectly so. Private Wealth. The number and value of estates of deceased persons finally certified on which duty was paid during the years 1893 and 1894 are shown classified according to amount:— Value of Estates. 1MJ.-1. 1894. Number ] Aggregate Value Number Aggregate Value- of I on which Duty of od which Duty EstateB. was Paid. ~ Estates. , was Paid. £ £ £ | £ 100 to 500 255 67.030 310 j 78,551 500 „ 1.000 108 74,900 123 89,564 1,000 „ 2,000 66 93,592 78: 108,413 2,000 „ 3.000 39 96,301 25 60,40* 3,000 » 4,000 14 48,010 15 oa,044 4,000 ,. 5,000 8 34,857 15 1 66,367 5,000 „ 7,500 15 94.H39 13 76,SOS- 7,500 » 10.000 11 97,288 8 OS. 747 10,000 . 15,000 14 167,855 5 1 60,799 15,000 „ 20,000 9 155,810 7 115,636 520,000 and over 5 601,786 10 , 442,138 Totals 544 1,531,780 609 1,220,465 On these data it is possible to compute roughly the total value of private property in the colony. Dividing the aggregate amount admitted to probate during a series of years by the number of deatlis occurring within the same period, the average value of property left by each person dying is obtained. On the assumption that the average wealth of each person living is equal to that left by each person dying, the total aggregate private wealth may readily be found by multiplying the average amount left at death by the num- ber of persons living. It is necessary for this calculation to take the average results for a series of years, as any inference drawn from the figures of a single year would be untrustworthy. For an increase in the death-rate must necessarily give a corresponding decrease in the estimated wealth, unless the number of estates admitted to pro- bate maintains year by year the same ratio to the number of deaths. An epidemic among young children who have no property to leave would unduly lower the average; while, on the other hand, the deaths of a few wealthy persons would raise it unwarrantably. It must also be remembered, when using these figures for comparative PRIVATE WEALTH. 155- purposes, that the lowness of the death-rate in New Zealand is in great measure due to the small mortality among infants. By putting the figures for several years together, and taking the average for the term, we may arrive at fairly correct results, as thus:— Years, inclusive. Amount sworn to. Total Number of Deaths. Average Amount left by each Person. Average Number of Persons living. Average Total Wealth for each Year of the Period 1890-94 7,363,639 82,666 225 s. a. 9 10 64G.G70 j 145,818,383 It is manifest, however, that this average does not exhibit) with sufficient accuracy the actual present amount of wealth. If the average amount per head were the same at the end of the year 1894 as for the period 1890-94—viz., £225 9s. 10d.— then the total wealth possessed by the 686,128 persons in the colony on the 31st December of that year wTould be £154,715,821. • iZJAzW These figures, however, fall short of the full amount of private wealth, as the values sworn to do not include those estates on which no stamp duty is payable—viz., land and goods passing to- the husband or wife of the deceased, and properties under £100. The total of these must be considerable, and should give a sub- stantial increase to the average amount per head, and therefore to- the total wealth. The estimated private wealth for each year since 1888 is shown. by the following figures :— Year. Amount. £ Average uer Head. £ 1888 .. 131,345,925 216 1889 .. 133,135,134 215 1890 .. 142,631,401 228 1891 .. 145,780,502 230 1892 .. 152,065,087 236 1893 .. 156,058,273 232 1894 .. 154,715,821 225 By another and more direct method of estimating private wealth the Government Statistician of New South Wales arrived at a value for New Zealand for the year 1890 of £150,192,000; and for the year 1892 a calculation on similar lines but somewhat differing in detail was made in the Registrar-General's Office here, the results of which approximated closely to the sum arrived at by using the probate returns. The figures are admittedly open to many objec- tions, as is always the case in such calculations. It may be that 6ome items were assessed above and others below their real value. If the probate method be trustworthy, then the total given by the direct method is probably short of the truth. 1. Land, Buildings, and Improvements privately owned.—The value of privately-owned land with improvements was estimated to be £96,066,000. In the year 1888 the sum was £84,208,230, and. 156 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. in 1891 it had increased to £92,371,166, or at the rate of about 3 per cent, per annum. By allowing a somewhat higher rate of in- crease for 1892, which was considered allowable, the above estimate was arrived at. 2. Live-stock. — For purposes of the calculation, horses were valued at £9 10s., cattle at £4 10s., sheep at 10s., and pigs at £1 5s. The total value of all kinds of stock came to £15,299,189. 3. Shipping.—The value of steamers was taken at £20 per ton, and sailing-vessels at £8. The total value of the shipping at these rates was £1,391,672. 4. Railways (not Government).—The cost of the two private lines in the colony was returned at £1,613,000. 5. Produce anil Merchandise.—The value of goods and manu- factures, with that of the produce on hand, was reckoned at £14,408,015. 6. Furniture and Household Goods.—The furniture was valued by allotting a certain sum to every house, according to the number of rooms, using for this purpose the. number of houses of each class as returned at the last census. For clothing and other effects an average of £4 per head was accepted. The estimated value was £8,937,678. 7. Tlie Machinery and Plant belonging to the larger industries were valued in the census returns at £3,051,700; adding to this £1,500,000 for machinery in smaller works, and £650,000 for agricultural implements, the total was found to be £5,201,700. 8. Coin and Bullion.—The coin and bullion in the banks, together with an allowance of £3 10s. per head of population (the estimate of the coin in actual use) were taken to represent the amount for the colony. The sum was £4,799,340. 9. Mines and Sundries.—There is included in the total of £7,000,000 set down under this head the estimated value of the interest of companies and persons in coal- and gold-mines on Crown lands (the value of such mines on freehold lands being included in item No. 1), also sundry small sums not accounted for elsewhere. This estimate was not closely calculated. A summary of the above gives the total of private property as under:— Private Property, 1892. £ 1. Land, buildings, and improvements .. .. 90,066,000 2. Live-stock .. .. .. .. .. 15,299,000 3. Shipping .. .. .. .. .. 1,592,000 4. Railways (not Government) .. .. .. 1,613,000 5. Produce and merchandise .. .. .. 14,408,000 6. Furniture and household goods .. .. 8,938,000 7. Machinery and plant .. .. .. 5,202,000 8. Coin and bullion .. .. .. .. 4,799,000 9. Mines and sundries .. .. .. .. 7,000,000 Total.. .. .. .. £154,917,000 WEALTH OF PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES. 157 The Government Statistician of New South Wales estimated the private wealth of the seven colonies of Australasia for the year 1890' at £1,169,434,000. It is interesting to compare this estimate of the wealth of the Australasian Colonies with the results of similar calculations for other parts of the world. A table giving this information for various coun- tries has accordingly been introduced; but, in comparing the wealth of one country with another, it must be remembered that the pur- chasing-power of money in different parts of the world varies con- siderably, and without information on this head bare statements of wealth per inhabitant are of very little use, and often misleading. Besides this, the question as to what extent Government undertakes such functions as the construction and working of railways disturbs comparisons of private wealth. The figures are for the most part taken from Mulhall's " Dictionary of Statistics " :— Wealth of Principal Countries. Average Amount Country. Private Wealth. per Head of Population. £ £ United Kingdom .. 9,400,000,000 247 France .. 8,598,000,000 222 Germany .. 6,487,000,000 188 Russia .. 5,089,000,000 55 Austria-Hungary .. 3,855,000,000 96 Italy .. .. 2,903,000,000 9H Spain .. 2,516,000,000 148 Portugal 408,000,000 83 Sweden and Norway 880,000,000 12ii Denmark 404,000,000 192 Holland 980,000,000 218 Belgium .. 1,007,000,000 166 Switzerland 494,000,000 1(15 United States .. .. 12,824,000,000 205 Canada 980,000,000 196 In the year 1885 the property-tax returns gave £40,304,000 as the value of public property in the colony, including Crown lands, educational, municipal, and other reserves, with public works— namely, railways, telegraphs, lighthouses, buildings, harbour-works, and water-supply on goldfields. In 1888 the value of the above had risen to £42,505,000, and it is supposed that in 1893 the sum would probably be about £45,000,000. There are also from nine to ten millions of acres of lands the property of the Maoris.' In 1888 the Native lands were valued at £3,000,000 sterling. The present value is probably not so much; some land has been sold, but, on the other hand, some of that retained may have increased in value. Incomes. The incomes of the people of New Zealand for 1893 have been the subject of two calculations made on different principles, but yielding similar results. 158 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. The first method adopted was to allot a probable income to each •description of occupation found in the census of 1891 (the census figures being raised to the population of 1893). Whatever may be thought of the plan of basing a calculation on a series of hypotheses it was adopted by the late Mr. Hayter, and no doubt serves as a sort of check on Mr. Mulhall's method. The result for New Zealand shows an aggregate of between £27,000,000 and £28,000,000,* giving an average income of about £41 per head of population of all ages and both sexes, and £91 per head of breadwinners. Mr. Mulhall's method may be thus described: Take 90 per cent, ■of agricultural, pastoral, and mining produce, and 60 per cent, of manufactures; compute transport at 10 per cent, on the gross value of the foregoing products; house-rent according to the nearest estimate; commerce at 10 per cent, on the imports and exports; shipping, 30s. per ton; banking, 5 per cent, on banking power; and allow 10 per cent, on the total of the preceding items to cover the earnings of servants, professional men, Civil Service, &c. The method is said to be one answering fairly well for comparative purposes. The earnings of the people of New Zealand, calculated in this way, would be :— Heads of Income. From agricultural, pastoral, and mining produce manufactures transport .. „ house-rent commerce and shipping banking earnings of professional men, Civil Service, ser- vants, &c. Amount. £ 12,915,000 3,181,000 1,965,000 4,500,000 1,700,000 991,000 2,525,000 £27,777,000' The average earnings per inhabitant in other countries have been calculated on the above method, by Mr. Mulhall, with the following results :— Country. Average per Inhabitant. Country. per Inhabitant. Average £ 8. a 4 a. d. United Kingdom . 33 7 0 Norway . 20 5 0 France . 27 8 ii Denmark . 82 5 0 Germany . 22 2 ti Holland . 22 6 0 Russia . 11 5 0 Belgium . 28 0 0 Austria . 15 5 0 Switzerland . 19 0 0 Italy . 12 2 0 United States . 39 0 0 Spain . 16 5 0 Canada . 26 0 0 Portugal . 12 1 0 Australia . 40 2 0 Sweden . 22 0 0 Argentina .. . 24 0 0 * This sum being the total of ail the income* in the colony, much money is necessarily included several time* over. WAGES AND COST OF LIVING. 159 Wages. Dealing only with persons returned as in receipt of wages or salary, and discarding all who derive their incomes from pro- fessional or trade profits, it has been roughly estimated that the aggregate of the wages paid in the colony for the year 1893 was £12,998,546, of which sum £11,983,521 was earned by males, and £1,015,025 by females, the average yearly earn- ings amounting to £92 12s. for the one sex, and £33 18s. for the other:— Occupations. Males. Females. (For details of Estimated Number of Wage- earners, 1893. Estimated Number of Wage- earners, 1893. 6d. to s 3d. to 2d. to 2d. to 6d 3d. to 53 55 (NCCHCCtOq Cti ^r-^ 5J c*)4*'-^^ CO C* CO ■«. CO OOOHCO io m r^r1-1 2 rs-'o ci |2 <3> £; t- =- T =tf SR «?,H S rtJS-S 2 o^So *-g a Ssi25- -o32,S3 *c *• ^5 ^ . , ** CD CD -CO • •'CD ~ CO e0 T ■* CO ro o o •w ro 5f« cN«gc»j Sj-nJI - •"crt^r-.co co 5«o 10 >a o> co o r5 g ^ ^ ^ ^ JD §"0000 lO ** »0 >M v o e o s J3 j: j= ^:x co en CO CQ CA O H O o -5 O O "—~-3 J-t-l_(_-^— i~ ~ >- ^ ■- u v « o o o c*©atc< &- — c z~ -- ^ ^ P- COCyOCJcjUUtlbtl o,ca,a.o-gj nccc.iv PS 0 1 ~ = J ^ .S ^ d p d * =H i-i <8 CM -H CO CO H»S OOOMM ) L- O "-I w to *«*-—Tor?-;- „ -h eo « «> STr^S 2 3 8 2 w o t '.i h to w h w o co; » S H C". 1*3 > c S 3 3 *ro ST10 g CO ~ O to O OS . O ~~j T3 T3 —. ^3 o?"3^ o o ** 2 ° o •** '*8« *=« o ^cTc^co" iC C-1 ^•o 0 o q o o o *-■ -J eo»2. -Hco^c co to ^ it; T3 O Tj •« O of c o ■- ■- £ a Q o & a a 4 i.s.sS . aj cS sB J) a o a &4 &4-c i; :2 is d b h b h h a a g ■°.-s. 3 N N N 2 5 *-o'r°,S ^ HjijOjoji i-i O —. T3 T3 13 CS — -h -^ — hht4hhd<|l.hlih a ^ ^ '. tj j ue v o U P, ^. - ^ ". -J) Pi p- &, p^ c . . . o 3 3 a 8" » o fl _ -^ cr j^ o c « tiOSktiSn » 5 o a <« ■» as — 9 j to :®3l : : : :g o o 2 S o< 5P—i mo. F-S"^ *s *a •-- u i- _Q o o B a o oj £ 5=1=12 Ss QJ 4> Q) cu CJ CD s y. ■ . _o ^o _o ^o _o _o ^. _. - ~ -.■-,-.. w _ i5 :=5 * .2 * « dC Mo T-i I—I to O O t™1 t>o o> i dgj cs 2 c3 O tfl O O •- anooHOh 5 if = = 8»^ .1? tH. S o § 9'5 P.S.S AVERAGE PRICES OF PRODUCE, ETC. 163 AVERAGE PRICKS or Propuer, LIVE-STOCK, PROVISIONS, ETC., IN EACH PROVINCIAL DISTRICT or NEW ZEALAND DURING TY YEAR 1894continued. Produce, &c. Auckland. Taranaki. Hawke's ! Wellington. Bay. Mar). borough. Westland Otago Nelson. Solanela. Canterbury. (Part Goldfield). 4/6 3/6 una 216 ::::::: 5/ to 7/6 3/6 to 41 3/ to 41 3/ to 9/ 64d. to 100. 88. to 11d. 9d. to 1/ 8/ to 12/ 6/ to 10/ 5/ to 6/ 2/6 to 41 7/6 to 10/ 6 d. to 8d. 8d. to 9d. | 9d. to 1/ Bacon Ham 10d. 8d. 1/6 9d. ::: £3 3/6 £3 15/ 4/6 ifd. 21 .. per lb. | £2 10/-£4£1 10/ 31 to 6/ 1d. to 11d. 1/ to 2/ 1/ to 21 1/ to 31 6/ to 6/6 41 4/6 to 5/ 36 2/6 to 3/6 41 to 7/6 5/ to 7/6 77d. 8d. to 9d. 10d. 10d. to 11d. yd. £3£25-£2 10 3/6 13/ to 6/ 14d. 1d. to 20. 9d. 1/6 to 21 9d. 1/3 to 2] 7d. to 21 11 1/8 1/6 to 31 1/6 1/6 to 119 2 d. 3d. to 31d. 2 d. 2d. to 3d. 1d. 1d. to 2d. 15/ to 20/ 18 5 d. 8d. to 11 5/4 5/6 to 66 30/ to 42/ 20/ £1 to £2 £2 to £210 2/6 to 11/ id. 14d. to 3d. 1/3 | 8d. to 1/6 1/3 8d. to 21 2/3 8d. to 2/6 31 37 V. FARM-YARD PRODUCE. Geese .. per pair Ducks .. per pair Fowls .. per pair Turkeys .. per head .. per lb. .. per lb. Eggs ... per doz. VI. GARDEN PRODUCE. Potatoes, wholesale .. per ton Potatoes, retail .. per cwt. Onions Carrots .. per doz. bnchs. Turnips .. per doz. bnchs. Cabbages .. per doz. VII. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES per lb. Coffee per lb. Sugar per lb. Rice per lb. Salt Soap .. per cwt. .. Candles .. per lb. Tobacco .. per lb. Coal per ton Firewood .. per cord VIII. BEER, WINE, SPIRITS. Beer, colonial .. per hhd. Beer, English, bottled per doz. qts. .. Brandy .. per gallon -Rum .. per gallon Whisky .. per gallon .. per gallon Australian .. per gallon Luropean .. per gallon .. Tea .. 3d. ::::::: :::::: :::: 3d. 3d. id. 20/ 100. 1/6 to 5/ 1/6 to 21 3d. to 4d. 24d. to 3d. 1d. 10/ to 201 6d. to 9d. 5/ to 6/ 34/ to 52/ 20/ to 36/ 1/9 31d. 37d. 1ā. 20/ 10d. 3d. 1/d. 17/6 8d. 2}d. 1d. 14/ 8d. 1/6 to 3/ 1/3 to 1/9 21d. to 31d. 2 d. to 4d. 1d. to 2d. 121 to 201 5 d. to 11 5/ to 76 20/ to 35/ 16/ to 28/ 5/6 616 esota 5/6 25 40 21/ 40 24/ 18/ £4 10/ 44 £4 13/ 16/6 25/ 24/ €4 101 14/6 £4 101 1 12/6 to 18/1 24/ to 25/ 25/ to 32/ 24/ to 25 20/ to 307 14/ to 30/ 22/6 to 41/ 28/ 22/ :::::::: £4 10 to £5 12/6 to 13/ 25/ to 301 24/ to 26/ 25/ to 30/ 21/ to 30 14/6 to 15) 16/6 to 25/1 £4 to £5 31 12/6 11/6 to 18% 25/6 22/6 to 28/ 20/ to 22/6 23/ to 28/ 191 to 227 14 10/6 to 20/ 10 to 21/ | 10/6 to 24 18/6 13/ 164 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. AVERAGE RATES OF WAGES IN EACH PROVINCIAL DISTRICT OF NEW ZEALAND DURING THE YEAR 1894. Marl. Description of Labour. Auckland. Taranaki. Hawke's Bay. Otago Westland Canterbury. (Part Goldfield). Goldfield) Nelson. Wellington. b'rough. to 15/ 15) to 22/6 207 to 25/ 5/ | 5/ to 81 8/ 10/ to 25/ 5/ to 81 15/ to 30/ :: :: :: 15/ 15/ to 20/ 6/ to 71 20/ to 40/ 17/6 to 25/ 201 202 6 to 81 1. AGRICULTURAL LABOUR. Farm-labourers : With board, per week Without board, per day .. Ploughmen: With board, per week Without board, per day .. Reapers : With board, per week Without board, per day .. Mowers: With board, per week Without board, per day .. Threshers : With board, per week Without board, per day .. 1/* 40/ 25/ to 301 30/ 20/ to 35/ 6/ to 8/ 30/ 20/ to 40/ . 8 61 to 8/ 40/ 20/ 41 to 6/7 .. 20/ to 30/ 5/ to 7/61 20/ to 30/ 5/ 'to 7/61 30/ 71 to 7/6 25/ to 35/ 87 20/ 6/ to 9/ £60 £52 $50 £52 £52 to £65 £52 to £60 £52 25/ p. wk. £45 to £52 £52 15/ p. wk. £40 to £52 15/ to 20/ per wk. 20/ 15/ to 20/ 15/ to 20/ 20/ 20/ 2. PASTORAL LABOUR. Shepherds, with board, per annum .. £52 £50 to £60 £60 to £80 £40 to £85 Stockkeepers, with board, per annum.. £52 £50 to £60 £40 to £60 Hutkeepers, with board, per annum .. £52 £50 £40 to £60 Station-labourers: With board, per week .. 15/ to 25/ 25/ 10/ to 25/ Without board, per day .. .. .. 4/ to 6/ Sheep washers : With board, per week 30/ 15/ to 301 Without board, per day .. Shearers, with board, per 100 sheep | 17/ to 20/ 12/6 to 17/6 17/6 15/ to 20/ shorn Men-cooks on stations, with board, per 20/ to 25/ 20/ 20/ to 25/ 15/ to 35/ week Por hour. ! With board, 20/ 20/1 16/8 151 20/ to 25/ 15/ to 40/ 7/ 16/8 20/ to 25/ 1019 25/ 80/ 201 # Per acre. $98. to 10s. por 1,000 bushels, AVERAGE RATES OF WAGES. 165 AVERAGE RATES OF WAGES IN EACH PROVINCIAL DISTRICT or New ZEALAND DURING THE YEAR 1894-continuod. Auckland. Description of Labour. Taranaki. Hawke's Bay. Wellingtoi Marl. b'rough. Nelson, Westland (Goldfield). Canterbury. Otago (Part Goldfield). 81 aiata :::::::::::: 3. Artisan Labour (per day, without board). Masons Plasterers.. Bricklayers Carpenters .. Smiths Wheelwrights Shipwrights Plumbers .. Painters .. Saddlers .. Shoemakers Coopers Watchmakers 7/ to 8 7 9 71 8) : 71 to 81 7/6 8/ 8/ to 10/ 7/ to 14/ 8/ to 101' 71 to 13/ 8 to 10/ 10/ 81 to 12/ 81 to 101 9/ to 10/1 61 to 10/ / to 10 9/ 81 to 12/ 8 to 10% 9/ to 10/. 81 to 11/ 101 to 12 9/ to 147 8/ to 8/ to 101 ! 61 to 121 7/ to 10 81 to 10/ 61 to 107 71 to 10 8/ to 10/ 61 to 121 81 to 10/ 7/6 to 101 61 to 101 7/ to 109/ to 101 71 to 127 101 9/ to 107 107 to 15/ 12 12] 12/ 12/ 107 8/ to 9/ to 9 to 9 71 to 8/ 71 to 87 81 to 91 8/ to 91 8/ to 91 71 to 81 71 to 81 87 to 9 91 to 101 8/ to 12/ 8/ to 101 81 to 107 6/ to 12 7/ to 9/ 8/ to 10 10/ to 12/ 81 to 10 6/ to 10/ 71 to 121 7/ to 10 81 to 10/ 71 to 12/ 6/6 121 8/ "101 107 anawaogao Pão : boga ono £65 £70 4. SERVANTS. Married couples without family, with £50 to £80 £50 to £750 £80 £50 to £95 board, per annum Married couples with family, with board, £50 to £80 £60 to £80 £60 to £70 £40 to £70 per annum Grooms, with board, per week 10/ to 15/ 20/ 20/ 10/ to 30/ Gardeners : With board, per week 10/ to 15/ 2011 20/ to 25/ 15/ to 30/ Without board, per day .. 5/ to 8/ Cooks, with board, per week .. .. 15/ to 20/ 15/ 107 to 20/ Laundresses, with board, per week .. 15 to 20/ 17/6 to 20/ 101 to 25 General house-servants, with board, per 10 to 12/ 81 to 12 61 to 15 week Housemaids, with board, per week 8/ to 10/'8/ to 12/ 8/ to 20 Nursemaids, with board, per week .. 5/ to 81 4/ to 6/ 51 to 121 £50 £65 to £75 £60 to £80 £62 to £70 £50 to £65 15/ to 25/ 15/ to 20 20/ to 25/ 18/ to 20/ 5/ to 6/ 6 7 10% to 15/| 15/ to 20/ 101 to 15/12/6 to 15/ 91 to 10/10/ to 12/6 201 15/ 15/ 8/ to 107 107 to 12/6 61 to 81 | 5/ to 7/6 7/6 166 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. AVERAGE RATES OF WAGES IN EACH PROVINCIAL DISTRICT OF NEW ZEALAND DURING THE YEAR 1894-continued. Auckland. Description of Labour. Taranaki. | Marl- ch Wellington. Otago Hawke's Bay. - - -- - Westland NelsonGoldfield, Canterbury Goldfield). - -- - - 2/6 to 3/ 2/6 to 6/ 10 to 12/ 3/6 to 5/ 2/6 to 4/6 4. SERVANTS--continued. Needlewomen: With board, per week .. 10/ to 12/ Without board, per day ... 3 5. MISCELLANEOUS. General labourers, without board, per day 6/ to 71 Stonebreakers, without board, per cubic 3/6 to 4/6 yard Seamen, with board, per month £4 to £6 Miners, without board, per day 6/ to 8/ Per day Engine-drivers, without board 6/ to 9 3/ co : Tailors, Tailoresses, : : 3/4 Dressmakers, 2/9 : Milliners, Machinists, 3,6 6/ to 8/ 5/ to 8/ 5/ to 6/ 8/ 2/6 to 4/ 2/6 to 2/9 2] to 3/ $4 £5 to £7 £6 £4 to £6 44 10/ to £5 10/ 10/ 7/ to 8/ 10/ Per day. | Per week. | Per day. Per day. Per day. | Per day. Per day. I Per day. 25/ to 30/*/ 6/ to 15/ 12/ 10/ to 12/ 8/ 50/ to 60; 81 to 10) 8/ to 10/ 10/ 15/ to 25/ 1/6 to 5/ 4/ to 6/ 25/ to 30 301 | 18 to 5/ 4/ to 57 Per week. 25/ to 30/ 1/ to 5/ 25/ 15/ to 6/ 2/6 to 5/ i 41 to 51 Per week, Per week. 20/ to 60/ 50/ 50/ to 80/ 81 to 10/ 81 30/ to 401 15/ to 42/ 5/ to 7/ 35/ to 5011 20/ to 701! 60/ 7/6 to 2011 35/ to 50/ 15/ to 6011 7/6 to 101 201 : 45/ to 50/1 30/ to 60/ 6/ to 81 | 6/6 to 9/ 50/ to 60/25/ to 60/ 71 to 81 | 81 to 9/ 45/ to 50/25/ to 60/ 7/ to 10/ 401 to 601 25/ to 60/ 10/ to 12/ : : 3/6 301 15/ 71 60/ : Storekeepers, Storekeepers' assistants, Drapers' assistants, Grocers' assistants, 5/6 : : : 35 Butchers, 5/6 5/6 Per week. 30/ to 40/ 35/ to 40) .. 25/ to 40/ 40/ s Bakers, : : Storemen, Compositors, : : With board. + Por week, RAILWAYS. 167 Railways. The length of Government railways open for traffic on the 31st March, 1895, was 1,993 miles, the total cost thereof having been £15,352,613, and the average cost per mile £7,703. The cash revenue for the year 1894–95 amounted to £1,150,851 11s. 6d., excluding the value of postal services; and the total expenditure to £732,160 7s. 7d. The net cash revenue- £418,691--was equal to a rate of £2 14s. 6d. per cent. on the capital cost; the percentage of expenditure to revenue was 63.62. The following statement shows the number of miles of Govern- ment railways open, the number of train-miles travelled and of passengers carried, and the tonnage of goods traffic for the past seven years :- Year. Length open. Train- mileage. Passengers. Season Tickets issued. Goods and Live-stock. 1888-89 .. 1889-90 .. 1890–91 .. 1891-92 .. 1892-93 .. 1893-94 .. 1894–95 .. 1,773 1,813 1,842 1.869 1,886 1,948 1,993 2,796,007 3,132,803 2,868,203 3,376,459 2,894,776 3,433,629 3,010,489 3,555,764 3,002,174 i 3,759,044 3,113,231 1 3,972,701 3,221,620 3,905,578 11,817 12,311 13,881 16,341 16,504 17,226 28,623 Tons. 1,954,126 2,112,734 2,134,023 2,122,987 2,258,235 2,128,709 2,123,343 The particulars of the revenue and expenditure for the past seven years are given herewith :- Year. Passenger Fares. Parcels and Luggage. Goods and Live-stock. Rents and Miscellaneous. Total. Expenditure. Net Revenue. Percentages of Expenditure to Revenue. Percentages of Revenue to Capital Cost. £ £ s. d. 1888-89 323,447 34,102610,488 29,578 997,615 647,045 350,570 64:86 2 12 0 1889-90 369, 348 37,097 655,007 34, 1171,095,569 682,787412,782 62 32 2 19 5 1890-91 353,593 38,997 690,779 38,332 1,121, 701 700, 703 420,998 62:47 2 18 11 1891-92 364,617 41,795 671, 469 37,550 1,115,431 706,517 408,914 63 34 2 15 9 1892-93 390,619 44,801 707,785 38, 316 1,181,521 732,141 449,380 61.97 3 1 0 1893-94 402,019 45,206686,469 39,098 1,172,792 735,358 437,434 62.70 2 17 9 1894-95 385,149 43,270683,726 38,706 1,150,851 732,160 118,691 63 32 2 14 6 It should be observed that the real gain to the colony is greater than the net revenue shown, by the value of the postal and other services performed by the railways (carriage of mails, &c.), amount- ing to £38,500 per annum. In addition to the above railways there were 175 miles of • The equivalent tonnage for live-stock has been given. 168 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. private lines open for traffic on the 31st March, 1895—namely, the Wellington-Manawatu Railway, 84 miles; the Kaitangata Railway Company's line, 4 miles; and the Midland Railway, 87 miles. The cost of the construction of the Wellington-Manawatu Rail- way was £771,684, being at the rate of £9,187 per mile. The term "cost of construction," as applied to railways, includes value of equipment, rolling-stock, &c, not merely the road-line and buildings. The revenue for the twelve months ending the 28th February, 1895, amounted to £91,780, and the working-expenses to £43,152, equivalent to 4702 per cent, of the revenue. The traffic returns from the opened part of the Midland line were for the year ended the 30th June, 1894, £15,376 Is. 9d., and the expenditure was £8,803 18s. 10d., equivalent to 5726 per cent, of the revenue. The total estimated cost of this line to the 30th June, 1894, was £1,250,000. The following statement gives the number of miles of railway open for traffic and in course of construction in the Australian Colonies at the end of 1893 :— Number of Miles open for Traffic Number of Cost of on 31st Decomber. Miles of Line in Construction of Open Colony. course of Construction Private. State. on 31st December. Lines. Queensland 2,379 10,348,945 New South Wales 81 2,351 179 34,657,571 Victoria 2,975 93 37,451,487 South Australia 17 1,004 57 11,996,970 Western Australia 453 320 271 929,277 Tasmania 48 475 .. 3,759,898 New Zealand (March, 1894) 104 1,948 143 15,137,036 Accumulation. The development of banking in New Zealand since the year 1857 has been very great. Taking for each year the average of the four quarters' returns made by the banks of issue, the figures for 1857, 1873, 1883, 1893, and 1894 are :— Year. Deposits. £ 343,816 Asset*. Liabilities. £ 432,494 1857 £ 419,800 1873 4,718,806 7,267,720 5,538,030 1883 8,659,477 17,794,701 9,706,700 1893 1894 14,433,777 18,255,534 17,740,421 15,489,633 14,930,791 13,927,217 In 1873 the deposits of these banks were £1638 per head of the population. In 1893 they were £2182 per head, and in 1894 £2051. The ratio of advances to deposits, which was 10448 per ACCUMULATION. 169 cent, in 1873, reached its maximum in 1883, when it stood at 173-35 per cent. The proportion has since that year fallen steadily, till in 1894 it was only 86-39 per cent. The averages for 1894 compared with those of the previous year show a decrease in deposits of £506.560; in assets, of £509,113; and in liabilities, of £558,842. In 1886 the average amount of advances made by the banks was £15,853,420, equal to £27-23 per head of the mean population. The advances gradually declined in amount and proportion to popu- lation until 1891, when they were in value £11,549,145, or £1834 per head. During the year 1892, however, there was an increase, the average of the advances having been £12,228,425, equal to an amount of £1904 per head of population; and there was a further increase in 1893, the average being £12,797,563, equal to £1935 per head. In 1894 they fell to £12,031,537 (£17-71 per head). The discounts were less in 1894 than in any year since 1872. The largest amount of discounts in any vear was £6,061,959 in 1879, a rate of £13-53 per head. In 1889 the discounts were £2,850,944, equal to £4 66 per head; in 1890, £2,524,573, equal to £4 07 per head; in 1891, £2,314,325, or £3-68 per head; in 1892, £2,361,813, being again nearly £368 per head; in 1893, £2,307,649, equal to £349 per head; and in 1894, £2,052,246, or £302 per head. There was, as above stated, a decrease of £506,560 in the deposits. Exclusive of Government deposits, the deposits bearing interest de- creased from £9,897,541 to £9,372,531, or by £525,010; while the deposits not bearing interest increased from £4,063,760 to £4,106,833, or by £43,073. Thus there was a decrease of £481,937 in the average total of private deposits, owing, no doubt, to the lowering by the banks of their rates of interest. The following shows the average amount of notes in circulation, notes and bills discounted, and bullion and specie in the banks in each of the two past years :— Average Amount of Increase (+ ) or Decreaso ( - ). £ £ £ Notes in circulation .. ..I 973,894 926,520 I -47,368 Notes and bills discounted .. 2,307,650 2,052,-246 -255,404 Specie and bullion .. .. 2,627,o07 2,89G,5G2 +269,195 Special Banking Legislation. An Act was passed in 1893 intituled "The Banks and Hankers Act Amend- ment Act," under which, notwithstanding anything in previous legislation, the shareholders or pronrietors of any hank may, from time to time, by extra- ordinary resolution, authorise its capital to ho increased to such an amount and upon such terms as are deemed by them to he expedient. The holders of shares in Biich increased capital may be granted special privileges notwithstanding anything contained in the charter of the bank. Any increased capital may be raised by the issue of new shares of such 170 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. amount as is determined on by extraordinary resolution of the shareholders or proprietors. The Bank-note Issue Act of the same year provides that notes issued or circulated in tlie colony by any bank shall, to the amount of the authorised issue, be a first charge on all the assets and property (including the paid-up capital, uncalled capital, and reserve fund—"Banking Act, 1894") of such bank, and that the notes shall be payable in gold only at the office of tho bank at the place of issuo of tho said notes. The assets and property of a bank are defined as assets for the payment of debts or other obligations contracted or entered upon or due and payable in the colony. The other clauses (Part II.) of tlie same Act were originally passed for twelve months only, but their operation was extended in 1894 for another twelve months —viz., till September, 1895. As amended by subsequent enactments, they run as follows: The Governor mav declare by Proclamation the notes of any bank named to be a legal tender of money to the amount therein expressed to be payable. The period of time is to be limited by the Proclamation, and no such Proclamation is to be made unless tho Governor in Council is satisfied that, as between the bank and its creditors, its assets in the colony exceed its liabilities in the colony. The bank must further pay all such notes in gold on presentation, after expiry of the time limited, at the office of tho bank at the place of issue. At any time within six months after the period limited by the Proclamation, the Colonial Treasurer, on being satisfied that a bank-note covered by the Proclamation has been presented and not paid, shall pay the same in gold to any botiri fide holder. On the 29th June, 1894, the Colonial Treasurer introduced in the House of Representatives three Bills relating to banking, which were thereupon passed through all stages and became law forthwith. The most important of these, intituled "An Act to guarantee out of the Consolidated Fund a Special Issue of Shares by the Bank of New Zealand to the Amount of Two Million Pounds Sterling," provided for the increase of the capital by the issue of shares* to an amount not exceeding two million pounds sterling, in guaranteed shares of ten pounds each, without further liability. These shares are preferential in respect of both capital and dividend, and the liability of the holders of ordinary shares is to secure payment of the guaranteed shares and the dividends thereon. The directors can refuse to register the transfer of ordinary shares ; and no transfer, though passed by directors, is to be held valid till authorised in writing by the President of the bank. The guaranteed shares ore to- be called in at the end of ten years, and cancelled on payment of the principal sum with accrued dividend. The rate of dividend on preferential shares is not to exceed 4 per cent, per annum, and is to be paid by the bank. The guaranteed or pre- ferential shares and dividends thereon are to be a charge upon and, in case of default by the bank, payable out of the Consolidated Fund of the colony; but if at any time any money shall be payable under the guarantee, the assets and property of the bank are to be security for the repayment of money so advanced; if the money bo not repaid, the Colonial Treasurer may appoint a receiver. One-half of the sum of two million pounds authorised by the Act to be raised is to bo at the disposal of the bank for use in its ordinary business, and the remainder is to bo invested as the Colonial Treasurer may approve, or as may be specially provided by law. Until the guaranteed shares are called in and cancelled, no dividend is to be paid to ordinary shareholders without the * By further Amendment Act these shares may he issued in the form of negotiable stock cortirh'ares or warrants to hearer, of such amounts as the directors may determine. Tlie certittrates with warrants or coupons are transferable by delivery. The holders of stock certificates or warrants may exchange these for registered stock, which is made transferable in such amounts as directors may sanction. Shares or stock may be held by any person without limit as to number, provided that the total value doos not exceed two millions sterling. The Bank of New Zealand and Banking Act, 1895. This Act was passed on the 4th of September. It provides for writing off the paid-up capital of the Bank of New Zealand (£900,000), together with the pro- ceeds (estimated at £450,000) of the first call of £3 6s. 8d. on the reserve liability of £10 per share. A sum of £500,000 new capital is to be raised by preferred shares, to be issued to the colony in exchange for Government securities. The preferred shares bear interest at 3J per cent. The bank may within six years repurchase them at par. Further share capital is to be created by a second call of one- third of the reserve liability (£3 Gs. 8d. per share) in four instalments, and the final third may be called up at any time after the 31st December, 1898. The sum of one million pounds, required by the Share Guarantee Act of 1894 to be invested' as the Colonial Treasurer might approve, is released for employment by the bank in its ordinary business. So long as the colony remains liable under the Act, one of the directors of the bank is to be ap- pointed by the Governor, and one of the present directors is to resign to make way for the Government appointee. An Assets Realisation Board is established to purchase all the assets of the Estates Company and of the Auckland Agricultural Company for the sum of £'2,731,706, being the estimated value of the properties on the 31st of March last, subject, however, to an adjustment of station accounts, the pur- chase money to be paid in debentures issued by the Assets Board, having a nine years' currency and bearing interest at 3$ per cent, per annum from the 31st March, 1895, any deficiency to be guaranteed by the Government as a charge upon the Consolidated Fund of the colony. Provision is made for securing the Government against loss on account of this guarantee, and the Colonial Treasurer may, in the event of any deficiency, appoint a Receiver in respect of the securities with the powers of a liquidator appointed bv the Supreme Court. The Assets Realisation Board is to be a body corporate, consisting of three members, two appointed by the Governor and one chosen by the directors of the bank. Section 3 of "The Banking Act, 1894," is repealed, and power is given to the Bank of New Zealand to purchase the business and assets of any other bank doing business in the colony, excepting such assets as are found to be bad, doubt- ful, or valueloss. Any such purchase is conditional on ratification by the share- holders of the selling bank and the approval of Parliament. So long as the colony remains in any measure liable under the Act or the Share Guarantee Act of 1894, the proprietors of the bank may not take any steps towards winding up or dissolving the bank. The Assets Board are to draw up a balance-sheet every six months, and lay the same before Parliament. The provisions of Part II. of " The Bank-note Issue Act, 1893," are extended till the 2nd September, 1896, if Parliament be then in session, or, if not, then till two months after the commencement of the ensuing session. [To face page 170. SAVINGS-BANKS. 171 consent of the Colonial Treasurer, who is empowered to satisfy himself that any proposed dividend will not unduly affect the security of the colony in respect of the guarantee. By section 5 of the Act, the Colonial Treasurer might require the directors to call up £500,000, being one third of the reserve capital, within twelve months, and this has accordingly been done. As provided by the Act, the head office of the bank has been removed to Wellington, and a new Board of directors elected. The Governor in Council has appointed a President, and an auditor o£ the business outside the United King- dom. An auditor of the business within the United Kingdom has been ap- pointed by the Agent-General. If an unfavourable report by one or both of the auditors, confirmed by the President, as to the conduct of the business of the bank, be received by the Colonial Treasurer, the directors are to amend the management in such manner as the Treasurer may demand in writing. The shares held in the Bank of New Zealand Estates Company (Limited) by the bank are, pending the completion of liquidation, to be treated in valuing as at par. "The Bank Shareholders Act, 1894," provides that the directors of any bank may decline to register any transfer of shares upon which there is any liability made by a shareholder to any person of whose responsibility they may not be satisfied. "The Bank Directors and Shares Transfer Act, 1894," gives authority to directors to refuse approval, without assigning reasons, to any transfer of ■hares on which there is liability. It limits the number of directors to not less than five or more than seven. Savings-ba7iks. The number of post-offices open for the transaction of savings- bank business at the end of 1894 was 348. There were 28,669 new accounts opened in the year, and 21,930 accounts were closed. The total number of open accounts at the end of 1894 was 129,423, of which 95,497 were for amounts not ex- ceeding £20. The deposits received during the year amounted to £2,252,862 6s. lid., and the withdrawals to £2,268,624 8s. 4d., the excess of withdrawals over deposits having thus been £15,762 Is. 5d. The total sum standing at credit of all accounts on the 31st December, 1894, was £3,340,879 lis. 4d., which gave an average of £25 16s. 3d. to the credit of each account. There are seven savings-banks in the colony not connected with the Post Office. The total amount deposited in them in 1894 was £408,684 13s. 10d., of which the deposits by Maoris comprised £59. The withdrawals reached the sum of £437,733 13s. 7d., being in excess of the deposits by £29,048 19s. 9d. The total amount to the credit of the depositors at the end of the year was £725,713 14s. 9d., of which sum £'284 Is. 5d. belonged to Maoris. The following were the securities, &c, standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post-Office Savings-Bank Fund on the 31st December, 1894 :— 172 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Description of Securities, &c. "Cheviot Estate Payment Act 1893 " Deben- tures, 4J per cent. Consolidated Loan 1867 Debentures, 4 per cent. "Consolidated Stock Act 1881" Debentures, 4£ per cent. Defence Loan 1870 Debentures, 4 per cent. .. Defence Loan 1870 Debentures, 4J per cent... District Railways Purchasing Act Debentures, 4 per cent. District Railways Purchasing Act Scrip, 4 per cent. General Purposes Loan 1873 Debentures, 4 per cent. "Government Loans to Local Bodies Act 1886" Debentures, 4 per cent. "Government Loans to Local Bodies Act 1880 " Debentures, 4J per cent. .. Greymouth Harbour Board Debentures, 5 per cent. Hamilton Borough Debentures. 5J per cent.. . Hukitika Harbour Board Debentures, 5 per cent. Immigration and Public Works Loan 1870 Debenture*. 4 percent. .. Immigration and Public Works Loan 1870 Debentures, 4J per cent... Imperial Immigration and Public Works Loan 1870 Guaranteed Debentures, 4J per cent... "Land for Settlements Act 1892" Debentures, 4 per cent. "Land for Settlements Act 1892 " Debentures, 4 J per cent. "Lands Improvement and Native Lands Ac- quisition Act 1894 " Debentures, 4 per cent. "Native Land Purchases Act 1892" Deben- tures, 4J per cent... North Jiakaia River Board Debentures, 5 per cent. Oamaru Borough Debentures, 5 per cent. Oamaru Gas Bonds, 5 per cent. Oamaru Harbour Mortgages, 5 per cent. Oamaru Harbour Mortgages, 5$ per cent. Patea Harbour Board Mortgages. 4^ per cent. Thames Borough Debentures, 0 per cent. Thames Harbour Board Debentures, 5 per cent. Treasury Bills, 4 per cent. Westport Harbour Board Debentures, 5 per cent. .. Post Office Account Totals Nominal Value. > aiue at Price ( ..- t 8. .1. £ s. ,1. 50,000 0 (1 50,000 II 0 13,000 0 0 12,480 0 (1 1,131,988 (1 0 1,131,988 II (1 II 11 75,000 0 0 0 0 72,000 8,100 8,100 0 0 42,000 0 0 36,076 17 8 34,100 0 (1 34,100 0 0 5,20'J 0 0 4,342 0 0 73,000 0 0 73,000 0 0 249,800 (1 0 249,800 (1 0 90,000 3,00) 1) II n 90,000 3,000 0 0 (1 0 0 10,00J (1 II 10,000 0 0 173,200 0 0 160,272 II (1 20,900 0 II 20,527 111 0 324,000 0 1) 324,000 II 0 1,100 0 (1 1,100 '1 (I 53,966 0 0 53,960 II 0 31,800 0 0 31,800 0 0 125,000 0 0 125,000 0 0 3,000 0 0 0 3,000 0 0 0 0 5,000 0 0 0 5,000 8,800 (1 8,800 (1 II II 30,000 0 0 30,000 0 0 0 32,000 0 32,000 0 10,000 II 10,000 (1 (1 0,500 1) II 6,000 0 10,000 312,800 0 0 1) 10,000 312,800 tl 0 0 II 0 302,800 1) (1 302,800 II II 3,230,054 0 03,218,452 7 3 BUILDING AND FEIENDLY SOCIETIES. 173 Summary of all Deposits. The deposits previously stated for the banks of issue represent the average for the four quarters of the year. If the total deposits at the end of the year be assumed to be equal to the average for the last quarter, then it may be affirmed that, exclusive of Government moneys, the deposits in the several banks of issue and in the two classes of savings-banks amounted at the end of 1894 to £17,157,482. In addition, there are the deposits with building societies, which in 1893 were £231,255; and it is known that there were also deposits with financial companies, of which no particulars have been supplied to the department. The known deposits reach an average of £25 6s. lid. per head of the population, exclusive of Maoris. Building Societies. There were 49 registered building societies in operation in the colony at the end of 1893. Of these, 9 were terminable societies, the rest were permanent. The total receipts by these societies during their financial year were £639,979 6s. 8d., of which deposits comprised £260,480 Is. lOd. The assets at the end of the year were valued at £911,451 9s. 8d. The total liabilities were to shareholders, reserve fund, &c, £662,611 16s. Id., to depositors, £231,255 8s. lid., and to bankers and other creditors, £17,584 4s. 8d. Friendly Societies. The Registrar of Friendly Societies received returns for the year 1893 from 372 lodges, courts, tents, &c, of various friendly societies throughout the colony, also from 31 central bodies. The number of members at the end of 1893 was 29,763. The total value of the assets of these societies was £530,587, equivalent to £17 16s. 7d. per member. Of the total assets, the value of the sick and funeral benefit funds was £469,836. The receipts during the year on account of the sick and funeral funds amounted to £67,961, and the expenditure to £50,414, of which the sick-pay to members reached the sum of £29,888. In addition to the sick-pay, the sum of £27,859 was paid out of the medical and management expenses fund for attendance given and medicine supplied to the members and their families. Life Insurance. There were existing in the colony at the close of the year 1893 as many as 64,382 life insurance policies, an average of over 95 in every 1,000 persons living. The gross amount represented by these policies was £17,685,050, an average of £274 14s. for each policy, and of £26 6s. Id. for every European inhabitant of the colony at the end of the year. The distribution of these policies among the various life assurance offices is shown in the following table:— 174 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAK-BOOK. New Zealand Business of Number of N™mifL0' Years of 7,e™f>' « Business inPXlfr the Colony.lEnd °JY Gross Amount insured by Policie at End of Year 1893. The Australian Mutual Provident :!2 Society The Colonial Mutual Life Assurance; 10 Society (Limited) The Equitable Life Assurance Society I 9 of the United States The Mutual Assurance Society of Vic- I 10 toria (Limited) The Mutual Life Association of Aus- j IT tralasia The National Mutual Life Association . 14 of Australasia (Limited) The New York Life Insurance Company 7 The Life Insurance Department of the , 24 New Zealand Government Totals 19,943 3,598 8S0 1,172 3,704 3,198 178 31,709 6-1,382 £ s. d. 5,908,931 0 0 1,030,108 1 11 431,458 0 0 243,254 17 11 901,794 16 2 795,888 9 8 71,858 0 0 8,302,257 0 0 17,685,050 5 8 It will be observed that nearly half the policies are held in the Government Life Insurance Department. A special article con- cerning this institution will be found in Part III. of this volume. Compulsory Insurance. There is in New Zealand no law enforcing insurance against sickness, accident, old age, and invalidity. In Germany compulsion is resorted to, and as the subject is of great interest at the present time, the following remarks on the German system are quoted from the Annals of the American Academy for March last:— There are three chapters, in which the laws of compulsory insurance against sickness, against accidents, and against old age and invalidity are given textually, and the facts relating to organization and administration quoted in full detail. The first of these measures was passed on the 15th June, 1883. It was modified in April, 1892, in order to bring it into harmony with the other insurance laws which had in the meantime been passed. Sick insurance is about to be extended to agricultural labourers and to servants. At present nearly eight millions of persons are insured, and expenditures for sick relief amount to more than $23,800,000 (£4,950,000) annually. The purpose of sick insurance is to insure a certain and sufficient relief in case of illness during at least thirteen weeks. The employe pays two-thirds of the sick insurance and the employer one-third. Accident iusurance is likewise compulsory and universal. The first law was passed on the 6th July, 1884, ond dealt chiefly with industrial enterprises. The law of the 28th May, 1885, extended accident insurance to transportation agencies. A subsequent enactment, bearing the date of the 15th March, 1886, regulates accident insurance for State officials, military officers, and soldiers. A few months later there was a further extension to agriculture and forestry, and it is on the eve of extension to home industry and commerce. Accident insurance is at the cost of employers. Invalidity and old age insurance law was enacted on the 22nd June, 1889, Bross amount insured by policies at end of year. TOTALS. €13,472,340 £14,257,353 £14,715,955 £15,096,156 £15,582,650 £16,106,671 £16,915,141 217,685,050 £6,801,609 £7,425,420 £7,639,703 £7,772,027 £8,038,620 £8,323,937 £8,878,921 £9.382,793 £6,670,741 £6,831,933 £7,076,252 £7,326,129 £7,544,030 £7,782,734 £8,036,220 £8,302,257 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 The average amount of Life Aſsurance per head of European population in New Zealand at the end of each of the above years was 1886..... 22-17-2|7888.... E 24-4.711890....I 24 14.01 1892 E26.0.1 1887...223.12-717889 E 246-911891.... 226.7.211892 E 26-60 The amount of Aſsurance per head of population for 1893 in the following Countries was. Australasia. 220 Canada. 211. United Kingdom. I 13 United States EE IFE ASSURANCE IN NEW ZEALAND. REFERENCE Government Life Insurance Dept? shaun thui! Other Life Insurance Institutions ---- TX Gruntdele Uther Lute Insurance institution " CROWN LANDS. 175 and subjects to compulsory insurance after sixteen years of age all persons working for wages in every branch of trade, apprentices and servants included, managing officials, and commercial assistants with regular salaries up to $476 (£100). The old age and invalidity insurance fund is formed by equal contribu- tions from employers and employed, and an Imperial subsidy amounting to $1190 (£2 9s. 7d.) per annum is grantel to every annuity. Public opinion now very generally favours sickness insurance, regards accident insurance with complacency, but is apparently discontented with the old age and invalidity measure. The law seems to be defective, since, according to a reliable private calculation, nearly 40 per cent, have failed to meet their legal obligations to contribute. The official statement reduces this to 16 or 17 per cent. In four years' time 60,000 claims have had to be refused, and this furnishes ground for criticism and disappointment. Crown Lands. Before referring to the results of each of the various methods in operation in 1894-95 for the disposal of Crown lands it is desirable to state that a description of these systems will be found in the first of the special articles in Part III. of this work. There were 38,695 acres of Crown land sold for cash or money- scrip during the year ended 31st March, tbe cash received being £47,033, and the scrip representing a value of £175. The lands absolutely disposed of without sale amounted to 89,517 acres, of which reserves set apart for public purposes comprised 21,079 acres; grants to Natives or Europeans under the Native Land Acts, &c, 68,185 acres; and those in satisfaction of land-scrip or otherwise, 253 acres. The total area of land alienated from the foundation of the colony to the 31st March, 1895, was 21,048,989 acres. This does not include lands sold by Natives to Europeans direct, for which no Crown grants have been issued. The exact quantity so sold cannot be ascertained, but is believed to be very small. The deferred-payment system was abolished by the Land Act of 1892. Nevertheless, in 1894-95, 5,454 acres were taken up on deferred payment under arrangements made before the Act came into force. The total area of land taken up under this system, from its com- mencement to the 31st March, 1895, was 1,284,629 acres. Of this quantity, the area forfeited was 250,320 acres, while 633,808 acres had been finally alienated by completion of payments. The area still held at the end of March, 1895, was, therefore, 400,501 acres. The following statement gives the number of acres taken up on deferred payment in each of the past ten years:— Acres. Acres. 1885-86 .. . 58,451 1890-91 .. . 34,091 1886-87 .. . 50,527 1891-92 .. . 40,467 1887-88 .. 41,100 1892-93 .. 21,084 1888-89 .. . 54,419 1893-94 .. 12,669 1889-90 .. . 41,376 1894-95 .. 5,454 ■ 'The operation of the perpetual - lease system with right of purchase, which became part of the land-law of the colony in 1882, had the effect of lessening the demand for land on 176 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. deferred payment, as the rental of a leasehold was only 5 per cent, on the upset value of the land, and thus, until the purchase was made, if made at all, the settler had all his capital available for beneficial improvements. On the 31st March, 1895, 864,213 acres were in occupation under perpetual-lease, in 3,040 holdings. During the year, 1,263 acres, in 3 holdings, were taken up, and 62,692 acres converted into freehold. This tenure is now super- seded by the methods introduced by "The Land Act, 1892," under which from the date of the passing of the Act up to 31st March last, 237,836 acres had been selected for occupation with right of purchase by 1,024 selectors, and 355,175 acres as leaseholds in perpetuity by 1,181 lessees. In addition, 174 persons exchanged 82,667 acres to lease in perpetuity from other tenures during the year. The lands disposed of for village settlements are not included in the sales of land previously stated, and the following details of the number and area of selections to the 31st March, 1895, are given in order to show the extent of these settlements:— No. A. B. P. Village sections for cash .. .. 1,671 6/J73 1 22 Village sections on deferred payments 1,41)7 14,840 0 17 Village settlements on perpetual kase 391 6,822 2 3 The freeholds acquired, in addition to the area taken up for cash,, have been— No. A. H. P. Village sections, deferred payments 1,077 10,040 3 22 Village sections, perpetual lease .. 40 701 3 13 The forfeitures were— Villago sections, deforred payments 251 2,270 2 2 Village sections, perpetual lease .. 29 601 3 30 During 1894-95, 51,346 acres were taken up in the North Island by special settlement associations, the average size of each mem- ber's selection being about 189 acres. The area of lands held from the Government on depasturing leases (exclusive of small grazing-runs) amounted to 10,845,558 acres, in 892 runs, yielding an annual rental of £101,938. The total area of land occupied as small grazing-runs was, at the end of March, 972,055 acres, held by 531 persons, and the total rent received in 1894-95 was £20,003. A summary of the transactions in Crown lands during the years ended 31st March, 1891-1895, will be found in the next four tables. The first of these shows the acreage of land taken up, and the second the number of holdings, under each description of tenure. The third exhibits the total acreage taken up year by year in each land district; and in the fourth the number of holdings are grouped according to size, the areas varying from less than 1 acre to 1,000 acres and over. CROWN LANDS. 177 I.-AREA OF LAND TAKEN UP UNDER VARIOUS TENURES (EXCLUDING PASTORAL RUNS AND MISCELLANEOUS LEASES) DURING EACH OF THE YEARS ENDING 31st MARCH, 1891-95. 890-1. 1891-2. 1892-3. 1893-4. 1894-5. Cash ... Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Cash lands 100,014 40,501 36,327 | 34,999 | 38,695 Deferred payments ..] 34,091 40,467 | 21,084 12,669 5,454 Perpetual lease and small areas .. (288,917 282,547 122,558 3,854 | 1,263 Occupation with right of purchase | 54,271 108,133 | 75,478 Lease in perpetuity 55,320 179,993 91,799 Agricultural lease 551 90 194 365 Village settlement- 210 429 528 Deferred payment 370 182 391 Perpetual lease 954 893 2,640 Village settlement, occupation with right of purchase 1 / 23 Village settlement, lease in per- petuity .. 3,953 4,050 Village - homestead special settle- ment.. 350 2,213 494 2,550 2,743 Special settlement associations 71 1,923* 157,3817 68,852+|51, 346 Homestead . 945 1,010 138 Special-settlement improved farms 9,731 Small grazing-runs 86,161 159,465 92,927 252,693 117,846 Totals - .. 512,634 529, 720 544,153 668,064 398, 497 II.-NUMBER OF HOLDINGS TAKEN UP UNDER Each KIND OF TENURE (EXCLUDING PASTORAL RUNS AND MISCELLANEOUS LEASES AND LICENSES) DURING THE YEARS ENDED 31ST MARCH, 1891-95. 1890-1. 1891-2. 1892-3. 1893-4. NO. No. 392 No. 493 223 824 No. 552 169 385 161 126 47 3 :::: 96 17 461 612 398 372 No. For cash .. 573 Deferred payments .. 258 Perpetual lease and small areas 788 Occupation with right of purchase Lease in perpetuity .. Agricultural lease .. Village settlement- Cash .. Deferred payment Perpetual lease .. Occupation with right of purchase Lease in perpetuity Village-homestead special settlement.. Special settlement associations Homestead.. Improved-farm special settlement Small grazing-runs .. .. Totals .. . | 1,881 29 164 51 30 ::::::: 203, 118 ! 140 232 60 262 2 838 290 107 60 43 / 142 1,954 | 2,578 2,454 1,988 * Perpetual lease. + Lease in perpetuity. 178 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. III. — Lands taken op during the Years ended 31st March, 1891-95 (EXCLUSIVE OF PASTORAL RUNS AND MISCELLANEOUS LEASES). Land District. 1890-1. 1891-2. 1892-3. 1893-4. 1894-5. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Auckland 95,510 105,120 115,454 134,992 99,313 Hawke's Bay 45,603 36,008 49,831 24,356 20,141 Taranaki 33,785 55,237 49,064 13,954 35,113 Wellington 108,053 82,311 156,297 84,871 49,586 Nelson .. 23,808 12,992 17,797 36,739 34,907 Marlborough 11,023 3,016 8,055 8,227 18,353 Canterbury 133,761 62,831 12,777 94,861 33,744 Westland 313 1,010 162 1,346 1,826 Otago 47,450 141,565 90,043 159,050 80,439 Southland 13,328 29,630 44,673 109,668 25,076 Totals . 512,634 529,720 544,153 668,064 398,498 IV.—Holdings taken up durino the Years ended 31st March, 1891-95 (exclusive of Pastoral Runs and Miscellaneous Leases), classified according to size. Size. 1890-1. 1891-2. 1892-3. 1893-4. 1894-5. No. No. No. No. No. Under 1 acre 170 214 154 176 256 1 to 50 acres 531 581 727 739 696 51 to 250 acres 603 617 1,253 933 756 251 to 500 acres 307 255 264 341 169 501 to 1,000 acres.. 173 187 104 150 70 1,001 acres and upwards 97 99 76 115 40 Totals 1,881 1,954 2,578 2,454 1,988 Lands for Settlement. "The Land for Settlements Act, 1892," enabled the Government to buy from private persons suitable properties for cutting up and leasing in farms of not more than 320 acres each. Further powers were given the Government by an Act passed in 1894, which au- thorises the compulsory taking of estates in cases where the owners refuse to sell. A full description of the system and its objects is given in the special article on the land-laws of the colony. Par- ticulars of the estates which have been offered for selection and the remarks of the Surveyor-General in his report of the 18th June, 1895, are appended here :— LANDS FOR SETTLEMENT. 179 PARTICULARS OF ESTATES WHICH HAVE BEEN OFFERED FOR SELECTION. Name of Estate. Total Area purchased. Area selected. Number of Selectors. Total Annual Rental of Sections let. Area not selected at 31st March 1895. Rental placed on Land not selected. Total Cost of Estate to 31st March, 1895. Interest on Capi.! tal invested in Estate derived from Rentals of Land let. Arrears of Rental, 31st March, 1895. A. £ s. d. 397 17 6 R. P. £ 8. d. £ S. Pareora 29 7, Â07 18 a d. Per cent. 5.52 £ 8. 8 16 d. 9 Studholme Junc. 73 4 6 joo oo 5:51 5.69 A. R. P. | 611 3 15 107 2 17 104 2 8 574 1 5 572 1 347 3 18 344 1 7,462 3 1 5,341 3 24 5,020 0 0 1,954 0 0 Kapua .. Te Aparaki 270 1,327 10 3 4,742 7 10 .. | 5,532 11 11 1,920 O 31 300 4 2 21,156 0 6 2,826 0 0* 447 11 54 15,187 17 10 31 14 71 12 207 19 Pomahaka 894 5.09 4.22 2:43 4 7 7 Blind River 8 370 Totals .. 14,133 0 14 8,9290 14 96 2,287 4 5 4,746 0 31 | 747 15 7 55,154 4 5 4:14 320 2 5 * This area of 2,826 acres has since been reduced by the selection of 750 acres. + This rental of £447 11s. 5d. has since been reduced by the selection of 750 acres, the rental of which is £170 4s. 10d., leaving the figures in the above column £277 6s. 7d.; an area of 487 acres of Crown land included in the estate, valued at £85 12s. of rental, is not included in these figures: 180 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAK-BOOK. It will thus be seen that, on the whole of the transactions; interest at 4-14 per cent, is derived from rentals of lands let. This statement, however, is based on the assumption that none of the selectors are in arrear, which is not the case—some of the selectors,, like those on ordinary Crown lands, are in arrear. The first few years of settlement in any country are the most trying to settlers, for the expenses of building, fencing, stock, seed, and others in- cidental to the first occupation of country come all at once, and before any or very little return is received from the land. The fall in the price of stock and produce during the year under consideration is another factor which cannot be ignored in connection herewith. So that it is not surprising if some of the settlers are in arrear during the early years of settlement. The total amount the settlers were behindhand in their payments on the 31st March was £320 2s. 5d.r owing by twenty-eight selectors. These figures have been reduced to fourteen selectors, owing £216 9s. 4d. at the present date. Improved Farm Settlements. To provide work for unemployed persons and settle them per- manently on the land, a system was authorised in 1894 under which suitable blocks are set aside in areas of 10 acres to 200 acres, and assistance is given by Government to cover cost of clearing, seed, and house-building. The settlers pay 4 per cent, interest, besides the rental of their lands, and these lands are charged with the amounts advanced. On the 31st March the advances to the settlers amounted to £5,698, and the value of the improvements on the land was £6,964. At the above date 9,731 acres had been allotted, to 107 settlers. What is known as the " half-time system" has been introduced, the purpose of which is to find enough employ- ment to support the settlers, leaving them meanwhile to improve their farms. Government Advances to Settlers. In 1894 was passed the Government Advances to Settlers Act, designed to afford, consistently with the public safety, a relief to the settlers to whom high rates of interest and the heavy incidental expenses on the mortgage of land had become burdensome, and thus to remove an obstacle to the progress of the colony. As this im- portant measure is the subject of a special article, it is unneces- sary to do more here than exhibit the extent to which advances had been authorised at the latest date for which information has been published. It must be remembered that the measure did not become law till the 24th October, 1894, and, to quote from the report of the Superintendent, "is just completing its trial, the office having consequently to be regarded as only now emerging from the temporary or experimental stage." He adds his opinion that the Act cannot but prove of substantial benefit to the colony. GOVERNMENT ADVANCES TO SETTLERS. 181 Government Advances to Settlebs to 31st May, 1895. Advances authorised A( vances Advances Combined on authorised on authorised on Freehold m (o1d Freehold Leasehold Provincial Districts. Securities. Securities. and Leasehold Securities. No. Amount. No. 1 Amount. No. Amount No. Amount. £ £ £ £ Auckland .. 45 13,495 1 350 46 13,845 Taranaki 101 40,075 21 3,195 2 675 124 43,945 Hawke's Bay 32 12,030 14 2,550 46 14,580 Wellington.. 155 77,995 87 16,055 3 1,530 245 95,580 Marlborough 15 6,932 2 100 .. 17 7,032 Kelson 11 5,375 1 100 12 5,475 •Canterbury 37 23,450 26 2,235 63 25,685 Westland .. Otago and Southland 196 92,405 46 4,770 1 150 243 97,325 Totals .. 592' 271,757 1981 29,355 6; 2,355 796 303,467 The applications on which the Board declined to authorise advances were: 270, representing £145,520 on freehold securities; 249, representing £49,754 on leaseholds; and 13, representing £8,140 •on freehold combined with leasehold. The advances offered, which, being less than the amounts re- quired, were declined by applicants, numbered 47, representing £25,470 on freehold securities; and 9, representing £1,135 on lease- holds. The total number of applications for loans received up to 31st May, 1895, was 2,016, and the amount applied for £843,188. The following are the purposes for which the advances were 6tated to be required: For releasing mortgage, £354,733; for releasing mortgage and for improvements, £200,358; for releasing mortgage and for stock, £7,700; for releasing mortgage and for stock and improvements, £7,242; for purchase of other land, £12,257; for converting leasehold into freehold, £29,161; for converting lease- hold into freehold, and for improvements and stock, £12,760; for paying balance of purchase-money, and for improvements, £33,604; for improvements, £130,483; for stock and improvements, £41,995; and for purposes not stated in the applications, £12,895: making a total of £843,188 applied for. Occupation of Land. The results of the last census show that in April, 1891, there •were in New Zealand 43,777 occupied holdings of over 1 acre in * 431 ot these advances, representing £115,107, were in sums not exceeding £500. 1195 of these advances, representing £26,605, were in sums not exceeding £500. . 5 of these advances, representing £1,555, were in sums not excoeding £500. 182 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAK-BOOK. extent, covering an area of 19,397,529 acres, of which 12,410,242 acres were freehold of the occupiers, and 6,987,287 acres were rented from—(1) private individuals, (2) Natives, (3) public bodies, and (4) the Crown (for other than pastoral purposes). The following table shows the number of holdings of various sizes, and number of acres held in fee-simple and on lease, excluding the Crown lands rented for pastoral purposes only :— Number ! Acreage. Sizes of Holding ;s. of Holdings i - - - — Freehold. Leasehold, &c.' Total. Acres. Acres. _ _ 1 to 10 .. 11,116 28,124 24,343 52,467 10 „ 50 .. 8,899 148,905 105,751 254,710 50 . 100 .. 5,613 277,135 158,128 435,263 100 . 200 .. 6,851 654,729 374,022 1,028,751 200 , 320 .. 3,916 609,857 403,462 1,013,319 320 „ 640 ..' 3,802 1,057,676 660,070 1,717,746 640 , 1,000 .. 1,321 662,612 395,849 1,058,461 1,000 . 5,000 .. 1,675 2,144,627 1,280,558 3,425,185- 5,000 , 10,000 ..! 247 1,208,819 559,980 1,768,799 10,000 , 20,000 .. 1 189 1,911,063 788,341 2,699,404 20,000 . 50,000 ..] 117 2,507,848 833,083 3,340,931 50,000 , 100,000 24 801,647 723,000 1,524,647 Upwards of 100,000 ao res .. 7 397,140 680,700 1,077,840 Totals, 1891 ..' 43,777 12,410,242 6,987,287 19,397,529- Totals, 1886 .. 30,485 11,728,236 5,348,838 17,077,074 Totals, 1881 .J 30,832 10,309,170 4,897,727 15,206,897 The extent of land rented from the Crown for pastoral purposes, including the small grazing-runs, amounted in April, 1891, to 12,469,976 acres. The number of persons engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits in 1891, as ascertained from the results of the census taken in April of that year, was 68,607, of whom 65,950 were males and 2,657 females. Of this number 56,671 males and 2,387 females were directly engaged in agricultural, and 9,279 males and 270 females in pastoral occupations. Ownership of Land. Statistics of land assessed under " The Land and Income Assess- ment Act, 1891," were prepared in 1892 by the taxing department. The most important table then made shows the number of free- holders outside boroughs and town districts, classified according to- size of holding, with the values, improved and unimproved, of the Excluding Crown pastoral leases. OWNERSHIP OF LAND. 183 land held by each class. From this table are excluded the holdings of persons having less than 5 acres, and included are all lands outside towns; that is to say, lands which may be considered pro- ductive. Ownership of land is of course distinct from occupation, and the number of owners must necessarily be less than the number of occupied holdings shown previously in the table giving census results :— Freeholders op Five Acres and over, classified accordino to Size op Holding (exclusive op Land in Boroughs and Town Districts, etc). Number of Improved Unimproved Value. OwDers. Value.* £ £ 5 and under 10 2,820 678,032 312,139 10 p 20 3,015 806,959 401,425 20 „ 30 2,267 663,050 352,021 BO „ 40 1,428 532,242 292,753 40 50 2,318 642,000 359,245 BO m 00 2,412 813,165 469,106 60 70 1,463 522,6e6 295,523 70 m 80 1,162 582,378 373,015 -SO „ 90 1,423 546,970 310,777 go m 100 1,061 561,973 332,253 100 m 200 8,267 5,461,487 3,239,817 200 „ 320 4,575 4,688,671 2,861,409 320 „ 500 2,531 4,352,224 2,680,446 500 „ 640 1,022 2,377,803 1,470,907 640 1,000 1,143 3,652,884 2,342,827 1,000 m 2,000 992 5,121,688 3,381,176 2,000 w 3,000 311 2,703,380 1,798,500 3,000 w 4,000 146 1,706,128 1,150,432 4,000 „ 5,000 109 1,393,844 969,723 5,000 m 6,000 66 1,047,158 717,983 6,000 m 7,000 50 822,486 564,312 7,000 m 8,000 38 727,542 477,931 8,000 „ 9,000 '.. 29 648,600 436,612 9,000 m 10,000 25 778,427 537,801 10,000 m 20,000 148 5,495,958 3,771,082 20,000 v 30,000 45 2,743,301 1,839,700 30,000 m 40,000 30 2,517,765 1,741,038 40,000 m 50,000 9 987,659 719,708 50,000 m 75,000 14 1,418,031 994,463 75,000 m 100,000 6 1,086,623 859,028 100,000 d over Totals , 150,000 4 624,980 421,772 150,000 an 6 2,583,281 1,853,538 38,935 59,289,375 38,328,462 A comparison of last assessment with the assessments of 1882, 1885, and 1888 gives the following results :— * "Improvements" are defined as including houses and buildings, fencing, planting, draining of land, clearing from timber, scrub, or fern, laying down in grass or pasture, Ac. 184 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. FREEHOLDERS OF LAND (5 ACRES AND OVER) OUTSIDE BOROUGHS AND TOWN DISTRICTS, ETC. Persons. Companies. Totals. Acres. Year | Improved Improved Value. No. 1 Improved Value. Value. 5 and under 100 1892 19,323 6,214,330 135,125 19,369 6,349, 455 1889 18,752 6,337,531 53 141,573 18,805 6, 479, 104 1886 17,043 5,953, 325 32 80,964 17,075 6,034,289 1833 14,740 5,150,215 26 16,761 14,766 5,166,976 100 1,000 1892 17,513 20,399, 453 25 133,616 17,538 20,533,069 1889 16,702 17,113,939 41 245,925 16,743 17,359,864 1886 15,451 18,008,086 20 132,663 15,471 18,140,749 1883 14,248 17,758,653 19 137,905 14,267 17,896,558 1,000 10,000 1892 1,740 14,702,987 26 246, 266 1,766 14,919, 253 1889 1,608 12,902,749 26 326, 191 1,634 13,228, 940 1886 1,615 13,610,112 30 417,853 1,645 14,027,965 1883 1,466 13,746,311 18 221,280 1,484 13,967,591 10,000 50,000 1892 212 10,379, 708 201,364,975 232 11,744,683 1889 2011 9,333,536 22 981, 710 223 10, 315, 246 1886 213 9,633,758 17 684, 788 230 10,318,546 1883 215 10,516,263 9 261,181 224 10,777,444 50,000 and over 1892 18 2,257,541 123,455,374 30 5,712,915 1889 16 1,851,590 11 3,340,459 27 5,192,049 1886 18 2.312.891 112,824, 249 29 5,137,140 1883 15 2,243,220 83,299,023 23 5,542, 243 Totals 1892 38,806'53,954,019 1295,335,356 38,935 59, 289, 375 1889 37,279 47,539,345 153 5,035,858 37,432 52,575, 203 (1886 34, 340'49,518,172 1104,140,517,34,450 53, 658,689 1883 30,68449, 414, 662 803,936,150 30,764 53, 350,812 The Commissioner of Taxes remarked in his report on the last assessment that “the number of owners of 5 acres and over--38,935—is 1,503 more than in 1888, and the total value – £59,289,375—is an increase of £6,714,172. It appears that 19,369, or very nearly half the owners, possess less than 100 acres of land. There are 17,538 owners of from 100 to 1,000 acres, value £20,533,069; 1,766 owners of from 1,000 to 10,000 acres, value £14,949,253; 232 owners of from 10,000 to 50,000 acres, value $11,744,683; and 30 owners of 50,000 acres and over, value £5,712,915. The total number of owners of land in the colony was 91,501, and the value of their holdings amounted to £92,371,166 for improved land, $54,427,175 representing the unimproved value. There are included a considerable number of properties which were assessed to “owner,” the names of the persons to whom they belonged not being ascertainable or ascertained by the assessors; and there are also included properties of societies and associations not being liable to taxation. The foregoing make up a total of 1,845; and, in com- paring the figures now given with those of the 1888 assessment, OWNERSHIP OF LAND. 185 allowance should be made for the fact that they were omitted in the 1888 statistics. Properties assessed to “ owner" may, as a rule, be taken to be under £100 in value. About half the landowners-namely, 45,192—had land of an of the total, land of a less improved value than £100. A table is added giving the number of owners, classified according unimproved value of less than £100, and 23,709, or about a fourth to the values of their holdings. Number Number Unimproved Class. of Improved Value. Owners. of Owners. Value. Under £500 £500 and under £1,000 .. £1,000 £10,000 £10,000 and over 63,841 12,901 13,569 1,190 10,825, 213 8,888,580 33,938, 211 38,719,162 76,399 6,922 7,496 684 8,621,360 4,794,530 19, 208,387 21,802,898 .. Totals .. 91,501 92,371,166 91,501 54,427,175 The total value of all the land in the colony, with improvements, was assessed at £122,225,029. Crown and Native lands, with reserves, &c., account for the difference between the sum given in the table above and the full value. To convey an idea of the number of persons and companies owning large estates, a schedule of those owning 10,000 acres and more of country land on the 1st November, 1891, is given here- under :- FREEHOLDERS OF 10,000 ACRES AND OVER, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO SIZE OF HOLDING. Persons. Companies. Total. Size of Holding. No. Area. No. Area. No. Area. 139 9 3 10,000 to 20,000 acres .. 20,000 30,000 30,000. 40,000 40,000 50,000 50,000, 75,000 75,000 ,100,000 100,000 ,150,000 150,000 acres and over Acres. 1,964,760 1,038,850 827,996 301,480 753,642 432,555 118,157 Acres. 121,070 71,498 213,759 90,952 137,256 88,350 358,831 1,321,036 148 45 30 9 14 6 Acres. 2,085,830 1,110,358 1,041,755 392,432 890, 898 520,905 476,988 1,321,036 1 6 Totals 230 5,437,450 32 2,402,752 262 7,840,202 Agriculture. The agricultural statistics, which are collected annually in February or March, take into account only such occupied holdings 186 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. as are ■wholly or partly under cultivation, and moreover do not in- clude those occupied by aboriginal natives. Information about the farming carried on by the Maoris is obtained only when a census of the Native race is taken. In 1891 the Maoris had under wheat a total area of 11,203 acres; under maize, 5,599 acres; potatoes, 16,093 acres; other crops, 16,221 acres; and in sown grasses, 26,718 acres. A summary of the results of the agricultural statistics collected in February, 1895, is exhibited in the two following tables: the first showing the produce of the principal crops in each provincial district; the second, the number of holdings, and the acreage under various kinds of crops and in sown grasses. From these tables it will be seen that the final results of the recent collec- tion give the number of cultivated holdings over 1 acre occupied by Europeans as 46,676. It should, however, be observed that it is a common practice in Otago and Canterbury for persons to take unimproved lands from the proprietors in order to raise one, two, or three grain-crops therefrom, the land being after- "wards sown down with grass-seed. Lands so occupied are returned as separate holdings. When the low price of grain renders crop- ping unprofitable, either land is not taken up in this manner, or land so occupied revert3 to the owner and is included with the rest of his holding:— Pbodoce of Principal Chops. Provincial Districts. Wheat. Oats. Barley. Hay. Potatoes. Bush. Bush. 129,634 Bush. 27,758 Tons. 14,500 Tons. 22,445 Auckland 48,844 Taranaki 8,993 76,362 14,832 7,389 5,729 Hawke's Bay 6,039 125,898 27,699 8,799 7,867 Wellington 93,457 475,181 13,872 7,866 15,222 Marlborough 61,159 68,686 92,977 2,593 5,241 Nelson 22,894 97,447 110,689 4,434 6,615 Westland .. 412 1,214 Canterbury 2,540,936 3,327,998 423,906 24,779 44,155 Otago 830,715 5,920,187 288,879 7,717 31,381 Totals 3,613,037 10,221,393 1,000,612 78,489 139,869 ICULTURE. and in Cultivation. (ACRES.) TOTAL 6,092,836 TOTAL 3,523,277 TOTAL 1.717 TOTAL 783,495 . ! 501,680 :: 984.024 67.967- 10,352 ,181,369 : 456,463 185,370 272.605 1,077,454 1,531,385 673,567 480,538 BB.T-681 2,274,491 2,460,165 19,887 1968-9. 1873-4. 1878-9. 1883-4. + TOTAL 10,215,126 TOTAL 7,727,912 793,868 1454.943 2,941,888 3,337,423 57.745 560,179 597.686 140,494 3,908,581 4,921,136 87,050 1888-89. 1894-95. Reference In Grain Grop. In Root, Greer and other Crop. .. Broken up but not under Crop. In Sown Grasses (after ploughing)-- :::::::: In Sown Grasses not previously ploughed).. In Garden, Orchard or Plantation *No returns until 1883-84 Plantations not included in Year 1883 84 TM Grone.delt TEE '':;.3 AT&LFOX AND I WAS NDATIONS. AGRICULTURE. 187 Number of Acres under Crop. In Grain and Pulse. In Green and other Crops, In Sown Grasses, Provincial Districts. Number of Holdings. Number of Acres broken up, but not under Crop. Wheat. Oats. Barley. Other under . Crops. Grain- crops Oats sown for Green Food or Total under all Kinds of Crops (including Sown Grasses), and of Land broken up, but not under Crop. Potatoes. Total under Green and other Crops. Other Crops. In Grass (including La nd in Hay. Hay) after having been ploughed. Grass-SOwn Lands (in- cluding Lands in Hay) not previously ploughed. Hay. Auckland .. 11,237 23,934 1,934 4,795 1,005 5,677 13,411 21,002 4,376 40,170 65,548 12,268 431,021 957,419 1,491,333 Taranaki .. 3,385 1,374 332 3,199 436 404 4,371 2,379 1,167 4,777 8,323 4,837 102,460 321,854 438,382 Hawke's Bay 2,187 18,705 274 4,503 905 349 6,031 4,426 1,127 19,843 25,396 6,219 312,622 1,034,234 1,396,988 Wellington 7,055 11,804 3,584 19,477 620 851 24,532 7,756 2,713 23,982 34,451 5,665 224,3911,684,119 1,979,297 Marlborough 1,086 3,013 2,418 3,317 3,923 1,866 11,554 7,481835 4,184 12,500 1,362 63,521 162,350 252,938 Nelson .. 2,526 3,058 998 4,108 4,786 411 10,303 9,479 1,239 6,417 17,135 3,441 82,573 194,539 307,608 Westland .. 418 87 .. .. .. 2 2 464 245 146 8 55 326 3,373 15,613 19,930 Canterbury 8,624 30,717 107,352 123,542 14,728 11,412 257,034 47,443 7,067 134,892 189,402 17,5651,384,950 329,082 2,191,185 Otago .. 10,158 47,802 31,653 188,911 10,116 2,261 232,941 66,730 6,570 170,776 244,076 4,9311, 303,670 221,926 2,050,415 Totals .. 46,676 140,494 145,575 351,852 36,519 23,233 560, 179 167,160 25,339 405,187 597,686 56,614 3,908,5814,921,136 10,128,076 188 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. In 1876 the number of occupied and cultivated holdings was estimated to be, on an average, 14-88 to every 100 adult males; in 1881, 17-30; in 1886, 20-17; and in 1891, 2279. Assuming the ratio of adult males to total male population to be still the same as existed at the census of 1891, the number of holdings in 1895 gives an average of 25-40 to every 100 of the adult male population. It is highly satisfactory to observe this progress, indicating as it does that a continually increasing proportion of the grown people are settling upon the land. The extent of land in cultivation (including sown grasses and land broken up but not under crop) amounted to 10,128,076 acres. Of this area, land under artificial grasses comprised 87-18 per cent.; land under grain-crops, 5-53 per cent.; land under green and other crops, 590 per cent.; and land in fallow, 1-39 per cent. The wheat harvest of 1895 was generally good throughout the colony, the total yield showing an average of 24-32 bushels per acre. But, as only 148,575 acres were sown in wheat, the crop realised was not more than 3,613,037 bushels, against 4,891,695 bushels in 1894, 8,378,217 bushels in 1893, and 10,257,738 bushels in 1892. Owing to the poor harvest in 1894, the exports of wheat and flour (in equivalent bushels of wheat) for that year were 289,326 bushels only, against 2,709,311 bushels in 1893; while the imports increased from 2,231 bushels in 1893 to 65,816 bushels in 1894. Taking an average of eighteen years, it is found that, exclusive of the quantity required for seed, the yearly consumption of wheat per head of mean population is 7-34 bushels. It is held that this rate is at least one bushel too high (the proportion last year was 6-45 bushels) owing to over-estimates in the yields returned by farmers in the past. Accepting, then, 6-30 bushels as the amount per head required for food, and assuming the mean population for 1895 to be 735,000 persons (including Maoris), it follows that 4,630,500 bushels will satisfy the actual food requirements for the year. In addition, seed for, say, 150,000 acres must be provided; this, at 2 bushels per acre (300,000 bushels), brings up the total quantity required by the colony to 4,930,500 bushels. But the wheat crop for 1895 was only 3,613,037 bushels, to which may be added the quantity grown by Maoris (estimated at 280,075 bushels) and the amount of the 1894 crop still held by farmers (259,747 bushels), making a total of 4,152,859 bushels in the colony. From this it would appear that, unless large stocks are held by grain merchants, so far from there being this year any surplus available for export, the colony may actually have to import more than half a million bushels of wheat (or an equivalent in flour) to supply the estimated demand. While the wheat crop has fallen from 4,891,695 bushels iu 1894 to 3,613,037 bushels this year, it is worthy of special notice that the "quantity of last year's crop remaining on haud" with the farmers has likewise fallen from 557,315 to 259,747 bushels, a decrease of 297,568 bushels, or at the rate of more than 53 per cent. AGRICULTURE. 189 Of 148,575 acres in wheat this year, there were no less than 107,352 acres in Canterbury and 31,653 acres in Otago. The area in wheat for Canterbury showed a decrease from 174,252 acres in 1894 to 107,352 acres in 1895, and of estimated produce from 3,407,842 bushels to 2,540,936 bushels. In Otago the land laid down in wheat in 1895 was about two-thirds of the quantity for 1894, the reduction being from 53,058 acres to 31,653 acres. The estimated yield fell from 1,161,672 bushels to 830,715 bushels. The area under wheat, the estimated gross produce in bushels, and the average yield per acre for each of the last ten years are next shown. It will be noticed that the breadth of land laid down in wheat was nearly three times as great in 1892 as in 1895. Laud under 1 Estimated A,y.er,a,ge Year. Wheat. Gross Produce. per Acre. neiu Acres. Bushels. 1 Bushels. 1886 173,891 4,242,285 2440 1887 253,025 6,297,638 2489 1888 357,359 9,424,059 26 37 1839 362,153 8,770,246 24-22 1890 335,861 8,448,506 2515 1891 301,460 5,723,610 18-99 189-2 . | 402,273 10,257,738 25-50 1893 381,245 8,378,217 21-98 1894 . 1 242,737 4,891,695 2015 1895 . 1 148,575 3,618,037 24-32 The following gives the aret t in wheat and the estimated produce for the A ustralian Colonies for the season of 1894 :— Colony. Wh eat-crop, 18SM. Bushels Acres. Bushels. per Acre.l Queensland 28,993 413,094 14-25 New South Wales 593,810 6,502,715 1095 Victoria 1,469,359 15,255,200 10-38 South Australia .. 1,732,711 13,010,062 7-86 Western Australia.. 42,673 520,198 1219 Tasmania 55,312 833,771 1507 The amount of wheat consumed or used up by the people in any year is estimated by deducting from the gross yield both the amount exported in that year and the quantity of seed required for the next crop. It is impossible, however, to give by this means an exact statement of the quantity needed for actual consumption, and that for two reasons: (1) The crop itself is an estimate, and the actual harvested yield may be either more or less; (2) the quantity retained in any one year may be very much in excess of local requirements, and the surplus may form part of the following year's exports, thus largely increasing the apparent amount retained for consumption 190 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL TEAR-BOOK. TATEM TOWING AMOUNT OF WHAT ANNUALLY MITAINED IN TI (SOLONY, I'roportion Produce (including danimated guantity of Maori own Whent Difference Menn 10x porta of Whent Notained retained. Year. Colony, per ore, Mnoris). Imports of Wheat and Flour), de tained 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1888 1884 1886 1886 1887 1888 1889 1800 1891 1892 Bushels Huehole, Bundels, 1,874,020 900,648 8,408,077) 440,412 2,081,2001 0,087,770 1,897,864 1,040), 410029,722 4,110,004, 6,972,914 2,680,798 8,002,116 640,800 8,101.720 7,801, 892 8,147,00 4,004,800 (549,HOH 4,004,40M 8,204,107 8,018, 107 4,840,000 781,480 3,014,030 8,800,296 8,721,812 4,088, 4M8| 781,080 8. A60, M47 10,829,907 0), 106,708 0,184,204 706,412 4,878,704 9,934, 101 2,486,800 7,047,711 010,OHO 0,004,645 0,960,804 1,000,820 0,864,094 817,784 0.000,202 4,400,820 1,075,201 2,016,020 0300,000 2,100,676 6,368,140 707, 182 0,000,00H 014,718 0,040,240 9,472,805 2,647,088 0,920, 802 724,806 0,201,080 8,784,801 8,897,789 0,887,040 071,729 4,716,827 8, 408,889 4,899,000 8,000,784 002,020 2,000,404 6,950,244 1,610,978 4,889,271 804,040 8,684,726 10,688,887 2,669,889 7,878,000 762,490 7,110,400 8,626,914 2,709,811 6,917,608 480,474 6,482,120 6,226,888 280,826 4,946,087 297,160 4,648,907 l'ersonin, Hum Bualı. 461,0481 000 700 407,000 HH0 0 04 491, 8H0 0:41 701 DIA, 270 7.7 8108 087,079 0.72 8 OH 002,091 0:01 # 30 672,689 700 8:07 006), 411 10 98 1144 010,707 818 8:00 024,080 8:8 4:19 098,848 7.00 8:87 047,840 00 1070 000,700 7.19 8:21 064,400 4:47 0.87 071,770 0.20 0:40 084,288 10:40 11.01 708,842 772 8:41 721,189 6:40 6.86 Maoris. for the whole period are here given :- 1 34 bushels per head. The particulars for each year and the results mairder, being the arrount required for local consumption, averaged seed purposes, estimated at, say, 2 basaeis to the acre. From this has to be deducted the wheat required for ging method, was 8-34 bushels per head of population, including the period 1977 to 1994, incisive, estimated according to the fore- The total average consumption of wheat in New Zealand for year's results are added to or subtraeted from the computation. average for a term of years will probably vary somewhat, as any of ascertaining the requirements of the people, and that even the for any one rear cannot by themselves be taken for the purpose one year and reducing it the nest. It is thus clear that the results The re- 1898 1894 Totals and Averages a 136,668,91846,386,84200,217,671|10,882,660 70,886,021 10,818,054 7.34 8.84 • In equivalent bushols of wheat. AGRICULTURE. 191 As already pointed out, the result of the calculation is believed to be at least one bushel per head too high. The difficulty of correctly computing the consumption of bread- stuffs is shown by the great differences in the estimates arrived at. The average quantity required per head of the population (exclu- sive of that used for seed) has been estimated by Mr. Coghlan at 6-4 bushels for New South Wales, and by the late Mr. Hayter at 4J to 5 bushels for Victoria. The consumption of wheaten breadstuffs in New Zealand thus appears to be considerably in excess of that in Victoria, and is also in excess of the amount consumed per head in New South Wales and the other Australian Colonies. The following is the average annual consumption of wheat per inhabitant in some of the principal countries of the world :— United Kingdom . 56 bushels Canada ■ 66 France • 81 Germany . 30 Russia • 21 Italy • 54 . United States . 4-5 The English consumption during the last twenty-five years appears to have ranged from 5£ to 6 bushels per head of population. It is stated that the consumption in the United States is not now as high as 4t\ bushels, the severe industrial depression of 1893 causing an increase in the use of cheaper grains. It is believed that Indian corn replaces at least one-fourth of tbe wheat that would otherwise be consumed. The wheat crop of the world is given by the Department of Agriculture of the United States in the Statistician's report for March, 1895; the figures for four years are quoted here in a con- densed form :— Wheat Produce op the World. Countries. 1801. 1892. 1893. Bushels. 1894 Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. Europe .. 1,208,590,000 1,416,082,000 1,409,526,000 1,538,216,000 341,959,000 Asia 342,611,000 286,944,000 355,016,000 Africa 47,051,000 38,252,000 31,891,000 47,098,000 515,488,000 104,000,000 North America .. 688,814,000 578,748,000 446,387,000 South America .. 48,805,000 57,292,000 81,453,000 Australasia 32,840,000 35,963,000 41,161,000 42,035,000 Total 2,368,711,000 2,413,281,000 2,425,434,000 2,588,796,000 From the report above mentioned the following figures have been taken, showing the wheat produce of the various British possessions for the four years 1891-94 :— 192 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAK-BOOK. Wheat Prodcced in British Possessions. Countries. Great Britain.. Australasia Canada Cape Colony .. Cyprus India Total 1891. 1882. 1893. Bushels. 1894. Bushels. Bushels. Bushels. 77,016,000 02,021,000 52,466,000 62,568,000 32,840,000 35,903,000 41,161,000 42,085,000 62,034,000 48,799,000 43,524,000 43,221,000 2,727,000 3,000,000 3,891,000 3,098,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 250,704,000 200,040,000 208,539,000 258,459,000 433,321,000 359,023,000 411,581,000 411,381,000 The crop of oats in 1895 was 10,221,393 bushels, against 12,153,068 bushels in 1894, showing a decrease of 1,931,675 bushels. Out of the total yield for 1895, only 807,075 bushels were grown in the North Island—the crop for the Middle Island being 9,414,318 bushels, of which 5,920,187 bushels were grown in Otago, and 3,327,998 bushels in Canterbury. The extent of land in oats grown for grain in 1895 was 351,852 acres, against 376,646 acres in the preceding year. The breadth of land in oats sown for green food or hay was 167,160 acres, which is. an increase of 37,056 acres on the figures for 1894. The average yield per acre was lower in 1895 than in 1894, the figures being respectively 2905 and 3227 bushels. The oat-crop for 1894 in the Australian Colonies was as fol- lows :— Acres. Bushels. Average p« Queensland 606 12,095 1996 New South Wales 34,148 701,804 2055 Victoria 218,904 4,951,371 2202 South Australia 13,619 172,605 1207 Western Australia 2,571 47,597 18-51 Tasmania 33,755 837,720 24-82 There were 36,519 acres returned as under barley in 1895, the estimated crop being 1,000,612 bushels, an average yield per acre of 27-40 bushels. Last year the area under barley was only 28,857 acres, and the crop 724,653 bushels. The estimated potato-crop was 139,869 tons from 25,339 acres, or an average yield per acre of 5"52 tons. In 1894 the crop was 126,540 tons from 21,121 acres. A comparison of the gross yield of potatoes with the amount exported in each of the past twelve years shows that for the period 1883-94 an average of 5971b. a head was retained in the colony. Allowing for waste, pig-feed, and seed, the average amount retained for human consumption is found to be 4491b. a head. Particulars are given in the table annexed. AGRICULTURE. 193 Proportion per Head retained. Year. Produce 1 (including esti- ! mated Quantity Quantity of Maori-grown Exported. Potatoes and Imports). Used for | Pig-feed, Difference Retained in Seed at &c., for Food the Colony. l 120wt. per and Waste (Human Con- Acre, (estimated), sumption). Mean Por uletion (including Maoris). For Food. Total. 1883 .. Tons. 157,555 Tons. 10,151 Tons. 147,404 Tons 20.551 Tons. 15,718 Tons. 111,135 Lb. 435 Lb. 577 : 1884 .. 165,921 : 19, 226 146,695 20,699 16,580 109,416 412 550 1885 .. 176, 228 14,036 : 162,192 17,610 121,798 443 590 22,784 24,500 572,539 595,411 615,757 624,086 638,343 647,340 1886 .. 167,667 : 16,635 426 573 1887 .. 187,687 : 18,757 457 604 1888.. 190,681 : 19,066 7,923 15,688 16,598 21,609 28,877 35,610 454 23,093 23,689 26,236 29,270 1889 .. 159,744 171,999 174,083 164,686 194,857 206,513 197,098 ! 186,295 602 563 : 655,799 409 1890 .. 223, 734 : 664,460 483 657 1891 .. 118,609 130,149 131,328 119,822 143,214 156,286 153,834 123,242 144,514 1,563,347 * 242,123 : 521 18,628 22,373 24,212 22,605 16,818 19,059 1892 .. 226,059 28,961 : 26,015 20,659 22,321 24,859 504 671,776 684, 238 703,342 721,189 168,185 : 5,804 689 644 517 585 1893 1894 .. 162,381 393 .. 190,591 2,159 i : 188,432 449 Totals 2,282,726 | 206,642 2,076,084 284,676 228,061 7,794,280 449 597 18 194 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. Turnips and rape form a most important crop in a sheep-breeding country such as New Zealand, and in 1892 the area of land under this crop amounted to no less than 422,359 acres. The returns for 1894 gave only 385,437 acres, while the returns for the present year show 385,788 acres as under this crop. The cost of growing turnips sown broadcast and in drille is: Broadcast—Ploughing, 5s. 6d. per acre; harrowing, 3s. per acre; rolling, Is. per acre; seed and sowing, Is. 6d. per acre: total, lis. per acre. Drill—Ploughing, 5s. 6d.; grubbing, 3s.; harrowing, 3s.; rolling, is.; drilling, 3s. 6d.; hand-hooiug, 10s.; horse-hoeing, 5s.; seed and sowing, 2s. 6d.; manure, 10s. to 15s.: total, £2 3s. 6d. to £2 8s. 6d. 778 acres were under hops in 1895, giving a total produce of 7,556cwt., as against 7,665cwt. from the same number of acres last year. Small as this area is, it is more than sufficient to supply local requirements, as the import of hops in 1894 amounted only to 529cwt., while the export reached 2,048cwt. In 1890 the total quantity used by the breweries in the colony amounted to 3,940cwt. Of the land under hops in 1895, 653 acres were in the Waimea County, and 98 in Collingwood, both in the Provincial District of Nelson. The growing of tobacco does not progress in New Zealand. In 1889, 34 acres were being cultivated; in 1890, 25 acres; in 1891, 16 acres; in 1892, 6 acres; in 1893, 4 acres; in 1894, 4 acres; and in 1895, 5 acres, producing 1,5991b. of dried leaf. The extent of land in garden was 10,263 acres, and in plantations of forest-trees 55,386 acres. There were 21,401 acres in orchard in 1895, an increase of 313 acres on the area so returned in the previous year. The fruit-crop of the colony is supplemented by a considerable import from the Australian Colonies and Fiji. Mr. W. J. Palmer, pomologist, remarks, in regard to the develop- ment of fruit-culture:— The first requisite to successful fruit-growing is that the grower should have a thorough knowledge of the kinds of fruit, and the varieties of those kinds best suited to the soil and climate of the locality in which he is settled. As in this sparsely-peopled and recently occupied country we have not the accumu- lated experience of past generations to guide us, it is obvious we can only obtain the necessary knowledge by experiment, and by experiment on so large a soale and so continuous as to be altogether beyond the means of the individual citizen, and therefore calling for the direct intervention of the State itself. Schools of horticulture, each with its experimental orchard, should be established through- out the colony in localities indicated by its varied climatic conditions. In these schools the lads and young men destined to make a living by fruit-culture could acquire a thorough practical knowledge of the most approved methods of treating the various diseases to which the trees are subject, of the insect and fungoid pests which infest the trees, and the means of successfully combating them. This is secondary only in importance to the actual growing of the fruit, and the proper handling, grading, packing, and preserving the ripe fruit for market. Such an institution, after a few years, would be self-supporting; the necessary labour would be found by the students, who would, of course, have to pay small fees in return for their tuition; and revenue would be derived from the sale of AGRICULTURE. 195 •fruit, and of trees for planting out. In addition, members might be admitted, as in the Royal Horticultural Society of England, by paying an annual subscription, the full value of which they would receive in the newest and most improved varieties of trees and plants, such as they could not procure otherwise, except by the costly process of importing from abroad. Nor would schools of this sort be an innovation in principle, for the State of California, United States of America, already has them in a very complete form; Victoria, New South Wales, and this colony have their experimental farms, and Victoria has her schools of mines and travelling dairy. What these institutions do for the miner, the farmer, and dairyman, the schools of horticulture would do for the fruit-grower; and the objects to be gained by them are at least of equal importance to the State, for Nature has in the most unmistakable manner destined New Zealand to be preeminently a fruit-growing country, by the fer- tility of its soil, its varied temperature, and its unsurpassed climate. Of the extent to which the industry may grow in a very short space of time California affords a striking example, her fruit-production already amounting annually to a value running into millions of pounds sterling; and New Zealand can produce, without artificial aid, almost everything that the former has to raise by the expensive agency of irrigation. New Zealand is essentially suited for grazing purposes. Wherever there is light and moisture, English grasses thrive when the natural bush and fern are cleared off. In fact, the white clover gradually overcomes the fern; and, from the mildness of the winter season, there are few places where there is not some growth, even in the coldest months of the year. In all parts of the colony stock live, although in varying condition, without other food than such as they can pick up. Sown grass land, as might be expected, heads the list of cultivations. In February, 1895, there were 8,829,717 acres under artificial grasses. Of these, 3,908,581 acres had been previously ploughed, presumably under grain or other crops, while 4,921,136 acres had not been ploughed. Much of the latter area was bush- or forest-land, sown down in grass after the timber had been wholly or partially burnt off. Seeds are used much as in Great Britain, the following being a common mixture: Perennial ryegrass, 251b. to 301b. per acre; cocksfoot, 21b.; alsyke, 21b.; timothy, 31b.; cowgrass, 21b.; red clover, 21b.; white clover, 21b.; rape, lib.: total, 391b. to 441b. per acre. Pastures are renewed at intervals or from four to eight years, according to the nature of the land. The following shows the acreage in sown grasses in the Austra- lasian Colonies in 1894 :— Queensland .. .. .. .. .. 18,346 New South Wales .. .. .. .. 302,412 Victoria .. .. .. .. .. 242,762 South Australia .. .. .. .. 26,904 Western Australia (1891) .. .. .. 23,344 Tasmania .. .. .. .. .. 216,296 New Zealand (1894) .. .. .. ..8,698,897 It will be observed that the acreage of land under sown grasses was more than ten times as great in New Zealand as in the whole of Australia and Tasmania. When compared in size with the colonies 196 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. of Australia, New Zealand is relatively small—about one-thirtieth of their total area—but in respect of grazing capabilities the relative importance of this country is much greater. Australia is generally unsuitable, owing to conditions of climate, for the growth of English grasses, and the amount of feed produced by the natural grasses throughout the year is very much less per acre than is obtained from the sown grass lands in New Zealand; indeed, it may be said that the average productiveness of grass land is about nine times as great here as in Australia, or that land in this colony covered with English grasses may be considered equal, for grazing purposes, to an area of Australian land about nine times as great. The total quantity of grass-seed produced was, in 1895, returned at 898,403 bushels: of which 339,509 bushels were cocksfoot, 531,243 bushels ryegrass, and 27,651 bushels other kinds. The value of all the grass-seed is calculated to be about £134,760. The total value of all agricultural produce, &c, for the current year is reckoned at about £3,472,606, made up as follows:— Grain and pulse Root-crops Hops and other crops Hay and green forage (excluding grass) Grass-seed Garden and orchard produce £ 1,224,455 960,980 55,310 545,913 134,760 551,176 Total value of agricultural produce .. £3,472,606 Animals and Produce. Eeturns of sheep are sent in April of each year Department, and cattle are enumerated by the cultural statistics; but returns of other animals when a census is taken. The number of each according to the returns from the European port tion, in the colony, in each of the census years given below :— to the Agricultural collectors of agri- are obtained only kind of live-stock, ion of the popula- 1886 and 1891 is Live-stock. Horses Brood-mares (included in foregoing) .. Asses and mules Cattlo (including calves) Breeding-cows (included in foregoing) .. Milch-cows (also included in breeding-cows) Sheep (including lambs) Breeding-ewes (included in fo: Goats Pigs Poultry Ostriches .. egoing) .. CenBUs, 1891. 211,040 31,276 348 788,919 280,711 206,906 17,865,423 7,371,429 9,055 222,553 1,790,070 179 Census, 1896. 187,382 29,853 297 858,858 279.136 Not specified. 10,564,595 6,457,855 10,220 277,901 1,679,021 LYE STOCK Cattle. 1,007,396 831,831 698,637 436,592 Hulle 193,285 1861 1871 1881 1891 1895 ses 161.736 211,040 81,028 28,276 1861 1871 1881 1891 Sheep. 18,128,186 20,340,625 9,700,620 12,985,085 . *! 188P 1861 TM. Grare delt 1871 1891 1894 i. L ORK ARY, X AND NDATIONS. Tini ANIMALS AND PRODUCE. 197 Cattle Pigs The above statement does not include the live-stock owned by Maoris. A census was taken in 1891 of the Native race, their stock and cultivations, about the time of the general census, but not of so elaborate a character. In this way the following numbers of stock owned by Maoris were ascertained: Sheep, 262,763; cattle, 42,912; pigs, 86,259; no statement of the horses, of which they have many, being given. The full numbers of sheep, cattle, and pigs in the colony were therefore,— .. 18,128,186 831,831 308,812 The number of sheep in the colony on 30th April, 1894, accord- ing to returns made to the Department of Agriculture, was 20,230,829, and it is expected that the tables now being compiled will, when complete, show that the number in April of the present year exceeded twenty-one millions. The flocks of the North Island increased from 4,925,253 sheep in the year 1885 to 9,169,352 in 1894, or at the rate of 46-29 per cent., while sheep in the Middle Island increased only from 9,621,548 to 11,061,477, or 13-02 per cent., in the same period. For the North Island the increase during the ten years was 4,244,099 sheep, and for the Middle Islaud only 1,439,929. Figures for each year are given as illustrative of the remark- able progress of the North Island in comparison with that of the other. Sheep. North Middle Total.* Island. Island. 1885 . 4,925,253 9,621,548 14,546,801 1886 . 5,285,907 9,888,356 15,174,263 1887 . 5,506,485 9,649,141 15,155,626 1888 . 5,668,996 9,373,202 15,042,198 1889 . 5,990,244 9,433,084 15,423,328 1890 . 6,588,346 9,527,767 16,116,113 1891 . 7,159,927 9,593,825 16,753,752 1892 . 8,204,029 10,366,723 18,570,752 1893 . 8,685,361 10,695,008 19,380,369 1894 . 9,169,352 11,061,477 20,230,829 It has been estimated that the annual consumption of mutton in New Zealand is equivalent to 2-25 sheep per inhabitant, and that the number of sheep required in the present year for food will be about 1,653,750. (Maoris, for the purposes of this calculation, have been included.) Two important advantages that sheep-farming has in New Zea- land are mentioned by Mr. j. A. Johnstone in the Year-book for 1894. They are: (1) the low cost of the production of mutton, (2) the high percentage of natural increase. Eespecting the first point, it has been proved beyond all doubt that, under ordinary conditions, the * Excluding sheep on the Chatham Islands, which, at the census of 1891, numbered 75,679. If these be added the number in 1894 would be '20.306,508. 198 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. very choicest of mutton can be so produced as to pay the grower handsomely when sold at 2d. per pound for the carcase at the nearest shipping-port. To the British sheep-fanner this statement, of course, is valueless by itself; but, when we add that this mutton would cost the London butcher, delivered ex steamer at the dock, only 3£d. per pound, he will be able to realise in some measure what a wonderful grazing-country New Zealand is, and to under- stand how it is that settler3 of the right stamp have done so well. Then, with regard to the high percentage of increase, there need only be cited a few average returns from well-known flocks to show what excellent lambings New Zealand farmers obtain under good management. Lambing Returns.—Averages. Locality. Breed of Flock. North Island .. Lincoln „ .. ! Romney . .. | Lincoln Middle Island.. Merino Cross-bred Half-bred B. Leic'str Lincoln R. Marsh E. Leic'str Shropsh're Southd'n Breed of Hauls. Lincoln Romney Southd'n Merino B. Leic'str Breed of Ewes. Lincoln J Lincoln Romney Lincoln Merino » j Cross-bred i Half-bred i B. Leic'str Lincoln Lincoln R. Marsh I R. Marsh E.Leic'str E. Leic'str Shropsh're Shropsh're Southd'n Southd'n Land merely surface - sown in English- grass pas- ture. Mountainous country in n'tivepast're, unimproved. In English- grass pasture. The above returns are fair average ones, but much higher might have been shown if exceptional cases had been selected. As showing the actual cost of managing two large estates in New Zealand (Middle Island), No. 1 carrying 20,000 cross-bred sheep, and No. 2 carrying 40,000, the subjoined table may prove interesting :— Cost of shearing, including scouring and putting wool f.o.b. .. Management, shepherding, dipping, &c. Cost of providing special feed (turnips, green feed, chaff, .. 13,457 2035 200 0-39 The general results shown in the above table are borne out in a most satisfactory manner by the statistics relating to prisoners in BUMMABY CONVICTIONS. 215 gaol (see post, p. 217),ywhich also show a marked decrease in crime during the five years. I • The summary convictions in 1893 numbered 13,710, including 253 Maoris. 520 persons were committed for trial at the Supreme and District Courts, an increase of 154 on the number committed in 1892. "The Justice of the Peace Act, 1882," provides that sundry in- dictable offences may with the consent of the accused be summarily dealt with by Magistrates. The increasing use of this provision may have affected the number of convictions in the higher Courts shown in the six-year table. Including 12 Maoris, the convictions in the superior Courts numbered 272. The number of summary convictions in the various Magistrates' Courts for certain of the most common offences in each of the past six years, together with the proportion per 1,000 of the mean popu- lation (excluding Maoris) is given herewith :— Summary Convictions. Numbers. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 189-2. 1893 633 636 705 675 656 670 971 1,085 905 934 904 978 ,402 5,152 5,677 5,118 5,055 5,048 Assaults Larceny * Drunkenness Proportions per 1,000 of the Population. 1888. 1889. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893 Assaults .. .. .. 105 104 114 107 1-02 101 Larceny* .. .. 160 177 1-45 1-48 141 1-48 Drunkenness .. .. 892 839 914 8-13 7-87 7-63 The proportion of assaults for 1893 is found to be less than for any one of the previous five years. In the year 1887 it was as high as 1-23 per 1,000. During the four years 1890-93 the proportion of larcenies remained almost without change. The record of drunken- ness shows a falling rate for the four years 1890-93. It would seem that the rates given for 1888-89 are incorrect, as they were worked upon an estimate of population which the census of 1891 proves to have been exaggerated. Could the true figures be ascer- tained they might possibly show a steady decline throughout the period under review. The range for eight years is from 1028 per 1,000 persons in 1886 to 763 in 1893. To judge by the consumption of beer, wine, and spirits in the period 1884-1893, there has been a considerable falling-off during the last ten years in the use of alcoholic liquors in this colony. » Including embezzlement, receiving, and false pretencos. 216 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Consumption op Beer, Wine, and Spirits per Head of Population (excluding Maoris). Beer. Wine. Spirits. Gal. l.ul. Gal. 1884 .. .. .. 8-769 0272 0-999 1885 .. .. .. 8-414 0-261 0-899 1886 .. .. .. 7-861 0-212 0820 1887 .. .. .. 7-651 0-198 0-770 1898 .. .. .. 7-183 0-167 0820 1889 .. .. .. 7-624 0-176 0-598 1890 .. .. .. 7-899 0-184 0693 1891 .. .. .. 7-646 0172 0699 1892 .. .. .. 7-807 0174 0708 1893 .. .. .. 7-716 0-170 0697 At the same time a ness shows that excess comparison of the convictions for drunken- ve drinking was not so prevalent in 1893 as it was ten years previously. The prison statistics are here of great value, as showing for several years back the number of distinct prisoners received into gaol after being convicted of drunkenness. The figures for the years 1885-93 are as follow (readmissions of^ the same person not counted) :— Distinct Prisoners Convicted of Drunkenness received into Gaol. 1885 .. .. .. .. .. .. 1,200 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1,077 1,038 938 BOS SOS 694 (538 619 Here the decrease proceeds rapidly and almost uniformly from year to year. It is true that the option of a fine is generally given to a person convicted of drunkenness, but there is nothing to show that the proportion of fines for this offence has increased of late, so that a fall in the number of distinct persons imprisoned may fairly be accepted as evidence of growing sobriety among the people. In New South Wales and Victoria the consumption per head of alcoholic liquors is much greater than it is here. The figures are,— Beer. Dal. Wine. Gal. Spirit Gal. 1936 1-01 112 10-91 086 100 Victoria New South Wales In each of these colonies, as also in Queensland and South Australia, arrests for drunkenness are, in proportion to population, far more numerous than in New Zealand. The order of the colonies in this respect is as under:— ABRESTS, ETC. 217 Arrests, etc., for Drunkenness in Proportion to Population. New South Wales .. .. .. 1930 per 1,000 Victoria .. .. .. .. 1574 » Queensland .. .. .. .. 13-68 South Australia .. .. .. .. 941 » New Zealand .. .. .. .. 8-55 » Tasmania .. .. .. .. 7'70 „ The Native population of the colony may be regarded as sta- tionary, and a comparison of the numbers of summary convictions by the higher and lower Courts for the last ten years seems to lead to the conclusion that crime amongst the Maoris is not increasing. The figures, especially those relating to the convictions by the superior Courts, though small, are considered sufficient to justify this inference:— Summary Convictions of Maoris. Tear. Number. Year. Number. 1884 HCO-f (O CO uO Q ■ — - © o O f-i © o < > G>H COGOC 5 o "-" iO iO O) 'f ) o h a> «o b: > 2 fh oc co o c ) © L— tO © © < ) 00 lO CM © < "* Htft( 00 © < * 5"= <3 "- © -A ~2 =§ oo b| -■ - s S =.= ■a =- 11 ii i r - -- - - - !j S| II 5 i = - ■- * "'- lis .2-S>aa«pa a? o o o o.« * 5*: 31 • 3." LOCAL GOVERNING BODIES. 23T c a a > a; J3 r. -j o S s- fc o B & H c- t- =1 O K o I 0) '- > a 0 o O Pi ;c .a X -^ c c S) O. a > '/■■ a - o O a i-3 aj a 4) O «d °* 2 2 *""' n ** o ~ >- (M o 08 ji-< t-M'V H3 . *•' ~ oo~ ~ err 8 «S S"1" <*"' o « o ** 2 a M Ol CI t- o t- c- oo 3-. si oo 0 O Ol O '•O Cl ■* in L- * I'd : : :t3 :« ■ a ■ ■ & i '* * ■ • a ■ tJ ■ © :: b s ~ ~ o a 11 a - ® c * i 2 " 7- s 3 c © ;-; »- J "3 ■: xlfl.,2 i5: : to . 0 o •x o < 3 « o u i 1 > „ fc «o * :S 1 1 "3 "■■ £ a ^ a ♦* u »— o*" * as . o * * > _ a <& c,— c a" =s --■-2?'::- a ,a "5 3 :^_ £ — "3 *• h a »- a a-c f- 0 jj« - t^'C if J-« 3 3 tf- w * o-a >»x"*ia s s*j P'A&;. rs « fU l 2d 40 10 5 20 Totals .. .. 1,719 672,531t 391 The annual fees paid for licenses are— (1.) For a publicans' license £' (a.) Within the limits ot a borough or town distict .. (b.) Outside the aforesaid limits .. (2.) For a New Zealand wine license (3.) For an accommodation license, a sum to be determined by the Licensing Committee, not exceeding (4.) For a bottle license (5.) For a packet license— (a.) For a vessel exceeding 50 tons register.. (6.) For a vessel not exceeding 50 tons register (G.) For a wholesale license .. (7.) For a conditional license, according to duration of license, a sum not exceeding .. .. .. .. ..30 Local-option Poll. Under "The Alcoholic Liquors Sale Control Act, 1893," each electoral district constituted for the election of a member of the House of Eepresentatives is a licensing district, and the electors for the House of Eepresentatives are also electors under the Licensing Acts. The local-option poll is taken at the same time as the election of the Licensing Committee, and the questions for the decision of the voters as regards publicans', accommodation, and bottle license respectively are— (1.) Whether the present number of licenses is to continue. (2.) Whether the number is to be reduced. (3.) Whether any licenses whatever are to be granted. The first and second questions are decided in the affirmative by an absolute majority of the votes recorded, but to carry prohibition three-fifths of the total votes recorded must be given against granting any licenses. When prohibition is not carried, the votes in its favour are to be credited in favour of reduction. These results are, however, subject to the condition that at least half the voters on the roll record their votes. Should such not be the case the poll is void and matters are to continue as they were. * I.e., houses holding publicans' or accommodation licenses. i Excluding (4.218) population on shipboard ami adjacent islands. t Between the hours of six in the morning and ten at night. For an eleven o'clock license an additional £.> must be paid. LOCAL-OPTION POLL. 247 A Bill now before Parliament will, if passed, probably modify the questions to be submitted to the electors for decision. For the local-option poll taken in March, 1894, it was found impossible to obtain strictly accurate returns of the results of the elections and polls from all the returning-offices, but the following table is substantially correct:— Number of electors on the rolls" .. .. .. 248,194 Number of men who voted at election of Committees.. 71, 763 , women who voted at election of Committees 45,022 Total number of voters .. .. 116,785 Number of men who voted at local-option poll .. 74,372 , women who voted at local-option poll .. 47,862 Total number of voters .. .. 122,234 Number of districts in which the poll was declared void.. .. .. 33 Number of districts in favour of reduction .. .. 14 , „ no alteration .. 12 » „ no licenses.. .. 1 . in which no proposal was carried.. 2 Total number of districts .. .. 62 Clutha is the one district which carried prohibition. Publicans' Licenses. Number of votes in favour of continuance of present number .. .. .. .. .. 42,429 Number of votes in favour of a reduction .. .. 16,096 „ „ no licenses .. .. 48,993 Total .. .. .. .. 107,518 Accommodation Licenses. Number of votes in favour of continuance of present number .. .. .. .. .. 31,342 Number of votes in favour of reduction of present number .. .. .. .. .. 9,823 Number of votes in favour of no accommodation licenses .. .. .. .. .. 35,412 Total .. .. .. .. 76,607 Fire-Brigades. On the 31st December, 1894, there were 80 fire-brigades in the colony, with a total strength of 1,473 (235 officers and 1,238 men). Compared with the numbers in 1893, these figures show an increase of 6 brigades, 21 officers, and 89 men. Of the 80 brigades now existing, 61 belong to the United Fire-brigades Association of New Zealand, which has a membership of about 1,300. 'Many had been struck off for not voting at the recent general election for Parliament. 248 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL TEAR-BOOK. The sixteenth annual meeting of the association, at which 52 brigades were represented, was held at Hokitika on the 12th March, 1895, the balance-sheet showing a credit balance of £345. An Accident Assurance Society, registered under the Friendly Societies Act, has been established in connection with the associa- tion, which provides for an allowance of 30s. per week if a member be incapacitated from following his usual employment by accident happening to him whilst on duty as a fireman, and for payment of £50 if he be totally disabled or killed. At the third annual meeting of delegates held on the 12th March last, the report showed that the receipts for contributions and interest amounted to £98 18s. 10d., and the claims paid for accidents during the year were four, the benefits amounting to £24. The total number of members belonging to the society is 502, and there is a cash balance of £288 5s. The "Fire and Ambulance Record," a paper devoted to fire- brigade matters, is published monthly at Napier, and is the official organ of the New Zealand Fire-brigades Association. Co-operative Public Works. Remarks on the co-operative system of constructing public works were given in a special article in the Year-book of 1894. The numbers of workmen employed in this manner under Govern- ment departments during the first seven months of the year 1895 were :— Total. 2,010 2,272 2,237 2,196 2,300 2,486 2,539 Public Works Survey State Farm Department. Department. Levin. January 848 1,188 24 February 863 1,384 25 March 893 1,317 27 April 883 1,270 ST May 875 1,385 10 June 881 1,559 u; July.. 80o 1,686 17 PART III.-ARTICLES ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS. SECTION I. THE LAND SYSTEM OF NEW ZEALAND. By S. Percy Smith, F.R.G.S., Secretary for Crown Lands and Surveyor- General. The Crown lands of New Zealand are administered under "The Land Act. 1892," and the regulations made thereunder. The distinguishing features of the present land system are the outcome of ideas which have been gradually coming to maturity for some years past in this colony. These features involve the principle of State-ownership of the soil, with a perpetual tenancy in the occu- pier. This, whatever may be the difference in detail, is the pre- vailing characteristic of the several systems under which land may now be selected. In New Zealand, this tendency to State-owner- ship has taken a more pronounced form than in any other of the Australasian Colonies, and the duration of the leases has become so extended as to warrant the name, frequently given to them, of "everlasting leases." In point of fact, most of the Crown lands are now disposed of for terms of 999 years. The rentals are based on the assessed value of the land at the time of disposal, without increase or recurring valuations. Under this system there is a fixity of tenure practically equal to freehold, and which, like freehold, necessarily carries with it the power of sale, sub-lease, mortgage, or disposition by will. Since all lands held under the Crown "by lease in perpetuity" are subject to the land-tax, the necessity for the periodical revalua- tions under the perpetual-lease system is done away with, the State reaping the advantage of the unearned increment through the before- mentioned tax. At the same time the improvements made in the soil by cultivation, &c, are secured to the tenant. The advantages of this system to the selector are manifest. When it is taken into consideration that, with few exceptions, the Crown lands are, in their prairie condition, incapable of producing anything until brought into cultivation, the advantage to the settler of setting free his capital to develop the capabilities of the soil, rather than having to expend it in the purchase of a freehold, is very apparent. One of the most striking benefits of this system is the advantage it gives to the poor man, who, with little more capital 250 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. than his strong right arm, is enabled to make a home for him- self; which, under the freehold system, he is frequently unable to accomplish. The values placed on the Crown lands are, as a rule, low, for the State does not so much seek to raise a revenue directly there- from as to encourage the occupation of the lands by the people; this secures indirectly an increased revenue, besides other advantages, resulting from a numerous rural population. Again, underlying the whole of the New Zealand land system is ft, further application of the principle of "the land for the people," viz.: the restriction in area which any man may hold. This subject has been forced upon the attention of the Legislature by defects in former systems, under which one individual with means at his command could appropriate large areas, to the exclusion of his poorer fellow-settler. Under conditions where the price at which the land is offered is fixed, and where choice of selection is by ballot, the poor settler has the same chance as the rich one, and may, should he wish it, hold as much land. The limit that a selector may hold is so fixed as to encourage the class of small farmers, and up to that limit the amount he may select is left entirely to himself. The Act defines the amount of land any one may select at 640 acres of first- class, or 2,000 acres of second-class land, inclusive of any land he may already hold. These limits apply to lands which are thrown open for " free selection," as it is termed, but in some cases, where found desirable, the limit is by regulation made much smaller. In addition to the many advantages offered by the "lease-in- perpetuity" system, the Land Act provides others, to meet the wants of different classes. The rule is almost invariable, that laud thrown open for so-called "free selection" is offered to the public under three different tenures, and the choice left entirely to the would-be settler. The three tenures are :— (1.) For cash, in which one-fourth of the purchase-money is paid down at once, and the remainder within thirty days. The title does not issue until certain improve- ments have been made on the land. (2.) Lease with a purchasing clause, at a 5-per-cent. rental on the value of the land; the lease being for twenty-five years with the right to purchase at the original upset price at any time after the first ten years. (3.) Lease in perpetuity, at a rental of 4 per cent, on the capital value, as already described above. The present land-laws have been in force since the 1st November, 1892, and, therefore, the returns of the Department of Lands and Survey for the year ending the 31st March, 1895, will give a fair idea of the proportions in which lands are selected under the three tenures above described during the past two and a half years. The figures given below include the " special settlements," all of which must by law be held on lease in perpetuity :— 1. Selected for cash, 1,542; area, 110,570 acres. THE LAND SYSTEM OF NEW ZEALAND. 251 2. Occupation with right of purchase, 1,060; area, 236,270^ acres. 3. Lease in perpetuity, 3,224; area, 634,086 acres. "The Land Act, 1892," provides for a special class of settlement which has found favour with the public to a very considerable extent during the last two years. This is known as the " small- farm association" system. It provides that, where not less than twelve individuals have associated themselves together for mutual help, such an association can, with the approval of the Minister of Lands, select a block of land of not more than 11,000 acres, but there must be a selector to each 200 acres in the block. The ex- treme limit that one person may hold is fixed at 320 acres. Settle- ments of this class are held on "lease in perpetuity " for 999 years, in the same way as lands under the same tenure when thrown open for free selection. The conditions of residence and improvement are the same. The system offers many advantages to the settler, so long as the blocks of land are judiciously chosen, having regard to quality of land, access, markets, and the probability of employment being obtained in the neighbourhood. In the eagerness to obtain lands on such easy terms, these points have, in the past, not received sufficient attention by some of the associations, and in consequence their success remains to be proved. The following figures show the extent to which settlers have availed themselves of this class of settlement during the three years ending the 31st March, 1895; the figures represent approved appli- cations only: 1,390 selectors have taken up 277,579 acres, in various parts of the colony, but principally in the Wellington district. The " village settlement system " of New Zealand has become widely known in the Australian Colonies, and has excited much inquiry with a view to its adoption in other parts. It is believed, however, that this, and the "small-farm association" settlements re- ferred to above, are often confounded in the minds of the public, for of recent years there has been no very great extension of village- settlements in this colony. (For details, see Mr. March's article, post.) Tha system was initiated in 1886 by the late Hon. John Ballance, with the intention of assisting the poorer classes to settle on the land. It became immediately very popular, and by its means a considerable number of people were settled on the land, who might otherwise never have become landholders. The features of the sys- tem were, originally, the possession of a small farm, not exceeding 50 acres in extent, held under a perpetual lease for terms of thirty years, with recurring valuations at the end of each term. The rental was 5 per cent, on a capital value of not less than £1 an acre. Residence and improvement of the soil were compulsory. The new and important feature in the village-settlement scheme, how- ever, was the advance by the State of a sum not exceeding £2 10s. per acre, up to 20 acres, for the purpose of enabling the settler to cultivate the land, and of a further sum not exceeding £20 to build a house with, on which he paid interest at the rate of 5 per 252 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. cent. Road-works were also very frequently undertaken in the neighbourhood of these settlements, and have been of very great help to the settlers. Under this system a number of settlements were formed, and, where the sites were chosen judiciously, a large mea- sure of success has resulted therefrom. The present law admits of similar village settlements, but the area which a selector may hold has been increased to 100 acres, and the tenure changed to a "lease in perpetuity" for 999 years, on a 4-per-cent. rental. Advances for clearing and house-building have, however, practically ceased, and, indeed, few settlements have lately been started, one of the principal reasons being the dearth of suitable lands on which to plant them. Crown lands adapted to the special features of " village settlements " are scarce. A modification of the system has been introduced, however, which, so far as can be judged at present, will eventually, to a considerable extent, take its place. In order to find work for the unemployed, considerable areas of forest-clad Crown lands have been set aside, and small contracts for the clearing, burning, and sowing these with grass have been let. The intention is to sub- divide all these areas into small farms, to be let on " lease in per- petuity," at a rental sufficient to cover the cost of clearing, &c, together with a fair rental of the land. Up to the 31st March, 1895, eighteen settlements have been allocated, covering an area of 21,202 acres, situated in various parts of the colony. At that date 193 settlers had been allotted sections, and they had felled 4,048 acres of bush, and grassed 1,469 acres. The amount paid to the settlers up the 31st March was £5,698, and the value of improve- ments on the land (including the Government advances) was £6,964. The size of holdings averages about 100 acres. With respect to other methods of dealing with the Crown estate, the " Digest of the Land-laws" appended hereto will give sufficient particulars The Land fob Settlements Acts, 1892 and 1894. Allusion has already been made to the dearth of Crown lands suitable for small settlements in localities where they are most needed, i.e., in settled districts, where the lands are frequently held in large estates, whose owners employ a good deal of labour. Not only is this the case in many parts of the colony, but there is also a want of land where the sons of settlers can obtain farms, not far from the homes of their parents. To meet this want the Hon. J. McKenzie, the present Minister of Lands, introduced into the Legislature in the session of 1892 a Bill intituled "The Land for Settlements Act," which authorised the purchase from private individuals of suitable properties for subdivision into small farms not exceeding 320 acres in extent. Under the provisions of this Act several properties have been acquired, and subsequently divided into small farms and leased in perpetuity at a 5-per-cent, rental, on a capital value fixed at a sufficient rate to cover first 254 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. in South Australia, paid an official and special visit to New Zealand, the object being, as stated in his report, " to inquire into the working of the village-homestead special settlements, concerning which so many conflicting statements had been made in South Australia." Again, at the end of 1893, the Hon. Mr. Mclntyre, Commis- sioner of Crown Lands, Victoria, paid an official visit to this colony for the purpose of "inquiring into the system of land settlement, and inspecting the village settlements." In his report, dated Melbourne, 19th February, 1894, the Hon. Mr. Mclntyre says: "From my personal observation, and from the information I was enabled to obtain through the documents placed at my disposal, I think I am perfectly justified in stating that the success of the village-settlement movement in New Zealand has been proved. It has got beyond the experimental stage; and the system, if I mistake not, is firmly grafted on the land-policy of that country. Any apprehensions which I may have entertained of the ultimate success of our Victorian village settlements have entirely disappeared in the light of the experience gained in New Zealand." The plan of forming village settlements was first commenced in the Provincial District of Canterbury by the Hon. Mr. Rolleston. It was on a small scale, but it worked admirably. In 1874 and 1875, there was a difficulty in finding quarters or employment for immi- grants, who had arrived in Canterbury in considerable numbers, and it was decided to try the experiment of settling them on the land in districts where they were likely to obtain work. The course adopted was briefly as follows: On the line of railway, or adjacent thereto, as at Eakaia, Orari, and Arowhenua, blocks of Government land were laid off into sections, varying in area from one quarter to five acres. Assistance was given to the extent of £10 towards the erection of a small hut or cottage. The terms of occupation were as follows: For the first year, rent free; and for the second and third years, a rental of 2s. per week was charged, to recoup the Treasury the amount advanced. In the formation of some of these settlements, notably at Geral- dine, Timaru, and Waimate, the idea was not to permanently locate the immigrants, on whose behalf the plan had been adopted, but merely allow them to occupy the land temporarily; and it was considered that in three years they would be enabled to find situations or places elsewhere. All traces of the settlements formed in the localities named have long since disappeared. The land comprised in the village settlements formed at Eakaia, Arowhenua, Beaconsfield, and other districts in Canterbury, was sold to the original settlers on the deferred-payment system. From 1876 to 1886, a period of ten years, very little was done in extending the system, but in the latter year the late Hon. Mr. Ballance, then Minister of Lands, introduced regulations for the formation of village-homestead special settlements. These were of a liberal character; and the assistance granted by way of loans for dwelling-houses, bush-felling, grassing, &c, enabled an industrious VILLAGE HOMESTEAD SETTLEMENTS. 255 man to make and establish a comfortable home, while he was precluded from parting with the freehold. A large number of settlements were thus formed, and, generally speaking, the settlers and their families have comfortable homes, and look healthy and contented; the financial results prove con- clusively that the settlements are successful. During the period from October, 1887, to January, 1891, no new village-homestead settlements were formed; on the contrary, it was decided early in 1888 to withdraw all the unselected sections in the settlements already formed from occupation under that system, and to open the land under ordinary conditions of settlement—namely, for cash, deferred payment, or perpetual lease. The original system was again introduced by the Hon. Mr. McKenzie, Minister of Lands, in March, 1891, with a modification in the amount to be advanced, which was limited to a sum not ex- ceeding £10, to assist a selector in the erection of a dwelling-house on his section. Considerable progress has been made under the ordinary village system of land settlement, and during the past year 295 new selectors have taken up sections of land, representing an area in the aggregate of 7,616 acres. No monetary advances, however, have been made in these cases. Without doubt the system is one which fosters a spirit of independence, and habits of industry and self-help. It has had a most beneficial effect in the colony, having been the means of pro- viding settled and comfortable homes for many people, who pre- viously found that rent and the cost of living absorbed all their earnings. The success, however, is best shown by the financial results. During the past year twenty-four new settlements have been formed —namely, seven in the North Island, and seventeen in the Middle Island. Two hundred and ninety-five new selectors have taken up sections of land representing, in the aggregate, 7,616 acres. The position of these settlements on the 31st March, 1895, was as under:—■ Number of settlements in the colony ... ... 144 Number settled on the land, including wives and families ... ... ... ... 4,561 Area occupied (acres) ... ... ... 33,804 Amount advanced for cottages, bush-felling and clearing ... ... ... ... £25,778 Amount paid by settlers as rent and interest from the commencement of the system ... £17,620 Value of improvements now on the land ... £92,834 And if the amount advanced is deducted, there remains as representing the value of the work done by the settlers ... ... ... £67,056 These figures prove conclusively that the system is one to encourage and extend. 256 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAK-BOOK. Purchase of Native Lands by Govehnment. From about the year 1823 (which is the date of the first recorded deed), until the 6th February, 1840, the date of the Treaty of Waitangi, lands in New Zealand were acquired by direct pur- chase from the Maoris by individual members of the white races. During the years 1837 to 1839, or about the time that it became probable that the sovereignty of the islands would be assumed by the Queen, the greater number of these purchases were made, and they extended to most parts of the country. These purchases are technically known as "the Old Land Claims," and their total number (including pre-emptive claims), as estimated by Commis- sioner F. Dillon Bell in 1862, was 1,376, covering an area of about 10,322,453 acres, om of which large area grants were recommended for 292,475 acres. These figures have been slightly added to since, but not to any very large extent. The large area shown above was reduced on survey to about 474,000 acres, situated principally to the north of Auckland. The difference between the amount granted and the total area surveyed became what are termed "surplus lands of the Crown." It was held that the Native title had been fully ex- tinguished over the whole area surveyed; but, as by statute the claimants could only be granted 2,560 acres each, the balance be- came vested in the Crown on the assumption of the sovereignty, owing to the Native title having been fully extinguished. In manj' cases the titles did not issue to those to whom the land was awarded, as they were compensated by scrip issued by the Government, with the understanding that such scrip was to be exercised in the purchase of Crown lands in the neighbourhood of Auckland, to which place it was desirable—so soon as the capital was founded—to draw a population. The lands thus paid for in scrip became Crown lands, and these, together with the surplus lands, have from time to time been disposed of and settled on. The amount of scrip, &c, issued up to 1862 was over £109,000. On the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi on the 6th February, 1840, the pre-emptive right of purchase from the Maoris was ceded to the Queen, and consequently private purchase ceased. This re- mained the law until the passing of "The Native Land Act, 1862," when the Crown relinquished its right of pre-emption, whilst at the same time the purchase of Native lands for the Crown did not abate, but continued side by side with the private purchases up to the passing of " The Native Land Court Act, 1894." From time to time since 1840 various sums were appropriated by Government or by Parliament for the acquisition of a Crown estate. Up to the date of passing of "The Native Land Act, 1862," these operations were conducted by officers of the Government specially appointed, who, from a knowledge of the Maoris, their customs and disposition, were successful in securing large areas of land for settlement. It must be conceded that their operations as a whole were successful, and that the number of disputed cases DIGEST OF THE LAND-LAWS. 257 arising out of their labours was exceedingly small. The Waitara purchase is, however, here excluded, for there were reasons of general policy affecting that sale which did not prevail in other cases. This purchase was the ostensible cause of the war of 1860 and following years, but the motives which led to it were far deeper than the mere purchase of a few acres—there was a great principle at stake. The difference effected in the mode of purchase by " The Native Land Act, 1862," was this: Previously, the title of the Maoris who were to receive payment for the land was decided by the Land Purchase officers; but the Act quoted set up a Court, presided over by able Judges, who determined the titles, which were afterwards registered in a special Court. Purchases have since been effected with the registered owners. It is difficult to obtain figures showing the actual area acquired by the Crown from the Maoris up to 1870, but in round numbers it was 6,000,000 acres in the North Island; whilst the whole of the Middle Island, with the exception of reserves for the original Native owners, was acquired prior to the passing of "The Native Lands Act, 1862." Stewart Island was purchased from the Native owners by deed dated 29th June, 1864. The Native rebellion of 1860-69 brought Native land purchases, for the time being, practically to a standstill. The Immigration and Public Works Acts of 1870 and 1873 appropriated £200,000 and £500,000, respectively, for the purchase of lands in the North Island; and these amounts have, up to the 31st of March, 1895, been augmented by further annual appropriations from the public funds and other loan moneys, covering altogether a total expenditure since 1870 of £1,497,422, with the following results: Area finally acquired in the North Island from Natives, from 1870 to 31st March, 1895, 5,958,415 acres. Area under negotiation in the North Island on 31st March, 1895, 2,030,199 acres; interests therein finally acquired, 561,423 acres. Digest of the Land-Laws. A dmin istra Hon. The Crown lands are administered, under the authority of "The Land Act, 1892," by the Hon. the Minister of Lands at Wellington. For convenience the colony is divided into ten land districts, each being under the local direction of a Commissioner and a Land Board. The Commissioner's office is known as the principal land office, and in some of the larger districts there are one or more sub-offices. It is with these land offices the selector has to transact all business, from the first consultation of the maps to the final receipt of the Crown title. Land Districts and Principal Land Offices. The names of the land districts and of the towns where each principal office is situated are, beginning with the most northerly and taking them geographically, as under:— 17 258 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Land District. Auckland Taranaki Hawke's Bay Wellington Nelson Town where Principal Land Office is situated. Auckland. New Plymouth. Napier. Wellington. Nelson. Land District. Marlborough Westland Canterbury Otago Southland Town where Principal Land Office is situated. Blenheim. Hokitika. Christchurch. Dunedin. Invercargill. Classification of Lands, £c. Crown lands are divided into three classes:— (1.) Town and village lands, the upset prices of which are, respectively, not less than £20 and £3 per acre; such lands are sold by auction: (2.) Suburban lands, the upset price of which may not be less than £2 an acre; these lands are also sold at auction: (3.) Rural lands, which may be disposed of at not less than £1 per acre for first-class, and 5s. an acre for second-class lands ; such lands may be sold or leased by auction, or sold or leased on application. No rural section may be larger than 640 acres in extent if first- class land, or 2,000 acres if second-class land, whether offered by auction or application. No person can select more than 640 acres of first-class or 2,000 acres of second-class land, including therein any land which he then holds. Pastoral runs are limited to areas which will carry 20,000 sheep or 4,000 cattle. No person can select more than one run. Mode of acquiring Grown Lands. Crown lands may be acquired as follows :— (1.) By auction, after survey, in which case one-fifth of the price is paid down at the time of sale, the balance within thirty days: (2.) By application, after the lands have been notified as open for selection, in which case the applicant fills up a form (to be obtained at any of the Land Offices) and makes the declaration and deposit required by the particular system he wishes to select under. All applications, whether for surveyed or unsurveyed lands, are deemed to be simultaneous if made on the same day, and, if there be more than one applicant for the same land, the right of selection is determined by ballot. Lands thrown open for application may be either surveyed or unsurveyed, and those not selected the first day remain open. The Optional System of Selection. Lands for selection are notified as open for application on and after a stated day, and, at the option of the applicant, may be obtained on any of the three following tenures: (a) Cash; (b) Oc- cupation with the right of purchase; (c) Lease in perpetuity. DIGEST OF THE LAND-LAWS. 259 (a.) Cash. If the land is surveyed, one-fifth of the price is to be paid down at the time of application, and the balance within thirty days; or, if the land is not completely surveyed, the survey-fee is paid on application, and goes towards the purchase of the land; the balance must be paid within thirty days of notice that the survey is com- pleted. A certificate of occupation will issue to the purchaser on final payment, which will be exchanged for a Crown title so soon as the Board is satisfied that the improvements mentioned below have been completed. (b.) Occupation with Right of Purchase. Lands selected on this tenure are held under a license for twenty-five years. At any time subsequent to the first ten years, and after having resided and made the improvements hereinafter de- scribed, the licensee can, on payment of the upset price of the land, acquire the freehold. If the land be not purchased the license may be exchanged for a lease in perpetuity. The rent is 5 per cent, on the cash price of the land; a half- year's rent has to be paid in with the application, if surveyed land, which represents the half-year's rent due in advance on the 1st day of January or July following the selection. If the land is unsurveyed, the cost of survey is to be deposited, and is credited to the selector as so much rent paid in advance, counted from the 1st day of January or July following thirty days' notice of the completion of survey. Residence and improvement of the land are compulsory, as hereinafter described. (c.) Leases in Perpetuity. Lands selected on this tenure are leased for 999 years, subject to the conditions of residence and improvements described below. The rental is 4 per cent, on the cash price of the land, and applica- tions are dealt with in the same way as under the previous tenure (b), but there is at no time a right of purchase. Two or more persons may make a joint application to hold as tenants in common under either of the two last-named tenures. Residence and Improvements. Under the two last-mentioned tenures, the conditions as to xesidence and improvements are: Residence— (1.) Must commence on bush or swamp lands within four years, and in open or partly open land within one year, from the date of selection; (2.) Must be continuous for six years on bush or swamp land, and for seven years on open or partly open land, on lands occupied with a right of purchase; (3.) Must be continuous for a term of ten years on lease-in- perpetuity lands. 260 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. The Board has power to dispense with residence in certain cases, such as -where the selector is residing on adjacent lands, or is a youth or unmarried woman living with parents, and in a few other cases. Residence implies the erection of a habitable house to be approved of by the Board. Improvements which must be made are as follows:— (1.) Cash-tenure lands must be improved within seven years to an amount of £1 an acre for first-class land, and 10s. an acre for second-class land. (2.) Lands held on lease with right of purchase, or on lease in perpetuity, must be improved to an amount equal to 10 per cent, of the value of the land within one year from the date of the license or lease; within two years must be improved to the amount of another 10 per cent.; within six years must be improved to the value of another 10 per cent., making 30 per cent, in all within the six years. In addition to the above, the land must be further improved to an amount of £1 an acre for first- class land, and on second-class land to an amount equal to the net price of the land, but not more than 10s. an acre. Improvements may consist of reclamation from swamps, clearing of bush, planting with trees or hedges, cultivation of gardens, fencing, draining, making roads, wells, water-tanks, water-races, sheep-dips, embankments or protective-works, or in any way improving the character or fertility of the soil; or the erection of any building, &c.; and cultivation includes the clearing of land for cropping, or clearing and ploughing for laying down with artificial grasses, &c. Special-settlement Associations. Under the existing regulations any number of persons, not less than twelve, may apply for a block of land of not less than 1,000 acres or more than 11,000 acres in extent, but the number of mem- bers must be such that there shall be one for every two hundred acres in the block, and no one can hold more than 320 acres, except in swamp lands, where the area may be 500 acres. The capital value of lands within a special settlement is fixed after survey by special valuation, but may not be less than 10s. an acre; the rental is not less than 4 per cent, on the capital value, and the tenure is a lease in perpetuity. Residence, occupation, and improvements are generally the same as already described, and applications have to be made in manner prescribed by regulations. Applicants should apply to a Commissioner for a copy of the regulations, as they are liable to change at any time. DIGEST OF THE LAND-LAWS. 261 Village Settlements. Village settlements are disposed of under regulations made from time to time by the Governor, but the main features are as fol- lows :— Such settlements may be divided into,— (1.) Village allotments not exceeding one acre each, which are disposed of either by auction among the applicants, or by application as already described, with option of tenure, the cash price being not less than £3 per allotment: (2.) Homestead allotments not exceeding 100 acres each, which are leased in perpetuity at a 4-per-cent. rental on a capital value of not less than 10s. per acre. Residence, improvements, and applications are the same as already described. The leases are exempt from liability to be seized or sold for debt or bankruptcy. The Colonial Treasurer is empowered in certain cases to advance small sums for the purpose of enabling selectors to profitably occupy their allotments. Small Grazing-runs. Small grazing-runs are divided into two classes: first-class, not exceeding 5,000 acres; second-class, not exceeding 20,000 acres in area. The rental in both cases is not less than 2£ per cent, on the capital value per acre, but such capital value cannot be less than 5s. per acre. Small grazing-runs are leased for terms of twenty-ono years, with right of renewal for other twenty-one jears, at a rent of 2^ per cent, on the then value of the land. The runs are declared open for selection, and applications and declara- tions on the forms provided have to be filled in and left at the Land Office, together with the deposit of one half-year's rent, which represents that due on the 1st day of MaVch or September following the selection. No holder of a pastoral run, and no holder of freehold or lease- hold land of any kind whatever, over 1,000 acres in area exclusive of the small grazing run applied for, may be a selector under this system, and only one small grazing run can be held by any one person. The lease entitles the holder to the grazing rights, and to the cultivation of any part of the run, and to the reservation of 150 acres round his homestead through which no road may be taken; but the runs are subject to the mining laws. Residence is compulsory, if bush or swamp land, within three years; if open, within one year; and must be continuous to the end of the term, but may in a few cases be relaxed. Improvements necessary are as follows: Within the first year, to the amount of one year's rent; within the second year, to another year's rent; and, -within six years, to the value of two other years' rent: making in all a sum equal to four years' rental, which must be expended within six years. In addition to these improvements, bush-covered 262 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. first-class runs must be improved to an amount of 10s. an acre, and second-class bush-clad runs to an amount of 5s. an acre. These runs may be divided, after three years' compliance with the conditions, amongst the members of the selector's family. Pastoral Buns. Pastoral country is let by auction for varying terms not exceeding twenty-one years; and, excepting in extraordinary circumstances, runs must not be of a greater extent than will carry 20,000 sheep or 4,000 head of cattle. Buns are classified from time to time by special Commissioners into: (1) Pastoral lands, which are suitable only for depasturing more than 5,000 sheep; (2) Pastoral - agricultural lands, suitable for subdivision into areas of under 5,000> acres, which may be either let as pastoral runs, generally for short terms, or cut up for settlement in some other form. Leases of pastoral lands may not be resumed; leases of pastoral-agricultural lands may be resumed at any time after twelve months' notice, without compensation. No one can hold more than one run; but in case of any one holding a run of a carrying-capacity less than 10,000 sheep, he may take up additional country up to that limit. Buns are offered at auction from time to time, and half a year's, rent has to be paid down at the time of sale, being the amount due in advance on the first day of March or September following the sale, and the purchaser has to make the declaration required by the Act. All leases begin on the first day of March, and they entitle the holder to the grazing rights, but not to the soil, timber, or minerals; and the lease terminates over any part of the run which may be leased for some other purpose, purchased, or reserved. The tenant has to prevent the burning of timber or bush; in open country to- prevent the growth of gorse, broom, or sweet-briar; and to destroy the rabbits on his run. With the consent of the Land Board, the interest in a run may be transferred or mortgaged, but power of sale under a mortgage must be exercised within two years. In case it is determined again to lease any run on expiry of the lease, the new lease must be offered by auction twelve months before the end of the term, and if, on leasing, it shall be purchased by someone other than the previous lessee, valuation for improvements, to be made by an appraiser, shall be paid by the incoming tenant, but to a value not greater than three times the annual rent— excepting in the case of a rabbit-proof fence, which is to be valued separately. If the run is not again leased, the value of rabbit-proof fencing is paid by the Crown, but the tenant has no claim against the Crown beyond the value of the rabbit-proof fence; he may, however, within three months of sale, remove fences, buildings. chool of Agriculture is a branch of Canterbury College, one of the affiliated colleges of the University of New Zealand. It is situated near the town- ship and railway-station of Lincoln, in one of the most beautiful snd healthy districts of the Canterbury Plains, and is about fourteen miles by rail from the City of Christchurch. The institution is supported by endowments of lands, students' fees, and profit of the farm, its object being to a fiord those intending to look to farming for a liveli- 300 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. tiood the opportunity of acquiring a thorough knowledge of the science and practice of agriculture. The buildings are after the Elizabethan style of architecture, and can accommo- date at least fifty students, each having a separate bedroom. They also include lecture-, theatre-, and class-rooms, studies, chemical and biological laboratories, library, dining-hall, hospital-room, all necessary offices, quarters for the director and for the resident teaching-staff. The laboratories are designed on the most approved principles, and are provided with all the necessary appliances for the conduct of scientific work. The library contains a good selection of books, chiefly agricultural and scientific, and the reading-room is supplied with the leading agricultural papers and magazine*, illustrated weekly, and daily papers. Candidates for admission as resident student* cannot, be received if under sixteen years of age; those above twenty one years of age require to obtain the approval of the Chairman of the Board of Governors, Canterbury College, Christchurcb, on a recommendation from the director of the school. Non-resident students may be received on approval of the Chairman of the Board of Governors, and are admitted to all the advantages of the institution except residence. No examination is required prior to the admission of a student, but students ■who have passed the annual examination in chemistry, botany, geology, and mathe- matics in any of the university colleges, or who may pass in those subjects a pre- liminary examination conducted at the School of Agriculture, may gain the diploma of the college in three terms. The course of instruction extends over two years, and embraces agriculture and its allied sciences, instruction being imparted by means of lectures in the labora- tories, on the farm, and in the garden and orchard. The year is divided into two terms: the first, which is the commencement of the academic year, begins about the ltfth January, and ends about the 23rd .Tune; the second begins about the 23rd July, and ends about the 12th December. The charge for instruction, board, residence, and laundering is £40 per annum, that for non-resident students being £5 per annum. All fees are payable to the Registrar, Canterbury College, Christcliurch. The Boards of Education of the colony provide a number of scholarships for competition in any of the public schools of the colony, and the holders of these are entitled to be admitted free as resident students to the School of Agriculture. Lectures and practical farm-work are carried on as follows: On one day the first year's students receive lectures, and the second year's students work on the farm; on the following day the second year's students receive lectures, and the first year's students work on the farm; thus each student's time is equally divided between lectures and practical farm work. Instruction is given in the following subjects: Scientific work, comprising agriculture, theoretical chemistry, practical chemistry, agricultural chemistry, theoretical agricultural botany, practical agricultural botany, economic entomology, physiography; land-surveying, levelling, plotting, mechanical drawing, applied mechanics, book-keeping; veterinary science. Practical (arm work, comprising milking, horse grooming, ditching, hedging, ploughing, shearing, harvesting, thresh- ing, practical knowledge of live-stock, culture of fruit and vegetables, upiculture, -dairy work, carpentry, farriery, &c. To obtain the diploma of the College studeuts must pass an examination in each of these subjects. Examinations arc held as follows: («) once a week in one subject; (A) in June, upon the work of the first term; (c) in December, upon the work of the whole year. A diploma is granted by the College to students who, at the end of their second year, obtain the required number of marks at. the annual examination, this diploma being the highest distinction conferred by the College. Reports are issued twice a year to parents and guardians, containing the fullest information as to the conduct and progress of the student. The farm on which students receive their practical instruction is 660 acres in -extent, and has been so selected as to comprise soils of various qualities, from rich swamp to comparatively light and thin soil overlying shingle. The farming is carried STATE INSTRUCTION. 301 on as nearly as possible on economic principles, and in illustration of the teaching of the lecture-room. The farm-buildings and stock-yards have been planned to be as complete as possible, whilst including only such accommodation as it is thought will be ordinarily required in the colony. The farm plant contains all the most modem implements for the cultivation of the soil; also the most modern machines for the harvesting, securing, and marketing of crops. Students are required to take part in the regular daily work of the farm, so as to acquire a practical knowledge of every kind of farm-work, the use of implements and machinery, the management of stock, milking, and the making of cheese and butter. Work in the garden and orchard is also required, in the growing of vegetables, in the treatment of fruit-trees, &c. Field experiments are carried out, especially in testing the value of different methods of cultivation and rotations, the effects of different artificial manures on various crops, the suitability and comparative worth of new varieties of cereals, fodder plants, and rools that promise to be of use to the farmer, and in such other directions as may appear desirable and practical. Work is also carried on in the chemical laboratory. In illustrating the teachings of the lecture theatre, agricultural specimens are as frequently as possible used. Students, during their term of residence, proceed from the testing of simple sub- stances to the quantitative analysis of manures, soils, foods, and farm and dairy produce generally. Biological laboratory work includes: Use of the microscope and the preparation of microscopic objects; examination of rust, smut, and other injurious fungi; germination of seeds under variom conditions j examination of the minute anatomy of plants; cells and cell contents; diffusion of fluids in plants; rate of growth, fertilisation, maturation of seeds, &c. ; organic impurities in water, &c.; the minute anatomy of injurious insects; field investigations in the life- history of injurious insects and fungi; adulteration of seeds. In land-surveying and levelling, field-work will be undertaken at suitable times for practice in the use of instruments, in measuring laud, harvest and other piece- work, and in taking levels for drainage purposes, the results of field-work being plotted, and plans drawn. The carpenter's and blacksmith's shops are furnished with the necessary ap- pliances. Students take their turn at work with the carpenter and blacksmith, so that they obtain practical instruction in both rough carpentry and farriery, as far as these are carried out on the farm. Students are required, under supervision of the lecturer, to personally examine animals as to soundness, and to point out the various seats of disease and nature of diseased parts. They are also required to make postmortem examinations, and to make themselves proficient in the various methods of securing animals for different kinds of operations. Finally, the School of Agriculture is one of the best institutions of the kind in the Australasian Colonies, and from the above it will be seen that it would be diffi- cult to find any other where young men could acquire a more thorough knowledge of the principles of the science of agriculture, together with a better practical training in the art. SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNICAL SCIENCE. The School of Engineering and Technical Science occupies a wing of Canter- bury College, comprising a lecture- and drawing-room capable of accommodating sixty students, an experimental research laboratory, boiler-house, specimen- and model-rooniB, and offices. The work of the school is divided into three sections:— (a.) The education of students with a view to their becoming qualified engineers. (4.) The imparting of technical instruction by means of evening lectures to mechanics and apprentices engaged at their trades during the day. (c.) Experimental research as to the physical nature of the manufactured and natural products of the country. 302 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. (a.) The Education of Engineers. Students who have matriculated are prepared by a four years' course of theo- retical, technical, and practical work for taking the degree of Bachelor of Science in Engineering in the University of New Zealand. The necessary lectures in mathematics, chemistry, and physics are given by the professors of these subjects at Canterbury College, the technical lectures and in- struction in drawing and experimental work by the Professor of Engineering, and the practical work is obtained at the Government Workshops. The examiners are appointed in England by the University Senate. (*.) The Technical School. Instruction is given in the Technical School in freehand mechanical draw- ing, descriptive geometry and setting-out work, mechanical drawing, applied me- chanics, mechanics of machinery, the steam-engine, and strength of materials and structures, whilst special short courses of lectures are delivered to boilermakers on the design and construction of steam-generators; to millwrights on toothed-gearing; to mechanics, &c, on air-, gas-, aud oilengines, and refrigerating-machines. The school possesses a large stock of drawing apparatus, valuable sectional and other models, and diagrams, and this stock is being constantly augmented. (e.) The Research Laboratory. The plant of the research laboratory comprises: A 50-ton testing-machine, of the most modern pattern, fitted with an automatic recorder. This machine is capable of receiving test-pieces up to 15ft. in length. A 2,0001b. cement- (wire and yarn) tester; a Thurston lubricating oil-tester; a cylinder oil-tester ; a petroleum- tester; a fuel-tester; a pair of experimental engines, and boiler of 40-h.p., with measuring tanks, recording apparatus, &c., which can be worked as any type of engine under conditions of economy or the reverse. With the aid of these appliances, the strength, elasticity, and physical features of metals, timbers, stones, cements, fibres, yarns, ic, are ascertained and recorded by automatically-drawn diagrams; the condition of fractured portions of structures and machines, and the strengths of joists, pillars, girders, and trusses are experi- mentally obtained; the lubricating value of oils is found, whilst the calorific values and the best arrangement for combustion of different descriptions of coals and other fuels are discovered. 304 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. the settler's axe. For the most part, the soil is fertile, and the growth of grass and clover is extremely rapid and vigorous when sown on the surface after the felled timber has been destroyed by fire. To the British husbandman it will seem almost incredible that the best pasture-grasses grow and thrive as they do with no other preparation than the ashes resulting from the burnt timber—with no ploughing and no previous loosening of the soil—this, of course, being impossible amongst the forest of stumps—and yet, in less than a year from the date of scattering the seed, this same land will fatten from five to six sheep per acre. So rapidly are these fertile forest-lands being cleared and con- verted into pastures that the demand for stock (principally dairy) has greatly increased, and this demand must continue for a series of years before it is fully met. Before the introduction of the factory system stock were so un- saleable, especially in the North Island, that little or no attention was paid to this branch of rural economy, and the supply fell to the lowest ebb. The demand which has now set in is chiefly due to the settlement of the bush-lands with small selectors and the de- velopment of the dairy industry. Those who in the past have watched the progress of New Zea- land, especially of the North Island, have always maintained that as soon as the Maori difficulties should be ended, and other rmpedi- ments to settlement overcome, the prosperity of the country would advance at a very rapid rate. The time has now come, and all that is required to enhance and expedite the coming prosperity is wise legislation with respect to settlement, so that the unoccupied lands may be taken up by a thrifty class of small settlers. There are millions of acres yet unoccupied, a great portion of which is of good quality, and only waiting the hand of man to make it carry, with very little cost, large herds of dairy stock, with flocks of long-wool and crossbred sheep. The west coast of the island is essentially a cattle-country. Considerable areas in the midland districts are adapted to long-wool sheep, as is also the country along the east coast. Much of the country may be described as being good sheep-land, a large portion of which is quite capable of carry- ing two sheep to the acre, and some of it as many as three or four. Middle Island. If the North Island has a splendid inheritance in her forests, the Middle Island can boast of her magnificent plain-lands, rolling downs, and vast mountain-ranges, all of which, to a greater or less degree, have already been made to contribute to the wealth of the colony. The central portion of the Middle Island presented to the first- comers a vast plain, covered only with waving tussock-grass, offer- ing little or no obstruction to the plough. Travelling south, the country assumes a different character: easy. AGRICULTURE. 305 ■undulating downs, well watered, here and there interspersed with fertile plains, the greater portion admirably adapted for agriculture, and all of it suited for pastoral purposes. The climate of the Middle Island is not so warm in summer nor so mild in winter as that experienced in the North Island. How- ever, as has already been stated, there are no extremes of heat or cold. Much more might be said in praise of this portion of the colony. It is deemed necessary to say so much in order that readers may better comprehend the comparative ease with which everv kind of farming is carried on in New Zealand as compared with other countries less favourably situated. Progress of Agriculture. Eeviewing the past year from a farmer's point of view, the colony cannot be congratulated. The development of our agricul- tural resources has been materially affected by circumstances beyond control. The crop of wheat, oats, and barley has, however, been a fairly good one, but prices have ruled so low that many farmers have found it extremely difficult to make ends meet. Those who were in a position to hold their wheat have benefited by the rise which took place during the month of May. A reference to the agricultural statistics on pages 186-196 shows that there has been a very material falling-off in the quantity of wheat grown, but this is accounted for by the diminished area under that cereal. It will, moreover, be observed that there is also a sub- stantial decrease in bushels of oats. The troubles of our wheat- growers will not prove an unmixed evil: indeed, they may be said to be bearing fruit already, as farmers are being driven to the con- clusion that wheat-growing as a staple crop is rapidly becoming a thing of the past. If this be so—and it is coming to be admitted—we have the satisfaction of knowing that the humidity of our climate and the fertility of the soil are such that we can with certainty produce root- crops, grain, and forage-plants which will compare favourably with those grown in any other part of the world. Happily, farmers are realising the position, and in a little time the method of farming hitherto in vogue will be abandoned, and one having for its object the growth of root-crops and grass, &c, will take its place. The more rapidly this system extends itself the sooner will the farming community throughout the colony feel the benefit. We are forced to this conclusion by taking a retrospective glance at the gradual decline in price of wheat during the last ten or twelve years. In May, 1882, wheat was worth 4s. 9d. to 5s. per bushel; in May, 1895, it was worth only 2s. 2d. to 2s. 5d.; while oats for the corresponding periods were worth 3s. 6d. and Is. 6d.* It is admitted on all sides that wheat cannot be grown in the colony with any margin for profit under at least 3s. per * Since the above date wheat has risen in price locally. 20 306 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAK-BOOK. bushel, and the crop must be a good one at that. Fanners must therefore place more reliance on the animal products of the soil. In those countries where continuous corn-growing has been practised the ultimate exhaustion of the soil has been the result; whereas stock-raising with its auxiliaries has the effect of increasing the fer- tility of the soil; so that the partial cessation of wheat-growing is not an unmixed evil. Since the publication of the " Official Year-book" for 1894, matters agricultural and pastoral have not prospered; indeed, it must be confessed that for many years past the range of prices for all kinds of farm produce, including wool, has not reached so low a level as that of 1894-95. It may, however, be observed, that this unsatisfactory state of things is by no means peculiar to New Zea- land. Agricultural depression prevails all over the world, wherever farming in any of its numerous branches is carried on. As to the cause of this universal depression, opinions are as wide apart as the poles. While some maintain that over-production of the neces- saries of life by the nations of the earth is responsible, others hold that if a bi-metallic agreement were arrived at by the principal States of the world, trade would soon revive, and the cost of production would be equalised. Whichever of these contentions is correct (if either), the fact remains that a widespread depression does prevail. To such an extent does this exist in England that rents have been reduced in some parts from 25 to 75 per cent. In an exhaustive article on agricultural depression recently pub- lished in the "Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- land," an insight is given into the state of agriculture, not only in England, but in most of the countries of Europe and America, proving that agricultural depression is as general as it it is deplor- able. In the course of a speech delivered in October last, the French Minister of Agriculture deplored the severity of the crisis in that country—the farmers could not compete with American wheat even with a duty of 12s. 6d. per quarter; consequently rents have fallen enormously. In Spain and Portugal the depression is said to be most severe, notwithstanding that the duty on wheat is very high. It is reported that no country in the world has suffered more from this cause than Italy, where the taxation that falls upon the land is crushing. The agrarian movement in Germany is familiar to all readers of newspapers. High as the duties on grain are, prices have fallen to a serious extent, and a great deal of land has been laid down in grass. In some parts of the empire large numbers of proprietors have been forced by the continued lowness of prices to give up their holdings and emigrate. Great benefit has resulted from the multiplication of agricultural credit-banks, which have saved thousands of the peasant-farmers from the ruinous clutches of the usurers; but still large and small cultivators alike are suffering severely from the fall in prices. In Holland, a special Commissioner reported in favour of the reduction or abolition of dues payable on transfers of land; the AGRICULTURE. 307 extension to the country generally of the beklemricht, a renewable lease at a fixed rent common to Grouingen; increased facilities to farmers for obtaining credit—a State mortgage-bank being suggested for one thing; and a change in the land-tenancy system. Referring to Denmark, the report goes on to say that, apart from those engaged in co-operative dairying, agriculturists of every class are feeling the results of long-continued depression. Even the dairy industry is suffering, as the Danish buttermakers are now feeling keenly the rapidly-extending competition of New Zealand in the British markets. Like Denmark, Sweden feels the fall in the price of butter from the same cause. Of Austria-Hungary we read that the depression generally prevailing among the agricultural population has exercised the minds of statesmen and economists for years past. Where the small independenc farmer is not actually driven off the land by the pressure of competition and the burden -of land-taxation, which is said to fall by comparison more heavily on the small than on the large landed proprietors, he is often obliged to sink into the condition of a tenant, or to see his estate broken up into small holdings. In Russia, the depression caused by the low prices of produce is so severe, thac the Czar has appointed a Com- mission to inquire into the deplorable condition of farmers of all classes, to grant measures of relief from taxation, and to reduce interest on State loans. As to the state of things in Poland, although the harvest of 1893 was a remarkably good one, it yielded no profit to the growers, the price of wheat being below the cost of production. It is reported that, "were it not for the beetroot and potato crop, remunerative because they feed the sugar and spirit industries, the landed interest would be completely ruined." In the United States of America the evil is not less than in other countries already referred to. Early in 1894 the United States Department of Agriculture obtained estimates from 25,000 farmers as to the cost of wheat-growing throughout the States, and these were found to average £2 8s. 8d. per acre. According to this return, there was a mean gain of nearly 10s. per acre in 1891. The mean loss in the three following years was respectively lis. 2d., 19s. 6d., and £1 3s. 8d. per acre. Such returns must result in ruin to the American farmer. It is hoped that the free use of wheat for feeding stock, coupled with the shrinkage of area under that crop, will ultimately result in better prices. The Argentine Republic has not escaped the general fate. A higher gold premium, however, has enabled producers of grain and meat to increase their exports greatly. With respect to wheat pro- duction, the best Argentine authorities state that growers along the seaboard, and not too far from a railway station, can grow wheat with profit at a price of £1 a quarter. It is, however, admitted that only farmers who own their land can produce wheat at this rate. Coming to our own colonies, we find that matters in Canada are no better than in the States. The President of the Patrons of Industry, in his annual address, said: "Never in our history have 308 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. ■we experienced such a critical time; men's hearts fail them, and many are in want." The same unsatisfactory condition of things prevails throughout the Australasian Colonies. The value of agri- cultural land has fallen in all, including New Zealand. A manifesto, issued hy the Landowners' Defence League of New South Wales last year, states that "throughout the colony the last five years have been years of disaster to all private firms and private indi- viduals interested in land " ; that " in both town and country many men who, five years ago, were accounted wealthy because of land they owned are to-day absolutely penniless." The trouble in South Australia is quite as bad as in Victoria. It will thus be seen that agricultural depression, varying in intensity, has been experienced in all the principal countries of the world; a depression the extent of which has seldom been experienced before. A gleam of hope may, however, be derived from the assumption that it is not in the nature of things that the unprofitable production of any commodity can continue. It is an old saying that "when things come to the worst they must mend." Indeed, there are strong indications already of a revival of trade. Let us hope that the prospect of improvement may speedily be realised, and that better times are about to dawn upon us. At any rate, New Zealand, bad as things have been, is still in an infi- nitely better position than the majority of countries and colonies referred to. The primitive mode of agriculture pursued from the foundation of the colon)-—viz., wheat-growing, followed by wheat, so long as the land would bear it—is rapidly giving place to a regular system of crop rotation. Large areas are now sown immediately after harvest with winter oats, for early spring feeding for sheep. An expeditious method of getting in this crop is adopted by some of the best farmers in the colony. It is as follows: Immediately the grain is removed from the paddock, oats are sown broadcast in the stubble. A cultivator is passed over the land twice in opposite direc- tions, followed by a pair of light harrows, which completes the operation. In this way 7 acres can be completed each day with three horses, a man, and a cultivator. It is of the first importance that grain for soiling purposes should be got in before the autumn rains. The crop is fed off at least twice in the season. It is ulti- mately reserved for a crop of corn, which often yields from 40 to 70 bushels per acre. Farmers are giving up sowing Cape barley, for the reason that it comes to maturity rather earlier than other cereals, and is often completely destroyed by the sparrows. The farming of the future will have for its main object the raising of wool and mutton as well as dairy produce, pork, poultry, fruit, fibre plants and seeds, Sec.; and, although grain-growing will be continued to a greater or less extent, it has already ceased to hold the leading position which it formerly occupied. This kind of farming involves, in the Middle Island at least, the growth over large areas of turnips, grass, and fodder crops, thus AGRICULTURE. 309 bringing greater fertility to the soil, and, consequently, advancing prosperity to the farming community. Cereals. The Canterbury Plains, the great wheat-growing area (in the past) of the Middle Island, extend 150 miles north and south, running inland from the sea for forty miles, the whole forming an area of about 3,000,000 acres. A great portion of this vast plain is admirably adapted for the production of wheat of the best quality, the growing of which was carried on extensively in the past, more especially since the introduction of the reaper - and - binder. The collapse in the wheat markets of the world renders wheat-growing no longer a profitable industry in New Zealand—at least, for the present; we have every confidence, however, that the growing of this cereal on our best soils will again become a profitable industry in this colony. The area under wheat in Canterbury in 1391-95 was 148,575 acres, with an estimated yield of 3,613,037 bushels. The land is for the most part free from stones or impediments of any kind. Single-furrow ploughs are now rarely seen, double- and three-furrow ploughs being in general use. Three horses, occasion- ally four, with a man or boy, can turn over three acres per day on the plains, at a cost of 5s. or 6s. per acre. A stroke of the disc or other harrow, followed by the seed-drill and light harrows, com- pletes the operation of sowing. Seed-sowing commences in May, and can be continued as weather permits through the winter, and in the heavy swamp-land on into September and even October. From 1J to 1£ and 2 bushels of seed per acre are usually sown, the quantity increasing as the season advances. Good results are in general obtained by feeding-off the early- sown grain with sheep, followed by the harrows and roller. The average yield on the better class of soil in favourable seasons is from 40 to 60 bushels per acre of dressed grain. The general average of the whole colony is usually 25 to 26 bushels, but this varies with the season. This discrepancy is accounted for by the fact that so much wheat is grown on the lighter soils. Several varieties of wheat are grown, but Hunter's White, Pearl, and Velvet Chaff are the favourite kinds for winter sowing. Red and White Tuscan are usually sown in spring. In view of the periodical attacks of rust, advantage will doubtless be taken of the experience gained by carefully-conducted experiments which have been carried on during the past few years in Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland, where it is claimed that certain wheats have been found impervious to the attacks of rust, thus mini- mising the losses caused by that fungus. Several varieties are named as rust-resisting, and farmers should combine and procure these varieties in order to give them a trial. It was reported that early sowing was the best preventive measure, for the reason that the older the leaves are the tougher they become. This theory, 310 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. • nowever, has not been borne out by actual observation in the colony, as early-sown crops are also sometimes attacked, if not so severely. Dressing the seed with genuine bluestone is found to be a certain specific for smut in its various forms. The Oainaru (North Otago) district is famous for the quality of its wheat, grown on limestone soil. In Otago and Southland wheat is grown, but not extensively. But these districts excel in the production of oats, which is their principal cereal crop, the respective acreages last season being 31,653 acres of wheat, yielding 830,715 bushels, and 188,911 acres of oats, yielding 5,920,187 bushels, while Canterbury produced only 3,327,998 bushels of oats. The usual yield of oats in Otago and Southland is from 40 to 80 bushels per acre, the cost of production being about the same as wheat—viz., £2 per acre when grown out of grass-land, and £1 10s. from stubble. The varieties of oats most in favour are Winter Dun, Canadians, Sparrowbill, Tartary, and Danish. Malting barley, of very superior quality, is grown in Nelson and Marlborough, where the soil and climate appear to be peculiarly adapted to its culture. The total area and yield of cereals grown in New Zealand last season was: Wheat, 148,605 acres, 3,613,137 bushels; oats, 351,849: acres, 10,221,353 bushels; barley, 36,519 acres, 1,000,612 bushels; maize, 5,525 acres, 232,890 bushels; rye, 4,158 acres, 56,169 bushels; peas and beans, 13,550 acres, 395,181 bushels. The phenomenally low prices of wheat and other cereals raises the question whether matters might not be improved by the exer- cise of a little more care in preparing the grain for market. Nothing but the plumpest corn should be shipped, for there can be little doubt but that a far better use can be found for the inferior grain in feeding pigs, poultry, dairy cattle, and sheep with it on the farm, thereby increasing the fertility of the soil. Carefully-dressed wheat would yield at least 651b. to the bushel, and oats, similarly treated, would go 501b. to the bushel measure, insuring a ready sale at the highest rate. The late Mr. Mechi, of agricultural fame in England, used to argue that, when wheat and other grain fell below a certain figure, then it paid better to drive it to market on four legs rather than on four wheels. This limit has long since been reached in New Zealand, and therefore the sooner Mr. Mechi's advice is put into practice the better it will be for all concerned. Root-crops. Potatoes: Potatoes are largely grown throughout New Zealand. On suitable soils very heavy crops are raised, it being no un- common thing to dig from 8 to 10 tons per acre, although the general average is much lower, for the reason that unsuitable land is frequently devoted to this crop. The bulk of the crop is planted without manure, but, where used, bonedust, superphosphate. AGRICULTURE. 311 blood-manure, or animal guano, which may be procured of first quality from the local manure manufactories (from lcwt. to 2cwt. per acre) is applied with good results. The potato is, however, an expensive crop to grow, costing from £5 to £6 per acre, and many fanners are now devoting their potato-land to grass. The land is usually broken out of grass, skim-ploughed in autumn, ploughed deeply in spring, and thoroughly tilled. The seed— 15cwt. per acre—is then ploughed in under every third furrow, the after-culture consisting of harrowing just as the crop is appear- ing over ground. By this means myriads of seedling weeds are destroyed, drill - grubbing, hoeing, horse-hoeing, and earthing - up being the subsequent operations. Heavy crops of wheat, oats, barley, beans, or peas can always be relied upon after potatoes, season permitting. Turnips: The turnip-crop has now become one of the most im- portant in the colony. The area under this crop for 1895, accord- ing to the agricultural statistics, is 385,788 acres, as against 148,575 acres under wheat. On virgin soil turnips can always be relied upon as a certain crop without any manure, even on a single furrow and a couple of strokes of the harrow. But as most of the virgin soil in Canterbury has already been cropped, turnips cannot now be successfully grown there without the aid of manure. In the nature of things, from a climatic point of view, farm-yard manure cannot be procured in sufficient quantity; artificial manures are therefore largely used, from lcwt. to Hcwt. of superphosphate of lime per acre being now applied with the best results, securing ample crops of sound roots, from 15 to 30 tons per acre. The seed is sometimes sown in drills on the flat, the manure being dropped in front of the seed by the same machine, from £lb. to lib. per acre of seed being used. When sown broadcast a smaller quantity will suffice. Sometimes the manure is deposited in a liquid state by ma- chines manufactured for the purpose: this system invariably secures a rapid and vigorous braird, forcing the young plant into the rough leaf, after which it is secure from the attack of the turnip- beetle, the first enemy of the young plants' growth. So soon as the turnip-plants reach the third or fourth leaf, they are thinned in a primitive and yet efficient manner. A scuffler, made for the purpose, is drawn across the drills, bunching the turnips and thoroughly loosening the soil. The drill-grubber and scuffler are used as re- quired till the leaves meet. This kind of culture produces capital crops. Large areas are sown broadcast, and, if found too thick, the harrows are run through them; in any case a stroke of the harrows is a great help in promoting the growth of the plant. The varieties used are Devonshire Grey for early and very late sowing; Purple- and Green-top Aberdeen are the most generally grown. Swede turnips, from their proneness to the attack of the turnip aphis, are not so much grown, though they produce enormous crops in Otago and Southland, where the climate is more suitable. The turnip-crop is generally fed off by sheep intended for freezing. 312 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. It is estimated that an acre of good turnips, with a little hay or oat-chaff, will fatten from eight to fourteen sheep. Turnip-sowing commences in November, and may be continued till the end of December. Stubble turnips may be sown in March, but this can only be considered as a catch-crop. It, however, often proves of great value, supplying an abundance of green food for ewes with early lambs. Turnip-land is usually sown with oats or barley, and sometimes spring wheat. Rape is largely grown as sheep-feed, and may be sown either in early spring or immediately after harvest, the stubble being skim- ploughed or broken up with the new spring-tined cultivator. This crop is invaluable in the early spring, and may be fed off in time for oats or barley. Mangolds and Carrots are largely grown in some districts. They cost more money per acre than turnips to produce, as they must be hand-hoed; nor are they so suitable a crop for cleaning the land. Turnip - sowing does not commence till November or December, affording ample time for the destruction of seedling weeds; this important opportunity is largely lost in the culture of the mangold, which is usually sown in October and November. Mangolds are, however, an invaluable crop on a stock farm, as they do not reach their primest condition until the turnip-supply is exhausted, usually in August. From 30 to 60 tons per acre is not an uncommon yield of these roots, often without the aid of manure. Carrots are also a valuable crop, especially for horses ; on sandy loams the yield reaches 15 to 20 tons per acre. Carrots impart a pleasant flavour to butter. SEEDS. Clover : Since the introduction of the humble-bee into New Zealand, growing clover for seed has become a lucrative industry, adding materially to the farmers' income. Clover is sown with a spring crop, usually of corn, lightly grazed in the following autumn, and then reserved for a crop of hay, which, according to the season, yields from 2 to 3 tons per acre when cut in November or early in December. Some farmers prefer feeding off with sheep in prefer- ence to mowing for hay. The after-growth is then allowed to flower and seed, which it does very freely. Thousands of humble-bees may be seen in the clover-fields during the months of January, February, and March. The seed ripens in March, and is then cut and dried, and threshed out by machines known as clover-shellers. From 2001b. to 300lb. of seed per acre is considered a good crop, and sells readily at 4d. to 6d. per pound. Thus an acre of clover may yield in hay and seed quite £10 or £11. It must, however, be stated that, while a good crop of clover-seed is a most lucrative one, it is never- theless a most precarious one. Owing to the lateness of the season of ripening, it sometimes happens that the fertilisation is imperfect, resulting in a majority of barren heads. This has given rise to a controversy as to whether the proper bee has been introduced. The AGRICULTURE. 313 -question was referred to Miss Ormerod, the English entomologist, who sent the following reply, a perusal of which may prove of interest to the readers of the Year-book; at any rate, it is worth placing on record :— Torrington House, St. Albans, England, 4th March, 1895. Dear Sir,—Your letter of the 23rd January reached roe, together with your two packets of specimens, on the 2nd instant, and I will endeavour to reply to the very best of my power, and with great pleasure. The specimens (thanks to your careful packing) arrived in very good order; but there is such great difficulty in naming humble-bees with absolute certainty that you must please excuse me if I am tedious. You mention that it is believed that the bees imported to New Zealand in 1885 were of two kinds—B. lapidarius and B. terrestris—and that now it has been sug- gested that the kind with you is the Bombus subterraneus. Of those which you have sent me, I find some are B. terrestris and some are S. subterraneus, bat I do not find any specimens of B. lapidarius. The Bombus terrestris, of which you sent me one queen and two workers, is black, with a collar of orange-yellow, the second segment of the abdomen of the same colour, and the fifth and part (that is the edge) of the preceding segment of a pale-tawny tint. The workers are much like the female, excepting in the yellow bands being paler, and the tawny band vhite, or almost white. My book of reference is Fred. Smith's Catalogue of British Hymenoptera in the British Museum. The queens of this species are the largest of those noted by Mr. F. Smith, running in length from nine to eleven lines, and your fine specimen is still longer— even now it is an inch in length. Your specimens of this kind appear to me to be so characteristic that I do not think there can be doubt regarding these. About the Bombus subterraneus: This is a kind of which there are several varieties, and firstly among your specimens I have found a queen and three workers of the variety d of F. Smith—namely, " entirely black except the apex of the abdo- men, which is fuscous." Besides this variety, there are workers which agree with his variety h, in having the "collar, scutellum, and sides of the basal segment with bright, fulvous yellow pubescence," and the apex (understanding this as the apical segments, not the extreme tip itself) white, with a faint yellow tinge. Of the queens, F. Smith's description of the typical colouring is as follows: "The pubescence black, the collar having on each side a faint trace of yellow, a similar obscure tinge of yellow on the lateral margin of the scutellum, the apical margin of the third segment of the abdomen and the fourth clothed with fuscous or dirty-white pubescence; on the fifth it is black; beneath the pubescence it is black; towards the apex at the sides it is fuscous." Your specimens agree well with this description, excepting in the precise amount (in breadth) of the abdominal dirty-white band. This extends, so far as I make out in the dried specimens (for the most part) more over the fifth segment than is given by Mr. Smith, and I only see one in which 1 should call this black; still, in a species so excessively variable, I should not say that this difference was important. The queens of this species are stated greatly to resemble those of B. hortorum; but, still, besides yours possessing the characteristic of the tongue (where 1 can extract it) not being extremely long, I think there are sufficiently marked differences in colour to show that yours are subterraneus. Your friend whom yon allude to as a hymenopterist will tell you of the great difficulty in dif- ferentiation of the Bombi after they have been dead some time; but I think I may quite safely say that you have both B. terrestris and B. subterraneus present. You are much to be congratulated on the success of your experiment. But going on now to your further inquiries as to whether the kind of humble-bee which you have is the best for fertilising clover, and other points turning on this matter, I think I can reply best by taking them together. I should say, with such facts as you hold in your hands to prove the service- ableness of introduction of humble-bees, that you have no occasion to go into the 314 SEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. question in the ligbt of print? opinion. If. where "locally-grown seed was unknown as an article of commerce before the humble-bee was acclimatised/' you are now having " some hundreds of tons of dressed locally-grown seed being annually bought and sold" in your market, I do not see that you could do better than continue as you are now doing. It appears that the kinds of humble-bee which you hare imported are healthy and prolific in their new country, and are doing their work well, and I certainly would not advise making any alteration. One structural difference (as I mentioned) between svbterranev* and horiormm is that the tongue of the former is shorter; such points as these may be of im- portance in fertilisation; and, as whatever you have got (for you may have several kinds present) is obviously doing its work satisfactorily, I should certainly advise you to let the matter remain on its present good footing. It is very important to have a healthy bee—a kind, that is, whose health is not affected injuriously by its new locality, or you may find some infectious disorder established which may do great harm. I think that the above replies fairly to your inquiries, but if there is any further point on which vou think I might be of service, I would most gladly endeavour, at least to the best of my power, to reply to any points vou wish me to investigate. Meanwhile, pray believe me, yours very truly, Eleanor A. Obmerod, Late Entomologist of the Royal Ag. Soc. of England. A. Carrick, Esq., President of C. A. Soc., Christchurch, N.Z. Growing white Dutch and alsike clover for seed is beginning to attract considerable attention, and is likely to develop into a lucra- tive industry. White clover yields enormously. These clovers are not dependent on the action of the humble-bee for their fertilisation. They mature earlier, and are more easily threshed and cleaned than cowgrass or red-clover. Grass-seed Saving: All the most valuable of the strong-growing grasses flourish throughout New Zealand. Cocksfoot has been a staple product of Banks Peninsula for many years, the soil for the most part consisting of decomposed volcanic rocks and vegetable mould. The seed is of the finest description, frequently weighing 201b. to the bushel (121b. being a standard bushel). Cocksfoot thrives on a very wide range*of soil, from the richest to the poorest, preferring, of course, the former. It may be found on the dry stony plains of the interior green and healthy, while tho surrounding herbage, introduced or indigenous, has yielded to the heat of the summer sun. Large quantities of this seed are grown in the North Island as well. Out of the total of 339,509 bushels of cocksfoot- seed produced last season, 95,048 bushels were grown in the North Island. This seed sells readily at remunerative prices. Growing ryegrass for seed is also an important industry. Last season 531,243 bushels were gathered. Of this, the North Island contributed 118,799 bushels. The seed is usually secured by strip- ping; sometimes the grass is cut and tied, and afterwards threshed by machinery. The average yield is from 15 to 20 bushels per acre, weighing from 251b. to 321b. per bushel, 201b. being the standard weight. A common practice is to graze the land till midsummer; to take the stock off for a few weeks, and then to run the stripper over the ground. By this primitive method 10 bushels per acre are AGRICULTURE. 315 sometimes secured. Rye grass-seed is usually in good demand, and sells readily at from 3s. to 4s. per bushel. Meadow-fescue, one of the most valuable of all the grasses for permanent pasture on good land, is grown both in the North and Middle Islands, but as yet not very largely. There can be no doubt that the growing of grass-seeds, including the finer varieties, must become in the near future a very lucrative industry. Small Seeds: New Zealand, from the nature of her soil and climate, offers a fine field for growing all kinds of farm and garden seeds. This circumstance has already attracted the attention of some of the larger seed-merchants of Great Britain, whose agents occasionally visit the colony with a view to inducing farmers and others to grow certain kinds of seeds. The industry is peculiarly adapted to small holdings, and well suited to young persons, the work being light and of an interesting character. Ready sale can be found for carefully-grown and carefully-cleaned garden seeds. Pulse: Peas and beans are largely grown for pig-feeding and export; they form an excellent preparation for wheat. An ex- tensive trade in peas of a certain description is done in the manufacturing towns of Great Britain; and efforts are now being made to secure a share of this trade for the colony by producing peas suitable for splitting for human food. The business is likely to prove a most remunerative one. Thirty bushels of peas are considered a fair crop, while 40 to 70 bushels of beans are often secured. Cape Barley and Winter Oats: The demand for early-spring feed has resulted in the growing of these plants for forage. Their extreme hardiness renders them well adapted for autumn sowing. If sown in March they are ready for feeding-off in May; they may be fed off again in July, and on till the beginning of October, when, if allowed to run to seed, they will produce 40 to 60 bushels per acre, or they may be ploughed-in for turnips. Tares are also grown, but not so largely as they deserve to be,, especially for dairy-stock. Mixed with oats, barley, or rye, they are excellent milk-producers; and when grown luxuriantly they destroy all kinds of weeds, and leave the land in fine condition for a spring coru-crop. Lucerne: This permanent fodder-plant thrives admirably in most parts of New Zealand, yielding three to five cuttings in the year; and, if properly altended to, it will continue to yield liberal cuttings for seven or eight years. This is a most excellent crop for the small or large farmer, furnishing, as it does, an abundant supply of suc- culent fodder, in deeply-cultivated rich soils, during the drier months of midsummer, as well as in the early spring. European Flax. With a view of encouraging the growth of this fibre-plant, the Minister of Agriculture for Victoria offered some years ago a bonus of £2 per acre for every acre grown of this crop, and £5 per ton 316 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. for the fibre produced. The result has been that large areas have been sown in that colony, and the industry bids fair soon to become of importance. This is a wise step, because the successful intro- duction of this industry would afford a large amount of employ- ment, most of it being of a light character and well adapted to small holdings. Some few years ago an attempt was made to establish this in- dustry in Canterbury, but wheat was then realising a fair price, farmers did not take kindly to the new idea, and the project failed. Good, however, resulted from the attempt, for it was proved beyond doubt that the flax-plant would grow most luxuriantly, producing plenty of fibre (and seed when allowed to ripen). It was found that 5cwt. to 7c t. of fibre could be produced per acre, and from 15 to 30 bushels of seed, which under proper management should find a lucrative sale for use in the manufacture of boiled and raw linseed oil, or for export. The fact that the manufacture of oil has already been attempted, with but indifferent success, is no argument against a fresh effort being made; but it is an argument in favour of the production of the seed at a lower rate than was the case at the time referred to. The time has now arrived when the growing of flax on a large scale might again be advocated. The collapse in the wheat-market renders it necessary to open up new fields for the employment of labour, and Government may see its way to offer a substantial bonus for the production of fibre suitable, in the first instance, for the manufacture of binder-twines, commercial twines, ropes, Ac, and ultimately for the manufacture of fabrics. Sugar-beet. The low price of wheat and other agricultural produce has again revived the question so ardently pressed by Sir Julius Vogel—viz., the cultivation of beet for sugar-making. His efforts, however, failed, as farmers could not be induced to turn their attention to the matter. The real cause of inaction on the part of farmers and others lay in this, that wheat-growing was an industry with which they were familiar, and from which a reasonable profit could then be derived with a minimum of labour. The following valuable con- tribution to this subject is from the pen of Mr. George Gray, Lecturer on Chemistry at Lincoln Agricultural College (Canterbury):— At intervals during the la*t twenty-fire years the question as to the growth of sugar-beet, and the manufacture of bent-root sugar in New Zealand, lias been brought into notice, engaged the attention of our legislators and others for a tint*, and afterwards lost sight of again. The subject has recently been revived in the public press, and the following paper has been written in order to bring into notice a few facts connected with this most important industry, showing what has hitherto been done in the colony, more particularly with regard to the capability of soil and climate to produce sugar beets of paying quality. In 1870 the Government committee, on colonial industries re<*ommended tiiat a bonus of JL10 per ton upon the first hundred tous of sugar and £5 per ton for evert fifty tous of syrup produced from beetroot grown in the colony should be given. After- wards negotiations were opened up with German merchants through Mr. F. A. Krull {German Consul in New Zi/ulaud), and beet seed was obtained from Germany for AGRICULTURE. 317 trial in the colony. In 1871 the joint committees on colonial industries recom- mended that a bonus of £2,000 be offered for the first 250 tons of beetroot sugar, grown and produced in the colony. In 1877 the Beetroot Sugar Committee advised that excise duty should not be levied on beetroot sugar produced in New Zealand for ten years from August, 1877. In 1878 a bonus of £5,(00 was offered for 500 tons of sugar produced in the North Island, and £5,000 for 500 tons produced in the Middle Island. In 188-1 the Beetroot. Sugar Act was passed, which provides that n bonus of Jd. per pound be paid for the first 1,000 tons of sugar produced from beet- root or sorghum grown in the colony. It also provides that excise duty, if any, shall always be |d. per pound less than the import duty, and that if, during fifteen years from the passing of the Act, the import duty be reduced or removed, a bonus shall be paid as an equivalent. So much has hitherto been done for the fostering of this industry in New Zealand, but without producing any effect. Two main points have to be taken into account in dealing with this question. First, as to whether the soils and climate of New Zealand are suited for the growth of beetroot sufficiently rich in sugar to be remunerative to the manufacturers. And next the commercial aspect, whether the expensive nature of the plant required, the high price of labour, and the cost of production would allow beet sugar to compete with cane sugar, at present placed on the market at a very low price. The latter question cannot be settled until the first is disposed of. If it can be shown that, roots containing the requisite amount of sugar can be grown in sufficient quantity, and if the project is possible from a commercial point of view, doubtless it would not be long before capital would be forthcoming to enable the industry to be started. For the purpose of arriving at some definite conclusion regarding the percentage of sugar in New-Zealand-grown beets, all the available analyses have been collected, and the results shown in the appended table. In some respects the results are perplexing, due in many cases to overgrowth, or to insufficient care having been taken in the cultivation of the roots. The culture of sugar-beet requires probably more skill than any other farm crop. In order to insure the maximum amount of sugar it is necessary to have good loamy soil with free drainage, cultivated to at least a depth of 12in., and the plants at such distances a» to insure the growth of small compact roots weighing from lib. to 2|lb. Such roots have been proved to contain a higher percentage of sugar than large roots. This is well shown in the following table. Thus, if we divide the results into two groups—those obtained with roots under 2f lb. and those above this weight—we find that in the results obtained at the Colonial Laboratory, Wellington, with roots less than 2flb. weight, the average percentage of sugar was 78, maximum 10'9, and minimum 52. Roots above this weight average 52, maximum 76, and minimum 2*1. None of these results indicate beet of sufficient richness to pay for extraction. Nearly all the roots examined by Mr. Pond were under 2$lb. weight, and gave an average of 110 per cent, of sugar, maximum 15 per cent., and minimum 64 per cent.; the latter being probably due to second growths, which tend to lower con- siderably the percentage of sugar. The few roots above weight gave an average of 6 4 per cent. The earlier School of Agriculture reports were obtained by Mr. F. Barkas with roots grown on the farm, all of which were not above 2jjlb. The average per cent, of sugar obtained was 9'17, moximum 11 7, and minimum 3 2. Later results obtained with the same kind of beet (White Imperial) grown at the school, by the writer, one root only being slightly overweight, gave an average of 7'32, maximum 820, minimum 578. The beets represented at the end of the table from the Ellesmere district were obtained from seed imported by Mr. Werner from his brother in Saxony, who is a large grower of sugar-beet. The results are higher and more even, notwithstanding that many of the roots were large although planted only loin, and 12in. apart. The small rooU gave an average of ll-58 per cent, of sugar, maximum 12'27, minimum 9 79, and the large ones an average of 10-18, maximum 1138, and minimum 878. The mean percentage of all the results recorded is 8'62. 318 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. PERCENTAGE OF SUGAR IN NEW-ZEALAND-GROWN BEETS. I.-Results obtained in the Colonial Laboratory, Wellington. Variety of Beet. Weight. Locality where Grown. Date of Collection. Collide Sugar per cent. Remarks White Silesian : i en Vilmorin ... White Imperial White Silesian Vilmorin : : : : : : : um momento un White Imperial : White Silesian : : 1873. Wellington ... February 2:1 Good shape, im- mature. 67 Ditto. 2.2 2:1 55 Good taper shape. 6.5 Bad shape, forked. 5:1 4.2 5.2 Good taper shape, ripe. 8:1 Ditto. N. Plymouth Early in 8-7 Well shaped, ripe. August Ditto ... 74 6 to 8 Napier " " " Highest 9 to 16 i » 3:1 Generally well shaped, nearly ripe. 49 5.8 84 34 76 11 Christchurch 8.2. Highest 5 to 8 Hawera 5:1 Lb. oz. 1 2 Auckland ... 8.4 1 10 8:0 2 10 6:9 4 4 Hautapu 67 Hamilton 6.4 "" " ... 6:0 9 to 16 : Silesian ... 44 : : : : ::::: 76 ::::::::::: 5.1 6:2 5:3 7.4 Good shaped. 9:1 White Silesian about 2 Waverley... 7.1 6-2 5:1 10-9 6 i to 1 Oroua Downs 11 to 21 2! & over Novendale ::::::::: 7.1 73 8.2 Excellent shape. 7.5 7.5 AGRICULTURE. 319 II.- Results obtained by Mr. J. A. Pond, Auckland. Date of Sugar Variety of Beet. Locality where Grown. Remarks. Collection.) per cent. Hamilton moar DAVANT 10 95 10:17 13:55 14:25 14.25 11:40 14.25 4:31 2 5 0 5 Huntly 7.58 0 12 09 1 12 0 13 11.87 Raglan 8:14 Badly formed. Puturimu ... March 10 13:57 Wanzlebenel Imperial Deppe's Silesian Im. perial . Red-top Imperial ... 1 1 0 12 1 10 1 1 1 15 Lb. 15.00 Cambridge ... April 2... 15,00 } 13:57 Alexandra . Aug. 10 12-66 ... » .,! 11:40 ..., 9.82 Lb. oz. i 1 Tamahere ... Feb. 8 ... 8.90 7:50 8:38 | 10:55 Wanzlebenel Imperial Deppe's Silesian Im. perial ... Red-top Imperial ... Wanzlebenel Imperial Deppe's Silesian Im- perial ... ... Red-top Imperial ... Wanzlebenel Imperial Deppe's Silesian Im- perial ... Red-top Imperial ... Wanzlebenel Imperial Deppe's Silesian Im- perial ... Red-top Imperial Wanzlebenel Imperial Deppe's Silesian Im- perial ... Red-top Imperial .. ... 11.87 11:17 ... May 7 ... 12:79 ... Aug. 29 7:42 6:47 8.65 AGRICULTURE. 321 id October, instead of late in that month and early in November, as was the case with the roots examined. Mr. Werner has been to considerable trouble in trying to induce farmers in the district to grow sugar-beets for trial, but has not met with much success. The same difficulty was experienced by the United States Department of Agri- culture in 1891, as shown by the fact that out of 5,000 samples of seed distributed only 1,605, or less than one-third the number of samples, were returned for analysis, and with these in but few cases were the dirfctions issued complied with. The department has consequently decided to reduce the quantity of s«ed distributed, and to establish an experimental sugar-beet station, where practuul illustrations of the very best methods of sugar-beet culture, and the selection of "mothers" for the production of a high grade of seed would be given. Something of this kind might be done by our own Department of Agriculture. Agricultural experiments to be of any value must be carried out with rigid ad- herence to known facts, and must be, moreover, systematic. A well-laid plan of operations must be first drawn up, and the conditions insisted on. Fanners, how- ever, can seldom afford the time from their ordinary work necessary to the success- ful carrying-out of experiments. Cost of Working a Farm in New Zealand. It may be thought, because remuneration for manual labour is higher in the colony than it is in Great Britain, that therefore farm- ing operations must cost more. This assumption is, however, erroneous. It is within the mark to assert that five hundred acres or more can be worked at less cost than it would probably take to work a hundred-acre farm in Great Britain, and for the following reasons: first, the genial nature of the climate is such that it is unnecessary to house stock during the winter months, at least in the North Island, and so the cost of attendance is saved; secondly, farming operations may be carried on continuously throughout the ploughing and sowing season; thirdly, the paddocks are so large, and usually so level, that the double- and treble-furrow plough may be worked by one man or youth with three horses. The colonial farmer has availed himself of all the most modern labour-saving machinery. The hay-crop is simply cut one day, raked into windrows next, and in a couple more it is ready for stacking. Wheat is cut and tied by machinery, and stooked, requiring no capping. It is frequently threshed out of the stook in favourable seasons, thereby saving the cost of stacking and thatching; but this method is not recommended except in hot, dry seasons. The manure bill, which is such a heavy item of annual expendi- ture with the British farmer, is unknown or nearly so to the colonial farmer. As has already been stated, lewt. to l^cwt. of super- phosphates per acre is used with the turnip and other root-crops, and in a large number of cases not even so much. It will thus be seen how many advantages the colonial farmer has over the farmer of the old country. Stock. Sheep: New Zealand has proved itself to be admirably adapted for the breeding of all classes of sheep, from the fine-combing merino to the strongest type of Lincoln. The merino occupies and thrives 21 > 322 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL TEAR-BOOK. on the wild lands of the colony, from the snow-line to the border of the plains, as well as on the drier portions of the plains. The merino ewe furnishes the foundation for all the crossbred varieties. On the rich, moist soils the Lincoln and Romney Marsh flourish, while the finer English and Border Leicesters occupy the drier lands. Crossbred Sheep: Those bred from merino ewes and long-wool rams are the most suitable for the frozen-meat trade, and are known as " freezers." The dapper Little Southdowns flourish wherever crossbreds thrive. Their more ponderous cousins, the Shropshire and Hampshire Downs, ha've their admirers, especially the Shropshire, which are largely used for crossing with a view to producing early-maturing lambs. English Leicesters are also much sought after for this purpose. Since the development of the frozen-meat trade, sheep-farming in the colony has undergone a radical change. At one time wool was the chief consideration, the surplus stock finding its way into the boiling-down vat, the tallow and pelts being the only products of value. Things, have marvellously altered since 1882, the in- augural year of the frozen-meat trade. Farming has assumed a new phase, sheep-raising for mutton being now its most profitable branch. Sheep rose in value to a phenomenal price, which lasted till 1893. With the decline in the value of wool, there was a fall in prices of sheep. At the present time (1895) prices are so low that it is difficult to secure a reasonable profit.* Small and large flocks of pure and crossbred sheep are now kept on all farms which are suitable for them, the object being the production of early lambs for freezing. The percentage of increase all over the colony is very high, especially in the paddocks, where 100 to 125 per cent, is not uncommon in favourable seasons, while on the hill and unimproved country it varies from 45 to 80 per cent. Shearing commences in September, and continues till January. The usual price per hundred is 15s. to 17s. 6d. Shearing-machines are gradually coming into use, but some sheep-farmers prefer hand- shearing. The average clips for the various breeds of sheep are approxi- mately as follow: Merino from 41b. to 71b.; quarter-breds, about 6£lb.; half-breds, 7£lb,; three-quarter-breds, 8ilb.; Leicester, lO^lb.; Lincoln, 111b. Of course, very much larger clips are ob- tained from special flocks, as much as 251b. to 301b. per sheep; but the above figures represent general averages. The staple of New Zealand wool, especially the long-wool and crossbred, is remarkable for its freedom from breaks and other imperfections incidental to countries subject to long droughts and scarcity of feed. The most profitable sheep for New Zealand is that which combines * Since the above was written a considerable rise in the price of wool has taken place. AGRICULTURE. 323 the best fleece and the most suitable carcase for freezing purposes, together with early maturity. This is the class of sheep which some sheep-breeders have set themselves to produce. Whether such an animal, having fixity of type, can be evolved remains to be proved; so much depends on the feed, situation, and soil. The capability of New Zealand for producing mutton has not yet reached its limit. When the frozen-meat trade was first seriously considered, an assertion to the effect that the colony could find 1,000,000 sheep per annum for freezing without impairing the breeding-flocks was treated as highly chimerical by sheep-breeders of long experience. It is found, however, on reference to the statistical returns, that during the year 1893 1,830,612 sheep and lambs were exported from New Zealand; nevertheless the flocks went on increasing, numbering, according to returns made to the Agricultural Department, 20,230,829 in 1894, as against 19,380,369 in 1893, showing an increase of 850,460 sheep. There are twenty- one freezing-works in the colony, with a full freezing-capacity of 3,665,000 per annum. The determination of Australian flock-masters to cut into the frozen-meat trade has given rise to a demand for our long-wool sheep of superior quality; New Zealand breeders have conse- quently been enabled to extend their operations beyond their own borders; and although the trade may not prove a very extensive or lasting one, it will give encouragement to those who have spent time and money in building up their now famous stud-flocks. A New Zealand Sheepbreeders Association has been formed for the purpose of publishing periodically a register of stud sheep. The first volume will probably be issued this year. Three hundred entries have already been received. The work should prove of great value to breeders of pure stock. It is more than probable that there will always be a certain demand for sires bred in New Zealand, for the reason that this climate is probably better suited than the Australian for producing robust and hardy animals. It may be well here to correct an erroneous impression which has been fostered in some quarters, and appears to have gained credence in the minds of some sheepowners in Australia. It is to the effect that merino ewes cannot lamb to Lincoln rams; and as one fact is generally considered to be worth one hundred theories, the following will serve to set the matter at rest: Mr. H. Overton, Highfield, Kirwee, a couple of years ago, purchased a draft of strong merino ewes and put some of his stud Lincoln rams to them; the result was that from 210 ewes he tailed 234 prime lambs, which averaged him £1 per head; thus showing the fallacy of the idea above referred to. Horse-breeding. There are few, if indeed any, climates better adapted for the breeding and rearing of horses of all kinds than that of New Zealand. Horses, light and heavy, are always in demand in the 324 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. Australian Colonies, commanding remunerative prices; and it is more than probable that a lucrative trade will be done in the near future with the Western States of America. Indeed, shipments have already been made to that country of heavy Clydesdales. Some of the best blue blood of this breed has from time to time been imported from Scotland, with the result that the breed is now well established in the colony. The light-horse stock of the colony has risen into note through the production of animals which have rendered themselves famous on the Australian turf. The demand for horses suitable for remounts for the cavalry service in India is a continuous one, affording a ready market for the proper stamp of animal. Shipments have from time to time been made to that country with considerable success, and this trade is likely to increase. There is, however, a great scope for enterprise in this direction. The breeding of horses has been of late neglected. The importation of a few really good sires for the production of carriage-horses, hunters, and hacks would be a national benefit. Cattle. In February of this year—1895 —there were 964,034 head of cattle in the colony. The colony possesses all the best strains of blood, and this is evidenced by the superior class of cattle to be met with throughout the settled districts, especially in the show yards. There are two herd-books published by the Canterbury Agricultural and Pastoral Association—one for shorthorns, the other for breeds embracing Hereford, Polled Angus, Jersey, Ayrshire, Devon, and Highland— all pedigree cattle; the third volume of other breeds, just published, contains 1,200 new entries of the breeds specified. New Zealand is absolutely free from any of the diseases so disastrous to horned stock in other countries. It is said that Iceland is the only other spot on the earth which enjoys the same immunity. With a view to maintaining this enviable position, the Government have prohibited vessels carrying live stock from infected colonies touching at any of the ports of New Zealand. This action was deemed necessary owing to the discovery of a supposed case of pleuro-pneumonia on board the s.s. "Perthshire," which arrived at Lyttelton in May last, with a cargo of cattle from Queensland en route for England. Dairy Stock. The breeding of first-class dairy stock offers a field for profitable investment. Milking-cattle now command a comparatively high price, and will continue to do so for an indefinite period, owing to the fact that stock were allowed to run low for want of a market, which has sprung up with the building of factories. The rearing of well-bred heifer calves will amply repay all the time and trouble bestowed thereon. They must, however, be of exceptionally good * quality and fine milking strains. It may be well to remark that AGRICULTURE. 325 separated milk, although relieved of its butter-fat, loses little of its feeding value; the addition of a little linseed meal will restore the fatty constituents, which, however, are not the most valuable for feeding purposes. Ground oats, wheat, or barley added to the linseed mucilage, will render calves fit for the butcher in a compara- tively short time. An acre or so of European flax should be grown upon every farm where stock-rearing is carried on. The fattening of calves for export has not yet been attempted in the colony, and yet there is a very large and lucrative market for veal calves in London, ranging from £4 to £6 and £7 per head. The matter is under consideration, and may result in something practical being done, which would considerably augment the profits of the dairy. Much has yet to be done in the way of improving the dairy stock of the colony. The yield of milk from fairly good milking-cattle is approximately 500gal. per annum, although TOOgal. are frequently ■obtained from selected herds. The average quantity of milk ob- tained will no doubt be increased as more attention is paid to breed- ing and proper feeding. The general management and feeding of dairy stock is a question demanding immediate attention. Kind treatment is essential to success; clean pastures, clear running water, and grasses of the best quality are all factors, fully recognised wherever dairying is successfully carried out. The average yield of butter from milk passed through the separator is lib. for every 2£gal. of milk of 10|lb.; so that the average cow produces annually 2001b. of butter, or 5001b. of cheese, which, estimated at 4id. the pound, will be worth about as much as the butter. From £5 to £8 per head can now be readily obtained for young niilking-stock. A few years ago they were hardly saleable at all. To the British farmer this may not appear a satisfactory value; but when it is considered that hardly any housing or hand-feeding is required, the price leaves a very good return. The Dairy Industry. This industry has grown into a very important one. It has been claimed for New Zealand that she might become the Denmark of the South without any very keen competition from the Denmark of the North. Whatever our claims may be to the above title, it is quite certain that we are having a hard fight with the Danes for supremacy in the English markets. The fall in the price of butter is due more to Danish competition than to over-production. The Danes are flooding the markets of Britain with a view to driving the Australasian out. They will certainly succeed unless the colonial dairymen take the same care as their rivals in all the details of the business. The Danish Government maintains a splendid laboratory and staff of professors, chiefly for the study of ferment in butter and milk, and almost all the milk sold is pasteurised. Everything in connection with the industry is con- ducted on scientific lines. The Danish dairy cattle have to be 326 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAH-BOOK. housed during the six or seven winter months. This fact gives New Zealand an immense advantage over her rival, which will, however,, avail little if we continue to ignore the teaching of science. In the North Island, along the west coast, factories have sprung up in all directions. This will be the great dairying district of the colony, the humidity of its climate rendering it better adapted to this in- dustry than any other. The luxuriance of the pastures has to be seen to be appreciated. Large tracts of bush-lands are being thrown open for small settlements, and are eagerly taken up for the most part by thrifty hard-working men. Land is procurable either by purchase, or on lease in perpetuity, on the easiest terms. Homes are being built up in all directions, dairy farming being the staple business of the occupants. The very nature of the in- dustry renders it peculiarly well suited to small selectors. It is hardly necessary to point out that all butter and cheese in- tended for export will have to be factory made, for the reasons that no other will command the highest price, and that so much more can be made of the milk by the use of the separator. One illus- tration will serve for our purpose. Experience has demonstrated to a certainty that 26ilb. (or 2igal.) of fairly good milk will produce lib. of butter which averages 2d. per pound more than ordinary farmers' butter; whereas it takes 331b. (or 3gal.) of milk, treated in the old-fashioned manner of setting in pans, to produce the same quantity of butter—which means exactly 50 per cent, more returns from the milk treated on the factory method. The factory system is now well established, and with judicious supervision and care in grading, handling, and packing of butter for export, the industry should flourish and lucrative employment be secured to thousands of persons. A great impetus will probably be given to the dairy industry by the introduction of an automatic milking machine, the invention of Mr. Reuben Withell, of Brookside, Canterbury. This machine has had many tests, the most recent being one held by the Agricultural Society of New South Wales, and has been favourably reported on. Pigs. These useful adjuncts to the dairy should hold a very importaut position on almost all arable farms. The favourite breed in New Zealand is the improved Berkshire. The large and small breeds of White Yorkshire are also to be met with, but are not so generally approved of as the black pigs. The rearing and fattening of pigs should be a profitable investment if carried out properly and on economic lines. They require no better attention than a good grass paddock, with a liberal supply of roots, a little unthreshed pea-haulm for a few weeks before killing, with plenty of water, and shelter from the sun during the wannest summer months. Reference was made in the Year-book for 1894 to a new method of preparing mess pork, which had been introduced to the colony by an agent of a large provision firm, and would, it was claimed, create AGRICULTURE. 327 a practically unlimited demand for pigs. It is a matter for regret that these expectations have not been realised, at least to any great extent. Large numbers of pigs are now cured by what is called the dry process, which will probably develop into a large trade. Baising Young Stock. It may not be generally known that young stock and pigs maybe raised and fattened on separated milk, quite (or nearly) as well as on whole milk. It is only necessary to supply the fat removed by the separator. This can be cheaply done by the addition of a little linseed gruel or mucilage, made by steeping or boiling the seeds, whole or crushed, of European flax, the addition of which supplies the elements removed in the butter-fat. Every farmer ought to grow a patch of this useful plant—say, one acre, which should produce from 15 to 20 bushels of seed. The straw, if worked up, will supply all the twine and ropes required on the farm, or may be used for thatching purposes. The Fbuit Industry. From the North Cape to the Bluff Hill, in the extreme south of the Middle Island, the climate and soil are, for the most part, eminently adapted for the growth of a large variety of fruits. Generally speaking, pears, plums, quinces, apricots, figs, walnuts, cherries, gooseberries, currants, strawberries, and raspberries grow luxuriantly, producing abundant crops of fruit. In the Auckland District, oranges, lemons, and limes flourish: many groves are now bearing, and afford light and pleasant employment to a large number of persons. This employment will go on increasing as the trees become older. The olive flourishes in the North Island, bearing heavy crops, and the manufacture of oil is gradually becoming an important industry. Vine-growing is also carried on with tolerable success in many districts, tons of fruit grown under glass are sold in the Auckland markets annually. Signor Bragato, an Italian wine expert, who recently visited this colony, gave it as his opinion that there are numerous localities in both Islands admirably suited for growing vines for the manufacture of wine and raisins. Away in the far north the banana grows and ripens its fruit, but it is not thought that it will ever enter into successful competition with those imported at so cheap a rate from the Pacific Islands. Extensive orchards of apples have existed in Auckland for more than half a century, producing abundance of fruit of excellent quality, yielding returns equal to £40 or £50 per acre in favourable seasons, provided the trees are kept free from pests. Orchard-plant- ing is progressing rapidly, and must one day become a very important industry. Fruit-growing is expected to pay well in Central Otago, where the climate is admirably suited for all the fruits of the temperate zone, and to progress rapidly so soon as the district is tapped by railway. 328 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAK-BOOK. The manufacture of cider is already assuming considerable di- mensions. The drying of fruit has been fostered by the Government, who sent an expert through aome of the apple-growing districts, giving practical lessons in the art of artificial fruit-drying. Large quanti- ties of apples are annually allowed to go to waste, which might with great advantage be converted into wholesome food. A great deal might also be done in bottling fruits, and the manufacture of fruit-wines, if only for home consumption. The manufacture of jam is carried on with much success, and might, under certain conditions, be largely extended. Exporting Apples. This trade has not yet assumed any great dimensions. New Zealand orchardists might well take a lesson from their brethren in Tasmania, who have developed a large trade with the London market. Growers must, however, be reminded that it is folly to ship anything but the choicest varieties of dessert- and keeping- apples. Before the planting of fruit-trees was commenced on a large scale, with a view to the export trade, little attention was paid to the varieties selected. The result is that many bearing trees have proved unsuitable to the new requirements, and are now being cut down and regrafted or replaced with more suitable kinds. According to latest advices, the following varieties of apple are said to be in most request in the London market, always commanding a quick sale at good prices—Kibstone Pippin, Cox's Orange Pippin, Wal- tham Abbey, Stunner Pippin, Scarlet Pearmain, Adam's Pear- main, and New York Pippm. The soil best adapted for growing apples is a strong loam with a clay subsoil; but they will thrive in almost any kind of soil, provided it is in good heart and that water does not stagnate in the subsoil. Owing to the comparative mildness of the New Zealand climate, all kinds of fruit-trees are forced into bearing at an earlier stage than in Great Britain. Tube-planting. With a view to encourage the planting of trees, the Government introduced the popular American institution of Arbor Day. The 4th of August in each year is to be set apart for the purpose of the public planting of trees. Millions of trees have been planted in this way in the United States. It is to be hoped that the same happy results will attend Arbor Day in New Zealand. Our native forests are fast disappearing before the woodman's axe; it is only a ques- tion of time and supplies will have to be drawn from artificial forests. Deciduous trees—such as ash, elm, and beech — should be largely planted. A small quantity of ash grown in Canterbury has already come into use for coach-building, and has been pro- nounced by competent experts to be of excellent quality. Planta- 330 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAK-BOOK. The low prices for farm produce during the last few years have,. naturally, proved discouraging. It may, however, be fairly assumed that a return of prosperity will witness the settlement of the lands throughout the colony. Conclusion. A few of the salient points have now been enumerated which go to prove conclusively that, as a country for settlement, New Zealand is not surpassed by any British possession, being one where the industrious man with moderate means can live with much comfort. The land, it is true, is perhaps dearer in some districts than that which may be found in South America, South Africa, or Canada, but this difference in price is far outweighed by other considera- tions, such as superiority of climate, and security to life and pro- perty. Pit these advantages against the insecurity of life and pro- perty in South America and South Africa, or the rigour of Canadian winters, and the balance will be immensely in favour of New Zealand. Another great advantage enjoyed by the agriculturist of New Zealand is that he is nowhere far from the sea-board, giving him the benefit of cheap water-carriage for his produce to the markets of the world. The foregoing notes would hardly be complete without some reference to the prevalence of small birds. Amongst other birds,, the English sparrow was introduced to New Zealand some three and twenty years ago. Many of the early settlers remember his first appearance, and the pleasurable feelings elicited by the sound of his once familiar chirp, awakening reminiscences of the Old Land. New Zealand is singularly destitute of the feathered enemies of small birds, and, owing to this and to the genial climate, the sparrow and other birds have long since become so numerous that drastic methods have to be adopted to preserve the balance of power. Large sums of money are paid annually by the Road Boards for the destruction of small birds. The want, however, of concerted action on the part of farmers at the time of poisoning is responsible for the undue in- crease of the pest. While treating small birds as pests, it must not, however, be forgotten that before their advent farmers suffered very heavy losses from the periodical attacks of caterpillars, which fre- quently devastated their barley and oat crops, and that the birds are the farmers' friends in this matter. It must also be remembered that the birds live for about nine months in the year on insects and seeds of weeds; so that if accounts could be squared they would not be such debtors after all. All that can now be done is to keep them in check. Agricultural Statistics. Full information is given by the Registrar-General in the portiou of this work devoted to statistics, for which see pages 186-201, anit. THE DAIRY INDUSTRY ACT. 331 "THE DAIEY INDUSTRY ACT, 1894." This Act was passed during last session of Parliament, and came into force on the 23rd of October, 1894, repealing the Act of 1892. During the time the latter was in operation, the experience gained, together with the large expansion of the business, made it mani- fest that further legislation was necessary. The present Act contains several important new clauses, and the working of these has already resulted in great benefit to the in- dustry. The powers of Inspectors have been considerably extended, and they may now inspect any farm, cowshed, or premises where milk is stored, and the water supplied to cows. Should they find these in an unsatisfactory state, they may notify the owner to remedy the defects, or may prevent the sale of the milk. They are also- armed with powers such as Stock Inspectors have under the Stock Act, so that they may deal with disease in stock. No person shall supply, send, or bring to a factory, creamery, or the public any milk which has been near any person or animal suffering from or infected with an infectious or contagious disease, or any milk that is tainted or sour. A new and important clause is that dealing with the cooling and aeration of milk when freshly drawn from the cow. Unfortu- nately, it is difficult to move milk-suppliers out of the old grooves; but as it has been proved beyond a doubt that a much larger quan- tity of butter or cheese can be produced from milk which has been properly cooled or aerated, surely it should be the aim of every owner of a dairy to carry out this important and simple duty. It is the intention of the department to strictly enforce the clause next season. Another new clause is that fixing the standard weight of a gallon of milk, with certain exceptions, at ICttlb. The general rule, however, is to pay according to the percentage of butter-fat in the milk, and over this there has been considerable dissatisfaction in several districts. This is to be regretted, as upon the careful testing of the milk much of the success of the industry depends. The ex- perts are giving this matter their attention, and it is to be hoped the difficulty will be got over next season. It should, however, not be forgotten that the farmers have, in many instances, only themselves to blame for the poor quality of their milk. Either they allow their stock to become so low in condition during the winter that, by the time the spring comes round, the cows are quite unable to stand the effects of the green grass, or they keep cows giving milk with only a small percentage of butter-fat. It should be the business of every farmer to test the milk of each of his cows, and by this means he will be enabled to find out those that are worth keeping. The largest milk-producers are not always the most profitable where milk is being sold to a factory paying according to a percentage of butter- fat. The Act provides also against the adulteration of butter or cheese by the addition of any animal-fats, or animal-, mineral-, or vegetable-oils. An alteration has been made in the mode of brand- ing the produce, and the department now issues stencil-plates bearing 332 JJEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. a description of the contents and registered number. This, besides being in effect equal to a trade-mark, enables an Inspector to say at a glance who is the manufacturer of any particular lot. Any person, however, may add his "Registered trade-mark" if he so desires. One of the most important clauses in the Act is subsection (1) of section 21, which gives the Governor by Order in Council power to -declare that— (" to 700 cows' capacity, £900; 400 to 500 cows' capacity, £750. Butter Fac- tories: 800 to 1,000 cows' capacity, complete with mechanical refrigerator, £1,500; 60tt to 800 cows' capacity, complete with mechanical refrigerator, £1,250; 400 to 500 cows' capacity, complete with mechanical refrigerator, £) ,000. Statistics of the growth of the export trade in butter and cheese will be found on page 137, ante. PRACTICAL HINTS TO PRODUCERS OF BUTTER AND CHEESE. [As appended to the report of Mr. C. R. Valentine, dated 4tli June, 1S94.J In the manufacture of cheese and butter too much attention cannot be given to the production and treatment of the milk before it reaches the factory or dairy, and this point should be looked upon as the first step in producing finest cheese or finest butter. In many cases, even when the highest skill is exercised in the dairy or factory in the manipulation of the milk, either for cheese or butter, there has been a failure to produce the finest article, on account of the farmers themselves not paying sufficient attention to the feeding of the cows, the condition of the cowhouses, and the general production and treatment of the milk from the time it is drawn from the cow to the time it reaches the dairy. 336 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. It is not my intention to go fully into the making of cheese and butter ir> tiiis report, but as the future of colonial dairy produce depends entirely in the first instance on the proper manufacture of the article, I feel 1 should not "be doing nrjr duty unless I referred shortly to several features in iU production. I have confined my remarks to certain point?, some of which, from my experience, are deserving of far more attention than is commonly bestowed on tliem. In many cases samples of colonial butter and cheese of secondary quality have come before my notice, the condition of which I attributed chiefly to faults which I trust my remarks will remedy. The golden rule for a dairy-manager to follow and to instil is to be " clean"— clean in the fullest and minutest sense of the word. Every process in dairy-work, from the milking of the cow to the placing of the product on the market, must be conducted with the most scrupulous care as to cleanliness. Cowhouse, teats, cans, hands, dairy, utensils, packing-cases, must nearly approach what may best be described as " test-tube " cleanliness. The sanitary condition of the cowhouse is the most important point. Here the milk, when drawn, may absorb germs (in a dirty cowhouse) that are absolutely ruinous to the chances of a first-class dairy product. The proper cooling of the milk before being separated, in order to get rid of the animal heat, and its quick removal from the cowhouse, are points of vital import- ance. Treatment of Corns.—In the treatment of cows, great care shotdd be taken in driving them from the pasture to the cowhouse, cow-bail, or to the milking-places. They should never be hurried or made to go faster than at a walk, and on no account should a dog be allowed to assist the driver. It is very painful for cows with well-filled udders to move over the ground faster than a walk, besides, in warm weather, by hurrying the animal, there iB a danger of over-heating her milk, which not only injures it but affects all other milk with which it comes in contact. During the heat of ttie day, in summer-time, many find it an advantage to keep their cows in, letting them out in the cooler part of the day; of course, much depends upon the shadiness of the pastures. Another great failing is the want of kindness and gentleness to stock. Cows should be kept as quiet and as comfortable as possible, and no person should be employed in milking that, the animal fears. Any nervous excitement not only lessens the quantity of milk, but depreciates its quality. Ureal advantage can be obtained by the proper sheltering of the cows from bleak winds and storms. We hear of cowb kept out in all weathers, and oftentimes farmers are prosecuted for the adultera- tion of milk when they actually have not adulterated it, but the cows hare done it for them by having absorbed the fats of the milk to sustain warmth in the absence of proper shelter. The Cowhouse or Cow-bail.—Oftentimes milk is spoilt on account of the bad sanitary condition of the cowhouse. This building should be properly ventilated, and constructed in such a nay as to resist the heat of summer and coldness of winter, and to insure a good circulation of fresh air without draught. Uniformity of temperature is very conducive to a regular milk-yield, and if the quantity is dependent upon the kind and amount of food given, the quality is affected by the- kiml of air inhaled. So far as concerns the quality of the milk, there need be no hesitation in asserting that the expense and study of a proper system of feeding is thrown away in the case of cows kept in badly-ventilated buildings, breathing an atmosphere charged with carbonic-acid gas and ammonia, the products of decompo- sition. The due proportions in the air are most essential to the purity of the hh>od of the animal, and also of the milk, which is a secretion from it. While speaking of the impurity of the blood, the milk of a cow should never be used for butler- or cheese-making at the .time of her periods. Turnips for Butter Cows.—There is a great difference of opinion in giving turnips to cows for butter-making, on account, of the turnipy taste being iu the* butter, which of course is most prejudicial to its sale. There need be no hesitation in giving turnips to cows for butter-making if the following treatment be carried out:— Pulp or cut up (the former is better) the turnips twelve hours before giving: PRACTICAL HINTS TO PRODUCERS OF BUTTER AND CHEESE. 337 them to the stock, and expose them to the air. It has also been proved advantageous to give theni to the cows after the milking. This will prevent a great deal of the disagreeable flavour imparted to the butter, and a further treatment, namely, in scalding the cream and thoroughly ripening it after, will get rid of what little of tbe objectionable flavour remains. Ensilage.—A great deal is spoken of ensilage, and it has been proved that it is a most beneficial food for stock generally, and especially for dairy cows, but. it. must be of good quality. Many people have the idea that the making of ensilage is a remedy to improve half-harvested hay, but it is impossible to make good ensilage of bad material; in fact, there cannot be worse food for dairy cows than bad ensilage; it may spoil the milk of a particular cow, and that of all others which it comes in con- tact with. In many cases I hare known of dairies of cheese and butler being spoilton account of the cheese-making rooms being in the vicinity of a store of bad ensilage. To make ensilage properly, the crop should not be allowed to get over-ripe; it should be cut in its full succulence, loaded immediately after it is cut, and exposed to as little sun and wind as possible, although a small quantity left overnight and carried next morning will not suffer much injury. It can be made without any expense or mechanical pressure by simply adding a few layers at a time and well treading down, adding more and more at times and repeating the treading; or it can be made by placing a few planks on the top of the stock, and running the roller over them until the forage is sufficiently consolidated underneath, the planks and roller remaining on the stack until complete. Of course there are other systems which it would be outside my province to refer to. There are some admirably-designed ensilage-presses made in England which are in general use. Milking.—The hours of milking should be regular, and each cow should be milked in regular order. Cleanliness is the first point to be considered. All dirt should be rubbed off1 the cow's udder, and the hands of the milker kept clean. The milking should be done gently, quickly, and perfectly; all chucking and plucking at the teats to be avoided. The first, because everything that soothes the animal is beneficial; and the last, because you obtain the richest milk, known as the "strippings," which are invaluable to butter-makers. It is a well-known fact that by dividing a cow's yield of milk into four equal parts, the last part drawn will give four times the richness of the first part drawn, which clearly shows how essential it is that tbe greatest care should be taken in seeing that every drop of milk is removed from the cow's udder at each milking. By failing to carry out this, not only will there be a loss in the richness of the milk, but the secretion will gradually diminish in proportion to the quantity each day left behind, as well as tend to injure the general health of the cow. As soon as tbe milk is drawn from the cow it should be taken outside the cow- house, carried ns gently as possible to the dairy, and strained through a fine sieve, and the quantity entered in the dairy record. On no consideration whatever should the milk be allowed to remain in the cowhouse or sbippon after the milking. No matter how much skill is exercised in seeing that tbe cowhouse is kept in a perfectly sanitary condition, there will always be some little taint, and, as the milk is more absorbent at a high temperature, it will naturally take up any small taint with which it conies in contact. If the distance to the dairy will not enable the milkers to carry the milk away after each cow has been milked, suitable accommodation should be found outside the cowhouse, where it may be stored until it is convenient to carry the whole to the dairy for separation. If the weather is warm or the milk intended for transit, it should be cooled down immediately after milking before any injurious change can possibly take place. It is a well-known fact that milk is pre- served in proportion to the rapidity with which it is cooled down. Scientific investigations have proved beyond doubt that when milk is suddenly cooled the vital organisms (the cause of rapid decomposition) are destroyed, and the milk is conse- quently preserved, whereas if cooled by slow degrees these vital organisms will be found in it. Cream-raising.—With regard to dealing with the milk on arrival at the dairy: If in the least way it has been overheated it will be found beneficial to aerate it and cool it as before referred to. 22 338 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. Considering the great difficulty which has to be fought against in colonial dairy- ing—namely, the higli temperature, there should not be the slightest hesitation in the adoption in every case of the centrifugal separator, the u»e of which is in every respect the most advantageous method of removing the cream from the milk; not only as regards the augmented and improved butter yield, but also for the freshness and good quality of the skim milk and cream. Although some of the choicest butter sold in the English market is made from cream raised by the shallow pan and other setting systems, still this cannot be taken m an example for the colonist to follow, as in the generality of such cases the butter is made in a much cooler climate. To prevent the reputation of colonial butter being injured by those who still hold to the old system of creaming—namely, the shallow pan and other setting systems—and in order to make choicest butter by such a system, the following directions should be carried out:— The milk should be skimmed carefully after it has stood twelve hours, taking care that what is skimmed off consists of cream, unmixed with milk. A second skimming may be made twelve hours afterwards, but the cream should not be mixed with the first cream taken off until about six to nine hours before churn- ing. Iu cool weather the cream can remain on the milk for twenty-four hours, but should never be over that time. Some people imagine that as good butter can be made with cream remaining on the milk for thirty-six hours, and even forty-eight hours, as when it remains only twelve hours or twenty-four hours, but it is a very great mistake. The cream that rises first is the best, and to make choice butter the cream should be taken from the milk before it becomes old and sour. The greater the decomposition of milk the more will the cream be affected, and, as a consequence, the mere difficult will it be to obtain a nice quality of butter from it. It is strongly recommended that dairies of all sizes should adopt the centri- fugal separators, now that they are made at a price within the reach of every one, ae there is such an inclination in the old system of creaming to allow the cream to remain on the milk for too long a period, which, us before mentioned, prevents the production of the best butter and does much damage to the reputation of the dairy. Ripening Cream.—In order to make good butter the cream should be properly ripened, as, if cream is churned sweet, the butter will lack that fine nutty flavour which cream " slightly ripened" gives. At the same time great care must be token in the ripening of the cream, as over-ripe or sour cream will produce an inferior article. The proper ripening is the result of certain chemical changes that are brought on by exposure to the air. Frequent stirring facilitates ripening and secures a uniformity of the process. Temperature has a good deal to do with the ripening, because at a low temperature the chemical changes go on slowly, oxygen being the principal agent in producing these changes. If cream is wholly excluded from the air, ripening will stop, there will be no oxygen to unite with the soft fata and produce flavour, nor with the milk-sugar to produce lactic acid. Cream should therefore be kept in a pure atmosphere. As a further advantage in churning ripened or " slightly soured " cream, it has been proved that 4 to 5 per cent., and I have proved by many experiments tbat even 7 to 8 per cent., more butter can be made than from sweet cream. To ripen cream artificially (which is desirable, especially in the cold weather), heat the cream gradually to about 64° Fahr. in cold weather, or 60° Fahr. in summer, about twelve hours before churning, and add about 3 per cent, of sour cream, milk, or buttermilk. It is also important tbat cream should be of uniform ripeness before being churned. Scalding the Cream.—The flavour of butter will be much improved by scalding the cream at time when the cows are fed on certain foods which produce an objec- tionable flavour in the butter, as with turnips, or at the time of year when the young grass appears, or at the falling of the leaves. This can be done by placing the can containing the cream in boiling water and gradually raising the temperature of the cream to ISO0 Fahr. When the oream has obtained that temperature it should be removed into a temperature of about 50° to cool it down (colder if possible), and at the time required for churning it should be ripened. The scald- PRACTICAL HINTS TO PRODUCERS OF BUTTER AND CHEESE. 339 ing of the cream in factories can be greatly simplified by using a large vessel jacketed with steam. Colouring of Butter.—One of the market requirements in butter is its colour, and it will be seen from my reports on several English markets what shade is most appreciated. The fact that grass butter always has a rich shade without resorting to artificial colouring is sufficient reason on the part of consumers for suspecting that very pale butter must be of inferior quality, uniformity being the only rule that will sell butter in the present day. Late fall or spring butter made from the milk of 'cows fed upon hay is generally deficient in colour, and unless some artificial means be employed to give it the desired shade it will not command a price in the market equal to butter of the same texture and flavour that has been coloured. Pure annatto not mixed with water is the best colouring matter, as it prevents an uneven or streaky appearance, ind should be added to the cream in the cream-pot before churning. The amount of colouring to be used much depends upon the depth of colour required, and must be left to the discretion of the butter-maker. The Dairy or Factory.—The best position for a dairy or factory is a quarter under ground, not too far from the cowhouse, but out of the way of odours and gases arising therefrom, and from the decomposition of manures. The windows should be covered with perforated xinc, the majority facing the south, so as insure an immunity from the hot, glaring sun in summer, the roof to be a good non-con- ductor, and of a material that that will not harbour insects. The dairy must be in close proximity to pure spring water, have perfect drainage, be well ventilated with pure air, and cool and dry. The best floor is of flags, smooth-surface quarries, or con- crete, and should always be kept dry, as dampness tends very much to the develop- ment of organic germs, which, floating in the air by thousands, fall on the milk and attack it immediately it is brought in, and, finding it a most suitable medium for development, cause sourness, fermentation, and putrefaction. Any strong-smelling matter should never be kept in the dairy, as milk is of such an absorbing character, especially at the high temperature at which it is generally brought in, that it quickly takes up any foul odour. Churning and Working.—The churning operation is one which should receive every attention of the butter-maker, as the success rests entirely on the process being perfectly carried out. Even if every care is taken in the production of the milk and its manipulation in the dairy, if this process is not conducted correctly, viz., in getting rid of the whole of the cmeine fermentation (buttermilk) at the proper time, the skill exercised in the previous work is thrown away. As before referred to, heat being the greatest enemy to be fought against, too great importance cannot be attached to the temperature for chUrning, as the differ- ence of a few degrees of temperature in the cream would spoil a whole churning. The temperature to commence with much depends upon the ripeness and quality of cream, and also the temperature of the atmosphere, but the following scale may be adopted:— Temperature of Temperature of Atmosphere. Cream. 66° Fahr. ... ... ... ... 54° Fahr. 64° „ ... ... ... ... 55° „ 62° „ ... ... ... ... 56° „ 60° „ ... ... ... ... 58° „ 58° „ ... ... ... ... 58° „ 66° „ ... 60° „ 64° „ 61° „ Having found many samples of colonial butter of inferior quality, which it is very clear is to some extent due to over-churning of the butter, i give the following chapter on churning from my book on dairying, which has had a wide circulation in most countries:— "The churning of cream, although a mechanical process, is aided by a chemical action induced by allowing the cream to become ripe or slightly sour, which is easily understood, for, by allowing the sourness to take place, lactic acid is formed, which 340 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAE-BOOK. dissolves the shells of caseine or curd surrounding the globules of butter-fat as already mentioned. These being removed, the globules are allowed to come to- gether and cohere by the operation of churning. "The churning should be done with regularity, the speed depending upon the make of churn, commencing slowly, and after the swelling has subsided, which will be in about four to five minutes, increase the speed a little. "Ventilate the churn frequently by removing the plug for a few seconds, or by pressing down the ventilator, its the case may be, to allow the gases to escape which ure caused by the expansion of cream through the agitation. This ventilation must * be continued until the air has finished rushing out when the plug is removed, which generally takes place during the first ten minutes. The time varies according to the ripeness of the cream; the more sour the cream is the expansion will be greater, causing more gas. The ventilation should receive every attention, for by not doing so, the expansion has no relief and is one of the causes of sleepy ' cream, results of which are too well known to describe. "Listen attentively to the sound of the cream, and immediately it changes in the lenst degree, stop the churning, remove the lid, and examine the contents. "If the grains of butter thus formed are no larger than a pin's head the churn- ing is finished, and the butter ready for washing, but if the grains are smaller return the lid and rotate the churn a few times, which will increase the grains to the desired size ; not as the greater number of butter-makers do, who believe in churning their butter into lumps, which is the cause of the greater part of the inferior butter made. It stands to reason that if these grains are lumped together in one homo- geneous mass they incorporate a certain amount of buttermilk in them, and to get rid of the buttermilk it has to be over-worked, which giveB us butter of bad texture and soft. There is a great saying amongst our old dairymaids, 'gather the butter well before drawing out the buttermilk.' This only shows how wrong the action is. If it really must be gathered, let it be done after the washing, whan the buttermilk is free from it. It the weather is cool, withdraw the buttermilk; to avoid loss, pus the buttermilk through a hair sieve, which will retain any particle of butter that may escape with the buttermilk, and return it to the churn ; but, on the other hand, if the weather is warm, and the grains of butter inclined to be soft, it will be found best to sacrifice part, or even the whole of the buttem ilk if necessary, by pouring in cold spring water to cool the grain* of butter, and keep them floating. It will be found beneficial in hot weather to add to the grains of butter in the churn when they are just formed one-eighth pure cold spring water, say one gallon to eight gallons of cream, then continue the churning until the grains are enlarged to the required size. When the butter has just formed, the temperature of it should never register above 60 Four.; it would be better for it never to be higher than 56°, and then you can rely upon having firm grains—hence good textured butter; otherwise there would be no certainty even if the churning is stopped at the proper time. Too much attention cannot possibly be taken in seeing that the buttermilk is separated from the butter at the proper time, viz., when the butter is in a granular form. The greater part of the bad ilavour imparted to butter, either from improper feeding or treatment of stock, or for want of a proper knowledge in the manipulation of the milk and cream, is found in the constituents of buttermilk; this only shows how important it is that every particle of the buttermilk should be excluded from the butter." Great care must be taken in the working of the butter, in order to secure a perfect mixture, hence a firm butter, which is one of the chief characteristics of "finest" butter. The object of working butter i« to free it from as much water as possible, or any buttermilk which remains in it after washing, to give it a more solid consistency. without the least injury to the grain or texture. Every movement of the roller of the worker should be a direct pressure, avoiding any rubbing or slitting motion." CllKEsE-MAKlUG. One of the market requirements in the present day is to have cheese of clean Ilavour and mild, whether it be a " fat," " halt-meaty," or "skim " cheese, and it is very surprising to see the many dairies of cheese sold on our several markets at au CHEESE-MAKING. 341 unprofitable price because they possess a "strong" or "not clean" flavour, wben there is a simple way to improve it. The course to adopt in the manufacture of cheese in accordance with the con- sumers' taste is to take care that the production and treatment of the milk before it reaches the dairy or factory is carried out as previously described ; that the whole of the utensils are kept scrupulously clean; that the milk, before being coagulated or "set," has developed sufficient acidity, and yet is not over-ripe; that the raising or lowering of the temperature is not done too rapidly; that the best rennet alone is used in the coagulation, and that while it is being added the milk is well and yet not over stirred; that the curd, in the first instance, when sufficiently firm, is cut down very gently—this is most important; that the curd is never allowed to drop below 65^ to 7nc Fahr.; that the salt is weighed in proportion to the quantity of curd, and t hat the best salt alone is used; that the press-room be kept of uniform temperature, and also the cheese store-room. Although the manufacture of the several classes of cheese differ somewhat, attention to the features just mentioned will be found most important in all classes of cheese, in order to make an article pleasing to'the palate of the consumer as well as remunerative to the producer. As previously mentioned, it will be desirable for the colonists to make cheese in accordance with the different, markets' requirements; and, in order to produce good results, it will be most advantageous to adopt the modern apparatus, especially as the highest skill is necessary to combat the high temperature of the colony. Treating more fully on the advice given above, there is no doubt that one of the greatest secrets in producing a " finest" cheese is to see that the milk has developed a certain amount of acidity before the rennet is added. At. the same time, great care must be taken that the milk has not developed too much acidity, and it will be found most important, in the case of milk being over- heated, to cool it down by aerating it, to take out the animal heat, and then to heat it up again if necessary to develope the ri-quisile acidity. The milk should always be strained before pouring it into the cheese-tub, and throughout the whole of the manipulation the checse-ma^er should remember what his first qualification should be—"cleanliness." The regulating of the temperature of the evening's milk is most essential, and especially in the hot weather. The evening's milk, if not made into cheese, should be cooled so as to reach a temperature from 58° to t>2° Fahr. in the morning, and then, when the morning's milk is added, as a rule you may depend upon the acidity not having developed too far. Of course I do not intend in this report to go fully into the manufacture of cheese, but I merely refer to certain points which should receive every attention considering the high temperature which one has to fight against. Discretion should be used in adding the rennet with regard to the temperature of the milk at that period. If the temperature is loo low, the curd remains too soft, and much difficulty is experienced in separating the whey. If, on the other hand, the temperature is too high, the separation is easily effected, but the curd becomes hard and dry. It is very important that the milk should be well stirred for two or three minutes after adding the rennet, but if tho slightest amount of coagulation is noticeable the stirring must be immediately stopped. It should be remembered that the stirring is not only to spread the rennet more uniformly over the milk, but to prevent, if possible, the cream rising. An inferior curd, and especially the bad flavour of cheese, owes its origin in many cases to the want of proper care in the handling of the milk from which it has been made. The very greatest care must be exercised in cutting down the curd, and the blade of the knife should be such that there is no fear of the curd being torn by its use, which must necessarily, in bruising the curd, press out. the fatty portion. Many cheese-makers on finding the cheese when made not of rich quality, loo frequently attach the blame to the poorness of the milk, when it is due only to the careless cutting down of tho curd. It is also worthy of attention that, in "cooking■ tlie curd" the process should not be carried out too randomly, as, although the cooking when required is such 342 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. an excellent medium for producing a "finest " cheese, still it must be remembered that the raising of the temperature should be done with very great caution, and, as a rule, I should suggest that 100° is the maximum temperature that ran be employed with safety. This temperature is really too high, and should only be admissible when the heat is liable to pass off rapidly, and for the purpose of holding the bulk at 96° or 98°. The term "cooking" is very misleading, and as a rule in cheeae- making no process requires a temperature above blood heat The temperature of the curd in the cheese tub, until time for salting, should be carefully watched, a matter which will require great discretion on the part of the cheese-maker, for if ever the curd drops to a low degree of temperature it will be impossible to thoroughly get rid of the whey. Attention to all the points mentioned above is absolutely necessary if tbe- production of the " finest " cheese is aimed at. The Salting op Cheese and Bdtteb. It is beyond doubt that great negligence prevails on the part of many producers of butter and cheese in not seeing that the salt used is pure. Too frequently is salt purchased without thought — like artificial manure — on account of its apparent cheapness, and with the result that the fine flavour of tons of cheese and butter is affected on account of the salt being impure. Often- times is the work of a skilled butter- or cheese-maker thwarted in producing a choice' article through the manager or fanner purchasing without discretion, and sacrificing everything to present cheapness, with "penny wise and pound foolish " result. Jn order to show how vastly important it is that the purest salt should be used, and as so many producers are unaware of the work it has to perform, I briefly describe its several uses. Many people are under the impression that if salt is clean-looking to the eye it contains no deleterious ingredients that would affect the flavour of either cheese or butter. Too often are they of the opinion that the difference between the first-rate and the second-rate article is merely in its pulverisation aud its general get-up. The best line for producers to follow will ba to make a rule of purchasing salt from reliable firms, and on analysis. As regards cheese, the object of using salt in curds is to arrest putrefactive fermentation, and to check the acidity when it has developed sufficiently to produce the best results. It is also an important agent in varying the taste and keeping qualities of the cheese; and the- character and reputation of the cheese will depend, to a great extent, on the careful way in which it is applied. The salt must be used with the greatest discretion, as, by using too little, the cheese will ripen with great rapidity aud necessitate early consumption; whereas, on the other hand, if too much is used it certainly cures the cheese, but it hinders the ripening and maturity, and often- times makes the cheese hard and stiff. As regards butter, the chief object is to bring every particle of the caseous ferment, present more or less in all butter, into contact with the salt, and so check its own tendency to decay and its consequent action on the butter itself. A thorough mixture of the salt with the butler is therefore desirable, but in applying it great care must be taken that the texture or grain of the butter is not injured in the least. The amount of salt to be used must depend upon the taste of the consumer and the district to which it is consigned, but it must always be weighed in proportion to the quantity of the butter. Any of the old ideas of "rule of thumb" must be abandoned. In the case of fresh butter, the use of a standard solution of brine, poured on the butter when in a granular condition in the churn, is an admirable method of insuring uniform admixture, and, in addition, this plan, especially advantageous in the absence of cold water, solidifies tli" butter, making it easier to deal with when working. The constituents to salt, which affect the quality of butter and cheese, are the chlorides of calcium and magnesium. A satisfactory guide to the purity of salt is its dryness, as the chlorides cause the salt to absorb and retain the moisture, and it- should be of a pure white colour, free from odour and possess a pungent taste. BUTTER AND CHEESE PACKING. 343 Ab an example of good dairy salt, I give two analyses of samples received from a noted firm :— Sodic chloride ... ... ... ... ... 9817 Calcic sulphate ... ... ... ... ... 1'76 Magnesh-chloride ... ... ... ... 005 Insoluble matter, &c. ... ... ... ... 0'02 Moisture Sodium chloride ... Calcium sulphate Magnesium salts ... Phosphate and silica 10000 05 981 1-2 0-2 None 1000 Packages. The general make-up of butter and cheese depends upon the custom of the market to which it is consigned, local tastes having to he considered. Whatever form is adopted, it must be of attractive neatness, which well repays the trouble of the packer. With regard to butter, the present style of packages of colonial butter, viz., the cube boxes, has now become well known and popular, and is no doubt a special feature of the trade, but, considering the fame won by the continential trade with casks or firkins, the colonies must consider the importance of adopting them if required by the trade in the several markets. Of course fine quality will always sell, but much depends upon the general appearance of the packages. The adoption of any other package to those at present in use will, of course, be a matter of consideration; at the same time, now the treatment on hoard ship has so much improved, there is no reason why lighter packages in the several forms should not be adopted to suit the different, markets, if necessary. The great advantages of the present packages are the cheapness of manufacture, the saving in shipping-space, and the suitable shape for the counter, which greatly simplifies the work of the retailer. The packages should be of uniform size and of uniform weight (net), and few nails should be used in fixing the lids. So doing facilitates opening, and also preserves the lids: it insures quick replacement of a new sample before the customer, if the first is not approved of, and also insures the box being intact; it removes the prejudice of it appearing a "rejected" article. All packages should be lined with stout vegetable parchment paper, and yet not too stiff, and this should be purchased from h reliable firm in order to insure its being iroperly manufactured. It will be found beneficial, in insuring a good "turn-out" of the butter, if a double thickness of the paper is used, and this system, I am pleased to note, is carried out by a few firms with success. With regard to cheese, the sexagon or octagon-shaped crates usually adopted answer very well, and certainly have the advantage of allowing of ample ventilation, but care must he taken that the cheeses contained in each crate are of uniform quality. Although there is no doubt that if the producers exercise every care in the making of a fine quality cheese, the patent crates will soon win a reputation for them- selves, and will be exemplified as "Colonial Cheese," yet in order to meet the wants of the different markets it may be deemed necessary to adopt the American and Canadian boxes. There are (September, 1895) in this colony 73 cheese factories, 78 butter factories, and 83 creameries. To supply these, about 70,720 cows are milked. The approximate yearly output of cheese is 10,365,4531b., value £172,743, and of butter 8,084,2981b., value £269,424. These factories employ 488 men. 344 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. NEW ZEALAND FORESTS AND THE TIMBER INDUSTRY. By Professor T. Kiuk, F.L.S. If the relative importance of the various branches of colonial industry be determined by the value of the output of each, the timber industry occupies the fourth place; but, if it be based on the amount of remunerative employment afforded by each, this industry occu- pies nearly the first place. The number of saw-mills in working- order at the date of the last census (1891*) was: In the North Island, 119, employing 1,996 persons; and in the Middle Island, 124, affording employment to 1,270 persons—a total of 243 mills, requiring the services of 3,266 persons. But this number does not nearly represent the amount of labour employed, as many men engaged in the preliminary work of felling, logging, hauling, building dams, laying tramways, Ac, are returned as "bushmen," "contractors," "drivers," Ac, without anything to show that they are directly- connected with saw-mill work. If these be added, the number of persons employed will certainly not be less than 5,000. Further, in some districts large quantities of sawn or hewn logs are conveyed to the mills by rail or by coasting-craft: while, in all alike, round or sawn timber constitutes one of the largest items of railway-freight, and in this way gives employment to many more. General Character of the Forest. The character of the forest varies greatly in different localities, according to the kind of trees composing it and the degree of luxuri- ance which they attain. New Zealand forests are usually of a mixed character, some one or two kinds predominating to a greater or less extent. It is but rarely that large areas of forest consist of a single species only; but there are noteworthy exceptions—thus, the mountain forests consist of mountain-beech exclusively; the Oxford and Alford Forests of entire-leaved beech; some large areas are altogether covered with tawa; kahikatea forms uniform forests in swampy districts, and smaller areas are occasionally found contain- ing nothing but kauri. Still, the great bulk of the forest is of a mixed character. This renders it difficult to lay down well-defined areas for the principal timbers, more especially as most of the trees are generally distributed through the colony. Nevertheless, certain districts may be roughly defined according to the prevailing tree or trees, although the boundaries must of necessity be somewhat vague. (1.) The Kauri District. This may be defined as that part of the colony lying north of a line drawn from Tauranga to Port Waikato, the kauri being the • A year of intense depression; many mills were entirely closeO, and others worked only half-time, or even less. FORESTS AND THE TIMBER INDUSTRY. 345 predominating tree over large portions of the area. In some parts only single trees are found, in others they occur in clumps or groups, sometimes forming extensive groves, or even large blocks, almost to the exclusion of all other trees. Most frequently the kauri will be found mixed with rimu, kahikatea, tanekaha, miro, totara, totara- kin-kotukutuku, northern rata, puriri, tawa, tarairi, matai, and many other trees, the tawa, as a rule, being most abundant. The nikau, or southern palm, is plentiful all through the district, and is everywhere accompanied by noble tree-ferns and palm-lilies. The underwood is composed of numerous shrubs, and the ground is carpeted with a rich growth of delicate filmy ferns. A large kauri forest is one of the grandest sights to be found in the entire range of the vegetable kingdom; massive columnar trunks, 4ft. to Sft. in diameter, clothed with smooth grey bark, rise close together often to the height of a hundred feet or more, their spreading arms and deep green leaves presenting a picture of the greatest luxuriance and vigour. At the base of each tree is a large mound of humus, formed by the decay of bark through successive centuries. The surface-soil as well as the humus is charged with resin that has exuded from the fallen leaves or twigs. Some of the most ancient specimens are among the oldest trees in the world, and must have originated in a period long before the Christian era, yet they still exhibit all the life and exuberance of early youth. In the extensive swamps by the Northern Wairoa and other rivers, the kahikatea forms forests of a remarkable character. The uniformly straight naked trunks often exceed a hundred feet in height, carry very short branches at their tops, and are so close together that at the distance of a few yards the view is com- pletely blocked, and nothing is to be seen but the column-like trunks from 2ft. to 5ft. in diameter; the undergrowth being insignificant. (2.) The Totara District. Although the totara is distributed throughout the colony, it occurs in larger masses in the central portions of the North Island, more especially on the eastern side. Large areas, in which it is the prevailing tree, are found in many parts south of the Lower Waikato, more especially in the southern parts of Hawke's Bay, the northern portion of the Wellington District, and the Seventy- Mile Bush. In a large portion of the area the totara is sparsely scattered, and even when most dense is usually intermixed with rimu, tawa, totara-kiri-kotukutuku, kamahi, hinau, kahikatea and other trees. Unlike the kauri the bark of the totara is of a deep brown colour and much furrowed, while the short narrow leaves are of a brownish green. Amongst the most conspicuous trees of this area there are two worthy of special mention, the northern rata and the black maire, which occur in vast abundance in many localities. The former is often found with a distorted trunk of gigantic dimen- sions clothed with rough brown bark. The latter has a pale bark and yields a timber remarkable alike for its density, strength, and 346 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. durability. Large portions of the forest, especially on the western side, consist chiefly of tawa, rimu, and kahikatea, which are extensively converted throughout the district, the first-named for dairyware and butter-kegs, the two latter for building and general purposes. Tooth-leaved beech, entire-leaved beech, and silver-beech are plentiful on the lower slopes of the mountains, but rarely descend to the sea- level, while mountain beech forms the bulk of the forest at high levels. Eimu and kahikatea are the chief timbers of the moist forests in the valleys of the Manawatu, Eangitikei, and Wairarapa. (3.) The Bed-pine District. This might be termed the low-land pine district of the Middle Island, as practically it comprises all the forest country in that island below a level of 1,000ft. Although in nearly all localities the forest is of a mixed character, yet from Marlborough to Stewart Island the rimu must be considered the predominating tree, and is the most extensively converted. The kahikatea stands next in abundance, and is closely approached by the kamahi, while the miro, matai, totara, Hall's totara, are generally distributed; but the- northern rata and pukatea scarcely occur south of Greymouth. The Westland silver-pine, yellow silver-pine, and quintinia, although not peculiar to Westland, are more abundant there than in any other part of the colony; while the southern rata, which extends to Stewart Island, is especially plentiful in the Tautuku Forest, where it attains very large dimensions. Cedar or pahautea, pokaka, and hinau are not unfrequent, while most of the beeches are plentiful,, especially in the southern parts of the district. The undergrowth contains a large variety of shrubs or small trees, many of which afford timbers suitable for ornamental cabinet-work and inlaying. Much of the rimu and kahikatea in the south-western portion of the Nelson District, and in Westland, is of great height, and very well-grown, in some cases yielding 80,000 superficial feet of converted timber per acre. The area of heavy forest on the eastern side of the Middle Island is small; the inland Oxford and Alford Forests consisting chiefly of entire-leaved beech. (4.) The Beech District. This may be roughly defined as that portion of the Middle Island between 1,000ft. and 4,000ft. in altitude, for, although the rimu aud kahikatea are often found above 1,000ft., yet they rarely occur in any great quantity, or exhibit great luxuriance; so, on the other hand, the different beeches occasionally descend even to the sea-level, although rarely forming any large portion of the forest at extremely low levels. The most valuable forest-tree is the tooth-leaved beech, which attains exceptional luxuriance and large dimensions in the neigh- bourhood of Te Anau Lake, and many other localities. Silver- beech and entire-leaved-beech are found as far south as Preservation Inlet and the Tautuku Forest, while the mountain-beech prefer* FORESTS AND THE TIMBER INDUSTRY. 347 . . 3,420,000 . 1,850,000 . 1,900,000 . 3,400,000 400,000 . 3,240,000 . 2,394,000 492,000 . 1,182,000 500,000 higher levels, although occasionally a few specimens descend to the rimu district. None of the beeches extend to Stewart Island, which in many parts is covered with a dense growth of rimu, kamahi, and rata, the kahikatea being extremely rare. Area of Forest Land. The following statement of the approximate areas still under forest was published in the report of the Survey Department for the year ending 31st March, 1893 :— Acres. Auckland Land District— North of Auckland South Taranaki Hawke's Bay Wellington Marlborough .. Nehon Westland Canterbury Otago Southland 20,578,000 The State forest reserves, including those made for climatic- purposes, comprised 1,141,778 acres on 31st March, 1895. Exploitation and Conversion. The trees are felled and cross-cut into suitable lengths for con- version, the logs being conveyed to the mill by flotation, by tram- line, or, more rarely, hauled by oxen or horses. ,1; Flotation is the method most commonly used in the kauri dis- tricts, which are much broken by deep gullies and small streams,, opening into tidal creeks. After the trunks are cut into lengths a "rolling-road" is formed to the nearest creek. All the scrub is closely cut down for a width of from twenty-five to thirty feet, and all stumps are removed, while inequalities are reduced so as to obtain an approximately even surface, inclined towards the creek. The logs are forced along this road by timber-jacks, which the bushmen use with remarkable skill, and are impelled with a rapidity which is simply astonishing to persons unused to the pro- cess. If the creek contains plenty of water the logs float to the nearest booms without further trouble, and are drawn out of the water as required, but in many cases the creek does not contain sufficient water to float the logs, and then they are left until heavy rains afford the requisite depth. Often it is necessary to construct costly dams to impound the water in the upper parts of the creek, in order that it may be suddenly liberated when the water in the lower parts is at its greatest depth, so that the entire assem- blage of logs may be " driven " to the booms. In dry seasons the logs may remain in the bed of the creek for months, and, occasion- 348 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAB-BOOK. ally, after a successful " drive," the harvest of logs is carried out to sea and lost, the booms breaking from the immense pressure behind them. Kauri-logs, thus set free, often drift to the coast of the Kermadec Islands, nearly seven hundred miles north-east of the Hauraki Gulf. Tram-lines are less common in the kauri district than in the southern parts of the colony. In portions of the Taranaki District, where milling timber is some- what sparse, timber-wheels are commonly used; but in nearly all places where milling timber is plentiful a tramway is constructed. Kamahi, or other common timbers are used for sleepers. Rails are sawn out of better stuff, and laid in notches cut in the sleepers, being tightly fixed by wooden wedges. Haulage is usually effected by horse-power, but in some cases the tramway is built in a more sub- stantial manner, light steel rails being used instead of wood, and the logs are hauled by a steam motor. The maximum proportion of tramway required is half a chain per acre. Loading places are con- structed alongside the line, at a distance of twenty or thirty chains apart, to which the logs are hauled by oxen. If of large size, the timber-jack is employed to facilitate loading. It is not considered profitable to haul logs from a greater distance than ten chains on either side of the tramway. It is in the Southland forests, where there is a large extent of comparatively level land, that the tram- way is most used. The sawmill is usually worked by steam power, rarely by water, and may vary from the magnificent mills of the Auckland District to the small portable engine and movable saw-bench commonly seen in a block newly opened for settlement. For their completeness, and the quality of their machinery, the Auckland mills are equal to any in the world. They are fitted with vertical breaking- down saws, capable of dividing the largest logs into halves or flitches, as may be required; vertical frame-saws for converting the flitches into boards, and circular saw-benches having rack adjust- ments for the conversion of scantling. Planing machines of the best pattern, tonguing and grooving machinery, moulding machines, as well as machines for the manufacture of doors and sashes, coopers' staves, gates, wheelwrights' stuff, &c, &c, are to be seen on all sides. Some of the mills are furnished with the elenric light, so as to allow of work being carried on through the night when required, and in a few cases arrangements are made for seasoning converted timber by the hot air process. In the totara and rimu districts the mills are less complex, of smaller extent, and driven by less powerful engines. Breaking-down is commonly effected by the circular saw, and in the case of very large logs by two circular saws, an upper and a lower working in the same vertical plane. Vertical frame-saws can scarcely be said to have been brought into general use, although they are becoming more common. A circular-saw bench, with rack adjustment, serves for the con- version of boards and scantling. Planing is effected by a simple machine with revoving cutters. Machines for tonguing and groov- FORESTS AND THE TIMBER INDUSTRY. 349 ing and for moulding are to be found in nearly every mill, the former usually combined with the planing-machine. Planing- machines of a better type are coming into use, and, at one or two of the Hokitika mills, wide boards and panels, suitable for ornamental cabinet-work, are turned out by frame-saws in a style that could not be surpassed either in England or the United States. Output and Labour. The value of the total output of sawn timber, planed flooring and skirting, mouldings, doors, and sashes, for the entire colony during the year 1890, was stated by the Eegistrar-General to be £832,959. Owing to the severe depression experienced during that year, this amount is no less than £344,754 below that of the previous census, 1886. At the census of 1891, twenty-five mills had been closed, and the number of persons employed had fallen from 5,042 to 3,266, many of the mills working even less than half- time. Since that date, the trade has greatly improved, and its volume is largely increased. Of the total output for 1890 the forty-seven Auckland mills contributed more than one-half, the value of their output being £416,978, while the manufactures of the 196 mills in the other provincial districts were valued at only £415,981. The sum paid in wages during the same year is stated at £271,783; but this includes only a portion of the amount paid to the bushmen, fellers, and others engaged in preparing the logs for conversion, as many mills purchase logs from settlers, or employ contractors, who deliver the logs at the mill at fixed rates. The approximate value of land, buildings, machinery, and plant svas returned as under: Land, £160,750; buildings, £92,848; machinery and plant, £246,674: total, £500,272. In the kauri district, bush-hands are commonly paid 20s., or rarely 18s. per week, with board and lodgings, the accommodation in some cases being plain, but amply sufficient in so mild a climate, the board plentiful and of good quality. In some instances, married bush-hands put up a rough cottage, the larger part of the material being supplied by the manager free of cost, and sometimes enclose a small garden; in this case, saving the cost of rent and firing, while securing a large amount of comfort at a minimum of expenditure. On the other hand, the cost of flour and other provisions is some- what higher than in the towns, on account of the heavy charges for freight. At page 49 of the Eeport of the Labour Department (H.-10,1893), it is stated that a sawmill hand returned his average yearly earnings, after allowing for lost time, at £115. A bushman, under the same conditions, returned his earnings at £92 8s. As a general rule, wages for adults are a little higher in Westland than in any other district on account of the higher cost of living. On the other hand, they are slightly lower in the Auckland District, where compensa- tion is found in the greatly-reduced cost of living. In Southland, at this date (May, 1895) henchmen are paid at the rate of 9s. per day, 350 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. QllHMtitV. Value. Ft. £ 3,214,742 14,200 5,225,627 26,914 13,180,280 65,119 43,474,434 177,877 42,568,600 176,608 42,098,863 181,689 42,824,365 182,431 22,860,551 87,581 26,718,046 101,082 81,901,415 116,116 ■or £12 per month when in work; ordinary mill-hands, 6s. 6d. to 8s.: planing-machine men and bushmen, 7s. to 8s. per day; engine- drivers, 7s. to 8s.; bullock-drivers, 7s. to 8s. Timber Export. The following table shows the gradual development of the export trade, and its present position :— Sawn aud Hewn Timber. Year. 1871 1875 1881 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 By far the greater portion of exported timber consists of kauri, the proportion of other timbers being almost insignificant; thus, in 1887 the quantity of kauri exported was 30,230,084 superficial feet, valued at £124,347; all other timbers, 1,404,380 superficial feet, valued at £4,475. The export of rimu and kahikatea is, however, increasing, although not very rapidly; up till now the greater part has been shipped from the Bluff, but the recent completion of the Hokitikaand Greymouth Railway will lead to considerable shipments being made from the latter port. Figured rimu, which is plentiful in the Westland forests, could be placed on the London market at a low price, either as selected board or as logs, and would command a ready sale if arrangements could be made for shipments at regular intervals. The remarkable falling-off in the export of 1892 was caused by the terrible commercial depression experienced throughout the Australian colonies as well as in New Zealand. The returns for 1893 and 1894 show that a marked improvement has since then taken place. Varieties of Timber Trees. The chief timbers and timber-trees of New Zealand may fairly be divided into three classes :— I.—Timbers of Great Durability and Large Dimensions, suitable for Constructive Works, House-building, or for Special Purposes. 1. Kauri (Agatltis australis), Salisbury. 2. Totara (Podocarpus totara), A. Cunningham. 3. Totara-kiri-kotukutuku (Podocarpus Italhi), T. Kirk. 4. Matai (Podocarpus spicata), R. Brown. 5. Kawaka (Libocedrus doniana), Endlicher. 6. Pahautea, or cedar (Libocedrus bidwtllii). Hooker f. 7. Northern manoao (Dacrydium kirkii), F. Mueller. 8. Southern rnanoao (Dacrydium colensoi). Hooker. 9. Westland pine (Dacrydium westlandicum), T. Kirk. FORESTS AND THE TIMBER INDUSTRY. 351 10. Yellow silver-pine (Dacrydium intermedium), T. Kirk. 11. Puriri (Vitex littoralis), A. Cunningham. 12. Tawhai rauuui, tooth-leaved beech (Fagus fused). Hooker £. 13. Tawhai rauriki, entire-leaved beech (Fagus solandri), Hooker i. 14. Tawhai, Blair's beech (Fagus blairii), T. Kirk. 15. Maire raunui (Olea cunninghamii). Hooker f. 16. Maire (Olea lanceolata), Hooker f. 17. Narrow-leaved maire (Olea montana), Hooker f. 18. The northern rata (Metrosideros robusta), A. Cunningham. 19. The southern rata (Metrosideros lucida), Menzies. 20. Pohutukawa (Metrosideros tomentosa), A. Cunningham. *21. Small-leaved pohutukawa (Metrosideros polymorpha), Forster. 22. Manuka rauriki (Leptospermum ericnides), A. Richard. 23. Maire tawhake (Eugenia nuiire), A. Cunningham. 24. Kowhai (Sophora tetraptera), Aiton. II.—Timbers suitable for General Building Purposes, or for Special Uses, but of less Durability than the preceding kinds. 26. Rimu, red-pine (Dacrydium cupressinum), Solander. 26. Kahikatea, white-pine (Podocarpus dacrydioides), A. Richard. 27. Miro toromiro (Podocarpus ferruginea), Don. 28. Tanekaha (Phyllocladus trichomanoides), Don. 29. Toatoa (Phyllocladus glauca), Carr. 30. Mountain toatoa (Phyllocladus alpinus), Hooker f. 81. Tawhai rauriki, mountain beech (Fagus cliffortioides), Hooker f. 32. Tawhai, silver-beech (Fagus menzicsii). Hooker f. 33. Pukatea (Laurelia novte-zelandite), A. Cunningham. 34. Hinau (Elceocarpus dentatus), Valil. 35. Pokaka (Eloeocarpus hooherianus), Raoul. 36. Tarairi (Beilschmiedia tarairi), Bentham and Hooker f. 37. Tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa), Bentham and Hooker f. 38. Titoki, tokitoki (Aleclryon cxcelsum), De Candolle. 39. Tawari (Ixerba brexioides), A. Cunningham. 40. Mangeao, tangeao (Litsea calicans), Bentham and Hooker t. 41. Rewarewa (Knightia excelsa), R. Brown. 42. Tawhero ( Weinmanma silvicola), Banks and Solander. 43. Towhai, or kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa), Forster. 44. Porokaiwhiri (Hedycarya dentata), Porster. 45. Kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabiU), Hooker f. III.—Timbers of Small Dimensiotis, adapted to Special Purposes. 46. Horopito (Drimys axillaris), Forster. 47. Tarata (Pittosporum eugenioides), A. Cunningham. 48. Karo (Pittosporum crassifolium), Banks and Solander. 49. Tawhiwhi (Pittosporum tenuifolium), Banks and Solander. 50. Mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus), Forster. 51. Huoi, or manatu (Plagianthus betulinus), A Cunningham. 52. Wharangi (Melicope ternata), Forster. 53. Kaikomako (Pennantia corymbosa), Forster. 54. Ake (Dodontea viscosa), Linne. 55. Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigata), Forster. 56. Putaputa-weta (Carpodetus serratus), Forster. 57. Kumarahou (Quintina serrata), A. Cunningham. 58. Makamaka (Ackama roscefolia), A. Cunningham. 59. Manuka, or kahikatoa (Leptospermum scoparium), Forster. 60. Ramarama (Myrtus bullata), Banks and Solander. 61. Small-leaved Ramarama (Myrtus ralphii), Hooker f. 62. Rohutu (Myrtus obcordata). Hooker f. 'Found only in the Kermadeca. 352 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. G3. Rohutu (Myrtus pedunculata), Hooker f. 64. Kotukutuku, or kohutuhutu (Fuschsia excorticata), Linne. 65. Horoeka, lancewood (Pseudopanax crassifolium), Seeman. 66. Toothed lancewood (Pseudopanax ferox), T. Kirk. 67. Papauma (Griselmia littoralis), Raoul. 68. Puka [Griselinia lucida). Poster. 69. Tree kararuu (Coprosma arborea), T. Kirk. 70. Yellow-wood (Coprosma linariifolia). Hooker f. •71. Tupari (Olearia colensoi), Hooker f. 72. Akeake [Olearia traversii). Hooker f. 73. Heketara (Olearia cunningliamii), Hooker f. 74. Akeake (Olearia avicinnuefoha), Hooker f. 75. Neinei (Dracophyllumlatifolium), Hooker f. 70. Mountain neinei (Dracophyllum traversii), Hooker f. 77. Inaka (Dracophyllum longifolium), R. Brown. 78. Toro (ilyrsine salichia), Heward. 79. Mapau (Myrsine australis), A. de Candolle. 80. Tawaapou (Sideroxylon coslatum), Bentham and Hooker f. 81. Maire (Fnsanus cunninghamii), Bentham and Hooker f. 82. Ngaio (Myoporum h.'tum), Banks and Solander. 83. Toru (Persoonia toro), A. Cunningham. 84. Milk-tree (Paratrophis microphyllus), Bentham and Hooker {. 85. Makomako (Aristotelia racemosa), Hooker f. 86. Tumatukuru (Discaria toumatou), Raoul. A brief description of each of the above species will be found below. The weight per cubic foot, unless otherwise specified, is invariably for seasoned timber :— Class I. 1. Kauri (Agathis australis), Salisbury ; "Forest Flora of New Zealand," Plates 79 to 81. North Cape to Maketu and Kawhia. This is the finest tree in New Zealand, and affords the most valuable timber. It varies from 80ft. to 100ft. and upwards in height, with a trunk from 3ft. to 8ft. in diameter; but specimens have been measured with a diameter of fully 22ft. The bark is smooth, of a dark-grey colour, and falls away in large flat flakes. The leaves are rather close-set, very thick and rigid, lin. to 3in. long ; and the handsome globular cone is nearly 3in. in diameter. The timber is of the highest value, and combines a larger number of good qualities in a high degree of perfection than any other pine timber in general use; for, while of great strength, it is of high durability, and unites a firm, compact texture with great silkiness, so that it is worked quite as easily as the best Quebec yellow vine. Many logs are beautifully clouded, feathered, or mottled, and are highly valued for ornamental cabinet-work, panelling, &c, realising from £7 to £10 per 100ft. superficial. Ordinary wood without figure is used for wharves, bridges, and constructive works generally; squared piles, railway sleepers, ship-building (espe- cially for deck planking), house-building, fencing, and other purposes too nume- rous to mention. It is exported to a greater extent than any other New Zealand timber, and affords employment to nearly one-third of the entire number of persons engaged in timber conversion. Its turpentine constitutes the valuable resin known as kauri-gum, in gathering which nearly 7,000 persons are employed. Its specific gravity varies from 0-498 to 0700. Its relative strength when compared with English oak is as 892 to 1,000; weight per cubic foot when sea- soned, 37111b. to 421b. The mean average breaking-weight obtained from twelve specimens is 16551b. FOKESTS AND THE TIMBER INDUSTRY. 353 2. Totara [I'odoearpus totara), A. Cunningham; "Forest Flora," Plate 115. Mongonui to Southland. The totara stands next to the kauri for general utility, and, being more widely distributed, is by some considered of equal, or even greater, value; but, though equalling kauri in durability and the facility with which it can be worked, it is inferior in strength, and will not take so high a finish. The tree is usually from 60ft. to 80ft. in height, the trunk having a diameter of from 2ft. to 6ft., but specimens 100ft. high, with a diameter of 8ft., are not infrequent. The trunk is clothed with fibrous brown bark, which is deeply furrowed, and in very old specimens is fully 3in. thick. The leaves are about Jin. long, linear, and of a gTeenish-brown tint. The wood is of a reddish-brown colour, and does not warp or twist. It is clear and straight in the grain, and, therefore, easily worked. It is of extreme durability, and is largely employed for building purposes, bridges, wharves, telegraph-posts, railway-sleepers, house-blocks, fencing-posts, and various other purposes. Owing to its unrivalled power of resisting the attacks of the teredo, it is highly valued for marine piles, and is unquestionably the best timber in the colony for that purpose. Many of the large canoes of the Maoris were hewn out of a single trunk. A well-grown totara forest has an imposing effect: majestic trunks, 60ft. or 80ft. to the first branch, tapering with the greatest regularity, grow so close together that very little top is developed; and the yield of first class timber is enormous, sometimes amounting to 80,000 or even 100,000 superficial feet per acre. Usually, however, the trees are of smaller dimensions, and the trunks are often distorted, and cannot be converted without a large proportion of waste. The specific gravity of totara is 559; weight per cubic foot when seasoned, 35171b.; breaking-weight, 133 Gib., the mean average of seventeen specimens. 3. Totaba-kibi-kotuktjtuku (Podocarpus hallii), T. Kirk; "Forest Flora," Plates 9, 9a. Mongonui to Stewart Island. This fine tree bears a close resemblance to the preceding species, P. totara, but is distinguished by the larger leaves, which are from Jin. to l}in. long, and espe- cially by the thin bark, from which its native name, Totara-kirikotukutuku, or fuchsia-barked totara, is derived. It also diners in the male catkins being carried on short Btalks, and in the fruits being pointed at the apex, while in the true totara the male flowers are destitute of flower-stalks and the fruits are rounded at the apex. The wood resembles that of the true totara, but is not of equal value for marine piles; it is, however, used for all purposes for which the true totara is em- ployed. The Maoris of Stewart Island employ the thin bark for packing mutton- birds, which form a valuable article for exchange with the northern tribes. 4. Matai {Podocarpus ipicala), R. Brown; "Forest Flora," Plates 4, 5. Mongonui to Otago. The matai, or black-pine, as it is often called by settlers, is a round-headed tree with erect branches, rarely exceeding 60ft. in height, with a trunk 2ft. to 3ft. in diameter, although larger specimens are occasionally met with. The leaves are close-set, about ^in. in length, of a bright green above, but whitish beneath. The fruits are spherical, less than Jin. in (liametor, of a bright-red colour, and arranged in terminal spikes. In the young plant the branchlets are extremely slender and pendulous, with larger leaves, which are of a deep-bronze colour. The aspect differs so widely from that of the mature plant that its identity is usually denied by superficial observers. lis rate of growth is extremely slow. The timber is of a red or yellowish-brown tint; it is straight, in the grain, firm, dense, heavy, of great strength and durability, while it is easily worked. It is largely employed for bridges and constructive works, house-blocks, framing, joii-ts, weatherboards, rnilwuy- sleepers, piles, millwrights' work, bed-plates, &c, and is especially valued for the flooring of churches and other public buildings, although, on account of its hard- ness, it cannot be laid so quickly as other kinds. Its specif!'' gravity varies from 0572 to 0-792; its weight per cubic font, when seasoned, from 4fi'8H:?lb. to 47"5081b; and its brenking-weight is 384031b. for a piece 2ft. long and lin. by lin. supported at each end and loaded in the centre. 23 354 NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK. 5. Kawaka (Libocedrus doniana), Endlirher; "Forest Flora," Plate 82. Hilly parts of the North Island—Mongonui to Taranaki. This is also termed kaikawaka by the Maoris, but unhappily this name has been commonly applied by surveyors and bushmen to the next mentioned species. It is known to many settlers as the New Zealand arbor vila. It is a noble tree of conical outline, sometimes 100ft. high, with a trunk from2ft. to oft. in diameter; and,like the next species, may be distinguished from other New Zealand pine* by the old bark fall- ing away in long thin ribbons, which are pendent from the trunk along its entire length. The branchlets are much flattened and clothed with imbricating scale-like leave*. The fruit iB a small cone, consisting of four woody scales, each with a short spine on the outside; each seed is furnished with a membranous wing. The wood is of a dark-red colour with darker streaks; it is straight and even in the grain, and often very ornamental. It is extremely durable, somewhat stronger than the next specie*, and has been used for general building purposes, fencing-posts, shingles, palings,