NYPL RESEARCH LIBRARIES 3 3433 08245171 1 . Silver S. W. SILVER & CO.'S CIRCULAR NOTES (Payable all the world over) ARE ACCOMPANIED BY A LETTER OF INDICATION, WHICH ACTS AS A LETTER OF INTRODUCTION. CORRESPONDENTS. EUROPE, Chief Cities and Towns. ASIA. Aden. Madras. Batavis Philippine Islands (Iloilo). Bomby. » (Manilla). Calcuta. Saigon. Colorbo. Shanghai. FooJhow. Singapore. G:le. Umritsur. Yokohama. ng Kong. B IUIUS. AFRICA. Alexandria. Beaufort, W. Bet iulie. Bloemfontein. Burzhersdorp. Cape Town. Carnsrvon. Coles berg. Dord.echt. Durkan. Graaf-Reynet. Graham's Town. Hope Town. Kimberley (Diamond Fields). King William's Town. Lagos. Liberia (Monrovia). Lorenzo Marques. Mafeteng (British Basatoland). Mauritius. Mossel Bay. Murraysburg. Philipstown. Pietermaritzburg. Port Elizabeth. Potscherfstroom. Pretoria. Reunion (St. Denis). Richmond. Somerset, East. Victoria, West. Winburg. Zagazig (Egypt). CORRESPONDENTS continued. AUSTRALASIA. Adelaide Port Lyttelton. Auckland. Portland. Bathurst. Sydney. Brisbane. Toowoomba. Christchurch. Wellington. Dunedin. Western Australia (Fre- Geelong. mantle). Hobart Town. (Port Launceston. Walcott), Melbourne. (De Grey Nelson. River), AMERICA. Bogota. Callao. Cleveland (O.). Chicago. Costa Rica (San Jose). Galveston. Lima. Montreal. Newfoundland (St. John's). New Grenada (Tumaco). New York. Panama. Para. Philadelphia. Portland (Oregon). Quebec. Rosario. Rio de Janeiro. San Francisco. Valparaiso. Vancouver Island (Victoria). WEST INDIES, &c. Barbados. Bei bice. Demerara. Grenada. Jamaica. St. Thomas. Trinidad ALSO AT Canary Islands (Lanzarote). Cyprus. Falkland Islands. Fiji Islands (Levuka, Ovalau). Madagascar (Tamatave). Madeira. Malta. New Caledonia. Sandwich Islands (Honolulu), All particulars respecting above on application to S. W. SILVER & co. SUN COURT, 67 CORNHILL, LONDON, E.C. AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, INCLUDING THE FIJI ISLANDS. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. SYDNEY MORNING HERALD.--The compilers have evidently been care- ful to make this book suitable to all classes and interests, and to arrange its matter so as to anticipate all possible enquiries. The principal attraction of the book undoubtedly is that it is a valuable collection of suggestive facts, unalloyed by any local prejudices. The historical and geological portions of the chapter devoted to this Colony are extremely interesting and instructive.' BRISBANE COURIER.— The information given with regard to each Colony is very well digested and copious. Respecting our own Colony, we find a clear and impartial résumé of its capabilities as a field, not only for emigration but for investment. The book is not a mere emigrant's guide, but comprises a quantity of information, excellently collated, which will be found useful even to colonists of long standing, and is in fact the most handy gazetteer of the Colonies with which we are acquainted. In the endeavour “to exercise a double impartiality-to balance the advan- tages and disadvantages of emigration compared with life in the Old Country, and, at the same time, to do equal justice as between the Australian and New Zealand Colonies," it appears to us the publishers have signally succeeded.' HOBART TOWN MERCURY.— The compiler has devoted impartial attention to each colony, and points out the advantages they possess as fields of emigration.' NATAL WITNESS.—The book ought to be in the hands of everyone who cares to have a concise yet complete history of these wonderful Colonies at his finger-ends.' ATHENÆUM.—' All the facts are given soberly and dryly, without any attempt at enthusiastic description or the graces of style. This, we are convinced, must be to the advantage of the intending emigrant, who has been too often misled by highly coloured and attractive descriptions. THE FIELD.— Messrs. SILVER, in bringing before the public this edition of their handbook, seem to have done all in their power to render it . worthy of its former favourable reception. ... Australia and New Zealand affording, as they do, such good fields for certain classes of emigrants, we are always glad to notice 'any publication that in a truth- ful manner brings their special qualifications before the public.' ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS.—The only satisfactory work is S. W. SILVER & Co.'s (published at the office of The Colonics). Its latest edition is considerably augmented and improved, with the addition of some in- teresting new chapters on the botany and zoology of New Zealand. The contents are so compactly arranged that it is quite pleasant to look for any item of knowledge, which is sure to be given in the most concise form of statement.' STANDARD.—. This work supplies emigrants with accurate information of the very kind they most want, in a clear, concise, and very portable form. It points out very satisfactorily the recommendations of each colony, with its special opportunities for the exercise of the right kind of quali- fication. To enable all emigrants to fix upon the country where they are likely to do best, we cannot conceive a more useful guide.'. GRAPHIC.—For a pocket guide-book brimful of facts about lands where labour almost commands its own price, we commend S. W. SILVER & Co.'s “ Australia and New Zealand." ; COURT JOURNAL.-" The volume is alike useful to the merchant, tourist, invalid, and emigrant.' PALL MALL GAZETTE. We do not know when we have seen such a mass of various information as this book furnishes in its way, and it is not only very full but a very methodical compilation.' LABOUR NEWS.—'We observe several improvements and some additions in this edition. The marginal references are very serviceable.' IRON.—' For the emigrant, the man who contemplates founding a home in a new world, till now nothing trustworthy and at a moderate price has been compiled, the more pretentious works being not only bulky and expensive, but too general, while the smaller have been issued by interested parties, painting in rose-coloured hues some particular spot where money or labour was to be attracted. The book contains no verbiage, all being closed by a full index of twenty-four pages to facilitate reference.' AGRICULTURAL GAZETTE.—' Agriculture occupies a conspicuous place in the book, and to read of its progress in the Colonies is almost like read- ing a romance.' MINING JOURNAL.—It really contains all that an emigrant, whether a capitalist or a working man, is likely to require. The several chapters are so subdivided that the reader, whatever may be his trade or profession, may readily refer to the subject in which he is more particularly interested.' LABOURERS' UNION CHRONICLE.- What Murray's handbooks are for gentlemen in all places of aristocratic travel, these handbooks of Messrs. SILVER & Co. will be to all classes seeking homes in our Colonies.' ELGIN COURANT.—'He who needs a colonial book of reference cannot find a better.' THE NEW YORK | PUBLIC LIBRARY ASTOR, LENOX AND TILDEN FOUNDATIONS. Opinions U UU IT000 B = o c EP Ti - NEW YORK E PUBLIC LIBRARY ASTOR, LENOX AND TILDEN FOUNDATIONI. S. W. SILVER & CO.'S HÅNDBOOK FOR AUSTRALIA & NEW ZEALAND (INCLUDING ALSO THE FIJI ISLANDS) WITH NEW MAP OF THE COLONIES. 17 THIRD EDITION. LONDON: S. W. SILVER AND CO. OFFICE OF THE COLONIES AND INDIA,' SUN COURT, 67 CORNHILL. 1880. I THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY 451630 ASTOR, LENOX AND TILDEN FOUNDATIONS. B 1908 L LONDON : PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE AND PARLLAMENT STREET PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. THE favour with which two editions of this Hand- book have been received renders it unnecessary for the Publishers to say much in introducing a third edition to the public. Great care has been taken, in revising the work, to bring the information contained in it down to the latest date, the statistical and other details having been corrected from the most recent returns from official and other authentic sources. The Map has been constructed to show the advances which have been made in the work of exploration and settlement of the Interior, and in- cludes, among other new features, the latest discove- ries of Forrest and Winnecke. August 1880. PREFACE. WHEN we first published this Handbook for Australia and New Zealand, we stated that it had been our desire to meet a well-known want, and to supply intending emigrants with accurate information in a concise and portable form. The great temptation of those numerous and able writers who have criticised colonial institutions has been to prefer a literary to a scientific treatment of the subject. Even when writing with the utmost good faith, they have involuntarily coloured their narratives with the personal impressions created by a somewhat limited experience. Our endeavour has been to exercise in the most scrupulous manner a double impartiality- to balance the advantages and disadvantages of emigra- tion compared with life in the old country, and at the same time to do equal justice as between the Australian and New Zealand Colonies themselves. The fact is, and it cannot be too plainly stated, that no colony is an El Dorado for those who lack the enter- prise or the moral qualities which ensure success all over the world. But each Colony has special recommenda- tions, and offers special opportunities for the full exercise of some kind of energy. In order to correct an erroneous tendency, we have considered the requirements of the skilled artisan, as well as those of the agricultural la- bourer; and we have collected full information for the PREFACE. vii the value and dignity of the Colonial possessions of the Imperial Crown, and of the magnificent future which is promised to our Colonies in every part of the globe. This future will be their inheritance as long as they are recruited from the hardy British stock, and display a fortunate union of free institutions with wise and orderly principles of internal legislation. This volume contains all necessary particulars as to the natural capabilities, the industries, the population, and the political circumstances of each Colony. The facts have been obtained from authentic sources; among others, from the agents-general of the different Colonies in London. They have, in this new edition, been care- fully corrected up to date, although allowance must still be made for some irregularity in the arrival, and for certain differences in the form, of the statistical statements prepared by the various Administrations in Australia and New Zealand. In order to render this second edition of the Handbook as complete as possible, the part relating to Natural History and the sections which treat of the botany of Australia and New Zealand have been virtually re-written. We have felt that the study of the fauna and flora of Australasia is as welcome to men of science and lovers of nature in the mother country as to practical men and pioneers of commerce. Already some of the noblest Australasian trees and shrubs have been acclimatised in Europe ; and we hope that in this, as in other instances, public opinion at home will be more interested than ever in the growth and splendid prospects of Her Majesty's dominions at the Antipodes. Believing the change to be useful, we have inserted a, coloured map of Australia and New Zealand, specially prepared for this edition of the Handbook, in lieu of the Season-Chart which appeared in the former edition. We viii PREFACE, have also added a chapter on the Fiji Islands, which are included in the range of our new map. Although the cession of this fine group to the Imperial Crown has not yet been formally completed, it is morally certain that the Home Government have resolved to face and overcome all minor obstacles in their patriotic desire to consult the unanimous wishes of the Australian Colonies themselves, and to perform an Imperial duty. The re- sult, we may reasonably expect, will be a lasting benefit to humanity and to commerce. After years of delay and vacillating policy, it is satisfactory to think that matters are en train for a complete and pacific annexation of the Fijian Group. We have had considerable assistance in the compila- tion of this work from Dr. Walter Buller, F.L.S., Mr. G. F. Angas, F.L.S., Mr. Jas. Bonwick, F.R.G.S., and other gentlemen who have kindly placed their services at our disposal. The pleasure which the rapid success of the Handbook has given us is heightened by the reflection that the great work of Colonisation is at once a relief to over- populated societies and a source of fresh power to new communities. THE PUBLISHERS. LONDON: September 1874. CONTENTS. [A copious Index will be found at the end.] Preface . . . . . . . . . . v, vi NEW SOUTH WALES. Discovery – History — Geography – Climate — Geology- Natural History of Australia - Australian Botany-Government-Popula-- tion-Education-Religion—Pastoral — Agriculture-Mining- Trade-Manufactures—Land laws-Immigration–Rates of wages -Prices of provisions-Hints to intending emigrants .1 to 100- VICTORIA. Discovery - History - Geography— Climate — Geology - Govern- ment-Population-Education-Religion-Pastoral—Agriculture - Mining — Trade-Manufactures-Land laws-Immigration- Rates of wages—Prices of provisions—Hints to intending emi- grants . . . . . . . . . 101 to 192 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Discovery - History – Geography – Climate — Geology, Govern- ment-Population Education-Religion-Agriculture-Pastoral -Mining-Trade-Manufactures-Northern Territory of South Australia—Land laws—Immigration-Hints to intending emi- grants . . . . . . . . . 193 to 234 QUEENSLAND. Discovery - History — Geography - Climate — Geology — Governa ment-Population Education Religion Pastoral-Agriculture: -Mining-Trade-Manufactures-Land laws-Immigration Hints to intending emigrants . . . . . 235 to 293 CONTENTS. WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Discovery - History - Geography - Climate — Geology - Govern- ment-Population Education—Religion-Agriculture—Pastoral -Mining-Trade-Manufactures-Land laws-Immigration- Hints to intending emigrants . . . . . 294 to 311 TASMANIA. Discovery–History—Geography-Climate-Local Natural History and Botany-Geology-Government-Population-Aborigines- Education-Religion-Agriculture-Pastoral-Mining—Trade- Manufactures—Land laws-Immigration-Hints to intending emigrants . . . . . . . . . . 312 to 342 NEW ZEALAND. Discovery–History-Geography—Climate-Distances of towas— Geology-Natural History-Botany-Government-Population- The Maoris — Education - Religion- Agriculture— Pastoral- Mining — Trade - Manufactures — Land laws-Immigration — Hints to intending emigrants . . . . . 343 to 415 THE FIJI ISLANDS. Discovery–History-Government-Geography—Geology–Natural History—Botany–Climate-Native population—Trade, &e. 416 to 424 Index, in detail . , . . . . . . 425 to 449 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH WALES. As the oldest of the Australian Colonies—the parent of NEW SOOTY Victoria and Queensland, the ruler of Tasmania in its WALES. younger days, the civiliser and coloniser of New Zealand, pa Parent -New South Wales is entitled to the post of honour in colony. any description of those southern lands. While the investor desires facts as to its monetary condition, the labourer as to the prospects of work, the miner concerning geology, the thoughtful emigrant about climate and productive resources, the general reader upon its rise and progress, an account of the Colony must include references, however limited the capacity of the volume, to every subject of interest. Statistical information, as well as scientific intelligence, are as necessary to the complete comprehension of the state of things there, as the details of ordinary colonial life and the administration of Crown Lands. The story of the settlement of New South Wales must naturally precede a statement of its present position. Discovery and History. On the 18th of April, 1770, Captain Cook was off Cook's Cape Howe, the south-eastern extremity of New Holland, discovery This was new land to Europeans. He sailed along the rock-girt coast in a northerly direction, noted its promontories and bays, and remained awhile on the flowery banks of Botany Bay. There he 2 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH came in sight of a party of natives, who boldly con- WALES. fronted the clothed strangers, and imperatively ordered them off the hunting-ground of the tribe. Hurriedly passing the headlands of a neighbouring passage, to which the appellation of Port Jackson was given, after the observing look-out, Cook continued to place upon his chart the features of the interesting shore, and attach thereto names which were destined to bear an importance the navigator then never suspected. Though the commander, with his two scientific com- panions, Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander, pursued Their voyage onward, rounded the Sandy Spit, careened in Endeavour Bay, and planted the British flag near Cape York, Botany Bay was not forgotten. It was so picturesque in its rocks and plants, so healthful in its atmosphere, and so beautiful in its very loneliness, as to command remembrance. Botany. When, therefore, at the Revolution of the American Bay recom- Colonies, whither home convicts had been previously mended as a penal despatched, the Ministry were at a loss what to do with settlement. accumulating criminals, the Botany Bay visitors spoke of the suitability of New Holland, this land so exiled from the civilised world, as a fitting place for exiles. The suggestion was adopted. The New South Wales of Captain Cook was declared a colony of Great Britain, and the bay of aromatic shrubs and curious floral forms was appointed to be the gaol of transported criminals. The settlement was made in 1788. For many years after occupation, though surveys of the coast-line were made, little effort was made to extend a knowledge of the country inland. The officers of the Government were naval men, and showed no appre- ciation of the work of discovery ashore. The tours of Governors were progresses through their little dominion of petty stations, and rarely ventured out of the forest tracks. It is true that a chase after some runaway cattle led the wandering herdsmen to that rocky amphitheatre, from district. whose almost perpendicular heights they looked down upon that very haunt of beauty-Illawarra. There was little enterprise to be expected of such an order of inhabitants as were camped heside Port Jack- Discovery of Illa- warra DISCOVERY AND HISTORY. 108. son. But when the rich flats beside the Hawkesbury NEW SOUTH were made known, land was granted there for would be WALES. farmers among the emancipated of the party. Broken Bay as well as Illawarra attracted similar attention. When the policy of the local government favoured a greater distribution of prisoner population, the cause of exploration was advanced, for several stations were established on the coast, as at Newcastle and Port Mac- quarie, and inland, as at Goulburn. But it was the energy of private flockmasters that opened up the western country. Messrs. Wentworth, Discovery Blaxland, and Lawson, seeking new pastures for their of the increasing flocks, attempted to penetrate the scrubs that western barred the passage over the Blue Mountains. What might be beyond those blue-tinted ranges had excited the curiosity and hopes of these fathers of the flocks of Australia. After some unavailing endeavours, success rewarded their energy in 1813. The heights were scaled, and the rich pastures of the Bathurst plains were gained. The zeal of private settlers awoke the attention of the authorities, and Surveyor-General Evans was sent to complete the discoveries of the young squatters. He got as far as the Lachlan River in 1815. But others that same year had revealed the lovely Vale of Clwyd, the romantic walls of the Grose, 1,700 ft. in height, with grassy slopes and plains, and soil most tempting to farmers. Two years after, the next Surveyor, Mr. Oxley, followed The Lach.. lan in 1815 along the banks of the Lachlan until the stream was by Mr. lost in an impenetrable marsh. That he concluded to Oxley. be the edge of a vast inland sea. Repulsed in an Supposi- attempt to go to the southward, for the ground was tion of au N parched by a drought, he boldly declared that New Hol- inland sea. , land south of the Lachlan was an impracticable desert, and utterly uninhabitable. Mr. Oxley had a further confirmation of his inland sea theory when he subsequently traced the Macquarie River to a marsh. He was more fortunate in lighting upon the fine Liverpool Plains, with the Peel and Hast- ings Rivers. His most important journey was in 1823. Going Queensland in 1823. north of the Hastings he travelled in the beautiful and hilly New England, and first trod upon what is now Queensland. Falling in with some shipwrecked cedar ? ? 4 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. River and rum and NEW SOUTH cutters near the coast, he gathered some information WALES. from them, and passed on farther northward. This led Discovery * to his discovery of the noble Brisbane River, of Moreton of Brisbane Bay, afterwards farther explored by Major Lockyer. · The year after, Mr. Allan Cunningham, the botanist, Darling Downs. undertook a tour in a line parallel to that of the Sur- veyor-General, and obtained the first glance at the Darling Downs of Queensland. In 1819, a colonial lad, Hamilton Hume, commenced his important career as an explorer. He was skilful in bush-craft, and endowed with much power of endurance. The Murrumbidgee River was first made known to settlers by him. Proposing a more extended journey southward, Mr. Hume secured Captain Hovell as a comp.nion in 1824. The Mar. After crossing the Murrumbidgee they caine to a longer stream, which they called the Hume, though afterwards Murray. found to be identical with Captain Sturt's Murray River. Rounding the spurs of the Alps, which are thrust far westward from the central pile, the travellers marched still to the south, until they gained the shores of a bay. This was asserted by Hovell to be Western Port, and by Hume to be Port Phillip Bay. The colonial young man proved to be correct. A man of education and science now undertook the work of discovery. This was Captain Sturt, attached to a regiment at Sydney, who secured permission, in 1828, to fit out a party, and who got Mr. Hamilton Hume for a guide. Taking advantage of some successive seasons of drought, he determined to trace the Macquarie througb the marshes seen by Oxley. A channel was easily found, Darling, and the Macquarie was followed down till its waters 1828. mingled with the Darling. At the close of the next year, Captain Start induced his Sydney friend, Mr. McLeay, to go with him to the south-west, that they might know the course of the Murrumbidgee. Along this stream they rowed for hun. dreds of miles, until they were floated into a larger river Captain called the Murray. Sturt on They now drifted down the Murray, which turned from a western to a southern course. A large river, Murray. coming down from the north into the Murray, was sus- The the DISCOVERY AND HISTORY. toria. pected to be the Darling, discovered before. Consider. NEW SOUTH able danger was encountered by the little crew, as the WALES. boat made its way between high banks of limestone, lined with suspicious savages. · As the craft was carried into a large shallow lake, the loyal soldier named the water after the Princess Lake called Alexandrina Victoria, afterwards the beloved Victoria after Prin- cess Vic- of the English throne. The rowers were guided on by the roar of the Southern Ocean. But a sandbar caused so rough a sea at the mouth that the Murray could not be safely followed out by the party, who had to return by the route they came. This great discovery solved the mystery as to the drainage of the western country of New South Wales. Major Mitchell, Surveyor-General of the Colony, be- came the honourable rival of Captain Sturt as an ex- plorer. A prisoner in the Sydney gaol had spoken of a large river to the north-west, which he had seen when a re- treating bushranger. The story induced the Major to Major go in search of it, in 1831. He was brought to the Wochen in 1831 He was hronciht to the Mitchell in Darling, discovered by Sturt in 1828. Other rivers, as Darling the Gwydir and Peel, were traced to the Darling. Two Gwydir,&c. years subsequently he had the misfortune to lose his botanical companion, Mr. Cunningham. Straying from Murder of Mr. Cun- the party, while looking for plants, he was waylaid and u au ningham. murdered by the alarmed Bogan aborigines. In 1835, the Major tracked the course of the Lachlan through the marshes where his predecessor had left it. The inland sea was not found there any more than at No inland the Macquarie. The desert of Mr. Oxley also disap- sea. peared, for the new Surveyor-General found a fine country by the Murray, and a much finer one still far. Mitchell ther south, which he called Australia Felix. across the Murray. While further news of that journey may be learned in the accounts of Victoria, particulars of another success- ful journey, in 1845–6, are given in the narrative of Queensland. New South Wales exploration was rewarded, in 1838, by the discovery of the fertile Clarence district. The south-east of the Colony was made known by Count Strzelecki and the Strzelecki, who crossed over the Australian Alps in Australian 1840, after passing through the rich Monaro plains. Alps, 1840. 6 TANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. HISTORY. VOHUNIU Wiiu CuciSOUI 1.044 Removed NEW SOUTH . The HISTORY of the Colony is one of strong contrasts. WALES. Like as in Rome, the early settlers gave rise to a race more noble and energetic than themselves. The famine, misery, and crime of the primitive period have been followed by remarkable prosperity and social advance- ment. The future is most hopeful at the present stage of colonial history. The suggestion of Captain Cook, as has been stated, originated the Botany Bay Expedition of 1787. First fleet The first fleet for New Holland sailed from England arrived at in May, 1787, and arrived at Botany Bay, January 18th, Botany Bay Jan 1788. There were landed 200 marines and 40 soldiers, uary 18, in charge of 696 prisoners, 192 of whom were females. 1788. Including the wives and children of the military, and 81 free emigrants, chiefly mechanics to instruct the prisoners, there were 348 free people. The total number was 1,044. landed. Captain Phillip was nominated as the Governor. Disapproving of the Bay as being no safe harbour, he brought the party round a few miles farther into the Port Jack- magnificent Port Jackson. . son. On the southern shore an encampment was made, Sydney which received the name of Sydney, after his lordship, founded. the Secretary for the Colonies. The earliest dwellings were tents, or huts made of wattle branches and clay. Before the end of the year, a party was sent to the fertile Norfolk Island, so long a penal settlement, and now in the occupation of the interesting and Christian Rose Hill Pitcairn Islanders. A location was formed also at Rose or Parra- Hill, at the head of Port Jackson, subsequently known as Parramatta, of orange grove notoriety. The nomenclature of localities was peculiar. Sydney was once commonly known as the Tanks, since tanks were fixed in the little stream that supplied the town. Famine for Famine sorely tried the Colony for a number of years. The loss of a store-ship, the neglect of home authorities during the death-struggle with Napoleon, and the failure of colonial crops through mismanagement, caused a serious deficiency of food. The Norfolk Islanders lived some time on mutton birds. The second fleet arrived with stores in 1791, and brought 1,695 male prisoners and 68 female. Governor Hunter, the father of the Colony, first introduced free immigrants. matta. years. DISCOVERY AND HISTORY. : Conflicts with the natives occasionally cost sonie loss NEW SOUTH of life, though very rarely on the side of the whites. WALES. While a part of the tribes sunk under the vices they The acquired from the Europeans, others sullenly held aloof natives. in remoter districts. The want of suitable discipline increased the social disorders of the early times. The officers, by their monopoly of the spirit traffic, were fostering the evil habits of those over whom they ruled. Rum became The rum the currency of the period, and led not less to neglect currency. of productive labour than to the commission of crime. The first chaplain, the Rev. Mr. Johnson, was ill fitted to cope with the moral difficulties surrounding him, though amiable in manners, and Christian in life. After waiting seven years for a place better than the The first shade of gum trees, where he eould celebrate Sunday church. services, he was constrained to raise a building himself. His successor, the Rev. Samuel Marsden, was more The Rev. adapted to the rough circumstances of the place, and Samuel displayed a vigour in the cause of religion which brought Marsden. him many enemies, but which laid the foundation for a happier state of things in New South Wales. Invested with magisterial authority, and led by his energetic mind into business relations, his spiritual influence was lessened, though his contest with Governor Macquarie was of service. The Rebellion of 1804 originated with some who had Irish in Rebellion been transported for their part in the Irish affairs of of 1804. 1798. The colonial engagement of Vinegar Hill, near Parramatta, put a speedy end to the rising. But the officer, Mr. Johnston, who crushed the first rebellion, was himself the originator of the second, three or four years after, Governor Bligh, not the most prudent and mild- Captain Bligh tempered of men, had opposed the rum-trading mo- deposed in nopoly of military and civil officers in the colony. The 1808. New South Wales Corps identified themselves with the merchant class against the country settlers, and with. stood the Governor in some reforms he attempted to enforce in a tyrannical manner. Major Johnston marched up the troops, and deposed His Excellency, though after- wards permitting him to retire to a vessel in the harbour. The Lieutenant-Governors tacitly sided with the 8 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. ders. NEW SOUTH rebels, and the Government was carried on irregularly till WALES. the appointment of General Lachlan Macquarie, in 1810. Another cause of social disturbance arose, — the Eman- question of the civil status of the Emancipists, or those cipists. becoming free by the fulfilment of the terms of their legal sentence. Originally, a large amount of the charges upon which the men were transported might be called political, Many suffered exile then for offences only punished now by a brief term of imprisonment. Not a few, besides those involved in the Irish rising of '98, were supposed victims of political faction. Sympathisers with the French revolution then certainly risked an acquaintance with a transport ship bound for Botany Bay. Treatment ont At the first, all the prisoners were employed on public of priso- works. With good behaviour, some got their degree of liberty, called Conditional Pardon, before others. To such persons, grants of plots of land were made, so that the means of independent existence might be afforded, though the public store was still open to them for some supplies, in cases of necessity. The mechanics found abundant occupation in the city, or in official establishments, while another class culti- vated their little fields amidst considerable hardships. Thus, there gradually arose from the prisoner popula- tion a free people. The descendants of some of the early convicts are now found among the wealthiest and most influential of citizens. Although an effort was made from the very first to mix a certain number of free emigrants with every ship- ment of prisoners, yet it was many years before any assisted system of emigration was permitted. But fa- cilities being afforded to capitalists, especially in extensive grants of land, cabin passengers, and not steerage ones, were the earliest Australian immigrants. When the prisoners were despatched in larger num. bers, the Government, to save increased demands on the publie stores, granted blocks of land to those who would undertake to employ convicts, merely providing them with rations and clothes, as if slaves on a plantation. Eman Between the Emancipists, as free by servitude, and cipists the new-comers, as free immigrants, no cordial feeling ee existed. Some contended that a man who had fairly grants. s free immi- DISCOVERY AND HISTORY. discharged his obligations to society in the fulfilment of NEW SOOTH his time, ought to have equal rights with others; but WALES, there were those who claimed superiority on the ground of having paid their passage to the colony. Governor Macquarie espoused the cause of the Eman- Govern cipists, and earned the title of the Prisoner's Friend. Macquu ie. Although some excesses followed this policy, the interests of the colony were consulted in it. Ultimately, all free persons were admitted to an equal footing, and the old feud of the Emancipists was lost in the perfect com- mingling of classes. Sir Thomas Brisbane's views were contrary to those Governor of General Macquarie. The immigration scheme re- Brisbane. ceived the favour of the Sydney Council, and great exertions were employed to leaven society with free men and women from home. The Colony rapidly improved. Australian So many were the new purchasers for stock, especially Agricultu- after the establishment of the Australian Agricultural ral Com- Ericuiqural pany. Company on a vast grant of land, that a perfect sheep and cattle mania commenced. Governor Darling's reign was signalised for the rage Governors of party. Prosecutions for libel against the Government Darling brought the press under harsher restraints, and another and Gipps. administrator, Sir George Gipps, came into collision with the squatters. Both the printer and the squatter triumphed over Government House. Among the earlier Governors, Sir Richard Bourke Governor deserves honourable mention for his zeal to promote the Bourke. interests of New South Wales; and, above all, for the removal of political and religious disabilities. The equalisation of denominations in 1836, and the Progress of cessation of transportation to New South Wales after the Colony. 1840, brought a new era to the Colony. Free emigra- tion was promoted, education was fostered, a more liberal policy of home rule was established, agriculture ad- vanced, the wool product greatly increased, commerce grew enormously, social manners improved, and the Colony was as happy as it was prosperous. An attempt made to re-institute the system of trans- portation was repulsed with an energy and a success that indicated the moral forces of the Colony. The citizens protested against even the admission of Emanci- 10 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. . e. NEW SOUTH pists from Britain, resolving to be in truth the settle- WALES. ment of the Free. The Gold Discovery of 1851 developed more wealth, No more convicts to as it originated a new industry. It removed the last Eastern plea for the English Ministry to send prisoners to Australia. Eastern Australia, and brought to a triumphant con. clusion the labours of the Anti-transportation League. If New South Wales did not realise all the advantages she expected from the auriferous display of 1851, she enjoys the distinction of having pointed out a gold- field, and taught Victoria, Queensland, and New Zealand the art of extracting the precious metal from the soil. Constitu- The New Constitution of 1855 gave a responsible tion of 1855. government to the people, and governors were no longer autocrats. The laws subsequently passed by the Sydney Legis. lature have been for the good of the many. Those for the unlocking of the public lands have drawn, and will continue to draw, many thousands of immigrants to the N. S. W. country. And though New South Wales lost Port loses Port Phillip district in the erection of the Colony of Victoria hillip and in 1850, and Moreton Bay district when it became Bay. Queensland in 1859, yet the very circumscribing of area has added to internal strength. Governor Captain Phillip arrived. in 1788; Captain Hunter, 1795; Captain King, 1800; Captain Bligh, 1806; General Lachlan Macquarie, 1810 ; Sir Thomas Brisbane, 1821 ; Sir Charles Darling, 1825 ; Sir Richard Bourke, 1831; Sir George Gipps, 1838 ; Sir Charles Fitzroy, 1846; Sir William T. Denison, 1855; Sir John Young, 1861; Earl of Belmore, 1868; Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, 1872. Geography and Climate. GEO- The Dividing Range of New South Wales is properly so called, as it divides the colony into two parts. The eastern is a narrow belt of land by the South Pacific Ocean. The western is the large expanse of plains on both sides of the Darling River. The East Coast portion has numerous independent streams. The western portion, receiving the drainage of the western side of the dividing range, has three large rivers—the Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Darling, whose waters reach the Murray, in the south-west. Moreton Governors. GRAPHY. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 11 past-liut. The Intermediate, or Highland, portion is nearly NEW SOUTH parallel with the coast, but extends to the sea at its WALES, southern extremity. Highlar.! The Eastern division, with an irregular coast-line of a district. · 750 miles, was the first settled, and has still the largest population. It is 500 miles long from north to south, Foster, and from 10 to 80 miles in width. The Highland country division. contains the wheat-fields and the gold-fields, and reaches from Victoria to Queensland. The Western Interior has a mean length of 400 miles Western from north to south, and a mean breadth of 400. It is Interior 400 x 400. available for pasturage, but having few farms except on its eastern and southern waters. A considerable part of it, especially on the South Australian and Queensland sides, is still untenanted by the white man. But the soil of the Western Interior only needs irrigation to become a garden. The Colony is separated from Queensland on the Boun- north by the Dumaresq and McIntyre rivers, and the daries. latitudinal line of 29° S. The river Murray, and a line drawn from its source to Cape Howe, cut it off from Victoria to the south. The sea is the eastern boundary, while the meridian of long. 141° E. is the border on the South Australian line. The area, five times that of England and Wales, is Area. 323,437 square miles, or 206,999,680 acres; of which, in 1878, only 15,035,086 acres had been sold by the Government, and 153,606,400 leased to squatters. A fourth of the colony is yet unoccupied, even by stock. The extreme length from north-east to south-west is Length 850. 850 miles. New South Wales once claimed the whole eastern half of the continent of New Holland or Australia. Victoria, under the name of Port Phillip District, was made independent by the Sydney Government in 1850. The northern district of Moreton Bay was separated from the parent colony in 1859, and was called Queens- land. These two separations reduced its area to one- N. S. W. third of its former amount. Riverina, toward the one-third Murray, has moved for separation, former size. HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH WALES. Dividing Range and heights. Other ranges. Mt. Sea view 6,000 ft. Mountains. The Dividing Range is in seven branches. Of these, New England has Ben Lomond, 5,000 ft.; Liverpool Range, Oxley's Peak, 4,500 ft.; the Blue Mountain tier, Beemarang, 4,100, the Cullarin, 3,000 ft., the Gourock, a 4,300, the Monaro, 4,010; and the Muniong Alps have Mount Kosciusko, 7,308 ft., and other peaks nearly as high. The Murrumbidgee Range runs westerly from the Australian Alps, with Mount Murray, 6,987 ft. The Tumut is another spur. The Murray Range of the south- east has the Mount Dargal, 5,490 ft. The Northern Coast Range, joining the dividing one, reaches 6,000 ft. at Mount Sea-view. The South Coast Range is near the Monaro and Muniong. The Illa warra hills are towards Wollongong. A number of isolated peaks are scattered about the plains of the interior, and a few low ranges skirt the Darling, or extend into South Australia. Among the mountains some fine plains are found, on whose fertile soil squatters and farmers have established themselves. But the great plains lie in the low and level country westward, in which a great distance some- times may be traversed without discovering permanent water, though the grass is generally abundant. The principal elevations, besides those already named, are Ram's Head, 6,838 feet; Murragural, 6,987; Jagun. jal, 6,763 ; Lindsay, 5,700; Gipps, 5,000; Crackemback, 4,697; Canobolas, 4,610; Oxley Peak, 4,200 ; Jiondulian, 4,300 ; Apsley, 3,800 ; York, 3,440; and Hanging Rock, 3,400. Rivers and Lakes. The drainage westward of the Dividing Range includes five-sixths of the area of New South Wales, though all the water finds its way ultimately into the one channel of the Murray River. The Darling alone drains one half the Colony, yet has but a feeble current in summer. If traced through the Barwan, &c., to New England, the course will be nearly 2,000 miles. Its junction with the Murray is at the south-west, near South Australia and Victoria. Heights of peaks. Rivers. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 13 The Murrambidgee, 1,500 miles long, is a noble river, NEW SOUTH south of the Darling, and unites earlier than that stream WALES. with the Murray. The Lachlan, having gold-fields on it eastern end, joins the Murrumbidgee. The Murray, after being the southern boundary, passes through Lake Victoria, in South Australia, to the Southern Ocean. The Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie, Bogan, and Castle- ragh, are eastern affluents of the Darling. The Yass, Tumut, Adelong, and Tarcutta, belong to the Murrum. bidgee. The rivers flowing to the Ocean from the ranges are but short in their course. The principal are the Shoal. haven, Hawkesbury, Hunter, Hastings, Macleay, Man. ning, Clarence, and Richmond. The lakes are very few and shallow. The George and Bathurst are to the east, Benanee and Victoria are very near the Murray, and Cawndilla is by the Darling. Bays and Capes. The Port Jackson of Sydney is in about lat. 34º S. To the South of it are Botany Bay, Port Hacking, Bays. Wollongong Harbour, Illawarra, Shoalhaven, Jervis Bay, Bateman's Bay, Moruya Bay, and Twofold Bay, which is near Victoria. Going northward from Sydney one passes succes. sively Broken Bay, Port Hunter, Port Stephens, Port Macquarie, Trial Bay, and the Clarence Harbour. Cape Howe is the southernmost point. Point Perpen. Capes. dicular and Cape St. George are the heads of Jervis Bay. Sugar-loaf Point is north of Port Stephens, Smoky Cape is near Trial Bay, Cape Byron is north of Richmond River, and Point Danger is the northernmost land by Queensland. Port Jackson is one of the safest, deepest, and most Port beautiful harbours in the world. Newcastle-coal Port is Jackson, protected by a breakwater. Few other places on the coast are available for shipping. Counties and Districts. The first settled portion, by the east coast, was divided into twenty counties. Since then about one hundred other counties have been formed. Individually, Old coun- the old counties contain a little over a million of acres ; ties. 14 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Tral NEW SOUTH each being about 40 miles in width, and 50 to 70 in WALES. length. Those near the coast are St. Vincent, Camden, Cum. berland, Northumberland, Gloucester, and Macquarie. Durham, Bligh, and Brisbane are inland. Cook, Rox. burgh, Westmoreland, Wellington, Bathurst, Hunter, and Phillip, are western. Georgiana, King, Argyle, and Murray, are south-western. Sydney is in Cumberland, Newcastle in Northumber- land, Orange in Westmoreland, Goulburn in Argyle, Yass in Murray, and Bathurst town in Bathurst county. The other part of the Colony is generally known by the thirteen Pastoral Districts. Albert is beyond the diotricts. Darling, and Monaro is the south-eastern Alpine country. The locality of others is indicated by their names. Their areas are thus described :- Pastoral districts Square miles Albert, North-West . • 60,000 Warrego, North'. • 10,000 · Clarence, North-East 5,000 Macleay, East 3,180 New England, N. Tableland. • 13,100 Bligh, by Macquarie R. . 7,800 Liverpool Plains . 16,910 Gwydir, N. of Liverpool . • 11,075 Wellington, W. of Macquarie . 16,695 Lachlan • 22,800 Murrumbidgee . . 26,897 Darling, South-West. . 50,000 Monaro, South-East . • 8,335 The Colony is also divided into seventy-one Police - rina Districts. Riverina is the name given to the squatting country between the Murray and Lachlan Rivers. Its produce is sent down to Melbourne, which port is more convenient to it than Sydney. Towns. Sydney, the capital, on Port Jackson, is in lat. 34º S, and nearly 151° È long. Including the suburbs, it now contains about 150,000 inhabitants. It has 150 miles of streets, and its corporation expends 200,0001. a year. Besides two noble cathedrals, it has an extensive uñi- versity, a grand post office, and some other splendid public buildings. There are six parks, and the largest of colonial botanic gardens, ......... try. let GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 15 The harbour of Port Jackson, so universally admired, NEW SOUTH though containing but nine square miles, has a coast-line WALES. of fifty-four miles about its numerous bays. The town Towns. is four miles from the Heads. Parramatta, at the head of the Sydney waters, is charmingly situated amidst orange groves. Windsor, Penrith, Camden, Richmond, Liverpool, and Campbell town are thriving places near Sydney To the north of Sydney are Newcastle, 75 miles ; Lambton, 80; Hartley, 82; Wallsend, 85; Raymond Terrace, 92; Maitland, 95; Morpeth, 98; Paterson, 105; Clarence, 114; Singleton, 123; Stroud, 124 ; Mussell- brook, 152; Cassilis, 220; Dubbo, 230; Tamworth, 250; Port Macquarie, 256 ; Kempsey, 280; Uralla, 300; Armidale, 313; Narrabri, 320; Grafton, 350; Inverell, 350; Glen Innes, 375; Warialda, 380; Vegetable Creek, 403; Tenterfield, 430. To porth-west, Mudgee, 168; Wellington, 200; Fort Bourke on the Darling, 570; Wilcannia, 700. To the south of Sydney are Picton, 53; Wollongong, 64; Mittagong, 70; 'Kiama, 89; Minmi, '90; Gunning, 165 ; Queanbeyan, 190; Young, 245; Adelong, 250 ; Cooma, 257; Moruya, 265; Eden, 270 ; Kiandra, 310. To the west are Lithgow, 96; Bathurst, 122; Sofala, 150; Carcoar, 160; Turon, 177; Gulgong, 190; Cowra, 200; Araluen, 206; Grenfell, 230. To the south-west are Berrima, 83; Marulan, 112; Goulburn, 130; Yass, 180; Braidwood, 185; Forbes, 240; Gundagai, 245; Tumut, 280; Billabong, 290 ; Parkes, 295; Bombala, 312; Wagga-Wagga, 317; Hay, 460; Deniliquin, 480 ; Moama, 520; Wentworth, 830; and Menindie on the Darling, 850. No part of the world can exhibit such a Bill of Health as the hilly settlements of New South Wales, where the mortality has been 9 compared with the English 22 per thousand. The ports of Eden, Wollongong, Macquarie and Grafton are very healthy. Some places in the Alps are from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above sea level. Diggings' townships are now centres of agriculture. The growth of farms westward originates new townships. Wollon- gong and Kiama are in the lovely Illawarra district. Newcastle is the great coal port. Deniliqain, the capital of Riverina, is sixt miles north 16 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH of the Marray crossing at Maoma, and 120 south of Hav. WALES. on the Murrumbidgee, 480 miles south-west of Sydney. CLIMATE. The climate of New South Wales varies greatly accord. ing to locality, less from variation in latitude than from altitude. The low coast settlements, especially upon river flats, have a far different climate from that of dry and elevated regions in the interior. Climate The general healthiness of the Colony is thoroughly healthy. recognised. Extending from lat. 37° to 29°, it could not be expected to have much exhausting beat or con. tinued cold. It would be easy for a man to select within its borders almost any climate he may think necessary for his health. The mildness of the winter, especially at Port Mac- quarie, has made New South Wales a retreat for invalids from Tasmania, and even from Melbourne. In the summer the heat, though thermometrically high, is more endurable than that of places where the heavy rains are in the hot season. Hot wind. The greatest plague of the warm season is the hot wind. But this is chiefly to be dreaded on account of the dust raised by its fiery breath. Otherwise it is by no means deleterious to the health, there being no dreaded miasma with it. The mosquitoes on the coast, and sandflies of the interior, are to be borne with patiently in a land unvisited by cholera, yellow fever, and hydro- phobia, and where delicious fruits are very plentiful. The best answer to the charge of supposed want of Many very salubrity is the number of healthy aged people. In few aged parts of the world may many persons of very advanced people. years be seen enjoying life so well. There are few pri. vations to endure, and decidedly diminished infirmities. Among the Blue Mountains, as it is reported, people never die till they are killed. We hear of a man, nearly 100 years old, who had evidently owed no longevity to his sobriety, and who spoke of a neighbour, 108 years of age, being without an unsound tooth in his head. Fewer sun. The sky is usually clear of clouds in summer. Sun- strokes strokes, however, are not relatively so fatal there as in than in America. Canada and the United States. The intemperate character of the people, especially in early days, has been far more destructive of life than the GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 17 Drink and climate. The custom of indulgence in strong drink is NEW SEUTH now yielding to moral pressure, and, consequently, the WALES. charges brought against the climate are fewer. Some have lived there till above 110 years. climate. Diseases most common to the Colony, as dysentery and Diseases in nervous attacks, are often trying to young children and the Colony. females. Heart and brain affections trouble the stronger sex more than the weaker one. In 1877 the deaths were 5,877 male, 3,992 female.' Those from diphtheria, 205 male, 120 female ; typhoid, 375, 189; dysentery, 162, 57; diarrhoea, 586, 261; ague, 22, 2; rheumatism, 58, 23; syphilis, 18, 7; alco- holism, 109, 22; goat, 10, 4; dropsy, 141, 61 ; cancer, 167, 65; scrofula, 33, 14; phthisis, 585, 226 ; apoplexy, 171, 68; paralysis, 176, 64; convulsions, 502, 247; brain disease, 114, 28; heart, 425, 161; bronchitis, 423, 180; pneumonia, 398, 151 ; congestion of lungs, 107, 41; asthma, 30, 6; enteritis, 223, 107; stomach, 31, 12; liver, 113, 81; skin, 5, 1; child-birth, 99; old age, 301, 151 ; atrophy, 544, 237; accidents, 648, 133; murder, 21, 6; suicides, 60, 7; execution, 1. The female deaths, 3,992, are less than their ratio of popu. lation by 450. A statement made for the whole Colony gave the causes for death in the year as follows: zymotic diseases, 23 per cent. ; constitutional, 12}; local, 37*; develop- mental, 17%; violence, including accidents, 7. The rain register varies considerably in the Colony. It is affected not only by elevation and presentation to prevailing winds, but by other and more subtle influences. Along the coast-line the greatest humidity is found. In 1871 the following results were obtained: Twofold Bay, 533 inches in 131 days; Cape St. George, 62 in Rainfall. 150; Wollongong, 48 in 75; Sydney Harbour, 464 in 83; Sydney Town, 52 in 141; Newcastle, 62} in 116; Port Macquarie, 573 in 120. Iu 1872, a dry year, the difference was remarkable: being for Twofold Bay, 24 in 107 days; Cape St. George, 37 in 138; Wollongong, 28% in 48; Sydney, 37 in 161; Newcastle, 373 in 128 ; Port Macquarie, 471 in 138. Heavy snow fell ncar Syduey in 1872. Away from the sea the variation is considerable, and snow fall. WE 18 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH often apparently unaccountable. The subjoined table WALES. _ gives the nearest distance to the ocean for 1878:- Miles from sea Elevation Inches rain Days of fall Rain in various districts. 95 NOO O OO NO • 80 120 67 59 3278 1545 37 86 Orange 50 201 572 » 36 410 , 287 అచుల Sydney. 129 Maitland . Grafton. Windsor. Goulburn. Tenterfield Armidale. Murrurundi . 94 Bathurst, . 96 2200 Mudgee :: . 120 124 2891 Wagga-Wagga. 160 Albury . . 175 32 Dubbo . . 182 Narrabri . . 196 Deniliquin in 1873 Cowga 336 Fort Bourke 393 Wentworth . 476 On the Bogan River, during five years, there fell no. rain for thirty-seven months. Five inches only of rain fell at one place near the Darling during five years. Great falls of rain have been experienced at Sydney. On April 29, 1841, there fell 20 inches of rain, and on April 8, 1860, 12} inches. In 1841 Sydney received no less than 76 inches, and in 1860, 82. The lowest amount, 36 inches, was in 1865. In April 1874 there fell 7 inches of rain one night in Sydney. When Sydney had so much rain, Port Macquarie had but little. A pretty uniform extent of rainfall has been noticed during cycles of 19 years; that is, from 1840 to 1859; 1841 to 1860; 1845 to 1864. Evaporation exceeds the rainfall greatly. A mean of several years gives this result:- Grafton . . · 38-2 inches in 88 days Bourke • 27.9 , Tenterfield. 30.8 V ? Wollongong.. 38.3 Eden . . 45 132 . . Mudgee . . Kiandra . . 61.2 Albury . . .. 28.9 M:cquarie . 62 28 68 110 80 129 63.3 GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. : 19 . . . NEW SOUTH WALES, Wagga-Wagga . Cooma . . Deniliquin . . Goulburn : Maitland . Newcastle . . Parramatta . Sydney . Windsor. Rain, 73 days 94 , 61 , 96 , 109 113 , 111 161 140 1 . 26 inches in . 18:4 . 26:4 26:3 34:7 . 49:9 · 49.9 . 39:3 39.3 , . 50 9 34:3 , NOT New . . The ozone is greater in the night. than in the day. Ozone. At Sydney, in 1872, the highest was 5.54; mean 4.8. It is highest in the east wind, and lowest with the dry western breezes, when colds and influenza prevail. The temperature is often more a question of physical Heat. condition of the country than mere latitude. Winds modify it considerably, elevation lowers it, while rocks and soil affect it. A sandy region is opposed to one of heavy clay; and a sandstone, limestone, granite, basalt, or slate surface will make one place hotter or cooler than another. An increased evaporation is a modification of temperature. The north-west monsoon is dry and hot wind. The mean temperature of Sydney is 62.50; Grafton, 68°; Armidale, 56:9° ; Cowga, 70:9° ; Bathurst, 57.2°; Newcastle, 63.9°; Maitland, 62.5º; Port Macquarie, 63.70; Liverpool, 59.9°; Deniliquin, 59.9°; Albury, 59.8°; Parramatta, 62-2° ; Mount Victoria, 54.2°; Kian- dra, 45.1°; Goulburn, 55.6°; S. Head, 61.7º; Eden,', 00:3° ; Wagga-Wagga, 60.2°; Lake George, 56° The difference between the maximum and minimum Max. and heat in the shade is considerable in some localities, as min. tein- may be seen from the appended table :- perature. 36° • • 1050 • 1000 . 1150 • 390 • 220 • • • • • • 36° Towns, Max, shade Min. shade Bourke . Bathurst. 200 Deniliquin 400 Eden . . 1060 Goulburn. . 1030 Maitland. . 1030 Port Macquarie. Wagga-Wagga . . 1040 290 Wentworth . 1170 300 Wollongong . 870 With the lowest mean temperature in 1854, there was • • 950 360 • • 370 c2 20 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH the least rainfall; and with the highest, in 1867, the rain WALES. was the most abundant. Winds. The winds off the coast are usually eastern, or sea breezes, in the day, and light western, or land breezes, in the night. North of Port Macquarie the region of the South East Trades is gained. The westerly breezes prevail in the winter, and in the interior the principal winds are from the north and west. In a so-called southerly burster, or storm, in hot weather, the clouds roll up in a peculiar manner seaward, and vast collec- tions of dust fill the atmosphere before the rain falls, and the temperature cools. The easterly and southerly winds bring rain. The winds are generally N.E, in January, December, October, November; S. in February ; E. by N. in March'; W.N.W. in July and August; W. in September, June, May, April. N.E. is deflected S.E. · Mr. H. C. Russell, Sydney astronomer, says:- When the barometer falls gradually with N.É. wind, it will veer to N.N.W. and W., where it will blow for one or more days; as the barometer rises, it will veer to S., and die at S.E. or E., with high barometer; to begin another circle from N.E. If in fine N.E. weather the barometer falls fast in the forenoon, a southerly wind (burster) may be expected before night.' The extreme variation at Sydney during 18 years' ob- servation of the barometer, was from 28°.901 to 30°.678. A great depression W. to E. went 500 miles a day. Larometer A high barometer in New South Wales shows a rises in N.S. w. southerly wind coming, while in England it indicates a when it northerly one. But the rule is only apparently reversed, as in both cases the wind is from the nearest pole. It is lowest in Australia with the N.W., or true tropical wind, and highest with the true Polar, or S.E. wind. A low barometer points to westerly breezes in summer and winter; a high one in winter, to southerly breezes. Reccle and The colony is not so often visited by storms as Eng. variation. land, and thunder and lightning are less frequently known. The dip of tho needle at Sydney is 61°, while 35° at Port Essington, and 67° at Melbourne. The varia- South May. tion is abont 100 E. The South Magnetic Pole is in netic role. lat. 75º S., long. 154º E. The great magnetic storm on September 25, 1841, was simultaneously felt at Sydney, Swan River, China, and Canada. Variation decreases. - falls in Europe. GEOLOGY. Geology. The Geology of New South Wales, to do it justice, NEW SOUTH requires far more space than can be given to it in the WALES. present work. Colonial The first five-and-twenty years of the Settlement geology passed with but a small idea of the geology of New gradually unfolded. South Wales. The people were spread abroad upon the Sydney sandstone, which produced better flowers than Sydney sandstone. corn, whilst their finest farms were on the alluvial flats of the Hawkesbury. It is true that coals were known to them as being at Newcastle, while veins of porphyry and basalt were disclosed in their sandstone quarries; yet it was not until the fastnesses of the Blue Mountains were forced by the intrepid Wentworth and his companions that the Colony gained an enlarged experience of geology. The slates were then seen thrown into romantic forms by the elevating power of plutonic rocks, cutting off the sterile flooring of sandstone, and revealing vales of fertility and nooks of beauty. The flocks and herds exchanged the sparse pastures West coan- of the east for the richer grasses of the west ; and the try. hills of Bathurst, with their geological equivalents further westward and southward, gave new homes to immigrants. Descending from those fair plateaux on the other side, the crowded-up squatters wandered at large upon vast plains that, though less favoured by rain, gave food for their increasing sheep and cattle. But it was many Tertiary years before those extensive tertiary deposits to the plains. westward of the Dividing Range were known, and that flocks browsed beside the Darling, Murrumbidgee and Murray of the wastes. Wool was the first product of lands whose phosphates were afterwards made available for grain and fruit. Then the rock, which had so long resounded only with the tramp of wild cattle, was struck by the pick of miners for its repository of metals. The sandstone quarry and coal-seam were wrought for fifty years before the granite and metamorphic slates disclosed their golden crystals; and longer still, by 22 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. tin. rocks. NEW SOUTH twenty years, before the primary rocks were blasted for WALES. their treasures of tin. Stream tin is pliocene. Gold before Three ages were successively revealed. The original settlers trod upon the secondary beds. Then the high- lands of a higher antiquity were brought into requisi- tion. Last of all, the far more extended area of the tertiary clays and sandstones were recognized by the wandering herdsmen. Silurian The oldest rocks are of Silurian order; consisting of sandstone, limestone, &c., in some cases highly meta- morphosed. Wenlock strata are represented in the Australian Alps. The meridional strike of the ancient sedimentary beds is very curious. The bushman finds a guide in the north and south reefs running for miles parallel to each other. Devonian is 10,000 feet thick. These Silurian rocks form the floor of the diggings. Devonian. The Devonian formations, observed near Yass and at the Hanging Rock, exhibit the Productæ in great force. The purple slates of Twofold Bay belong to this period. - The Blue Mountains, the Liverpool ranges, and the Alps, as well as the Grey and Barrier ranges on the Palæozoic South Australian border, are Palæozoic. Here and there, amidst the great expanse of tertiary beds to the west, similar rocks obtrude themselves. Secondary The secondary formations are not altogether absent, formations. though but recently recognised. The trias is unmis- takable at the Clarence, where it once occupied a much larger area, and the upper carboniferous rocks near Parramatta are unquestionably mesozoic or secondary. Tertiary Tertiary exhibits are common enough to the westward, deposits. though so rare to the eastward. Certainly, three-fourths of the surface of the Colony is covered with them. This is clear from an inspection of the country of the Darling, Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Murray Rivers, though their head-waters are generally in a primary district. But throughout the western plains a number of isolated hills and ranges, much transpiuted by basaltic veins, porphyry, quartz, &c., rise as landmarks. The flat- topped, sandstone rocks of the elevations of the interior are of a secondary age, though their base may be palæo- zoic, and they afford evidences of great denudation. So immense is the deposit of sands, gravels, marls, and clays on the western side of the Dividing Range, that hills. GEOLOGY. 23 there is the assurance of a climatic condition very differ- NEW SOUTH ent from that now prevailing in New South Wales, with WALES. its dry and thirsty plains. A well on the Billebong was sunk 160 feet through clays, quartz, gravels, pipe-clay, beds " Tertiary white and coloured sands, with coloured marls. From Wagga-Wagga westward, the Pliocene is prevalent, as it is on the Bogan, Darling and Murray, as well as at the junction of the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee. There is not observed that difference between tho strata of the tertiaries detected in other places, but they pass almost insensibly one from another, as of one con- tinuous epoch. It is a remarkable fact that no tertiary marine plants have been seen in the east, though common in the western part. But there are plant deposits near Yass, and leaves' beds by Peel and Richmond Rivers. Lignite, too, is seen some 40 miles north of Cape Howe. The Pleistocene is noticed in the drift-boulders which Pleistocene. rest on gravels. Cave deposits are of this age. The red earth in Wellington caves is rich in fossils of animals related to those now common in the bush. Alluvial Alluvial gold-workings are not so absolutely Pliocene in New gold not all Pliocene. South Wales as they appear to be in Victoria. The granites are regarded as of subsequent age to Granite. those of the primary rocks. The Rev. W. B. Clarke, the most eminent of colonial geologists, not only declares that he has known of no primary granites, but ventures to doubt if any one else has. These rocks predominate in the Alps to the south, and in New England to the north. Near Cape Howe fine flesh-coloured varieties may be seen. On the west side of the Dividing Range, they are distinctly newer than the slates. Some specimens, as at Genoa River, are so horn- blendic as to be taken for greenstone. As sienites they Kosciusko crown the head of Kosciusko, 7,300 feet high, though said 7,300 ft. to be obviously of an intrusive character. Occasionally binary granite may be detected piercing through granite mountains. The porphyritic granite constitutes the Crackemback ranges. The lofty top of Jingery shows a meridional axis of granite. At Birri-Birri the rock, being so ribboned with gneiss- like laminæ, would lead one to infer that the granite there once flowed as lava. On the Upper Murrumbidgee the granite often entangles fragments of mica-slate. The 24 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, NEW SOUTH plasticity of the granite in some places would hardly WALES. seem due to simple fusion. The epidote throws some light on the character of the irruption. Fine double pyramids of quartz may be gathered at Pambula. There are hornblendic granite hills near the Billabong. Metals in The granite is one stronghold of gold and other metals. granite, The tin of New England is derived from it. The iron pyrites of granite is rich in gold, which is found also in the siliceous matter of sedimentary beds, where cemented by iron derived from decomposed pyrites. Gold rocks. The auriferous veins in granites, slates, &c., have, naturally enough, excited the liveliest interest in all colonial geologists. The lower Silurian is richer in gold than the upper rocks of the same. While some miners fancied electricity or volcanic agency had pro- duced the yellow treasure in the rock, Mr. Člarke thus records his experience in New South Wales :- Origin of After saying he had seen examples where quartz gold reins reefs have followed the curves of the slates in all their minor as well as larger deviations from verticality to horizontality, arching at the summit, not only synclinally but spherically,' he declares, 'I can come to no other conclusion than that such lodes, with their mineral con- tents, could by no possibility have received their existence by sudden infilling or injection at a subsequent date.' He further adds, • There is nothing whatever to justify the belief that dry heat or direct igneous forces have, as some persons have surmised, been the chief or solitary agent in the production of the gold-bearing reefs. Igneous Igneous rocks are prominent, not only in the great rocks. ranges, but are conspicuous in the coal rocks throughout the Colony, and have exercised their transmuting influ- ence upon tertiary formation. The east coast is sinking. Porphyries and basalts are found of various epochs. Lavas and tufas are of more modern history. Pumice fragments are gathered at Wollongong and Jervis Bay, as in other parts of the east coast of Australia. Found water-worn, and on raised beaches, their advent on the shore is not very recent. Basalt. The basalt at Kiama has the pillar steps of the Giant's Causeway and the massive columns of Staffa. Bosses of it have risen above granite on the eastern edge of the Dividing Range, and intrusive veins are conspicuous in GEOLOGY. 25 Alpine Monaro and the Upper Murrumbidgee, as well as NEW SOUTH throughout the coal measures. The Tumbarumba range, WALES. basalt, 20 miles long, and 350 feet deep, proceeded from craters in the range between the Murray and Tumut rivers, where there are belts of basalt. Columns mount upward 5,000 ft. above the sea. Greenstone is not so abundant as in Tasmania. In Greenstone. dykes it cuts through the granite of Naas Valley, and altered sandstone to quartzite at Mount Tennant. When coming in contact with granite, sometimes ferruginous cannon-balls or grape-shot are formed from the decom. position of the rock. Trachyte or trachytic diorite forms the end of Mitta- Trachyte, gong range, and crowns the head of Mount Lindesay. phonolite, Elvan dykes at Illawarra, Murrurundi, &c., have con- and por- phyry. verted the coal into coke. Phonolite columns are seen by the Gwydir, as well as in the volcanic islands of Norfolk and Phillip. Porphyry, like a tesselated pave- ment, comes forth in the harbour of Port Jackson, and re-issues from beneath a bed of sandstone at the Bay of Bondi. All about the various gold-fields the igneous element is in strong development. Moyle's hill is igneous with quartz. Volcanoes were active in pliocene days. Volcanic ashes appear near Mount Lindesay, Maitland, Volcanic and many other localities. Mud craters were described ashes. in 1852, as existing at Keewang Creek; and trappean alluvial mud constitutes the soil of some of the best plains. No active volcano is known in the Colony, and Craters the number of cones and true craters is very inferior to fewer than in Victoria. that in Victoria. The peaks of Cordeaux, Edwards, and Grenville belong to the rim of a broken-down volcano. The burning Mount Wingen, however, is in coal. The carboniferous rocks are the most interesting of Coal. all. Mr. Keene, Inspector of Coal Mines, writes, We may, without boasting, claim to rank with the most ex. tensive coal-fields in the world.' Nearly all the area of the settled district is carboniferous sandstone. The mineral is in greatest production along the Hunter River, though it is imagined to run beneath the tertiary floor of the western region. It is apper paleozoic. A lengthened discussion took place as to the age of the coal of New South Wales. "Prof. M‘Coy, though not visiting the locality, contended for the colitic cha- 26 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH racter of the mineral; while Mr. Clarke, with better WALES. knowledge of the rock, affirmed it to be palæozoic or true coal. The opinion of the last-named gentleman is now generally acknowledged as correct. The fossils found in the beds are decidedly palæozoic, though some forms bear a mesozoic likeness. .Greta is lower coal. Coal rocks Above the ordinary workable coal measures, Mr. of three Clarke has discovered a series of horizontal sandstones, ages. shales, and conglomerates, to which he has given the name of Hawkesbury rocks. They are very well de- veloped on the summits of the Blue Mountains, being estimated nearly a thousand feet thick. On the top of these, again, the Wianamatta beds of black shales may here and there be noticed, even to the depth of eight hundred feet. No mesozoic fauna has been found in these upper carboniferous rocks, which are placed in the same age as the coal measures of Victoria. But no Glossopteris has been perceived in the Hawkesbury or in the Wianamatta beds. Wianamatta is near Parramatta. Gold in It is singular that, while much iron exists in the upper coal. carboniferous formation, gold is not absent from it. The Newcastle coal-field of the Hunter is but the western side of the great geological basin, the chief part of which is now beneath the ocean, and doubtless reap- pears in New Zealand. The carboniferous rocks in Gloucester county rest apon slate. In one pit the fol. Coal strata. lowing strata were successively penetrated: conglomerate 23 feet, coal 3, grit 44, coal 5, claystone 43; coal 5, sandstone 50, coal 3. Near Port Stephens a seam was 30 feet thick. In the Upper coal of Newcastle there are 17 seams in 433 feet. Coal rocks contain gold. Kerosene. The oil is an abundant product of the coal formation. The shales yield a large supply. They belong to both the upper and the lower measures, though to the former in the east. Wollondilly has rich brown oil cannel ; but the cannel coal of Mount York, in the Blue Mountains, is more easily worked. The kerosene rocks of Illawarra resemble the Boghead of Scotland. Bog butter. This carbonaceous substance is sometimes filled with sandy particles. The stone is distinguished by leaving a brown mark when scraped with a knife. The seams at Hartley are 5 feet thick. At Bournda, near Pam- bula, the inflammable mud is of lacustrine origin. Forty GEOLOGY, 27 miles further north a bog butter is obtained. In a cer. NEW SOUTH tain quantity, the clay forms 15 parts, water 48, car- WALES. bon 8, tar-oil 8, gas 19. The tar.oil is butter-like. Sydney rock is being pierced for coal 2,000 feet. The fossils of the Colony are not different from those Fossils. found in the neighbouring settlements. The Silurian forms are similar to those of Europe and America. Trilobites are not uncommon. There are 240 species of fossils associated with the Trilobite at Burragood. The Queanbeyan sandstones are full of spirifers and other Silurian life. The coal measures contain Heterocercal fish, Fenestella. Phyllotheca, Stigmaria, Sigillaria, Calamites, Lepido- dendrons, Productæ, Eurosthenes, Corals, Zoophytes, &c. The Ichthyolites are similar to the palæozoic forms of Europe. Secondary fossils are now known. Remarkable fossils have been disinterred from the Cavefossils. floors of caves, especially the caves of Wellington, Mo- long, Macleay, and of the Upper Murrumbidgee. In these breccia and limestone caverns there is the evidence of two submersions. At Molong the fossil bones were lying in calcareous concretions, and at Wellington in the red earth of the floor. Fish and leaf beds exist. Among the remains were the seal, the kangaroo, the Fossil wombat, &c. The kangaroo was fully one-third larger kangaroo. than any kind now existing, and the ancient animal could have leaped 30 feet at a bound. The herbivorous Diprotodon must have been very widely Diproto- spread throughout Eastern Australia, being discovered don. as a fossil at Molong, Wellington, the Turon, Liverpool Plains, &c. A large specimen was brought up from a well dug 100 feet through the Darling sandstone. This marsupial, with kangaroo teeth, was about 16 feet in length. Its hind legs were like those of the wombat, In the anterior limbs, two fingers are adapted to grasping objects. It was doubtless of similar habits to the ancient mylodon, walking up to a tree, clasping it to bring it down to the ground, when it could feed upon the tender branches. The Notatherium, or south-beast, had elephant-like Nota- teeth, with a skull not unlike that of the South American therium. megatherium. The zygomatic arch was a great distance from the temporal bone. The brain was of small dimen- AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY. 29 when mammalian life was, as we suppose, in its infancy. NEW SOUTH At the present day, with the exception of a few Ame. WALES. rican species allied to the Australian dasyures, and a few other small marsupials which still linger in New Guinea, and some of the islands of the Pacific, the only portion of our earth tenanted by these ancient forms is this island-continent of Australia. The researches of Mr. Gerard Krefft, the Director of the Sydney Museum, have established the further interesting fact that the early predecessors of these animals in Australia were also marsupials, but of enormous stature, equalling, if Huge fossil not exceeding in size the rhinoceros and the hippo. marsupials. potamus. The living species, however, are of more moderate growth, and the largest do not much exceed 200lbs.in weight. They have been divided into three main sections, viz. the carnivorous, or flesh-eating; the her. bivorous, or grass-eating; and the mixed feeders; and according to the latest published list, they embrace 110 different species. These include the kangaroos proper, the largest of which is a formidable animal, and affords good hunting; the wombats, which are nocturnal in their habits; the ‘koala,' or native bear;' the opossums, and the phalangers, or 'fying opossums;' the bandi. coots, and the carnivorous dasyures. There are eight species of large kangaroo (Macropus), Kangaroos. inhabiting various parts of the country, some being con- fined to the plains of the interior, and others to the rocky districts near the coast. The great red kan. garoo of South Australia often attains a weight of 200 lbs. or upwards. There are seventeen species of Hal- maturus, kangaroos of smaller size, varying in weight from 10 to 15 lhs. The mountain districts are in. babited by rock-wallabies, or rock-kangaroos; there are six well-determined species, and the largest of these attains a weight of 30 lbs. Next in order is a group of small silky-haired kangaroos (Onychogalea), com- prising three species, all of them confined to the plains of the interior. They are about the size of a common hare, weighing from 8 to 10 lbs., and are covered with a light grey fur of peculiar softness. Of the so-called “hare-kangaroos ' (Lagorchestes), the fleetest jumpers of the whole tribe, there are five species, three of which are restricted to Western Australia. Then, again, there 30 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. bandicoot. NEW SOUTH are five closely-allied species of jerboa-kangaroos (Bet- tongia), a peculiar little group, which appears to connect the kangaroos with the opossums. The rat-kangaroos (Hypsiprymnus) and the bandicoots (Perameles) em. brace about a dozen more species. These are all of small size, and are very generally distributed over the Rabbit country. The rabbit-rat' of the colonists (Peragalea rat.' lagotis) belongs to this group. It lives in pairs, and burrows underground, like the common rabbit, differing altogether in its habits from the rest of the family: Pig-footed Another very aberrant form is the pig-footed bandicoot (Choropus castanotis), which has only two functional toes to the fore-feet, while it possesses à dentition re- sembling that of the carnivorous section, the Dasyures.. Opossums. Six species of opossum inhabit Australia ; they are all arboreal, and feed on the young shoots of the gum- trees. Of the Phalangers, or “ flying opossums,' there are numerous kinds, varying in size from a length of Wombat. three feet to three inches. The wombat (Phascolomys) is the largest of the marsupials, next to the kangaroo. It is a stout-built powerful animal, terrestrial and noc- turnal in its babits, living in deep burrows in the earth. Native There are four species known. The 'koala,' or 'native bear.' bear,' of the colonists (Phascolarctos fuscus), dwells in the gum-trees, on the leaves of which it feeds. The brush- tailed ant-eater (Myrmecobius) is a beautiful little banded creature, living in the desert scrubs. There are three genera of carnivorous marsupials, the two first of Tiger-wolf. which, the tiger-wolf' (Thylacinus), and the native • Native devil' (Sarcophilus) are most ferocious animals, and in- habit Tasmania. The Dasyures, vulgarly called 'native Native devil.' cats,' are much smaller, prettily spotted with white on a brown or black ground, and are numerous in all parts of Australia. It is a singular fact that all, or. nearly so, of the pouched animals of Australia are nocturnal in their habits, with the exception of the kangaroos. By far the most remarkable and anomalous of all the Australian mammals is the duck-billed Pla- typus, or water-mole.' It is about twenty inches long, is covered all over with soft brown fur, has strong claws and web-feet, and is provided with a pair of broar! mandibles like the bill of a duck. It inhabits river and ponds, and breeds in deep burrows on their banh cat.' AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY. 31 This strange creature seems to present a link between NEW SOUTH the quadruped, the bird, and the reptile, and belongs WALES, to the lowest form of existing mammals—a class named by naturalists Monotremata-in which also another ex- traordinary Australian animal is included, the Echidna, or porcupine ant-eater, of which two species have been Porcupine discovered. Amongst the placental or non-poached ant-eater. animals are several forms of rodents, of which the sin. gular "beaver-rats' (Hydromys) are the most con- Beaver- rats. spicuous. There are also nine species of long-eared rats (Hapalotis), which build nests in trees and bushes; ing rats. and fifteen of the short-eared kinds (Mus). In addition to the animals already enumerated, Aus- tralia possesses some twenty-five species of bats, belong- Bats. ing to eight distinct genera, amongst which is a very large frugivorous bat, of the genus Pteropus, known as the “flying fox' of the colonists. The dingo;' or wild Wild dog. dog, is to be met with in all parts of the Australian con- tinent, although it is gradually disappearing through- out the more settled districts. It is about the size of an ordinary foxhound, and has a wolf-like aspect. It is of a reddish-chestnut colour, the tail being invariably tipped with white. It never barks, but utters a dismai, melancholy howl. It is nocturnal, and has long been the terror of the sheep-fold, especially in the earlier days of sheep-farming. Although it is asserted that the fossil remains of the ‘dingo' have been found as- sociated with those of the great extinct marsupials of past pleiocene times, it is still very doubtful whether this animal should be regarded as strictly indigenous to Australia. It is more probable that the original stock has made its way, at some remote period, in connection with man, across the narrow seas that separate Aus- tralia from the Asiatic islands. Several species of seals, including the sea-lion' (P. jubata), and the sea-leopard' (Stenorynchus lep- tonya), are found, though rarely, on the less frequented portions of the coast; and the bays of Queensland are inhabited by a singular marine animal (Halicore dugong), known as the “dugong,' or 'sea-cow' of the settlers. Dugong., Belonging to the family of the whales and porpoises, it presents also some of the characters of the seal in its general aspect. It is much sought after for its oil, and feeds upon marine grasses. 32 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, Birds. Parrots, NcW SOUTH In their variety of form, beauty of plumage, and WALES. peculiarity of habits the birds of Australia stand un. rivalled. The number of species already known, as enumerated by Mr. Gould, amounts to nearly 700, the vast majority of which are peculiar to the country. Migration As in Europe, many species are migratory at certain of species. seasons of the year; whilst others disappear suddenly, are not met with for a lengthened period, and then again reappear in vast numbers. Enormous flocks of parrots and pigeons, of species previously unknown to the locality, will, during certain years arrive in places all at once, remaining for a few weeks, and then depart- ing as mysteriously as they came. No country in the world is so rich in birds of the parrot tribe, of which there are not less than sixty species, most of them re- markable for the extraordinary splendour of their plumage. The honey-eating genera are also very largely represented, and some of the forms attain to a size quite unknown in any other country. The total absence No wood- of woodpeckers is remarkable. Amongst birds of prey peckers. Australia can boast five species of eagle, and numerous E-gles. falcons and hawks. The wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax) measures seven feet across the wings; and the white-bellied sea-eagle (Polioaëtus leucogaster) is also a noble bird. Of owls there are about ten species, their number being attributable to the abundance of small nocturnal quadrupeds. Goatsuckers are in great variety; Swallows. and two species of swift, and five of swallows and Bce-eater. martins, are summer visitants. The Australian bee- eater (Merops ornatus) is a beautiful bird, only making its appearance in the South during the summer months. King Kingfishers number thirteen species, amongst which the fishrs. great brown kingfisher (Dacelo gigas) is remarkable for its size and the peculiarity of its note. This amusing and well-known bird is familiar to the colonists *Laughing under the sobriquet of 'the laughing jackass.' Quietly jackass.' perched on some dead bough, its extraordinary gurgling laugh,' commencing in a low key and gradually rising to a high and loud tone, may be heard at sunrise and sunset in all parts of the bush.' The Artanus, or wood-swallow, has the singular habit of clustering like bees on the branch of a dead trec. Another familiar bird, almost as popular with the Wood- swallows. · AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY. 33 settlers as the 'laughing jackass' is the musical mag. NEW SOUTH pie,' or piping crow. It derives its name from its pied WALES. black and white plumage ; and the fact of its being so easily taught to whistle popular airs, together with its imitative powers, has rendered it a general favourite. It has been asserted that the Australian birds have Singing no song,' but nothing can be more untrue, for many of birds. them have very sweet notes, singing both by day and night. In the dense forests of the Illawarra mountains, and also in the impenetrable fastnesses of Gippsland, there dwells a most remarkable songster, possessing also the power of mocking the notes and cries of all the other denizens of the woods. It is the lyre-bird,' or Lyre-birds. mountain-pheasant (Menura superba). It is about the size of a small fowl, of a brown colour, the male being adorned with a very large and curious tail, resembling in form that of an ancient lyre. A droll little bird, known as the pheasant's mother,' is usually seen in Pheasant's company with the lyre-bird. The coach-whip’ bird mother.' inhabits the thick brushes,' and has a loud full note, end- ing sharply like the crack of a whip. The robins of Robins. Australia, of which there are a great variety of species, are gorgeously-coloured birds, with breasts of the most brilliant scarlet, yellow, or rose-colour. The wrens are Wrens. equally numerous, and vie with the robins in the ex• quisite beauty of their turquoise blue and velvety-black plumage. Many of the finch family are also interesting for their very handsome plumage, and from the fact that they are easily tamed, and thrive well in captivity. No less than fifty-eight species of honey-suckers are known, Honey- varying in size from that of a thrush to that of a wren; suckers. several kinds have singular fleshy appendages below the ears, of which the wattle-bird' is an example. The "bower-birds' possess the singular habit of Bower- forming bower-like structures of twigs upon the birds. ground, which they decorate with gaily-coloured feathers, bones, and shells. Some of these bowers or runs are two or three feet long, arching over the top, and are the resort of many individuals of both sexes, that run in and out and around the bower in a sportive and playful manner. One of these bower-building species, about the size of a thrush, is called the satin- bird, on account of its rich glassy black plumage, which 34 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Regent- birds. Rifle-bird NEW SOUTH exactly resembles satin. Another bird inhabiting the WALES. Queensland forests, and somewhat allied to the bower- - bird, is the regent-bird (Sericulus melinus), which has a plumage of golden-yellow and shining black. Closely allied to the birds of paradise, and approaching them in beauty of form and plumage, are the rifle-birds (Ptiloris), of which three species have been met with, one in the cedar-brushes of New South Wales, and the other two in Northern Queensland. Ten species of cuckoo are re- corded, varying in size from the enormous Scythrops, or Cuckoos. channel-bill, to the little Chrysococcyx, or golden cuckoo, all of which are parasitic, laying their eggs in the nests of other birds, as does the cuckoo of European notoriety. We have already alluded to the vast preponderance of the parrot tribe over most other groups of birds throughout the Australian continent. The largest are the great Cockatoos. black cockatoos, with their red and yellow tails. These are very shy, and fly at a great elevation, going in flocks of twenty or thirty together. Next come the white cockatoos, so well known in Europe, and so abundant everywhere. The rose-cockatoo, and Leadbeater's cocka- too, with a large scarlet and yellow crest are both very Parrots. handsome birds. Of the parrots a great number of species belong to the genus Platycercus, or 'broadtails, to the gorgeousness of whose plumage but a passing mention can here be bestowed. The king parrot and the red-winged Aprosmictus are as brilliant in colour as the most pronounced shades of scarlet and green can make them; and some of the little honey-eating lori. keets are gems of beauty. The pigeons and doves number about twenty species. The large fruit-eating pigeon (Carpophaga magnificia), of the north-eastern part of Queensland, is green and yellow, with a purple breast. The 'top-knot pigeon' of the brushes of New South Wales is a handsome bird, with a brown crest. The 'wonga-wonga' is a large plump-looking pigeon, much esteemed as an article of food. The bronze-wings' (Phaps) have patches of metallic lustre on their wings, and some of the species are brilliantly coloured. The little ground-dove (Geopelia) is a pet for the aviary. Ruvens. The Australian raven (Corvus Australis) is a large ominous-looking bird, about the size of its European ally. Its hoarse, melancholy cry is one of the most Pigeons. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY. 35 dismal and distressing sounds it is possible to conceive; NEW SOUTH and as these birds resort to the neighbourhood of WALES. sheep and cattle stations to feed upon the offal, they seem to add to the mournful solitude of the shepherd's hut. Three species of birds, peculiar to Australia, and belonging to as many genera, but all included in the family Megapodidoe, are remarkable for their low organi. Mound- sation (being almost reptilian in character), and for the builders. fact that they do not hatch their eggs like other birds, but construct vast mounds of sand or decomposed vegetable matter, in which their eggs are deposited and hatched by the heat generated within the heap. The largest of these birds is the brush-turkey' (Talegalla lathami), which is bigger than an ordinary fowl. The next in size is the Leipoa occellata, or 'scrub-pheasant;' and the smallest the Megapodius tumulus, which is con- fined to tropical Australia. Of struthious birds there are two species of Emeu, Emeu. which inhabit the vast plains of the interior; and in Northern Queensland a fine species of Cassowary has Cassowary. lately been discovered called Casuarius Australis. The Australian crane (native companion' of the colonists) Cranes. is a stately bird, when erect measuring nearly four feet in height. It is of a slate colour, with a red skin about the eyes. The Mycteria, or Jabiru crane, is nearly as large, and has glossy metallic-green and white plumage, and bright red legs. Three species of Ibis occur, some- Ibis. times appearing in vast flocks on the plains of the in- terior. Spoonbills, egrets, herons, plovers, snipes, and curlews are numerous ; as are also quail, which afford good amusement to the sportsman. The Australian bustard Bustard.; (Otis Australis) is a noble bird, exceeding in size the bastard of Europe, the male weighing as much as six- teen pounds. It frequents extensive grassy plains, but is now becoming scarce. It is esteemed the greatest delicacy of all the indigenous so-called game birds. The black swan, so well known since its acclimatisa- Black tion in Great Britain, is to be seen in vast flocks on the swan. lakes and backwaters of the Murray river. The Cape Barren goose is a bulky bird, of a grey colour, with a small yellow beak, also acclimatised in our English or- Mask- namental waters. The musk-duck (Anas lobata) is a duck. D 2 36 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Darter. NEW SOUTH singular bird, that passes most of its time in diving, WALES. and can remain under water for a considerable period; it has a strong musky odour. There are a great many Ducks and species of ducks and geese peculiar to Australia, of geese. which the sheldrake, the shoveller, the pink-eyed duck, the tree-duck, and the semi-palmated goose are the most Pelican. important. The Australian pelican (Pelecanus conspicil- latus) is a large and imposing bird; it inhabits both the estuaries of the sea and the fresh-water lagoons. Cor. morants and terns are abundant, and of many species. Gulls. Of gulls there is only one species of true Larus, and two of the genus Bruchigavia. The New Holland darter (Plotus) is a singular bird, with a very long neck; when swimming, with only its head and neck out of water, it presents the appearance of a snake. There are three Penguins. species of penguin inhabiting the southern coasts of Australia and Tasmania. Reptiles. In those rivers of Australia which are situated within Crocodile. the tropics there exists a species of crocodile (Crocodilus biporcatus) which is a formidable and dangerous creature, attaining a length of from twelve to eighteen feet. Lizards. Lizards are very numerous, and present an infinite variety of genera and species. The largest kind is the 'monitor' (Hydrasaurus varius), vulgarly called a 'guana' by the settlers. Its length is from four to six feet, and it is handsomely variegated with black and dark yellow. It bites severely when captured ; but, as is the case with all reptilians possessing feet, no serious effects result from the injury. The frilled lizard is about two feet long, and looks very fierce when it extends its frill. The • Prickly Moloch horridus, or 'prickly devil,' is perhaps the most devil.' extraordinary reptile of the lizard tribe. It is about eight inches in length, and is found in rocky places under stones in South and Western Australia. It is covered all over with a terrible array of sharp spines and prickly bosses, which impart to it a hideous aspect. Scaly The scaly' or 'stump-tailed’ lizards are from twelve lizards. to fifteen inches long, very sluggish in their habits, and are covered all over with large flat scales. In so warm a climate as Australia it is not surprising Snakes that snakes should be numerous; and although out of sixty-three species already known and described a great proportion appear to be harmless, or at least not fatal AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY. 37 in their bite, still there are several of a very venomous NEW SOUTH and deadly nature. Great differences of opinion exist WALES. as to the proportion of poisonous snakes in Australia. hd. Poisonous Dr. Bennett says that four-fifths of the serpents as yet species. sent from various parts of Australia are poisonous, and many are virulent;' whilst Mr. Krefft, of the Sydney Museum (who has made the Australian reptilia his especial study), affirms that there are only five species whose bite is fatal to man. The diamond snake (Morelia spilotis), one of the Boa Diamond tribe, attains the length of twelve feet and upwards, snake. and is quite harmless. It is beautifully dotted upon the back with yellow spots on a black ground. The carpet snake, another species of Boa, closely allied to M. spilotis is pretty generally distributed. The black Black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus) is common everywhere, snake. and is principally met with in marshy places, or near to water. It measures from five to eight feet in length, and is of a glossy black colour above, and a beautiful car. nelian-red beneath. It is highly venomous, many in- stances being on record where both Europeans and natives have succumbed to its bite. The brown snake (Diemenia superciliosa) is equally venomous. There is a tree-snake common in New South Wales (Dipsas fusca), Tree-snake. about three feet long, very slender and graceful, and per- fectly harmless. The brown-banded snake (Hoplocepha- lus curtus) is of an olive-green colour above and yellow beneath, and is very venomous. A remarkably hand- some snake is the Vermicella annulata, banded with alter. Ringed- nate rings of black and white; it also is venomous. Perhaps the most repulsive-looking of all the Australian serpents is the death-adder (Acanthophis antarctica); its bite occasionally proves fatal. It is a short thick crea- Death- ture, varying in length from two to three feet, and is adder speckled with brown and dirty yellow ; its head is broad and flat, and the tail is armed with a sort of prong; it coils itself up in sandy places, and its torpid disposi- tion renders it still more dangerous, as, from the assimi. lation of its colour to the soil, a stranger is liable to tread upon it unawares. Fifteen species of sea-snakes (Hydrophidae) inhabit Sea-snakes. the Australian coasts; they are all venomous. They swim rapidly about in the sea, and may be distinguished by their flattened tails. 38 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Turtles. NEW SOUTH A small fresh-water tortoise (Emys longicollis) is found WALES. in the rivers of Australia ; and on the coasts the 'log- gerhead,' the "hawksbill,' and the green turtle' are to Water- tortoise. be met with. The latter is captured at Moreton Bay for supplying the Sydney market with the materials for turtle-soup. It is also preserved in tins and sent to England, where it ought to find a ready sale, as it can be obtained at one-quarter the price of the West Indian article. Frogs. Frogs of various kinds are common in the swamps and marshes, some of them being handsomely variegated with different colours. The pretty green tree-frog is frequent in the low shrubs and in the gardens of New South Wales. Upwards of forty species of frogs are recorded. Fishes. Fishes, many of which are excellent eating, abound in endless variety on all parts of the Australian coasts; and when fisheries are carried on in a more systematic manner, the dwellers in the seaport cities and towns need never be without a choice and varied supply of fish. Amongst the best known kinds which are brought Edible into the market are the schnapper, red-bream, flathead, John-dory, whiting, mackerel, mullet, garr-fish, and groper. Many of the smaller fishes, especially those that frequent the reefs and rocky shores, are of the most beautiful and brilliant colours and elegant forms. Beautiful Amongst these may be mentioned the parrot-fish, the species. Chotdoon, and the blue and golden Glyphisodon. Sharks of enormous size infest all portions of the Australian seaboard. In Port Jackson examples of the Carcharias leucas have been killed measuring from twelve to four. teen feet in length, and with a girth of seven feet. The tiger-shark (Squalus barbatus) and several other species Cestracion. are abundant; as also is the Cestracion, or 'shell-grind- ing shark,' remarkable for being the only living species representative of a once numerous tribe of fossil sharks whose jaws were armed with strong bony plates for the purpose of grinding down the shell-fish which formed Saw-fish. their food. The hammer.headed shark, the saw-fish, the stinging ray, and the torpedo are all to be met with. Sword-fish. Two species of sword-fish, both of large size, inhabit the Australian seas. Instances have frequently oc- curred where vessels navigating the coast have been sorts. Sharks. AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY. 39 penetrated by the powerful swords' of these huge NEW SOUTH fish, which, breaking off, have left several inches of WALES. the end firmly embedded in the timbers. The 'fishing, Fishing frog,' or 'angler,' is a quaint-looking fish that creeps frog." along the mud at the bottom of the water by means of its fins, which resemble feet; from its upper jaw projects a thin filament, at the end of which is an appendage like a small scarlet flower. Nearly buried in the mud, the 'fishing-frog' lies in wait for its prey, wagging its scarlet tuft, and thus attracting the curiosity of the smaller fishes, which quickly fall victims to their imprudence in the capacious jaws of the enemy. The River Murray, and the larger streams emptying themselves into the sea on the Eastern coast, are in- habited by several kinds of fresh-water fish, amongst Fresh- which the cod-perch' or 'Murray cod' is the most water nsh. important. It is taken by means of lines, baited with Murray tree-frogs. It is excellent eating, and when full-grown cod. weighs from thirty to forty pounds. Cray-fish are found of large size, both of marine and fresh-water species. Prawns and shrimps, and an in. finite variety of crabs and other crustaceans, dwell Crusta- amongst the rocks on the sea-shore. The Neptunus, or cea swimming crab, is an elegant species, the upper shell or carapace' being produced into a point at the ex- tremities. Oysters of various kinds are abundant. The 'rock Oysters. oyster,' for which the coast of New South Wales is famous, has a remarkably rich and delicate flavour. Many of the Australian shells are very beautiful, and Shells. much valued by collectors ; amongst them may be noticed those of the Volute family, of which there are Volutes. a large number of showy species. A great many curious forms of mollusks are peculiar to the Australian seas, but space forbids more than a passing allusion to them. The land-shells (snails) of North-eastern Australia are Land- snails. interesting, and present many fine, large, and elegantly painted species. Leeches swarm in most shallow lagoons and ponds ; Leeches. and on the tropical coasts the 'trepang,' or 'bêche-de- Trepang. mer' (Holothuria), occurs plentifully. Insect life, as in other warm climates, is prolific to Insects. an extraordinary degree. Flies, both in and out of Flies. 40 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Bees. Wasps. NEW SOUTH doors, are extremely annoying during the summer WALES. months; as are mosquitoes in certain localities, espe. cially in the vicinity of mangrove swamps. Fleas and Mosquitoes. sand-flies are pests in the bush in sandy places. The common honey-bee has long been acclimatised in Aus- tralia ; and, owing to the genial climate, and the great quantity of honey-bearing flowers which are indigenous to the soil, it has become very abundant. “Bee-farming' is a favourite calling in New South Wales. That noisy insect, the Tettigonia, or 'tree locust' of the colonist, enlivens almost every gum-tree during summer with its shrill and almost deafening music. There are a great many species of wasps and hornets; and ants, some an inch in length, are to be met with White ants. everywhere, and inflict a severe bite. White ants, as in most hot countries, are extremely destructive, and do much damage to wooden floors. Excepting on the Butterflies. Eastern and Northern coasts, the butterflies are neither numerous nor remarkable for their size or beauty. Papilio erectheus, a large handsome butterfly, is to be seen in the gardens around Sydney, as well as P. anactus, P. sarpedon, and others, and a magnificent species of Charaxes. The woods of the Clarence and the Rich. mond, in the north part of New South Wales, can boast of one of the most superb butterflies known, the Orni- thoptera Richmondia, which is five inches across the wings, of a velvet black, with a broad band of metallic Moths. golden green. Many of the moths, especially those of the genera Cassus, Hepialus, &c., attain a large size, but are not remarkable for their colours. Beetles. Coleoptera are more numerous than the lepidoptera ; many of the beetles are very curious, and the great family of the Buprestidæ are remarkable for their bright colours and singular markings. The diamond beetle rivals its Brazilian namesake in the splendour of its jewelled wing-cases. Those extraordinary insects called 'walking-sticks,' • Animated or 'animated straws,' are found climbing amongst the straws.' boughs of the gum-trees. The praying mantis is also frequently met with. The largest of all the insect tribe Phasmidæ. peculiar to Australia are the Phasmila, a group of Orthoptera. Some of them are over a foot in length, their large glassy wings when spread out displaying AUSTRALIAN BOTANY. 41 tints of various hues. They dwell in the gum-trees, on NEW SOUTH the young shoots of which they feed. WALES. Spiders, of the tarantula type, attain a large size; Spiders and one kind (Mygale) constructs a tube-like nest in the ground, which retreat is furnished with a sort of trap-door, which the creature lifts up or down at plea- sure. Some of the smaller sorts of spiders display the most beautiful colours, being spotted and striped with green, rose-colour, scarlet, purple, yellow, and blue; whilst others are armed with spiny protuberances. Scorpions and centipedes inhabit damp and unfre. Scorpions. quented places under stones and decaying logs. Some Centipedes. of them are very large, and the poison from their bite is so virulent as to cause serious inflammation and drowsiness. Australian Botany. One of the most striking features in the aspect of the vegetable kingdom in Australia is the almost universal prevalence of evergreen trees and shrubs. From this Ever- cause there is no perceptible difference in the aspect of greens. the landscape either in summer or winter; excepting that, during the autumn, the grass dries up and becomes of a yellow colour, presenting the appearance of hay, and contrasting strongly with the deep green foliage of the trees. By far the largest proportion of the vegetation throughout the entire continent of Australia is com- posed of trees belonging to the great family of the Eucalyptido, or 'gum-trees,' as they are familiarly Gum-trees. styled. These are all evergreen, and vary greatly in size and mode of growth. Large tracts of fertile gently undulating grassy country present all the ap- pearance of a park, being scattered here and there with uoble gum-trees, either singly or in clusters, many of them attaining an altitude of upwards of 200 feet, and a girth of from twelve to twenty feet. The banks of the rivers, and the water-courses generally, are everywhere bordered with the gigantic blue-gums,' which mark the course of the stream from a long Blue-gum. distance as it meanders through open plains or low desert scrub. Dense forests, composed for the most part of such lofty species of Eucalyptus as the 'stringy- 42 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH bark,' 'iron-bark,' &c., clothe the mountain ranges WALES. generally; while the extensive arid and sandy tracts Iron-bark. known as the 'mallee-scrub’are covered by low thickets of a dwarf kind belonging to the same family. In the interior, alternating with grassy plains, there occur patches of desert land, where rain seldom falls, which Spinifex. are overgrown with a low shrubby plant called Spinifex, presenting a mass of sbarp prickles, and repdering travelling on horseback both difficult and dangerous. The character of the vegetation of the interior hills and undulating country generally partakes of the ever monotonous gum-tree aspect, even in those portions of Australia that extend far into the tropics. It is, how. ever, in the valleys of the dividing ranges that slope down to the Pacific, throughout nearly the whole extent of the East coast from Illawarra to Cape York, as well as on the alluvial flats that border the rivers of Queens- land and the Northern territory, that we find a rich Tropical luxuriant vegetation, teeming with palms and ferns, verdure, and all the glorious verdure of a tropical forest. As far South as the Illawarra district in New South Wales, the eastern slopes of the mountains and the ravines and valleys that trend towards the sea are clothed with forests of infinite beauty, teeming with vegetation in its Cabbage- wildest luxuriance. Here the cabbage-palm (Cory. palm. pha Australis) towers to a height of seventy feet. The gigantic fig rears its tortuous branches high into the air, clothed with rich draperies of curious and spreading parasites; and the graceful tree-ferns flourish in the warm atmosphere of these sheltered dells. In Gigantic these forests the gigantic nettle-tree grows to an nettle-tree. altitude of forty or fifty feet, and has large flat leaves, the sting from which is so virulent as to produce great suffering. In some localities, especially in the South and West, nothing is seen but extensive tracts of the Casuarina Shea-oak. or shea-oak’ tree ; remarkable for having long droop- ing filaments instead of leaves, through which, on a stormy day, the wind makes most mournful music. In other places we meet with groves of that handsome Acacias. species of acacia the 'golden wattle,' which, when covered with its masses of yellow blossom during spring, fills the air with perfume of indescribable fra- 1961 SOAL AUSTRALIAN BOTANY. 43 grance. Indeed, owing to the profusion of aromatic NEW SOUTH shrubs and odoriferous flowers, the 'bush' in Australia WALES. is fragrant throughout the whole year. A great variety of beautiful acacias occur in all parts of Australia, having for the most part sweet-scented blossoms. The drooping acacia, or 'myall’ of the abori. Myall. gines, has a dark-coloured wood, which emits a strong odour of violets, which it retains for many years. The red cedar, which flourishes in the brushes of New Cedars. South Wales and Queensland, affords excellent timber for house-fittings and cabinet-work. The white cedar, or Australian lilac,' emits from its pendulous clusters of lilac-coloured blossoms a most delightful scent during the evening and for a few hours after sundown. The 'flame-tree' (Brachychiton acerifolium), when Flame-tree. covered with its largo racemes of red flowers, renders the Illawarra mountains conspicuous for miles at sea, by reason of their glowing crimson patches. The fire- Fire-tree. tree (Nuytsia floribunda), of King George's Sound, is clothed in December with rich spikes of orange. coloured blossoms, presenting a very gay appearance. In Queensland the silky oak' (Grevillia robusta) pos- Silky oak. sesses a downy foliage almost hidden by its flowers, which resemble branched combs of crooked golden wire; and the Stenocarpus Cunninghami, a proteaceous tree, fifty feet high, displays, when in bloom, one gorgeous mass of bright crimson stamens tipped with orange. On the North and North-west coasts of Australia the explorers in those regions have met with a most remark- able tree, called the bottle tree,' or 'gouty stem tree.' Bottle-trea It is allied to the baobab’ of Western Africa, and is named Delabechia gregori. The huge shapeless trunks of these trees, resembling enormous yams, are filled with a mucilaginous substance, not unlike gum traga- canth. The fruit is a small gourd, which is acidulous, and is eaten by the natives. A species of India-rubber India. tree is abundant in the forests of the East coast. The rubber. Banksic are a singular-looking group of trees, peculiar Banksis. to Australia. They have the appearance of small stunted oaks, bearing cylindrical clusters of blossom, which turn into enormous seed-cones, and impart a remarkable character to the branches. Amongst the noble pines that adorn the Queensland Pines. 44 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Wooden Christmas- NEW SOUTH forests the most important is the 'bunga-bunya' (Arau. WALES. caria Bidwelli). It towers to a height of more than 100 feet, and has wide-spreading branches densely Bunya- bunya.' covered by lanciform foliage. It produces an enormous cone, larger than a man's head, the seeds of which form a valuable article of food to the blacks, who travel hundreds of miles to obtain them, and hold an annual festival on the occasion. One of the anomalies of the vegetable kingdom is a shrub (Xylomelum pyriforme) the seed-vessel bearing a singular resemblance to a wooden pear; another is a pear. species of cypress, the fruit of which is like a small cherry, Mistletoe. having the stone outside. A species of mistletoe (Loranthus) is parasitic on the gum-tree, producing berries similar to those in England. It is devoted to the same festive purposes of decoration, as is also the Christmas-bush' bush. (Ceratopetalum gummiferum), a pretty evergreen shrub, yielding masses of pink blossom. In the category of Fruits. barely edible native fruits may be noticed the 'quandong,' or 'native peach,' having a large round wrinkled stone covered with a bright scarlet pulpy skin ; the monterey,' which resembles a minute apple, and grows on a creeping plant on the sand-hills of the sea-shore; the native 's currant,' the 'geebung,' the wild grape, and the indi- genous fig. Grass-tree. The grass-tree (Xanthorrea) and the Kingia of West- ern Australia are peculiar features of the landscape in poor soil, and amongst barren and rocky scenery ; from a rugged trunk or stem, varying in height from two to ten or twelve feet, there springs out, on all sides, a graceful tuft of thin grass-like leaves, whilst from the centre issues a long blossom-spike, not unlike a bulrush. Many of the larger kinds of gum-trees shed their bark annually, which, at certain seasons, imparts to their trunks a naked and ragged appearance. Of valuable Timber timber trees there are a great many kinds. A large trees. proportion of these belong to the Eucalypti, and pro- duce hard and heavy woods. The tulip-wood of the Clarence River is very ornamental; and the cedar, silky oak, white beach, yellow wood, jarra,' and many more, are of importance for building and cabinet-making pur- poses. Tree-ferns. Groves of tree-forns occur in Gippsland and in the AUSTRALIAN BOTANY. 45 atah sheltered glens of the Blue Mountains of New South NEW SOUTH Wales. WALES. The estuaries of rivers and salt-water creeks are almost invariably bordered with broad belts of mangrove- Mangroves. trees; and many of the bays and islands within the tropic are fringed with the Pandanus, or screw-pine. Pandanus. Many of the flowers adorning the sand-scrubs are Flowers. remarkable for their beauty; and, as a rule, a poor soil produces the greatest number of indigeneous flowers. In the spring the ground is, in many places, covered with a variety of terrestrial orchids. The most striking flowers are the warratah' (Telopea speciosissima), wbich War- seldom grows higher than six feet, and has a slender rate stem surmounted by a large crimson blossom, not unlike a peony; the rock-lily, Doryanthes excelsa, which has a Rock-lily. flower-stalk 30 feet high, bearing at its summit a crown of dark red flowers; the Murray lily (Crinum), with Murray its tufts of sweet-scented white blossoms; and a magni. 48.. ficent epiphyte, parasitic on rocks, which is found in the neighbourhood of Port Jackson. The flower-laden stalks Large of this charming orchid exceed a foot in length; the orchid. blossoms are pale cream-colour, and the perfume divine. Mushrooms are abundant where the soil has been Mush- manured by sheep or cattle; and a luminous fungus is rooms. common in some parts of the country. Luminous fungus. Government. The early Governors of New South Wales were in Despotic the position of autocrats, having a sort of irresponsible rule. power. Ruling principally over convicts and paid officials, with their acts unsubmitted to the criticism of the press, they were only amenable to the British Ministry, who were too occupied with the French war to attend to so distant a colony. All cases were tried before the Judge Advocate, who was not required to be a lawyer, with a military jury of six officers. This court met in secret. In 1812, two Courts were appointed. One consisted of the Judge Advocate and two assessors appointed by the Governor; the Supreme Court was conducted by the Judge and two magistrates selected by the Governor. Three classes of the community were opposed to one another—the officials, the free settlers, and the emanci. 46 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Witnesses NEW SOUTH pists. The last were those freed by the termination of WALES. their sentence. They were jealous of the intrusion of. Early free comers, who were equally disliked by the ruling society. officers. A collision brought on the rebellion in 1808, when Governor Bligh was deposed. Magistrates were not then gentle in their office. Men flogged. were flogged to extort confession of suspected crimes, and witnesses were flogged when testimony was sup- posed to be withheld. Women even were subjected to the lash. Masters were able to get their servants pub- licly flogged by an order from a magistrate. We read of a poor fellow receiving twenty-five lashes each morning for eight successive days, when unable or unwilling to speak of some lost property. As lately as 1823, a witness had 100 lashes to quicken his memory of an event. Want of Government interfered with prices of goods, with freedom. rates of labour, with export of produce, with rate of exchanges, with system of payments, and with the movements of travellers. Settlers required permission to leave a port, after previously advertising their inten. tion to go. No marriage was valid without an official permit. Trade for many years was directly or indirectly controlled by the authorities. The sale of strong drink was a monopoly of the officials. Trial by After a long struggle, free settlers obtained the boon jury, 1824. of trial by jury in 1824; though the concession was for several years withheld from those free by servitude only. The independence of the judges was a great blessing to all. The Press was under surveillance of the strictest of the kind. When, with the expansion of affairs and the Press. introduction of many respectable colonists, the news- papers ventured upon some modest criticisms of the powers that were, the Act of 1827 arrested their liberty. By this law every newspaper must have a licence, and present two satisfactory guarantees for a large amount. A stamp duty of fourpence a copy was levied. The Governor also claimed the right to suspend the licence upon any imprudence or negligence in the con- duct of the press. Dawn of A gradual improvement appeared. Governor Bourke freedom. removed the galling disabilities of religion. Governor Gipps, in 1838, allowed the public to hear the discussions of the Legislative Nominee Council. In 1842 Sydney No liberty GOVERNMENT. 47 received its corporation. In 1843, the Home Govern. NEW SOUTH ment granted the Colony the first instalment of a popular WALES. government, in making the Council to be partly elective. Progress of Petitions at length procured for the Colony respon- freedom. sible government. This concession was granted by the English Parliament in 1855. By proclamation, the Legislative Council, or Upper Parliament. House, was to consist of 31 members, appointed by the Governor for life. But the Legislative Assembly, or House of Commons, was to be elective for five years, and to consist of 72 persons. In 1878, 160,000 voters. Electors, who vote by ballot, must be twenty-one years Electors. of age, three years resident in the Colony, and for six months previous to an election living in an electoral district, or possessed of a freehold of £10 a year. The Colony has prospered under a responsible Minis- Results of try. The laws are respected, and equitably administered. liberty. Municipal institutions are spreading through the land. The immigrant discovers an order-loving community, and a righteous judgment. The extension of freedom has produced neither licence nor misgovernment in a land so long held in leading strings. Under a popular system of rule, education has greatly extended, property has become more secure, trade has expanded, wrong-doing has been more effectually checked, and social happiness has gained every way. The revenue of the Colony is steadily advancing. In Revenue. *1821 it was 36,2311. ; in 1831, 121,0661. ; in 1851, 406,0561. ; in 1854, 1,004,4671. ; in 1864, 1,693,7921.; and in 1872 it rose to 2,812,3791. In 1877–8 it was 4,991,9191.; but in 1878–9, 4,524,8411. ; in 1880, 4,761,8751. Stamp duties are re-levied. Among the sources of revenue in 1877–8 were- Fees . Customs . • 1,162,827 Excise . 42,215 Licenses. . 109,937 Post Office and Telegraphis : 234,785 77,062 Railways . 876,745 Land Revenue • 2,230,687 Gold Duty The Mint. 10,090 The expenditure for 1877–8 was 4,898,2991. 7,022, 48 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH WALES. Expen- diture. Public debt. The Taxation in 1878 was rated at about 11. 18s. 7d. per head, an amount almost anappreciable in a prosperous community. The Debt was 161. 16s. 11d. per head. The expenditure had, during nearly twenty years, been in excess of the receipts. This had arisen from the great progression of the Colony demanding public works. Loans bave been contracted to enter upon productive undertakings, like railways, but not to pay for losses or wasteful extravagance. The honourable position of the Loan Fund, now 15,000,0001., on the Exchange is a safe testimony to the stable condition of the affairs of New South Wales. The interest of the debt is but a slight burden, while the obligations are being gradually liqui. dated. At the end of 1877 there was a surplus of revenue to the amount of 2,331,6101. An increased expenditure, with a diminution of income, greatly owing to a reduction of the land sales, tend to equalize the funds. The Land Revenue was 2,325,7301. in 1877–8, but 1,715,1021. in 1878–9. Though the land capital is decreasing, a larger population gives further sources of income. The railways are Government property, and are very remunerative. The coal raised in 1879 was worth about a million pounds. The land is able to maintain more stock. The commerce of the Colony is extending, and acquired wealth augments by capital. The extension of education, with the rapid growth of population, will promote the public weal by the discovery of new resources, and the intelligent use of advantages. Population. New South Wales is not of such a mixture of races as Queensland, though the Sydney Government returns are not so explicit upon vital statistics as in that neighbour. Few ing colony. There is a much smaller percentage of foreigners; foreigners in the old colony than elsewhere in Australia, many Irish. but a greater proportion of Irish. From about 1,000, at the foundation of Sydney in 1788, the population rose to 8,923 in 1810, 4,000 of whom were in bondage. In 1821 the proportion of bond to free was 14,000 to 16,000, growing still less in propor- tion every year afterwards. POPULATION. The colonial records are interesting in their exhibition NEW SOUTH of relative changes in the population. Thus we find : WALES. Population Births Marriages Deaths Births, Marriages and Deaths. 1825 1830 1834 1840 1847 1850 *1851 1855 33,675 46,302 66,212 129,463 205,009 265,503 197,168 277,579 348,546 411,388 502,861 539,190 693,743 442 683 1,857 4,233 8,910 10,037 7,675 10,344 14,233 17,283 19,648 20,250 25,328 239 339 705 1,631 1,861 2,825 1,915 2,765 2,945 3,578 3,848 3,925 5,318 392 570 1,164 2,382 2,694 3,379 2,600 4,022 6,562 6,596 6,558 7,468 10,763 1860 1865 1870 1872 1878 But taking the year 1871 as the terminus of a series, we are led to the following curious table of proportion :- Births Marriages Deaths 1 in 65 1 in 124 , 115 1826 1831 1841 1846 1851 1861 1878 102 111 132 The population has still an excess of males. In 1871 10 per cent more males. the proportion of sexes was about the same as in 1861, being 55 per cent, males to 45 females. In that decade, from 1861 to 1871, there was an excess of 108,972 births over deaths. At the beginning of 1879 there were 367,323 males, and 294,889 females; 551 to 441. In the employments, many more are engaged in pas. Employe toral pursuits, as compared to agricultural, than would ments, be found in Victoria or New Zealand. There were * The reduction this year was owing to the separation of Port Phillip from the parent colony. 50 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH 17,835 on squatting stations, and 43,805 on farms, 1871. WALES. The farming number has since advanced. Total - The population of the Colony at the end of December population. 1878 amounted to 693,743 with 10,000 Chinese. New South Wales has been the hive from which many swarmed to the newer colonies of South Australia, Vic- toria, New Zealand, and Queensland, all of which are largely indebted to the old colony for something more than people. They have drawn from it capital for infant and struggling enterprises, and sympathy in seasons of trial and depression. Settled The population is a settled-down one in New South down Wales. Occupations are more regular and constant. society Prices of living are perhaps as low as in any part of the civilized world. Bashmen and miners experience fewer privations, and realise more comforts than elsewhere. Every provision is made for sickness and poverty. · Social There are 50 hospitals, 9 benevolent asylums, and 11 condition. orphan and industrial schools. There are refuges, sailors' homes, working men's clubs, Freemason and Odd Fellows' lodges, besides many Good Templar associations. The Australian Mutual Provident Society, with assets above a million, has been a great advantage to many. Building societies are extensively patronised in the townships. Altogether it has been truly said that the working man there enjoys life, while making prudent provision for a rainy day. Chinese The Chinese visitors—all males—are but 10,000 alto- labour. gether. Before the gold era they were employed chiefly as cooks on stations. As domestic servants they have been liked for their attention, fidelity, good humour, and common sense. Since the outbreak of the diggings, when not engaged at mining operations, they have turned to market gardening. For quantity and quality of vegetables upon a plot of land the Chinese farmer is far ahead of the European one. For provident economy, sobriety, and good behaviour, he is an example worthy of imitation. His uncleanliness is objectionable. Polynesian Polynesian labour was introduced into Twofold Bay imported. and other places many years ago; but the experiment, fortunately, was not attended with success." Aborigines. The ABORIGINES of the Colony can no more be called savages, although dwelling apart from the strangers who labour not EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 51 have taken their hunting grounds. Their numbers are NEW SOUTH rapidly decreasing, less by absolute mortality than by WALES, the singular unfertility of the females. The old are ab dying out, and few children take their place in the tribe. dying out. Excepting some young men who attach themselves to stations as stockriders, the blacks have no desire to work, being content with the food the bush provides them in their independence. Never occupied as tillers of the ground, with no inclination to tend a flock of their own, they wander perpetually without a prospect of settlement. All attempts to get them to adopt our forms of civili. Declined. zation have signally failed, although zeal and money zation. our civili- have not been wanting in the agency. Once, numerous and warlike, they opposed an active resistance to the inroads of the whites ; now, few and feeble, they are content in their isolation, if sullen in their resignation. They have lost their spirit and their hope, and sink lower and lower in licentiousness and drunkenness. In a few years the bush will no more be trodden by these ancient Australian inhabitants. . Education and Religion. Although a number of children belonging to the military and emigrant families went in the first fleet of 1787, no provision was made for their instruction on board, and none for their teaching on shore. A poor woman, actuated as it would appear by genuine The first motives of benevolence, gathered some of these little ones teacher and ant in in her rude dwelling, and tried to teach them something better than what they learnt from the general society of Port Jackson. The clergyman was moved at the ex- hibition of such devotion, and pitied the state of the young in these unfortunate circumstances. He addressed a letter to the Society for the Promotion of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, about the year 1792–having allowed nearly five years to pass without writing to the com- mittee. The secretary responded to the appeal. A grant of 101. a year was made to the teacher of Sydney. Other grants of 101. each were made for two other women and one man who had taken up the work of teaching. · As soon as the wattle-bough and clay church was First finished, a school was held there. In 1807 an evening schoolroon. 1. E 2 52 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH class was established for youth employed in the day. It WALES. was from such humble efforts that public instruction arose in New South Wales. Female Governor King, rough sailor as he was, andertook to orphan do something for a much neglected and suffering class. school In 1801 he collected the destitute female orphans of Sydney and Rose Hill, gave them a home, and placed them under a female teacher. Male It was not until 1819 that the boys were similarly re- orphan membered, and then General Macquarie organised school, another orphan school for them. The worthy old Governor caused a fine building to be constructed the year after, which he called after his First sovereign, The Georgian Public School for the Poor.' public day school. He sought to imitate George III., who had said to Joseph Lancaster, 'It is my wish that every poor child in my dominions should be taught to read the Scriptures.' The first educational statistics were collected in 1819, when it was ascertained that there were 1,000 children at the public schools, and half that number at private schools. Aid to A London Society found the first funds for a colonial education, school. Private benevolence subsidized the payments by parents for the education of little ones. Occasional grants in aid came from the colonial treasury, although many years elapsed before annual government assistance was rendered. Church and The celebrated Church and School Corporation Act school was passed in 1825. It was intended to provide clergy corpora- tion. and teachers throughout New South Wales. The al. lowance was a liberal one. In addition to distinct monetary aid from the council, a corporate body had made over to its control, for church and school purposes, not less than one-seventh of the public lands of the settled part of the colony. Such a noble bequest, although deemed little worth then, would have proved equal, if not superior, in mu- nificence to anything known in history. Had the Act been sustained, and the means wisely utilized, for thirty years, education and religion would have had an extra- ordinary endowment in Australia. But the terms of the Act were held to be sectarian. The whole of these magnificent areas were to be held in EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 53 Frant ealed trust for the Church of England only. The Presbyte- NEW SOUTH rians, although belonging to one of the two established WALES. churches of Britain, were debarred from the enjoyment ? of this colonial fund. Roman Catholics and English for Church Dissenters could only take advantage of the boon by of England sending their sons and daughters to the Church of Eng. schools land schools. So great an outcry was raised at this supposed favour. The Act itism, that the Church and School Corporation Act was rep repealed three or four years after. But the authorities, while regarding the rights of conscience, neglected the claims of young students. Instead of amending the Act, and still sanctioning the devotion of one-seventh of the public lands to such public uses, though under a more liberal charter, they quietly resumed the acres, and doled out a inoderate sum of money instead. The official gifts to schools were rather arbitrarily be- stowed. Yet a small grant was made to a Roman Catholic school; and a few hundreds were appropriated to the funds of the British and Foreign School Society, which professed to give unsectarian instruction in the colonies as at home, and which was then under the pa- tronage of His Majesty. It is right to observe that, in proportion as New Better South Wales emerged from tutelage, and became en- grants with growth of trusted with progressive powers of self-government, so freedom. did government extend its pecuniary aid to education, and widen the liberal basis according to which the grants were made. The growing middle classes of the Colony were not Higher left to the fluctuating and limited accommodation of the class private schools. Bishop Broughton, a warm friend to schools. youth, opened the King's School in 1832. The Presby- terians at the same time laid the foundation of their Australian College, mainly through the zealous exertions of the Rev. Dr. Lang. The Sydney Proprietary College began in 1836, having Dr. Braim as head master. The mode by which the Legislature administered the annual donations for education was through the De- nominational School Board, consisting of members of Denomina- tional different denominations. Local Committees, by raising a certain part of the expenses, were entitled to draw Board. another portion from the Board. The recognized heads of denominations were in communication with the Board. School 54 IANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH In 1848, however, à party, long dissatisfied with a WALES. system which they considered tended to maintain secto arian bigotry and dissension, succeeded in establishing National the Board of National Education. School This was an imitation of Lord Stanley's Irish School Board. plan, and seemed as adapted to the mixed communions of Australia as to those in the Emerald Isle. It was generally looked upon as the favourite in official circles, The two and its grants were liberal. The expenses of these two Boards really antagonistic bodies brought about an amalgama- united. tion in 1867, when one Board of Education had super- vision of all schools. With a view to form, in process of time, one common system of Public Instruction, special regard is paid to schools coming directly under the management of the Board. Still, not to appear to interfere with conscien- tious opinions, assistance was continued to schools established and controlled by specific denominations. Secular in- But while the Denominational Schools receive aid struction from the State, they are obliged to submit to one condi. a tion—that of opening their classes to pupils outside of for by the State. their own communion, without attempting to enforce doctrinal teaching opposed to the wishes of parents. To remove the possibility of a mistake, it was ruled that the Government paid for secular instruction only, which must Freedom of be communicated two hours in the morning and two in religious the afternoon. Out of those hours any dogmatic belief instruc- might be inculcated agreeable to the tenets of the indi. tion. vidual body governing the school. The Roman Catholic clergy have uniformly opposed the present system. Since 1867, Public Instruction has made decided pro- gress in New South Wales. Itinerant teachers provido for children in thinly-populated districts. Though the youth of the indigent may be admitted without pay in public schools, yet the classes are not thrown open to all without charge, as in Queensland and Victoria. Schools and The fees came to 87,8651. for the year 1878, while the scholars. rest came from the colonial funds. For 1878 the State Grant was 391,0521. The private schools for 1872 were 551 in number, with 881 teachers, and 16,286 scholars. In January 1879, there were 1,189 Board Schools ; viz. 620 public, 285 provisional, 115 half-time, and 169 denominational. The scholars were 148,788. EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 55 The Sydney University was established in 1851. The NEW SOUTH charter was framed after that of the London University. WALES. Six professors, judiciously selected, are upon the staff. Sydney The building is one of the noblest in the capital, and University. the institution is one of which the citizens are justly proud. Four Denominational Colleges are affiliated with the University. The State also supports, for the purposes of education, Free Free Libraries, Schools of Art, and Mechanics’ Institutes. Libraries The fine Sydney Museum is admirably managed by the Mus naturalist, Mr. Krefft. The Sydney Botanic Gardens, Bot spread out beside the charming Port Jackson, are not Gardens. less a school than a pleasure retreat. and First RELIGION has its colonial history as well as education, RELIGION. When the expedition was about to sail in 1787 it was Religion noticed that no appointment had been made of a chaplain. forgotten in 1787. As the eloquent Dr. Nixon, first Bishop of Tasmania, expressed it, There were constables, military guards, and a Governor on board ; everything to coerce the wretched exiles, every secular means, perhaps, for his improvement, but no one thought was bestowed upon the exile's soul.' Bishop Porteas and the excellent Mr. Wilberforce exerted themselves to remedy the neglect, and succeeded in procuring the services of the Rev. Mr. Johnson. If not an energetic man, he was certainly a good one. Chaplain. He submitted too tamely to official indifference to reli. gion, and failed to urge with zeal the attendance of the prisoners upon his ministrations. When, after seven years' waiting, he was still told by the authorities that the men could not be spared from public works to attend to church building, the chaplain had the resolution to set about the erection himself. After procuring the loan of a few prisoners, a privilege First to which he was officially entitled, he went with them, Colonial axe in hand, to cut down cabbage palm stems for posts, built by and wattle boughs to entwine amidst the framework. the Chap- Clay was then dabbed upon the boughs at the sides, and sheets of bark were laid on the raftors for a roof. The expenditure from his own purse only amounted to £40. For very shame, the Government could not but order Church lain. 56 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. burnt. NEW SOUTH the prisoner population to attend church, though the WALES. chaplain vainly sought for the presence of the officers. Church - It was not long before the convicts tired of this com. pulsory attendance, and set fire to the church to free them from the irksome task. The act aroused the Governor. A strong building, just put up for a public store, was turned into a place of worship, and the un- willing congregation were reassembled. Rev. S. Disappointed and worried, the pastor retired from his Marsden work, and was succeeded, in 1794, by a man of very came, 1794. Ito different stamp—the Rev. Samuel Marsden. First stone To him Paramatta was indebted for its stone church, Church. in 1803, the first solid structure of the kind in Australia. To him the Colony was indebted for the remedy of some social evils, and for the authoritative establishment of Christian worship. To him, also, the Maories of New Zealand were indebted for their first missionary teachers. Archdeacon Broughton, appointed through the recom- mendation of the Duke of Wellington, who honoured First his character and energy, became the first bishop of Bishop Sydney, and Metropolitan of Australia, in 1836. Before 1836. that date the diocese of Calcutta included New Holland and New Zealand. Church of The Church of England in New South Wales had in England 1879 five bishops : namely, at Sydney, Newcastle, Goul- burn, Bathurst, and Grafton and Armidale. There were 207 clergymen, 410 places of Worship, and an average attendance of 51,770 worshippers. In the 375 Sunday schools were 2,638 teachers, and 31,608 scholars. Presbyteri- The Presbyterian emigrants at the Hawkesbury were the first to erect a church by voluntary effort in Aus- tralia. The building raised in 1806 had to be used for a school, since the worthy people were unable to induce a clergyman to come out to them from Scotland. Rev. Dr. The Rev. Dr. Lang reached Sydney in 1823. He Lang ob- celebrated in 1873, with the honourable homage of his jects to toleration, brethren in the ministry, his jubilee of service. Surprised and indignant to find himself unrecognized by the Colonial Government, when he was an authorised clergyman of an Established Church at home, the fiery Scot told the governor, who spoke of toleration, that his countrymen were under no necessity of receiving tolera- statistics. anism. EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 57 tion, since their forefathers had won civil and religious NEW SOUTH liberty for them by their valour. He succeeded, after WALES. some years, in securing a chaplain's salary, and so paved the way for the admission of other denominations to the Treasury. The charter of religious freedom arrived in 1836. Then all Australians were placed on one common stand before the State. All ministers who were willing to State aid to accept a salary from the Colonial Government were mall denomi- nations. welcome to the pay, provided the denomination they represented had only its proper share of the grant. This was fairly determined according to census returns. The Church of England, the Presbyterians, the Wes- leyans and the Roman Catholics claimed their several State grants. The status of the Presbyterian Church in January Presbyteri- 1879 was as follows:-There were 83 clergymen, 149 an Church statistics. places of Worship, with an attendance of 13,822. In their 128 schools were 892 teachers, and 8,073 papils. The Wesleyans held religious services in the Colony before the Presbyterians. In 1815 permission was granted by the English Go- vernment for the emigration of the Rev. Samuel Leigh, First a Wesleyan minister, though only upon the understand. Wesleyan ing that he went as a schoolmaster. The position of the Minister. body changed considerably when it drew its share of the public funds. In January 1879 the Wesleyans had 89 ministers, 269 Wesleyan places of worship, and an average Sunday attendance of statistics. 24,690. Their 224 Sabbath schools contained 14,904 children, under 1,793 teachers. The Primitive Methodists, allied to the Wesleyans, Primitive arə spreading in the Colony, though much more slowly Methodists. than in the neighbouring provinces. Their 13 ministers preached in 62 chapels to 7,500 people. In 46 Sunday schools they had 455 teachers and 4,630 scholars. The United Methodists had but recently secured a foothold United there, having three ministers. The Independents, or Congregationalists, had their Indepen- first leader in the Rev. W. Jarrett, though the Rev. Dr. dents. Ross more effectually organised the body in 1840. They have always declined Government aid in religious affairs. With 37 ministers, they had 6,909 hearers in 43 Methodists. 58 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW-SOUTH chapels. In their 50 Sunday schools they had 557 WALES. teachers and 5,685 children. ; Baptists. - The earliest Baptist preacher was the Rev. John Saunders. The body grew to have 18 ministers, 21 chapels, and 2,265 Sunday attendants. For 13 Sunday schools they had 150 teachers and 1,309 scholars. Quakers. The Society of Friends were gathered into one fold in 1833, through the visit to Sydney of the esteemed Quaker missionaries, Messrs. James Backhouse and George Washington Walker. Other Protestant bodies are feeble in numbers. Ac- cording to the returns at the end of 1871 there were Protestants 339,372 Protestants, 147,627 Roman Catholics, 2,395 and Roman Jews, and 7,455 Pagan Chinese. Catholics The Roman Catholic Church in 1879 had 5 bishops, 164 clergymen, 273 places of Worship, 52,111 Sunday attendants at services, 325 Sunday schools, with 1,412 teachers, and 18,592 scholars. In public charities, and in voluntary exertions to raise the faīlen, reform the drunkard, and relieve the sorrowful, Sydney has secured, and still maintains, a noble reputa- tion. The newly arrived immigrant will discover no want of benevolent friends if he need them. Pastoral. N. S. W. New South Wales has always held an honourable keeps up its position for the production of wool. From this country, reputation. as from a pastoral centre, have been procured the first flocks of all the Australian colonies and New Zealand. It has recently been proved that there is no disposition to let the younger settlements rob the parent one of its squatting pre-eminence. When the colony included Victoria and Queensland, it could have no rival in the world in this industry. The separated provinces have become rivals. Victoria has the best native grasses of the colonies, and Queensland has twice the area now allotted to its parent; but year by year the pastures are improving under better manage- ment, and the Old State can still hold its own. Australia Australia is essentially the squatting region of the and world. The United States, the British Dominion of squatting. Canada, and even the boasted llanos and pampas of South America, cannot compete with the Kangaroo land for the raising of shecp and the production of fine woods. PASTORAL. 59 It was after he had seen the flocks about Sydney that NEW SOUT Peron, the historian of the French expedition visiting WALES. the south seventy years ago, penned these remarkable Peron's words :- opinion 70 The genial temperature of the climate, the absence years ago. of beasts of prey of all descriptions, and the peculiar nature and agreeable perfume of all native herbage, have proved so favourable to these precious animals, that the finest races both of Spain and England succeed equally well. Already, we are told the wool of these Ant- arctic animals surpasses the rich fleeces of Asturia ; and the London manufacturers, who pay a higher price for it, prefer it considerably. For the general picture of the English colonies in Australia, I shall insist in a particu- lar manner on this object, which appears likely to open to Great Britain a new branch of commerce, as easy as it is profitable.' The Frenchman-who died soon after of a broken heart, as it is said, at being compelled by Napoleon to traduce the name of Flinders and claim the honour of discovery- was right in his prophecy concerning the influence of Australian pastoral undertakings upon the trade of Britain. The capacity of the old Colony for the exten. sion of this interest has not yet been limited. There is still room still room for new comers, and food for many millions for squat- more of the bleating tribe. ting. One thing is very certain: the climatic conditions of New South Wales are so varied, that it can produce any wool that may be required. This subject has been well described by the official report of the Sydney Exhibition of 1870:- The Mudgee district and other highly favoured locali- ties produce wool which is probably not surpassed by Wools of any country in the world. The northern counties, N. S. W. probably best known as the New England district, pro- duce fine, well-grown, sound fleeces, which English manufacturers cannot dispense with. The western and southern counties, which have acquired the designations of the Bathurst and Goulburn districts, can produce in perfection, under proper management, that large and important class known in the trade as middle wools; while further south, anyone who has a fancy to compete with English growers in coarse wool can do so to his heart's content.' 60 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. wool growers. sheep in NEW SOUTH A word of judicious caution, particularly to be heeded WALES. by the intending pastoral emigrant, is added to the Cantion to statement of the Colony's ability to grow every descrip- tion of wool of value. It is this :— The great evil to be avoided is the attempt to grow such qualities as are not suited to individual localities. The history of this great industry is an important one. First colo The original stock landed at Sydney, in 1788, con. nial stock. sisted of 1 stallion, 3 mares, 3 colts, 2 bulls, 3 cows, and 29 sheep. Horses, On March 31, 1879, there were, within the much re- cattle and duced area of the modern New South Wales, not less 1879. than 366,094 horses, 2,768,601 cattle, and 23,962,373 sheep. Breed of The first lot of animals were of the Cape of Good sheep. Hope and Bengal breeds. The improvement in the pas- toral fortunes of the Colony is undoubtedly due to Mr. Macarthur, John Macarthur, once Captain of the New South Wales founder of Corps. As early as 1797 his attention was drawn to Australian squatting. the subject, and he imported a better quality of sheep, the Merino, to cross with the hairy-woolled animal then on the colonial pastures. In 1804, when he returned to England, he placed before manufacturers the Sydney wool, and interested them in the rising product. Examined before the Privy Council, he succeeded in enlisting the interest of Government in his pastoral schemes. When returning to New South Wales, he carried with him specimens of the best sheep he could procure, including some Merinos belonging to the sheep farm of George III. Others, stimulated by his success and ardour, went into the pursuit. The result was that in the genial climate of New South Wales the sheep increased amazingly, and the wool became the great source of colonial wealth. But Dr. Lang is justified in saying of Mr. Macarthur, . The obligations under which he has consequently laid the Colony in all time coming, through his unremitted perseverance and unexampled success, are great beyond calculation.' Wool The export of wool was only 71,299 lbs. in 1819; but export. 111,833,017 lbs., above a thousand times as much, in 1878. In 1878,55,765,233 bales passed over into Victoria. Pastoral The sheep had grown to 25,000 by 1810; and were history. four times that number in 1820. PASTORAL. 61 tions. . A wonderful impetus was given to the pastoral in- NEW SOUTH terest after the establishment of the Australian Agricul. WALES. tural Company, in 1825. The grant of a million of acres to a few London capitalists was an extraordinary event. The company prepared to make the most of their gift by extensive exportation of goods, the trans- mission of many emigrants, and the raising of large flocks and herds. The introduction of so wealthy and eager a customer forced up prices of colonial stock to an unheard-of extent. Five guineas a head were freely given for Sheep five sheep, and cattle sold at equally absurd prices. A perfect guineas a mania followed. Dreams of wealth disturbed the placid- colonial mind. Visions of future greatness by the ex- port of wool begot a ruinous system of speculation, and Rash sheep purchasers found others eager to advance upon their specula- rates at sales. The usual result ensued. The tide turned, and many were ruined, while prices descended to their old position. Another pastoral rage seized the Colony after the set- tlement of Port Philip, when the five guineas per head were commonly and readily given. But again, about 1843, the crash came with intense earnestness. The Colony was in a most depressed state. It was a grim joke of the times that a retired London tradesman might easily have bought up all the settlers. Stations in New South Wales were hard to dispose of at the rate of two or three shillings a head. Mr. Benjamin Boyd bought several sheep-stations at eighteen pence a Sheep at head. 18d. a head. Fluctuations in the wool market have since caused fortunes or failures, and seasons have been more or less propitious to the flockmaster ; but no subsequent greut depression has taken place. For the future, unless absurd miscalculations or mismanagement may occasion losses, no one authority ventures to predict any decay of the pastoral interest in New South Wales. At first, sheep were kept on the grants of land made Early so freely by the Crown in the primitive days. But the pastures. increase of stock called for the extension of pastures. Outside there was land occupied by no one, claimed by no one. The original sheepmaster, therefore, carried 62 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Rude 1826. NEW SOUTH forth a part of his flock, and ran them on the antenanted WALES, wastes. No objection was presented by Government, as no. blame could be attached to men utilising otherwise use.' less territory, and so adding to the national resources. But an evil grew up with the good times. Persons who owned no land whatever presumed to buy sheep and cattle, and depasture them upon the public lands. Some were accused of obtaining their stock by robbing squatters. the flocks and herds of others, and altering the brands. The ignominious appellation of squatters was applied ... to such wandering shepberds. The term has since got ange of applied to the regular pastoral pursuit, and has lost its meaning. former offensive meaning. Tickets of occupation' were given in early times to persons whose character and position would be a guaran. tee for their respectability of behaviour, and a respect Crown for the laws of property. The holders of these could lands. graze their animals upon the Crown lands.in First leases, A stringent regulation of 1826 demanded a pound rent for each hundred acres so occupied, and yet gave no security of tenure. Then the freeholder' or lease- holder was enjoined to make use only of unalienated land near his own homestead, for which he paid half-a- crown per hundred acres, and was subjected to a month's: notice to quit if required by Government. Squatting In 1831, the first proper squatting regulations, as we annual should term them, were issued. By these, blocks, one leases, 1831. square mile each, were put up to auction at an upset of a pound, on annual leases only. Should such land be afterwards sold, one month's notice was all accorded to the lessee. Lawless The effect was that the law was unblushingly evaded.. occupation The unauthorised squatters grew bolder with success. of Crown lands. As Dr. Braim observed, “If Government found it diffi. cult to prevent unauthorised occupation within, the case was a hundredfold worse beyond the boundaries, where no civil or military force existed, but where every man did that which was right in his own eyes.' Crown Lands Commissioners were appointed about forty years ago to withstand the encroachments of these rovers of the wastes. . Governor Bourke was the foremost to regret any PASTORAL. ,- 63 more enforcement of the law upon outsiders. He acknow- NEW SOUTH ledged the necessity of expansion, from the enormous WALES development of the pastoral occupation. He told the Home Ministry that something must be done to meet the circumstances of the case, or, said he, “the colonists must otherwise restrain the increase, or endeavour to Governor raise artificial food for their stock.' Bourke for · He added, "Whilst nature presents all around an un- libera limited supply of the most wholesome nutriment, either leases. course would seem a perverse rejection of the bounty of Providence.' In concluding this despatch, in 1835, he asks, • How may this Government turn to the best advantage a state of things it cannot wholly interdict?' The rush to the pastures of Port Phillip that very year brought matters to a crisis. The Sydney authorities acted according to law in issuing a proclamation forbid- ding the trespass, and warning people off the sweet grasses of the wild southern land. It was as efficacious as the subsequent warning given against the tearing up of Crown lands in the search for gold. Sir George Gipps, in 1840, saw the difficulty, and wrote, “As well might it be attempted to confine the Arabs of the Desert within a circle traced upon their sands, as to confine the graziers or wool growers of New South Wales within any bounds that can possibly be assigned to them.' Some relief came in 1836, when licenses were issued Licenses by the Commissioners, and upon terms which drew most in 1836. stockholders to pay a moderate sum, and so secure pro- tection. Collisions with the natives beyond the boundaries of the settled district called for the organisation of a police force. To cover this extra outlay, Government com- Annual pelled the licenseo to pay an annual assessment of one assessm of stock. halfpenny for a sheep, three times as much for a beast, and six times for a horse. But there was still no certainty To certain of tenure for a pastoral tenant. tenure. Successive enactments, described under the head of · Land Laws,' led to more liberal treatment of flock- Secure masters, and the consequent increase of the flocks and leases. herds of the Colony. In New South Wales, however, as in Victoria, the The farmer inroad of immigrants, and general advance of things, a versus the So, squatter. granted. 64 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH compelled another alteration in the laws. The squatter, WALES. who had for many years been the petted one of the State, saw with dismay the progress of agricultural settle. ments, and the demand for farms upon the pastures of the wastes. Good times Although, in a certain sense, the best times of the still for squatter appear to have come to an end with the march squatters. of the Land Selectors' on his run, no reasonable person doubts that very good times remain, and will long con- tinue, for the pastoral tenant. Improved breeding has occupied attention lately, de- terioration having been especially noticed in the cattle and horses. The disorder and derangement which followed the gold discovery in 1851 had a prejudicial effect upon stations. Stock was not so well looked after as before, and careful separation of flocks and wools was less conspicuous. Improved Horses, especially, became not so valuable for quality, breeding. and the export to India for cavalry, once so important a trade, fell off rapidly. The revival of thoughtful attention to breeding is now causing fresh enquiry to be made after shipments. Cattle, in like manner, have been studied to advan. tage, and large sums given for improved breeds. Pru. dence has also been exercised as to the ground on which beasts have been found to thrive best, and where sheep may not do so well. Shorthorns have the preference, though there are many Herefords and Durhams. About 1840 a mania arose for Leicesters and other coarse-woolled sheep, which most seriously affected the wool returns of the Colony, and forced an abandonment of the plan. The introduction of Saxon sheep has been Saxon a fortunate one for New South Wales, where the animal sheep. is found to do exceedingly well, and yield a wool that produces a good price in the London market. Pastoral The land now leased for pastoral purposes there amounts leases to nearly one hundred and fifty millions of acres. The 150,000,000 increase of sheep during 1873 was very large. The Wagga Wagga District increased in the year from 761,692 to 1,031,293; and Dabbo District added one. fifth to its flocks. Sheep, in 1880, were 25,000,000. Sheep-farming, notwithstanding some vicissitudes, has been a profitable pursuit. A succession of dry acres. PASTORAL. seasons will occasion a fearful loss to the squatter, while NEW SOUTH floods are destructive to flocks on the lowlands. The WALES. animal is less subject to disease in the Colony than in England, though catarrh has at intervals appeared as an epidemic. Foot rot and scab are the chief troubles. The Scab Act is vigorously enforced. Boundary Scab. riders are employed by Government near the Murray river to guard against the migration of diseased sheep from Victoria. “A quarantine is established at the sea. ports, where newly-arrived animals are dipped and dressed before landing. The Colony has, along with its neighbours, prohibited for two years the import of stock from Europe, because of the prevalence of disease among flocks and herds north of the equator. In the 1878 returns of the colony, of the 111,833,017 Pastoral lbs. of wool, 55,765,233 lbs. were overland, and produce. 56,067,784 lbs. of sea wool; the value was 5,256,0381. The tallow export of 1878 was 60,035 cwt., valued at 96,0761. The export of hides and leather realised 152,7981. The wool of 1873 averaged 4 lbs. 11 oz. greasy, and 3 lbs. 1 oz, washed. In addition to this source of wealth, the exports over. Overland land in 1878 to the neighbouring colonies of Victoria export. and South Australia were 2,423 horses, 48,950 cattle, and 572,534 sheep. Meat-preserving has become a great industry. When, Meat- thirty years ago, in consequence of the low price of preserving wool, the squatters were suffering, one Mr. O'Brien, First boil- of Yass, suggested the boiling down of animals for their ing by Mr. O'Brien. tallow. This process at once raised the price of sheep from about half-a-crown to eight shillings a head. In 1871 there were 306,799 sheep boiled down for their tallow in the Colony. The first meat preserved in New South Wales con. sisted of only 20 packages. This was in 1862. In the year 1878 the export was 21,524 packages, of the value of 42,5811. Salted meat has been sent to the South Sea Islands, the Mauritius, and some of the colonies, for several years past. Ramornie meat-preserving estab- lishment was started in 1866. The freezing process, very recently perfected, will be- friend the squatter and the European poor. The Auditor-General of New South Wales a short time 66 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. The NEW SOUTH ago read a paper before the Royal Society in Sydney, in WALES. which he made these remarks upon the pastoral in. terest:- Auditor The tables of the Registrar-General, which exbibit General of the export of wool—the produce of the Colony-furnish N. S. W. • the following information: They show us that in the on the Pastoral year 1862 our flocks produced 20,988,393 lbs. of wool, returns. of the estimated value of 1,801,1861., which gives an Sheep and average of over 3 lbs. 6 oz. per sheep, and an estimated wool sta- value of nearly one shilling and nine pence per pound. tistics. In 1866 the production had increased to 36,980,685 lbs. of wool, with an estimated value of 2,830,3481., or a little over one shilling and six pence per pound ; thus exhibiting an increase in the production to the extent of 76 per cent. Whilst in the last five years of the series, that is, in the year 1871, the exports reached the highest figures ever sent away, namely, 65,611,953 lbs. of wool, and the estimated value of 4,748,1601., or a little over one shilling and five pence per lb. Not far short of five millions sterling, and equal to an increase of pro- duction of 212 per cent. in ten years, and nearly 80 per cent. in the last five years. The clip of 1871 gave an average yield of four pounds per sheep, that is, ten ounces over the clip of 1862, owing, probably, in great measure to the larger proportion of wool going home in grease. We have no means of ascertaining the actual return proceeds of the clip of last year (1872); indeed it cannot yet have been all realised. I shall not be accused of overstating the case, however, if I put down the surplus return to the Colony, over and above the value before stated, at a million and a half sterling, thus bringing up the value of the clip to six millions and a quarter sterling.' He proceeds further to describe pastoral profits from other sources, and concludes thus:- Squatters "If we add this to the amount previously estimated, returns. we shall arrive at an aggregate sum exceeding eight millions and a half sterling, as the total estimated value of our pastoral exports for the year 1871; viz. :. Wool, seaward . . 4,748,160 Tallow, &c. . 468,606 Wool, Live Stock, Tallow, &c., orerland . 3,381,867 Grand Total 8,698,633 AGRICULTURE. 67 pastoral ment. not the · It has been shown that much of the settled district, NEW SOUTH the twenty original counties—is devoted to pastoral WALES. pursuits. But in the 98 counties outside of that portion the so-called pastoral districts are situated. All the land for pasturage used in 1878 was 231,945 sq. m. at 211,4521. rent. Though a small portion of freehold land is devoted to Most depasturing animals, the far larger proportion is leased pa land rented by the Government. A statement of the conditions from under which a person may thus become a tenant of the Govern- Crown will hereafter be seen under the head of Laud me Laws. Agriculture. 1. As the oldest colony, New South Wales might be N. S. W. presumed to be the most advanced in agriculture. It n most will be found, however, that more scientific farming advanced. exists in Victoria, while South Australia and New Zealand produce, relatively, a greater amount. · The early convict settlers were very poor farmers. Early The soil was neglected, and the work badly performed. farmers. Complaints were made of the intemperate habits of these primitive cultivators, and the consequent misery of their huts. The yield was small, and the waste was deplorable. Though the first farms were in small grants of land, they were of sufficient acreage tu support a family, had proper care and diligence been exercised. Plots far less in extent, and of even worse soil, have raised many families to opulence elsewhere. Without doubt the im- provement in colonial agriculture came with improved morals, and the advent of free immigrants. Within sixteen years of the settlement in 1788, a small party of Scotch emigrants located themselves on the Scotch Hawkesbury river, and set a good example in tillage and farmers. behaviour to their neighbours. The publication of Mr. Wentworth's work on New South Wales in 1823, in- Mr. Went- duced a good number of British farmers to go out to the better land. the colony. Although, as elsewhere in the colonies, a great preju. dice exists against what is called the home system of cultivation, yet the old methods, even in the oldest colony, are gradually giving way before the progress of judicious Improved and scientific processes. Agricultural societies, and ex- cultivation. worth's work on 68 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH hibitions of produce, have done much to develop a better WALES. state of things. Even now there is a fine prospect for an immigrant if thoroughly acquainted with modern ideas, and sufficiently provided with capital for working a farm. New South Wales has not perhaps the same propor- tion of fertile land to be found in England, New Zea- land, or Victoria, owing to want of rain westward. It may be said that three-fourths of the area, at least, is only fit for pastorage, and that much of the remainder will only yield a good return under effective manage- 616,642 ment. As it is, there were but 613,642 acres ander acres in crop in 1878 out of 206,200,000, or about one acre to crop. every 335 acres. N. S. W. The small population-a little over half a million still im- m.... would require but limited fields to feed them. And yet ports flour. the Colony, even in 1878, had to import not less than 780,600 bushels of wheat besides 33,174 tons of flour. The geology of the country, near the seat of the ori. Variety of ginal settlement, is unfavourable to farming. For many coils. miles north, south, and west of Sydney, the rock is sandstone, wanting in rich phosphates, and retaining little moisture. The banks of rivers, as the Hawkes- bury, the Hunter, &c., have splendid soil, and return a fine harvest. The presence of basaltic and other igneous rocks is a safe indication of good ground. In the flats of the Pacific streams, especially toward the mouth, the farmer is well rewarded for his efforts. · Agriculture pays better since the country has been opened up by railways, and so many ports have been visited by steamers. Improred implements, the increase of machines, the employment of guano and of artificial manures, together with a larger investment of capital under thoughtful management, all tend to make New South Wales a more promising field of agricultural en. terprise. Range of The climate is such that the products of both tem- products. - porate and tropical regions may be raised there. On the lowlands by the coast, sugar and rice can be grown; while, in the highlands, cereals and English fruits are easily procured. The British style of farming can be successfully carried on upon the plateaux north, south, and west of Sydney. There, with a cooler temperature and an abundance of AGRICULTURE. 69 good soil, a healthy and prosperous homestead may be NEW SOUTH established. WALES, The Colony has suffered in reputation as to its agri. cultural capabilities in consequence of the earlier settle- ments having been placed upon the poorer lands. The old grants, and the sales, until very recently, were con- fined to the sandstone region of the settled district. All the rest of the province was closed against the farmer by the squatter. Now, however, that the liberal policy has been in- augurated, men may obtain farms on the rich lands at a distance, and especially among the hills. It follows that New South Wales is declared able to grow almost every vegetable product with ease and success. But it is not enough to know how to obtain such a promising field of culture. Means must be afforded to bring the produce to market. Fortunately for the grower, the gold mines have burst The forth in localities more desirable for cultivation, and diggings "brought a have brought the consumer and producer most happily good together. The digger has a cheaper table, and the market. farmer is better paid for his toil. The railway, after all, is the distributor of trade. The Railways Colonial Parliament, conscious of this advantage, has vigorously aided the cultivator by a judicious railway scheme, most perseveringly carried forward. When the charmirg retreats in the Alps, the Blue Mountains, and the Liverpool ranges are bronght into connection with the rest of the Colony by lincs, new comers will not complain of the want of remunerative farms and cn. joyable homes. Within the twenty counties of the so-called 'Settled District,' not one-third is purchased land, the rest being still held by the Crown, and leased out to the pastoral tenants. Of the ninety-eight counties outside of that limit, but Only 8 per one-fifteenth is alienated. In the whole Colony, eight per cen land sold. cent. of the land is sold and seventy-five per cent. is leased to squatters; therefore nearly one-fourth of the area is wholly anoccupied. In 1871 there were 12,740 freeholders and 8,005 lease. Freeholders holders in the settled district, and 6,496 of the first and it holders. 1,933 of the last in the pastoral country. In the colony, 1878, were 37,887 holdings of 21,471,596 acres. - farmer. cent, of the and lease- 70 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH The improvement in the number of the latter was owing WALES. to recent land laws placing selectors and farmers in the midst of squatters. The most productive districts were Albury, having 43,260 acres under crop; Orange, with 18,430; and Bathurst, with 17,558 in 1878. Progress of The growth of agriculture may be observed in the Culiiva- tion. following table of acres under cultivation :- 1825 . . 45,514 I 1854 . . 131,857 1833. . 60,520 1866. . 260,798 1810 . . 126,116 1865. . 378,254 1850. , 198,056 1878. . 613,643 The great falling-off after 1851 arose from the rush of men from fields to diggings. Seasons, also, affect the cropping; as 1871 had fewer tilled acres than 1870. For a long time the cultivation was almost confined to maize, wheat, and a small amount of potatoes. Garden produce and fruit were raised near towns, and tobacco was grown by the settlers for sheep dressing. The average under crop in 1871 is thus classified. Crops and average in 1871. Settled Pastoral Districts Districts Total Wheat . Maize. Barley · . . . Oats Rye Green Fodder-maize sorghum , barley . oats rye millet 99,633 79,819 2,485 8,773 1,196 907 290 1,022 685 161 29 grass 1,369 54,366 154,030 40,136 119,056 976 3,461 5,021 13,794 146 1,342 365 1,17+ 117 417 200 1,222 216 901 112 273 111 40 3,384 27,772 11,486 2,012 8,802 241 709 6,525 30,807 3,316 14,769 1,525 4,152 24 567 12 32 117 417 1,272 1,994 1,332 2,399 Hay-grass » wheat u barley.. . 19. oats Potatoes Vineyards Tobacco. . Sorghum grain yg green food . Sugar cane productive . o unproductive •.•.•••••••• 24,388 10,117 6,790 468 24,282 11,453 2,627 '543 20 300 722 1,067 AGRICULTURE. While demand provoked supply, the increase of NEW SOUTH growers and an advanced range of product called forth WALES. fresh customers. New South Wales is no longer willing to depend upon Tasmania for potatoes and South Aus. tralia for wheat. Luxuries have developed the cultivation of things previously neglected. There can be no doubt, therefore, that with the stretch of acreage there will be the expansion of articles of growth, and a larger per. centage of production on the area. The most wheat was grown in Bathurst county and in Localities the Murrumbidgee district; maize, in Macquarie county of greatest and Clarence district; bay from grass, in Durham county produce. and Monaro district; hay from wheat, in Roxburgh county and Murrumbidgee district; hay from oats, in Cumberland county and Murrambidgee district; tobacco, in Durham; potatoes, in Camden and St. Vincent counties and New England and Monaro districts ; sorghum, in Cumberland and Monaro; arrowroot, in Northumberland ; vines, in Northumberland and Cum. berland counties and the Murrumbidgee district; sugar- cane, in Macquarie county and the Clarence and Macleay district. These remarks apply to the crop of 1871. The yield for the year ending March 1879 was : Amount of yield, 1879. Produce Acres . Wheat, bushels Maize . Barley . Oats . Rye 233,252 130,582 6,152 22,129 1,302 254 16,724 · 835 . . 3,439,326 4,420,580 132,072 447,912 22,563 5,023 53,590 888,422 86 2,083,814 47,484 684,733 2,510 . . 47 Millet Potatoes, tons Tobacco, lbs. Sorghum, tons Sagar cane, cwts. Arrowroot, lbs. Wine, galls. Brandy, , : . 2,949 . . 27 4,237 Maize is undoubtedly the reliable crop of the Colony. Maize. The dry climate is favourable to it. It is strange that, while it has become in America so common an article of food for man, it should be used only for horses, cows, AGRICULTURE. 73 not well poses. The plant, so easily injured by Wet and frost, NEW SOUTH seems peculiarly adapted to the climate of New South WALES. Wales. · Until lately, scientific farming was scarcely known in the Colony. Tobacco requires some care to produce the best qualities. The account of average of it during 1871 will show, probably, the favoured localities. Dur. ham had 375 acres; Gloucester, 122; Macquarie, 33; Northumberland, 13. In the pastoral districts there were but 12 acres devoted to tobacco in the Murrum. bidgee; 9 in the Clarence; and 1 in the Monaro. But while the cultivator does his part better than of old, the manufacturer has not equally progressed with his work. The complaint. urged against the article was that it Tobacco had a strong and even unpleasant flavour. This was not made. mainly to be attributed to want of care on behalf of the manufacturer. There has been of late so decided an improvement that colonial-made tobacco has sold well, and been much admired, though only by the employ- ment of the brand Havannah for the home produce. Arrowroot has been mainly grown in Northumber. Arrowroot. land. It is just such an article as could be easily raised by the small farmer; whose family in that warm climate would have thus a pleasant and nutritive food. The potatoe region of New South Wales is indicated Potatocs. by the acre return. Camden had 1,503, and St. Vincent 1,360 ;, while New England district boasted of 990, and Monaro of 846 in 1871. Barley is cultivated most in Roxburgh county, and a Barles an w uncertuin little is gathered on the highlands of the Murrumbidgee. It is generally an uncertain crop in Australia, and does best in New Zealand. Oats were grown in Cumberland to the extent of 6,678 tons in 1871; though the Colony is Oals. largely indebted to its cooler neighbours for this useful grain. The grape does admirably in New South Wales. In Grapes. some of the north-eastern portions, and still more so in the southern Murray river country, on the western slopes of the mountain ranges, the wine is esteemed delicious in flavour, and equal to that of many of the valued European brands. In vineyards, in 1871, Nor- thumberland had 774 acres ; Durbam, 399; Cumberland, crop. 74 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Beer versus NEW SOUTH 654; and Gloucester, 134. The Murrumbidgee district WALES. had no less than 1,114 acres ; the Lachlan, 108; and the Clarence, 66. As to the paying character of vigneron work, a com. Wine. petent authority states that 400 gallons an acre may be calculated upon. This, at the low price of two shillings a gallon, would produce 4,0001. on a vineyard of 100 acres. While 144,888 gallons were made in 1863, 413,321 gallons were produced in 1872, and 451,450 in 1873. In 1877, 708,432 were made. The displacement of rum by wine would be a gain to wine. health and morals. Beer can only be made during three months of the year, and the barley does not thrive in the climate ; so that it is probable New South Wales will ultimately become a wine-consuming community. Oranges Oranges are very plentiful, and are largely exported and other to the neighbouring colonies. The orangeries of Par. fruits. ramatta, Young, and Tumut yield a handsome return to the grower, even when 2,000 feet above the sea. The first chaplain of the Colony, the Rev. Mr. Johnson, established this.useful industry at Rose Hill. Bananas, loquats, pineapples, and ground-nuts are also raised for exportation. The uplands produce all the English fruits in profusion. Sugar. Sugar is the coming industry of New South Wales, though not likely to be so important a one as in Queens- land and the Northern Territory, whose warmer and moister climate is so much more favourable to the cul. ture of the cane, realising, too, a larger yield to the acre. The frost, from the vicinity of bills, is the chief foe to this colony's cane. In 1863, only two acres of New South Wales were devoted to sugar, and the produce was 280 lbs. Four years after, the amount was 116 aores. In 1878, the productive acres were 2,949; the unproductive, 4,489. There were 8,160 tons of sugar from 60 mills in 1878. As the yield is less than in Queensland, it will be some time yet before the Sydney table is supplied from home manufacture. The profit is undoubted, if Mr. Angus Mackay's cal- culations be correct, as he put down £12 108. for the expenses per ton, or not above one-third of the return. The growth can be managed by a man of very small MINING. 75 capital, though the manufacture requires a considerable NEW SOUTH outlay for machinery. WALES. The principal localities for the cane are the rich flats 5, toward the mouth of the Tweed, Richmond, Clarence, districts. Bellinger, Nambucca, Macleay, Hastings, Manning, and McLean rivers, lying between 281° and 321°. Sorghum and imphee, however, can be grown inland, and on Sorghum higher ground, while the produce of sugar therefrom is andimphee. pronounced of remunerative character, though the plant is grown chiefly as green fodder at present. In 1871 there were in Cumberland 117 acres of sor- ghum; in Camden, 95; in the Monaro district, 47; and in the Murrumbidgee, 22. But while there were 149 acres of sugar land in Gloucester, and 1,547 in Macquarie county, there were 616 in the McLeay, and 1896 in the Clarence district. Silk is likely to become an export soon. The climalo Silk, is suitable for the worm, and the varieties of mulberry thrive exceedingly well. The picking of the leaves, and attention to the insects, need take little time, and in- volve no heavy labour. The grain, or eggs, are of a healthy character, giving promise of a more successful treatment than in France and Italy. Sericulture in New South Wales has another advan. Sericulture tage over that of Europe, in the cheapness of colonial prospects. land as compared with the soil of Lombardy, &c. The labour of women and children can be utilised in this pursuit, without that sacrifice of home attending factory work. The Japanese worms yield whito, yellow and green cocoons. Mining. The mountainous part of New South Wales is one of the richest mineral regions in the world. Gold, silver, tin, copper, lead, iron, and coal abound there. The gold takes precedence of all: yet coal and iron Gold in will, in the future, make the colony, perhaps, the leading 1829, &c. one in manufactures. Though the bright metal was found at the Fish river in 1823, in the Alps by Count Strzelecki in 1840, near the Macquarie by the Rev. W. B. Clarke in 1841, at Berrima by Mr. Smith in 1840, and in other places at various times, yet the first gold field was announced in 1851. 76 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH WALES. Hargraves finds the first gold field in 1851. Mr. Edward IIammond Hargraves returned that year from the Californian diggings, and publicly proclaimed the existence of alluvial gold at Summerhill Creek, to- ward Bathurst, in April, 1851. The government geolo- gist, Mr. Stutcbbury, reported upon the gold of Ophir in May. On the 22nd of May the governor forbade any unauthorized digging for the precious metal, though OSTO Licen Miners. The Rev. W. B. Clarke, who had written a geological article for the Sydney paper in 1847, in which he said that auriferous sands would be found in the streams flowing from the Blue Mountains, gave every encourage- ment to the prospecting miner of 1851. This Christian philosopher then declared: The Colony must prepare herself for an important growth in her influences on the destinies of the world.' The wild excitement following the discovery, and the rapid development of other mining centres of attraction, are well known facts. Gold fields burst forth almost simultaneously at many different points along the mountain chains of New South Wales and Victoria. Diggers paid thirty shillings a month for their li. cense. The first proclamation gave them leave to pay this in cash or gold ; if the latter, it must be at the rate of forty-eight shillings per ounce when obtained by amalgamation, or sixty-four if procured by simple wash- ing. The first commissioner, Mr. Hardy, gave twenty feet frontage to a river when the party consisted of from three to six persons. Mr. Hargraves received a handsome sum from the governments of Sydney and Melbourne. His credit lay in the publicity of his announcement, and the accident of a Californian gold fever. When Mr. Clarke was asked why he had kept his discovery so long quiet, he replied, 'I considered that to say much about it would be very much like offering a reward for escaped robbers and murderers. Althougb, however, considerable so- cial disturbance occurred for a time, it may be seriously questioned whether, on the whole, the gold fields have not been the means of advancing the moral and reli- gious progress of the Colony as much as its material welfare. The process of digging was very rude at the begin. Progress of MINING. לת ning. The Californian Tom' came to the help of the NEW SOUTH spade and cradle. The puddling machine followed, al- WALES. though the hydraulic pressure is the most efficient of Mining washers. In the same way, the simple burning and machinery. cracking of quartz stones has given place to the stampers driven by steam, with other efficient contri. vances of modern science. In 1878 the Colony boasted of 35 puddling machines, 4 hydraulic hoses, and 90 crushing machines. Of late years, the yield of gold in New South Wales had been gradually declining. Up to the end of 1878 the Syd- ney Mint had coined 42,534,0001. The eighty gold 80 gold fields extend over an area of 14,000 square miles, and fields. were in 1878 worked by 7,000 miners. . The yield has suffered a considerable decline since 1862, owing, perhaps, less to a falling off of mines, than to the attraction of other leads in Victoria, Queensland, and New Zealand. The value of the escort receipt in 1862 was 2,212,5341. The year after it was 1,629,0471. Gold It gradually decreased till 1870, when it was only mining. 763,6551. But the next year it rose to 1,143,781l., and improving the yield has since been even higher. The highest yield Total was in 1852, being 962,873 ounces, or double that of export, 1868. For 1872 it was 396,000 oz.; 1878, but 119,665 oz. 32,928,5826. The total yield to end of 1878 was 32,928,5821. The export of gold has rated above the escort returns, as the largest proportion of Queensland produce reached the port of Sydney. Thus the export for the year 1863 amounted to 2,361,9491.; and for 1870 as much as 1,585,7361. These amounts include the gold yield of Gold coin. the Colony, together with that received from other places to be converted into bars and coin at the mint. In 1878 the export of gold coin in 400 boxes was valued at 1,653,9111. Of that, two-thirds went to England, one- ninth to Victoria, one-eighth to Hong Kong, and one- thirtieth to New Zealand. The quartz mining has become of increased import. Quartz ance. În July, 1852, a native found at Louisa Creek mining. some quartz specimens, producing 106 lbs. of gold. In 1878 there were 3,489 acres taken up for quartz mining. Some remarkable yields have been recorded. One Field, a shepherd, discovered a rich reef, which has yielded in five years 723,6:121. A quartz claim gave a hundred. 78 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH weight of gold from twice the weight of stone. In WALES. January of 1873 it was reported that 6 cwt. contained 2 cwt. of gold. The yield in 1877 averaged 1 dwt. 2 grs. per ton of wash-dirt, and 18 dwts. 14 grs. of quartz. Gold The New South Wales gold fields are divided into localities described. 8. gold districts Bathurst, Turon, Madgee, Lachlan, Southern, Tumut, Peel, and New England. . The chief localities of the western mines are Sofala, Bathurst, Tambaroora, Madgee, Gulgong, Greenfell, Carcoar, Trunkey, Orange, Turon, Lachlan, and Wel. lington. Cargo and Barrington are very rich. Those of the southern are Goulburn, Braidwood, Ade- long, Tumut, Wagga-Wagga, Araluen, Burrangong, Tumburumba, Kiandra, and Gundagai. In the northern are Rocky River, Armidale, Tamworth, Glen Morrison, Gulph, and Nandle. In 1878, the West gave nearly half the gold returns. The fields of Timborra, Ironbark, Peel, and Boorook are in the north ; Kiandra, Delegete, Shoalhaven, Jug- iong, Emu Creek, and Jembaicumbene are in the south; Lachlan, Turon, Ophir, Meroo, Cudgegong, Tuena, Mitchell's, and Apple-tree Flat are in the west. Deep- leads have been lately found near the Billabong and Lachlan, and reefs at Backcreek and Yalwall. Extent of The gold regulations of the Colony require that a miner digger's pay 10s. for a license from January 1st to December 31st, claim. while a business license costs twice as much. The ground allowed is 30 feet frontage to a river; or for other alluvial working, 60 feet by 66 each man of a party of four. An ordinary quartz claim is 50 feet along the reef, and 100 yards in width each side. Leases of Leases are granted for 15 years on abandoned alluvia! auriferous gravel of from one acre to 25 acres, at 11. an acre; or from 200 or 1,000 yards of a river bed at 1l. per 100 yards. Slaicing claims are 10 acres each. Leases and In the leases of quartz reefs, for less than 15 acres, the rentals. allowed width is 100 yards, and the length from 96 to 323 yards. For 15 and 20 acres the width is 150 yards, and the length 484 and 645 yards. For 20 to 50 acres the grant is between 600 and 1,260 yards in length, and 200 yards breadth. The smallest claim must have 4 men, and the largest, of 50 acres, 100 men. The annual rent runs from 41. for 2 acres to 1001. for 50 acres. The land. MINING. 79 WALES. escort fee is 8d. per ounce. The export duty, 1s. 6d. NEW SOUTH an ounce, was afterwards repealed. Copper promises favourably. The area of copper Copper country is 6,713 square miles, and total export 1,891,9271, mines. The produce for 1878 has been valued at 166,2011. Bathurst and Monaro are the chief localities of its pro- duction. The Cobar mine, Darling District, was the best paying one, though Mullom, Hall and Peelwood do well. At Quedong, of the Alps, the metal is found at the junction of the slate and fossiliferous limestone. Good ore was got from Lockyersleigb, near Goulburn, from Padmin "Creek of the Lachlan, from the Macquarie, the Louisa, and the McLoughlin, Mount Canobolas, Cur- rawong, and the junction of the Queanbeyan and Mur- rumbidgee. A specimen brought from Bathurst contained eighteen ores and other minerals mixed together.. New South Wales is not, perhaps, so rich in copper as South Australia and Queensland, though much superior to Victoria. The copper of Orange District extends over twenty miles square, and Monaro wealth cannot be ascertained from the inaccessibility of the country. Currawong mine, by Lake George, is now let on tribute. A mass of 110lbs. was got at Molong. At Mount Hall, near Hay, 40 tons of ore ran from 45 to 70 per cent. Silver lead is obtained at Wolgarlo, on the Yass river, Silver lead at Moruya, at Boorook, at Scone, in the basin of the mercury. upper Murrumbidgee, and at the Isis river. Antimony raised in 1878 realised 1,9641. Iron, though often of high percentage, and found near Iron very both coal and limestone, is worked with difficulty, owing promising. to rate of wages and cost of carriage. The railway to the Fitzroy mine of Nattai river, will make it more avail. able. The Lithgow iron in 1878 was valued at 6,6561. This iron mine has been recently sold for 7,6001. Lime- stone and coal are contiguous to iron. This useful metal abounds near Combing, Warran. bangle, Port Macquarie, Monaro, Berrima, Modbury, Shoalhaven, Murray County, Araluen, Wallerawang, &c. Tin, during the past and present years, has been pro. Tin very duced in New England, near the Queensland border. Of rich. that rich tin ground New South Wales possesses two- thirds of the area. Tenterfield and Inverell are the centres of this wonderful region; though the metal bas been found near Albury, in the Tumut river. 80 IANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. wealth. NEW SCUTH In 1877 there was taken up in tin leases about 43,615 WALES. acres. The ore fetched in Sydney from 601. to 801. per ton; though some sold in November, 1872, as high as 1381., and the export to 1878 was 2,376,0001. Yet Mr. Surveyor Wilkinson wrote, on December 6th, 1872, that 'in Mr. Holme's claim, eleven cwts. of stream tin in one day have been obtained by twelve men.' One mine got fifty tons in six months at Cope's Creek. A mass of tin crystals, weighing 20lbs., was brought out of a layer of white cement. Tributaries of the Upper Murray show 70 per cent. of pure tin. Diamonds of great beauty are now being discovered in tin streams. At Tamworth they average 35 to every six tons washdirt. The enthusiastic Mr. Clarke exclaims, 'I am impressed with the opinion that for centuries to come the industry now commenced will continue to occupy a prominent position among the producers of colonial wealth, just as the mines of Tenasserim, Merghui, and Malacca have not decreased in value since the commencement of their Mineral working.' Diamonds, and other precious stones are found at Oberon, Bingera, and in several of the tin bear- ing streams of the colony. Tin raised, 1878, 395,8221. Coal mines. But coal is, after all, the most valuable of the natural wealth of New South Wales. As previously mentioned, under the head of Geology, the area of working fields is large, and the mineral may hereafter be found to run under the great plains to the eastward. Estent of Mr. Keene, the coal inspector, wrote thus of the coal-field. extent of the formation :-'I have examined seams more than 700 miles to the north of Newcastle, belonging to the same deposits as we are now working in the Hunter, covered or overlaid by the same fossils, fauna and flora; and we may, without boasting, claim to rank with the most extensive coal-fields in the world.' Mr. Mackenzie, the present coal-fields examiner, esti- mates the area at about ten million of acres, and speaks of one seam alone, if extending over that area, supplying Great Britain's demands, at the existing rate, for 750 years. Coal at The Newcastle coal produces better gas but poorer coke Newcastle. than English coal. Towards the end of the last century the coal was observed to crop out by the sea, on the site of the present New- MINING. castle. A convict establishment was early formed at the NEW SOUTH Coal River. A small export to Cape Colony in 1801 WALES. realised 61. a ton. The first sale at Newcastle was of forty-four tons to an American vessel, for nails and old iron. Up to 1817 the cliff only was worked, and that by a perpendicular shaft. In 1820 twenty tons a day were raised by twenty-seven men. The Government sold the surplus stock, levying a daty of 2s. a ton for home con- sumption, and 5s. when for exportation. When the fortunate Australian Agricultural Company of British Shareholders got their enormous grant, it was ascertained to contain the largest extent of the coal-field. The monopoly of the Newcastle-coal fields was then transferred to the Company, though now thrown open to the public. At the beginning of 1873 the land taken up in Coal leases. coal leases from Government reached to 34,720 acres. In the last twenty years the export has increased above two thousand per cent. The coal raised in 1878 was valued at 920,9361., and export 708,4061. Though the neigbbourhood of Newcastle, at the month Other coal- of the Hunter, is the principal source of this mineral, fields. profitable workings exist at Berrima, Maitland, Hartley, Patrick's Plains, Clarence river, Lithgow in the vale of Clwydd, and Wollongong of Illawarra. From Wollongong, forty miles south of Sydney, over 238,500 tons were produced during 1877; while the Newcastle yielded 1,180,000. The total amount raised Coalra that year in the colony was 1,575,500 tons, valued at and 915,2281. In 1878, 1,006,420 tons were exported to the exportech other colonies, to China, India, Valparaiso, Siam, Cali. fornia, &c. The price from 1862 to 1866 averaged 10s.; and, subsequently, 78. A strike afterwards sent up the coal rates there rather considerably. In 1878 there were 28 mines of coal and 3 of shale at full work. Kerosene, at Petrolia Vale, Hartley, to the westward, r Kerosene is an important manufacture. The shale yields seventy- five gallons to the ton; 50 tons a day are distilled. In 1872 the Shale Oil Company produced 8,000 tons, valaed at 24,0001. Wollongong also furnishes a large quantity of the oil. In 1878, total sbale produce, 57,2111. Coal leases must not extend beyond 320 acres, nor for Rent and more than fourteen years. Though the annual rent is area of coal leases. but 56. an acre, the lessee has to expend 5l. an acre upon le 82 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Other NEW SOUTH the land during the first three years. Upon the renewal WALES. of the lease the rent is to be determined by appraisement, though never less than 50s. an acre. The limit of area mineral in leases of other minerals than coal (gold excepted, leases. also) is eighty acres. In 1877, 30,604 acres were leased. Coal arca. The coal area of the colony, though officially rated at 10,000,000 acres, may prove to be several times greater. The Government has an Examiner of Coal Mines, and an Inspector of Collieries. TRADE. Trade and Manufactures. In 1823 the first regular line of schooners began to run between Sydney and Hobart Town. Throughout 1878 there entered into the ports of New South Wales 2,469 vessels, having a tonnage of 1,267,374 tons; the outward was 1,192,130. That colony owned nearly two-thirds Shipping of the shipping of Australia. Sydney owners have many colonial steamers. Until very recently, the carrying trade of Queensland and New Zealand was in the hands of New South Wales. There is a growing trade between Sydney and the South Sea Islands, as well as with Honolulu and California. To make Sydney the em. poriam of southern trade, the colony has now adopted Free Trade. a free trade policy, in opposition to the practice of its neighbours. The geographical position of this safe and commodious port is much in its favour. The export and import trade is a large one. In 1831, this came to 151. 188. 41. per head ; in 1841, to 251.4s. 2d.; in 1851, to 171. Os. 10d. ; in 1861, to 331. 9s. ld. ; and in 1871, to 401. 3s. 4d. In 1878 the two were 401. 18s. 28. Imports. The imports for 1878 were 14,768,8731., and the ex. ports 12,965,8791. The following table showed the trade of the colony with some other states :- Country Imports from Exports to Trade with countries. Great Britain Victoria Queensland . New Zealand South Australia .. Other colonies Foreign States 6,658,628 5,516,437 2,897,503 3,694,434 1,813,762 | 1,221,621 245,907 588,419 ....... 889,691 | 1,053,642 11,099,528 996,048 1,351,634 431,531 TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 83 ... In 1876 the imports from British colonies were NEW SOUTH .. 6,957,4631.; and from Great Britain 5,763,5331, From WALES. Victoria they were - 2,386,7771. ; South Australia, Imports. 1,165,7061.; Queensland, 1,989,5891. Of the exports, : 6,637,0181. went to the British colonies, and 5,918,1871. to Great Britain ; to Victoria, 4,0 13,6661.; to South Australia, 670,1381.; to Queensland, 1,121,8201. Among the imports for 1878 were: Apparel, 643,2871.; beer, 202,2111. ; candles, 72,62 1. ; coffee, 27,4621. ; music, 117,4301.; cutlery, 39,0801. ; drugs, 122,2591.; earthenware, 74,2701. ; .floor, 411,0071.; furniture, 144,3031. ; grain of all kinds, 251,8861.; stationery, 166,1551.; hardware, 462,1981. ; green vegetables, 17,9871.; matches, 49,7601. ; hops, 36,0121. ; iron, 652,6071.; jewellery, 120,6581. ; boots and shoes, 296,7671. ; drapery, 2,717,0281. ; machinery, 191,3521. ; sewing machines, 38,3541. ; watches, 56,2411. ; oilmen's stores, not oil, 10,4101. ; opium for the Chinese, 46,6911. ; potatoes, 127,2741. ; saddlery, 53,2891. ; rice, 90,0361. ; spirits, 421,3981. ; books, 180,1551. ; sugar, 704,6911. ; tea, 362,8831.; tobacco, 226,2341. ; toys, &c. 128,7631. ; fruits, 134,8701. ; wines, 112,0841.; tin ore and ingots, 217,9601. Much of the import of the Colony is exported in the way of colonial trade. The wool from Queensland amounted to 272,4991., and was forwarded to Loudon viâ Sydney. In a similar manner an import of copper in the year 1877, from Qucensland and South Australia, came to 114,3891. The import of gold from other colonies was 1,098,5921. The total imports for 1877 were 13,672,7761. In the list of ordinary exports, produced in the colony Seaward in 1878, the following are the leading items: bark, exports. 9,4211.; butter and cheese, 38,6941. ; coal, 708,4061. ; copper, 405,0841. ; gold, 1,701,2831.; maize, 142,9681. ; leather, 95,0861. ; fruits, 87,7881.; meat, 63,1251. ; skins, 90,0417.; sugar, 151,9311.; tallow, 98,0181. ; timber, 39,8361. ; wool, 5,960,2061. ; wine, 28,1461.; tin, 430,6711. ; spirits, 95,8951. As the flocks have so in. creased, and the refrigerating process has proved a suc- cess, the future meat export will become very large. The overland trade with Victoria and South Aus. Overland tralia is considerable. In 1877 the overland imports trade. G 2 84 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. bering NEW SOUTH amounted to 1,744,9201., and the exports to 2,555,7181. WALES. In 1871, the lire stock alone realised 914,6701., and wool, 2,443,3801. Ten years before, the overland im- ports were but 200,0001., and the exports 900,0001. Imports The import trade through 1878 averaged 211. 158. 8d. and per head, or more than double that of Great Britain. exports per head. The export was 191. 28. 6d., or nearly three times the amount. The 1872 exports were 10,447,0491. i The tariff which came into operation, Act 1874, dis- penses with ad valorem daties. The duty on spirits and wines has been raised. S. d. Bags and sacks . • per dozen 10 Beer, ale, porter, spruce, or other beers, in wood or jar . . per gallon 0 Ditto ditro, in bottle . Bottled fruits (quarts) .. · per dozen Ditto (pints and smaller pack- ages). Candles. i : per’ib. Coment. per barrel Cheese, dried fruits, repper, spices, bacon, and hams . Cigars. Coffee, chicory, cocoa, and choco " late . Comfits, confectionery, succades. Cordage and rope . . per ton 40 0 Doors, sashes, and shutters . each 1 0 Dried, preserved, and salt fish. per lb. 0 1 Galvanised iron, in hars, bundles, or sheets, or corrugated per ton 400 Galranised manufactures . per cwt. 3 0 Gunny lags : • per doz. 0 6 Hops . O 3 Iron wire • per ton 200 Malt • per bushel ( 6 Met hylated spirits per gallon 2 O per ton 40 Oils of all kinds (except animal, sperm, black, and cocoa- nuts) . . per gallon 0 6 Opium, or preparation. . per Ib. Paints .. ... . per ton Paper, writing and fancy per lb. Ditto, brown and wrapping • per cwt. Powder, blasting • per lb. Ditto, sporting . Rice . • per ton 600 per lb. 0 it • per lb. Nails : 86 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, NEW SOUTH WALES. Post-office. Telegraph. Railways. The Post-OFFICE is admirably administered. At the commencement of 1879, there were 817 offices connected with a postal route of 20,176 miles. A letter is carried for a penny within ten miles of Sydney, and for two- pence beyond that limit in the Colony. The postage to all other Australiau colonies is threepence. The letters in 1879 were 18,159,900, and the newspapers 9,469,000. Money-orders are as at home. The English mail, viâ California, starts from Sydney. The letters from New Zealand go that way also, by Honolulu. The Telegraph wires in 1879 reached 11,760 miles, costing 413,2581. The messages were 1,132,287. The charge for ten words is but one shilling. The Railway system has received much attention from the Sydney Government. The 688 miles of extent gave in 1878 a profit of 366,0001. The railway through to Riverina will tap the traffic before going to Victoria. The line from Sydney to Melbourne will soon be finished. That to the south opens up land by rich gold fields. New England and the Hunter coal district have iron roads. One, from Deniliquin to Moama, is a private railroad. The cost for 509 was 8,638,3621. A first-class ticket costs about 3£d. a mile ; and a second 2 d. The working expenses in 1878 were 536,9881., and the total earnings were 902,9891.. With cotton-growing Fiji as a British colony, the trade of Sydney port must be very greatly extended, especially as the Mail Line to San Francisco is by way of Fiji. MANUFACTURES were long unheeded in the Colony. Not satisfied with the export of raw produce, and anxious to train their young folks to home industries, the colo- nists are now actively proceeding with manufactures of various kinds. In 1878 there were 2,557 works, employing 24,788 persons: 169 with agriculture ; 318 with pastoral pro- ducts; 247 food ; 774 building and plastic ; 166 metal. There were 50 sugar mills ; 29 boiling down ; 31 soap and candle works; distilleries, &c. Woollen mills are in active operation. In 1878 cloth to the extent of 330,037 yards was produced. Ship- building is being carried on all along the coast. Iron foundry work is wonderfully progressing. Steam en- Manufac- tures pro- gressing. LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 87 gines and machines of almost all descriptions are being NEW SOUTH made in Sydney. They can now turn and bore up to WALES. 14 ft., and plane up to 25 ft. They turn out brass castings of 10 tons, and iron ones of 30. Smelting works are driving a great trade. There are also large galvanised-iron factories. Paper half-stuff is made near Liverpool from the native lily, rush, native flax, cats- tail grass, water grass, arrowroot plant, sida or native hemp, banana, native cotton, etc. With the possession of so unlimited an extent of coal, Coal advan- and that easy of approach, a glorious manufacturing tages for future may be calculated upon for the Colony, affording tures employment to large numbers of mechanics, getting good wages in a very cheap country. lists. Land Laws and Immigration. LAND LAWS. In the olden times, as the prisoners served their time, land was granted to them in plots of 30 or 50 acres. For such a grant, a quit rent of sixpence an acre was Grants and demanded. In 1810, when the gifts of land became quit rents. larger, being made to officers and other free persons, the quit rent was 2s. for every 100 acres. In 1823, it was 2d. an acre; and in 1824, five per cent. upon the annual value was demanded. The difficulty of collecting the quit rent was ended by the Government yielding up the claim altogether. Free grants were made also to those who would un- Grants to dertake to employ a certain number of convicts, and who ca brought a certain amount of capital into the Colony. Mr. Blaxford was told by the Secretary of State that for taking out £8,000 he would receive 8,000 acres, and the use of a considerable extent of convict labour. Grants were usually limited to 2,500 acres. In 1825, the Aus- A million tralian Agricultural Company of English capitalists se- acres given to a Com- cured a grant of one million of acres, near Port Stephen, pany. Peel river, and the Liverpool plains. In 1831 the system of grants was discontinued. Land Price of was to be sold at 58. an acre. The upset price was raised la to 128. in 1838, and to 20s. in 1842. The auction system began in 1838. By the Act of 1842, one-half the pro. ceeds of land sales was to be devoted to immigration, and the other moiety to public works. In 1861 a great and. 88 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Land unsold REW SOUTH change took place, and land, thenceforth, could be ob- WALES. tained on a system of deferred payments. Land sales. Sales have greatly varied in amount. In 1832, 20,860 acres realised £12,509. In 1838, when Melbourne land was first put up, 316,160 acres were sold; but in 1843, only 5,227 acres. In 1864, 164,890 were disposed of; in 1871, 88,637 ; in 1878, 1,210,692. In 1862, 4,493 selectors took ap 357,280 acres on a selectors. conditional purchase system; and in 1878,12,602 selected 1,588,247. In six years, 79,719 persons secured thus easily 10,000,000 acres. In 1873 the freehold occupiers were 24,227. The conditional purchases were 749,586 acres. In 1876, 1,984,212 acres were selected. ; Sold and At the end of 1878 it was ascertained that, within the limits of the old 20 counties, 7,043,807 acres had been land. disposed of, while 17,230,488 were still unalienated. In 101 counties outside of that settled district, the unsold were 125,362,735 to 8,000,000 of the alienated. At the end of 1878, 16,122,426 acres had been sold. Land law According to the liberal land law of 1861, though of 1861. town and suburban lots were to be sold by public auction, country sections were to be had on the plan of condi. tional sale, by paying down one-fourth cash, and having time for the balance at an interest of 5 per cent. The Act says:-'Any person may, upon any land office day, tender to the land agent for the district, a written application for the conditional purchase of any such lands, not less than 40 acres nor more than 320, at the price of 20s. per acre, and may pay to such land agent a deposit of 25 per centum of the purchase money thereof.' Lots are drawn in the event of more than one tender- ing for the same section at the same time. The land must be at a specified distance from a town or diggings. In five years' time, upon payment of the balance, without interest, the person obtains a Crown grant sbould he or his representative have resided continuously on the farm, with 108. an acre for improvements. Should gold be found before the full purchase have been effected, the agreement is annulled, though compensation is awarded. Mineral Mineral land, if not auriferous, can be similarly taken land. up for five years, but at 21. an acre. The grant is not given unless at lenst 21. an acre should have been ex- pended in improvements. LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 89 runs. By the · Crown Lands Occupation Act,' the squatting KEW SOUTH country is divided into first class settled districts, second WALES. class settled districts, and unsettled districts; leases are pastoral granted according to the character of land. land. Runs in the first class districts can only be rented on Leases and annual leases, as the land may be required for agricul- rents of tural settlement, or conditional sales. The annual rental is £2 per square mile, or three farthings an acre. The holders of land in fee simple may obtain at the tithe rent, leases of adjoining land to the extent of three times the amount of their own purchased area. Leases are sub- mitted to public competition. On the second class settled land, and on the unsettled, runs cannot exceed 25 square miles, unless of poor quality, when the area may be up to 100 square miles. The highest tenderer obtains the lease for five years. The rent is determined by appraisement in open court at a time previously proclaimed. After auction, the purchaser of the lease pays down one-fourth of the premium, if any, leaving the balance for three months. The rent is paid a year in advance. The lease is forfeited if within six months the run be not occupied by 200 cattle, or 1000 sheep. If an un- watered run, eighteen months are allowed, as artificial means of watering have to be adopted. In the latter case, the lease may be extended to ten years. The land laws of New South Wales are favourable to Farms farmers as well as squatters. The right of selecting selected on agricultural land in the midst of runs has excited some ill-feeling between the grower and the grazier ; but the latter must be content, as a pioneer, to yield the land, when required, for the higher purposes of settlement and agriculture. Squatters, in self-protection, have lately been buying large tracts of their runs. If not so liberal as the land regulations of Queensland, the system of New South Wales may be as profitable to some immigrants, as the latter colony is necessarily in a more advanced condition of civilisation than the northern and younger one. IMMIGRATION has, apparently, excited less attention vuara. in the old colony than in some of the new ones. It tion. may, however, be observed that while Queensland and Victoria were provinces of New South Wales, con- runs, 90 IIANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH siderable immigration took place at Melbourne and WALES. Brisbane. Governor Phillip, as early as 1790, urged the British Ministry to send out emigrants to New South Wales. In 1792, arrangements were made for the reception of a band of Quakers, who were expected as free colonists, but who were prevented from taking their voyage. Scotch Governor King interested himself upon the question, mechanics and got out a party of Scotch mechanics. It was to in 1806. the honour of these men, that the first church built by voluntary cffort in Australia was raised by them. Anxious for religious services for their families, they erected a substantial edifice in 1806, on the banks of the Hawkesbury. Drink in early days troubled the Scots and other immigrants. Freedom to The publication of Mr. Wentworth's work on the emigrants colony, in 1823, drew a number of enterprising colonists allowed in to Sydney. It was not until 1821 that unrestricted 1821. emigration to New South Wales was permitted by Government. Bounty When by the cessation of transportation, in 1840, the emigrants, labour market was affected, the colonial authorities 1840. commenced the system of bounty emigrants. In the bad year of 1813 only eleven immigrants arrived. Although, by the gold discovery in 1857, a large rush of people set in toward Melbourne, the older harbour of Port Jackson has not been neglected. From 1862 to 1866, while 14,000 immigrants came at the public ex- pense, as many arrived paying their own passage. Complaint was made that three times as many came at the public charge from Ireland, as from England and Scotland altogether. Decline of Subsequently, the incoming languished. In 1872, immigra- only 326 bounty immigrants and 516 free ones reached tion. the colony. An attempt is now being made to attract British settlers thither. For the sake of the individuals themselves, and for the good of the grand old colony, it Advan is to be hoped that the effort will be successful. One tages of the thing is certain, that, if wages be a little lower than in colony. some other colonies, the immigrants in New South Wales will find in cheaper food and clothing more than an equivalent; while they will enjoy more advantages of civilisation than can be found in most other settlements. · LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 91 tion otices of N. S. According to the newly-sanctioned Immigration Regu. NEW SOUTH lations, no one country is to be favoured beyond another, WALES, though the shipment must not contain more than one. Now immi- tenth Germans. gration A deposit of 21. is required from all between 12 and regulations. 50 years, and 11. from 3 to 12. The reduction of the emigration vote practically limits the supply to those nominated by persons in the Colony. All who pay their own passage out are welcomed. Colonial residents may introduce persons to. New South Wales, subject to the approval of the Agent. General in London. The one-third deposit so made in Sydney is returned when the parties written for fail to embark. Unmarried women must not be over 30 years, nor form more than one-fifth of the whole emigrating. They are at liberty to remain at free quarters in Sydney for three weeks after arrival. Further particulars may be learned at the Immigration Immigra- Offices, 7, Westminster Chambers, Victoria Street, Westminster. Mr. C. Robinson's pamphlet, once issued by the Appeal to Sydney Government for intending emigrants, thus closes intending cmigrants. its appeal for labour and capital: We have land enough and to spare for many gene- rations; it will yield nearly everything that has any value in the markets of the world. Healthy labour is all we ask for ; capital, too, where it is available, and that will smooth the lot of labour,—but healthy labour is the one great requisite, and whoever can offer us that is welcome. To all who are struggling to get on at home, and yet can hardly keep their heads above water, and in their old age must depend upon their children or the parish, we say, gather together what little substance you have, bid farewell to your native land, come out to this Land of Plenty; and under its bright sky, let that same labour of yours, which at home cannot save you from the fear of being a burden to your country, win for you a fair day's wage for a fair day's work; and, as an Englishman still, you need love your fatherland none the less, but help to preserve her Empire and augment her greatness through all future ages. Mr. Parkes, the Premier of the Colony, in his speech 92 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH on February 15, 1873, observed :— The people of New WALES. South Wales have no cause to envy the progress of any A colonial one of the Colonies. We feel conscious that we have statesman's within our own bounds all the elements of national opinion. greatness; and while we wish them God-speed in their respective courses of progress, we feel at liberty to tell them that we shall endeavour yet to assert our position as leader of them all. We feel that our resources justify the hopes we entertain ; that the resources of our intellect, our settled population, our accumulated wealth, and our public spirit, will enable us to accomplish all to which we aspire.' Wages. The official announcement of wages in the Colony was that in December, 1879. It is thus given :- Statement authorised by the Government of New South Wales of the current rate of wages of labouring people in the Colony of New South Wales, and the cost of their house-rent, food, and clothing, to enable officers duly appointed by the Governor and Executive Council to furnish necessary information to persons entering into engagements for service under the Act of the New South Wales Parliament, 39 Vic. No. 29. 'Fee chargeable by the officer for certification of agree- ment in case of each person, 5s. SYDNEY, New SOUTH WALES, DECEMBER 1879. 'The following are the current prices paid for labour in some of the principal trades of the Colony, which of coarse vary somewhat in different districts :- 8. d. 8. d. Waggon builders . . 10 to 1 3 per hour Carriage . . . 0 10 Carriage painters . 0 10 1 3 , Sawyers, in mill Compositors per 1,000 Stonemasons . per day Stonemasons' labourers . 7 Plasterers Plasterers' labourers . 7 0 , 90 Bricklayers „, 12 0 Bricklayers' labourers , 90 Carpenters ,, 110 Joiners . . . Painters . . . Shipwrights . . 16 . 20 09 . . . . . . . 9 0) . 90 LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 93 NEW SOUTH WALES. 0 1 w O ANO WA 8. d. S. d. Labourers . , 7 0 to 90 per day Saddlers .. . 45 0 „ 55 0 per week Tailors (paid by the piece) can average about .50 0 „ 700 Shoemakers do. do. . 35 » Jobling . . 50 Shipsmiths .. , 16 per hour Bookwork 10 per 1,000 Dressers. . 89, 011 per hour Furnace men . . O 10 , 1 1 Iron turners . 1 Of to 1 51 Engine fitters. 11 , 1 4 Coppersmiths. . General fitters . . 101 Blacksmiths . . 1 1 1 , strikers. . 0 8 0 Iron moulders . . . 1 0 , 1 Boiler makers. Pattern makers Boiler makers' assistants . General labourers in iron works. . 0 10 Engine drivers 0 10 Brass moulders Brass finishers. · 0 11 1 3 Machine men, in fitting shop 0 10 1 2 Coal miners . . : 10 0 » 15 0 per day Saw-mill hands . .0 9 10 per hour "The above trades connected with the iron and engineering de- partments, work eight hours a day, with one or two breaks. “The following quotations are exclusive of rations or board in town or country: £ s. £ s. Married couples for stations 60 0 to 75 U per annum Farm labourers . . . Bullock drivers . . . 400 . Horse-team drivers . . 40 0 Boundary riders, . Stockmen . . . Shepherds . . . Road makers . . Grooms Gardeners (country) . įg (in town) . 65 0 Blacksmiths (country). 800 , Bakers . . . per week 1 10, 30 Cooks (prirate houses). per annum » (hotels) · .. • 45 0 ooroo 0- 3 N Coco ooooooooooooooo Butchers . . . 94 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW SOUTH WALES. 0 - £ $. £ $. Laundresses 320 to 45 Oper' annum House and parlour maids . 26 0 , 350 General female servants . 0,45 0 Nursemaids . . . . 26 0 , 350 Grooms and coachmen (in town) . . '. 45 0 , 650 Useful boys on stations . 16 0 , 300 Current Rate of Wages, without Board or Lodging: - 8. d. 8. d. Wheelwrights (country) 70 O per week Railway labourers 0 per day Gangers . 8 6 Brickmakers O per 1,000 Potters , 0 per week Pipemakers. Tinsmiths , • 420 , 63 0 Galvanized-iron workers 9 0 , 10 0 per day (The two trades last mentioned work ten hours to the day.) Lumpers and Wharf Labourers- Day work for handling S. d. , s. d. general cargo . 10 per hour Do. coal . 1 3 Night work . 1 6 Plumbers . . . . 8 0 to 10 0. Gas-fitters. 80 , 11 0 ,, (Those two trades work eight hours to the day.) Coopers . . . 8 0 to 10 O per day Do. on piece as follows:- Wine casks . . 22 6 per tun Oil casks. . 20 0 Tierces . . . 3 6 (new) each Hogsheads 6. 0 each Ten-gallon kegs . . 2 9 , Five- „ . . 2 0 to 2 3 . Two- , . Tallow casks . . 13 6 to 15 O per tun' House rent in Sydney, 4 rooms, 10s. to 128. per week. Board and lodging from 14s. 1 6 9 Hixts. Hints to Emigrants upon New South Wales. A few general remarks are required to supplement the information about the Colony. Some persons may ask if they ought to emigrate to Australia. HINTS TO EMIGRANTS UPON NEW SOUTH WALES. 95 toil and A general invitation has never been given by sturdy NEW SOUTH colonists to those of the old country. They have not WALES. sought for the halt, lame, and blind of Europe. Those Alle who are unprepared to sacrifice present case for future invited. good, who shrink from enduring any difficulties, or who have no respect for honest toil, had better remain where they are. There are, too, certain employments, belonging to the highest developments of luxurious refinement, which would have a very limited operation abroad. At the same time, there is room for more than the labourer, the mechanic, and the capitalist. No community could have acquired such wealth as may be witnessed in Sydney, without an expansion of desires and a demand for something beyond mere necessaries. Emigrants should not be too sanguine. They go with No success a belief that they will do better, or they will not go at without all. But they need not imagine success without effort, care. nor wealth without labour. Cares are not confined to one hemisphere, neither are disappointments the doom of one state alone. Without calculating upon reverses, : there may be the preparation for them; without looking for trials, the possibility of them may be contemplated . with calmness, and met with resolution. No prosperous settler has been without his dark days, though the triumph over obstacles has been his dearest reward. Grave misapprehensions still exist respecting the Difference Colonies. It is too commonly forgotten that they are in colonics. in various stages of progression. They may be all equally prosperous, and yet be nearly as different from each other as the backwoods of America from the salons of New York. They who seek a wild bush life, far away from the habits of civilised society, had better not enter the gates of Port Jackson. They would there be confronted by civilisation in its wonted aspects, seldom to desert them in their bush wanderings. It is entirely a mistake to imagine that the cry of Good quite colonial' will serve as an apology for some neglect manners, of polished manners. The roughness once so common in colonial life is rapidly yielding to refinement of manners. A young man finds it as necessary to regard deportment and character in Australia as in Europe. espected 96 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.. NEW SOUTH The farmer has now a church and school near his WALES. family, and the squatter may have the refinements of Civilised society. The petty townships of the interior are sup- agencies plied with current literature; while Sydney, with abound. museums, public libraries, parks, theatres, and places of worship for all denominations, will bear comparison with most towns in England. The immigrant will discover that he has but come to another Britain over the Line, and that trades and pro. fessions similar to those at home are in full exercise there. Such conditions of a mature settlement are not to be expected in less advanced colonies. Classes New South Wales, consequently, is prepared to receive Wanted. all classes. The merchant needs a clerk; the builder a workman; the shopkeeper an assistant; the congrega- tion a pastor. The larger towns ask for skilled artisans, and the in. land townships are open for ordinary tradesmen. The agricultural acres are far from being filled up, and all the wild wastes are not yet occupied with runs. There is an opening there for stout limbs and brave hearts, even though the young man land with but a pound in his pocket. Where to Enquirers about emigration need only address them. enquire. selves to the Agent-General Sir Charles Cowper, at 3, Westminster Chambers, Victoria Street, Westminster, and they will be further satisfied. They will learn how to reach the port, upon the payment of one-third the passage money, if they have but hands for labour. And, on arrival there, the Government will afford facilities to procure them employment. An old colony has some social advantages. Female im- Although the sexes are pretty well matched in New migrants. South Wales, there are perhaps more marriages there in proportion to population than in colonies with a wider difference in the census returns of the sexes, but where there is less disposition to settle down to domestic life. This is evidenced singularly in mining life. In some other new countries, where the digger has a greater range for his employment, where the comforts of civili. sation are more difficult to procure, and where the habits of society are less favourable to quiet home life, the HINTS TO EMIGRANTS UPON NEW SOUTH WALES. 97 prospects of marriage are not equal to those existing in NEW SOUTH this colony. WALES. In New South Wales, on the contrary, the gold mines ū More are more concentrated, are situated in civilised parts of the comforts in country, and are so abundantly supplied with cheap pro. mining. visions and creature comforts, that a digger has stronger inducements to marry and raise a homestead there. This constant changing of single women into the ranks Marriages of the married makes room for new hands at service, in in the the house, or shop. It may appear paradoxical to say, Colony. though it is none the less true, that there is often a readier opening for young female immigrants in the old settled Colony, than in places where, from their scarcity, women may be thought to be more required. A few words, however, should be directed to young Advice to men occupying a comfortable position at home, but for young men whom the Colony is not without interest. emigrating. Many of these are leading a wasted life for want of something useful and profitable to engage their tinje. Emigration to the Colonies would substitute healthful and honourable action for the miserable lot of depend- ence upon friends. Here, too, the more respectable avenues to wealth, or even bread-earning, are choked up with ever-rushing competitors. The parent may naturally pause before starting a young man with capital abroad, when there has been no previous opportunity to exhibit an adaptation for busi- ness, or when habits of economy and industry have not been conspicuous under the father's roof. Some persons would have spared themselves mortification and loss, had they given a little less cash at the first, and reserved more for the time when their sons had proved their armour. No such caution is needed about those whose steadier habits, and appreciated application to business in the old country, indicate their suitability to be intrusted with capital in the new. Commerce there has openings for commercial young Opening in men, who will first enter a house as an employé before trade manufac- venturing their husbanded resources. Manufactures in tures. the larger towns present other invitations. A land of coal, so well situated for trade, has unquestionable at. tractions for those skilled in certain manufactures, and provided with some capital. 98 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Hints to years at NEW SOUTH Farming is another opening. The young man who WALES. contemplates this course, and has some practical ac. - quaintance with its details, while moderately furnished intending with means, should, if possible, be provided before- farmers. hand with a wife, and one resolved to share with him in the cares and privations usually attendant upon a start in life so far from friends. The land laws are so liberal, and so convenient, that ground may be readily got hold of, and even secured upon circumstances that will not press hard upon his capital." Land for He can purchase a good block of land on payment of five shillings an acre down. The balance can remain small interest. for years and years, at a moderate rate of interest, and yet the holder be never in any fear of losing his posses- sions, unless in the failure of paying the trifling inte. rest. He has all the security of a freehold, without the heavy outlay at the first, when demands are so urgent for the purchase of implements, the fencing of land, and the cropping of his little field. Whenever prepared, by successful harvests, to spare the cash, he is at liberty to pay the balance for his acre- age, and secure his title-deeds from the Government. Colonial New South Wales has been slighted somewhat, because farming. wheat growing there has been less successful than in some other colonies. This is no more rational than to find fault with Kent for not growing more oats, and Perthshire for not producing hops. In that Colony, if wheat be less, maize is so largely produced as to provide all the other colonies with that useful grain. The farmer must adopt that system of culture best fitted to his own locality. The style called colonial farming is more common in New South Wales than elsewhere, owing to local circum. stances requiring at least a qualification of the English modes. Sugar Sugar cultivation has commenced under favourable growing prospects in the hot river lands near the sea. While a advantages. moderate capital will suffice for the growth of the cane, a larger investment is required for the manufacture of sugar. The pursuit altogether is one particularly recom- mended to persons with some agricultural ideas, even if unacquainted with cane culture. Local experience can be acquired with little difficulty, HINTS TO EMIGRANTS UPON NEW SOUTH WALES. 99 The Pastoral occupation courts attention. Though a NEW SOUTH man fail to secure a run on such favourable terms in good WALES. localities as he might in the remoter parts of New South Runs varv Wales, he has to weigh the advantages of proximity to with a market, as an offset to higher rates, or less secure locality. tenure. There are, however, tracts of land in the more remote Back runs west to be obtained on most moderate terms, and for and how to use them. fixed periods. True it is, there are the drawbacks of occasional drought, which may leave the run well-nigh waterless, and the grasses somewhat thinned. Recently many stations were formed in the dry Darling country. But the thoughtful man prepares for such a contin. gency. He constructs reservoirs in gullies and shaded nooks, which may get filled in occasional showers. He is ready to reduce his stock should the dark day come. He has also prepared for temporary reverses by a reserve at the bank. Thus forewarned and forearmed, he calmly waits the return of better times. Even in those supposed desert retreats the grasses retain their vitality, and no danger is apprehended so long as surface water remains. But it is well known that a few years of successive good seasons are sufficient to place a man in comparative affluence, especially at the wool rates that have lately prevailed. The mischief and trouble may be said to arise from wild expenditure, and the purchase of heavy numbers upon the chances of an uncertain future. They who buy judiciously, busband resources, and keep some. thing in reserve, need fear nothing in embarking upon such a squatting speculation. Stations already formed are to be purchased, though great caution and some colonial experience are required before closing a bargain. Mining, perilous as its ventures are commonly re- Mining in. ported to be, is not without attractions to the young vestinents. man with a few hundreds at command. It would be absurd indeed for him to become a dab- bler in mining shares, an idle schemer, or an improvident dreamer. It would be folly, also, to become a partner in an undertaking, however grandly its prospects have been displayed before him, unless he have some prac- tical knowledge of mining, and reasonable ground for faith in the promoters of the enterprise. 451630 u 2 100 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. aged. · NEW SOUTH But, by working awhile on a gold field, and reserving WALES. his means, he may eventually see an occasion for invest- ment with approximate safety, and be able to direct and control, to some extent at least, the company with which he connects himself. Openings To men of more advanced age and real experience for the the Colony cannot fail to be of interest. middle- • The openings in the various interests of New South Wales are ready at band not more to young men than to those of maturer years. If the former have more dash and energy for difficult and hazardous pursuits, the latter have a tempered courage, a more sustained vigour, and a calculating discretion, admirably fitting them for engagements when competition has to be en. countered, and enlarged experience of life is demanded. To such persons, especially, the rising manufactures present an opportunity for investment. It is an idle remark that where money is made so easily capital has no need to go. So far from this being the fact, capital seems even more in demand according to the progressiveness of the community. The man with a family emigrating to New South Wales will certainly take them to a cheap and pleasant home. Families The father may not have occasion to labour for him. to the self, but be going for the sake of his children. Some of colonies. these may not be robust enough for the blustering blasts of an English winter. The girls may be contemplating a future of pinched respectability, without much hope for remunerative employment should necessity call for their toil. The lads may feel elbowed out by the crowd at home, or be panting for new scenes in which to labour. As land in a colony may be reasonably supposed to rise in value with the increase of population and wealth, a prudent man will purchase a few acros for an invest- ment. If a parent so invest, his children, in after years, may derive a great benefit from the first outlay. To all those various classes of emigrants, New South Wales, along with other Australian Colonies, submits its claims and prospects. DISCOVERY AND HISTORY. 101 VICTORIA. Discovery and History. Victoria was discovered by Captain Cook, April 18, VICTORIA. 1770, before New South Wales proper was seen, as Point Hicks, the first land observed, is a little westward Cook's dis- covery. of Cape Howe. As Van Diemen's Land was thought part of the continent, vessels to Sydney went to the south of that island ; thus it was that Port Phillip remained so long unknown. A young sailor, afterwards known as Captain Flinders, went with Dr. Bass on a boat voyage of dis- covery in 1798. In this craft, eight feet long, they Western entered Western Port. Port, 1798. In a larger vessel they passed through Bass's Strait, and opened another route to Sydney. Lieutenant Grant took this course in the Lady Nelson,' and discovered Portland Bay and Cape Otway. On February 15, 1802, Lieutenant John Murray, having been sent by Governor King, in the 'Lady Nelson,' to survey tho southern coast, discovered the bay of Port Phillip, which Port he called King Bay; but which, at that Gorernor's Phillip, request, was named after the first ruler of Sydney, A Captain Phillip. A few weeks afterwards, Captain Baudin, the French French explorer, entered the bay. He it was who subsequently claim of appropriated to himself the honour of discovering the discovery. southern coast of the two colonies South Australia and Victoria-and named it Napoleon Land. Flinders visited Port Phillip on April 26. It was in consequence of the reports of Messrs. Murray and Flinders that the British Government sent out a party of convicts, under Captain Collins, in 1803, to colonise Settlement the shores of that bay, with a view to prevent the French 1803. making a settlement there. Opinions were turned against the South after Collins deserted it in the beginning of 1804. But the islands 102 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. in Bass's Strait became partially inhabited by runaway seamen and sealers, who occasionally explored the shore Sealers in Bass's of Port Phillip country. strait. In 1824, however, Mr. Hamilton Hume and Captain Hume and Hovell resolved upon a run down to the southern coast Hovell, from Sydney, although Mr. Surveyor Oxley, in 1817, had pronounced the region below the Lachlan river to be a perfect desert. They cross · The two gentlemen crossed the Murray, which they the country called the Hume, rounded the Alpine spurs, passed to the sea. Mount Macedon, and reached the sea. But while Hume contended it was Port Phillip they saw, his companion was positive that the Geelong of the natives was on Western Port. The erroneous opinions of the latter prevailing with the Sydney authorities, a penal settle- ment was formed at Western Port in 1826. Major In 1835, Major Surveyor-General Mitchell undertook Mitchell, an exploring journey southward from Sydney 1835, dis- covers the Crossing the Murray at a lower point than the other western two travellers had done, he discovered the Loddon and plains. the Wimmera rivers on his way to the noble Grampian hills. Parsuing a south-western course, he gained the Glenelg. Turning then eastward, the point of a shoe in the sands led him to the whaling establishment of the Henty family. Both parties were equally surprised at the meeting near Portland Bay. Leaving the coast, the Surveyor-General gained the lovely country of the Dividing Range. Seeing the Port Phillip Bay from the summit of a mountain, he called Mt. Mace- the hill Macedon; and another fine pile of rocks to the don and North, Mount Alexander, so well known in 1851 from ander. the gold discoveries around it. The return route to the Murray was by way of the Goulburn. It is not to be wondered at that Major Mitchell, who had never beheld so much beautiful scenery and fertile soil in his life, should have given the land the appella- Land tion of AUSTRALIA FELIX; and rightly and prophetically named did he exclaim, 'We had at length discovered a country Australia ready for the immediate reception of civilised man, and fit to become one of the great nations of the earth!' Gipps Land. Gipps Land was made known by Count Strzelecki 1840. and Mr. Angus McMillan in 1840. Felix. DISCOVERY AND HISTORY. 103 ORY. The HISTORY of the colony for thirty years was one VICTORIA. of attempted settlement and contemptuous neglect... On October 2, 1803, the first colonists arrived in First setile- Port Phillip, and camped some eight miles from the men heads on a sterile peninsula of sandy limestone. bad site. Captain Collins, who was to be Lieutenant-Governor of the place, under the authority of the Sydney rulers, came with the transport. Ocean,' with the protection of H.M.S. ‘Calcutta.' 'It was a most ill-sorted party for a settlement, there being 307 male prisoners, 50 marines, 307 prison- 17 women, and seven children. One of these children ers. lived afterwards to be called the “ Founder of Melbourne.' News had arrived about the splendid country of the Derwent; and this, with the disgust of Captain Collins at his sandy home, led to the abandonment of Port Phillip, after three months' trial, for the southern port of Van Diemen's Land. The 'Lady Nelson,' that had Removal to first entered the bay, assisted in the removal of the party Van Die- from it. Land. The lieutenant of the ‘Calcutta'had little prophetic Proph skill when he declared, The kangaroo seems to reign undisturbed lord of the soil-a dominion which, by the evacuation of Port Phillip, he is likely to retain for men's ages.' A runaway convict, William Buckley, lived with the Buckley 32 blacks, the only white man in Port Phillip, till 1835, years with when Batman's party discovered him. the blacks. The second attempt at settlement in 1826 was equally unsuccessful. Western Port, then located by some prisoners and Settlement their officers, is one of the few portions of Victoria at Western Port, 1826. neglected now. Its swamps and sands were no recom- mendation in 1826 to the lonely exiles, who had no more enterprise to journey a few miles in search of better land than had their predecessors in 1803. Had the latter but crossed the bay, or gone to the head thereof, they would have found one of the most charm. ing and fertile spots the world can show. A few months wearied the disheartened settlers, and for the second, and, as believed, the last time, the shores Second of Port Phillip were forsaken. abandon But Hume and others still protested that the land ment. was good. John Batman, a Paramatta lad, knew from 104 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. to settle the VICTORIA. his friend and playmate, Hume, something of the coun. John Bato try. Going afterwards to Van Diemen's Land, he man was urged an enterprising lawyer, Mr. Gellibrand, to join Hume's him in a speculation. friend. The two wrote to the Governor in January, 1827, A request We the asking permission to settle with flocks and herds upon country. the Port Phillip side. This request was refused. In 1833 Mr. Hume published an account of his jour. The ney in 1824. The year after, the Messrs. Henty of Hentys a Launceston, having information from sealers, crossed Portland over, without consulting the authorities at Sydney, and Bay. formed a fishery and squatting station at Portland Bay. Two other Van Diemen’s Land colonists sought to do the same. One, of course, was Mr. John Batman, who laboured to get up a company to land flocks and herds on the shores of the abandoned Port Phillip. As the Governor of New South Wales would not sanction a Batman settlement, Messrs. Batman and Gellibrand urged the and Gelli- Lieutenant-Governor at Hobart Town to patronise their brand. scheme, and to apply home for Port Phillip to be placed under his own jurisdiction instead of that of the Sydney Governor. J. P. Fawk The second dreamer of the other side was Mr. John Pascoe Fawkner, of Launceston. Belonging to another set of acquaintances, he did not seek the alliance of of. ficials and wealthy free settlers, but got three or four tradesmen to join in his scheme. Batman's An Association was formed in Hobart Town, and Mr. company John Batman sent to report upon the locality. After nineteen days' passage from Launceston--now a day's run for a steamer-he entered Port Phillip on Visit in Friday, May 29, 1835. His story sent the settlers of May 1835. Van Diemen's Land wild about the new country. He thus spoke of it:- Beautiful land-kangaroo grass about ten inches high, and as green as a field of wheat-beautiful plains—I never saw anything equal to the Innd in my life I was never so astonished in my life.' Treaty His friend, the lawyer, held with himself that the with the natives, and not the Sydney Governor, had the right to natives. grant anyone permission to settle at Port Phillip. A deed of conveyance had been prepared, and Batman got the signatures of chiefs to it. However ridiculous this ner. formed. DISCOVERY AND HISTORY. 105 October. may appear, as a parody of Penn's treaty with the VICTORIA. Indians, there was the recognition of a principle which it would have been wise and Christian-like to have followed elsewhere. Batman returned exultant to Launceston, telling Fawkner and others of his good fortune, and hurrying forward sheep to the pleasant pastures. He faithfully discharged his duty to the aborigines, be honininos Articles of purchase. giving them, according to the terms of his treaty, 100 blankets, 100 tomahawks, 50 looking-glasses, 5 tons of flour, &c. They, on their part, were supposed to allow the company the right of pasturage. Mr. Fawkner's party sent a schooner over to the Yarra. Fawkner's Yarra with stores, which reached the river on the 29th of August. Fawkner himself arrived on October 11, 1855. He opened the first public-house for the enter- tainment of the numerous arrivals from New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. The Yarra location of Batman and Fawkner grew to be the town of Melbourne. Rise of The Sydney ruler resented the invasion of his deserted territory, and ordered off all intruders. He exerted Parties himself, especially, to thwart the designs of the Associa- warned off. tion, and succeeded in inducing the Home Ministry to disallow their claim. He was, however, obliged to per- mit the occupation of the country, and took it under his supposed protection by sending down a constable thither from Sydney. The unruly settlers had met together, organised a temporary government, and appointed Mr. Simpson, First once a Van Diemen's Land magistrate, as their arbi- gove trator for the time being. At length, in October, 1836, Captain Lonsdale arrived Com as Commandant on the Yarra. The growth of the pro- dant arri- vince became so considerable, that Port Phillip was ac- ved, 1836. knowledged as a district of New South Wales, and Mr. Tatrobe, on October 1, 1839, was appointed Superin. Mr. La- trobe Super- tendent. intendent, Before this, however, Governor Bourke visited the 1839. place which had excited such interest among Australian squatters. He came in April, 1837, and had Melbourne proclaimed on May 19. The first land sales of the First land settlement took place on June 1, when half-acre lots sale in were purchased for from 201. to 801. each. ment. omman- Melbourne. 106 IIANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. and success. VICTORIA. The publication of Major Mitchell's story of Austra- lia Felix' provoked a rush of emigrants from Great Britain. Sheep and cattle, land and provisions, mounted to fabulous prices. Unwonted prosperity gave rise to Speculation absurd speculations, and these involved many in ruin. and losses. But though sober times came in 1842, and five guinea sheep sold for two shillings a head, no one spoke of abandoning the country for the third time. Recovery Steady industry and patience brought about a recovery. The colony was prosperous in the best sense in 1850. The flocks were numerous, the land was becoming settled ' in a prudent manner, Melbourne trade improved soundly, schools and churches were well attended, and a more peaceful and happy community could not be found in all Australia. Port Phillip On July 1, 1850, Port Phillip was separated from became New South Wales, and proclaimed an independent Viotoria colony by the name of Victoria, with Mr. Latrobe as its 1850. first Governor. But the next year, 1851, was the period of a grand transformation scene. Gold dis Gold had just been discovered in New South Wales. covered in The news awakened a search for the precious metal in Victoria Port Phillip, where rumours of its existence had been 1851, long heard. Ballarat, Mount Alexander, and Bendigo answered to the call, and showers of nuggets proclaimed that the pastoral districts of Port Phillip had become the land of gold. Effects of Fortunate as many were who in those early golden the gold days drew treasure from the rocking of a cradle, all who fever. witnessed the remarkable circumstances attending that social as well as commercial revolution may be, also, esteemed fortunate. Society was uprooted for awhile, and the millennium of labour was believed to have come. The wildest excitement, the most prodigal expenditure, the most boisterous revelry, with rudest assertions of independence, alarmed the sober citizen. Order But the tumult sank into peace, and order arose from restored. chaos. Law-loving Britons observed the outward pro- prieties, Government recovered from its panic, and affairs settled down into a routine, extraordinary as the times continued. The predictions of the gloomy or timid were not GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 107 verified. Society, though reeling awhile from the shock, VICTORIA. became steadily progressive. The flocks and herds, well. Social nigh deserted for a time, were an increasing source of progress. wealth. Trade, deranged for a little, bounded forward with giant strides. The churches and schools had to be multiplied for a growing throng of honest worshippers and patient scholars. Political progress followed the march of gold. Miners Demand resented their slavish condition. Citizens loudly com- for political plained of the rule of an almost nominal Government. freedom. The press persistently demanded political enfranchise- ment for all classes. Public meetings vehemently de. nounced the waste, indecision, and tyranny of misrule. Petitions for complete emancipation were forwarded home. The local authorities at last yielded to the pressure, and joined in the request for more freedom. Liberty of action came with the new constitution, in New consti- 1855, when the reign of responsible Government com, tution 1855. menced. Since then the progress of the colony, with those Satisfac- checks consequent upon excessive speculation, has been tory state of the remarkable. Perhaps no country in the world ever ex. hibited such evidences of internal prosperity upon a sound and satisfactory basis. Though the influx of immigration has long ceased, and even the production of gold has become less in amount, Victoria has developed in everything that can make a nation truly great. In its handsome capital, its country roads and farms, its magnificent stations, its well-managed mines, its growing trade, its well-to-do people, its efficient public instruction, its liberally-sup- ported churches, it has taken a position first in the Aus. First in the tralias, and is not relatively inferior to the most favoured Australias. of countries. GEOGRA- PHY. Geography and Climate. Victoria lies between the Murray river and the sea, having New South Wales to the North and East, but South Australia to the West. Naturally, the colony is Five divided into five parts. The Southern is between the natural di- Dividing Range and the sea. The North Central is visions. between the Dividing Range and the Murray river. The 108 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. on VICTORIA. North-Western is between the Grampians and the Murray, near the South Australian border. The North Eastern is between the Australian Alps and the Murray. The South-Eastern, or Gipps Land, is between the Alps and the sea. Distribu The mass of the population is in the centre of the tion of Southern, and the South of the North-Central. The people. West of the Southern, the North-Eastern, the North- Western, the South-Eastern, are all thinly peopled. Area 86,831 The area is 86,831 square miles, or 55,571,860 acres, sq. miles. being about the size of Great Britain. Victoria is not above the thirtieth part of the continent of Australia. Its extreme length from east to west is 420 miles. The western breadth is 260 miles; it comes to a point at the south-east extremity. The coast line is reckoned 600 miles. It is the southernmost colony of Australia, and is but 200 miles from Tasmania. Mountains. Mountains. The Australian Alps extend south-westerly from eastern New South Wales, and are met by the Dividing Range, which extends along the centre of the colony, from west to east. Both these connected series of hills have their spurs on either side. While the two ranges are in some parts but of moderate width, they are in others from 50 to 100 miles broad. Among the ranges joined to the main Alps are the Bogong, Gibbo, Buffalo, on the North, and Hoddle, Strzelecki, Cobboras, and Dandenong on the South. Forest Hill, the source of the Murray, is 5,000 feet high; Wellington, 5,270; Tamboritha, 5,380; Kent, 5,130; Baw-Baw, 5,100; Gibbo, 5,000; Castle Hill, 4,860 ; Useful, 4,800. Smyth and Selwyu are higher. Wilson's Promontory is not connected with the Alpine chain. In the Dividing Range are the Goulburn, Plenty, Kilmore, Macedon, Alexander, Jim Crow, McIvor, and Pyrenees chains. The principal hills among these are Macedon, 3,400 feet; Buninyong, 2,450 ; Warrenheip, 2,440; Alexander, 2,435; Bullarook, 2,400; Ida, 2,000; Franklin, 2,100; Buninyong, Ararat, Cole, Ben Nevis, Tarrengower, Barker, Spring Hill. Beyond the western end of the Dividing Chain are : GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 109 VICTORIA. Rivers. the Grampians, 50 miles from North to South. Zero is the northern point, Sturgeon the southern, and William the eastern. Mount William is 5,500 feet high. West of the Grampians, and toward the border, are the Sierra, Victoria, aud Dundas ranges. Eliza, Martha, and Arthur's Seat are on the east sido of Port Phillip Bay. Hundreds of volcanic cones and craters are found to the west of Melbourne, and about the Dividing Range. Among these may be named, Buninyong, Warrenheip, Napier, Tower Hill, Shadwell, Rouse, Franklin, Elephant, Ecles, Mercer, Porndon, Anaki, Aitken, Gisborne, Noorat, Greenock, Glasgow, Smeaton, and Blowhard. Rivers. The Murray, rising in the Alps, runs along the north boundary into South Australia, and so on to the sea. The part within the colony's limit has a course of about 1,400 miles. The chief Victoria branches are the Mitta-Mitta, Indigo, Ovens, Goulburn, Campaspe, and Loddon. The north-western Avoca and Wimmera lose themselves in salt lakes and sands. The Coliban and Exe are affluents of the Campaspe; the Howqua and Broken, of the Goulburn; the Fryer, Jim Crow, and Korong, of the Loddon. The Bendigo creek is lost in the sands. The Wimmera, Avoca, Loddon, Campaspe, and Coliban rise on the north side of the Dividing Range. The southern streams are more numerous, though shorter. Those from the Dividing Range are the Hopkins, Fiery Creek, Leigh, Werribee, and Salt Water. The Grampians give rise to the Wannon and Glenely; the mouth of the latter is at the western boundary. From the Otway ranges are the Gellibrand and Curdie, with the Barwon of Geelong. From the Alps are the Melbourne Yarra-Yarra, and the Gipps Land rivers of Latrobe, Macalister, Mitchell, Thompson, Avon, and Snowy. The Albert is the small stream of Port Albert. The Bass falls into Westeru Port, and the Tarwin into Anderson's Inlet by Cape Patterson. Lakes. These are either salt or fresh. Some of these were Lakes, GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 111 VICTORIA. north central, and the Murray is the rocky north-eastern district. Gipps Land, as has been stated, is to the south-east. At first only three counties were formed, viz., Bourke, containing Melbourne ; Grant, around Geelong; and Normanby, about Portland. Several other counties followed ; Mornington, Evelyn, and Anglesey are to the east; Polwarth and Heytesbury, south-west ; Grenville, Hampden, Ripon, Villiers, Dun- das, and Follett, near the western border. Dalhousie, Talbot, and Rodney were cut out of the Loddon squatting district afterwards. Then Benambra, Bogong, Delatite, Moira, and Wonnangatta were formed from part of the Murray district; Bendigo, Gladstone, : and Gunbower from the Loddon district; Borung, Kara- Kara, Karkarooc, Millewa, Lowan, Tachera, and Weeah from the Wimmera; and Buln-Buln, Croajingolong, Dargo, Tambo, and Tangil, from Gipps Land. The colony is also divided into the six electoral pro- vinces of Central, Southern, South-Western, Western, North-Western, and Eastern. There were 55 electoral districts. Part of Victoria is divided into 112 shires, and the other portion into the road districts. Towns. Melbourne, the capital, is near the mouth of the Yarra-Yarra, and three miles from the shore of Port Phillip Bay. Its latitude is 37° 50', and its longitude, 144° 58' E. These numbers are usually reduced to 38° - and 145º. The population of Melbourne and its suburbs is not far from three hundred thousand. . · Geelong, the second port, is 45 miles from Melbourne, on the south-western side of Port Phillip. The three western ports are Warrnambool, Belfast, and Portland. The first is 170 miles S.W. of Melbourne; the second, 190, the third, 255. Port Albert, Gipps Land, 173 S.E. Williamstown and Sandridge are the ports of Mel. bourne. On Port Phillip Bay are Snapper Point, 35 miles from Melbourne, and Queenscliff, 65, the two watering-places for Melbourne and Geelong people. The principal suburbs of Melbourne are Fitzroy, Col. lingwood, Carlton, Richmond, Sandridge, Emerald Hill, St. Kilda, Prahran, Hawthorne, Kew, Footscray, Brunsa Towns. 112 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. wick, and Essendon. Brighton and Heidelberg are each eight miles distant. Lilydale, 24 N.E.; Sorrento, 40 S. Diggings' townships. Of the Diggings' Townships, some are north of the Dividing range, and others south. Those on the south side of the summit line are Gor. don's, 54 miles west of Melbourne; Blackwood, 60; Egerton, 60; Steiglitz, 70; Buninyong, 90; Ballarat, 97 ; Sebastopol, near Ballarat ; Browns', 100; Symthes- dale, 108; Scarsdale, 110; Linton, 115; Raglan, 122 ; Beaufort, 124; Ararat, 150; and St. Arnaud, 146. On the north side, E. of the range, are Tarradale, 68; Heathcote of McIvor, 70; Castlemaine, 78; Daylesford, 80; Maldon of Tarrengower, 85; Hepburn, 85; Na- gambie, 85; Sandhurst of Bendigo, 100; Eagle Hawk, 102; Maryborough, 104; Dunolly, 106; Amherst, 110; Creswick, 110; Huntly, 112; Moliagul, 115; Rushforth, 120; Avoca, 120; Clanes, 120; Lexton of Burn Bank, 125; Tarnagulla, 125 ; Inglewood, 128; Kingower, 130; Berlin, 130; Korong, 150; Stawell of Pleasant Creek, 180. The Alpine Diggings are east and north-east of Mel. bourne. The eastern are on the Gipps Land frontier; as, Matlock, 116; Jericho and Woods' Point, 120; Wal. halla, 130; El Dorado, 170. Beaconsfield is east. The north-eastern mining townships are Jamieson, 125; Wangaratta, 165; Chiltern, 180; Beechworth, 185; Indigo, 190; Yackandandah, 200; Buckland, 230 ; Omeo, 250; Alexandra, 90; Bright, 225. The Gipps Land townships are Rosedale, 130; Sale, 140; Bairnsdale, 180. Welshpool is on Corner Inlet. On the Murray river are Swan Hill or Castle Dod- dington, 240 north-west; Echuca, 170 north, and Belvoir, opposite Albury, 210 north-east; Wodonga, 187 N.E. Farming Of the Farming Settlements south of the Dividing townships. Range, those near Geelong are Batesford, Fyansford, Ceres of Barrabool hills, Daneed, Winchelsea, and Inverleigh. Farming towns south-east of Melbourne arə Dande. nong, 20 ; Cranbourne, 28; Berwick, 30. Corinella is by Western Port. Cowes, 55; Brandy Cr.,65; Maffra, 140. North of Melbourne, toward the main range, are Keilor, Campbelfield, and Broadmeadows, 10–12 miles ; Yan-Yean, 20; Wallan-Wallan, 30; Gisborne, 41; Woodend, 50. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 113 South-west of Melbourne are Lethbridge, 60; Shelford, VICTORIA. 70; Meredith, 70; Colac, 90; Cressy, 90; Camper- down, 120; Terang, 135; Hexham, 160 ; Penshurst, 170; Koroit of Tower Hill, 185; Yambuck, 210 ; Narrawong, 240; Heywood, 250 ; Cobden, 130. Westward of Melbourne are the Farming Melton, 25; Bacchus Marsh, 32; Ballan, 50; Rokewood, 85 ; War. renheip, near Ballarat; Miners' Rest, 104; Skipton, 116; Čarogham, 120 ; Mortlake of Mount Shadwell, 140; Wickliffe, 170; Dunkeld, 180; Branxbolme, 215; Hamilton of the Grange, 220; Coleraine, 230; Harrow, 250; Sandford, 250 ; Digby, 255; Merino, 250; Caster- ton, 270; Apsley, 317. On the north side of the Range, and north of Melbourne, are Kilmore, 40 ; Lancefield, 42; Pyalong, 52; Kyneton, 57; Malmsbury, 63 ; Harcourt, 80 ; Newstead, 84; Murchison, 94; Rochester, 139. To the north-west, on the north side of the range, are Yandoit, 90; Kingston, 96 ; Carisbrook, 101; Smeaton, 109; Learmouth, 110; Burrumbeet, 110 ; Glenorchy, 190; Horsham, 220; Redbank, 137. North-eastward, at the foot of the Alps, are Seymour on the Goulburn, 65; Avenel, 75; Yea, 75; Benalla, 132; Mansfield, 145; Rutherglen, 176; Shepparton, 118. The population of Melbourne and suburbs in 1879 Population was 280,000; Geelong, 25,000; Ballarat, 50,000; Sand. of towns. hurst, 30,000; Castlemaine, 9,000; Creswick, 5,000; Williamstown, 9,000; Portland, 4,500; Maryborough, 14,000; Belfast, 3,500; Warrnambool, 8,000; Beech. worth, 7,000; Daylesford, 4,000; Kyneton, 10,000. The CLIMATE of Victoria, while milder than New CLIMATE. South Wales and South Australia, is warmer and drier than New Zealand and Tasmania. Though so small a colony, there may be said to be in it four distinct climates—the north and south sides of the Dividing range, the Alpino country to the east, and Gipps Land to the south-east. The north, and particularly the north-west, may be regarded as hot and dry. The south and south-west are moister. The Alpine region has severe snow storms in the winter, while no snow falls elsewhere. Gipps Land, enclosed between the sea and lofty ranges, enjoys one of the most delightful and healthy climates in the world. 114 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. Victoria has the annoyance of the hot wind blowing from the centre of the continent. Professor Neumayer, Hot winds. however, speaks of an average of 14 days a year of this visitation in Melbourne and the Diggings over the ranges, 6 at Geelong, 11 at Portland, and but 3 at Port Albert of Gipps Land. Though so disagreeable, especially with its accompaniment, the dust, there is no miasmatic or deleterious substance conveyed by it. The Sirocco of Italy is much more oppressive, being laden with moisture. Fortunately, Melbourne has most winds from the sea, or southward, in summer, and from the north in winter. Winds. According to Mr. R. Brough Smyth, the Melbourne winds were north 70 days, north-east 35, east 15, south. east 30, south 75, south-west 45, west 35, north-west 30; leaving 30 calm days in the year. The windy weather of summer makes that season more endurable. The temperature of Melbourne may be compared to that of Naples. The thermometer, except in the Austra. lian Alps, is very rarely seen at 30°. But in a violent hot wind it has been known 115° in the shade, and 130° in the sun. Mr. Howitt saw it 139° at noon in the sun. It stood the same at Geelong on Christmas that year, and was 110° in the shade at Melbourne early in 1874. Mean heat The mean for Melbourne is 58º. The range of 1879 of Mel--in the shade was from 31° to 103°, with a mean of 57°. bourne 580 Sandhurst is hotter than Melbourne, and Ballarat is cooler. Melbourne temperature was down to 27° in 1869. In February, 1877, it was from 45° to 100°. Rain. The rain on the Murray side of the colony often comes with a north-west wind, though south-west is the wet wind of the coast side. The former may be a downward returning sea-current of air. The Dividing range, as before mentioned, influences the climate, especially in the tables of rain gauges. The superior elevation of townships there enables them to obtain more rain than their inland position may be other- wise supposed to warrant. The high land to the north-east -the Ovens district-secures for it a rainfall not to be found on the neighbouring plains. Thus, Beechworth, of the Ovens region, had 35 inches of rain when even Portland, by the sea, had but 27. The dry Wimmera District, to the north-west, has. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 115 171 153 107 rarely above fourteen inches a year, while the evapora- VICTORIA. tion is enormous. The sandy nature of the soil in that part is also unfavourable. Cape Otway has nearly three times as much rain as in the north. The geology of Victoria, as a whole, is far more favourable to the climate than that of New South Wales, Queensland, or South Australia. The prevalence of slate and basalt rocks over sandstone is a decided relief, especially to the eyes, while evaporation is retarded. The Melbourne rainfall is not, perhaps, more variable Rainfall. than in other places, though indicating a good range. It has been as high as 48, and as low as 14. In 1845, the amount was 24 inches ; 1849, 44 ; 1850, 27; 1859, 21:7; 1875, 33; 1878, 25 in 116 days. For ten consecutive years the amounts were thus:- 1862 · 22 inches in 175 days. 1863 36.4 1864 27.4 1865 15.9 139, 1866 22:4 1867 25-8 133 1868 18.27 1869 24.6 1870 33.7 1871 30:17 1872 . . 32-5 » :: Melbourne averages 25 inches, being higher than Melbourne London, Adelaide, and Hobart Town, but lower than 25 inches. Sydney and Brisbane. Ballarat, in 1877, had 28.5; Sandhurst, 17; Ararat, 17; and Portland, 25 inches. In the dry year of 1862, when Melbourne had but 22. inches of rain, though near the Bay of Port Phillip, other places suffered even more. Those of the west received most of all, and the hilly portions more than the lower. Thus, Portland had 31 inches; Beechwortb, 27; Bunin- yong and Camperdown, 26; Ballarat, 23}; Ararat, 22; Sandhurst, 18; and Heathcote, 17. The temperature of that year, however, was not so very high. The mean for the hottest month, January, stood thus: Melbourne, 68°; Cape Otway, 601°; Bal- larat, 66°; Portland, 68º; Ararat, 70°; Heathcote, 704°; and Sandhurst, 741°. In 1878, the highest temperature of Melbourne in sbade was 103°, and lowest 31°. The Ozone, which has very considerable effect upon Ozone. 120 129 129 125 136 , 12 116 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. ozone. VICTORIA. health, has been attentively observed by the able and in. defatigable astronomer of Melbourne, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery. Effect of He describes the ozonised air as accelerating the re- spiration, exciting the nervous system, and promoting the coagulability of the blood. Its odour is like chlorine, and it may be oxygen in an altered condition. The ebb of ozone in Melbourne, producing a lower tone of the system, comes with the easterly wind. When the wind suddenly chops round from north to south, or south. west, the largest amount appears, sometimes originating influenza. While Melbourne ozone averaged 3.12 in the day, it was 3.83 at night. Beechworth had the high rates of 4:19 and 5.95. More ozone is seen in autumn and winter than in spring and summer. Earth Earthquakes are very rarely felt in Victoria, where quakes. the shocks are quite slight. Mr. Ellery records the observation of 1,428 meteors in 668 hours. It must be admitted that Victoria, on the whole, has the most pleasant and healthful climate on the Australian continent. Geology of Victoria. GEOLOGY. Major Mitchell was the first to tell the story of Port Phillip geology. In 1835 he traversed the Tertiary beds covering the Silurian rocks southward of the Murray. He crossed and recrossed that dividing range which has subsequently revealed so vast a golden treasure. He trod those wonderfully fertile downs and plains to the westward, which were so indebted to volcanic agency for their grassy luxuriance. He ascended basaltic peaks, and explored craters of ash and scoria. The sturdy granite piles became objects of his admiration and study. The first to observe the geology of the country, the first to make known its peculiarities, he was the first to arouse interest at home in that newly discovered realm, and much of the first immigration from Europe was to be ascribed not less to the romantic descriptions of geological features, than to the glowing picture by the Surveyor General of flowing streams, flowery meads, and delicious airs. The country has not lost its geological interest since that day. While its meadows retain their earliest repu. GEOLOGY OF VICTORIA. 117 tation, and its climate is held in as deserved regard, the VICTORIA. hills and vales, the cinder cones and lava plains, the granite peaks and slate ledges, the sandstone ruggedness and limestone clothed with verdure, all command admi. ration from the traveller, and combine to make a happier home for colonists. Tameness of scenery seldom continues long with the Scenery Victorian rambler. He is never out of the sight of hills, attractive. unless he journies into the north-western wastes. Even on the basaltic plains he has the great range beside him, and many a point of old eruption rises before him. But over the whole eastern division, Alps on Alps appear. The interest of the geology is that it is not only ro. Rocks use- mantic and beautiful, but useful and valuable. But ful. one-fourth the size of the smallest of the other colonies on the Australian continent, Victoria possesses re- markable variety of rocks, and can count upon an auriferous extent of country above the proportion seen elsewhere. Beyond any of the other colonies, it has enjoyed the Great de- privileges of that denudation which swept off so much nudation of the heartless calcareous sandstone that formerly covered nearly the whole continent with its barren garb. Had not enormous and continued floods swept away the immense thickness of this dreary and inhospitable for- mation, with that of the carboniferous sandstone, Major Mitchell would never have conferred upon Port Phillip the appellation of ' Australia Felix.' Enough of that disheartening tertiary pall remains to the far west, to make the settler appreciate his deliver- ance from its presence where cornfields wave, where vineyards smile, and where golden crystals shine. The miner is thankful for the geological transmuta- and tions which threaded the rocks with quartz veins, and exposed filled them with the sparkling treasure. He, too, appre- ciates the aqueous action which broke down cliffs to scatter the debris along the lines of ancient streams. The base of the country is Silurian. Mr. Smyth saw Base is a Cumbrian floor in Gipps Land and by the Glenelg ; Silurian. some think it lower metamorphic Šilurian. The Silurian area is very extensive, and has been com- puted by Mr. Selwyn, Government geologist, to be not less than 30,000 feet, or nearly six miles, in thickness. roduced metals. 118 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. The Gram- pians and Alps. Denuda- tion. Silurian rocks me- ridional. That gentleman describes the mass as 'consisting of a great crumpled, contorted, and broken synclinal trough of lower palæozoic and older strata, overlaid unconformably by an equally extensive, broken, and undulating anti- clinal arch of upper palæozic, and, perhaps, mesozoic rocks.' The Dividing range, running through the centre of the country from east to west, may be described simply as Silurian and granite. The Grampians, cutting off the advances of the former to the west by its bold pro- gress from south to north, show a similar geology. The towering, massive, conflicting, and tangled Australian Alps to the eastward tell the same tale of age. Stretching over the site of Melbourne, and all the lower-lying country from the Grampians to the Alps, was once an enormous arch of superincumbent rocks, 300 miles in length, whose removal has now left rearing before us the stupendous Silurian walls of those two great ranges of mountains. The strike of these older rocks is at right angles to axis of the long Dividing range. These meridional lines, nearly north and south, are seen in parallels, more or less obtrusive above the surface, over a vast extent of country. Their consistent course is a sure compass to the bushman, and the streams north and south of the Main range are thus sent in northward directions to the Murray, or in southward to the sea. The lower palæozic series of sandstones, mudstones, and, more rarely, limestones, are seen at intervals 400 miles from east to west, and northward from the ocean to the Murray. Much metamorphism has taken place among them. It is usually the bedrock of the gold. fields of Sandhurst and Castlemaine. The area of this lower auriferous formation has been placed at 30,000 square miles, or nearly one-third of the colony. It is, of course, presumed to stretch beneath other beds. It is fortunate for the interests of the colony that so much of this series is laid bare, it being the mineral- bearing one. The upper palæozoic contains very little gold, and may be considered as being non-metalliferous. It consists of sandstone, grit, shale, schist, mudstone, some limestone, quartzite, and conglomerate or breccia. Lower Si- lurian the auriferous one. Area of palæozoic formation. GEOLOGY OF VICTORIA. 119 old Though not searched for gold, the upper Silurian VICTORIA. rocks are available for excellent building material, Unn especially the sandstone of the Mount Sturgeon. They Silurian are in great force at the western Grampians, and at has little Ben Cruachan and Mount Wellington of Gipps Land. gold. They appear in the conglomerates and shales of Mount Tambo, the head of the Mitta Mitta. The sandstones of the Grampians, with the conglomerates of Macedon and the Avon river, are said to be allied to the old red sandstone period of England. Here and there intermediate patches are recognised; as at Bacchus Marsh, Heathcote, and Mansfield. The Yering caves of the Yarra are of the limestone of Upper Silurian, and afford a good soil for vines. Some of the Silurian rocks have decomposed into clays, or firebrick material. Above this Silurian development repose the Devonian Devonian sandstones of the Coliban, the sandstones of the Dargo rocks. road, the sandstone of Mount William and Mount Zero, in the west, the shale of Broken river, and the quartz grit of Mount Tamboritta, Gipps Land. The slates of the Devil's river, the conglomerate of Heathcote, and the fossiliferous limestone of Buchan, in Gipps Land, are all placed by Mr. Brough Smyth and others among the Devonian or Permian. Mr. Daintree says the Permian rocks rest on the upturned edges of the Silurian slates and sandstones. The area of this has been supposed 7,600 square miles. The Secondary formations, once believed absent in Secondary Australia, have certainly been very largely denuded, or formations. are buried beneath the enormous beds of the Tertiary sandstones. The two great centres of them are the Cape Otway country and the region east of Western Port. The mountain limestone south of Omeo, the carboniferous strata of Hoddle's range, and patches west of Geelong, with the Wannon district toward the Glenelg, are all Mesozoic. The great bay between Cape Otway and Wilson's Promontory has disconnected the two principal secondary localities. The floods of basalt northward and westward of Melbourne, down to the western border, rest upon mesozoic deposits, if they bad not been previously re- moved by floods of water. ai 120 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. Rocks not good for farmers. Coal limited in area. The Cape Otway district, about 1,800 square miles, is almost entirely uninhabited, except towards Geelong. The Western Port carboniferous area, 1,500 square miles, is also comparatively unoccupied. The Wannon and Glenelg portion, 350 square miles, is chiefly pastoral. The Welshpool of Gipps Land, 320 square miles, has very few people. In most instances, the prevalence of sands renders these places undesirable. The Coal crops out along the eastern sea beach of the Cape Otway country, as well as at Cape Paterson and other points of Western Port. The want of harbours on the coast is a serious difficulty. Better seams have been found inland by sinking, though unavailable from the deficiency of approach. Kilcunda mine is hopeful. First known at Western Port in 1826, an effort was made to work the mineral in 1849, and at subsequent periods. But the Government geologist, Mr. Selwyn, discouraged attempts. At his suggestion, a search was made at Brighton, a few miles from Melbourne, and on the Barrabool hills of Geelong, but without success. No one doubts the existence of good coal, though Mr. Selwyn questions the extent of the field, and the thick. ness of the seams, owing to the mineral being Mesozoic, and not true coal. Professor McCoy, of Melbourne, has counselled the miners to go farther down, and so reach better deposits. It may yet be found with the older sandstones of the Grampians, and of North Gipps Land. In age, the formation may be like the Wiannamatta beds of New South Wales, the uppermost of the coal series there. In East Gipps Land, however, the finding of palæozoic plants encourages the belief that the real coal will be got there. In the coal measures of Cape Otway, ferns fifty feet long have been unearthed; these are similar to some now growing in New Zealand. There is no trace of the Cretaceous or upper Oolitic series. Granite, of all varieties, and under all circumstances, is recognised in the colony. Great masses of it are seen at the north-eastern angle by the Upper Murray, south and west of the Ovens, between the Ovens and the Upper Goulburn, on the Mount Alexander and Tarrengower chains, at the head waters of the Coliban, the Upper Glenelg, the Dandenong Hupes of coal No Oolite. Granite. GEOLOGY OF VICTORIA. 121 mountains, and in the south-eastern corner toward Cape VICTORIA. Howe. Wilson's Promontory, formerly thought to be con. nected with the granite of the Alps, is cut off from it by a great interyal of slate and carboniferous rocks. Victorian granite is binary, ternary, or quaternary. Varieties. It approaches the slate in character on one side, and the igneous rocks on the other. Some sorts have a red fer- ruginous quartz and hornblende, and form good material for building. Mount Macedon is rich in many sorts of granite. Cape Wollomai is of red felspar and green mica. In other places the felspar is white, and the mica is yellow. It occurs most often as an intrusive rock, and is of different ages. The Silurian and carboniferous forma. tions are much invaded by it. Isolated hills of granite are met with in all quarters. Porphyries are common enough in the Alps and in the Green- Dividing range. The greenstones, preferred by the stone. natives for their stone tomahawks, are sometimes diorite or of triclinic felspar. They constitute the mass of a range east of Lancefield. It is in a decomposed diorite of Wood's Point, in the Alps, that rich auriferous quartz veins have been worked to so much profit. The Tertiary beds, according to Mr. Selwyn, cover one. Tertiary. third of the surface of the colony. The great calcareous sandstone formation, extending Much like from King George's Sound along West Australia and desert sand- South Australia, enters Victoria across the Glenelg on Stone. the west, and Murray river on the north-west. It has all the characteristics described in the geology of those other colonies as Desert sandstone. The great amount of loose sand found upon its surface makes some parts practically a desert. The depth is several hundreds of feet. It disappears south of the Dividing range, excepting on the southern and eastern shores of Port Phillip and Western Port. It reappears in the lake district of Gipps Land, as a fringe along the sea-shore. The Wimmera country to the north-west, very suit- Poor land. able to feed sheep upon its salt bush and thirsty plains, is of the geology of the Brighton sands, which extend to the eastern suburbs of Melbourne. The same series 122 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. is seen on the indented heads of Port Phillip, and across Western Port. This great deposit is Pliocene tertiary. Its composi. tion is of varied character, though principally arenaceous limestone, or calcareous sandstone, the former being pré- ferred by the settler. Old Plio- The tertiary covering of the gold, or rather the cene is material in which the digger searches for alluvial gold, auriferous. is the older pliocene. It may be quartz gravel, ferrugi. nous gravel, clay, sandstone, conglomerate, hard cement, or pipe clay. Newer The newer pliocene, besides being of the constituents Pliocene of the above, may be marl, lignite, the Loddon sand- period. stone, or the freshwater sandstone of Geelong. Coloured clays at Warrnambool exhibit some post-pliocene, like the sandstone of Point Nepean. In the pliocene period the Western Port was joined with Port Phillip Bay. A depression of 15 feet would again unite those waters. There is the evidence of three successive risings at Port Phillip Heads. Mr. Ellery speaks of the Bay rising in one part at the rate of 4 inches in a year. Miocene The Miocene is developed in the Moorabool Valley, not aurifor- west of Geelong, with its tropical fauna, and in the Cape Otway region for six miles along the coast. St. Kilda miocene rests on the Silurian rock. The Portland sand. stone, the shell limestone of the Barwon, and the rough limestone of the Gipps Land lakes are of the miocene. According to Mr. Selwyn, the miocene deposits are nearly wholly destitute of gold; others doubt this. Mr Smyth's oligocene is Mr. Selwyn's eocene. Near Melbourne are some remains of pliocene sand dunes. Volcanic The volcanic characteristics of Victoria are remark- rocks. able. Though Australia has not an active volcano, like No active crater. the Tongariro of New Zealand, it has in some of the extinct craters of Victoria the latest illustrations of igneous action. The Blacks have traditions of eruptions in the times of their grandfathers. Basalt. As basalt, the flow has become the great western plains, and the plains north and west of Melbourne. The discharge is conspicuous throughout the Dividing range more than in the Alps. It is rarely observed in the northern half of the colony, though forming so pro- minent a feature in the southern half. ous. GEOLOGY OF VICTORIA. 123 flows of basalt. Basalt was an active intruder in the palæozoic and VICTORIA. coal periods, and in subsequent times. Much of it is God dolerite, or bluestone, the esteemed building stone of the ing stone. colony. There is a black basalt, a greenish black, and a slaty basalt. Greenstone or diorite is uncommon. According to Mr. Smyth, the Melbourne basalt is from Successive two irruptions, a quartz gravel bed existing between them; that of Emerald Hill is much decomposed; while Ballarat received four successive floods, beneath which the deep leads of gold are discovered In several places rivers, as the Yarra and the Leigh, divide the basaltic country from the slate one. The basalt falls in rivers are often romantic features, especially in the Wannon, the Campaspie, the Loddon, the Hopkins, the Werribee, &c. These falls of prismatic basalt are much admired. The trachyte and some of the basalt have issued from fissures, and welled up from beneath. But in the ma- jority of cases the basalt can be traced to some point of eruption, which may have been submarine or subaërial. Volcanic caves and craters are very abundant on the Volcanic south and south-west of the colony, though not unfre. west. ; quent along the whole extent of the Dividing range. They are very rarely seen near the Alps or the Gram. pians. In the form of mammeloid hills, they are very numerous to the west and north-west of Melbourne. The volcanoes of Victoria have discharged basalt, Products of lava, scoria, cinders, mud, and ashes. There are no craters. craters known in Gipps Land, and little or no lava and ashes in eastern Victoria. On the Murray side of the Alps these vents are very rare. But along the Dividing Extinct range, and especially in the neighbourhood of Ballarat, volcanoes. extinct volcanoes may be counted by the score in a view from one eminence. Rising from the basaltic floor of the plains, some large extinct cones are to be distinguished. Dozens of them are passed on the way from Melbourne to the west border. Some of them are nearly closed at the summit, and others form a rim of miles in extent. The craters are sometimes filled with water, and are from a few feet to hundreds of feet in depth. Among the prominent extinct volcanoes may be men, Height of tioned Napier, 1,440 feet high, with a crater 450 feet cones. 124 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VISTORIA. diameter; Elephant, 680 feet above the plain; Porndon, the cinder-cone, 500; Shadwell, 670. Some craters, as Buninyong, Franklin, Warrenheip, &c., are about 2,000 feet above the sea. Tower Hill Mount Noorat crater is 230 feet deep; Basin Banks crater 7 lake, 300 feet; Franklin, 250; Hamilton, 100; Leura, miles round. 300; Keilambete, 200; and Purrumbete, 150. Some have a diameter of several hundreds of feet. Tower Hill crater boundary is six or seven miles round. Lakes once A number of the western lakes were formerly craters; craters. such as Wangoon, Elingamite, Terang, Keilambete, Purrumbete, &c. Many of the craters, judging by the ash of their banks, were in full activity during the Miocene period ; though not a few were sending forth flame and smoke during the post-Pliocene days. Volcanic The ash or tufa deposits are most extensive in the ash. south-west. The wombat burrows in them for even a hundred feet. At the Warrions, beneath Mount Leura, around Tower Hill, and near the various crater-form lakes, a depth of from 50 to 150 feet of ash may be sometimes known. When consolidated, as near Warr- nambool, a building stone is produced. On the Lawrence rocks, off Portland, the volcanic conglome- rate is covered with the guano of sea birds. Stony rises. The Stony Rises and Barriers to the south-west, and east of Lake Colac, are singular monuments of basalt or lava, forming ridges often many yards in height, a Basaltic labyrinth of stone work. Caverns of considerable extent are common in the rock of this district, being made by confined gases while the igneous element was in a state of semi-fusion. Grass has been found under a bed of asbes near Warrnambool. Fossils. The Fossils of Victoria, though' unequal in interest to those of Great Britain,—the geological epitome of the world,-illustrate a past not much dissimilar to what has been revealed by the ancient life of Europe. The Palæozoic forms have been mentioned in the Geology of New South Wales. Above sixty genera have been distinguished in the Silurian formation of Victoria. Graptolites are not uncommon, with the Like those Orthoceras, Stenopora, Lingula, &c. The Graptolites and Trilobites are like those of Europe, and the Encrin- ites as in Canada. Mr. Selwyn noticed forms so new as to require new genera to describe them. caverns. of Europe. GEOLOGY OF VICTORIA. 125 ion. The labyrinthodon reptile of the colony was the VICTORIA. Bothriceps Australis; whose teeth, one eighth of an Labyrin- inch long, conical and sharp, were numerously set in a thodon. head curiously sculptured like that of the crocodile. + Tiger and In a cave near Mount Macedon have been dug out devil vil once the bones of the devil and tiger, now living only in Tas- in Victoria. mania. Along with the devil were found the remains of Dingo a the dingo, yet the wild, aboriginal dog of Australia. The native dog. cave is now 1,000 feet above the sea level. A gigantic sort of kangaroo was extracted from the earth floor of a cave near Cape Schanck. A dingo was recovered from under a bed of volcanic ash at Warrnambool. The Thylacoleo carnifex, the butcher pouched lion, Marsupial was first discovered near the shores of a western lake, according to the prediction of Dr. Owen, that a marsu. pial lion was probably living in the age of monster her- bivorous marsupials. A Polyzoa bed extends for six miles, with a thickness Coal plants. of thirty feet, on the eastern coast of Cape Otway. The Glossopteris abounds in the Cape Patterson coal, the Lepidodendron in the coal of the Avon river of Gipps Land, and the Zamia at Cape Otway. The Geelong limestone has the Pecten, Echinus, and Belemnite. A gigantic kangaroo was found in the pliocene limestone Gigantic of Port Phillip Bay. The present vegetation of the kangaroo. colony resembles that of the Eocene period in Britain. Existing The miocene plant beds of Bacchus Marsh have no B plants like Myrtacæa, so common now. Eocene. The Diprotodon was formerly an inhabitant of the The Dipro. country. Its remains are seen in pliocene deposits of todon de- Lake Colac and other places. Its teeth were well scribed. adapted to the mastication of gum leaves. It was a slow-inoving beast, the size of a hippopotamus. The marsupial character was first made clear by the bending of the angle of the jaw. With the face of a kangaroo, it had the teeth of a tapir. Some bone deposits have been discovered near lake Corangamite, and fruits by Smythes creek. Opinions differ as to the period of gold's first appear. Age of ance in the auriferous quartz veins. Some, as two gold. leading geologists of Melbourne, contended for the ter- tiary age of its production. Mr. Brough Smyth would have it several periods. The Rev. W. B. Clarke, of British 126 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. Sydney, claims a higher antiquity for the precious metal. The Rev. Julian T. Woods traces its origin to diorite, and believes it passed by slow infiltration from secondary rocks to the quartz. It has been recognized in the calc- spar of reefs. Further notice of gold, with a reference to other mine. ral products of the colony, will be found in the chapter of Mining in Victoria.' tion. GOVERN- Government. MENT. Colony The settlement of Victoria was an irregular one. Dif. founded ferent from every other dependency of Great Britain, against will this was established not only without the aid or sanction of the state. of the State, but positively in defiance of its commands. In 1826 Messrs. Batman and Gellibrand asked the per- mission of the Governor of New South Wales to form a settlement on the Port Phillip shore. They were refused that liberty. In 1833, however, the Henty family quietly passed over from Van Diemen's Land to Portland Bay, where sheep were depastured, and a whaling station was formed. Port Phil- When John Batman's Port Phillip Association carried lip Associa- their flocks over to the sites of Melbourne and Geelong, the people were warned off as trespassers. But as gather- ing numbers arrived from the other colonies, and as occa- sions of dispute necessarily took place, a form of govern. Arbitrator ment was decided on. A meeting of the inhabitants in Batman's house, on Batman's Hill, elected Mr. Simpson June 1, 1836. on June 1, 1836, to act as arbitrator. Mr. Steward, J.P., of Goulburn, presided at that meeting. The report of Mr. Steward induced the Sydney autho- rities to make the best of affairs at Port Phillip, accept- ing the situation, and taking the intruders as citizens. Comman. On October 1, 1836, Captain Lonsdale came in H.M.S. dant, Oct. 1, “Rattlesnake, Captain Hobson, commander, to be Com. 1836. mandant of the infant colony. The same title was given to other officers, in the olden times, acting under the governor; as, at Newcastle, Port Macquarie, Moreton Bay, Launceston, Norfolk Island, Port Arthur, Mac- quarie Harbour, &c. The commandant of Port Phillip, finding many people camping with Messrs. Batman and Fawkner, fixed upon elected GOVERNMENT. 127 trobe, Oct. the Yarra-Yarra Settlement as his head-quarters. There VICTORIA. he placed his little staff of constables, and custom-house officer and surveyors. Governor Bourke, after a visit to Port Phillip, and pro- claiming the town of Melbourne on May 19, 1837, was so satisfied of the progress there, that he despatched Mr. Latrobe as Superintendent of the province of Port Superinten- Phillip. That gentleman took possession of his office for October 1, 1839. The business of government was not 1, 1839. extensive, since the supply of stationery sent down from Sydney, in 1838 for the clerks, amounted to a quire of foolscap, a bundle of quills, a box of wafers, and a hundred yards of red tape. After the wonderful immigration from Europe in 1839 Separation and 1840, the colonists began to speak of governing cry. themselves, especially as the large customs' revenue at the port of Melbourne was expended, it was said, in Sydney, and not for the benefit of the southern pro- vince. Hence arose the demand for Separation' from New South Wales. When permitted to send a few members to the partly nominee Council held in Sydney, one of their representa- tives, the well-known Rev. Dr. Lang, warmly contended for separation. As the Port Phillipians were unsuccess. Earl Grey ful, and saw no prospect of home rule, they declared elected member for their small share of government a farce, and derisively Pt. Phillip. elected Earl Grey as their representative. The struggle terminated in the victory of Port Phillip, Port Phil- which, upon July 1, 1850, was proclaimed the indepen. lip, inde- pendent dent colony of Victoria, and the superintendent became 1850. Governor Latrobe. Still the Government was a close one. Only two-thirds of the members of the Council were elective, the rest being nominated by the ruling powers. Melbourne, neverthe. less, had a municipality in 1842. The limited nature of the franchise, and the general Demand unprogressive character of the Government, excited great for more dissatisfaction after the gold discovery. The diggers, especially, were indignant at the rough manner in which they were hunted for their monthly licenses. The feel. ing culminated in the Ballarat Rebellion of December, Ballarat 1854. rebellion. Although the rising was suppressed by soldiery, the freedom. 128 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. gov rn- Victorian VICTORIA. colonists were aroused, and a determined effort was put forth, with the vigorous aid of the Press, to obtain re- sponsible government. Responsible The Melbourne Parliament, like the other legislative bodies of Australia, being required by the Home Govern. ment, 1855. ment to suggest a suitable form of rule adapted to the circumstances of the colony, forwarded an expression of public opinion. The result was that all the Australian settlements were emancipated from nomination, and al. lowed by the Queen in Council to be governed under a responsible ministry. The new constitution was proclaimed November 23, 1855. In this it was apparent that the Melbourne men got constitu- more freedom than the Sydney ones, because they had tion the more de demanded more. Unlike the Upper House of the old mocratic. colony, the Legislative Council of Victoria, as well as the Legislative Assembly, became wholly elective by the people. In the New South Wales constitution, it was stated of the colony that it is dependent on the United Kingdom.' That submissive phrase does not occur in the Victoria preamble. The president of the Council was to be appointed by his Excellency in Sydney, but elected by the members themselves in Melbourne. There was so much new blood from Britain in the newer colony, and so much more energetic resolve to have British rights, that a greater advance was demanded, and a more liberal government was obtained. Among other changes was that of abrogating the property quali. fication clause for members in the Assembly. Legislative As those who voted for the Legislative Council mem- Council. bers were required to be freeholders or tenants of 1001. a year, there were about six times the number of electors for the upper house as for the lower one. The Council was for ten years, six persons going out every two years. The candidate for office, unlike that for the Assembly, must possess a freehold worth 5,0001. The Legislative Council consists of thirty persons, chosen in the six pro- vinces of the Central, North-eastern, North-western, Eastern, Western, and Southern. Legislative The present Legislative Assembly has eighty-six Assembly members, selected from fifty-five electoral districts, for three years. Victoria, in proportion to its population, GOVERNMENT. 129 con- has five times as many members as are returned to the VICTORIA. English Parliament. With a registration fee of a shil- ling, any man, not previously convicted of felony, and Qualifica- being British-born or a naturalised subject, may become oma tion for an elector. an elector for the Assembly. All elections are decided by ballot. There were, in 1879, 31,441 electors on the Electors. rolls for the Legislative Council, and 176,022 for the Legislative Assembly. The Victorian government is, therefore, decidedly de. mocratic. The principle is that of "for the people, by the people. And it is generally admitted that, with occasional hasty policy, the country has been well and vigorously governed. The laws are intelli. gently respected. The educated and property-accumu. Working classes lating working classes of Victoria have exhibited at conservative impulse, not to be expected from an ig. servative. norant and a poverty-stricken populace as in parts of Europe. The revenue of the country has fluctuated considerably. Revenue. During the early years it was of moderate amount, averaging about 41. per head. In 1852, the year of the rush of diggers, the revenue suddenly rose to 121. per head; and the following year, to 161. per head. Calmer times came. In 1855 the revenue was but 2,728,6561., or 81. per head. From that time, as popu. lation increased, and excessive importations gradually ceased, the revenue descended to 71., 61., and 51. per Personal head. The 51. average of 1864 realised 2,955,3381. The taxes for 1878 were 11. 198. 10d. per head. 1 The year ending on June 30, 1879, gave a revenue Revenue of 4,516,4181.; or about 51. 4s. 10d. per head. The ter. 51. 2s. 10d. ritorial revenue from the Crown lands amounted to P 1,046,4141. in 1877, being 26,4051. over that for 1876. The revenue for the year ending December 31st, 1873, Expendi- was 3,902,0241., and expenditure, 3,659,5331. The expen- ture differs diture is different from it from the that at home. There is not English the paying of a third of the income as interest upon one. debts incurred by war; though interest is willingly paid upon loans contracted for useful and reproductive public works. But there is an extraordinary as well as Ordinary ordinary expenditure. As this presents an important and extra- - ordinary difference in the system of government between Europe govern- and the Colonies, the following explanation, from the ment ex- penditure, taxes 11. 19s. 100. per head. 130 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. report of the Commissioners inquiring into the state of the Civil Service in Victoria, will be of interest. It is a necessary incident of the imperfect stage of political development that pertains to a very new coun- try, that the Government is obliged to undertake many functions from which at a more advanced period of the country's growth it is relieved. In addition to the ordinary duties of government, the Government of this country is compelled to conduct the business of a great landowner-to survey, to lease, and to sell its property, its town lots, its country lands, its pastures, and its wines; to construct and maintain roads and bridges, and other works of public utility ; to form railways and electric telegraphs; assist municipalities, road boards, mining boards, and charitable institutions; to establish and supervise lighthouses, lunatic asylums, pounds, and cemeteries, and to do many other acts which in older countries, possessing similar institutions, are effected either through private enterprise or through local exertion.' Thus, that Commission took the expenditure of 1859 as consisting of 1,188,8011. ordinary (or that common in other countries), and 2,394,7977. extraordinary, or twice as much as the ordinary. · The expenditure has, of course, kept pace with the revenue, and sometimes exceeded it. That in 1878–9, however, came to 4,944,9661. Customs gave 1,400,8091.; railways and waterworks, 1,396,6831. Loans. The loans before the new constitution were only two millions, borrowed for the Melbourne and Geelong waterworks. Heavy amounts were subsequently ob- tained to carry on the various railway works. In the Public debt year 1878 the debt in full was 17,022,0641., for which for public there are substantial assets. Though the public works works. are remunerative, they would have become much more so, but for the fact that many of them were constructed at a time when labour was at almost a fabulous rate in Victoria. The railways cost to 1878, 16,677,3231. The stability of affairs in Victoria is evidenced by the ability of Government to borrow at par at four per cent. Municipal Local government in the colony owes much to the system. able Sir Andrew Clarke, of the Engineers, formerly the Surveyor-General of Victoria, who may be justly POPULATION. 131 TION. called the second founder of the municipal system VICTORIA. there. The municipal income, 1878, was 639,4281. At the end of 1871 there were sixty-four corporate towns and boroughs, containing within their municipal limits about one-half the population. A borough must not have an area of more than nine square miles. Outside of these boroughs in 1878 were 114 Shires, Shires and with their councils, now including Road districts, which road districts. enclose the other moiety of the population. A road district is not more than 40 square miles, and a shire one hundred. Shires were formed in 1863. These are empowered to levy rates, and administer Excellent the local affairs relative to roads and other improvements. roads. They are the outward exponents of a very progressive state of things. No colony in the empire can boast of such good means of communication as now exist in Victoria, through such local agencies. Population. POPULA- Under the head of Agriculture,' the increase of the population of the colony may be noted from 1838. Mr. Henry Heylin Hayter, Government Statist, of Victoria, has prepared valuable statistical tables of the colony from time to time. In June, 1836, there were 224 persons, of whom 186 Progress were males. The year after, the number rose to 1,264, the innmhoń nosoto 1 061 from 1836. including 280 females. In the first thirty years of its existence, Victoria grew to a population of 636,982. On December 31, 1878, the number was estimated 879,386. - While New South Wales took eighty years to reach half a million, Victoria gained that amount in twenty- two years. At the end of 1872 there were 770,727 people; 70,428 were on the gold fields; 374,000 were in towns. The census of April, 1871, gave 712,263 white persons, Males and 382,367 males, and 329,896 females. There were also females. 1,330 aborigines, 784 males and 546 females; with Chinese population. 17,935 Chinese, only 36 of whom were females. The female population in June, 1836, was 26:65 to Proportion 100 males ; in 1841, 41.87; in 1846, 62.88; in 1851, of 67.40; in 1854, 51.90; in 1857, 55.39; in 1861, 64:41; and in 1872, 83-5. On December 31, 1878, there were 478,316 males and 401,126 females. The most settled places had in 1871 the highest per- f females. K 2 132 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. ces. Births. VICTORIA. centage of females; as Bourke County, 97.07, and More Grant County, 92:80. The Murray District had but females 63.58, and Dargo County, 36.32. Caulfieldshire, near than males Melbourne, had 110 females to 100 males. The population is variously distributed, even in the counties; for, while Millewa had but .03 to the square mile, Bourke had 136.47, or 4,500 times as many. The births have changed their average since 1865, when they were 42:04 in the thousand of population, coming gradually down to 36.89 for 1871; but of 10,950 births on the Gold Fields, 250 were illegitimate, or 1 in 43; of 6,225 in the rural parts, 81, or 1 in 77; of 1,917. on the coast, 35, or 1 in 54; but of 6,948 in Melbourne, 321, or 1 in 21. In two northern capitals of Europe the proportion has been 1 in 2. Victoria, in this respect, ranks as more moral than Great Britain. In 1872, of 27,361 births, 1 in 33 only was illegitimate. In propor. tion to the whole population, such would be 1 in 948. The births in 1878 were 26,581, or 30:59 to 1,000. Marriages. The marriage ratio has undergone a change in ten years. In 1860 it stood at 9.07; in 1865, 7.29; in 1868. 6.99; and in 1872, 6:30, being 4,791 in number. In 1878, 5,092 were married, being 5.86 in 1,000. In 1871 the unmarried males were 278,103, and females, 204,838. The married males were 111,182, and females, 111,315. The widowers were 9,818, and the widows, 13,683. Under 14 years of age, the sexes were nearly equal, being 147,569 males, and 145,496 females. Above 80 years there were 149 married men, and 41 married women; 180 were widowers, and 237 were widows. Under age there were 96 husbands and 1,254 wives. Of those married that year, 3,735 were bachelors to spinsters, 371 of bachelors to widows, 353 of widowers to spinsters, and 234 of widowers to widows. The deaths, during the year 1878, were 12,702. The proportion to 1,000 of population was, in 1860, 22:36. Since then it has fluctuated between 19:37, and the low rate for 1871, 13:43. The colony, never un- becoming healthy, had been for the six years previously gradually healthy. becoming less subject to disease; rated 141 in 1878. Improvements in the style of living, the character of buildings, the supply of water in towns, the drainage, Deaths. Colony more care au POPULATION. 133 and, above all, the moral habits of the people, have made VICTORIA. this difference in mortality. The climatic influences have certainly been favourable to health and longevity. It has been often remarked that old folks get a new lease of their lives by removal to Victoria. Although, without doubt, that colony, ex- hibits more than any other the supposed American cha- racteristics of indefatigable energy, there is by no means the same reckless indifference to the laws of health as upon the Western Continent. The sallow faces, the ague and fever-worn frames, the People sickly women, the frail children, the nervous men, the more healthy premature old age, meeting the eye of travellers in both than in Eastern and Western America, are not apparent in the America. streets of Melbourne, Geelong, and Ballarat. On the contrary, rosy faces, rotund forms, bright eyes, and hearty laughter are more common there than in the cities of Europe. Circumstances are easier, the climate engenders hopefulness, and there is a striking absence of morbid care in business. Malformations are far less frequent there than even Few mal- in Great Britain. Thus, deaf mutes, who are as 1 in formations. 1,738 in England, and lin 206 in some parts of Switzer- land, are but as 1 in 9,000 in Victoria. Diseases incident to the place may be supposed dy- Diseases. sentery, diarrhoea, and brain affections. But the medical reader will judge from the subjoined report of causes of death in 1878. The classification is this : Miasmatic diseases, 1,513 Statistics males, and 1,545 females ; enthetic, 24 males, and 10 of fatal females; dietetic, 140 males, and 86 females ; parasitic, 35 males, and 38 females ; diathetic, 237 males, 186 females ; tubercular, 774 males, and 631 females; ner- vous, 873 males, and 594 females ; circulatory organs, 457 males, and 267 females ; urinary, 185 males, and 81 females ; respiratory, 859 males, and 539 females ; gene- rative, 3 males, and 23 females ; digestive, 534 males, and 471 females ; locomotive system, 17 males, and 11 females; integumentary, 17 males, and 11 females ; de- velopmental, 248 males, and 221 females ; nutrition, 389 males, and 311 females ; accident, 585 males, and 172 females ; homicide, 12 males, and 7 females ; suicide, 70 males, and 17 females; execution, 0. From old age there died 189 males, and 148 females. diseases. 134 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. females. VICTORIA. Among the particular affections the following may be Diseases of selected, as showing differences with the sexes : sun. males and stroke, 16 males, 7 females ; bite of snake, 3 males; liver, 154 and 118; pneumonia, 418 and 211; heart, 362 and 211; brain, 172 and 120; cancer, 169 and 160; apoplexy, 148 and 126; paralysis, 125 and 55; phthisis, 603 and 472; gout, 9 and 9; scrofula, 35 and 20; delirium tremens, 17 and 5; diphtheria, 159 and 200; dysentery, 157 and 97; diarrhoea, 524 and 429; ague, 4 and 2 ; rheumatism, 46 and 33; asthma, 29 and 13. Death of During ten years, from 1855 to 1865, it was found that children. while one-third of the deaths were in children not one year old, one-third of the zymotic diseases occurred with those of that age, and two-thirds of the developmental. One-eighth of all diseases arose from dysentery and diarrhæa in those ten years ; in 1871, owing to im- proved conditions, they formed but one-fourteenth of the cases. No small- Diphtheria was not known till 1858, when there was pox or hy- drophobia. one death in 1,000 from it. Colonial fever is a sort of typhoid. Typhus and remittent fevers are very un- common. Small-pox and hydrophobia are unknown. There is less dropsy, but a singular increase of cancer lately; for, in 1854, only three deaths came from cancer. Proportion Neryous diseases formed in the ten years one-tenth of diseases. of the cases; respirative, one-twelfth; digestive, one- sixteenth; atrophy and debility in children, one-twelfth; circulation, one twenty-fifth; and developmental, as teething, old age, &c., one-thirtieth. Fatal cases of child birth were as one in two hundred and forty births. Variation In some years diseases have been more fatal than in of diseases I others. Thus, with dysentery, 944 died in 1860, and in different years. 220 in 1868; cancer, 58 in 1860, and 184 in 1869 ; brain, 407 in 1863, 166 in 1868; measles, 7 in 1864, and 630 in 1867; diphtheria, 871 in 1861, and 215 in 1865; asthma, 12 in 1864, and 50 in 1869, liver, 87 in 1861, and 200 in 1869 ; phthisis, 779 in 1867, 1,124 in Chinese 1878. suffer more The Chinese are more subject to disease than Euro. than Euro- peans in Victoria. Fevers and dropsy are more fatal, peans. but phthisis and dysentery less dangerous. There are, relatively, fewer accidents among them, but more suicides. · The Chinese have favoured Victoria beyond any other EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 135 colony. Though now not abore 13,000, they were once VICTORIA. 45,000. By an Act of the Legislature, each Mongolian arrival paid 101. if coming by sea, and 41. if overland ; Chinese. this was in addition to ll. per quarter for settlement. They are chiefly employed in mining and market-garden- ing. There are some wealthy and highly respectable Chinese merchants in the colony, two of whom are directors of banks. The Aborigines of the colony are rapidly passing away. Victorian Lords of the soil in 1835, John Batman sought the · Aborigines. right of pasturage from them by a promise of annual tribute. The British Government never acknowledged this treaty, nor noticed the presence of the natives when taking the country. Protectors were subsequently appointed, to protect the blacks from the lawless whites, and the whites from savage blacks. They were unnecessary when the Euro- peans grew the many, and the aborigines the few. Wars were not so destructive as the drink and disease, brought by the strangers to the tribes. As many as several thousand were gathered together at a grand corrobory in 1844. By the returns of 1871, there were but 1,300 in the colony. Another estimate recently made them but 800. In the county of Dalhousie, with 12,000 in- habitants, there were but three men and no women of the natives; though in Karkarooc, with 221 Europeaps, there were 83 male and 45 female aborigines. A few young men are employed cattle-driving; but, with every encouragement, none settle on farms or engage in trade. Several efforts to Christianise them Christian hv ion mission missions. have eventvally proved failures. The Moravian mission in Gipps Land has, for the present, gratifying rewards of labour. Meanwhile, the race is descending almost child. less to the grave. Education and Religion. EDUCA TION, Unquestionably, Victoria has the proud distinction of being the first colony in the empire for devotion to education. In none other are schools so well supported by the State, and in so high a condition of efficiency. Whatever may be said concerning this most democratic of English Governments, no one can deny its zeal and 136 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA, liberality towards public institutions, and such in. stitutions as tend to educate and refine the working. classes. · The progress in this respect since the inauguration of responsible rulo, in 1855, is a gratifying tribute to the generosity and intelligence of the British Parliament granting that political favour, and is the best evi. dence that their confidence in the colonists was not misplaced. The chaos produced by the gold fever has yielded there to order and social development. First sys- Like Queensland, also once a province of New South tem, the Wales, Victoria, as Port Phillip District, was endowed Denomina. tional. with schools under the Denominational system of the parent colony. These schools were prominently connected with those denominations which then shared in the pro rata State aid to religion, namely, the Church of England, the Presby- terian, the Wesleyan, and the Roman Catholic. A Denominational School Board, in which these various bodies had representatives, administered the funds. Assistance was granted to buildings, as well as the pay- ment of teachers' salaries. In 1848, when the colony was pursuing the even tenor of its way, the Board had 27 schools, with 2,396 pupils. Complaint. The same dissatisfaction with the system was ex. against the pressed at Melbourne as at Sydney. It was alleged that system. Government, while supporting education, was in reality upholding denominationalism; and, in another form, con- tributing to the funds of antagonistic religionists, as most school-rooms were places of worship. National - The National School Board, therefore, was brought School into existence in 1851. The avowed intention was to Board. receive children of all sects, give them a good secular in. struction, and afford facilities in class-rooms, after school hours, for ministers to give dogmatic lessons to those belonging to their respective communions. It was found, however, that scarcely any of the clergy embraced the offer; and so the so-called National Schools became really secular ones. As a specific grant was made to the National Board, it could be both aggressive and progressive in the establish. EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 137 ment of schools. The rivalry of the two Boards is thus VICTORIA shown:- Denominational Denominational | National Schools National Pupils Schools Pupils 74 1851 1853 1857 1861 125 439 484 3,016 5,788 17,656 24,224 261 908 4,475 9,713 93 181 The country complained of the waste of public money, Both and an amalgamation of the two Boards took place in Boards 1862. united. The new Board of Education, appointed by the Go- vernor, consists of five members, no two of whom are of the same denomination. A discretionary power was exercised in the closing of small and inefficient schools. While money aid was Vested granted to all schools, especial favour was shown to such schools favoured. as were placed under the Board as vested schools. A number of denominational school-rooms were thus, for private or public reasons, made over to the State. If, then, in a certain neighbourhood, there existed an excess of schools, the vested ones had the prior right to public support. A marked success has attended the change of régime. The percentage of regular attendants at school in pro- portion to the population has since been raised nearly half as much again. The improvement of the teaching has kept pace with numerical progress. The schools in Victoria are provided with an efficient staff of instruc- Efficient tors, an ample supply of the best apparatus, and no lack education. of encouragement from the State. When the two Boards were amalgamated, the Church of England schools had 12,920 pupils; the Presbyterians, 6,090; the Wesleyans, 5,582; and the Roman Catholics, 9,716. Other denominations had schools, though gene- rally casting in their influence with the National Schools, these having 10,512 children. Since then the vested schools have increased 137 per Increase cent., while the non-vested have decreased 15 per cent. of schools. Aid to buildings is only given to the vested. 138 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Rural and VICTORIA. But the utmost liberality exists in the conduct of the schools. All of them must submit to two rules,-admit Secular instruction children of any denomination, and devote four hours in and free each day to secular instruction only. After those hours, religious children of the particular religious sect may remain for teaching. dogmatic teaching, while others retire. The practical effect is to make all schools, whatever their namo, secular ones; there seldom being any lessons beyond the two hours of the forenoon, and two in the afternoon, unless it be that the elder scholars have addi. tional instruction after the departure of the rest. All instruc- The latest change is an important one. Last year the tion now doors of all State-supported schools were thrown open to free, all comers without fee or charge. Church bodies declining to rent their buildings to Government receive less aid to their schools. As public schools are completed, aid is withdrawn from others. School buildings are available for religious services after school hours. Boards of Advice are elected by ratepayers. Rural schools were added in 1869, and Half-time schools half-time the year after. The former were sanctioned in sparsely schools. populated districts, where an average of 15 pupils could be secured. The latter provided for another difficulty. In 1873 there were over 60 rural schools. The Public schools on January 1, 1879, were 1,664. Pupils. The number of children educated was 189,455, being about one in less than five of the population. The average attendance is very high, amounting to attendance. 135 days in the year—that of England being 120; Ire- land, 80; and the United States, 106. Two out of three of the population between 5 and 15 are at school; while others are there who are below the first or beyond the last age. Corporal punishment for females is not allowed. One in 4 In addition to the 189,455 in the Public schools, taught. there were, at the beginning of 1879, 37,582 in private schools, and 1,116 in Industrial ones, and the Reforma- tories. The total, 228,153, would give an average of 1 in 4 of the population, equal, perhaps, to what can be seen in any other community. Colleges Of the higher class schools in Melbourne are the Scotch College, with 342 pupils in 1878; Church of England Grammar School, 226; Wesley College, 216; St. Patrick's College, 75. Average 1879. EDUCATION AND RELIGION. . 139 tories. school In the Industrial schools for neglected children, board VICTORIA. and lodging are found. The reformatory schools are Industrial for those children convicted of crime, or placed there schools and for wholesome restraint. A large one for boys is on reforma- board of a vessel in Port Phillip Bay. The Board of Education expended during 1878 the sum of 594,1471. A Minister of Education is president. Minister of The expenditure is now at the rate of nearly half a education. million a year; or, relatively, about twenty times as much Annual as that granted by the British Parliament for schools. . The cost per child varied with the character of the the State of school, and consisted of local and Government contri. 600,000. bution. In non-vested schools the average annual cost was 14s. 1 d. local, 23s. 44d. Government, or 11. 178. 6d. per head. The rates for vested schools were 17s. 11d. local, 26s. ld. Government aid, or 21. 38. 3d. per head. The local contributions for schools in 1871 were 9,9401; and toward building expenses, 12,4431. The teachers formerly derived their income from a Teachers' fixed State salary, their proportion of the pupils' fees, pay. and the bonus known as result money. Since the esta- blishment of free education, the fees have been compen. sated for by increased salary. They are a well-appointed class of persons, under a strict system of inspection, and are fairly remunerated and respected. Early in 1879 there were 1,824 male instructors, and 2,082 female. Of 446 anclassed female teachers, 414 only occupied the position of work mistresses, requiring examination in needlework. These numbers relate to 1872, as classification is now complete. In the first-class honours were 7 masters and 3 mis- Examina- tresses; and in the second-class honours, 68 and 20. tion of In the first division of competency there were 319 and nas masters and 91 mistresses ; in the second division, 381 with and 208. The salaries have been recently fixed on a honours. numerical basis. A teacher with less than 20 pupils has 801. salary ; with less than 100, 1301. An additional 101. comes with each 25 extra up to 350 pupils; after which an increase of 50 is required for the additional 101. The Result money, to be added, must not exceed one half the salary. teachers, 140 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. schools, and students. VICTORIA. Several instances have occurred in which the income of the teacher of a common school has exceeded 5001. : Normal Several Normal Training Schools supply free educa- tion, board, and lodging, to male and female teachers. Teachers are engaged by the local committees of schools, subject to the Board's approval. Drawing Many Drawing-masters and Singing-masters are em. ployed by the Board in the common schools. Of the singing. 417 pupil-teachers, 34 were in 1872 in the highest or Pupil- first class; 62 in the second ; 97 in the third ; and 224 teachers. in the fourth. Aid to As an incentive to study, the Government offer the successful pupils in common schools presentations to certain collegiate establishments, and to the Uni. versity. Denomina- A large sum of money was apportioned some years ago tional by the State for the aid of higher schools in the leading Colleges. denominations. The Scotch College of Melbourne ranks first for numbers. The Grammar School is attached to the Church of England. Wesley College is under Wes- leyan control. St. Patrick's College is the Roman Catholic institution. All received State assistance toward their building fund, though not annual grants. The Uni- The University is an institution worthy of a colony versity. so anxious for knowledge. Its formation in 1853 was the crowning of the educational edifice by the State. In addition to erecting the buildings required, the Government grants 11,0001. a year towards the current expenses, while fees produce about 7,0001. Professors. The professors have been men of high repute even in Europe. Some of them, notably Professor McCoy, the comparative anatomist and geologist, have identified themselves with other efforts to raise their fellow co- lonists. For the year ending December, 1878, 114, matriculated ; some ladies passed with honours. Public An admirable museum, open to the public, is attached to the University. It is perhaps not only the first in the British colonies, but equal to any one in the empire out of London. The room cost 8,5001. The examinations are so well conducted, that the Uni- versity degrees for arts, medicine, law, and music have a deserved reputation. Among the ad eundem gradu- ates have been several of the Governors of the colony. museum. EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 141 ical Paper, Various religious bodies have placed their colleges for VICTORIA. young ministers in affiliation with the University. . Affiliated The Victorian Legislature has aided in other ways the educational wants of the people. 110 mechanics insti- 'ree State tutes and free libraries have been fostered. The public libraries. library of Melbourne has 100,000 volumes, The mechanics are also benefited by classes for tech. Technical education. nical instruction. In no part of the English dominions, perhaps has so much solicitude been shown by the State for the interests of general education, and for the eleva. tion of the tastes of the working community, by lectures in science and art, with access to technological and 1 mi Techno- other museums. museums. The Press of Victoria, as of Australia and New Zealand Press generally, has exerted a highly educational influence. influence. Excepting the United States, there is no other part of the world where the people are such newspaper readers. The first Australian journal was issued March 5, First Australian 1803. It was known as the “Sydney Gazette and New Da South Wales Advertiser. The publication, under Go. 1803. vernment, was conducted by George Howe, the father History of of the Australian Press. The first number gave as the Press. recent news an account of a Woolwich fire on May 20, 1802. The 'Sydney Morning Herald' commenced in 1831; Sydney and the 'Empire' in 1850. papers. The 'Derwent Star and Van Diemen's Land Intelli. Tasmanian gencer' started and ended in 1810. The · Van Diemen's papers. Land Gazette and General Advertiser' of 1814 lingered but a few months. Andrew Bent was assisted by Go- vernment to establish the 'Hobart Town Gazette and Southern Reporter'in 1816. This was but of two pages of foolscap till 1825. In 1826 it became, under inde- pendent control, the “Gazette and Van Diemen's Land Advertiser.' Mr. Howe, son of the Sydney printer, originated the first • Launceston Advertiser'in 1825. The earliest Port Phillip paper was a manuscript one, Port by Mr. John Pascoe Fawkner, of Melbourne, on January Press. 1, 1838. After a few copies by hand, some type was procured, and the Melbourne Advertiser' came out in four pages, two columns each, twelve inches long. But First paper the paper was stopped because the conductor could not find two legal sureties for good behaviour. Philli nanu- 142 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA The first legalised paper was the Port Phillip Gazette,' under Messrs. Ārden and Strode. It appeared October 27, 1838. The next year Mr. Fawkner brought out the Advertiser,' though it was soon changed to the • Patriot.' But those early newspapers were little like the present “Melbourne Melbourne Argus' and ? Australasian,' which may be Argus.' compared most satisfactorily with the best of the pro- vincial papers of England. The Times' of July, 1873, said of the colonists They have a right to be proud of their newspapers.' RELIGION. RELIGION has not been lost sight of in the general progression of Victoria. All sections of the Christian Church are represented there. Enjoying equal protection under the law, though receiving neither pay nor favour from the Government, they illustrate very little of that jealousy toward each other to be observed in communities with less religious freedom. First The first Sunday service in Melbourne was held by a Sunday Wesleyan minister, the Rev. Mr. Orton, beneath the service, 1837. She-Oaks of Batman's Hill, in April, 1837. A building in 1838 served for all denominations. The Early first minister was the Rev. J. Waterfield, an Inde. ministers. pendent. The Church of England had the first pastor in the Rev. John C. Grylls, who came from Sydney in 1838. A Wesleyan mission to the blacks was esta- blished in 1839. The Presbyterian clergyman, Mr. Forbes, arrived in 1839. The Rev. P. B. Geoghegan, afterwards Bishop of Adelaide, was the first Roman Catholic priest,-reaching Melbourne in 1839. The early places of worship were raised with much Churches. difficulty in the primitive days of Victoria. The foun. dation stone of the first church of the Protestant Episco- palians was laid in October, 1839. The Presbyterians were content with a brick school-room, costing 4001. The chapel of the Independents was the first one built. The Wesleyans had a small brick-room in 1839. .;. Land for The Sydney Government, then ruling over the colony, places of granted land in every township to any religious deno- worship. mination that would accept it. Not only, therefore, did the Roman Catholic and the leading Protestant bodies secure half-acre allotments, or more, but individual First EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 143 ministers claimed and secured land for other communi. VICTORIA. ties they were supposed to represent. · At that period of colonial bistory, if a congregation State raised 3001. towards a place of worship, the State con- support system. tributed an equal sum. In like manner, if they guaran- teed a certain amount for their ministers, the Treasury supplemented it. Though some persons then objected to State aid in the shape of cash, they were willing to accept grants of land for religious purposes. The Government disclaimed any interference with No State religious bodies, while rendering them monetary aid. inter- But while orthodox Protestants, Roman Catholics, and ference. Unitarians drew upon the Treasury, Jews were denied No aid to the privilege, though an attempt was made to expunge ägogues. Jews' Syn- the word Christian' from the statute. The position of affairs was thus represented by that judicious historian of the colony, Mr. Westgarth, some seventeen years ago :- • But as some will not receive the aid, and as Jews and others are excluded, an inequality thus arises which has long been the object of animadversion; while to many minds there is an incongruity in the whole case of this aid which seems entirely unchristian.' By the conditions of the 53rd clause of the Constitu- 50.0002 tion Act, conveying the charter of colonial liberty in grant to 1855, it was expressly declared that 50,0001. a year must religion. be set aside by the Melbourne Parliament in grants to- wards religion. The incongruity of the State supporting contradictory and rival views excited ridicule and displeasure among the colonists, although no one denomination was strong enough to claim the whole sum for itself. It was said that, as the numbers of ministers were no more constantly growing, the amount tendered to each out of State aid. the 50,0001. would be eventually so small as not to be worth acceptance. Without waiting for that period, the Legislature has abolished State aid to religion altogether. · The removal of the grant has called forth the generous Effect of rivalry of denominations, and deprived the niggardly. of this. any ground to restrain their gifts. A comparison of these periods may be of interest. The years 1851, 1857, and 1871 are thus selected as marking three different colonial epochs. 144 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. denomina- VICTORIA. In 1851 the Church of England claimed 37,433; the Presbyterians, 11,608 ; the Wesleyans, 4,988; other State of - Protestants, 4,313; or a Protestant total of 58,342. tions in The Roman Catholics numbered 18,014; the Jews, 1851, '57 304; and Pagans, exclusive of aborigines, 201. and '71. In 1857 the Church of England had 159,808; the Presbyterians, 65,935; the Wesleyans, 20,395; the In. dependents, 10,858; the Baptists, 6,484 ; the Lutherans, 6,574; the Unitarians, 1,480; other unnamed Protestants made a total of 289,269. The Roman Catholics were 77,351, and the Jews 2,208. In 1871 the census gave the Church of England 257,835; Presbyterians, 112,983; Methodists, 94,220; Independents, 18,191 ; Baptists, 16,311; Lutherans, 10,559; Unitarians, 1,016; other Protestants, 12,423 ; & total of 517,535 Protestants. The Roman Catholics were 170,620, and the Jews 3,571. Increase of From 1851 to 1872 the Protestants increased in Vic- each in 20 toria 887 per cent. ; the Roman Catholics, 947; and the years. Jews, 1,174 per cent. The Church of England had in. creased 672 per cent. ; the Presbyterians 973; and the Methodists, 1,888. Increase Between 1857 and 1872 the Protestants advanced 178 per cent.; and the Roman Catholics, 220. The Church of England grew 157; the Presbyterians, 171; the Wesleyans, 460; the Independents, 166 ; the Baptists, 251; the Lutherans, 160 ; and the Jews, 160 per cent. Other small Among the sects in Victoria, by census of 1871, may be mentioned 3,540 • Christians,' 1,432 Calvinists proper, 93 Moravians, 97 Mormons, 332 Greek Christians, 333 Society of Friends, 285 Israelites, with 278 Catholic and Apostolic church. At the census, 2,737 declared them. selves of no denomination; 2,150 of no religion; while 9,965 objected to state their views at all. The Spiritualists of Melbourne engaged the large Masonic Hall for their Sunday services. The Pagan Chinese were 17,650 in 1871. Church The church accommodation of the various bodies, in room in respect of numbers, was thus stated for 1871 and 1878:- 1871 and 1878. 1871 1878 Wesleyans . . . 92,900 129,070 Presbyterians 64,000 75,960 Church of England . 59,676 71,341 Roman Catholic • 57,760 89,466 Dama from 1857 month to 1872. sects, EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 145 Wesleyang 1871 1878 Independents VICTORÍA. 15,050 16,261 Primitive Methodists 12,756 Baptists . 12,830 13,430 Bible Christians 7,990 9,125 Disciples 5,055 United Methodists. 5,500 Lutherans 3,200 4,680 Welsh Calvinists 1,600 Christian Israelites . 1,600 Free Presbyterians . 1,565 Free Church of England . 1,190 Moravians. 230 Unitarians. 200 Catholic Apostolic . 290 Society of Friends. 180 The 1,557 Sunday Schools, with 116,142 pupils and Sunday 13,449 teachers, are well distributed in the colony. The schools. following table in order relates to the majority of these. Sunday Schools Scholars 489 31,524 Church of England 295. 21,912 Presbyterians 326 27,046 Roman Catholic. 229 18,114 Independents 5,873 Baptists. 5,388 Primitive Methodists 3,956 Bible Christians . 53 3,070 Disciples. 17 926 Lutherans. 576 The church sittings for 1862 were 169,647; for 1867, Church 271,753; for 1872, 346,861. While the population in increase the ten years increased half as much more, the accommon than popu- greater dation in places of worship had more than doubled. lation. In 1851, before the gold time, the Protestants were Religion 58,342, and the Roman Catholics 18,084. Of the former, before the 37,433 belonged to the Church of England, 11,608 to 5 the Presbyterians, and 4,988 to the Wesleyans. There were then 304 Jews. A great change in the relation of the denominations has since taken place. The moral progress of the colony has been singularly Moral marked during the last few years. Temperance views progresso have become more popular, and crime has been much diminished. In 1862 the committals for trials were 1,144 ; in 1864, 1,081 ; in 1867, 957; in 1869, 842; and in 1872, 688, or one half of what it would have been bad the first rate been maintained. 62 14 146 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Crime. law. VICTORIA. Of 764 commitments in 1878, there were 458 then convicted. Prison discipline is conducted there upon the best known systems of Europe. Great care is taken of the youthful criminal population in four well-conducted reformatories. There are five female refuges. Hospitals There are 33 hospitals, having about 2,130 beds. The and benero- five Benevolent asylums have 1,184 beds, and the Immi- lent insti- tutions. grants’ Home has 439. There is also a hospital for sick children. The Deaf and Dumb Institution has 72 beds; the Blind, 97; and the Ear and Eye Infirmary, 22. The five lunatic asylums have 2,816 beds. The seven orphan schools have 981. This was in 1878.. In addition to 37 beneyolent societies, supported by voluntary contributions, friendly societies of every kind No poor are in vigorous existence. No poor law is yet required for Victoria; and, with the rate of recent increase in sober habits, there will soon be fewer applicants for benevolent asylums, and fewer admissions into hospitals, lunatic asylums, and gaols. PASTORAL. Pastoral... Victoria was formerly, above all the other colonies of the Empire, the Squatting one.. It was the only colony, perhaps, ever established for squatting pastoral purposes only. It began not in town life, as all colony. others had done, and not even in farm life, but in sheep and cattle feeding. It rose to be the first of pastoral regions, and continued until after the gold discovery to be the land of squatterdom. The grass is so succulent and abundant, and the climate so adapted to animals, that no equal area of wild country in the world, perhaps, can feed the same amount of stock. Squatters Although the country is no longer, politically, the pros sovereignty of the squatter, and although by recent land- perous. * laws he does not enjoy his former privileges, still his position is an enviable one. If he pays more rent, and has less security of tenure, he gets better prices, and has higher civilised advantages than formerly. Large But Victorian squatting is no occupation for the man capital of small capital. Many of the present Lords of the required. Waste began with a flock of 500. It would be im- practicable for one now to commence there in so humble The PASTORAL. 147 a manner. To obtain a decent station a large sum of VICTORIA. money is required. A moderate-sized station sold one year for 250,0001. The princely residences of the wealthier squatters on their magnificent estates bear witness to the fortunes once made, and still maintained, by the pastoral in. terest in Victoria. As, since the recent land-laws, leases became more difficult, the land was purchased by the lessees, and scores of thousands of acres may now be seen enclosed around the noble mansion of a sheepmaster. And yet few occupations have been subject to such Vicissi- rapid reverses of fortune. A large proportion of the tudes of squatters. original settlers were ruined, and their stations sold for 891 five per cent. upon the purchase-money. Droughts and floods have desolated flocks and herds. Fluctuations in wool prices have been disheartening to the growers. Life in the bush was not a rosy one of old. But that which the pastoral tenants of the Crown thought to be the most trying calamity—the gold dis- covery-in drawing off their labour, scattering their flocks and herds, and absorbing their lands, proved to be the great promoter of their prosperity. The system is now changed in the conduct of the pastoral as of the agricultural interest. More capital is required to attain to success. More thoughtful manage- ment is called for. Land by being fenced in promotes Advantage better health for the stock, increases the percentage of of fenced- births, and develops weight and character of wool. The wool shed is now quite different from the sort of aborigi. nal building which once served the purpose. . The high price paid for breeding animals was de- Improved manded by the new circumstances, and has proved a stock profitable investment. The machinery on stations was in 1878 valued at 77,4341. This included agricultu. Imple- ral implements, wool hydraulic presses, sheep-washing ment machines, steam engines, &c. Difficulties have been diminished by the march of civi. lisation. Station supplies are more easily obtained, and sales are more readily made, through improved means of communication. Animals are less troubled with dis- ease, and less plagued by wild dogs or dingoes. Sheep were first landed at Gellibrand's Point, now First flocks. Williamstown, and at Point Henry, near Geelong. The in land. 12 148 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. Port Phillip Association, under John Batman, landed 500 sheep from the · Norval,' on October 26, 1835. Mr. Batman sold a small flock in 1838 to Captain Lonsdale at five guineas a head. The first Overlander with stock from the Sydney side First over- was Mr. John Gardiner, in 1835. To stop the ravages lander. of the wild dog, the settlers in 1836 offered a reward of 51. for every arimal caught or killed. A colonial wit addressed the Melbourne paper of 1839 after the usual style of advertisement respecting stal- lions. He remarks of one, 'It can be traced to Alborak, the steed of the prophet Mahomet; which, being inter- preted, meaneth, a little faster than lightning.' Greater care is now perhaps taken in the selection and breeding of all kinds of stock in Victoria than in Llamas and alpacas the other colonies. Llamas and alpacas have been in. Acclimatic troduced into Australia. The Acclimatisation Society of sation Melbourne has been of great service to the pastoral Society. interest. The lambing for 1873 was 82 per cent. The saltbush of the dry Wimmera country fattens Saltbush fattening. stock. A particular sort of sheep adapted to the place is raised there, and its staple of wool is the best to be grown in Wimmera. The same system of adaptation of breed to place is now being pursued in other parts, with de- cided benefit. In the Alpine country coarse wool can Heariest be produced in heavy fleeces. The proportion of wool Heeces. to the animal is greater in Victoria than in the other Aus- tralian settlements, owing to superior pasture and climate. The increase of animals since the foundation of the Colony in 1835 is presented with the accompanying statistics :- Year Cattle Sheep Horses Pigs Stock statistics. 1836 1840 1845 1850 1855 1860 1865 1870 1871 1879 2,372 9,289 21,219 33,430 76,536 121,051 167,220 209,025 210,105 155 50,837 231,662 378,806 534,113 722,332 621,337 721,096 776,727 1,184,843 41,332 782,283 1,792,527 6,032,783 4,577,872 5,780,896 8,835,380 10,761,887 10,477,976 9,379,276 3,986 9,260 20,666 61,259 75,869 130,946 180,109 177,373 PASTORAL. 149 Yet, in 1872, there were in Great Britain 5,624,994 VICTORIA. cattle and 27,921,507 sheep. Stock in The wetter western country is troubled with the foot- Great rot; and certain parts of the flats of the Goulburn, &c., Britain. are unfavourable for the fluke. The Legislature does its Diseases of best to arrest the progress of the scab. sheep The progress of the wool and tallow export, with the Wool and changing prices, is read in the following report of the tallow same years. Victorian production :- rates. Year Wool Wool Tallow 1837 1840 1845 1850 1855 1860 1865 1870 1871 1878 tbs 175,081 941,815 6,841,813 18,091,207 22,584,234 24,273,910 44,270,666 52,123,451 68,764.809 73,839,839 11,639 67,902 396,537 826,190 1,405,659 2,025,066 3,315,109 8,205,106 4,287,011 4,330,628 28 953 12,267 132,863 29,117 18,269 15,566 358,863 271,630 103,879 Though the runs have diminished in number, they Runs. keep about the same relative area. In 1862 there were 1,249 runs on 37,023,093 acres. In 1878 there were 768 on 19,531,083 acres, yielding 122,1421. state revenue. These are distributed in 18 pastoral districts : Ararat, Pastoral Ballarat, Beechworth, Benalla, Castlemaine, Echuca, districts. Gipps Land North, Gipps Land South, Gisborne, Grant, Melbourne, Omeo, Portland, Settled Districts, Swan Hill, Warrnambool, Wimmera East, and Wimmera West. Before 1851 there were but 5 districts, Gipps Land, Murray, Portland Bay, Western Port, and Wimmera. The runs vary in size as they are removed from the Size of chief resorts of population. Thus, the 32 runs of Mel. bourne pastoral district average about 12,400 acres each ; the 28 of Warrnambool, 7,000; and the 12 of Ballarat, 3,000. But the 105 runs of Benalla, and the 43 of Gipps Land North average 30,000 acres; the 52 of Echuca, and the 142 of Wimmera West, 36,000 each; and the 74 of Swan Hill District have 76,000 acres each. But those are all upon Crown lands, and are leased. Purchased Besides, there are 469 stations on 1,690,317 acres of runs. land. 150 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA, Labour on stations. Horses boiled down. Meat-pre- serving. AGRICUL TURE. purchased land. The machinery and improvements in 1878 were valued at 1,850,7121. on stations only. The number of hands employed on the stations proper would appear very small, according to the enormous annual value of the export of their produce. In March 1878 there were so engaged, on the 801 stations, 4,222 males and 1,266 females, 5,488. in all. Horses are so very cheap in the Colony, that many are boiled down merely for tallow. In 1871 there were 185,000 sheep boiled down, and 78,000 were converted into preserved meat. The consumption in the Colony was estimated at 180,000 in the year. The meat-preserving establishments are now less able to purchase Victorian sheep and cattle at prices that will enable them to gain a profit. By the Leoni process whole carcases can be preserved. The ice process is continued. The export of preserved meats in 1871 came to 355,1611. The trade began in 1866. In December 1878 there were 19 establishments for boiling down. Agriculture. For a number of years two causes restricted the produce of the fields, the prevalence of squatting pur- suits, and the small supply of surveyed lands for sale. The splendid character of the pasturage of Port Phillip made it the favourite squatting region of Australia. The occupation of the country on leases from the Crown, for such purpose, necessarily hindered the purchase of land by would-be farmers. So long as the main interest of the Colony was served by the sheepmaster and herdsman, little or no outcry against this monopoly arose. The townsfolk, it is true, depended for their flour and vegetables on the exports of neighbouring settlements; but, as the means for this purchase came from the country wool trade, little com- plaint was heard. When, however, through the gold discovery, an al- tered social condition appeared, the evils of the old system were obvious, and their removal was loudly de- manded. A great influx of population brought more mouths to be fed by this imported food. It was declared to be absurd and monstrous that a country so admirably pro- Squatters versus farmers. AGRICULTURE. 151 vided with good soil, should be so dependent upon VICTORIA. neighbours for bread. Many persons, too, unwilling to work at the mines, or unable to find thereon remunera- tive employment, sought unavailingly for labour on the soil. While, it was said, 700 persons, as squatters, mono- Demand polised the lands of the Colony, there was no chance for for land. an immigrant farmer. An alteration of the law was necessary before broad acres could be offered for sale by the Government. So many difficulties were placed in the way by inter- ested parties, that it was only after long and energetic agitation that the Unlocking of the Lands occurred. Even then, at first, the contemplating purchaser of a small homestead found little but poor plots offered for com- petition. The remedy came. Land was cut up in more suitable Cheap food blocks, and in more suitable farming areas. Men eagerly by cheap bought up allotments for fields, and cheap food was the happy result. The disproportion between cultivation and population gradually ceased. Instead of there being, as in 1854, six persons for each acre under the plongh, there were about as many acres as people in 1867; and since that date the tide has turned, as the acres under crop are more than the inhabitants. In the first rush after farms, a large amount of culti- Good and vators were without previous experience, and farmed bad ignorantly and wastefully. A great interest having been farmers. created, education and training for it were then held as necessary, and found to be essential to success. Skill in farming has been wonderfully on the increase ever since. · For a long time capital seemed strange to the field. Farmers But when the agriculturist established himself in the helped by the Colony, the capitalist came to his aid. Loans, once capitalists. yielded reluctantly at an interest of twenty per cent., were afterwards freely offered to the farmer at a great reduction upon that rate. Improvements were conse- quently entered upon with more vigour and ability, and a higher style of cultivation became practicable. Upon this came the demand for better appliances. Progress of Machinery was required to compensate for the rate of agriculture. 152 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA, wages, and to hurry off the crop at harvest, not less than to put the soil into more productive condition. The manure question arose as farming grew to be more of a science. In addition to care of home-made manures, guano was largely imported from Peru, or obtained from bird deposits nearer Australia. Artificial Last of all came the manufacturer on the spot, to manures furnish the cultivator with artificial manures, and make and agri- cultural im- for him that character of agricultural implements which plements. the practicalexperience of the colonist found most suitable. Instead of dependence upon other places for bread and vegetables, Victoria is now enabled not only to supply its own requirements, but have a surplus on hand for store or sale. Effect of The social and moral advantages of this growth of the agricultu- ral exten- agricultural interest of the colony are not to be disre- sion. garded. Not only is the population provided with another and most pleasing source of employment, the community enriched by the diminution of wheat import, and the State relieved from anxiety, but the creation of so many settled homes throughout the interior has con- verted wastes into gardeps, has distributed the means of civilisation, has refined the bushman, has made schools and churches accessible to the many, and has developed all that enhances the good order, intelligence, virtue, and happiness of a people. A report upon the progress of agriculture, therefore, in this colony must be interesting to all. Old state of The sphere of farming operations has greatly extended. farming. The dreadful state of the roads was a decided impedi- ment to agriculture in olden times there, even had there been a demand for it, and a sufficient supply of land. In addition to a little cultivation near Melbourne, and on the Barrabool hills of Geelong, there was only one im. portant centre of farming. This was Bacchus Marsh, thirty miles from Melbourne. Two private land speculators, able, during a brief period of colonial history, to get what was called a Special survey of some thousands of acres, advanced cultivation by the subsequent re-sale of convenient blocks. One of these surveys was at Belfast, on the coast, and the other at Brighton, a few miles from Melbourne. Auother, who was equally successful, bought 20,000 AGRICULTURE. 153 acres for 20,0001. But he retained the whole for pastoral purposes, though most convenient to the capital. The annexed table gives the total acreages in crop, and the acreage of wheat, with the population of succes- sive years :- VICTORIA. Little land open for farms. Year Population and culti- vation of wheat, Population Acres in crop Acres in wheat 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 · 1866 - 1867 1868 1869 | 1870 · 1871 1872 1879 3,511 5,822 10,291 20,146 23,799 24,103 26,734 31,280 38,334 42,936 51,390 66,220 76,162 97,489 168,321 222,436 312,307 364,324 397,560 463,135 504,519 530,262 537,847 541,800 554,358 571,559 601,343 621,095 636,982 651,571 674,614 699,790 726,599 731,528 770,000 879,442 140 430 3,210 4,881 8,124 12,073 16,529 25,134 31,578 36,290 40,279 45,975 52,341 57,472 36,771 34,816 54,905 115,135 179,983 237,729 298,960 358,728 419,380 439,895 465,430 507,798 479,463 530,196 592,915 631,207 712,865 827,534 909,015 937,220 963,091 1,609,278 80 1,300 1,940 1,702 2,432 4,674 6,945 11,481 15,802 18,680 19,435 28,568 28,567 29,623 16,823 7,553 12,827 42,686 80,154 87,230 78,234 107,093 161,252 196,922 162,009 149,392 125,040 178,628 208,588 216,989 259,804 288,514 281,167 334,608 326,564 691,622 Even when the land was thrown out freely to the public, it was soon discovered that much of it, though available to the squatter, was comparatively useless to the farmer. It was not a question of roads and distances, but of soil. 154 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Georºs and VICTORIA. Everywhere the farmer, equally with the miner, is Geology dependent for his success on the geology of the country.. There are great areas, north and west of Melbourne, farming. on whose basaltic plains a thin deposit affords grass, but Farms on no depth for the plough. Where the plains of basalt or limestone have been invaded by the sands, the soil is of little use to any. Land north The Dividing range from east to west divides of the main Victoria into two climates, for the north side gets far less range. rain than the southern. It was said of old that that northern half was quite unfit for the farmer. Of late years, however, extensive areas have been cut up into farms. In spite of deficient water, and generally light soil, large crops have been gathered in. But this is the eastern portion of the country beyond the Dividing range. The western side, especially towards the Murray and the South Australian border, has even less rain and poorer soil. In many places, instead of luxuriant forests or grassy plains, there are hungry- looking Stringy bark trees, or a heartless scrub, on a sandy soil. Hilly land Among the ranges everywhere, especially where the decomposition of basalts, volcanic ashes, and lavas, has : furnished the localities with rich chocolate earth, farms are rising. But in the more inaccessible and lofty Alps, and the isolated Grampians, cultivation could not be expected. Wherever there are foci of population, whether urban or mining, there cultivation will be found, whatever be the soil. Good prices compensate for soil, while the centres of population furnish manure. Roads and Those districts which are favoured by the farmer, be- railways. cause of the attractions of ground and climate, are now being brought more easily, year by year, into communi. cation with the large bodies of settlers. Improved roads and ever-developing railways reduce their distance from a market. A fair impression of the character of Victorian farm- ing may be obtained by an inspection of the following table of percentages of cultivation. For climatic reasons, or for those required by the colonial circumstances, certain crops have a preference, and there is a great variation, occasionally, apparent in the returns. farms. AGRICULTURE. 155 The percentage of barley acres is very low, necesa VICTORIA sarily, compared with oats. Explanation of the great in fall in the wheat of 1865, below that of 1863, is found in wheata the ravages of rust, which indisposed farmers to cultia vate so largely as before. The average yield for 1864 was only 9 bushels per acre. Proportion of crops thus:- Year Wheat Oats Barley Potatoes Hay Greenforage Statistics of crops. 1.5 1.5 1.6 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1879 34:8 29.4 26:1 33.7 35.2 34.4 36.4 34.9 31.26 42:9 23:2 30.0 30:1 19.4 21.3 19.9 16-1 17.5 16.6 8.3 5.3 5.4 6.5 6.0 5.5 5.7 21.9 19. 17.8 185 15 6 17.2 15.8 17.0 18.0 10:7 6.2 70 8.3 10.5 10.8 11:0 12:3 12.4 16:9 24.9 2.5 27 5.1 5.0 4.3 2.2 1.4 These are the productions of a temperate climate, and Little root mark Victoria as an agricultural country with many of growing. the peculiarities of England. Provision is not made, as in the latter country, for the extensive growth of roots, since animals are not stall-fed there, and sheep subsist wholly on natural grasses. Bearing out remarks upon the improvement of Vic. Large toria agriculture, statistics affirm the marked increase of farms increasing. larger farms. In the period referred to above, farms of 500 acres and upward increased from 66,664 to 376,419 acres. Those of from 350 to 500 were three times the number in 1872 than they were in 1862. The yield per acre for that decade was from 9 to 224 Yield per bushels for wheat; 15 to 30, oats; 15 to 30, barley; 2 acre. tons to 31, potatoes; and 1 ton to lf for hay. 1867 was a remarkably good year for produce, returning 227 bushels for wheat; 30, oats; and 30, barley. While the holders in that decade have increased from Cultivation 16,416 to 33,720, and the cultivated acres from 465,430 increasing to 937,220, or more than double, the population has ad- ; population. vanced but one-fourth that rate. This shows that the colony is becoming increasingly an agricultural one. The policy of Victoria of late years seems to have been to have the land self-contained. While, therefore, there more than 156 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. land, VICTORIA. has been a great impetus to manufactures, so employing a larger number in the towns, the growth of the agri. cultural or country interest has kept pace to supply food for those engaged in industries. A liberal land policy, and the settled habits of the population, aided in the development of internal resources, Fallow Some would consider it a mark of improvement that the percentage of fallow land has increased in the decade. Variety of The production has not progressed equally in those cropping. ten years. Tobacco is less, and hay is only a little more; but potatoes are half as many more; oats rather more than potatoes; vines and orchards have doubled ; and green forage has advanced fivefold. While the acreage of vineyards has doubled, the yield is sevenfold. Prices. The rates for produce, March 1879, averaged 5s. 1d. for wheat; 48. 6d. for cats; 4s. 4d. for barley ; 86s. for hay; 115s. for potatoes ; and 37s. for mangold. Occupied Land is too valuable in Victoria to remain long waste. and In March 1878, out of 14,806,926 occupied acres, there enclosed were 13,888,383 enclosed. A great many acres are acres. commonage lands around farms. Holdings. The holdings in 1879 were 47,050, averaging 338 acres each, or 34 in crop. In 1856 the holdings were value. 4,326. In 1877 enough wheat was grown for consump- tion, on 44 times the average of 1855. The 1877 pro. duce was worth 5,792,8981. Averages The crop of March 1878 showed an average of 12:41 of 1878-9. bushels of wheat; 19-39 of oats; 20 of barley; 3.16 tons of potatoes ; and 1.17 tons of hay. But 1879 gave a yield of only 410,333 gallons of wine. Crops of March 1880 will show an excellent return. Acres The wheat crop for 1877-8 was 7,018,257 bushels, a gain of 3,606,594 over 1867–8. The season, 1877–8, suffered from drought. The wheat in 1879 averaged only 8.76 bushels; oats, 17.6; and potatoes, 2:7 tons. In 1879 there were 691,622 acres in wheat ; 134,428 in oats ; 22,871 in barley ; 1,939 in maize; 1,779 rye; 402 beet; 15,153 pease ; 36,527 potatoes ; 310 turnips; 883 mangold; 172,799 hay; 20,400 gardens ; 1,936 tobacco; 4,434 vines ; 96,669 fallow; 401,427 green forage. The area in tillage was 1,420,502. The yield in different countries varied. The Moira land had but 3.89 of wheat, when Tambo averaged 19.12. Produce tilled.. M AGRICULTURE. 157 Gunbower oats stood at 11:47, and Tambo grew 29:44. VICTORIK. Tatchera also had but 5.82 of barley, and Wonnangatta Yield had 50. In potatoes, Rodney had only 0:47 ton to varies in Dargo's 4-23. Croajingolong failed in wheat and barley, the counties. not roots. County Villiers, to the westward and sea- ward, reckoned 22:27 of wheat; 25.06 of oats; 39:52 of barley; 3.57 of potatoes; and 1.76 of bay. In the last season, Dargo had nearly 6 times the potatoes of Lowan, and Follett had 4 times the yield per acre of wheat in Tatchera. The question of rain has more than soil to do with Rain and tatoes. this variation, as over the Dividing range showers are po less expected. The potatoe lands lie principally west- ward and seaward. In the neighbourhood of Belfast and Warrnambool, where the soil is good and deep, and the rains are plentiful and reliable, the yield is large. The crop one year sold there at 15s. per ton only. Most wheat is grown in Hampden, Villiers, Ripon, Best lo. Grant, and Bourke counties; most hay, of course, near calities for the centres of population. Vines, requiring dryness and produceso warmth, succeed better over the Dividing range,-Bo- gong, Bendigo, and Talbot equalling the acreage of the old-established vineyards of Bourke, Grant, and Evelyn. Artificial grasses are not to be looked for much beyond the seaboard counties. The returns for 1878 establish the fact of Victoria Victoria occupying a high place among the Australian Colonies and New Zealand- for agricultural produce; though New Zealand, from its f more dripping climate, and its consequent ability to raise future. artificial grasses with ease, as well as average heavier crops of wheat and potatoes, may have better prospects. An average of eleven years gave 14:39 bashels for Farm wheat; 19:39 for oats ; 20:12 for barley ; 3.16 tons for statistics. potatoes; and 1.28 for hay. There were, in 1878, 218,848 lbs. of hops, 15,829 cwt. of tobacco, 14,000 mulberry trees, 1,333 tons of chicory, and 457,535 gallons of wine made. On farms, 68,178 males and 29,198 females were employed. Excepting in a few localities, the vines are not so pay- Vines and ing a crop as in New Sonth Wales and South Australia. wines. The quality is not equal to the quantity, though at ls. a quart, or 2d. a tumbler, retail, à cheap drink is pro- vided. The vines of Rutherglen produced 64,700 gallons farmin 158 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. ments. ments. VICTORIA. in 1878. The Germans are the best vignerons in the Colonies. They planted the grape on the Murray Hills in 1850. The vine thrives on the slopes of volcanic tufa, and the sides of craters. In 1878 there were seren million vines. Hops grow well in Gipps Land. Sericulture Sericulture promises well. The climate is well suited progress. to the mulberry, and the worms are healthier than those in Europe. The Japanese grain is extensively raised. The lectures of Mrs. Bladen Neill have popularised silk. growing in the colony. A plantation of 30,000 mul- berry trees is in Melbourne Botanic Gardens. A ladies' association had 1,000 acres for planting out over Castle- maine. The colonial eggs, or grain, have sold at high prices in Italy. Farm The amount of machinery on Victorian farms attests improve- the progress of agriculture. The return for 1878 gives the value of it at 1,954,0801. The worth of improve- ments was stated at 15,036,1391. Shire Hampden ranks first in this outlay, and St. Arnaud and Mortlake follow. Imple On the farms were 302 steam engines, 39,878 carts, 34,808 ploughs, 8,333 waggons, 39,878 chaffcutters, 830 thrashing machines, 3,803 scarifiers, 8,213 reaping ma- chines, 1,093 mowing machines, 1,932 winnowers, 986 strippers, 391 wine presses, &c. Stock Stock-keeping on farms in Victoria distinguishes the keeping on agricultural pursuit there from that in the neighbouring farms. colonies, and from Victoria itself in the olden times. In the infancy of agriculture a few struggling men scratched the ground for a wheat or hay crop. Then better tillage had a more extended range of cropping. More capital and more education, not less than ex- perience, led to the adoption not only of machinery, but of the raising of stock. Dairy Dairy farms, of course, grew with the expansion of towns. But the higher class of farmers trod upon the heels of the squatters. Breeding Though they could not expect, on their limited acreage on farms and on expensive purchased land, to compete in meat profitable. and wool with the lords of vast acres or the holders of Crown leases, yet they found the advantage of attention to breeding for the pastoral runs themselves. Many Victorian farmers realise large sums for finer varieties of sheep, horses, and cattle, raised by the extra care and intelligence devoted to the subject. LILLEUTLU JITEILIJ! farms. - AGRICULTURE. 159 nder • In 1878 the agricultural returns exhibited the extra. VICTORIA, ordinary fact that the old-fashioned station system was gradually yielding before the development of modern ideas. Thus it appeared that the amount of stock not Stock not upon Crown land stations in Victoria came to 185,671 on Crown lands horses, 256,780 milch cows, 742,489 other cattle, 179,209 pigs, and 5,611,964 sheep. Queensland and South Australia with their large Pastoral territories will continue to be station colonies ; but and a Victoria and New South Wales are rapidly progressing joined." cultural from the stage of the merely pastoral to that of the mingling of the pastoral with the agricultural. The Australian farmer's great trial is in the recur. Drought rence of long periods of excessive drought. Though essiva dronoht Thonoch and irriga- 'ga tion. provided with a better rainfall than most other parts of the continent, Victoria is sometimes exposed to the plague of dryness. Count Strzelecki, the Polish travel. ler, said that 'irrigation then becomes the first measure with which the agricultural improvements of Australia must begin.' This is so appreciated by the Melbourne Government Water reservoirs. that great efforts are being made to store up large sup- reser plies of water, which, though previously intended for gold washing, shall be also available for the use of the farmer. The Chinese, those industrious and thoughtful workers, Chinese have done much for the progress of agriculture in this farming respect. In Victoria they have hired barren wastes and in irrigation. sterile sands, and, by means of a system of irrigation, have raised far better crops than the English farmers near them on the best of soil. Such an example has been wisely followed by the Europeans. Victoria has an advantage over its neighbours in a Character lesser proportion of sandy soil, and in the excess of that of soil. with a good absorbing power. Australian soils generally contain less vegetable fibre than those in Europe, and suffer in their incapacity to absorb as much moisture from the air, or to retain the moisture of the ground. Among the favoured districts of Victorian farming Best may be mentioned the Barrabool Hills of Geelong, the farming " localities. Yarra, Melton, Bacchus Marsh, Kilmore, Colac, Gisborne, Kyneton, Seymour, Belfast, Warrnambool, Carisbrook, Hamilton, the basaltic country round Ballarat, and near the volcanic craters of the West, besides near the Murrav. and 160 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. Advantages of Gipps Land. . Gipps Land, though so near Melbourne, is cnt off by ranges and swamps, or its rich soil would have been the home of the farmer rather than of the squatter. Now opened up by a railway, a new and healthy agricultural centre will be thrown open to the public. In spite of hot winds, which never hinder the farmer's daily toil, Victoria is, perhaps, in its soil and climate, one of the most profitable and enjoyable of places for the operations of agriculture. MINING. Mining. Mineral Until 1851 the colonists of Victoria had no idea of wealth un• their country becoming one renowned for its mineral expected. wealth. South Australia for nearly ten years had en. joyed a reputation for its copper, as New South Wales had for its coal during a much longer period. But Vic- toria bad given no signs of copper, and but a delusive expectation of coal. As to gold, although particles had been seen in several places, all the colonies of Australia and New Zealand were alike without a dream of rivalling California. State before Up to 1851 Victoria could only be said to have one the gold. interest—the pastoral. The country was steadily, though very slowly, advancing. There were few fortunes made, unless by the great squatters; but there was a quiet enjoyment of worldly comforts, and the indulgence of but moderate ambition. The place was respectable and well to do, though far less known and talked about in the world than either South Australia or Tasmania. New Zealand had even then attracted a greater public attention. But, at the close of 1851, Victoria, then only one year old, took the foremost rank of all the colonies for mineral wealth and prospects. N.S.W., Notwithstanding many efforts since to develop other more mine- treasures of the earth-silver, copper, tin, and coal- rals, but less gold. gold continues to be the one main mineral product there. The colony is inferior to New South Wales in the variety of its mineral resources, although the export of gold in Victoria is more important. History of The history of the gold discovery may be glanced at. the gold As Count Strzelecki explored the Alps in 1840, he discovery. MINING. 161 found gold in Gipps Land, but kept the secret, as the VICTORIA. Rev. W. B. Clarke and others had done in New South Wales. The metal was seen by the river Plenty in 1841; 1840 " Known in and considerable quantities were brought down a few years after by a shepherd from the Pyrenees. It was found at Clunes-since so celebrated with the Port Phillip Gold Company-by Mr. Campbell, a squatter, in May 1850; but he, also, kept the secret. When Mr. Hargraves published the discovery in New First gold- South Wales, May 1851, a search was made in Victoria. fields, 1851. Mr. Michael wrote of his getting gold at Anderson's Creek July 5; Mr. Esmonds took gold from Clunes in July; and Mr. Hiscocks published his Ballarat discovery on August 16, though the rush to Ballarat did not take place till December. Mount Alexander diggings at. tracted miners in September. The Bendigo diggings were in full work at the beginning of 1852. The Ovens field followed soon after. At first the gold was got from the roots of trees, and Find first the sods of grass, as well as the sands of rivers. Search on the surface. was then made in flats near streams, and the metal was recovered from gravel, sand, or pipe-clay resting on the bed slate rock. Deeper holes were sunk in higher ground, and at greater distances from present streams. Then it was ascertained that the largest deposits lay Deep leads. in leads, or courses of ancient rivers, subsequently filled up with alluvial matter. If a hole did not drop upon the lead, the miners drove for it beneath within the area of their claim. In some places, as at Daylesford, subsequent erosion Tunnelling. had carried off masses of the auriferous ground, and left rises here and there, which were tunnelled from either side for their hidden treasure. The next great discovery was that the leads might be Ballarat, found beneath the great beds of lava or basalt, so com- deep leads. mon around Ballarat. These were pierced to great depths, through even four layers of distinct rock, and drives were made at great cost and trouble to reach the gutter. When the wash dirt of the gutter was found to be from six to twelve feet in thickness, a rich result rewarded labour. Deep leads are prominently the feature of Victorian mining, few of any consequence being beyond the 162 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. border. But they are not now confined to Ballarat dis. trict. The working of a mine has involved a company in the expenditure of many thousands of pounds, and several years' labour, before a return was obtained. Woods The White Hills of Sandhurst are a curious gold forma- Point tion, consisting of huge quartz boulders and great veins in diorite. deposits of white pipe clay; the latter has been thought to be decomposed in situ. Cement, especially at Pleasant Creek, becomes a profitable working for gold. The Woods Point mines of the Alps were more singu. lar. They rose in horizontal veins through a decomposed diorite or greenstone, which igneous rock intruded into the Upper Silurian. Successful search has also been made in ancient ledges of valleys, and gold obtained from places l'emoved from old channels, though, probably, filled by inundations. Quartz Quartz mining, not attempted in the early days, is now mining. the great industry of Victoria : especially at Sandhurst, 'Ballarat and Ararat. At first a few specimens were knocked off projecting reefs in sight. Then the rude hammering was followed by blasting the rock, roasting the stone, crushing by hand, and disengaging the amalgam in a frying-pan. Elaborate machinery, steam stampers, amalgamating pans, and other scientific appliances followed. Improved Then deep beds of alluvial were penetrated to come methods. upon a vein whose dip had been observed in a certain direction from a neighbouring rock. The original quartz miners retreated when the vein in the mine grew too small for profitable working. Their successors drove down deeper, recovered the vein, and often found it richer at depths where scientific authorities had affirmed the golden crystals could not exist. California The experience of Californian diggers has been of a school great service to the Victorians. The success of the tralia, former encouraged the latter to continue driving deeper in their quartz claims. Several of these in Victoria are now more than two thousand feet below the surface, and yield as handsomely as ever. Gold alloys. Much difficulty was experienced with the Mundic in workings. These blocks of iron pyrites were known to be rich in gold, but have only recently yielded to treat- ment at a profit. Arsenical pyrites at Hustler's Reef, Sandhurst, has produced at the rate of 170 ounces in for Aus- MINING. 163 the crushing of 70 tons. Maldon pyrites turned out 46 VICTORIA.? ounces a ton. Ustulation, or slow burning, separates the alloy. Combinations of the gold with bismuth, manganese, etc., have been successfully treated. In the Ovens it is seen with copper, silver, etc.; and the metal was but 16 carats, when specimens from Ballarat were at 231 carats. The new Stetefeldt process of Nevada, Western Stetefeldt America, will revolutionise some Victorian mines. Gold process. has been seen inside quartz crystals. Quartz veins are sometimes of great width, even to Barren and 150 feet. They are either barren or fertile. South fertile Australia has much quartz of a barren nature, while quartz. Victoria has been favoured with that fertile in gold. A reef, twenty-two feet wide, at Laureston, has yielded 1 ounce 10 dwt. to the ton. Gold is chiefly got from the quartz veins coursing in Source of nearly a north and south direction through Silurian gold. rocks, especially when in contiguity with those of igneous character. The dip of the vein is often almost vertical. But the mineral is got also from granite, as well as slates and sandstones. It has been seen in a diamond. Mr. Selwyn, the Victorian Government geologist, Age of warned the miner against wasting his time in searching gold. for gold in the miocene deposits, but directed him to look only in the pliocene. He was of opinion that the quartz veins had been but recently charged with gold. Mr. Brough Smyth, of the Melbourne Board of Mines, finds gold in the Silurian, mesozoic, miocene, and pliocene formations. The Rev. T. Julian Woods, of South Aus- tralia, traces its origin to dioritic rocks. Nuggeting is a pleasant and profitable occupation ; Nugget- especially when, as it has frequently happened, the making. lumps are found a few feet only from the surface in the earth. Colonial geologists have determined that these agreeable finds grow in the soil. . Experiments have shown the high probability that nuggets grow by deposition from meteoric waters in drifts, according to the electro-plating process. Mr. Selwyn refers to these drifts being thermal and highly saline at the time of volcanic eruptions, and so favour- able to the fall of gold, when in a chlorite solution, upon any organic substance that may be in the way. M 2 164 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. Mr. Daintree saw gold in pyrites displacing the organic material of a tree in drift beds. Mr. Newberry got some on other pyrites. Mr. Sonstadt found gold in sea water in 1872, confirming Mr. Selwyn's theory. Mr. Skey one year showed that sulphuretted hydrogen attacks gold at ordinary temperature, forming a sulphide, which is soluble in alkaline sulphides. As nuggets are so uncommon in Gipps Land and the Ovens, where igneous action is so slight, and so numerous where the basalts have played an important part, the theory has been generally admitted. Large Some wonderful nuggets have been found in Victoria. nuggets. There was one in 1853, obtained from Canadian Gully, Ballarat, weighing 134lbs. The Ballarat Lady Hotham nugget, of 1854, weighed 98lbs. The Blanche Barkly, 145lbs., came from Kingower in 1857. The following year Ballarat gave forth the Welcome; it lay at the side of a neglected hole, 180 feet deep, and weighed 2,195 ounces, or 183lbs. The Welcome Stranger, from Moliagul, was 2,280 ounces, and was dug up two inches from the surface; its worth was 9,5341. Several large nuggets came lately from the Berlin Gold Fields. The Viscount Canterbury, 1,105 ounces, was of the singular purity of 234 carats ; its depth was 15 feet. The Precious, of 1871, weighed 1,621 ounces, and was got from a hole of 12 feet. The Kum Tow of the Chinese came from a 12-feet claim, Gold ex- The total export of Victorian gold, at four pounds an port, ounce, has been estimated at 192,000,0001. ; though a 192,000,0001. considerable amount found its way to Adelaide, Sydney, and other ports by private hands. The yield has fallen off of late years, as will be seen by the following table of ounces reported in the year:- Quantity 1851 . 245,146 1 1862 . 1,658,207 decreased. • 2,218,782 1866 . 1,433,687 1853 . 2,676,345 1870 . 1,222,798 1854 . 2,150,730 1871 1,345,477 1855 . 2,751,535 1872 . 1,331,377 1856 • 2,985,991 1873 . 1,249,407 1860 • 2,156,660 | 1878 • 768,869 Gold licenses. The first gold licenses were issued Sept. 1, 1851. Each miner had to pay thirty shillings a month. It was the rough hunt for defaulters by the police, and the manner 1852 MINING. : 165 Victoria. in which they were punished, that provoked the ill-feel. VICTORIA. ing at the diggings, which culminated in the so-called Roller Ballarat Ballarat Rebellion of December, 1854. Rebellion. After lives had been lost, and a wild commotion pro- duced, the monthly payment was relinquished, and a gold duty of half-crown an ounce was imposed in 1855 ; Gold duty. 2s. in 1862; 1s. 6d. in 1863; ls. in 1866; 6d. in 1867. This duty was taken off the digger at the close of 1867. Victoria is now divided into seven mining districts : Mining dis- viz., Ballarat, Beechworth, Sandhurst, Maryborough, tricts. Castlemaine, Ararat, and Gipps Land. Wardens, mining Gold over surveyors, and registrars are placed over subdivisions of one-third of these. One-third of the colony is auriferous. A mining board of ten persons, elected by the holders Mining of miners' rights, takes oversight of a mining district, boards. making bye-laws and administrating mining regulations, though acting in subordination to the Government. The wardens preside at the several Courts of Mines, Less liti- instituted for the trial of vexed questions as to claims gation. and shares. Litigation has decreased at the diggings. In 1862 there were 422 suits before the Courts of Mines, but in 1871 only 137. . The gold was at first exported as it was found. But Mint. much is now taken to the Melbourne Mint, which re. ceived gold to the value of 2,267,4311. in 1878, issuing that year 2,171,000 sovereigns. Each person engaged in gold digging is required to Miners' hold a miner's right, or license, costing five shillings a " year. This entitles him to land for home and garden. The number of European miners at work in 1878 was Number of 28,129; of these, 13,570 were at alluvial workings, and diggers. 14,559 on quartz reefs. There were, also, 19,621 Chinese diggers, though only 131 were quartz miners. On Chinese Dec. 31, 1879, of 37,553 miners, 9,110 were Chinese. At diggers. the end of 1873, 50,595 were at work; in 1854, 80,455. Quartz mining is more profitable than allavial, though Quartz requiring more capital. The rate for the former aver- mining more profit- aged, for 1871, 1641. 10s. 4d. per man. More than half able the alluvial diggers are Chinese. The yield from the quartz, in 1878, was 500,637 oz.; and from the alluvial workings, 268,232 oz. ; a total of 768,869 oz. Ballarat was the leading district for the allavial, and Ballarat al- luvial and Sandhurst for the quartz. Ballarat is now rich in quartz. Sandhurst quartz. 166 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. F VICTORIA. Yield from stone and tailings. Mining companies. Extent of claims. The quartz reefs in 1878 were 3,393, and the area of working 1,185 square miles. The yield on the crushing of 908,526 tons, in 1870, averaged 9 dwts. 21 grs. ; while that on 965,573 tons, in 1877, came to 9 dwts. 9 grs. per ton. The yield from quartz tailings, or refuse, was 3 dwts. 17 grs.; and from pyrites and blanketings, 2 oz. 14 dwts. 5 grs. In February, 1874, in Sandhurst, 4,885 oz. came from 511 tons of stone in a mine. The companies on the gold fields were 1,2501., with a capital of 17,000,0001. In 1879, the machinery, &c. on the various mines was valued at 1,903,4941. The value of claims and land under lease is 4,626,3681. In 1873, the dividends from quartz companies were 841,8591., and from alluvial, 118,9651. The returns are about 358. a man weekly. One Company (Gordon Gully) shared 148,4371. dividends in six months, after paying 17 per cent. tribute to the proprietors. The revenue from the gold-fields to the Government was but 35,6061. for 1871. This did not include fees and fines. The sum of 2,5361. was received for leases, at 41. per 20 acres. The claims occupied 81,584 acres, and there were, moreover, leased 25,583 acres. Thus not one-half per cent. of the recognised auriferous area of the colony was then occupied by miners. The great increase of machinery is manifest in ex- pensive quartz crushers. Alluvial fields require less costly machinery. Even as far back as 1856 there were 3,540 puddling machines and 370 whims. In 1879, the total machinery rose to 25,717, of which 17,541 belonged to alluvial, and 8,176 to quartz. At the close of 1878 there were 240 steam engines employed on alluvial mining ground, of which 106 were at Ballarat. There were 796 on quartz reefs, of which 240 were in the Sandhurst district, 130 Castlemaine, and 174 Ballarat. There were 831 horse puddling machines, 171 steam puddling machines, and 14,606 sluices, Toms, and sluice boxes. The mining plant was valued at 1,903,4941., and the land was estimated at 5,207,8951. In 1867, the plant was worth 2,079,1951. The 1878 yield per ton from quartz crushing was 6 dwts. 17 grs. in the Ballarat district; 10 dwts. 22 grs. in the Beechworth ; 6 dwts. 2 grs. Castlemaine ; 17 dwts. 10 grs. Maryborough; 9 dwts. 20 grs. Sandhurst; 14 Machinery used. Value of land and plant. Yield per ton. MINING. 167 dwts. 8 grs. Ararat; and 25 dwts. in Gipps Land. VICTORIA. Washdirt in 1872 averaged 1 dwt. 18 grs., and cement 4 dwts. 15 grs. The proved reefs in 1878 were 3,402, and there were 1,290 square miles worked upon. The depth of Magdala mine is over 2,300 ft. On December 31, 1878, there were the following Men em- persons employed on the alluvial and quartz mines : ployed in quartz and alluvial Alluvial Quartz Total ground. 4,384 Ballarat Beechworth Sandhurst Maryborough Castlemaine Ararat. Gipps Land 3,572 2,022 5,473 3,536 1,986 1,531 3,862 1,317 4,331 1,902 1,365 907 448 8,246 4,889 6,353 7,375 4,901 2,893 1,979 22,504 14,132 36,636 mine. Other metals besides gold are of little consequence, Not rich in other and can scarcely be called of present commercial value. metals. Victoria has no rich copper mines like South Australia and Queensland, lead like Western Australia, or coal like New South Wales. Silver at one time seemed very promising at St. Silver Arnaud, near the western edge of the Dividing range. m After 11,348 tons of ore were raised, valued at 5,0471., a pause followed. The richest lodes were beneath the water level, and were impracticable to the operators. The easily reduced chlorides were above, but the sul- phides were beneath. The Stetefeldt system of roasting will make St. Arnaud New way more valuable. The oxidisation of the compound conthe more of making verts the sulphides into the chlorides. Mr. Stetefeldt valuable. of Nevada employed hot air to facilitate the action of salt upon the ore. This saves money in working, and makes otherwise valueless ores to be of commercial worth. Argentiferous galena is found on the Snowy river, and Silver, localities. at Berlin diggings. Argentiferous sulphide of lead oc- curs at Buchan, Gipps Land. A claim in Ararat is very rich in its silver compound with the gold. At St. Arnaud the chloro-bromide of silver veins have casings of black carbonaceous matter, slightly ferruginous. But 168 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. only 167 acres of Crown land are leased for silver work. - ings, 1,991 copper, 433 antimony, 320 iron. Lead Lead is seen in various places. To 1879 there were mines. raised six hundred tons of ore, valued at 4,8921. The Murindal mine of Gipps Land is being worked. Antimony Antimony is more promising. The chief mines are promising at Heathcote, Woods Point, and Castlemaine. In 1871 only 8691. worth were exported; but the total value of that raised altogether has reached to 137,4011. Heath- cote exported 4,268 tons of ore in the first half year of 1873; 2,627 tons were raised in 1878. Copper not No copper was raised in 1873, though during 1878 hopeful. there were 1,426 tons of ore. Much expectation was excited about a mine on the Thompson river of Gipps Land. Castlemaine, St. Arnaud, Crooked river, and Mal. worked. Australia, is very barely furnished with those crystalline limestones which are so productive of copper. Bismuth, Bismuth is collected at Tarrengower, Clunes, and cobalt, &c. Omeo. Manganese is brought from Clunes and the Loddon. Cobalt, in paying quantities, is expected from Gipps Land and the Goulburn. Plumbago is known at Creswick, and zinc at St. Arnaud. No iron ore Iron has never been wrought, as in New South Wales, though pretty rich ore exists; as hematite, near Mel- bourne ; arseniate, at Maldon; micaceous specular, at Iron ores. Lake Tyers; phosphate, at Sarsfield of Gipps Land; titaniferous, at Beechworth, Dandenong, and along the Yarra; and magnetic, at the Sandhurst diggings. From sixty to seventy per cent. has been estimated to be pure iron in some of these samples. Meteoric The meteoric iron block that fell near Cranbourne iron. weigbed 30 cwt. Tin stream- Tin bas really become an important object of search. ing. Altogether, the export has been 340,6921. Up to 1865, 2,380 tons were raised. The Yarra, the Coliban, the Latrobe, but particularly the streams feeding the Upper Murray, have yielded it in their sands, though not at all to the extent of the country between New South Wales and Queensland. The black oxide is the form assumed in the ore. At Beechworth fifty-four per cent. pure metal has been smelted. Tin is also found at Walhalla, Dayles- fora, Colac, Cape Otway, Chiltern, and the Tarwin. MINING. 169 oal area Coal has often raised the hopes of the Victorians. VICTORIA. The known carboniferous area is 4,000 square miles. T Hardly any seam of fair quantity bas been got at. A 4,000 sq. new company, organised to work Western Port coal, is miles. very hopeful of success. But Mr. Mackenzie, Coal New coal- Examiner from New South Wales, gave little hope of mining company. pecuniary profit, though he suggested a search inland. But since that the Kilcunda is said to have coal in payable quantities, and has sent hundreds of tons to Melbourne. A seam of 30 inches is at Stawell. There were, in 1878, seven leases of ground for work. Coal leases. ing over 4,368 acres, and several licenses for searching over other acres. Lal-lal lignite is sold at Ballarat. Precious stones have been for many years found in Precious the granite conntry around Beechworth, Lilydale, and stones. Daylesford. Chalcedony, cornelians, zircons, amethysts, agates, opals, and sapphires have been among them. The real ruby, the blue sapphire, the oriental topaz, the Diamonds oriental amethyst, and the diamond are more valuable found. finds in the colony. A fine blue sapphire was got from the gizzard of a wild duck shot near Melbourne. But all are not so sanguine as the Rev. Dr. Bleasdale, who recently declared, “No one country on the broad earth bas yielded such an assemblage of varieties of rare and precious gems as Victoria.' This declaration, from so important a local authority, has quickened the sight of miners at the Ovens, especially those engaged at stream tin. But few hare been seen. In 1878 there were 33 leases for other minerals than Tin and gold, including 9,041 acres. Of these, five for tin were coal leases. over 1,029 acres ; 22 antimony; 1 galena; 41 copper; 1 lignite; 1 iron; 1 flagging. The MINING LAWS of Victoria have had several im- Mining portant changes. laws. Miners' rights' can be consolidated when a company Miners' agrees to work a claim registered, on payment of a cer- rights. tain sum, multiplied by the number of miners' rights which this is to represent. The consolidated miners' rights for 1871 were 128, representing 1,789 single rights of 58. each per annum. The right was 11. in 1855. Business Licenses are requisite to carry on business at Business the gold-fields, providing that the Crown land so occa- licenses 170 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, and fees. VICTORIA. pied does not exceed a quarter of an acre. The annual payment is 51. In 1853 it was 501. ; in 1855, 101. Gold leases. Up to the end of 1878, the Government granted 10,648 leases for 193,902 acres of auriferous land. These are from 1 acre to 30 acres in extent. For a Reef leases. quartz reef the land must be at least 100 yards along the vein, though not more than 600, with a width of not less than 50, nor more than 200 yards. Rental, The applicant for a lease deposits 51., if from 10 to 30 acres, and 21., if below 10 acres, besides paying survey fees. Then the annual rent of the land is but 11. Leases for Leases may be had for lands containing other minerals working than gold, for terms up to 30 years. Coal leases are for coal, iron, &c. areas between 50 and 640 acres; for iron, between 2 and . 100 acres; for other minerals (except gold), from a quarter of an acre to 50 acres. The rental varies from 3d. to 2s. an acre per annum. A royalty upon these minerals is also demanded. Licenses Annual Mineral Licenses are granted, enabling the pro- prietor to search for other minerals than gold. The coal area must not exceed 640 acres; iron, 100; other minerals, 50. License fees are from ll. to 101. for the year. Water- There are Water-right Licenses for cutting of races, at right licenses. the rate of not more than 4 acres for every mile of race. The term for races, reservoirs, and dams cannot exceed 15 years. Trade and Manufactures. Victoria has within the last few years taken a first- class position both for commerce and local manufactories. Everything In the old pastoral times wool formed almost the only export; and the imports comprehended nearly every- once im- ported. thing but meat, as sufficient flour was not raised for con. sumption, and manufactures were scarcely known. The gold discovery developed trade. The growth of popula- tion opened the workshops. Commerce Melbourne did not engage much in commerce until after gold. after the gold times began. Of later date, a check was apparently given to the merchant by the imposition of those protective duties which necessarily limited relations with other countries. Shipping The shipping returns afford a knowledge of trade. returns. The outward, corresponding nearly with the inward, is given in the following table :- TRADE. but meat TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 171 VICTORIA, Years Ships Tonnage 140 232 508 1837 1840 1850 1854 1860 1865 1869 1878 2,607 1,841 1,823 2,334 13,424 36,334 87,087 798,837 599,137 599,351 730,961 951,750 2,219 The two vessels that may be called the forerunners of First colo- Victoria shipping were the Gem,' which carried Mr. nial craft. Batman from Launceston, in May 1835, and the 'Enter- prise,' despatched by Mr. Fawkner some time after. As will appear in the foregoing table, the vessels frequent- ing the harbour of Port Phillip were of very small ton. nage at first, being principally colonial schooners. Those of 1837 averaged 95 tons each, while the ships of 1872 Average showed a mean of 310 tons. tonnage. The early merchants managed to get good rates at the settlement of the Colony. For awhile, the freight from Ancient Launceston to the Yarra-Yarra, now a twenty-four hours' freights. run by steam, was 58. a head for sheep. One merchant, however, paid heavily for want of geographical know- ledge, as he sent a cargo to Western Port, in the place of Port Phillip. A thousand sheep were thus reduced to seventy-five before reaching their station. The earliest merchant was John Batman, who had originated the settlement of the colony. His rival, John Pascoe Fawkner, had the first lighters on the Yarra. The first bank was established by Captain Swanston, of First Hobart Town, in 1837, while a savings' bank began in banks. 1838. A wooden custom-house was erected at Wil. liamstown, then called Gellibrand's Point. The first ship for London was the Thomas Laurie,' Early with 400 bales of wool. The first ship from London to trading Melbourne was the ‘Bryan,' 500 tons, in 1839. The old wharf was in a wretched state. An order, in 1839, directed that no vessel was to lie at it longer than six days. The early custom-house was described as 'a dirty. looking shed.' And yet such was the promise of future commercial greatness, that a Launceston paper, the times. 172 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. in 1853. VICTORIA. Cornwall Chronicle,' uttered this prophecy in June Prophecy -1839:- in 1839 'It is by no means improbable that Port Phillip, at came true some future day, will rise to be the queen of the Aus. tralian Colonies, and that Van Diemen's Land will dwindle into a mere place of pleasurable resort for the wealthy inhabitants of New Holland.' Old style of The primitive mercantile transactions were managed business. extensively by a system of orders and promissory notes, as cash was not ready at hand. The discounting of these was a profitable trade, if not quite a prudent one. As the original merchants were almost wholly from Van Diemen's Land, between which colony and New South Wales a little jealousy existed, the Sydney · Colonist' of June, 1837, had this reference to times and places :- The settlers (of Port Phillip) complain of not being able to get remittance in specie from the sister colony, to pay for the purchase of allotments, and Government will not take cheques or bills; but it is a very old com- plaint with which our Van Demonian brethren have long been chargeable. Trade has made some progress in Melbourne since the year 1839, when there were four tailors, four black- smiths, four butchers, three saddlers, three bakers, and twelve shoemakers, but not a watchmaker or a tinman. A Scotchman came in at the close of the year as the Colonist first tobacconist. The original baker of Australia died 110 years that year in Sydney. He came in the first fleet, 1788, old. and was 110 years of age at his decease. No place The Government of Sydney drove away the early for brick- brickmakers to Adelaide, by the severity of the land en- makers. actments. While a squatter held possession of many thousands of acres on a rental of 101., the poor brick. maker of Melbourne was condemned to pay 101. a year for being on Crown land, 51. for erecting a hut thereon, and 21. 10s. for using the clay. Even the limeburners Tithes for paid a tithe of bags of lime as rent to the Government. rent. Geelong very nearly eclipsed Melbourne as the trading capital of Port Phillip. The prices of land allotments there, at the first sale, realised considerably more than Mr. West- those of Melbourne lots. Mr. Westgarth was quite garth on justified in writing—“The site of Geelong, the qualities 18. of its harbour, and of the rich, beautiful and open Trade in 1839. Geelong. TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 173 country that extends for many miles behind it, appear VICTORIA. to me to have offered recommendations for the site of the capital decidedly superior to those of Melbourne.' By the time the bar, which obstructed the harbour, could be removed, Melbourne had secured the trade of the colony. The gold-fields gave the great start to both exports Wonderful and imports. In the article of candles alone, largely changes in required in mines, a wonderful change appears from imports 1850 to 1855. The import of the first year for candles was 1,6111., and for the last 466,7751. Oats, at the same time, sprang from 2,5721. to 594,2481. ; potatoes from 2,1791. to 316,8101.; and jewellery from 6561. to 102,6201. In 1850 the beer import was 38,1151., and in 1858 Imports 614,6921. Spirits, in like manner, rose from 51,3341. rise 1,500. to 1,045,0531. Wine advanced from 13,7951. to 373,5291. The imports were fifteen times as much in 1853 as in 1851. Through reckless importations there, and exportations Great from Britain, moderated afterwards, enormous losses were trading experienced by both European and colonial merchants in losses: the mad trading gold era. The imports have necessarily fluctuated much more Speculative than exports, being dependent apon the state of stocks imports. in the Home market, as well as from the supposed de- mand for goods in the colonies. The subjoined Import table tells the story of frequent wild speculation :- : cent. in two years. Year Imports Per head £ s. 91 0 42 0 5 13 10 4 9 15 71 5 d. 0 0 0 0 0 0 1837 1840 1844 1847 1850 1853 1854 1855 1860 1865 1871 1878 115,379 435,367 151,062 437,696 744,925 15,842,637 17,659,051 12,007,939 15,093,730 13,257,537 12,341,995 16,161,880 32 19 28 1 21 7 16 17 18 12 0 0 0 0 0 174 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. Items of imports. Among the items of import for 1878, the following are selected :- Apparel, 370,3501. ; beer, 187,2321. ; boots and shoes, 213,4351. ; coals, 356,9941. ; coffee, 66,1221.; cotton piece, 626,8381.; drapery, 270,5821. ; oats, 92,4471.; rice, 142,6911. ; machinery, 84,6671. ; hops, 56,9521. ; iron, 730,4011.; cattle, 253,3141. ; sheep, 260,4381. ; watches, 50,8011. ; kerosene, 89,6861.; opium, 71,3081.; paper, 166,4471. ; sewing machines, 71,8691.; silks, 256,5491.; brandy, 189,8901. ; gin, 32,9631. ; rum, 20,1171. ; whisky, 82,6691. ; stationery, 60,9331. ; sugar, 1,051,2821. ; tea, 540,9301. ; tobacco and cigars, 268,8641.; wine, 147,5691. ; woollen piece, 690,1761. ; books, 180,1631.; music, 71,3971. The exports for the years corresponding with the list table are marked by a steady increase. Before the excessive incoming of goods from Britain compelled the Melbourne merchants to embark in a large intercolonial trade, the re-exports were few. Since 1851 the increase of exports has been indebted not only to the great gold product, but to the re-shipment of exports: Year Exports Per head Export statistics. 1837 1840 1844 1847 1850 1853 1854 1855 1860 1865 1871 1878 12,178 128,860 256,847 668,511 1,041,796 11,061,544 11,775,204 13,493,338 12,962,704 13,150,748 14,557,820 14,925,707 £ $ d. 9 12 0 12 10 0 9 12 0 15 11 0 13 13 0 49 14 37 14 37 0 0 24 2 0 21 3 0 19 18 0 17 3 6 The less amount of exports during the last few years, in proportion to the population, is no evidence of the decline of the colony. Victoria is now so rapidly advancing in civilisation as to approach the condition of an old country. Difference New colonies must always exhibit, if equally pros- perous with older ones, a greater relative amount of new colo anä oldº", exports. They are dependent upon the export of the country. raw material produced. An old country declines to between TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 175 export that, preferring to manufacture it; as the raw VICTORIA. produce is required by the population itself, many of whom are engaged in the superior arts of civilised life. Victoria, though exporting less per head, is utilising its products more in its extensive manufactures. The capital is increasing at an enormous rate, and may be seen employed in local improvements. Like Russia and the United States, Victoria has been developing inter- nally by trade, and so limiting its importations. The trans-shipment of imported goods to other coun. Trans- tries from Melbourne amounted to 3,318,2191. in 1878. shipment. Among the leading articles of export in 1878 were: Export gold, 1,795,1401. ; wool, 5,810,1421. ; tallow, 103,8791. items. But of the gold, 673,3701. belonged not to Victoria ; neither did 2,362,6971. worth of wool. The imports in 1878 from New South Wales were Trade. 4,121,9481. ; exports to, 2,474,9091. ; New Zealand, 813,1121. and 1,026,2921. ; Tasmania, 285,7681. and 507,5441. ; South Australia, 350,1481. and 699,9731. ; United States, 595,7131. and 23,9411. ; United Kingdom, 7,389,2391. and 6,458,4841. The Tariff question has caused much discussion in the Tariff colony itself, as well as among its neighbours. question. The Murray, dividing Victoria from New South Wales, Duties to » New South is a long shore line to guard against smuggling. For Wales. 3 years Victoria was to pay a lump sum of 54,0001. a year to the Sydney Government in lieu of duties on the riyer. Arrangements have been made for changes. The imposition of heavy dues on the importation of Intercolo- certain articles has grievously affected the neighbouring nie colonies, by closing the port of Melbourne against their wine, timber, &c. The whole question of colonial tariffs has been referred to the Home Government, whose sanction has been given to the colonies collectively to regulate their duties as they think best. The establish- ment of one uniform tariff throughout Australia will be the commencement of a real Confederation, and stop many intercolonial jealousies. As to the protective policy of the Victorians, generally Protective regarded as a retrograde movement, this is not the place policy to express an opinion. While opposed to the free trade of Europe, the colonists adopted it as beneficial to themselves. They seek not only to raise a revenue by nial duties. ments, 176 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Protective VICTORIA. the customs, but to protect their own infant and strug- gling manufactures. The Cascoms for 1875 brought in law of 1871. 1,528,2341., and 1,487,4481. in 1878. · The customs tariff has showed an increase of duties since August 2, 1871, when a more extended system of protection was established. In 1862, 8 articles paid duty. List of · A selection from the list of 1879 is here given ::- duties. Perlb.orpint:Arrowroot,confectionery,preserved fruits, honey, jams, corn flour, preserved meat and fish, ground spices, bacon, biscuits, butter, cheese, glue, hams, mus- tard, soap, ammonia, oxalic acid, writing paper, starch, 2d. ; glycerine, tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, chicory, hops, powder, acetic and picric acids, 3d. ; shot and blasting powder, ld. ; dynamite and corks, 4d. ; carbolic acid, printing ink, and gelatine, 6d.; gun cotton, 5d. ; twine, 1 d.; chlorodyne, ls. 4d. ; snuff, 2s. ; tobacco, 2s.; un- manufactured, 18.; cigars, 58.; opium, 10s. Per cwt. : Nux vomica, &c. ls. 6d. ; coir rope, 2s.; hempen cordage, 4s. 6d. ; white lines, 8s.; nails, 38. ; horseshoe nails, 128. ; lead, 28. 6d. ; uncut surface paper, 38.; sugar and molasses, 38.; muriatic, nitric and sulphuric acids, 58.; salted and dried provisions, 58.; bags, 10s.; aloes, 12s. Per 100 lbs. : Paddy, 28.; rice, pearl and Scotch barley, and oatmeal, 38.; ground grain and pulse, 2s.; grain and pulse, 1s. ; maize, 6d. Per ounce : Morphia, Is. 6d. ; silver plate, ls. troy; and gold plate, 8s. Per ton : potatoes, 10s. ; onions, 208.; salt, 20s. ; soda crystals, cast-iron pipes, and ground paints, 408.; mixed paints, 80s. Per gallon : Vinegar, carbolic acid, and mineral oils, 6d. ; beer, 9d. ; wine, 4s. ; sparkling wine, 6s.; varnish, 28.; spirits, 108.; perfumed spirits, 208.; methylated spirits, ls. Per cubic foot : Earthenware and chinaware, 9d. ; glass bottles and uncut glass, 6d. ; glass shades, 2s. 6d.; dressed timber, ls. 6d. per 100 super. feet; and hard wood, 9d. Per dozen : Flour-bags, 1s.; felt hoods, 58. ; pickle, pints, ls. 6d. ; pickle, quarts, 2s. 6d. ; wool. packs, 38.; harness saddle trees, 108.; riding saddle trees, 20s.; quart bottles, 6d. ; playing cards, 3s. dozen packs; boots and shoes, from 38. to 258. doz. pairs. Per 100: Palings and spokes, 6d. Per 1,000: Fire bricks, 20s.; laths, 18.; shingles, 6d. Per bushel: Green fruit, TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 177 9d, ; malt, 28. Each: Doors, 58.; sashes (pair), 28.; VICTORIA. umbrella covers, 4d., 9d., and 21d. ; sheep, 6d.; pigs, 28.; Duties. horses and cattle, 5s. Per gross: Smoking pipes, 6s. ; matches, if 100 matches, 6d.; over 100, 1s. ; wax vestas, 1s. 3d. and 2s. 6d. Twenty per cent. ad valorem duty is charged on articles of apparel, chignons, blacking, bonnets, brownware, brushware, caps, earrings, carts, fireworks, frilling, furni- ture, coal, charcoal, hats, jewellery, agricultural imple. ments, boilers, machinery (except for colonial manafac- tories), manufactures of metals, mats, manufactured stationery, wrought marble and stone, musical instru. ments, oilmen's stores, saddles, harness, leatherware, silks, tents, tarpaulins, washing and other powders, wickerware and woodenware. Ten per cent. on silk pongees, mineral waters, carpets, clocks, combs, gloves, gold and silver leaf, gauze, leather, matting, perfumery, some oilmen's stores, plated ware, canary seed, springs for furuitare, types, watches, woollen blankets and rugs, woollen piece goods. Articles exempted from duty are the undescribed materials for making up of apparel, boots, bats, saddlery, and umbrellas; also packages, ships' fittings, passengers' baggage, and works of art. Export duty on red-gam timber, 108. per 100 super. feet; and 60s. ton scrap iron. Excise on spirits made from malt or wine, 6s. per gallon, and from sugar or ale, 8s. While some of these duties were intended for revenue purposes only, others were imposed for the protection of native industries. The former will fluctuate according to need; and the latter according to policy. Banks are flourishing institutions in the colony. The Banks. 11. note is issued as in Scotland. Mr. Westgarth, the commercial historian of Australia, made the following comparison between the two countries some ten years ago:- * In Scotland, as is well known,' he says, 'the note issaes have all but superseded the use of gold coin, and yet the circulation is only 1l. per head of population, while that of New South Wales is 23l. per head, and of Victoria, 31. per head. The comparison is still more striking, from the circumstance that in these colonies there is no exclusive preference, as in Scotland, for notes 178 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. over metallic money, the latter being also in large cir. culation.' Melbourne The establishment of the mint in Melbourne may be mint. justly expected to facilitate banking operations. Bank The twelve banks—Union, Australasia, Australian dividends. and European, New South Wales, Victoria, London Chartered, Melbourne ; English, Scottish, and Australian Chartered ; Oriental, Colonial, National, and Commercial -had, on December 31st, 1878, assets to the amount of 26,096,2851., with liabilities of 17,715,8661. Their last dividends ranged from 9 per cent. to 12 per cent., averaging 101 per cent. on a capital of 9,078,8471., the reserved profits at the time being 2,826,7911. The average dividend for the previous ten years was 10 per cent. The bank deposits, 1878, were 16,106,5801. Mortgages. The mortgages at the end of 1878 were 9,655, upon land, stock, wool, &c., to the amount of 6,233,7521. Savings' The eleven savings' bank of the colony showed a banks. balance of 887,2211., averaging 291. 38. 8d. for each de- positor. The 173 post-office savings' banks had a balance of 652,0891., averaging 131. 10s. to a depositor. Building The 62 building societies had assets 2,970,1011., to societies. liabilities 2,594,7861. The members were 21,404; the sums advanced, 703,9321. ; the working expenses, 32,2291. The income was 1,097,4751. Post-offices. The Post Office services are duly appreciated by the trading community of Victoria. The Melbourne Post Office building, for size, architectural beauty, and business convenience, is said to have no rival in the British do. minions outside of London. Though a private post-office existed in 1837, the first Government institution arose in September 1839, when a post-master was sent down from Sydney. The revenue for the year before was 1501. A letter overland from Melbourne to Sydney, taking three weeks in the journey, was carried for 15d. ; the rate subsequently became 2d. A weekly mail was established in 1839. There are now 1,000 post-offices in the colony, about one-third of which are money order offices. While a Postal penny rate exists in towns, that through the country is 2d. Book packets are charged 2d. for 4 ounces. News- papers require a penny stamp to be sent out of the colony. The P. and O. steamers start from Melbourne. rates, TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 179 First tele- The telegraph rate, within the limits of the colony, is VICTORIA. 18. for ten words, and ld. a word extra. For a message to Sydney or to Adelaide the cost is 28. for ten words, Telegraph but to Queensland 3s., and to Tasmania, 6s. rates. The telegraphic line from Melbourne to Williamstown, begun in 1853, was the first laid down in the southern Ligne graph, hemisphere. The Government had 3,000 miles of wire in 1865, and 5,500 in 1879. Victoria, from having a larger proportionate area of History of good soil, suffered long from bad roads. At the early roads. part of 1852, the bush road without metal commenced at the outside of Melbourne itself. Bad roads from Mel. bourne caused the Bendigo diggers to pay sometimes 1501. a ton for carriage alone. Railways, boroughs, and road boards have changed that condition of affairs, and have given to Victoria the merit of having a system of communication superior, perhaps, to that of any country out of Europe. Stage coaches run also to almost all parts of the colony. The Victorian railways were not constructed on the Railways American but the English system, as to solidity and on English convenience. The cost of the first lines was enormous, owing to the price of labour. The later-formed iron roads have been made at a cost of only 5,0001, a mile; though 270 miles laid down before 1870 cost 10,164,0001. or nearly 40,0001. a mile; some since, but 4,0001. The line to Echuca, on the Murray, 156 miles from Lines Melbourne, passes through Sandhurst, formerly Bendigo, formed. having a branch to Castlemaine. That from Melbourne to Ballarat, ninety-eight miles, passes through Geelong on its way. The one north-eastward, through Seymour and the Ovens District, to the Murray opposite Albury, has now been completed, giving 200 miles more railway traffic. Above 1,100 miles were open in 1879. Lines are being extended from Ballarat northward, New rail- through rich mining and farming districts, and westward ways. to Ararat. Another brings Maryborough in connection with Castlemaine. Sale, Portland, Hamilton and Warr- nambool, will now have railways to the capital. Private companies have formed lines from Melbourne to St. Kilda, to Sandridge, and to Brighton. The Government charges were moderate for Australia, Railway being about 2d. a mile first class, and 14d. second. system. fares. N 2 TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 181 ducer of 500 tons of colonial-made sugar from beet root. VICTORIA. Then partially protective duties were followed by the more strictly protection policy of 1869. Encourage. ment was officially given for the manufacture of glass, paper, pianos, starch, brushes, soap, stearine candles, cigars, dyes, &c. On March 31, 1879, there were 8 piano, 6 philosophical instrument, 8 truss, 2 essential oil, 44 agricultural in. strument, 10 machine tool, 46 engine, 139 carriage, 2 varnish, 71 buot, 63 clothing, 10 biscuit, 19 hat, 23 cheese, 2 maizena, 5 sauce, 16 tobacco, 1 spectacles, 13 bone manure, 3 earth closets, 6 brush, 7 glue, 1 paper, 7 glass, and 2 rice factories ; also 6 statuary, 12 turnery, 23 lime, 40 cabinet, 13 dye, 5 salt, 15 rope, 9 confectionery, 2 macaroni, 104 ginger-beer, &c., 31 vinegar, 31 soap and candle, 174 chaff and crushing, 4 modelling, 15 cooper- age, 4 asphalte, 17 gas, 26 marble, 5 electro-plate, 2 an- timony, 70 iron and tin, and 2 lead works. There were 6 manufacturing stationers, 2 organ-building, 4 die- sinking, 8 gun-making, 17 ship-building, 15 meat. curing, 6 distilling, 13 malting, 19 boiling-down, 11 wool-washing, 118 tanning, 145 saw-milling, 19 jewel. lery manufacturing, 1 type foundry, 91 metal foundry, and 9 wire-working establishments; besides 4 graving docks, 1 patent slip, 102 breweries, 149 flour mills, 198 brickfields and potteries, 132 quarries, 5 chemical works, and 9 woollen mills. In 2,343 manufactories, works, &c., 22,948 men and 5,455 women were employed. The buildings and plant were valued at 6,798,6351. The agricultural machines alone were valued at 2,025,9161. In 1878, 147 patents were applied for. Ten years ago the works were 1,106. The Water Works, storing 12,663,000,000 gallons, cost 3,386,5171. Land Laws and Immigration. LAND LAWS. Land laws and immigration are two subjects necessarily connected with each other. In most places it is the liberality of the land laws which attracts the population. In Victoria, the land hunger was not experienced until Land after a large population had been attracted by the gold, hunger. and a demand arose for cheaper food. The early im. migration was almost entirely a pastoral one. When the first European stream arrived, in consequence of 182 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. years. VICTORIA. the glowing descriptions of Australia Felix, by Major. Mitchell, the cry for lands was met by the sales of the Government. Land sales During 1838, 1839, 1840, and 1841, about 226,000 suspended acres were thrown into the Melbourne and Geelong for some markets. But during double the number of years, be- tween 1843 and 1851, only about half that amount was exposed for sale. The country was taken up by the Crown lessee squatters, even to the suburbs of Mel. bourne and Geelong. Unlock the Unlock the Lands!' became the political watchword lands. after the diggings commenced. A few hundred men monopolised with their flocks and herds almost the whole of the colony, and barred the entrance of the agriculturist. The attempt of Sir George Gipps and his Sydney Orders in Executive Council, to place some restrictions upon the council. extension of the pastoral interest, seemed set aside by the triumph of squatterdom, in tho celebrated Orders in Council of 1847... Settled, These decrees of the English Ministry gave a certain Intermedi- fixed tenure to pastoral tenants of the Crown, and ate, and yielded to them vast tracts of country at a mere nominal Unsettled districts. rental. All lands were divided into Šettled, Intermediate, and Unsettled districts. While leases for fourteen years were issued for land in the last division, they were but annual in the first. Leases in The Settled part was pronounced within twenty-four miles of Melbourne, fifteen of Geelong, and ten of Port- land and Alberton. The Intermediate comprehended the counties of Bourke, Grant, and Normanby. The Unsettled came beyond that boundary, and therein the payment was fifty shillings a year for every thousand sheep grazing, and a secure hold for fourteen years. People got The influence of wool lords in the Colonial Parliament the rule of was all paramount. But, in answer to complaints from public others, the Home authorities gave a more liberal inter- lands. pretation to the reading of the Orders in Council in 1853. With the granting of a free constitution in 1855, Victoria, like the other colonies, obtained the right of controlling the administration of the public lands. Pressed, however, by the voice of the people and the reiterated demands of the press, the colonial rulers had before this partially released their hold upon the soil. each. LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 183 In the four years, from 1852 to 1856, over a million and VICTORIA. a quarter acres were sold. The demand exceeded the supply. The upset of 11. Land Act an acre was considerably overreached by competi. of 1862. tion at auction. Relief came with the Land Act of 1862, when the fourteen years' leases expired. The price then realised was only a trifle over the ll. upset, owing to the enormous amount of land thrown open, there being that year sold 844,969 acres. Another lull followed. Vigorous complaints were raised against the inefficiency of the land regulations, and the need of more liberality on the part of the Government, to induce men to settle on the public lands. This led to some distinguished changes by the Land Act Land Law of 1869. The sales, which had fallen, in of 1869 1867, down to 129,333 acres, grew, in 1869, to 794,543, liters which realised 827,5341., fell to 323,081 acres in 1877. After all, only one-fifth of the public lands had been Four- fifths of sold by the beginning of 1879. Of the total acreage land unsold. of the Colony, 56,446,720 (88,198 square miles), 11,458,634 had been alienated, and 44,988,086 acres were still in the hands of the Government, to be leased out to squatters and others. Up to 1878, 4,787,784 acres were leased to farmers, with a right of purchase. In 1878 the holdings were 45,448; the purchased free- holds were 8,524,000 acres, and by rental, 1,495,142; or, not pastoral, 14,806,926. The leading provisions of the Land Law of 1869 will New squat- now be mentioned. Amendments made in 1878 are ting regu. lations, herein noted. The squatters were less favourably situated, while exposed to more active competition. They could make no claim to improvements, allowed by the law of 1862, unless presented before 1871; and no compensation would be allowed by reason of the new Act being after- wards repealed or altered. Any portion of their runs might at any time be taken from them, to be proclaimed a Comnion. No occupier of a run was permitted to enter upon competition with the agriculturist, as he could once do, since the sales of produce raised upon such leased land exposed him to a heavy penalty. Existing occupiers of runs were to have henceforth Rent not yearly licenses, at rents to be determined according to fixed. 184 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. licenses. stone licenses. VICTORIA. the quality of the land. For every sheep they paid 8d. a year, and for every beast 4s. A readjustment might be made five years after. New New runs, or forfeited ones, are submitted to public auction for the higher premium upon the rent fixed by the local board. Though nominally a license for four- teen years, the whole or part of a run may be at any time taken by the Government if required for common use, lease, or sale for agriculturists, or for any other public purpose. Timber and Licenses for public lands may be obtained to take away timber, stone, seaweed, earth, guano, etc. Three acres of land, for some such purposes, can be had for twenty- one years, at a rent of not less than 51. Rates of Those who cut the common Eucalyptus timber pay 21. payment. to 51. a year for a license, according to the distance from a town. Log waggons pay from 101. to 161. licenses. Saw mills are charged, on Crown lands, 101. a year. No trees must be cut which are less than a certain girth. For the felling of pines, blackwood, and other more Wool valuable timber, the rate for licenses is increased. Wood. splitters. splitters pay 4l. a year for a license by the law of 1872. The fee for the removal of guano, brick clay, or stone is 101. a year; but for limestone 251. The usual fee for fees. the erection of a slaughter house is from 101. to 501.; for shipbuilding, a tramway, factory, or paper mills, 101. to 501. For other buildings on Crown lands the usual pay- ment is from 101. to 501. Rights to a Land may be proclaimed as a common, for the grazing rights of neighbouring farmers. It is placed under the management of a borough, shire council, mining board, or road board in the vicinity. Land sales take place every quarter, or oftener. Pur. chasers pay one-fourth cash, and the balance in a month. Under certain circumstances, after repeated failures at public sales, land may be reduced in upset below the pound an acre. Land leases are now obtained on most advantageous terms. 320 acre An applicant for an area, not exceeding 320 acres, leases 2s. an s. an must deposit half a year's rent when making the appli- cation. If successful, he receives a license for occupation Govern- ment land common. Land salcs. acre, LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 185 extending over six years, and subject to the annual VICTORIA. charge of ls. an acre. Conditions He must, however, fulfil the following conditions :- of license. Be resident thereon, enclose the whole farm, and culti- vate one-tenth of the land during the term of six years. Unless the substantial improvements are of the value of 11. per acre, he fails to receive the full advantage of his possession. At the end of the sixth year, and after satisfactory Right in fulfilment of the required conditions, two courses are six years. open to the tenant. Should he elect to purchase his farm, and so receive the Crown grant for the land, he has but to pay the balance of 14s. an acre. He may however, prefer to extend that balance pay. Extended ment orer a longer time. A lease for fourteen years is lease. granted him, at the continued rental of ls. an acre. The purchase-money, therefore, is but ll. an acre, and the rental can be paid in the form of 20 annual rentals of 1s. each, is a pur- when the full purchase is complete, and the land is freehold. chase. Those who held leases of agricultural land under the Transfer of Land Act of 1865 were generously placed under the lease. liberal Act of 1869. In 1878, not less than 4,787,784 acres were leased at Acres the 2s. an acre rent. More were rented otherwise. leased out. Of the 56,446,720 acres in Victoria, 11,458,634 were Land- alienated in 1878, and 19,531,083 leased by Govern. holders. ment to 768 squatters. There were but 4,326 land. Land on holders in 1856, and 47,050 in 1879. Only 34,816 acres pied and were cropped in 1854, but 1,609,278 in 1879. Of recent enclosed. selected land, 576,063 acres were in Borang. By a recent Act, the selected area may be 640 acres, Selected and improvements to the value of 10s. an acre must be area max, now be 640 made on every acre above 320. acres. The prices of country land for the year ending De- Price of cember 31, 1878, averaged 11. 4s. 5d. an acre. land. IMMIGRATION has been rather free than assisted in ImmigRA- Victoria. People have flocked thither without aid from Tion. the Colonial Government. The first ship out from First emi. London, the ‘Bryan,' 500 tons, advertised as affording grant ship. settlers for this flourishing colony an opportunity of proceeding there at once.' Until 1851, when forming a part of New South Bounty and Wales, it came in for a share of bounty immigrants. f "Une migrants. female im- WAGES. 187 10s. to 12s. " The official report of January 3, 1873, shows wages VICTORIA. not fallen off of late. The following extract gives the average wages at that time :- Wages. Wages Married agricultural labourers. 501. to 601. per annum with rations with or without Single 15s. to 20s. a week rations. Boys (13 or 14) on stations 58. to 6s. Butchers . • 40s. to 60s. „ Brassfounders . . 11s. to 148. a day without rations Bookbinders. . 60s. to 80s. a week Bakers . 358. to 60s. ,, Brewers . 40s. to 80s. ,, Brickmakers. . 6s. to 8s, a day Bricklayers . 8s. to 10s. Bricklayers' labourers , . 6s. to 7s. » Blacksmiths. . 8s. to 12s. Bullock drivers for road 401. to 501. a year with rations Bush carpenters Carpenters . 88. to 108. a day withouť rations Coopers Coachbuilders. Coach painters . 10s. to 14s. ,, Coachmen and grooms. 158. to 20s. a week with rations Compositors 1s, to ls. ld. per thousand Engineers 12s. to 14s. a day without rations Glaziers and painters . 7s. to 10s. 1 , Gardeners • 78. to 10s. a day with rations Saddlers 78. to 128. „ without rations Ironfounders. . 10s. to 14s. 1 Labourers (town) 6s. to 78. , (country). 12s. to 20s. a week with rations Millers • 8s. to 14s. a day without rations Masops . 8s. to 12s. , Millwrights and engineers . 10s. to 16s. , Miners . 6s. to 8s. , Pressmen • 70s. to 80s. a week Plasterers and plumbers 8s. to 10s. a day Shoeing smiths 50s. to 70s. a week » Storemen . . 40s. to 60s. , Shopmen (drapers) . 60s. to 80s. , Shearers . 14s. to 16s. per 100 with rations Shepherds . 251. to 35l. a year Shipwrights. · 10s. to 14s. a day without rations Stonebreakers . . 2s.6d. to 4s. per cubic yd. ,, Tailors . 458. to 50s. a week Tin and iron plate workers . 85. to 10s. a day Turners . . . 40s. to 50s. a week Upholsterers. • 8s. to 12s. a day Watchmakers and jewellers . 10s. to 14s. , Wheelwrights. . 8s. to 12s. » Whitesmiths. . 8s. to 10s. 1 188 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Tam VICTORIA. Females. Cooks and laundresses. . 301. to 351. a year with rations. Farm servants. . 201. to 251. ,, House servants (general) 251. to 301. Laundresses. 301. - Millinors 20s. to 30s. a week , Nurses . 351. to 401, a year Nursery maids . 151. to 251. , Dressmakers. . 38. a day Waitresses . 251, to 301. a year Wages in The 'Melbourne Argus' early in 1880 gave wages 1880. of housemaids at 251. to 301.; cooks, 351. to 60l.; governesses, 301. to 801.; farm hands, 20s.; married couple on stations, 701. to 901., but with children, 501. ; all these bave board and lodging. Then bricklayers had 108. a day; stonemasons, 10s.; carpenters, 10s. or 118.; lumpers, 128.; ship carpenters, 138.; and labourers, 7s.; the day being eight hours. By the week, miners had 40s. to 45s. ; engineers, 60s. to 78s.; saddlers, 558.; turners, 40s. to 60s.; tailoresses, 20s. to 358.; coachbuilders, 50s. to 658. ; jewellers, 558. to 758. ; watchmakers, 41. to 51. ; seal engravers, 61. to 81. Navvies had 9d. an hour; tailors, 10d. an hour; and printers, 1s. per thousand. Provisions. Provisions are very cheap. Bread is usually 5d. or 6d. the 4-lb. loaf; meat, 3d. to 5d. per lb. ; fresh butter, 9d. and upward. Clothes, especially boots, are better and very little dearer than at home. Hints to the intending Emigrant to Victoria. While every colony has its own distinctive advantages, and appeals with confidence and success to a particular class of persons, Victoria has won the favour of some by that very progressiveness which repels others from its shores. It grows every day less colonial in the general acceptation of that term, and correspondingly assumes the aspect of a European nation. Victoria Compared with Queensland and New Zealand, it is compared quite English in its style. Even compared with New with other colonies. South Wales, it is a-head in respect to intellectual exponents, commercial activity, and old-world life. What pur- Pursuits, therefore, most favourably carried on in the suits are land of unoccupied acres and ill-populated cities, are and a not less adapted to the present circumstances of Victoria. successful. HINTS. HINTS TO TIE INTENDING EMIGRANT TO VICTORIA. 189 rooin. But those demanding a more settled condition of society, VICTORIA. a larger assemblage of people, and a greater accumula- tion of money, must needs have a better chance in the faster-going and wealthier colony. It is these considerations that must influence the thoughtful emigrant. Of course, Queensland can have no competition in Victoria not for all sugar-growing and squatting; New Zealand, for feeding to classes. stock on artificial grasses; and Tasmania, for a cool and quiet home. But Victoria claims to satisfy all comers but sugar-growers and cheap-renting wool-growers. It is, however, for the intending settler to see if his own views can be better met there. The land is limited and occupied. Where there are No pastoral no towns, there may be farms; and where no farms, there will be stations. There is no back country to offer on easy terms to stockmen. Runs exchange hands at ever-increasing rates, and station life is rapidly losing all its old semi-barbaric character. But while the pastoral immigrant has to treat privately Room for for flocks and herds, the agriculturist can go still to farmers. the Crown Lands Office for a farm. The country is yet open to him, and millions of acres of splendid soil are available for selection on very easy terms. To Victoria is due the merit of first unlocking the lands for the benefit of farmers. No doubt is entertained as to the remunerative return Stations for capital invested in Victorian stations, in spite of page the enormous sums paid for them. Wool of a heavier quantity and superior quality can be produced there, while carcase meat fetches a higher price. The question of reward for the toil of cultivation Care where is a debated one in England as well as in the Colonies. farm : to choose at Pictures of Eden by a Dickens, and of a Cockatoo farmer by a Trollope, though overdrawn, have much reliability about them. The selection of an isolated homestead, far away from civilised advantages, and even from a good market, may be dear, while apparently cheap. The crowding of farms, again, even though judiciously situ. ated for the sale of produce, may subject their holders to a competition that leaves but small margin of profit. Victoria farming bas neither the isolation of the one Style of case nor the crowding of the other. It is of much con- Victorian farming. ay well. 190 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. there. VICTORIA. sequence to a man with a family that he have a church and school within hail for his children, and a ready access to a newspaper for himself. All this can be got there, as well as a fair road and a fair market. The style of farming is between the rough-and-ready system adopted in South Australia or New South Wales. and the scientific mode of the Lothians. The land is so good that it will pay for attention, and ruling prices will pay for careful culture. As may be seen under the head of Agriculture, Victoria is a-head of the other colonies in the use of manures and the employment of machinery. It is, therefore, the more necessary for a man to know something about farming, before venturing to compete with the shrewd and energetic grower there. Great facilities exist for getting on to the land. But the selector need look to something more than the soil. The gradual extension of railways, and the admirable arrangements of Road Boards, are highly favourable Experience to settlements. But, while looking out for a market, a necessary judicious man will look to his crops. Victoria, being more advanced than other colonies, can have a use for productions not getting a sale beyond its borders. High farming and the culture of luxuries for the table, as well as raw material for the manu- Farmers for factory, will, consequently, pay better. Farmers there, protection. while having no customs' favour for all their produce, were ever active supporters of the so-called protective policy. They regarded it from their own standpoint as a means for developing local trade, and so utilising articles which they might then raise to advantage, in addition to the prospect of having an increase of consumers by the erection of workshops in towns. Farm la The remarkable development of farming lately has bourers brought all spare labour into active exercise. There are wanted. many men who work at their trades in towns. for the greater part of the year, but go through the country to help at harvest and sheep-shearing. The colony could easily absorb a large importation of farming hands, and this at the highest colonial rates. Stock-rais The best farmers find it profitable to raise stock of ing pays. the best breeds, and have their market among squatters, with whom they could not expect to compete in wool- growing or meat-producing. The man with sufficient BINTS TO THE INTENDING EMIGRANT TO VICTORIA. 191 $ Qig- pects. capital and experience to start a farm for such an object VICTORIA. as this has a promising future in Australia. Stock- holders have discovered the necessity of improved breeds, and will pay handsomely for them. As a mining country, although almost exclusively Not poor confined to gold, Victoria pursues the most scientific gings now. and effective methods for the extraction of metal. It is no longer a poor man's diggings country. Intelligence Mining and capital are essential to success. But large companies there re- quires skill require skilled workmen, as engineers, etc., and the pro- and capital. fessional aid of mining surveyors. Investors, if able to form a judgment upon mines, and prudent in personal examination of the manner of conducting such enter- prises, may have therein a remunerative return for their capital. Melbourne, Geelong, Ballarat, and other large centres Commer- of population have favourable opportunities for com- cial pros- mercial operations. With far less speculation than pre- viously known, there is a slower advance, but a more reliable hope of success in the future. Some towns present a type of civilisation which would Town astonish a new comer from Europe, and give him more civilisation, confidence in his own mercantile venture there. Not only are the streets macadamised and lighted with gas, but the banks, halls of commerce, and stores attest the stability, as well as the growth, of trade. Ballarat, Castle- maine, and Sandhurst, dating their origin from the gold discovery, have social, educational, and religious adyan- tages superior to those known in English towns six times their size. Melbourne is, at least, as much favoured in this respect as Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, or Glasgow, while healthier than they. An idea of the wealth of the colony may be gained from the fact of Melbourne land being sold in 1873 at the rate of 5171. per foot frontage. Manufactures form the most tempting bait for im. Future for migrants. manufac- The colony can find employment for a greater number of trades than could be expected from places not so ad- vanced in manufactures. It can also calculate upon an extension of this circle of trade, as new industries are being successfully established. These, in their turn, give employment to other classes of labour. While manufac- tires. 192 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. VICTORIA. tures thus afford good prospects for labour, they promise the most certain return for capital. With a graving dock 475 feet long, costing 342,0001., the colony shows its faith in the future commerce of the country. The new Melbourne Company for the colonisation of New Guinea shows the enterprise of the people. Mr. Trol- Victoria has secured a vantage ground in these in. lope on dustries, which it is likely to maintain even without a Victoria. development of its coal-fields. Mr. Trollope was struck with the appearances of prosperity there. It is to be seen,' he says, 'in the daily lives of the colonists, in the clothes which they wear, in the food which they eat, in the wages which they receive, in the education of their children, and in the general comfort of the people.' DISCOVERY. 193 SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Discovery. Flinders, Though the Dutch navigators discovered Tasmania and SOUTH Western Australia, Englishmen made known the shores AUSTRALIA. of South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland. 1802, dis- On January 28, 1802, Capt. Flinders, in the Investigator, covered sailing eastward from South King George's Sound, came to ministralia the western boundary of the South Australian Colony. He gave names to Fowler Bay, Port Lincoln, St. Vin. cent's Gulf, Spencer's Gulf, and Yorke Peninsula. Kangaroo Island was so called from the number of mild-eyed marsupials there, that were supposed by the seamen to mistake them for seals, while the seals, as simply, seemed to fancy our countrymen to be kangaroos. This unsuspicious gentleness was soon rudely disturbed. After Flinders had surveyed sevən-eighths of the new coast, he encountered a strange vessel in those strange Met the waters. This was the French exploring expedition of French. Admiral Baudin, going north-westward from a long so- journ in Van Diemen's Land. The meeting gave rise to the name of Encounter Bay. Although the French only discovered the shore between French long. 139° and 1401, they took advantage of Flinders claimed th: being kept for six years a prisoner of war in the Isle of theirs France, and, by Imperial command, laid claim to the dis- discovery. covery of all that the English captain had seen before them. The country was announced as Napoleon Land, Napoleon and the two gulfs were known as Bonaparte and Jose. Land. phine. The historian and naturalist of the voyage, M. Peron, keenly felt the disgrace of thus seeking to rob the honest sailor of his right. Flinders had no sooner published his work than the story was fully appreciated, and the Imperial claim disallowed. Though a party of sailors soon established themselves on Kangaroo Island, yet no attempt at settlement was made upon the mainland. country 194 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Sturt on 1830. King SOUTH In 1830, Capt. Sturt, who had previously discovered AUSTRALIA. the Darling River of New South Wales, undertook a trip to the south-west of Sydney. He crossed the track the of Messrs. Hume and Howell, rowed down the Murrum. Murray, bidgee to the Murray, and followed the course of the latter stream to the sea. In this way he entered upon a part of South Australia, and saw the hills overshadowing the plain of Adelaide. Barker, In 1831 Capt. Barker was sent to explore this hill- 1831, inland country, and gave his name to one of the finest moun. explorer. tains. Unable to cross the surf-bound mouth of the Murray, he swam over to the other side; and there was speared by the natives, whose women had been stolen by the bad whites on Kangaroo Island. Eyre at In 1839 and 1840 Mr. Eyre, afterwards Governor Lake Dar Eyre of New Zealand and Jamaica, undertook impor- rens, 1849. tant explorations. He visited Lake Torrens, and made Eyre over- the wonderful journey overland from Port Lincoln to land to King George's Sound, a distance of 1,200 miles. George's His only white companion was murdered; and, accom- Sound, panied only by Wylie, a black, he continued his perilous 1840-41. way. On two several occasions his horses had to travel an entire week without water, and were unable to carry more than a few pounds weight of stores. He left Ade- laide in June 1840, and reached the Sound in July 1841. Sturt in the Among subsequent explorations, that of Capt. Sturt's desert, in 1845 deserves to be mentioned. After following up the Murray to the Darling, he struck off into the north- western interior. In the Great Stony Desert he suffered considerably from the heat and drought, thongh he came to a fine sheet of water at Cooper's Creek. Good and When Mr. A. C. Gregory was on his expedition, after near the Leichhardt, in 1858, he came to Sturt's Desert, and saw the country subject to inundation. Mr. McKinlay suf- fered much from the flies near the well-grassed flats by the beds of dry lakes. He found the desert bounded by a beautiful country, frequented by pelicans and pigeons, while crowds of natives lived on the margins of lakes. Floods detained him long in the neighbourhood of the Desert. Burke and It was within South Australian territory, at Cooper's Creek, that Burke and Wills perished from exhaustion, Cooper's Creek, after crossing the continent in 1861. Mr. Gregory, ac- 1861. 1845. desert. Wills at HISTORY. 195 companied by Dr. Mueller, botanist, explored part of the SOUTH northern territory in 1856, by the Roper and the Victoria. AUSTRALIA. Mr. John McDouall Stuart, a companion of Capt. Northern Sturt in 1845, made three trials to cross the continent Territory. from Adelaide, and did not succeed till 1862. One time Stuart's he was arrested by an attack of the natives, and at three trials another he was turned by a dense scrub. to cross the Continent. Country to the north and west of Adelaide was ex- plored by Major Warburton, Colonel Freeling, and explorers. Other Messrs. Babbage, Hack, Goyder, Howitt, Delisser, and Giles. Fair pastoral localities were thus revealed. The country about Lake Torrens was proved to be a depressed basin. Mr. Gosse explored in 1872. Colonel Warburton crossed to Western Australia from the centre of the Continent in 1873-4. Rich soil was found in 1878 on the Queensland side of Northern Territory. History. HISTORY. So satisfactory was the story of the climate and soil of the new land, especially after Capt. Sturt's row upon the Murray, that an attempt at getting up a Colonisation Association was made as early as 1831. A charter was Charter to granted by Parliament to a company, in August, 1834. company, While the Governor was to be appointed by the Crown, a Commissioner was to represent the London Association in South Australia. The leaders of this Wakefield system of colonisation Wakefield were Messrs. Torrens and Angas. Free emigrants were system. to be sent out with money raised by selling colonial land in England. The Commissioners in London were em- powered to borrow 200,0001, on the security of future taxes. What the East India Company had been in Asia, Grant from this Association was to be in Australia. The grant of 1320 to land was from long. 132° to 141°, to be divided as the 141°. Commissioners desired. If 20,000 persons were not settled there in ten years the Crown could resume the estate; but should there be 50,000, a local government must be formed. As an earnest of good faith, the Commissioners were Commis- required to make a deposit of 20,0001. sioners of South When the gentlemen were not ready with the cash, awa, Australian Messrs. Torrens, Angas, and Gouger undertook to ad- Associa- vance it, upon some concessions being made to a trading tion. 1834. 02 196 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. land sold 1837. SOUTH company they were to organise. This South Australian AUSTRALIA. Company bought a large amount of land from the Com. South missioners at 128. an acre, to sell again at 20s. in 80-acro Australian sections. Company. The Association raised their capital, appointed Mr. Colony set- Fisher their Resident Commissioner, and sent off sur- tled 1836. veyors and emigrants. Capt. Hindmarsh was appointed the Governor. Arriving December 28, 1836, he pro- claimed the Colony. Kangaroo Island was the first attraction, but was found barren and riverless. The whole party then moved Adelaide to St. Vincent's Gulf, and formed Adelaide; the first lands there being sold in March, 1837. March, The early history of this private Colony was one of wild speculation and unbounded faith. Governor Gawler, who came in 1838, foresaw such greatness that his public works were constructed on a gigantic scale. The settlers Failure of neglected farming for the more profitable labour of land the Asso- jobbing. Flour rose to 1001. a ton, Government bills on ciation. England were dishonoured, and State and colonists were wrecked in credit. Crown The English Parliament came to the rescue. The Colony Commissioners, upon the receipt of 200,0001., resigned 1841. their charter in 1841, and South Australia became a Crown Colony. The advance was to be repaid from Prosperity. local taxation. Governor Grey, who succeeded Mr. Gawler, was wise in administration, the settlers were prudent in enterprise, and a few years after the Colony was the most prosperous in Australia. Burra The Burra Burra and other copper mines showed the vast mineral wealth of the province; the plains were easily cultivated; and the pastures, in spite of a dry climate, produced excellent wool. Although the blaze of golden glory in Victoria drew happy off much of the population in 1851 and 1852, yet the colony. steady habits of the people of Adelaide, their admirable patriotism, and their successful energy, have raised South Australia to be one of the most comfortable homes in the world. GEOGRA- Geography and Climate. Mistaken South Australia is a misnomer for the land governed from Adelaide. No part is so southern as the coast of Burra. Safe and PHY. name. 198 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. SOUTH are on the side of New South Wales. The Gawler AUSTRALIA. chain is in Port Lincoln Peninsula. The volcanic craters of Gambier, Schanck, Muirhead, &c., are near the Victoria boundary to the south-east. Among the hills on the overland route to Port Dar- win are the Denison, Macdonnel, Murchison, and Ash- barton ranges; with Mounts Barkly and Leichhardt, near Stuart's Mt. Centre. Musgrave is N. of Fowler's Bay. Rivers. Rivers. The Murray is about the only stream always flowing into the sea, though a bar is at its mouth. The Adelaide Torrens is usually lost in a reedy swamp. Others are lost in sands, though a few fall into the salt lakes. North of Adelaide are the Gawler, Light, Burra, and Broughton. South of it are the Yankalilla of Rapid Bay, the Sturt, Bremer, Angus, Onkaparinga, Hind- marsh, and Inman. The Wakefield is at the head of Gulf St. Vincent. The Torrens basin receives the Frome, Neales, Blanchewater, Strzelecki Creek, and Cooper's Creek. A number of streams crossed by Stuart in the Interior have not been explored. In the Northern Territory, the Macarthur and Roper fall into the Gulf of Carpentaria; the Victoria and Fitzmaurice into the Arafoura Sea, about lat. 15° S. ; and the Alligator and Adelaide in Van Diemen's Gulf, in lat. 12° S. Liverpool river is east of Alligator. Lakes. Lakes. The so-called northern lake district is between lat. 28° and 32°. Torrens, Eyre, Gairdner, Hope, and Blanche are the largest. Blanche is 120 miles by 12; Eyre, 150 long; and Gairdner is much longer, and 350 ft. above sea. The Murray, near its mouth, flows through lake Vic- toria, 30 miles in length; Albert and the narrow Coorong, 80 long, are connected with the Victoria. There are salt lakes toward Mount Gambier-as Eliza, Hawdon, George, and Bonnay-beside the freshwater crater lakes of Leake, Edward, and Gambier. Bays. Bays. The Australian Bight is south-western, and Encounter Bay south-eastern. The Fowler and Streaky Bays are westward. Yorke Peninsula divides the Gulf St. Vin. GEOGRAPHY. 199 SOUTH AUSTRALIA Islands cent of Adelaide from the Spencer's Gulf by Port Lin coln. Rapid Bay is in St. Vincent's Gulf. South-east of Encounter Bay are Lacepede, Guichen, and Rivoli Bays. Port Elliot is west of the mouth of the Murray river; Victor Harbour is 6 miles west of Port Elliot. Port Macdonnel is near Mount Gambier. Backstairs Passage is between Kangaroo Isle and Encounter Bay. Cape Jervis is at the mouth of Gulf St. Vincent. Capes Jaffa and Lannes are south-east. In the Northern Territory, Adam Bay is at the mouth of the Adelaide River. Van Diemen’s Gulf receives the Alligator, and has an outlet by Clarence Straits. The most northern bays are Melville, Arnhem, Mount- morris, Raffles, and Port Essington. Cape Arnhem is N.W. of the Gulf, and Cape Van Diemen is the north- westernmost point, Port Darwin is in lat. 12° S. Islands. Kangaroo, 100 miles long, is south of Gulf St. Vin. cent. Nuyt's Archipelago are in the Australian Bight. Flinders and Investigator's Groups are east of Nuyt's, and west of the Boston isles of Port Lincoln. Melville and Bathurst, of Northern Territory, are north of Port Darwin. Groote-Eyland and Wellesley are, however, in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Divisions. . The old counties are Light, Stanley, Frome, and Burra in the north ; Adelaide and Hindmarsh in the middle of the settled parts; and Russell, Grey, and Robe to the south-east. Flinders in Port Lincoln Penin. sula. There are 36 counties, and 5 squatting districts, each containing 100 square miles. The 36 counties contain 58,946 square miles. But the country is better divided into 98 districts, each of which is governed by a Chinaman and an elected Council. These vary in area from 3 or 4 acres up to 230 acres. They are called after rivers, hills, and town- ships. Tatiara and Mount Gambier are by Victoria. Divisions. Towns Towns. The 19 municipalities are Adelaide, Brighton, Clare, Gawler, Glenelg, Goolwa, Kapunda, Kadina, Kensington 200 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. AUSTRALI SOUTH and Norwood, Moonta, Port Adelaide, Strathalbyn, Un. ALIA. ley, Alberton, P. Pirie, Osmond, Hindmarsh, Augusta. The capital. Adelaide, the capital, with a population of 35,000, stands on the Torrens River in lat. 350 S.; long. 1381° E. Norwood, Kensington, Unley, Hindmarsh, and Brighton are near it. Port Adelaide is 8 miles from the city. Towns,&c., The distances of places north of Adelaide are as fol- north. lows :-Salisbury, 12 miles; Gawler, 26; Barossa, 35 ; Tanunda, 42 ; Mount Crawford, 43; Kapunda, 49; An. gaston, 51; Port Wakefield, 60; Blyth, 120; Clare, 89; Wallaroo (N.W.), 91; Kadina, 95 ; Moonta (N.W.), 99; Redruth and Kooringa of Burra-Barra, 100; North-west Bend, 114; Broughton, 150; Ulooloo, 130 (N.E.); James' Town, 140 ; Port Pirie, 154; Augusta, 240 ; Saltia, 250; Mount Freeling, 500; Mount Margaret and Peake, 700. Do. east. To the east are Hahndorf, 17; Balbannah, 18; Mount Barker, 21 ; Echanga, 21 ; Woodside, 22; Gummeracha, 24; Nairne, 25; Macclesfield, 27; Torrens, 32; Strath- albyn, 35; Wellington, 69; Narracoorte, 220. Do. south. To the south are Morphett Vale, 15; Noalunga, 20; Aldinga, 27; Willunga, 30; Yankalilla, 46; Port Elliot, 52; Inman Valley, 60; Goolwa, 60; Encounter Bay Town, 65; Victor Harbour, 65. Do. south To the south-east are Kingscote, 120; Kingston, 169; Penola, 254; Border Town, 282; Gambier Town, 287; Allendale, 300; Port Macdonnell, 304; Mount Burr, 329. The population is small in that quarter. Do. west. To the west are Moonta, 99; Port Lincoln, 210; Streaky Bay, 406; Fowler Bay, 570; and Venus Bay, 360. Palmerston, of Port Darwin, lat. 12° S., 1,970 N. of Adelaide. South Port is 25 miles from it. Strangway's Springs, Charlotte Springs, Barrow's Creek, Daly Waters, Yam Creek, are in the overland route. CLIMATE. Climate. The CLIMATE of South Australia has been put forward, in some cases, as an objection to immigration. The heat and drought are certainly unpleasant to bear; few can realise the exhaustion of long-continued high tempera- tare except by actual endurance. Heat 65° The thermometrical heat of the Adelaide Plains in average. summer has run up to 110° or 115° in the shade. Capt. Sturt, when in the northern desert, observed the glass east. CLIMATE. 201 at 157° in the sun, and 134º, in the shade. The average SOUTH heat of summer, however, is 73°, and that of winter 55°, AUSTRALIA, giving a mean of about 65º. However distressing the temperature in January and Splendid February, all recognise with pleasure the delightful winter. climate of an Adelaide winter, with the richest of ver- dure, and the most genial of airs. For nine months the Colony is as pleasant a residence as can be found on the globe. Even the deficiency of rain adds to the enjoyment of the tourist. In 1862 it was 115° in shade, 165° in sun. But the heat of Adelaide may be avoided to some Heat extent by a trip to Mount Barker, or other hilly districts, varies. within 25 miles of the city. Eight miles off, even, on Mount Lofty, the thermometer may be seen twenty de- grees below that on the plains. The heat, after all, is a dry one; and, therefore, less Dryness injurious to health, and far more easily borne than a favourable to health. moist one. The intense dryness of the air, especially in the hottest months, promotes a healthy circulation, and a relief in perspiration. With the glass at 110°, the wet-bulb thermometer has stood at only 70°. This is different to the climate of some other places, where, with the glass at 90°, the wet bulb may be as high as 80°. The rain question is an interesting one, as the deposi- Rain. tion in South Australia is below that of the other Australian Colonies. The settled parts, being on the eastern side of Gulf St. Vincent, are deprived of the moisture from westerly breezes, by a great extent of dry intervening land. The thirsty north-east wind gives place to the north-west when rain is expected. The heavy falls come from the west, and are usually sus- pended when the wind shifts to the southward. Rain is not looked for from the north or the east. According to the meteorologist of the Colony, Sir George S. Kingston, Speaker, the year may be appor- tioned into three divisions. During the first four months, 4.231 inches of rain may be calculated upon; during the next five, or spring months, 13:576; and for the last three, 4.203. This gives 22 in. a year. The annual average rain for the seven years from 1839 Seven was 19:303 inches ; for the next seven, 25.275; and for years' the third seven, 21:132. The first period averaged 110 ave days' rain in the year, though the fall was only on 93 in averages, 202 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. SOUTH 1841. From 1864 to 1868, the deposition averaged only AUSTRALIA. 18:116. The average for 39 years was 21.295. Among the lowest gauges were the following:-1854, Lowest 13 15.346 inches ; 1859, 14:842; 1865, 14.713; and 1869, inches. the bad corn year, 13.585. The next year, however, gave ten inches more. The highest known rate was in 1875, when there fell 31.455. The Adelaide rain for 1872 was 22 inches; for 1876, 14; 1878, 21. . Sandy soil. The general arenaceous soil of the Colony increases the trial of the farmer in so dry a climate. It is said that the fall of as much as a quarter of an inch in one day is scarcely appreciable in the summer, owing to the excessive evaporation. The rains are needed to be heavy in order to be serviceable. Hail. Hail storms though few are sometimes violent. In October 1854, great flat pieces of ice fell in a shower, Barometer The barometrical action in Adelaide has been thus action. ; described by the weather authority, Sir George S. King- ston:- “As regards the use of the barometer in forming a judgment on the weather to be expected, I have to observe that the barometer invariably begins to fall with a north-east wind, continuing to fall as the wind in- creases in violence, and draws round by the north, north- west, and westerly, at or about which it reaches its lowest figure. The barometer immediately begins to rise rapidly with the least southing in the wind. I have frequently seen the barometer at its lowest point (as observed by me), 29:3, blowing hard, accompanied by cloudy weather, when no rain has fallen. On the other hand, I have known some of the steadiest and most copious rains to occur with the barometer at 30.2 and the wind light or nearly calm.' Variety of The climatic difference in different parts of South climate. Australia is noticeable, considering the little change of level. Of course, the south-eastern provinces, so exposed to the wet winds, have the large proportion of rain ; especially at Mount Gambier, 900 feet above the sea, and at the southernmost part of the Colony Rainfall in In the wet year of 1861, the following results were the Colony. obtained : 1 Port Augusta . . 7•166 inches in 66 days. 2 Langhorne's Creek . 19275 , 112 » CLIMATE. 203 128 12 157 , 85 140 3 Kooringa 17.172 inches in 107 days. SOUTH 4 Kapunda 20-200 118 10 AUSTRALIA 5 Strathalbyn .. 22-420 6 Adelaide 24.035 7 Bungaree 26.702 8 O'Halloran Hill. 30.160 9 Mount Barker. . 32:001 , 142, 10 Guichen Bay . 33.175 140 11 Penola . 38.613 154 12 Mount Lofty . 45.690 13 Mount Gambier. . 55.686 , 176 Mount Barker, from its elevation, 1,700 feet, might Reason for have been expected moister ; but its inland position is difference. against its humidity. Kooringa, the Burra Burra, though of considerable height, is 60 miles from the sea. Penola, though lower in latitude, is, also, far inland. Port Augusta has the smallest of all, as the dry Lincoln Peninsula lies to the west of it. Further north, the rain- fall is even less, being for some years scarcely per- ceptible. · It is singular, however, that in the central parts of the Water in Continent, in the line of the telegraph between Adelaide centre of Australia. and Port Darwin, water is found in creeks and ponds. The overland explorer, Mr. Stuart, was only two nights without getting surface water. At Palmerston, Nor- thern Territory, 38 inches of rain fell the first 3 months ; 10 fell one week. The cool season there is the dry one. The temperature, as may be supposed, varies with the Different locality. Thus, in the year taken previously, 1861, the tempera- ture. number of days on which the thermometer rose above 90° was as follows:-Adelaide, 45; Strathalbyn, 28; Kapunda and Mount Gambier, 15; Penola, 12; Mount Lofty and Mount Barker, 7; Guichen Bay, 5. The winds from the north-east, called the hot winds, Hot winds. when raising dust as well as temperature, are trouble- some enough. A continuation of them will generally be arrested by a southerly Burster. Black Thursday, Feb- Black ruary 6, 1851, was the most fearful day ever experienced Thursday. over the whole of the south and south-eastern portions of Australia, for bush fires, heat, dust, and darkness. A waterspout, in 1851, drove out 1,500 miners and Water- their families from their burrowing residences in the spout. sides of the Burra Burra Creek. The magnetic variation of Adelaide is 7º E.; of Sturt's Mag- netism. 204 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. SOUTH Desert, 15° E.; and of Port Essington, in the India Sea, AUSTRALIA. 21° E. The line of 10 variation runs through the Great Australian Bight of South Australia. GEOLOGY. Flat coun- try. Tertiary formation very ex- tensive. Depressed basin. Once an archi- pelago. Geology. The Geology of the Colony can only be briefly regarded here. Within lat. 26° S., the greater part of the surface may be called flat and uninteresting. The main ranges of Primary rocks stand out like islands in the tertiary lime- stone. The Silurian strata are 30,000 feet thick. The great tertiary formation extends from east to west, and from north to south, except where interrupted by the ranges of primary rocks. It is carried onward along the southern shores of Australia westward to King George's Sound, and eastward to Cape Howe. It pene- trates the continent nearly to the centre, reappearing on the northern coast. The so-called northern lake district, with the country about Sturt's Desert, is a rather de- pressed basin, compared with the rest of Australia. At the time of this calcareous deposit being formed, Australia was a mere archipelago, like the South Pacific now. Possibly, then, a large continent stood where now the South Sea is situated, and which sank as Australia arose. A deep and tranquil ocean existed where South Australia now appears. Glaciers ran where Adelaide is. Judging by the fossils, many being of a tropical nature, the water was much warmer than any in the same lati. tude now, and must have had connection with the equa- torial sea. The Pecten, Nautilus, Echinas, Spatangus, Terebratula, Coral, and Shark abounded therein. As the bottom rose, the islands of granite, sandstone, slate, &c., became lines of mountain in the country of limestone. The elevation is still going on. Rivoli Bay had to be re-surveyed in consequence of the changes during the past seventy years. Reefs 7 miles in length have now an extent of 14 miles. The Bight has risen 12 feet since 1825; and Augusta 7 feet in forty years. The formation must have been once very far south of its present sea boundary, and it has suffered much by the inroad of the two great gulfs. Part of the Murray basin would seem to be of an upper Miocene age, and that by Ocean where the Colony now appears. Warmer then. Land still rising. Part Pliocene, part Miocene, GEOLOGY. 205 Mount Gambier of a Pliocene. The crag has much re- SOUTH semblance to that of the English chalk. Fossil wingless AUSTRALIA, birds and monster marsupials are seen therein. Bands of flint are found in certain localities. Biscuit- Coralline like pieces of limestone are gathered in the south-eastern origin. province. The curious lake country, including the Coorong, shows its coralline origin. Lakes Victoria and Albert were once bays. The Murray has cut through cliffs 200 feet in depth to make its course. The fossiliferous limestone runs imperceptibly into the Mount Gambier non-fossiliferous. In the Mount Gambier natural well, Aintza 90 feet deep and 100 wide, may be noticed a dozen wells. zopes on the side. Among these are bands of flints, of Bryozov, of Terebratulæ, and of bivalves. The water is of singular transparency, and flows in subterranean rivers to the sea. Cliffs of Gambier have the look of coral atolls, says the South Australian Geological authority, the Rev. J. E. Woods, who talks of 1,000 miles of fossils. Hundreds of miles north of Adelaide is the Torrens The Tor: rens Basin basin, now observed to have a number of large salt lake.3. tertiary. The formation is similar to that of the Adelaide limestone plains, with much saline marl and sand. It is a deep trough, 350 feet above the sea level, into which the drainage of Central Australia finds its way. Though but a dry region, stock do well there some years. The Primary rocks appear through the recent tertiary Primary rocks. floor in the long backbone of the Colony, north from Cape Jervis. They run far into the interior of Australia. Other isolated ranges rise through the limestonc on Port Lincoln Peninsula. There is no Secondary rock. Primary sandstone, slate, and limestone, more or less metamorphosed, are seen along these mountains, and are strongly developed in the Grey and Barrier ranges, the Davenport range, the Flinders range, and the Cooper Creek country. The granite, and its compounds, may Granite. be noticed intruding through the primary strata, or pro- truding from the limestone floor. Splendid red varieties are obtained from Kaiserstuhl, Barossa, and Port Lincoln. Hack's Mount Centre is granitic. In the south of Yorke Peninsula the rock is red, and often combined with much quartz. Splendid felspar crystals are procured from Mount Crawford. Granite crops out to the west of Augusta, and in the neighbour- 206 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Interior. SOUTH hood of Coffin Bay, Streaky Bay, and Fowler Bay, as AUSTRALIA well as in the Nuyt's Archipelago. In the interior, Mr. Stuart came upon noble granite mountains along with the primary rocks. A portion of the country appeared carboniferous; and much of it was of basalt, bursting through the tertiary deposits. Volcanic The volcanic element is almost confined to the Mount rocks. Gambier district. Basalt, however, is present at Mount Bryan, Mount Arden, and even north of Blanchewater. It comes through the limestone on the Gawler river, and crops out at Kapunda. Greenstone dykes are on the side of Mount Remarkable. Rich volcanic soil is north. But in the lake country of the south-east both basalt and greenstone are more common. Porphyry, however, is the intrusive rock from the Victorian boundary west- Trap on the ward to the Murray. A line of trap runs along the border. south-eastern border of Victoria. Craters. Volcanic cones are common in the south-eastern Gam- bier country, where four craters may be distinguished. Lake Leake and other inland waters near are but the Devil's craters of extinct volcanoes. Mount Schank, or Devil's Punch Punchbowl, is without water, though 200 feet deep. bowl. Mount Gambier, with its ash wall 900 feet high, has a Mount circumference of eight miles, and contains three lakes. Gambier. The Blue Lake, once called the Devil's Inkstand, is 200 Crater lakes. feet from the surface, and is 260 feet deep. The ash has burst through the limestone; it is 150 feet thick by the lake, 50 feet at a quarter of a mile, and 6 feet at a mile. A wall of cinder supports one of the broken sides of the mountain. The S. coast was suddenly upheaved. Monster Fossil monster mammals, as the Diprotodon, &c., have mammals. been taken from the Pliocene drift. The skull of an enormous wombat was seen at Ulaloo. Metals and The metalliferous wealth of the Colony is owing to limestone. the presence of so much crystalline limestone, so usually associated with copper development. The similarity of rocks in the Northern Territory gives promise of deposits of minerals there. Gold Gold has been traced in various localities, from 100 localities. miles south of Port Darwin to the centre of the continent, though favourable circumstances for the working are hardly to be expected at present. Mines are being de- veloped within Thirty miles of Adelaide, but little gold. GOVERNMENT. 207 and agri MENT. well ruled. Favoured with so much copper, lead, and silver, South SOUTH Australia must be resigned to purchase coal from New AUSTRALIA, South Wales. Kerosene has been got from a bituminous Coal. mineral beside the Coorong, and coal in Kangaroo Island. The geology is very favourable to agriculture around Geology. Adelaide, and for fifty miles eastward and southward, a culture. more still to north-west. But in most other places the limestone is too much covered with sand, or a heartless white mar), to give encouragement to the farmer. There are many localities most desirable from the for- mation, but where the want of rain makes a difficulty. Government. GOVERN- South Australia, being the only Australian Colony Never a that never received convicts from England, has had less convict of British interference or control than the rest. colony. For some years a private company's settlement, it passed through few changes when becoming a Crown Colony. Though a responsible government did not exist there, nor anywhere else on the continent, till October Always 1856, the Governors and Council never assumed despotic well ry rights, and the country was conducted liberally and wisely. The Northern territory may desire self-rule. By the new Constitution, and according to the ex. pressed wishes of the previous Parliament, which was partly nominee and partly elective, two Houses were recognised. The Legislative Council was to consist of Legislative eighteen members, who served for 12 years. Those who Council. had the suffrage to vote for them were required to pos- sess a freehold of 501., or to pay a house-rental of 251. The Lower House, or House of Assembly, was to have House of thirty-six members, each nominated for three years. Assembly. Voters were only required to be of age, and to have re- sided for six months previously in an electoral district. There are now forty-six members in the Assembly chosen in the twenty-two electoral districts. The voting is by ballot. The Executive Council consists of the Governor and his ministers. The Legislative Council has twenty-four members. The Colonial Revenue for the year 1878–9 was Revenue. 1,592,6341., of which 511,4551. came from the customs. The railways brought 274,7651., at a cost of 198,5811. The taxes are only 42s. per head. The estimated revenue una 208 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. ture. SOUTH for the year to July 1880, is 1,855,5871. The estimated AUSTRALIA. expenditure was 1,854,3451. In 1840 the revenue was 30,1991.; in 1850, 238,9821. ; in 1853, 539,7541. ; in 1860, 438,8271. ; in 1865, 1,089,1281. ; in 1870, 657,5761. ; in 1877–8, 1,455,1051. Expendi- The expenditure for 1877–8 was 1,532,0191. A large item was 267,7961. for interest and redemption of loan. This loan, for public works, is above eight millions. Civil list cost was 18,9001. ; police, 63,9771. ; educa- tion, 81,2541.; charitable institutions, 70,3571. ; judicial and legal, 41,6791. ; postal, 142,1821. ; military defences, 16,7951. ; public works, 257,2211. ; railways, 163,3271. The estimated expenditure for 1878-9 was 1,620,3091. Though not so well favoured as some of its eastern neighbours, South Australia has had a wise and econo- Debt. mical administration. The public loans are not to pay debts, but develop railways and other productive works, as well as to introduce immigrants for labour and profit. Economy. Metals, wool and grain have to be brought vast distances to port. Population. In 1838 there were 6,000 people; in 1840, 14,630; in 1850, 63,700 ; in 1860, 126,830; in 1870, 183,797; in 1873, 195,000. In 1862 it was estimated that 38 per Nation. cent. of the people were native-born : English, 35; Irish, ality. 10; German, 7; Scotch, 6. The proportion of the native-born and Irish has since much increased. Sexes. The sexes are more equal now than they were. In 1844, 9,526 were males and 7,840 females; in 1851, 35,302 and 28,398; in 1861, 65,048 and 61,782 ; in Déc. 1872, 98,481 and 93,742. At the end of 1879 the population was 260,000. There were but 750 in Northern territory. Town Adelaide, at the end of 1878, had 40,000 inhabitants ; population. the Burra, 4,000 ; Kapunda, 2,500 ; Port Adelaide, 3,200; Gawler, 2,000; and Glenelg, 2,500. Births. The Births, in 1840, were 360 in a population of 14,630; in 1850, 2,174 of 63,700; in 1860, 5,568 of 124,112, in 1871, 7,082 of 185,626, and 1873, 7,109 of 198,257. In 1878, 9,282 or 38.22 to 1,000. Marriages. The Marriages in these years were as follows :—1840, 186; 1850, 233 ; 1860, 1,031 ; 1878, 1,250. These are POPULA- TION. POPULATION. 209 1864 1877 1,212 305 respectively as one in 79, in 273, in 120, and in 116. In SOUTH : 1873 there were married under 20 years of age 52 males AUSTRALIA, and 462 females ; in 1877, marriages were 8.67 to 1,000. The Deaths were, in 1810, 320, in 1850, 986; in 1860, Deaths. 2,336 ; and in 1871, 2,378. The several proportions were one in 45, in 63, in 53, and in 78. The deaths for 1873 were 2,631, or but 131 in 1,000; in 1878, 3,749 averaged 151 to 1,000. The ages of decease have varied relatively in different Ages at death. years, thus :- 1862 Under 2 years . . 1,028 1,214 · 5 · · · 172 425 , 10 , . . 74 130 46 9 30 , . . 211 297 391 » 50 . . . 185 287 515 Above 50 , . 241 202 629 Different statements as to the causes of disease have Diseases. been published. Of 2,336 cases in 1860, it was stated that 677 were from zymotic disease, 178 from tuber- cular, 302 from nervous, 259 from digestive organs, 20 from urinary, 159 from debility, 166 from atrophy, and 97 from constitutional. The official record for 1878 describes the diseases thas: miasmatic, 780 ; dietic, 62 ; diathetic, 144; tuber. cular, 341 ; nervous, 455; parasitic, 25; circulatory, 188; respiratory, 433; digestive, 228; urinary, 66 ; develop- mental, 392; nutritive, 365; accident, 195; murder, 3; suicide, 18–of 3,749 cases. Another analysis gives : zymotic, 874 ; constitutional, 485; local, 1,396 ; developmental, 757; violence, 220. The foreign element of population, excepting German, Germans. is very small in South Australia. When the Victorian Government exacted 101. upon each Chinaman arriving Chinese. in port, the cunning Mongolians landed free in South Australia, and walked overland to the diggings in Victoria. The Aborigines have been better cared for in this Aborigines Colony than elsewhere, as humane regulations concerning kindly them were adopted from the earliest settlement. Food and clothing were distributed, though little needed. Schools were established for the young that could be got there. Missions have been formed among them, and native settlements for civilisation have been well supported. treated. 210 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Die SOUTH But, though gentle and good-tempered, the tribes pre- AUSTRALIA. ferred their own customs and liberty. The schools were forsaken, the teaching was disregarded, the civilisation was abandoned. When gathered together, they seem to childless. lose vigour, and die childless. The aboriginal reserves for missions include 500,000 acres in the Northern Territory, the Lake district, &c. In 1862, there were 2,642 males, 2,404 females; in 1877, 2,203 males, 1,750 females. Of the whole, only 217 worked for the whites. EDUCA- Education and Religion. TION. Religious The difficulties as to dogmatic religious instruction teaching. have been fewer there than elsewhere. There being no denomination specially favoured by the State, the Pro- testant bodies were agreed upon the simple system of the use of the Bible in the class-room, and the Roman Catho- lics could use their Douay Bible; but such reading must be before secular school-work. No catechism is allowed in school. Teachers. Teachers, to exercise their duties in the Colony, must have a license from Government, certifying as to character Pupils at and professional efficiency. By recent returns, it is seen tend well. that 340 schools have 699 licensed teachers, with 34,491 children on the roll, and 72 per cent. average attendance. The high ratio of attendance marks the anxiety of parents, even in an agricultural country, for the instruction of their families. A Normal School is now established Expense. The fees amount to three-fourths the sum paid by Government. The education vote for 1878 was 94,8191. An excellent upper class school has been established by the Church of England in Adelaide. There is a university. Many wish to copy Victoria, in making education free, compulsory, and secular. The increased expenditure for a struggling colony is the chief difficulty. At the request of ten parents the Bible may be read aloud by the teacher of a school. RELIGION. Religion is represented by a number of active religious communities. A very considerable portion of the first settlers were good men, determined that the worship of tlers for dom of God should not be neglected in their new home under the worship. gum tree. Earl EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 211 They resolved, however, that there should be perfect SOUTH equality of religious denominations; and that, to pre- AUSTRALIA, -serve that freedom, the State should make no grants in aid of public worship. At length, however, through the combination of some Episcopalians, Roman Catholics, Presbyterians, and Wesleyans, a trial of State aid was State aid tried. made in 1847. Salaries were given to ministers of any denomination, when the people subscribed an equal sum. This was pronounced so unsatisfactory by the great No state majority of colonists, that the law was abrogated in 1851. aid since Since that time, Government assistance has not been so. 1851. licited; nor, according to general opinion, has it been much required. The example set by South Australia has been followed by all the other colonies of Australia and New Zealand. In no part of the world are the sects so developed as The Metho. in South Australia. The Methodist family have dis- dist colony. played the most energy. Their sittings for worship are nearly double those of the Church of England, Presby- terian, and Roman Catholics put together. The Inde- pendents, first in the field there, have had an influence beyond their numbers. The Presbyterian sections have recently united, though a portion hold aloof, as free. The •Christians' include Disciples, Brethren, &c., who sup- pose themselves unsectarian. The Lutherans came out as a persecuted body of Pietists from Germany. The following will give a view of the strength of those Places of various denominations in January 1878:- worship. Denomination Places of Worship Sittings Wesleyan Methodists 263 36,775 Primitive Methodists 15,500 | Bible Christian Methodists I 118 14,950 New Connexion Methodists 530 Church of England .. 24,702 Roman Catholic 11,980 Independents 9,700 Christians, &c. 7,450 Baptists . 9,150 Lutherans . 5,724 Presbyterian Church 6,890 Free Presbyterians. 890 Unitarians , Society of Friends . 200 Moravians 200 Jews. . 200 New Jerusalem Church 127 . . 390 130 212 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. SOUTH There were 530 Sunday schools, with 5,200 teachers AUSTRALIA. and 39,000 scholars, in Jannary 1878. In the year 1862, the Wesleyans had 20,325 worship- Sunday pers and 6,628 Sunday scholars ; Episcopalians, 11,285 schools. and 3,115; Independents, 9,201 and 2,150; Lutherans, Statistics, 1862. 6,611; Baptists, 3,450 and 795; Free Presbyterians, 2,600 and 800; Church of Scotland, 850; Christian Brethren, 730 and 292; United Presbyterians, 680 and 186; Disciples of Christ, 380 and 179; Unitarians, 270, &c. The Diocesan Synod was formed in 1855. Bishop Short arrived in 1847. Town versus country. AGRICUL- Agriculture. TURE. The leading South Australia, notwithstanding supposed inferiority farming of climate and soil, has more cultivated land than other colony. Australian settlements. Such is the euterprise of its farmers that, in spite of low yields and low prices, they still struggle onward to the front, and thus illustrate in a remarkable degree those genuine British characteristics of pluck, patience, and plodding perseverance. When the bad times of 1841 set in, there was a flight from the town to the fields; for the year before there were one-third more in the towns than in the country. Three or four years after, there were twice as many on farms as in city streets, and the acreage under crop was five times that of 1840. Farming a One consequence of this exodus from Adelaide was, respectable that agriculture became associated with respectability in pursuit. South Australia, to an extent not known in any other colony. The original settlers were, to a larger degree than usual, men of capital and education. When these betook themselves to the plough, though from necessity, the practice of husbandry was deemed more honourable than in colonies where convict labour was employed. This reputation for high principle, sobriety, education, and sterling virtues, the South Australian farmers strive still to maintain. Not a sugar Though the climate is so warm, the deficiency of colony ex- moisture prevents the culture of sugar and many other the North. tropical productions. In that respect Queensland en. joys the advantage. Yet the Northern Territory has both soil and climate admirably fitted for spices and the cane. AGRICULTURE. 213 Its proximity to dense populations in the Asiatic islands SOUTH will facilitate the gain of cheap coloured labour, and AUSTRALIA. enable it most successfully to compete with the Mauritius market. Chinese labour is now being introduced. But South Australia proper is more limited in the extent of vegetable productions. When the Hobart Town farmers sold, in the Adelaide The wheat. market, their flour at 1001. a ton, and hay and potatoes Importers at equally fabulous rates, they concluded that they became should continue to feed the inhabitants—at least so long exporters. as any were mad enough to stay in a place where no corn would grow. But when they heard, in 1844, that those parched Adelaide plains had 18,980 acres in wheat, 4,264 in barley, 1,045 in oats, besides hundreds of acres of self- sown, they knew that the Adelaide market would be closed against them. But no one then calculated upon a time when Adelaide should become the great wheat provider for Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane. Mr. Ridley's reaping machine was of wonderful ser. Ridley's vice to the early growers on these plains. The rapidity reaping machine. of the ripening process caused much corn to be shed on the ground before the sickle could come in. This machine, which runs easily along the even surface, combed out the grain, and thrashed it; while the draught produced did the work of winnowing. With two men and three horses 15 acres are reaped; or 20 acres with two teams a day. Governor Grey sent a specimen of this machine to Prince Albert in 1845, who warmly congratulated the patriotic and ingenious miller. Of course the straw was left standing; though this, when burnt off, gave the fields of that day about the only manure they could get. Another circumstance facilitated the advance of wheat. 80-acre farming. This was the division into 80-acre sections. sections. The area was not too much for a man with small means to compass, and not too small for a good farm. There was very little timber to clear, so that the plough could be sent, if required, from one end to the other without hindrance. Wheat thrives well in dry, open north-west. Wheat-growing was easily performed, and the product Wheat as easily got rid of. It was soon ascertained that, while land. barley and oats did but poorly in the thirsty land, the 214 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. SOUTH wheat did better, and was unsurpassed in quality. It AUSTRALIA. has been grown in the dry centre of Australia. In the statistics of land under cultivation, for the year ending March 31, 1879, we learn that, of the grain crops, there were 1,163,646 acres of wheat in the counties. The wheat crop, 1879, will give 300,000 tons for export. Small Owing to the dryness of the climate, the withholding yield in dry years. of showers in the spring will cause a great deficiency in the harvest, for an inch of rain throws 22,000 gallons on an acre of ground. Thus, in 1867, the yield averaged the very small amount of 4 bushels 40 lbs. an acre. The average from 1862 to 1872 was only 9} bushels; though the year 1863 gave 14 bushels, and 1866 14 bushels 20 lbs. It ranged in 1873, a dry year, from 2 to 17. 12 bushels, The produce of 1870 was double that of the year pre- ceding, as that of 1872 was double that of the year before. The export of flour in 1873 was 725,4501. ; and of wheat, 957,3771. In 1876-7 the shipped breadstuffs came to 1,988,7161. The average for that year was 12 bushels, only 7 next, but nearly 10 last year. Crops' This difference of yield applies to other crops as well, averages. as may be witnessed in the subjoined returns for 1870-1 and 1871-2:- . . . 5 bushels 44 lbs. in 1871 . . 1 . 30 „ „ 1870 Barley. 9 , 27 „ „ 1871 1876-7. Wheat . • . . . 11 " • 14 1870 Oats Hay . 14 » 1871 1871 „, 1870 20 cwt. . . . . 28 » „ 1870 Prices. The prices of wheat have also fluctuated. They have ranged upward from less than 4s. a bushel. The average for the crop of 1866–7 was 4s. 5d.; for 1863–4, 7s. 10d. ; for 1876–7, about 6s. The yield of 1858 was at an average of 11 bushels 11 lbs., realising 6s. 8d. ; that of 1862 was nearly equal per acre, but fetched only 48. 8d. The average during the last ten years has been 6s. Rates of An interesting parallel is presented between the rates London and of wheat in Adelaide and London :- Adelaide, Adelaide London 1865, from 6s. to 58. 9d. 4s. 9d. to 58. 11d. 1868, „ 4s. 3d. to 9s. 6s, 3d. to 9s. 3d. 1869, „ 4s. 1d. to 6s. 2d. 5s. 7d. to 68, 7d. 1878, , 5s. to 5s. 9d. 5s. 6d. to 6s. AGRICULTURE. 215 In 1872, while wheat was 58. 6d. a bushel, barley SOUTH was 4s., and oats 38. 9d.; potatoes were 51. a ton, AUSTRALIA. ? and hay was 21. 178. 9d. Meanwhile fresh butter sold at Other 9d. a pound, and cheese 6d. Prices have been higher since. prices. Green forage depends upon a dripping season. While, Green food. in 1878, 7,433 acres were devoted to lucerne, 1,529 were of wheat and other grain, cut down for green feed. Of 21,078 acres in artificial grasses, much were in the county of Grey—so much more favoured with rain than the north and west. At Gambier 12,598 were sown. Hay, which is principally made of weedy wheat, is a Hay. pretty safe crop. In 1878 it was grown on 218,359 acres; though, in 1862, on 78,747 acres, the yield varies from 20 to 30 cwt. an acre. Potatoes occupied 5,398 acres, producing 14,378 tons. These grow best at Mt. Barker and Mt. Gambier; the latter had 2,556 acres. The acres in crops for the year ending March 1879 Increase of amounted to 2,011,319. In 1864 before there were acreage. 320,160, 65 per cent. of which were in wheat. In 1856 the acreage in crop was 203,423; in 1850, 64,728; in 1843, 28,690; in 1840, only 2,503. The orchards have always been of importance in the Orchards. Colony. In the season, fruit is of such abundance as to be almost ansaleable. Peaches, nectarines, figs, and plums are in profusion. Apples are not to be surpassed in quality of flavour, though the keeping varieties flourish better in Tasmania. In the hilly districts raspberries, strawberries, currants, and gooseberries are raised. In 1878-9 the orchards comprehended 3,574 acres; vineyards, 4,297; gardens, 4,677. But the grape is pre-eminently the fruit of South Grapes. Australia, whose dry climate resembles the best parts of the Rhine and Rhone. The 4,452 acres of vines in 1871–2 produced 852,205 gallons of wine, besides 33,826 cwt. of grapes sold for the table. Ten years before, the acreage of vineyards was 3,918, and the wine produce was 472,797 gallons. A million gallons were made in 1872. The oïdium plague is not unknown there. The German immigrants have the merit of introducing the successful culture of the grape. The wine has the Wine. best of reputation among the Australian manufacture, though hitherto protective duties have hindered its sale in the more populated colonies. The exportation, there- 216 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Want of silk. SOUTH fore, has not been considerable, as the ander mentioned AUSTRALIA. table shows: Yield Exported 1866 . . . 839,979. . . 12,984 1868 . . . 863,584 . . . 24.316 1870 . . . 895,795 . . . 50.085 1877 . . . 458,303 . . . 48,691 Olive. The olive, which succeeds so admirably in that climate, is not a commercial success. The fruit falls under foot, because it will not pay to gather it. Growers have offered labour. it for nothing, in the hope of inducing capitalists to es- tablish oil manufactures. This is not the only instance of the want of labour delaying the productive industry of the Colony. Attempts long failed, for the like rea- sons, to convert the grape into dried fruit. Flax and Flax is found to succeed in the Adelaide district; 100 tons were produced last year at Willunga. The mulberry, though doing fairly, may need more water than the cli. mate can afford. The Lombardy practice of irrigation cannot easily be applied to the foliage for the silkworms, on the plains of South Australia. Hops succeed favour- ably at Mount Gambier and Mount Barker. Farming Kangaroo Island, the first settled part of the Colony, localities. and once believed the Paradise of the South, had, in 1878, only 261 acres in wheat. Victoria County had the largest crop—191,110 acres ; Stanley had 160,259; Gawler, 146,942; Light, 138,429; Dalhousie, 133,762. The country around Willunga, Strathalbyn, and other places on the west side of St. Vincent's Gulf, is highly productive. The hilly district, running northward from Adelaide, including Mount Barker, Barossa, Tanunda, &c., is beautiful and fertile. The country round Port Pirie is much favoured by farmers. The two great peninsulas, Port Lincoln and Yorke, are less heeded for cultivation. Beside the narrow belt of land on the east side of St. Vincent's Gulf, the other farming region is the lovely and romantic country of Mount Gambier, a few miles from the Victorian boundary. Mount Never, perhaps, was there beheld such an oasis of Gambier beauty and fertility, as exists for a few square miles oasis. around the old crater of Gambier. PASTORAL 217 Pastoral. SOUTH If the climate be regarded as an obstacle in the path AUSTRALIA. of the farmer, it is equally so to the squatter, though both manage to make a good living in the country. But recent discoveries prove that farther north, once thought & desert, rich black soil gives splendid grasses in the driest seasons ; a little rain suffices for the pasture. Within the settled district much purchased land is devoted to grazing. In 1878 there were 100,000,000 unoccupied and unleased acres out of 243,000,000. The four so-called pastoral districts are, the Northern, Pastoral Western, North-eastern and Eastern. Other parts are districts. divided into farming counties. The area is enormous ; but while some part of the country is of bare bills, scrubs, salt lakes, poor marly plains, and sandy wastes, in the other localities cattle are raised in great quantities, and sheep fatten with much facility. But stations have had to be abandoned for a season or Effect of two together in consequence of drought. Country full of drought. grass one year may be next year a true desert. Water- holes failing, nothing but retreat is left to the squatter. Of course, footrot and lung-disease are very far less troublesome there than in other colonies; and the wool suffers somewhat in quantity by the extra heat. Horses and cattle do very well if water be at hand. Locusts were a plague to the pastures in 1879. Wild dogs are not so great an evil as in Victoria; Bush life. though the lambing season is not usually so good. Shep- herds have their difficulties in times of severe drought, and men have sometimes died from thirst in journeying from one station to another. For all that, the life in the bush there is eagerly sought after by new comers, and generally well appreciated for its healthiness. The original stock came from the Cape of Good Hope Stock and Van Diemen's Land. Great judgment and enter. origin. prise have been shown in the improvement of breeds. The Overlanders, who brought sheep, cattle, and horses Over- across from New South Wales in the early times, were landers. highly esteemed in Adelaide for their courage. Port Phillip was established simultaneously with South Aus. tralia, and was its rival buyer for stock. The dangers of overlanding were want of supplies, 218 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. SOUTH want of water, exposure to weather, and attack from AUSTRALIA, natives. The primitive stock drivers were men of tre- Trials of mendous energy, and great powers of endurance. Messrs. stockmen. Bonney and Hawdon brought animals from the Mur- rumbidgee in April 1838, and Capt. Sturt drove over 400 head of cattle that year, suffering fearfully from thirst on the route. One of the most dashing overlanders, in 1838, was Mr. Eyre, afterwards Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand, and then Governor of Jamaica. Bad times. The prices of sheep and cattle helped to impoverish the new settlers. Sheep bought for 51. a head were ulti- mately sold for a shilling or two. But in spite of all disadvantages of climate, country, and cost, The flocks and herds increased, and squatters shared in the rising prosperity. In 1878, 104,000,000 acres were leased. Squatters. In 1878,1,328 Crown lessees held 174,180 square miles; while 144, having annual licenses, occupied 5,470. The rents of the first came to 40,5661. a year, and of the last, to 8,3777. In 1862 the stockholders were 392, employ- ing 3,099 hands. The drought of 1877 tried the stock. Increase · The increase of the stock is thus told :- of stock. Cattle Sheep 1840 959 16,052 166,770 1846 2,000 60,000 700,000 1850 6,488 100,000 1,000,000 1856 22,260 272,746 1,962,460 1860 49,399 278,265 2,824,811 1862 56,251 258,342 3,431,000 1864 62,899 204,892 4,106,230 1868 75,409 123,213 4,987,024 1871 78,125 143,463 4,412,055 1872 82,215 151,662 4,900,687 1878-9 121,553 251,802 6,377,812 As will be apparent from the above, sheep-farming is thought more profitable than cattle-raising. Most stock is raised in agricultural areas on purchased land. In pastoral districts proper, in 1878, were only 5,700 horses, 56,411 cattle, and 1,106,437 sheep. Increase While 4,885 cwt. of preserved meats were exported in of exports. 1870, 2,470 went off in the year 1878. The tallow ex- port, which was 24,711 cwt. in 1868, rose to 32,420 in 1878. Hides yielded 13,4721. in 1872, and but 753 in 1862. Tallow and hides are now used up there. Wool Wool is now the staple export of the Colony. The contrast is very remarkable between 7701., the value in Horses MINING. 219 Value lbs. 1838, and 1,305,2801. in 1868, about seventeen hundred SOUTH- times the export in thirty years. Some notion of this AUSTRALIA. progress, and the variations of prices, may be gained from what follows: Quantity Wool 1842 528,032 22,036 export. 1845 1,331,888 72,235 1850 3,266,017 131,731 1853 4,607,281 236,020 1854 3,463,760 182,419 1855 5,590,171 283,479 1860 11,731,371 673,368 1866 19,739,523 990,173 1868 28,899,190 1,305,280 1870 25,908,728 902,753 1871 28,539,567 1,170,885 1872 33,709,717 1,647,387 1878 67,982,463 2,417,397 Mining. MINING. One of the earliest colonists, Mr. Mengè, an eccentric Menge the man of science, with strong though peculiar religious geologist. views, made the first geological exploration of the hills north and south of Adelaide. He discovered valuable minerals, and predicted that the Colony would have great wealth in copper, silver, gold, and precious stones. But the first working mine was that of Wheal Gawler, First mine. in 1841. Glen Osmond, also a lead mine, soon followed. 1841. Kapunda Copper Works were then opened by Messrs. Dutton & Bagot. The Burra Burra followed in 1845, Burra and gave the impetus of discovery to many mines. Burra, In 1851 mining was very prosperous, there being then 1845, 33 copper companies, 3 silver, 3 lead, with 3 smelting works. The gold fever attracted miners to the Victoria fields, and left the copper walls silent. Again the solid pursuit of copper-mining was resumed in the Colony, to be stimulated by the great discovery of the Moonta Moonta, lodes, in 1861. 1861. The Burra Burra Company for some time received dividends at the rate of 800 per cent. per annum. The area of 10,000 acres was purchased for 10,0001. The ore Copper raised in 1851 was valued at 350,0001. The deep work- yields. ings hardly pay at the present time. The Moonta, on the barren Yorke Peninsula, has been a great success; during the last six months of 1872 above 12,000 tons of 220 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. SOUTH valuable ore were raised, affording 136,0001. in dividends. AUSTRALIA. All copper export, 1872, was 806,3641. ; 1878, 291,9291. Copper The principal copper mines at the present time are mines. Bremer, 25 miles from Adelaide ; Kanmantoo, 25; Reedy Creek, 32; Kapunda, 50 ; Moonta, Yelta, Poona, Doora, Wallaroo, 85; Burra Burra or Kooringa, 100; Burraw- ing, 150; Prince Alfred, 160; Blinman, 262; Burr, 300; and Yudanamatana, 325; Sliding Rock, 365. Bismuth Those at work for bismuth are Daly and Stanley, 328 and silver miles. Cobalt is found at Catarpe, 100. The silver mines. working mines are Glen Osmond, 4 miles; Ben Lomond, 10; Almanda, 12; Wheal Coglin, 48; and Talisker, by Cape Jervis, 54 miles from Adelaide. Hamlin has copper. Not content with this monopoly of copper, the South Australians have earnestly sought after gold. Mengè, the German, told them nearly thirty years ago that by sinking through iron they would come upon the precious Gold. metal. The gold mine of Victoria, near Adelaide, was worked for some years before Ballarat was known, but the vein did not pay, or the miners knew not how to work it. After the gold discovery, much money was spent to find a field in South Australia. There are rich quartz reefs in the Northern Territory at Palmerston, Howley Creek, Yam Creek, Pine Creek, &c. Gold workings also exist southward at the Barossa, Mount Pleasant, Metal Gummeracha, Ulooloo, Echunga, Onkaparinga, &c. region. The metalliferous region extends all along the main range northward from Cape Jervis to Blanchewater, 500 export. miles. The mineral export for 1877 was bat 635,6431. Mineral Mineral Leases, by the Act of 1862, are confined to leases. 320 acres, and for a period of fourteen years, with right of renewal. The rent was to be 10s, an acre. By the Regulations of 1871, miners and others engaged in mining pursuits could obtain half an acre of land at a rental of 10s. a year, for the term of seven years. Gold-mining regulations, founded upon those adopted by Victoria, afford great advantages to the speculative hunter for the precious metal. In the Murray Flats a lease for 10,000 acres may be had at a peppercorn rent, on condition that 2,0001, a year be spent in actual mining for gold. For smaller claims the rental is 2s. 6d. an acre. Coal leases. Leases for 10,000 acres may be obtained by those Mineral Gold TRADE. 221 seeking for coal or petroleum. The prospect is not SOUTH promising, as the carboniferous system is very feebly AUSTRALIA. represented. The mineral has been found on Kangaroo Island. A bonus of 10,0001. is offered for the finding of a coal field. By Act 1878, 80 acres of mineral land may be licensed for search at 11. for a year, and 640 on lease at ls. an acre and 11. fee. Licenses may be re- newed. Gold is not included. TRADE. Trade and Manufactures. South Australia bas neither the trade of New South Wales, nor the manufactures of Victoria. Its enormous yield of bread-stuffs, and its valuable production of copper have, however, employed a large shipping interest. In 1843 the tonnage entering the port was 7,532; in Tonnage. 1849, 80,623 ; 1853, 131,994; 1859, 111,436; 1863, 127,667; 1869, 169,991 ; 1872, 175,867 ; 1878, 452,738. The port of Augusta, at the head of Spencer's Gulf, Ports. receives the metal of the northern mines, as that of Wallaroo does the copper of the Yorke Peninsula claims. The ports at the mouth of the Murray, as well as near Mount Gambier, have greatly advanced the shipping trade. The enterprise of Adelaide merchants first utilised the Murray adventurous cruise of Captain Cadell down the Murray, in trade. 1853. Though, unfortunately, a bar prevents steamers passing the mouth of that river, an inner port of the Goolwa passage was brought into communication with the open sea at Port Elliot and Victor Harbour. This gave South Australia the hope of commanding the trade of the Murray. Steamers brought down the produce from both banks along 2,000 miles, and even down the Darling many hundreds of miles. The produce was then brought onward by coasters to Adelaide. Though Victoria, by the railway to Echuca on the Murray, arrests much of this traffic, a large amount of carrying trade is still conducted by the Adelaide merchants. The exports viâ Murray in 1877 were 204,9961. In order to get a day or two in advance of Mel. Mail bourne with the monthly mail, as well as to avoid the enterprise. loss of seven days, this poor but energetic government was induced to expend 15,0001. a year in sending a 222 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Territory Y SOUTH steamer specially to King George's Sound for the letters AUSTRALIA. to Adelaide. The Mail ship now calls at Adelaide. Telegraph The establishment of the telegraph line across the to Port continent to Port Darwin, is another evidence that this Darwin. Colony, though inferior in resources to others, is deter- mined to make the most of those it possesses, and develop internal trade. The cost was 446,0001. Northern Already the Northern Territory is giving an extension of colonial traffic. If ever a railway be made across the tiade. continent from Adelaide to Port Darwin, commerce will be greatly advanced, rich mineral country and good pasturage being known in the interior. The growth of tropical products is proceeding satisfactorily though slowly in North Australia. Few re The imports and exports are the exponents of trade. exports. Not being near a State needing supplies, the re-export trade is an inferior one, and so differing from that of Sydney or Melbourne. This reduces the item of im. : ports. The exports, however, are somewhat swelled by the Murray traffic bringing down the produce of New South Wales and Victoria. Imports In a period of exultation, from real or fancied pros. perity, the imports are larger than usual, and bear an according to times. excess of proportion to the exports. In seasons of de- pression there is less desire for luxuries, and a sterner resolution to limit purchases of all kinds. In the fictitious period of wealth, 1839 and 1840, the imports were respectively 346,6491. and 303,3571., while the exports were but 16,0391. and 32,0791. The year 1853, after the gold discovery, imported 2,336,2901., while the year before received but 798,8117. The im. ports then exceeded those of 1871 afterwards. On the contrary, in the bad year of 1843, the imports fell to 109,1371., and the year after to 118,9151. Yet the exports rose in the first year to 66,1601., and afterwards to 80,8581. Upon awakening from the gold dream, in 1855, the imports were only 1,370,9381., or one million pounds less than two years before. The fluctuations in exports and imports mark the vicissitudes of colonial trade. The year of insolvencies followed the year of speculation and undue prosperity. Other extracts from official statistics will indicate the march of trade :- fluctuate TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 223 SOUTH Year Imports Exports S. A. Produce AUSTRALIA 1838 158,682 6,442 5,040 1840 303,357 32,079 15,650 Imports 1845 184,819 148,459 131,800 and exports 1848 384,326 504,068 465,878 statistics. 1850 845,572 570,817 545,040 1852 798,811 1,787,741 736,899 1856 1,366,529 1,665,740 1,398,867 1860 1,639,591 1,783,716 1,576,326 1865 2,927,596 3,129,846 2,754,657 1870 2,029,793 2,419,488 2,123,297 1871 2,158,022 3,582,397 3,289,861 1872 2,801,571 3,738,623 3,524,395 1878 5,719,611 5,355,020 4,198,034 The imports were chiefly, as in other colonies, manu. Imports- factured articles, directly or indirectly, from Great where from. Britain. Those for 1877 amounted to 4,625,5111., paying 478,4851. duty. From Britain the value was 2,828,8341. ; from New South Wales, 317,3451. ; Vic- toria, 807,8631.; Mauritius, 137,6441.; Foreign States, 268,3961. Of the imports for 1877, more than seven- eighths were for home consumption. · The chief exports of 1878 were the following:— Wool, Exports 2,416,3971.; wheat, 856,1251.; flour, 802,2161.; copper, for 1878. 291,9291.; tallow, 48,1461. ; preserved meats, 6,5811.; wines, 35,2041. ; preserves, 12,9121. ; butter, 8,9291. ; fruit, 4,5871. Of 62,281 tons of flour, 17,213 went to New South Flour Wales; 16,649 to Queensland ; 8,008 to the Cape ; 6,494 export. to Natal. Of wheat, 2,044,491 bushels went to England, and 523,314 to New South Wales. The imports for the year ending Dec. 31, 1877, were 1878 4,625,5117., and the exports, 4,626,5311. The exports returns. for 1878 were but 4,095,5951. colonial produce. The coasting and Murray river trade employs a number of steamers. The railways are progressing northward, Railways. and paying their way satisfactorily. The railway from the capital to Port Adelaide is 77 miles long; to the Burra Barra, 100; to Kapunda, 50. A tramway goes from Goolwa to Victor Harbour, and from Victor Harbour to Strathalbyn. Over 450 miles of rail were opened at the end of 1878, and 500 were in progress. A railway will be constructed across the Continent to Port Darwin. It is proposed to give a company alter- nate sections along the line, and to require the completion 224 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Telegraph charges. Banks. MANUFAC- TURES. Bonus system. of the work in fourteen years. Largs Bay is to be an outer harbour for sea-going steamers. The telegraphic stations within the old part of the colony were 135 at the beginning of last year, with 4,217 miles length of lines. The great line across the conti- nent to Port Darwin was opened to Adelaide, Oct. 22, 1872. The charge for ten words from Adelaide to Port Darwin is 14s. There were 429 Post Offices in 1879. The Banks do a good business. The liabilities of eight Adelaide banks in 1879 were 3,984,5951. The assets of the banks were then 7,058,7371. The savings bank had a balance of 993,7201. to 29,088 depositors. Manufactures have advanced much during the last few years. In January 1878, there were 113 steam flour mills, 43 agricultural, 9 engine, 2 gas, and 2 dye works ; 20 coach and 24 boot factories; 22 tanneries, 21 saw- mills, 8 foundries, 3 patent slips, 25 breweries, 9 fruit driers, 33 distilleries. The Government, to encourage local manufactures, has offered a bonus of 1,0001. for the dressing of flax, 2,0001. native fibre, 2,0001. paper works, 2,0001. iron works, 2,0001. a woollen mill, 1,0001. sugar works, 1,0001. kesosene works, 5001.sericulture, 2501.glassbottle making, 1001. olive oil factory, 4,0001. best reaping machine. The Tariff of South Australia is not protective, like that of Victoria, depending yet on raw produce. Ale and beer are charged 9d. per gallon, or for 12 pint bottles ; spirits, 108.; methylated spirits, 3d. ; limejuice, 9d.; vinegar, 9d. ; wines not above 35 per cent. proof, 4s. to 6s. per gallon, and 12 pints; oils, not medicinal or perfumed, 3d. and 6d. Bacon, cheese, maccaroni, dried fruits, mustard, hams, spices, pepper, confectionery, jams and syrups, pay a duty of 2d. per lb. į tea, 3d. ; unmanufactared tobacco, 9d.; manufactured tobacco, 2s. ; sheepwash tobacco, 3d.; cigars and snuff, 5s. ; chicory and coffee, 4d. ; arrowroot, candles, pearl-barley, preserved meats, and sago, ld. Rice is rated at 3s. per cwt. ; rope, 3s.; loaf sugar and molasses, 3s. ; paper bags, 3s. 4d.; nails and paints, 2s.; and potatoes, 6d. Soap, salt and soda are 20s. per ton; opium, 10s. per lb. ; hops, cocoa, and raw coffee, 3d. per lb.; malt, 6d. per basbel; pickles and bottled fruits, 1s. per doz. pints; oils, not whale, 3d. to 6d. per gallon; The Tariff, Duties. NORTHERN TERRITORY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 225 THE palings, 6d. per 100; boards, ls. 6d. per 100 sup. feet; SOUTH deals, 2s. 6d. per 40 cub. feet. Doors are 2s. 6d. each. AUSTRALIA, An ad valorem duty of 10 per cent. is laid upon drapery, IP Ad valorem furniture, fire-irons, grates, arms, turnery, carriages, duties. hosiery, furs, slops, millinery, rugs, hats, boots, blankets, cutlery, carpets, woodware, brushware, earthenware, glassware, tinware, drugs, perfumery, fancy goods, jewellery, musical instruments, plate, saddlery, bricks, slates, leather, stationery, raw sugar, &c. An ad valo- rem of 5 per cent. includes implements, and all cloths and tweeds in the piece. The free list includes blasting powder, books, bottles, Free list. flour, manures, iron bar, printing paper, plants and trees, ores, passengers' baggage, wool, &c. The Northern Territory. NORTHERN Since the Northern Territory, extending to within TERRI- a dozen degrees of the equator, has become a portion toRY. of South Australia, the unsuitableness of the name of the colony has become the more apparent. This was added to the colony in 1863, being north Added, of lat. 26°, from 129° to 138° E. long. The revelation of that further land through the enter. Right of prise of Adelaide colonists, sustaining the intrepid efforts A lelaide to it. of Mr. Stuart to cross the continent, deserved that rc- cognition from the Crown. To which Colony could it be better attached than the one that had opened it up, and to which it was connected on its southern border ? Queensland and Western Australia had already vast areas. The area is 523,620 square miles. The crew of Hans Carstens, a servant of the Dutch Part dis. East India Company, named the great northern pro- covered montory, after their ship, Arnhem Land, in 1623. The explorer himself was killed by the wild men of New Guinea before the expedition reached Australia. Report was brought back to the company that the new country was barren and useless. Tasman, the discoverer of Van Diemen's Land, sailed Tasman, along those shores in 1644. The gulf was named after 1614. Carpenter, the Governor-General of the Dutch East India Carpenter, Company, in 1628. Captain King, however, deserves 1628. honour for his careful survey of the north coast, from King and 1818 to 1823. He gave names to the rivers Alligator sta 1863. 1623. Stokes, 226 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. SOUTH and Liverpool, to Port Essington, Bowen Straits, Cape AUSTRALIA. Melville, &c. The ‘Beagle' expedition, under Captain Wickham and Captain Stokes, greatly extended our knowledge of that part of Australia. They discovered the Victoria, Adelaide, and Albert rivers, though the sailors were pronounced less effective in bush travelling than in boat exploration. Leichhardt, To Dr. Ludwig Leichhardt, the distinguished dis- 1815. coverer of the interior of Queensland, is the merit due of making known the Northern Territory from an inland point of view. After traversing Eastern Australia for two thousand miles, he entered this new province toward the close of 1845. With no supplies left but those furnished by his gun, this judicious observer, and truly courageous man, overcame all difficulties in his march from Moreton Bay, and found a resting-place at the military post of Port Essington. Mr. J. McDoual Stuart continued the work. His first and second attempts to cross the continent for Adelaide, in its broadest part, were defeated. In the meanwhile Burke and Burke and Wills, by a forced march from Melbourne, Wills gained for Victoria the barren victory of first crossing crossed first; Australia. The third trial in 1862 took Mr. Stuart suc. Stuart cessfully to Port Darwin, 450 miles from Timor. A brief description of the country and its resources will not be out of place; as, from the manner in which the enterprise has been since carried on by South Australia, a successful development of the territory is to be calculated upon. The average rainfall is 63 in. Tropical Tropical in its character, the climate is not very dif- produce. ferent from that of Northern Queensland. A great deal of the land is good, cattle thrive well upon the pastures, pearl and bêche-de-mer fisheries can be established, while mines of gold and other metals are being opened up. Contiguity to Java and other Indian islands will promote the success of the settlement. Conscious that the rich flats near the sea will one day Sugar have plantations of rice, sugar, cotton, &c., while horses, lands. cattle, and sheep can be raised on the pastures for the Indian market, the Government of South Australia has made use of a wise and liberal policy to attract emi. grants, and secure a permanent establishment. Attempts had previously been made to settle the north- after. NORTHERN TERRITORY OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 227 ern coast. The British Ministry, hearing that the French SOUTH were fitting out a colonising expedition for North AUSTRALIA. Australia, sent off Sir Gordon Bremer, in 1824, to form Old settle- the settlement of Dundas, on Melville Island. Subse- ments quently, this officer took possession of the whole northern abandoned coast westward from Cape Yorke. Captain Stirling next tried a location on the east side of Raffles Bay, Coburg Peninsula. But his Wellington settlement was sorely plagued by the Blacks and the mosquitoes. The officer removed his party to Leeuwin, in 1829, and Western Australia arose as a new colony. As distressing cases of shipwrecks in the Indian seas Port had occurred, with accounts of Malay piracy, a military Essington post was established at Victoria, on Port Essington. settled. Four years after Leichhardt had been so hospitably re- ceived there, the station was abandoned. The Adelaide Government determined to have a people's settlement at Palmerston of Port Darwin, lat. 1210 S., long. 131° E. The Land Act for the Northern Territory, Land Act recently passed, is the best evidence of their intentions. for North- rn Terri- The land is to be divided by the Resident into counties and hundreds. It is open to selection, upon credit, at Credit at 7s. 6d. an acre, upon deposit of sixpence an acre, though 73. 6d. an cash is demanded for areas exceeding 1,280 acres. acre. Special surveys of 10,000 acres each may be purchased. Township lots are sold by auction ; twenty per cent. cash, and balance within the month. Ten years' leases of Farms agricultural land may be had at sixpence per acre rented Cd. rental. Selections of not less than 320 acres, nor more than Sugar or 1,280, for the special growth of sugar, cotton, tea, rice, cotto 2s. 6d. ar or tobacco, are to be had upon conditions. After paying acre tice- sixpence an acre rent for five several years, a free grant hold. is given if the land be enclosed, and one half under culti- vation. There is no want of water. Pastoral Leases are for twenty-five years. They may Pastoral include from 25 to 400 square miles, though subject to leases at 6d. resumption of land at six months' notice, if required for î public purposes. The stocking must be at the rate of three great cattle, or ten sheep, per square mile. The rental is sixpence each square mile, 640 acres, for the first seven years, and ten shillings a year for the rest of the term. The run can be resumed at six months' notice. tory. an acre. a square mile. Q2 228 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. license. SOUTH Annual pastoral licenses are, also, to be obtained. AUSTRALIA. Unauthorised use of land subjects the individual to penalties from 51. to 501, for the offence. All unbranded wild cattle, above a year old, are held to be the property of the Crown, and may be taken and sold. Other Further facilities for settlement are afforded. Leases leases. are granted for wharf accommodation, gas factories, etc., on a term of twenty-one years, at the rate of not less than a pound an acre a year. If the lease be revoked by the Resident Commissioner, compensation will be awarded for improvements. Copper For copper or other mining than gold leases for four- leases. teen years can be had, though in blocks of not more than 640 acres. The rent is to be estimated at from 2s. 6d. to 10s. 6d. an acre. Should the lease be renewed, a fee of 1001. an acre will be demanded. Annual licenses are granted for the search after minerals, with a prior right Occupation of lease. Occupation licenses for miners, working an area of half an acre, may be extended over seven years at a rental of not above 10s. Gold Gold mining is likely to be an important industry in mining. the Northern Territory, especially as excellent quartz reefs have been opened up about 100 miles south of Palmerston. By 1879 about 70,000 oz. were taken. Tin and copper workings are commencing. Undue mining speculation has retarded the Northern progress. Persons unlawfully mining are subject to a penalty of a pound a day for so infringing the law, while the neglect of getting a business license on a gold-field involves five pounds a day penalty. Gold The warden may give licenses to search for the fee of licenses. 58. A prospecting quartz claim is limited to 200 yards Extent of in length by 250 in breadth; while an ordinary claim is claims. 100 by 250. A prospecting alluvial claim is 100 yards by 50; and the working claim 30 yards by 30, if less than half a mile, and not less than 100 yards from a paying claim, Alluvial and river claims are 100 yards to a stream, and 30 on each side. If not the bed of river, and not exceeding 40 feet deep, 100 yards by 100 are allowed. Ordinary alluvial claims, not more than 40 feet, may be 160 feet by 75 feet; but, if over 40 feet depth, and two employed in a claim, the extent is 250 feet by 250. LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 229 A cement claim is 15 yards by 10 only. A puddling SOUTA claim, employing four men ip old ground, may be 50 AUSTRALIA. yards by 40. The area for a crushing machine cannot exceed four acres. Companies receive land according to their capital. Those Area ac- with 2501. and 1001. paid up, claim 50 yards by 50 ; cording to with 5001. and 2501. paid up, 75 by 75; but with 1,0001. invested. capital, balf paid up, an area of 100 yards by 100 is per- mitted. All this is in addition to the usual allowance for each miner at work. Many Chinese go North. Land Laws and Immigration. LAND LAWS. The land laws of South Australia have compensated for the want of resources so abundant in neighbouring colonies. Owing to facilities for settlement upon the Good local land, many emigrants flocked to Adelaide, when better laws at first. farming localities were locked against them on the Mel.. bourne and Sydney side. Notwithstanding the general inferiority of soil, and the severe trials of a dry climate, South Australia has had the distinction, which it still enjoys, of being, relatively, the most agricultural of the Australian Colonies. For a number of years, when the neighbouring settlement of Port Phillip, or Victoria, was virtually closed against the farming immigrants, by the impediments in the way of obtaining a farm from Government, the Adelaide authorities threw open the country in 80-acre sections at 80-acre lots. one pound an acre. Capitalists, in many cases, purchased such sections to sell again to intending settlers upon a system of long credit, thus benefiting both parties. In other instances, the rent was made in produce, either fixed in quantity, or in ratio of yield for the season. The Land Sales began in 1836, when 60,915 acres Land sales, were disposed of, though in London before the emigrants sailed. In 1839, 170,841 acres were alienated; and so large a sale stimulated that mad speculation in land, which brought the Colony to the verge of ruin. In 1841 only 7,651 acres were purchased ; and, in the bad year of 1843, only 1,887. By 1879, 8,338,082 were sold. Better times brought more buyers. In 1845, 49,658 acres were sold; in 1850, 64,94); in 1853, 213,321 ; in 230 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. SOUTH 1860, 129,262; in 1865, 316,477 ; and in 1872, 114,788. AUSTRALIA In the latter year 299,957 acres were disposed of on credit. In 1878, 153,102 acres fetched 253,6781. At the beginning of 1874 the total acreage sold by the Crown was 4,626,444, in addition to half a million acres selected under the new regulations. In 1879 there were 1,750,000 acres open to selectors. Land By the Land Act of 1867, if lands submitted to auc. leases. tion are not disposed of during the month, they could be leased for twenty-one years, with a right of purchase during that term at one pound an acre. The rental was submitted to auction. Credit By the Act of 1869, the credit system was introduced. system, A block, if not more than 640 acres (eight sections) could be had by paying down 20 per cent. of the purchase- money, as four years' interest in advance, with time al- lowed for the balance. This arrangement was modified the year after, when two instalments of 10 per cent. were substituted for the cash payment, one instalment being at the end of three years. Agricul- Six Agricultural Areas are specified, in which land is tural areas. to be obtained on the credit system only, at a price to be fixed by the Government, according to quality, &c. If not taken up within a certain period, the rate of purchase is lowered. Not above 640 acres in one block can be so obtained. By 1879, 2,931,430 acres were selected Conditions Buyers on the credit plan signed an agreement with of purchase Government, though this was not transferable, except on by credit. permission from the Land Office. The balance of pur- chase in the one case, or the whole in the other, could be paid after the expiration of the four years. The tenant could not obtain the Crown grant until he had resided on the farm during the three previous years, and made substantial improvements equal to 58. an acre the first year, and 2s. 6d. during each of the other three years. Credit for In 1871 Regulations were issued offering certain lands tive or are for selection; when, upon paying 10 per cent. of the eight years. purchase, credit can be obtained for the balance at 5 per cent, interest for a period of five years, with the right of extension to the other three years. Rights of The holder of any purchased land within a 'hundred,' pasture. not being within the limits of a District Council, is en- titled to a Depasturing License over the unsold waste LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 231 tenure, lands near, at the rate of two beasts or twelve sheep for SOUTH every five acres of his purchase. The fee is 3s. a head AUSTRALIA. for horses or cattle, and 6d. for sheep. Pastoral leases are granted beyond the limits of a Pastoral hundred, for the period of fourteen years. Some land was leases. assessed at 100 sheep per square mile, and another class at 250 sheep. But this has been altered to an assessment according to situation and grazing capabilities, excepting in cases otherwise determined. The Act of 1867 divided lands north, north-east, and Varieties of west of Port Augusta into A, B, and C districts. In the first a fourteen years' pastoral lease was to be granted at a minimum rent of 1l. per square mile, and an assess- ment of 6d. for a sheep, and 3s. for a horse or a beast. In B, the leases were for twenty-one years at 8s. 6d. per mile rent; and 4d. for sheep, with 2s. for larger animals. In C district the rent was 2s. 6d., and the assessment half of B rate. Within a hundred, leases are annual only, though re- newable until the land be required for public purposes. By the Regulations of 1872 some alterations have New land been effected. All lands are to be thrown open for a regulations. year before being submitted for cash sales at auction. The fixed prices per acre may be as high as 21. One- tenth is paid down as three years' interest in advance, together with cost (if any) of reclaiming and improving. At the end of three years another ten is required. The Credit ten balance may be paid at the end of six years; if not, half years. the purchase must be paid, and the rest left for four years, provided the interest, at 4 per cent., be settled for in advance. The selection cannot be for more than 61') acres on 640 acres credit. The selector or representative must be nine on credit. months each year resident, and break up a fifth of the land every year. All persons above eighteen bave the Unmarried privilege of selection, except married women. By a new female land selectors. law, land may be rented on two terms of fourteen years each. The rent for the first is 28. 6d. per square mile, in addition to an assessment of ld. for sheep and 6d. for cattle. If the land be resumed, payment is made for improvements. During the second term, the annual pay- ments for rent and assessment are doubled. In regular land sales, the cash deposit is 20 per cent. 232 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. TION. SOUTH Act 1878 allows new waste lands on 21 years' lease at AUSTRALIA. 2s. 6d. square mile, and scrub land at 6d. an acre. IMMIGRATION at the public expense bad ceased in the IMMIGRA- Colony, excepting those nominated by persons in the Colony itself. In 1878, there arrived in port 14,572, and 8,174 left. Emigrants paying their own passage out secure a Land Order, of the value of 201., the grant being issued after two years' residence in the Colony. A land allowance is made of 101. for each child between one and twelve. The amount may go as deposit on purchase. Assisted passages were afforded to labourers, artisans, and miners, with their families and servants; children under 12 paying 31. ; while 41. would be paid by those between 14 and 40. Land orders on paying the balance. Agent- The balance of passage money is required from per. General's sons if leaving the Colony within two years. The Agent's offices. Office is in Victoria Street, Westminster, London. The expenditure for immigration in 1878 was 70,8481. South Australia has such attractions in its corn fields, its vineyards, its copper mines, and in the enterprise, economy, and high character of its people, that it will not be forgotten or neglected by the prudent and thoughtful intending emigrant. HINTS. Hints to Emigrants to South Australia. This land of corn and wine, of pleasant gardens and delicious fruits, of copper lodes and silver veins, although subject to so much dry heat, is far from being Healthy an unhealthy Colony. It should also be remembered and moral that no settlement has been better favoured with the Colony. means of moral progression; while the zeal of religious bodies has not been one of jealous rivalry, but of work. ing fellowship. South Australia is an instance of the influence of character and intelligence, in enabling men to withstand the lassitude and sloth so frequently accompanying resi- dence in a warm region ; for no country has exhibited Energy of more indomitable energy and sustained industry. They colonists. work there in the harvest field with a thermometer running up above 100° in the shade, and take no siesta. They ride after wild cattle in the teeth of a wind as hot HINTS TO EMIGRANTS TO SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 233 ion- as the blast of a furnace; and they mine, quarry, and SOUTH build with persistent steadiness in the heat. AUSTRALIA. The working man who is prudent in his babits may Climate not preserve his health better in South Australia, than in some climes with a lower atmosphere but more moisture. able. He would certainly be less exposed to colds, coughs, rheumatism, and consumption ; cases of sunstroke are far more uncommon than in America. Fevers have no holding ground in a land so absolutely free from malaria, and with such rapid evaporation. A caution is needed to those who prefer brandy or beer to wine produced on the Adelaide plains, as the stimulating air sufficiently excites nervous affections. The old settlers, who so continually patronised the pannican of tea, suffered less exhaustion from the climate than imbibers of alcoholic liquors in hot countries. An impression has prevailed that good land is of such Land to be limited quantity that it is hopeless to expect a farm had. in South Australia. The enormous amount leased out during the last few years is the best reply to this rumour. To those able to stand a warm climate, the Northern Advan- Territory offers much temptation. No part of Australia tages of the Northern is so favourably situated as that for becoming another Territory. Mauritius. Large sugar, cotton, and rice plantations can be formed there, as coolies from India or the Indian islands can be so easily obtained, and at a cheap rate. The difficulty of importing Chinese labour into Easy to get Queensland would not exist at Port Darwin. In the labour. other colony the men are drawn off from plantation work by more profitable engagements over the country. In the Northern Territory they would be more isolated from other settlements; but South Australians rather object to the introduction of coolie labour. Squatters have no prospect of being andisturbed for Squatters a many years in South Australia near any settlement. free The capitalist who invests in the formation of a station there, has considerable facilities granted him by the Legislature. There is a wide range of country from which to make a selection, and fresh explorations confirm the story of good pasturage being in the interior. One advantage is that he is not so likely to be cut off from civilisation, when advancing hundreds of miles from the settled quarter of the colony, as copper and lead mines free course. 234 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. SOUTH are extending continually, both northward and westward, AUSTRALIA. up to 400 and 500 miles, and railways are advancing. The great objection to the occupancy of such Runs Dry climate. is the general aridity of the country. But it should be borne in mind that seasons of destructive drought are not so common but that a good time may be had out of Sink for the ordinary seasons. It is well that in the prevailing water as in rock of the country, limestone, water is readily obtained Canaan. by sinking; so that flocks are often watered from wells as those in Canaan were of old. Farming, though confined to few products, has been, in spite of sunny days, neither unpleasant nor unprofit- Cheap able. The easy terms upon which land is obtained, are farming. recommendatory to the immigrant. The generally level character of the country makes it very easy to gather in the harvest by Ridley's machine, at little cost for labour. German Germans are extensively settled about the hills north, settlers. south, and east of Adelaide, as well as in the Mount Gambier District. As good judges of agriculture, their selection of land may be a guide to others, who would succeed the better by copying the sober and economical habits of these foreigners. Às vine-dressers they have a deserved reputation. Mining Mining is the pursuit that rewards labour and enter- prise. But new comers need be very prudent as to their investments, though copper mines have paid ex- ceedingly well. Silver and gold, though less paying than copper, are worked to profit. Share speculations should be attempted with great caution. Cheapest South Australia is the cheapest Australian colony to colony. live in ; as meat and bread, vegetables and fruit, are all low in price. The people, too, have the reputation of being such friendly neighbours, that a comfortable home can be relied upon. ventures. DISCOVERY AND HISTORY. 235 QUEENSLAND. Discovery and History. The north-eastern portion of Australia has only been QUEENSLAND. known as Queensland since 1859, although its shore ap- pears to have been visited by Eredia, the Portuguese, Coast by in 1601. Maps exist of a much earlier date than that, Eredia, 1601. in which a southern land is marked below Java. Torres, the Spaniard, has usually been called the dis- Torres, coverer of Cape York of Queensland. He spent two 1605. months in the strait called after him, and saw the coasts of New Guinea and New Holland in 1605. The Dutch sailors of the 'Duyfhen' are said to have landed on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria in March, 1606. The Gulf was named after Carpenter, the Dutch Carpenter. Governor-General of Java. A Dutch navigator, Captain Dutch Pool, in 1636, met with the fate of Jans Carstens in visitors. 1623, being murdered by the savage inhabitants of Torres Strait. Pieterson, supercargo to Pool, sailed afterwards for 150 miles along the northern coast, but keeping out of the reach of natives. To Captain Cook was reserved the work of exploring Capt. Cook, the inlets of the whole eastern coast of Queensland, in 1770. 1770. He fell in with land near Cape Horn, on April 18, and followed it on to the northward as far as Cape York, giving names to capes and bays. Moreton Bay was called after his patron, the Earl of Moreton. Refitting Intercourse with in Endeavour River, he came in contact with the abori. natis gines, and maintained friendly relations with them. Everywhere else seeing evidences of cultivation, he was puzzled at the total absence of fields among the Australians, and fancied their crops were at some distance inland. In August of 1770, when on Possession Island, near Cook Cape York, Cook claimed the sovereignty of the country named land 18" y uno vunus Y N. S. Wales. 236 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Moreton QUEENSLAND. for George III., and called the whole eastern side of the continent New South Wales. By virtue of that act, the colony was included within the area of New South Wales, when the penal settle- ment of Botany Bay was determined on, in 1787. Sydney was established in 1788, but no settlement farther north than Port Macquarie was thought of for many years. Captain In 1802, Captain Flinders, who had previously dis- Flinders, 1802, at covered the coast of the colony of South Australia, resolved to be the first to circumnavigate the continent Bay. of New Holland. Exchanging his shattered ship, 'In. vestigator,' for the ‘Porpoise, he left Sydney to com. plete the survey of bays previously noted by Cook. After examining Moreton Bay, and discovering Port Curtis, he was shipwrecked on Barrier Reef. The ener- getic explorer, however, made a boat and sailed in it a thousand miles back to Sydney. Procuring the thirty- ton craft · Cumberland,' he continued his voyage along the shores of Queensland. Oxley to The interior of Queensland was first reached by Mr. Brisbane Oxley, Surveyor-General of New South Wales. After River, 1823. discovering the Lachlan in 1817, the Macquarie in 1818, and then the Liverpool plains and ranges to the north- ward, he was directed by two runaway convict sawyers to the banks of a fine river, which he named after Governor Brisbane, in 1823. Cunning- Mr. Allan Cunningham, the botanist of Sydney, had ham at the been requested by Mr. Oxley, when that surveyor was Darling on his death-bed, to continue his work of exploration in the country to the west of Moreton Bay. In 1825, therefore, he started upon his journey northward. In April, 1827, he had the good fortune to come upon the garden of Queensland, the renowned Darling Downs. He named them after Governor Darling of Sydney. Mitchell's Major, afterwards Sir T. L. Mitchell, who first made explora- known the rich pastoral plains of Australia Felix, was land, 1846. the successful explorer of some of the finest squatting regions of Western Queensland, in 1846. As surveyor-general of New South Wales, he was properly provided for his expedition. In his march through the north-western part of the present limits of New South Wales, his party suffered much from the ex- Downs, 1827. DISCOVERY AND HISTORY. 237 cessive heat and drought. His very kangaroo dogs were QUEENSLAND. killed by the heat. But, once across the Darling, and entering the southern district of Queensland, he ex- perienced only the pleasure of traversing a beautiful country. In his enthusiasm, after the discovery of the Maranoa, the Claude, the Nogoa, the Belyando, etc., he declared his conviction that these beautiful recesses of un- peopled earth could no longer remain unknown.' The back country of Maranoa, Warrego, West Leich. hardt, and Mitchell was thus revealed by his celebrated and triumphal progress. The Mantuan Downs reminded Names him of Virgil, the pastoral poet. The soft, delicious given by Mitchell. landscape near one stream recalled to his mind the paintings of Claude, while the rugged beauty of the volcanic hills elsewhere brought up before his cultured fancy the pencil of Salvator Rosa. His Peninsular campaign with Wellington was remembered in the names he gave to places after brother companions in arms, as Nive, Hope, etc. Coming upon a broad river trending to the north. Victoria west, the imaginative surveyor believed he had dis- River, now the Barcoo. covered a highway to the Gulf of Carpentaria ; and he quitted the lily banks of the Victoria to announce in England his wonderful discovery. Alas for the inexorable logic of facts! His assistant, Mr. Kennedy, left to follow the stream to the sea, found it turn round to the south-west, and its waters gra- dually diminish, till nothing but a parched channel remained. Though since called the Barcoo, this river, which loses itself in the desert of the interior, has some magnificent plains beside it. Dr. Ludwig Leichhardt was pursuing his explorations Leichhardt through Eastern and Northern Queensland, while Major in 1843 to 1846. Mitchell was opening up the Western districts. Without Government aid, helped only by the liberality of a few Sydney friends, this German naturalist, in the years 1843, 1844, 1845, and 1846, was able to examine and report upon the whole extent of Queensland, from Across its southern border to the Gulf of Carpentaria, keeping, Queens- usually, at no great distance from the coast line. He recorded his gratitude to his aiding friends by calling after them the rivers Lynd, Macarthur, Cape, land. 238 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. QUEENSLAND. Mackenzie, Isaacs, Suttor, and Burdekin. Rivers, also, were named after those gentlemen who accompanied him-Calvert, Gilbert, and Roper. Two black fellows, Harry Brown and Charley, were of great use to him. In 1848 he started on another journey, and has not since been heard of. Kennedyin Mr. Surveyor Kennedy, in 1848, first attempted the 1848 exploration of Cape York peninsula. After enduring speared at Cape York. much, he was speared by the blacks when near Port Albany. His faithful native attendant, Jackey Jackey, brought back his papers to Sydney. The Messrs. Jardine were more fortunate in their enterprise there. Burke and Messrs. Burke and Wills, in 1860, were the first to Wills reach the Gulf of Carpentaria from Victoria, through through Western the length of Western Queensland. Messrs. Landes. Queensb orough, Walker, and others have followed in the ex. land, 1860. 0. ploration of the interior of the colony. Mr. Hann in 1872 made important discoveries in York Peninsula. History. The history of Queensland may be briefly described. Moreton Until 1859 it was known as the Moreton Bay district Bay dis of New South Wales, though only the southern part was trict till settled. After Mr. Oxley returned from the Brisbane, in 1823, the Governor despatched a party of convicts to Penal form a penal settlement under a commandant at Moreton settlement, Bay. At first at Redcliff Point, it was afterwards re- 1823. moved to Brisbane. Ipswich was settled very early. Free persons gradually made their way to this fertile region. The cedar was not less attractive, than the grass for stock. In 1841, however, the Messrs. Leslie, having been urged by Mr. Cunningham to take their flocks up to the good land he had discovered, were the earliest to Darling occupy the Darling Downs, being rapidly followed by Downs oc- cupied, other squatters. Šo great was the rush thither, that 1841. the Sydney Government withdrew the convicts in 1842, Opened to and proclaimed Moreton Bay a free settlement open to immigrants. sons, 1812. The Rev. Dr. Lang was mainly the means of inducing British emigrants to go forth to the rich lands by the Separation Brisbane and Condamine. The newly-introduced colo- from New nists were unwilling to be governed from such a distance South Wales. as Port Jackson, and demanded Separation from New South Wales. After several years' agitation, and an animated discussion as to the readmission of convicts, 1859. free per- immin GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 239 the majority gained their object—the establishment of a QUEENSLAND. new colony, and one of freemen only. Queensland was the name conferred upon the province, and the proclamation of its independence by Governor Queens- Bowen took place at Brisbane on December 10, 1859. land pro- h claimed, Since that time, with but one short interval of trouble 1859 through over-speculation, the colonial history has been one of astonishing progress and success. Geography and Climate. Geo- Queensland occupies the north-eastern portion of the GRAPHY. Area 430 continent of Australia, and was detached from the ter- million ritory of New South Wales in 1859, as Victoria had been acres. in 1850. Its area is 669,520 square miles, or 430,000,000 acres. The seaboard is 2,250 miles. On the east it has the Pacific Ocean; on the west, the Bounda- north extension of South Australia ; on the north, the ries. Torres Strait, separating it from New Guinea; on the south, the colony of New South Wales. Its western boundary is long. 141° E. from lat. 29° S. to lat. 26°, and goes backward thence to long. 138° up to the Gulf of Carpentaria. The greatest width on lat. 26° S. is 16° of long., or about 1,000 miles. While the 1,000 miles sea in lat. 10° S. is the northern limit, the southern is wide. not so determinate. From the seaside, the boundary is about 27° along a small range. It then proceeds by the course of the Dumaresq and M‘Intyre rivers, and after- wards on the 29th degree to the western extremity. The greatest perpendicular length is 19° of latitude, or 1,300 1,300 miles miles. Taking its length another way would add some long. hundreds of miles more. The colony is naturally divided into four portions. A Four natu- range of hills running nearly parallel to and not far ral divi- sions. from the coast, cuts off the so-called Pacific districts. Another range, transverse to this, throws the water northward to the Gulf in the Carpentaria country. Westward there are two portions. The western in. terior receives the western drainage of the first range, with the southern fall of the other; but it has no sea outlet for its rivers, which are lost in the land, or ultimately gain the salt lakes of South Australia. The remaining is the Darling area, receiving the 240 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. plains and QUEENSLAND. south-western drainage of the main easterly range, and having its water system connected with the great Darling River. In this way, it has a communication by the Dar- ling with New South Wales, and thence by the Murray with South Australia and Victoria. Pacific dis- ic dis- The Pacific or Eastern districts are as follows, com. tricts. mencing from the south :-Moreton, Wide Bay and Burnett, Port Curtis, Leichhardt, Kennedy, and East Cook. Burnett is north of Moreton; Leichhardt and Port Curtis are north of Burnett; Kennedy is north of Leichhardt; and Cook, of Kennedy. Carpen Burke district and West Cook are by the Gulf of taria. Carpentaria. Mitchell and Gregory districts form the Western dry western plains. Warrego, Maranoa, and Darling Downs districts belong to the south-west Darling basin. Darling basin. Of the thirteen districts, Moreton and Darling Downs Districts were the earliest settled, and have the most farms and described. towns. The Western Interior is occupied, though but partially, with sheep. Burke, Warrego, Maranoa, Ken- nedy, Leichhardt, and Darling Downs are great pastoral districts. Sugar plantations are extending through the sea-board scrubs of Moreton, Burnett, Port Curtis, Ken- nedy, and Cook. The auriferous country is chiefly in Burnett, Port Curtis, Leichhardt, and Kennedy, though attracting notice in Burke, Cook, and Darling Downs. The ordinary farmer prefers the uplands of the last-named district, as well as Moreton and Burnett. Mountains. Mountains. The main range, though traversing the whole length of the colony, has few points over 3,000 feet in height. In its greatest width it spreads into fertile and healthy plateaux. The M‘Kinlay and Mueller ranges to the west are not very elevated. The Lynd Peak and Expedition ranges are central. High land joins the New England of New South Wales on the south. McPherson is 6,000 ft. Among northern peaks are Bellenden Kerr, 5,200 feet; Daintree, Surprise, Dryander, 4,500 feet; Abbot, Wheeler, and Elliott. "Towards the centre are Narrien, Aldis Peak, Nicholson, Abundance, and Coxen. The Glass- houses are north of Brisbane. King, Playfair, Hutton, Bonwick, &c., are volcanic cones. RIVERS. 241 The Downs are elevated. Peak, Orion, Oxford, Man. Ques tuan, Albinia, and Valley of Lagoons are in Leichhardt. Natal, Avon, Burdekin, Cambridge, and Bluff are in Downs. Kennedy. Bowen, Western, Isis, and Emerald are by the Barcoo of Mitchell district. Ambi, Victoria, and Mitchell are in Maranoa. Canning, Acacia, and Cecil are in Darling Downs. Gregory, Leichhardt, Albert, Richmond, and Plains of Promise are in Burke district of the Gulf. Dowus of black soil abonnd far west. Rivers. Rivers. The streams flow easterly to the Pacific, northerly to the Gulf, westerly to the desert, and southerly to the Darling basin. Few of the rivers are important; two of them only are navigable for a few miles from the coast; and many are but chains of water-holes the greater part of the year. All the western fall is lost in sands. The Barcoo, or Mitchell's Victoria, rising near Tambo, receives the Alice and the Landesborough Creek or Thompson River. It is now found to join the Cooper's Creek near Sturt's desert. The Diamantina and Herbert are far west. The northern rivers of the Gulf are the Staaten, the Mitchell, the Gilbert or Van Diemen, Norman, Flinders, Leichhardt, Albert, and Nicholson. The Saxby and Cloncurry join the Flinders, the Gregory flows to the Albert, and the Etheridge to the Gilbert. The Lynd and Walsh reach the Mitchell. The Endeavour, Dain. tree, Hann, Johnstone, and Palmer are in York peninsula. On the eastern side, the Burdekin is the most impor- tant river of the north, the Fitzroy of the middle part, and the Brisbane of the south. Of the Burdekin the Clarke is a northern tributary, the Cape a western one, the Belyando a southern one, the Bowen an eastern one. The Burdekin waters drain Kennedy district. Herbert River is near Cardwell. The Pioneer reaches Port Mackay. Calliope is in Port Curtis. The Western Mackenzie and Southern Dawson meet to form the Fitzroy. The Isaacs, Teresa, Nogoa, and Comet are branches of the Mackenzie. Leichhardt and Port Curtis are drained by these streams. The Mary and Burnett run through the Wide Bay district. The Bris- 242 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. QUEENSLAND. bane and its Bremer tributary reach Moreton Bay. The Logan is nearer the southern border. The Darling Downs district is watered by the Conda- mine. This becomes the Balonne, and, after receiving the Maranoa, forms a part of the Darling waters. The Moonie and Weir join the M‘Intyre, which, with the border Dumaresq, flow, also, towards the Darling. The south-western Warrego and Paroo may in floods run south into the Darling. Cooper's Creek is at the south- western corner, the continuation of the Barcoo. Very few Queensland is singularly wanting in lakes. lakes. Bays. Straits. Capes. Bays. Coming southward from Cape York the following are successively passed :- Newcastle Bay, Shelbourne Bay, Temple Bay, Weymouth Bay, Princess Charlotte Bay, Trinity Bay, Rockingham Bay by Cardwell, Halifax Bay, Cleveland Bay by Townsville, Upstart Bay, Port Denison by Bowen, Broad Sound, Shoalwater Bay, Keppel Bay of Fitzroy River, Port Curtis, Hervey Bay, Wide Bay, Laguna Bay, and Moreton Bay of the south. The eastern part of the Gulf of Carpentaria is in. cluded in Queensland ; and the western part in the northern territory of South Australia. Endeavour Strait is near Cape York. Torres Strait separates Cape York from New Guinea. A new Gulf port is by Point Parker . Capes and Islands. Cape York is in latitude 103° S. South of this, on the Pacific side, are Cape Grenville, Cape Direction, Cape Melville, Cape Flattery, Cape Tribulation, Cape Grafton, Cape Sandwich near Cardwell, Cape Cleveland, Cape Bowling-Green, Cape Upstart, Cape Edgecumbe, Abbott Point, Cape Conway, Cape Hillesborough, Cape Palmer- ston, Cape Clinton, Cape Manifold, Cape Keppel, Cape Capricorn, Bustard Head, Break Sea Spit, Sandy Cape, Double Point, Noosa Head, Point Wickham, Cape More- ton, Amity and Look-out Points, and Point Danger of the southern boundary. The Gulf Islands are the Wellesley of Mornington, Bentinck, Allen, Sweer. Near Cape York are Albany, Thursday, and Prince of Wales. Off the north-east Islands. TOWNS. 243 coast are the Claremont Isles, Lizard, Hinchinbrook of QUEENSLAND. Rockingham Bay, Magnetic by Townsville, Whit-Sunday, Cumberland Isles, and Beverley group. Curtis Island is north of Port Curtis ; Sandy or Frazer's off Wide Bay; and Stradbroke, Moreton, Bribie, and St. Helena are in Moreton Bay. Barrier Reef is east. The tides are 7 feet at Brisbane, 6 to 10 at Port Denison, Tides. 6 to 12 at Rockingham Bay, 9 at Rockhampton, 10 to 12 at Port Curtis, 4 to 10 at Cape York, 12 at Mackay, and 18 to 30 at Broad Sound and the Fitzroy River. Towns. Towns. Brisbane, the capital, lat. 271° S. and long. 153° E., is on the river Brisbane in Moreton district. Rockhampton, the northern capital, is on the Fitzroy of Port Curtis, near the Tropic of Capricorn. The eastern towns and ports are Maryborough, on the Mary, in Burnett; Gladstone, on Port Curtis ; St. Law- rence, on Broad Sound ; Mackay, on the Pioneer; Bowen, of Port Denison, in lat. 20°; Townsville, of Cleveland Bay; and Cardwell, of Rockingham Bay, lat. 18º. Somerset is near Cape York. Burke Town is the Gulf port of the Albert, and Norman Town of the Norman ; Cooktown on the Endeavour; Palmerville on the Palmer. Inland, Ravenswood of the Burdekin, Charters Towers, Dalrymple, Maryvale, Herbertsvale, Wyatt, Broughton, and Cape are in Kennedy; Clermont, Copperfield, Nebo, Springsure, Taroom, Banana, and Gainsford are in Leich. hardt; Marlborough, Crocodile, Morinish, Calliope, and Princhester are in Port Curtis ; Cania, Perry, Bunda- berg, Gayndah, Gympie, Kilkivan, and Nanango are in Burnett; Ipswich, Beenleigh, Sandgate, Caboolture, and Logan are in Moreton. The Darling Downs townships are Toowoomba, Dray- ton, Dalby, Warwick, Stanthorpe, Leyburn, and Conda- mine. Roma, Surat, and St. George are in Maranoa district; and Charleville is in Warrego. Blackall and Tambo are by the Barcoo of the Western Interior. As to distances—Ipswich is 25 miles from Brisbane; Distancez. Toowoomba, 105; Caboolture, 30; Warwick, 105; Gympie, 125; Maryborough, 180; Roma, 330; Gladstone, 350 ; Mitchell Downs, 340; Rockhampton, 450 ; Broad Sound, R 2 244 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. QUEENSLAND. 500 ; Mackay, 630 ; Peak Downs, 600; Bowen, 720; Alice Downs of the Barcoo, 700; Ravenswood, 750; Townsville, 850; Cardwell, 950; Marathon of the west, 1,050; Burke Town, 1,450 ; Cook Town, 1,100, Somerset, 1,500. Clermont is 150 from Broad Sound ; Ravenswood, 115 from Townsville ; Richmond Downs, of the Flinders, 300 from the Burdekin ; Westwood, 32 from Rockhamp- ton; Stanthorpe, 40 from Warwick; Charters Towers, 100 from Townsville ; George Town, 230 from Cardwell and 250 from Norman Town; Mackay, 90 from Bowen; Gilbert Town, 300 from Burke Town; Bowen, 715 from Burke's; Hughenden of the Flinders, 480 from Gulf; Palmer, 140 W. Cooktown; Cloncurry W. of Flinders R.; Hodgkinson, S. of Palmer; Cork on Diamantina. Climate. Without saying with one writer, “The climate of Brisbane is the finest of all the Australias,' it inay be conceded that for most months in the year it is clearly so. The depressing heat of the summer is not so en. joyable. Brisbane, in the summer of 1872, experienced Not uni- no greater thermometrical heat than London in 1874. form. But so immense a country as Queensland has not the W. is dry dry uniformity of climate which some may suppose. The and E. iš wet. dry and hot region of the Western Interior is different from the moist and hot Pacific division. Along the hills, again, another change may be had; as, in winter, frost may occasionally be seen. Not un- Many have asserted that the climate is quite unsuit- suitable for able for Europeans, and especially for those who have to Europeans. labour. An argument has been thence drawn as to the necessity for Polynesians to work in the tropics. But it is notorious that miners are engaged in their arduous toil every day in the year under a tropical sun, even within fourteen degrees of the equator. One, writing from Brisbane at the beginning of last ycar, declares : 'I have lived in Queensland twenty years, and the whole of my observation and experience goes to form the solid conviction that all that has been said, or that can be said, about the unsuitability of the climate of Queensland for Europeans to be employed agriculturally, is only so much rotten rubbish.' Possibly, if men lived more temperately, especially in CLIMATE. 243 orders. out malaria. the use of alcoholic liquors, they would suffer less. But QUEENSLAND. it is certainly a trying climate for some, while endurable for others. The plague of flies and mosquitoes does not increase the comfort. At the same time, Britain is Drawbacks not without drawbacks in frost and snow. Men very of climate rarely lose a day's work through weather in Australia. in Britain. While the death-rate is so low in Queensland, as may be seen under the head of Population,' it would be rash indeed to pronounce the country unfit for English- men. If there are more low fevers, there are fewer colds; if more die from diarrhæa, fewer suffer from coughs. A man may, from delicacy of chest, emigrate to Brisbane Good for nà chest dis- with decided advantage to his health ; but heart and nervous affections are more common there than in New Zealand, though consumption and rheumatism are less. The heat is undoubtedly considerable ; and it is felt Heat with- the more from the moisture, as the rains of Queensland, unlike those of New South Wales and Victoria, prevail in summer. Still, relatively to other tropical and subtro. pical countries, the climate is wonderfully drier; while the absence of malaria, from the character of Australian leafless vegetation, prevents the occurrence of yellow fever, and other disorders usual in hot regions. The winds are so much from the seaward, that the Sea breezes. colony is benefited thereby in its climate. On the Darling Downs the cool south-east breezes blow seven months out of the twelve. At Brisbane, during 1871, the winds from the equator side were as 320 to 582 of those blowing from the pole, cooling more than heating. The mean temperature for Brisbane is 69°, that of London being 50°. The changes of the thermometer have a far less range there than at Sydney, or even Melbourne. Without frost (but very occasionally at night) and without ice, the winters are very pleasant. Being without many visits from the hot wind, so com- Few hot mon in the other colonies, the settlers may sometimes in. winds. dulge in a hot bath, but rarely confront a fiery furnace. Though Darling Downs has the finest climate in Queensland, the thermometer is often higher there than on the sultry tropical plains; but the heat is less exhausting because of the rarefied atmosphere. There is a remarkable difference in the humidity of Humidity. places in Queensland. While some parts on the coast 246 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Downs. , towns. 72 97 QUEENSLAND. have as much as 100 inches of rain in the year, the Western Interior, about the Alice, Thompson, and Barcoo rivers, has sometimes not 10 inches, with an excess of evaporation. At the Mackay 16 in. fell in 24 hours. Dry cli Beyond the Dividing range the rainfall is always in- mate to the considerable. Condamine, 180 miles from the sea, had, westward. in 1871, but 18 inches in 47 days. Roma, 230 miles off, bad only 13 inches in 1871, but 19 in 1878. Darling Darling Downs, though from 80 to 120 miles from the ocean, has sufficient rain in some parts. Toowoomba, being 1,900 feet high, had 61 inches in 1870, 27 in 1871, and 61 in 1872. Warwick had 28 in 1872. Ipswich, below the Downs, had 37 inches on 101 days in 1872. The undermentioned places are near the seaside, and vary not only from latitude, but from local circumstances. Ascending from the south, we learn that in 1878– Rain table Cape Morton had 59 inches in 98 days. of coast Brisbane , 134 Maryborough, Sandy Cape , Rockhampton , Port Mackay, Port Bowen Townsville 38 Cardwell , 98 Cooktown » 50 , 141 At a distance from the sea a difference is seen in 1878. Rain Stanthorpe, 40 inches. George Town, 33 inches. inland. Warwick 25 Taroom 29 Dalby 21 Clermont 29 Gympie 45 Normanton 23 Ipswich 28 Nebo · Towoomba 29 Roma 19 Gayndah 32 Beechal 17 , Queensland, therefore, though moist on the coast, has decidedly a very dry climate at but a moderate distance from the sea. The Monsoons give the north coast six months' wet weather in the year. GEOLOGY. Geology. Two por Queensland may be said to consist, geologically, of two portions—the Western Interior of recent formation and the Eastern and Northern of primary and secondary rocks. Coal, gold, granite, slate, and basalt, found in the latter, seem almost absent in the former. 94 103 95 77 111 43 tions. GEOLOGY. 247 Desert Almost all Queensland descended to receive the coarse QUEENSLAND. and sterile coating of desert sandstone in the tertiary era. But while this surface is over some of the Western sandstone. Interior, considerable areas have elsewhere been denuded, so as to expose other and more fertile formations. But for this great denudation, Queensland would now present as barren and wretched an aspect as most of the part we know by the name of Western Australia. From better acquaintance with the colony, a more hopeful geology is now revealed even in the dreary in- terior, whose thirsty plains are covered with rich black soil and good grasses. But, taking the eastern portion, Interesting and the great Carpentaria country, few colonies can gcology. boast a geology so interesting and profitable as Queens- land. Notwithstanding the researches of such colonial geologists as Messrs. Leichhardt, Gregory, Mitchell, Daintree, Aplin, Hodgkinson, Jack, our knowledge of the extensive area of the province is a very limited one. The primary rocks constitute the dividing ranges. Granite is the coast guard. The coal formation lies Granite between the coast range and the main dividing one. Gold appears in the granite by the sea, and in the pa- læozoic rocks of the inland chains. coast. Of the older rocks, porphyry is seen at Cleveland Bay Primary and Roby's range; mica slate at Endeavour River; rocks. quartzose slate at Cape Palmerston ; quartz at the dig- gings' localities; mountain limestone at Camboon; mag- nesian limestone at Taroom; marble at the Calliope River; talc slate at the Endeavour, and serpentine at Marlborough. The M‘Kinlay and Mueller ranges con- tain porphyry. Old rocks abound in York peninsula. Granite continues, with few intervals, from Cape York Granite lo- along the coast to Broad Sound. It rises 2,500 feet on calities. Hinchinbrook Island. Patches occur southward. The monoclinic felspar is said to be greatly in excess of the triclinic in the Dividing range. Hornblendic rocks prevail north of the Burdekin. The granite of the Ra. venswood gold-field is called syenitic by Mr. Hacket, from the hornblende it has in association with felspar, quartz, and mica. Where the granite contains horn- blende, the soil is better than where it is absent. Ac. cording to Mr. Daintree, the granite area is not less than 114,000 square miles, or one-sixth of the colony. The GEOLOGY. 249 nised in other parts, to so great an extent, that Mr. QUEENSLAND. Daintree regards the cretaceous area as 200,000 square miles, or one-third of the colony. Trias at Endeavour R. The chief seat of the cretaceous lies to the north-west and west of the colony. Hydraulic limestone, under- lying the dreary desert sandstone, is associated with gypsum. Mr. A. C. Gregory, in his exploration of Car- pentaria, noticed streams issuing from this limestone on the sides of the sandstone table land. The mesozoic carbonaceous beds, 10,000 square miles Mesozoic in extent, are of shales, limestone, and sandstone, with coal. hydraulic limestone and coal. The secondary country Not much generally is less fit for agriculture; as is a very large farming portion of both primary and tertiary, says Mr. Daintree. Coal is found over an area of 25,000 square miles, nearly half the size of England. As it is highly pro- bable that coal measures extend beneath the compara- Coal beds. tively thin cretaceous beds of the western plains, a very much larger space may be hereafter discovered available for the operations of coal viewers. The true coal containing the Glossopteris, Spirifer, etc., is seen on the Dawson, Comet, Mackenzie, Bowen, Don, Crackow, and Isaacs rivers. At Nebo, of the Leichhardt district, an excellent cannel coal will prove very valuable. One authority states that the Upper Dawson beds alone cover 10,000 square miles. Mesozoic coal is in the south. Nearer the old settlements the coal has been worked, Coal work- though much is of a mesozoic character. The Aberdare ings. mine, near Ipswich, is so highly bituminous as to be supposed compressed peat. The seam is four feet thick. Through the Darling Downs a very large deposit has Coal of Darling been traced, having good beds at Allora, Blackfellows Do Creek, etc. The Burnett district is rich in carbonaceous Burnett. material. Near Toowoomba the vein rests upon fire clay. Some oolitic coal seams are lacustrine in origin. Kerosene shale is very abundant near Taroom, of the Keroseno. Upper Dawson, and around Mount Hutton. The volcanic area is considerable. Mr. Daintree speaks Volcanic of the trappean as being 12,000 square miles, and the rocks. volcanic proper as 20,000. The diorite, or greenstone, is an important rock there. Greenstone. It cuts the Devonian slates of the Boyne and Calliope ; and it is occasionally, as in the Gipps Land of Victoria, Downs and GEOLOGY. 251 columns were seen by Landesborough on Gregory River. QUEENSLAND. The sources of the Flinders, Gregory, Albert, and Nichol. son are in basalt. This rock runs under the tertiary at Brisbane, and at Double Island Point of Wide Bay. Craterform hills are common in the Dividing range, Extinct being seen, too, far north on the York Peninsula. Such craters. mountains as Playfair, Pluto, Owen, King, Hutton, Lang, Bonwick, etc., were centres of igneous action. Three streams of lava are distinguished at the Valley of Lagoons. Local craters are found about lat. 19° and 20°. A fine one may be noticed in the Perry range. Another, near the Burdekin, is 500 yards wide. The flow in one part of the Burdekin has been compared to Age of that of Keilor, near Melbourne. North of lat. 21° the basalts. basalts have been regarded as pliocene; and southward as miocene. Cooktown neighbourhood is volcanic. The most recent action, perhaps, may be observed in Volcanic the Murray Isles, off Cape York. Here ashes can be ashes. traced to the extinct craters. The volcanic conglome- rate in Erroob Island contains blocks of lava as large as a man's head. And yet a stream of lava has flowed over this recent conglomerate. Ashes are strewn at the northern base of Mount Lindesay, and are seen with scoria in the Western Interior. Still, no part of Australia can compare with Western Victoria in a display of craters and ash. - Along the Queensland and New South Wales coast Pumice on the beach. pumice has been found, as if thrown up by the waves, which have borne it from some distant seat of eruption. The line extends for 2,000 miles. Ash pebbles, of the size of walnuts, are spread along a raised beach, 15 feet high, at Cape Upstart. The deposit is not very recent. Hot springs are almost wholly unknown. In this re- Unlike spect Queensland is very different from Northern New New Zea- Zealand. There is, however, a hot alkaline spring in land in hot the Flinders country. The water contains 33 per cent. SF of carbonic acid, and 31 of soda. Tertiary or cainozoic formations reach over, it is said, Tertiary 150,000 square miles, or nearly one-fourth of the colony. rocks. These consist of conglomerates and the inhospitable desert sandstone. Much of that space, lying westward, is impossible for settlement, except for pasture; though fine oases and rich mineral deposits exist. 252 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. sands. sandstone. Romantic QUEENSLAND. Upon the ordinary sandstone a coarser and looser variety exists in some places, and is the supposed source Source of deserts. of some of the Australian thirsty wastes in Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia. The sands, often, as in Egypt, resting on limestone, are blown up in Desert parallel ridges like the deserts of Arabia and the Sahara. It was in such a part of the western border of Queens- land that M‘Kinlay saw the thermometer rise to 160° in the sun. The traveller thus remarks : The whole country looks as if it had been carefully ploughed, har. rowed, and rolled, the farmer having omitted the seed.' Close by that are richly grassed pastures. Desert Generally the desert sandstone is conformable to the cretaceous beds beneath. When very ferruginous it forms the red rock of the flat-topped hills, so singular a feature in Central Australia. Some hills, by the Clon. curry of Carpentaria, are 3,000 feet above the sea. The table land by the Barcoo or Victoria extends to Cooper's Creek. Diorite often appears beneath the sandstone. In places, the sandstone is very picturesque. Leich- landscapes. hardt compared some to ruined castles, and named Tombstone Creek from rectangular slabs of sandstone. Mitchell was reminded by it of the wild-looking pictures of Salvator Rosa. Gregory spoke of the deeply serrated edge of the table land, and saw gorges in it several hundreds of feet deep. One escarpment was 600 feet. On the Gilbert the rock shows lofty and beautiful pin- nacles. The tertiary or cainozoic is over the cretaceous in the north. While having leaf beds, Queensland ter- tiary has, like New South Wales, no marine deposits. The geologist of the exploring party in 1856, Mr. Varieties of Wilson, observed different strata in the tertiary of the tertiary. northern table land. The upper, 300-400 feet, was in thick beds of sandstone, capped by iron ore. Under that was a silicious sandstone, with but little stratification. A bluish, slaty stone followed, and was succeeded below by a limestone. The limestone passed into sbale, and the shale into lower sandstone. At a distance of 300 miles from the Gulf the elevation was 1,600 feet. The flat- topped hills appeared to him chiefly silicious sandstone. His leader, Mr. Gregory, refers to the Gulf range as horizontal bands of sandstones on shales, and coarse silicious limestone with jaspers. Near the Gulf, a calca. GEOLOGY. 253 reous breccia abounds. Blue clay and fern leaves are QUEENSLAND. conspicuous on the M-Kenzie Plains. . The flat-topped hills of Australia have excited much Flat-topped interest. They point to an extensive and prolonged state hills. of denudation, which left these landmarks of history. Professor Agassiz describes those of Brazil as 'the rem. nant of a plain that once filled the whole valley of the Amazon from the Andes to the Atlantic.' And yet Mr. Queens- Wilson, the geologist of Northern Australia, believed in Jand 2,000 feet the evidence of a much higher elevation, by at least bigher. 2,000 feet. The Barrier Reef of Queensland, 1,200 miles long, is Barrier Reef of a wonderful geological curiosity. There is to be found coral. every description of coral formation-atolls, fringes, etc. At first it was a fringing reef, but got separated from the shore as the Australian land descended. The coralline animalcules continued to build upon the sinking reef. Part is now 2,000 feet deep. The width in lat. 22° S. is 90 miles. There are many gaps in the barrier; one of these is 12 miles across. Between lat 12º and 14° the reef is double. The inner part is five to fifteen miles from the shore. The sea north of the reef is found to be 27,000 feet in depth. The uncovered area of the great reef is about 30,000 square miles. The metallic wealth of the colony is considerable. Metals. Gold is found in slate, serpentine, greenstone, granite, Where gold etc. It occurs at the junction of the metamorphic slates is foi and tertiary sandstone at the Cape and Charters Towers diggings. It is at the Gilbert where trap meets the Devonian rock. In the New Zealand gully, of Rock- hampton, it occurs in a mass of chloride of silver ; and on metamorphic rocks at the Cape River, Peak Downs, Cloncurry, Kilkivan, Ravenswood, etc. It is gathered, in the Cape district, where acid felspathic dykes traverse mica and hornblende schists. The serpentine locality for gold is the Gladstone neighbourhood. For further information upon metals the reader is re- ferred to the chapter on Mining. The fossils of Queensland are, in some cases, similar Fussils. to forms now existing there. Crocodiles, 20 feet long, are disinterred from the hardened volcanic mud far in the interior, where deep bays once existed ; in modern days the Queensland alligators are formidable in looks. is found, 254 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. nites. QUEENSLAND. The Monitor of the Condamine was 20 feet, and showed, said Leichhardt, that the conditions of life have been very little changed.' The fish Ceratodus is found there. Prof. McCoy has done much service to science in making known the wonderful fossils of Queensland. The Dipro- The Diprotodon, the huge marsupial, herbivorous todon. animal, has been discovered in several parts of the colony, especially on the Darling Downs; where also the Notá- therium, of the size of a large ox, was known. Enormous kangaroos have left their remains by the Isaacs and other rivers. The Enauliosaurus, an Australian ichthyosaurus, 20 feet in length, once floated in the waters of Northern Queensland. Its bones lie in the cretaceous rocks of Huge fish the Flinders. A plesiosaurus, 40 feet long, was its com- lizards. panion. The eye was five inches in diameter in one of 25 feet. The large flapper had eight rows of bones. Ammo. Belemnites and ammonites are common at the head of the Flinders River. Fossils of huge animals were lately seen by Mr. Hann, in York peninsula. Fossil The flora of the Dawson coal-field is very fine. There plants. are sigillariæ, calamites, lepidodendrons, zamias, ferns, etc. Mesozoic fresh-water plants are repeatedly turned up between the range and the sea about lat. 20° S. Very large fossil fruits are found on the Peak Downs. Of 27 species of carboniferous and Devonian fauna, nine are known as English fossils; and of 25 cretaceous ones, two only are English. Fossilised wood is common west of the Barcoo. A full description of Queensland fossils, up to a cer. tain date, may be seen in the Transactions of the Geologi. cal Society from the pen of Mr. Daintree. The mon- ster bird. The most remarkable fossil form yet discovered there has been the Dinornis, a gigantic bird, which identifies the and New continent of Australia with New Zealand. This enormous Zealand creature once, doubtless, could travel along the plains united. formerly uniting these two countries, now separated by the ocean 1,200 miles wide. The east coast is sinking. GOVERN- MENT. Government. As Moreton As the Moreton Bay district, the country was governed Bay dis- tuled by Sydney from 1823 to 1859. Eight commandants from successively ruled in Brisbane when a penal settlement. Sydney. In 1842 the district was thrown open to the public, and some extent of freedom was granted, as one member for Australia once GOVERNMENT. 255 at Port Moreton Bay was elected for the Sydney Legislature. QUEENSLAND. Ten years after two members were returned. After the reconstruction, consequent upon the new Constitution in New South Wales, all the colony north of the Clarence River, including all the Moreton Bay district, sent nine members. This was in 1859.. An attempt was made, in 1846, to organise a new coiony Failure of at Port Curtis. After living four months in tents, the new colony officials from England set sail home again, alleging the cu Curtis. utter unsuitability of the country for settlement. New South Wales, therefore, resumed its government over what is now known as Queensland. After the arrival of the first free emigrants from Bri. tain, in 1849, a demand for separation from Sydney rule arose. Port Phillip commenced the same cry some years before, and gained its independence in 1851. The More. Separation ton Bay settlers were not free till December 10, 1859, from New ? South when the colony received the name of Queensland. The boundary, which had been from 30° to 26°, was extended 1859. to Cape York. New South Wales, the parent, was allowed to nominate eleven of the fifteen members of the first Legislative First Par- Council of Queensland, who were to serve for five years ; liament. the other four were elected in Brisbane for life. By the Life mom. Wales in position was secured for life. council. The Legislative Assembly consisted of 26 persons in 1860, and 32 in 1864; their term was for five years. Five wears In 1877 the colony was divided into 40 electorates, that in As- return fifty-five members to the Assembly. The mem- sembly. bers are not yet paid during the sitting of Parliament. The Parliament of Queensland is become more demo- cratic. The franchise was not an extended one at Franchise the beginning. In 1867 the number was increased ; extended. and all men having a freehold of 1001., or paying a rental of 101. for six months before the time of registration, could secure a vote. Lodgers at a rent of 101., or paying 401. a year for room and board, were entitled to the privilege. No stipendiary magistrate, soldier, police clerk, or constable could vote. All hold- ing university degrees had the franchise, irrespective of rental. Aborigines, Chinese, and Polynesians, with all naturalised foreigners, obtain the like liberty if possessed of the property qualification. 256 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. debt. QUEENSLAND. The settled parts of the colony are in the munici. palities. These received, in 1871, the sum of 16,1321. Munici- palities. from Government, and raised 22,4241. The rate runs from 8d. to ls. in the pound. Revenue The net revenue for the year ending on June 30, for 1879. 1879, was 1,461,8351., and the expenditure was 1,678,6311. Expendi- ture and The public debt has been increased to eleven millions by the demand for immigrants and railways. The revenue has been steadily increasing since 1860, when it only reached 178,5891. In 1878, the customs gave 571,7311.; laud, 459,6801. ; pastoral rents, 156,1951. ; railways, 237,0001.; stamps, 52,395l. ; and excise, 33,2251. The estimated revenue for 1879–80 was 1,658,0001., and expenditure 1,600,0001. Penal dis- The Government place criminals on St. Helena Island, cipline. in Moreton Bay, and so utilise their labour on sugar and tobacco growth that the expense of their mainten. ance is but 31. or 41. a head for the year. Probable It is not improbable that, in a few years'time, Queens- subdivision into several land may be divided into several colonies, as New South colonies. Wales has been. Already the northern settlers of Rockhampton complain of being governed from Bris- bane. Some seem to propose the latitude of Cape Pal. merston as the line of separation. The essentially pas- toral country to the westward is interested in a very different policy from that adapted to the south-eastern district, where commerce prevails, and where manufac- tures must arise. The mining districts, again, have different interests from the agricultural ones. Population. TION. Four races Four races may be said to form the population of Queensland, viz. : the Blacks, or aborigines ; the Whites, or those of European origin; the Yellows, or Chinese; and the Brown Blacks, or Polynesians. The last, by the returns of 1878, were 6,000 in number; the Mongolians were 14,500; the Paiefaces were 190,000. The population, Dec. 31, 1878, was 210,510; females 65 per cent. of males. Aborigines. As to the Natives, no accurate return of their tribes has ever been attempted. Calculations have varied as to the amount, from 10,000 to 50,000. Wherever food Rapidly is plentiful and water accessible they are the more dying off. pumerous. But, from various causes, they are so rapidly POPULA- there. 258 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. dren, sians. QUEENSLAND, is a significant statement that there were few, if any, No chil- children among them. Up to 1878, 14,000 had arrived, 6,000 returned, and 1,700 died. Protecting By the Queensland Act of 1868, the natives are brought laws for to the colony for three years. The master is bound to Polyne- give them certain rations and 61. a year wages, besides finding them a return passage home. The import cost of a Polynesian is about 121. There can be no transfer of these apprentices without the consent of Government. They are subjected to imprisonment if absconding from employment. Though fairly treated, the great mortality among them is much to be regretted. As servants they are generally docile, good-tempered, and intelligent. The white population is thus classified, as to birth- place, in the admirably arranged census returns, 1871:- Place Males Females Total Birthplaces of the people Queensland Other Australian colonies England . Ireland, Scotland. Germany. France . Europe, less France British America . United States . 18,501 6,220 16,851 11,540 5,333 5,401 156 1,174 379 161 17,911 4,711 9,445 9,432 3,231 2,916 32 276 36,412 10,931 26,296 20,972 8,564 8,317 188 1,450 488 215 109 54 Occupa- tions. Population of towns. As to occupations, while 11,360 men were engaged on stations, there were but 330 women. On farms, 13,732 men and 2,066 women were employed. On the gold-fields, 2,953 worked at alluvial diggings, and 3,183 at quartz mines. About 1,400 were variously labouring on other mineral enterprises. The towns' population was not large at the end of 1871, as may appear from the following statement :- Brisbane . 19,413 / Townsville • 1,140 Rockhampton. 5,497 Rome. Ipswich 5,092 Mackay 729 Toowoomba. 3,628 Gayndah Maryborough. 3,542 Gladstone Warwick 2,228 Springsure 370 Dalby 1,647 Cardwell 96 Clermont Somerset 841 671 416 POPULATION. 259 · Though the births of malè children have uniformly QUEENSLAND. been in excess of those of female, the proportion of the sexes in the colony has been little changed during the last ten years, being as three males to two females. Three This relation differs according to age, being about males to two fe- equal in tender years, and changing considerably at a males. later period. Thus, according to one of the recent re- turns, there were- 7,409 men to 3,241 women between 40 and 50 years. Census of 3,135 , 1,489 1,051 510 , 60 , 70 , 227 , 109 , 1 70, 80 30 18 80 · 90 · 7 , 2 , 90 „100 » sex. ate. Women about equal the men in the towns of Brisbane Equal in and Ipswich, but are considerably in the minority in Brisbane. remote districts. At the established diggings they are rapidly gaining in proportionate number, though few at the new rushes. In one of the more recently occupied Twenty pastoral districts there are 20 men to one woman. men to one woman. The births in 1878 were 7,397; though the births were Births. three times the deaths in 1872 ; illegitimate only 3 per cent. The marriages were 1,444. In 1877, the births were 36.74 per thousand; marriages, 7:57. The death-rate is slightly heavier than in some more Causes of settled colonies. This is partly to be accounted for high death- by the greater vicissitudes to which health is exposed in 1 so many persons wandering in a new land, engaged in hazardous employments, unprovided with the comforts and conveniences of more settled places, and too often indulging to excess in spirituous liquors. The deaths were 3,373 in 1877, bat 4,220 in 1878, a Mortality hot year. Yet even then the country parts averaged 17 per thousand, while England stood at 23. Sanitary improvements in Brisbane will rectify the high death rate of towns. Excessive mortality among wifeless Chinese and Polynesians places Queensland at greater disadvantage compared with other colonies than cli. matic difference warrants. Marriages.—On this head, the statistical records of Marriages. the colony, especially those for 1877, afford the means for presenting some curious and interesting tables. The number joined together that year came to 970. Old custom drew nearly nine-tenths of these to a reli. greater with the males. 82 POPULATION. 261 The unmarried numbered thus :- QUEENSLAND. Ages Males Female; Unmarried. 5 t 25 4,149 4.770 5,868 7,189 2,714 895 252 54 3,331 1,707 744 385 95 30 40 50. 33 60 1+ 70 , 80 80, 100 12 The widowers under 40 were 327; and the widows, Widows 344. Over 40, the former were 913, and the latter 944. and widowers. Wbile there were 13 widowers between 80 and 100 years, there were not less than 17 widows. The full story of widowhood is thus told in the sta- tistics :- Ages Widowers Widows · Under 20 Between 20 · · 1 165 278 297 335 223 52 275 337 317 185 61 · · · 72 80 „100 13 The bachelors marrying spinsters came to 80 per Bachelors cent., and widows 12. The widowers selecting spin- and sters were 78 per cent, and widows 24. spinsters. The selection of partners was carious in a national Marriage point of view. Thus, the 536 Englishmen, marrying in nationali- 1877, chose 240 English, 105 Irish, 31 Scotch, and 128 ties. Colonial women; bat 425 English women selected 28 Irisb, 31 Scotch, and 76 Colonial men, beside the 240 countrymen. Then 121 Scotchmen had but 33 Scotch wives, 31 English, 19 Irish, and 32 Colonial. But the 99 Scotch women joined to 31 English, 9 Irish, 17 Co- lonial, and 33 countrymen. Irishmen preferred their own race; 294 having 194 Irish, 53 Colonial, 28 English, 262 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. races. Tiox. QUEENSLAND. and 9 Scotch. The 402 Irish wives, besides country. men, chose 105 English, 19 Scotch, and 41 Colonial. The Colonial-born men favoured their Colonial sisters as much as the latter regarded them. 213 Queensland women married 38 Queensland men, 14 Sydney, 67 English, 41 Irish, 20 Scotch. 90 men chose 21 English, 15 Irish, 8 Scotch. The 131 Germans chose 82 German, 10 English, 15 Irish, 4 Scotch, and 15 Colonial. This singular interchange of nationalities is not pe- culiar to Queensland, but is a happy characteristic Blending of blending of races throughout the colonies of Australia and New Zealand, tending to the destruction of absurd national prejudices, and the development of genuine equality and fraternity. EDUCA- Education and Religion. Queensland has honourably distinguished itself in the work of public instruction. Vested and The Education Act of 1860 recognised vested and non- non-vested vested schools under the Board. The latter--which are schools. denominational schools—receive aid from the State if affording secular instruction to all comers for four con- secutive hours. There is, however, 'no inspection of, No inter- or interference with, the special religious instruction ference which may be given in any such school during the hours with re- ligious in- set apart for such instruction. There is a Normal Low aver In 1878 there were 38,646 children upon the roll in age attend- public schools, but only 19,945 in attendanco. Private schools in the country showed an average attendance of 87 per cent. The parents among the working classes in the colony have, perhaps, great need of help from their Schools and children in the field and in other employments. cost. Of 286 schools in 1878 there were 182 vested, 23 non-vested, and 81 provisional. The last-mentioned are situated in districts where a full complement of pupils cannot be had. The total expenditure was 103,0371. There were 482 teachers, and 294 pupil teachers. State assistance is given to Grammar schools for the schools. middle classes. Where 1,0001. can be raised for such an object, the Treasury gives double that sum, in addition to land for the institution. If the trustees pay 2501. for salaries of teachers, the State grants 5001. struction. ance. Grammar EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 263 Art. Teachers are classified according to attainments, and QUEENSLAND. paid accordingly. Since the Legislature threw open all - All schools schools without charge, teachers have received an increase fre of salary to compensate for the loss of fees. Sectarian schools lose all State support in 1880. The Queens- land Parliament has now made education compulsory and free, even allowing access to grammar schools and the University without payment. · Mechanics Institutes, Free Libraries, and Schools of Mechanics' Institutes, Art are liberally supported by the Colonial Government. Free Li- Queensland has, in respect to liberality in education, set braries, and an example to the colonies. There are 50 newspapers. Schools of The Cooktown Courier' was begun at the Palmer A Diggings in March, 1874. It is quite a mistake to suppose that the Queenslanders RELIGION. are indifferent to the question of religion; although, it must be admitted, the migratory life so many are obliged to live, and the vast area occupied with so few people, Scattered are serious drawbacks to church-going. In England, population with a concentrated population, an Established Church, a difficulty. and an active Nonconformity, it is found impossible to overtake the growth of cities with religious means : how much more difficult in Queensland ! One of the earliest accounts of religious services there Early ser- is given by Mr. Backhouse, the Quaker missionary, who vice. visited Brisbane in 1836. Alluding to his address to the prisoners, he says : • They, with the military and civil officers, whether Protestant or Roman Catholic, assembled as on First Days in the chapel; where the prayers and lessons of the Episcopalian church, with a few omissions, in deference to the Roman Catholics, were read in a becoming manner by the Superintendent of Convicts.' The free immigrants who arrived in 1848 and 1849 Influence exercised a happy influence on the society of Moreton of free im- Bay, in checking intemperance and irreligion. Theº Brisbane Courier,' of October 3, 1872, observed : The criminal record this month is almost a blank, and it is not in our power to indulge the British reader with anything sensational in the way of murder or bush- Moral con- ranging. The improved morality of the people may be dition of attributed, in a great extent, to the remarkable spread B inread Brisbane. of teetotal principles. This year tells the same tale. ants, PASTORAL. 265 trict. the 1823, its active and independent existence, apart from QUEENSLAND. Government tutelage, began with the earliest Darling Downs sheep stations from 1840 to 1842. . The squatting reputation gained by that district of old has been ever since maintained. Excepting, perhaps, some parts of Victoria, the finest pastoral properties of Australia are seen at the Darling Downs, where sheep- Darling station holders are princes indeed. When the Messrs. Downs the Leslie Brothers settled on Canning Downs in 1840, much h best dis- privation was experienced, and not-a little danger from savage tribes. Now, however, the refinements of civilisa- tion can be enjoyed there. Men of small capital must go farther than Darling Downs. Much loss followed the indiscreet selection of Wool-grow- localities for sheep toward the coast, since occupied ing in tropics. by horses and cattle. It is not true of the Tropics that the wool turns there to hair. This subject was once discussed before a learned society in London, when it was affirmed by a man of science that it was impossible to grow wool in hot countries. Mr. Landesborough, the Queensland explorer, being present, asked how it was, then, that negroes were raised there. A part of the colony, north-east of Flinders River, is plagued with a poison plant, bearing a delicate white Poison flower, but for which sheep have a fancy. The high- plant. lands of Kennedy, Leichhardt, Warrego, and Maranoa Land for are favourable for sheep, though the fleeces are not so sheep. heavy as in Victoria, Tasmania, and New Zealand. The dry but fertile plateaux westward are better fitted for sheep than cattle, and are being rapidly taken up. Horses and cattle are profitably kept on the lower, Horses and hotter, but better watered plains, as well as upon the cattle. hilly country. India opens a market for the first, and Britain for the last. Squatting, like other good things of Australia, suf- Squatting fered awhile from absurd speculation, followed, un- troubles. fortunately, by two seasons of drought. High prices of purchase, careless management, poor grass, expense of carriage of stores, with high interest, brought on a sad loss for many new comers. A succession of good seasons, with judicious management, changed the squatters' fortunes. The meat-preserving interest became the friend in Meat-pre- serving. 266 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. land, QUEENSLAND. need. Fat sheep, cattle, and even horses, could be boiled down for tallow; but, made into tinned meat, a better price was obtained for beef and mutton. Liebig's At à large boiling-down station, eight miles from extract Maryborough, a large amount of Liebig's Extract of made in Meat is prepared. It takes 40 lbs. of meat to make Queens- 1 lb. of extract. The hides are tanned on the premises. Pigs fed upon the offal are boiled down for lard. The extract is put into large tin cylinders for export. Pas oral A new compressing process, with the Bell-Coleman prospects. freezing one, will revive the pastoral interest. There is no want of good sheep pastures. Explorations have revealed magnificent country in the west, especially the Diamantina and the Herbert districts, once believed to be desert. Land improves by use. The fine Barcoo re- gion of the west is more fattening than ever. The progress of the pastoral district may be gathered from the following statistics :-- Stock in Early in 1880 it was reported that there were 7,000,000 1880. sheep, 3,500,000 cattle, and 160,000 horses. Runs three farthings e The settled districts contain 87,220 square miles, or an acre in 56,000,000 acres. Of these 6,559,596 were then leased settled dis- out in 177 runs, paying to Government the moderate sum tricts. of three farthings an acre. In unsettled districts, Theunsettled district, comprising the rest of the colony, 1-5th of a has an area of 582,300 square miles, or 370,000,000 farthing. acres. But the squatters had spread only over 204,000,000 acres, or not one-half the area, in 5,755 runs. The annual rental charged was about one-half of a farthing per acre. Wool The wool export for 1877 was 1,499,6821.; tallow, export. 73,0061. ; hides, 66,1581. ; preserved meats, 89,6521. The drought of 1876–7 destroyed a number of sheep. In 1878, Darling Downs district had 1,770,998; Leichhardt, 1,174,116; Mitchell, 1,002,741; Warrego, 744,384; but Wide Bay had but 9,000, being too near the coast for sheep, though famous for cattle. Cattle runs Cattle runs have greatly advanced in price since meat- easily preserving has commenced. As other colonies give up obtained. beef-preserving, because the cost of beasts gives no margin for the manufacturer, the Queensland squatter will have the market pretty much to himself. There is yet plenty of country available for cattle PASTORAL. 267 sheen). runs. Where the grass is defective, salt bush often grows QUEENSLAND. luxuriantly. Upon this unpromising-looking food stock foto will get fat in a short time. Localities like the plains supports of the Warrego and Barcoo, far to the westward, sustain cattle and enormous herds on this salt bush, and Mitchell grass. Sheep pastures are found in the apparently arid wastes to the west. On the distant plains, which are useless for agriculture, wool can be grown without the squatter dreading the advance of free selectors.' There he will enjoy unmolested possession, perhaps, for many years. The grass may be scarce; but the salt bush will fatten the bleaters, though failing to grow length of staple. Periodical droughts and other hardships must be faced by the sheep master with courage and patience. The reward is certain in the long run. The native grasses are much admired, though fires and close feed- ing injure them. Kangaroos, grass.eaters, having much increased, are being now destroyed at the public expense. The wool is far better on the rich Darling Downs, for there the squatting establishments have every conve. nience for the getting up of the fleece. Sheep-washing is managed with hot water, through pipes covered with Fine holes. Great care is exercised in the sorting and pre- stations paring of the wool. By the fencing in of land a i great improvement of fleeces is effected. Among these fences, some are of wire or basket work, others of post and rail, and the rest of logs forming dog-leg or chock Sheep pro- and log fences. Worm disease troubles the sheep. por sixty times While in Great Britain the sheep are equal to the Great population, in Queensland they are thirty to one of the Britain. people. The climate of the colony is more suitable to Horses do the animals, and the cheapness of the land affords the well. opportunity of depasturing them at a profit. Horses thrive well in a region so warm and dry. The means to be employed to secure a run are simple How to get enough, and the terms are certainly very easy. The application to the land commissioner of the squatting district must be made in writing. The appli. cant must, at the same time, deposit 5s. for each square mile he selects, and agree to stock at the rate of at least 100 sheep or 20 head of cattle per square mile. He then obtains an occupation license for one year. Occupation licenses and This can be exchanged for a twenty-one years' lease. are rese: licenses and leases. Downs. portion a run, 268 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. tions. QUEENSLAND. Should be afterwards fail in having 100 sheep or 20 cattle per mile, he forfeits his lease. Squatting regula- No run can have less than 25 square miles, nor more than 200. The lease is transferable upon payment of a guinea fee, and having the consent of the chief commis- sioner. If the whole or a part of a run be resumed by the Crown, compensation is awarded after arbitration. A block of 2,560 acres of leased land may be bought by the tenant at 10s. an acre. Rent 5s. a The annual rent for the first seven years is 58. a square square mile; for the second seven years, 10s.; and for the third, niile. 15s. But the tenant and the Government have the right, during the seventh or fourteenth year, to demand an assessment, when the rent may be raised or lowered. But it can never be less than 7s., nor more than 15s., for the second ; or less than 12s., nor more than 25s., for the third term. The fixed rental for 25 square miles is 271. 10s. from the 5th to 9th year, and 351. from the 10th to 14th. Runs more than five miles from permanent water can be had, on annual license, at 38. a square mile. Agriculture, TURE. A sorrowful picture has been drawn by Mr. Trollope respecting the agriculture of the colony. Mr. Trol The Queensland farmer,' says he, 'is almost inva- lope's riably a struggling man, with small means, who grows a picture. little Indian corn, which he barters with shopkeepers for other goods, having no market in which he can get money for it, and who hires his services to the squatters when the washing and shearing of sheep come round. Wheat cannot be grown, or at least has not been grown, so as to pay.' Colonial Colonial farmers are not to be estimated after the farmers not British standard. They are proprietors, and not lessees. like many English They have little capital, and think it no disgrace to work ones. for others while their own crops are growing. They wish to make a home for their children, and deny them- selves a present good for the future good of their family. Queensland is not equal to New Zealand and Victoria for so-called English farming. One great cause of failure there in agriculture has been the want of American adaptiveness to circumstances. As Englishmen will consume an excess of beef and AGRICUL- AGRICULTURE. 269 ISh best. beer in India, so do they persist in growing English QUEENSLAND. produce in an un-English climate. Gradually they are W ey are Queensland learning that a farm near Brisbane or Rockhampton not so may yield a better return from sub-tropical vegetation adapted to than that of a colder zone. Sweet potatoes—a delicious products. food-together with bananas, pineapples, arrowroot, oranges, limes, sorghum, cassava for tapioca, yams, ginger, tobacco, indigo, sago, cacao, coffee, cotton, and sugar give the Queensland farmer a great advantage. The Štate offers 1,0007. for a cure for rust in wheat. But wheat will grow admirably on Darling Downs Wheat. and in West Moreton. At Warwick a farmer got 800 grown Queens- bushels from less than 20 acres, at a cost of 981., and land. realised 2201. But 2,682 acres on the Downs produced an average of 19 bushels an acre in 1871. At Allora, February 1879, 290 acres gave 1,300 bags. Maize does far better. In 1878 there were 53,799 Of corn acres in maize to 9,627 in wheat, 1,065 in barley, and crop, maize 132 in oats. It is strange that while maize is relished in America, a prejudice against its use, except as maizena, should exist among ourselves. Many in Queensland think it better to import flour from the southern colonies, and export to them that which succeeds so well in the banana land. Maize ears are often a foot long. Potatoes grow well, especially on Darling Downs, as the returns of 3,882 acres lately proved. Sweet potatoes Sweet reach an enormous size. Great quantities of tropical potatoes. and sub-tropical fruit are sent to Melbourne, New Zea- land, &c.' Leichhardt, being once asked what would grow Leich- at Moreton Bay, replied, “You ought to ask what it harilt’s could not grow.' saying. The small farmer has as good prospects in Queensland as elsewhere; but he must adapt his work to the climate. Arrowroot is easily raised, and is a grateful food for a Arrowroot hot country. Most growers have a little mill at home culture. for use. After being washed in troughs, the roots are rasped in a mill, in running water, and revolving blades tear up the pulp. The beating continues till the starch of the arrowroot is got from the pulp, and settles at the bottom of the trough. The refuse is excellent for manure. Not a great amount is as yet exported, because the home consumption is large. An acre producing a ton and a half will realise 501. 270 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Fruits QUEENSLAND. Indigo will become a profitable produce, though re- Indigo, quiring both warmth and moisture. Colonial tobacco has tobacco, hitherto suffered in price, because being badly cured. coffee, up- land rice, During 1877, 42,616 lbs. tobacco and 85,000 lb. cigars etc. were manufactured. Tapioca will pay there. Coffee succeeds admirably in some places where sheltered from the frosty west wind. Flax promises well. Arnotte dye, ginger, opium, dates, vanilla, upland rice, turmeric, and even tea, will become exports of the colony. The Accli. matisation Society has done good service in the colony. But oranges, lemons, figs, olives, pomegranates, citrons, grown, melons, peaches, pineapples, bananas, and other fruits of warm climates, are delicious in Queensland. The vine also does well, though the summer rains are not friendly to it. A German grower one year made 2,700 gallons of wine from 7 acres. The produce of 1877 was but 87,282 gallons of wine. Silk-pro- Sericulture may yet make South Queensland the ducing. Lombardy of Australia. As the mulberry is so suited to the climate, the care of silkworms will one day be a common work of farmers' wives and daughters there. The Morus multicaulis leafs early there, though the oak- leaved and rose-leaved varieties are more advantageous. The alianthus is equally successful. The raising of silk is as interesting as it is profitable. The Government returns for 1878 give the following Acres in acreage of produce :- Wheat, 9,617 acres; barley, 1,065; produce. oats, 132 ; maize, 53,799 ; potatoes, 3,883; tobacco, 71; arrowroot, 124; English grasses, 6,671; vines, 528; bananas, 462; pineapples, 184; gardens and orchards, 2,477; sugar cane, 16,584 ; oranges, 273; cotton, 37; hay and other crops ; making a total of 117,489 acres, Only tooo or only one four-thousandth part of the colony under cultivated. cultivation. In 1872 the wheat land was 3,661 acres. Dr. Lang, to whom Queensland owes so much, ob- Cotton serves : ‘My efforts in connection with cotton cultivation growing in Australia originated, in great measure, if not ex- clusively, in my desire to get out to our colonies a population of the right description from Great Britain and Ireland. Cotton-cultivation, I conceived, was to be the means.' Bonus for The first legislators of the new colony in 1860 offered cotton. a bonus for the encouragement of cotton-growing. Mr. AGRICULTURE. 271 Sloman showed how six acres could be cultivated by one QUEENSLAND. man, using half a pound of seed to the acre. A free, open soil is needed, and limestone is preferred. The Mode of drills may be 5 or 6 feet apart; and the plants 3 to culture. 5 feet. Care is required to keep down the weeds. The picking has to be done in dry weather, otherwise the bolls do not open freely. The quantity varies, according to weather and sort, from 20 to 120 lbs. a day to the picker. The ginning is usually done at about a penny a pound. The Sea Island kind, the most valuable, is most easily freed from seeds. Formerly the seeds were Use of thought useless, but are now crushed for their oil, while seeds. the residue is made into good fattening cakes for pigs. Cotton secd meal, mixed with bran, causes a cow to throw a rich cream. The cotton is a ready money produce, like corn. A Cotton and man with a family can easily manage a crop, and yet family work. find time to attend to other things. The wife and chil. dren can keep down the weeds, and gather the fleecy pods. As much as 600 lbs. an acre may be obtained. A pressed sack of cotton weighs 500 lbs. Cotton fac- Cotton tories are already spoken of, and large bonuses have factories. been offered by the State to induce persons to commence. It was said that the labour was unsuitable to Euro- peans. But Sir Morton Peto, visiting the Carolina Fit for cotton fields, observed that the slave system prevented Europeans. the supply from equalling the demand. President Grant once said: “Where labour was the property of the capitalist, the white man was excluded from employ. ment, or had but the second best chance of finding it.' The Southern Queenslanders seem determined to oppose importation of Polynesian labour for cotton Almost all plantations. They declare that the white man can and cotton does work without injury; and they point triumphantly whites. to the fact that while, in 1871, the cotton crop was on 12,433 acres around Brisbane and Ipswich, only 136 were cultivated by the coloured men of the north. The fall of prices has arrested cotton growing of late years. It is fortunate for the interests of British emigrants, that so convenient and agreeable a culture as that of cotton can be conducted by the families of the whites in Southern Queensland, when rates rise again. grown by 272 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. selecting QUEENSLAND. But sugar plantations are the rising industry of the Sugar - colony, making it the Mauritius of Australia. hitations These are now spreading along the whole eastern greatly ex. shore of the colony, from the Logan of the south to the tending. Endeavour of the north. Rich, scrubby flats, yielding Best lo- naturally a luxuriant coarse grass, and being situated calities. within 30 miles from the sea, are the favourite selections. Planters' Frost is a serious evil, making the field look like dead trials. maize. The removal from hills is, therefore, necessary; the young shoots are covered awhile by cane leaves. Dry heat limits the yield of juice, though increasing the density of it. Draining is essential to wet lands; and provision is taken against floods, so common in Eastern Queensland. Good drainage keeps off the sugar blight, which destroys leaf and stem. Sugar land Sugar lands can be obtained on favourable terms. A man may select from 320 to 1,280 acres, and pay in ten easy. annual instalments of ls. 6d. an acre. He is required to reside on the block for the first three years, but not longer, should he have then cultivated one-tenth of the area. Some sugar lands pay 2s. 6d. annually. One, writing from the great sugar district of Port How to Mackay, says: With a capital of 1,0001. to 1,5001. a do it. man may take up from 300 to 400 acres, grow a crop of 30 acres, erect a cattle mill to take it off, never run into debt, and have his plantation—and his money back in his pocket-at the end of three years, if sugar continues to average about 241. per ton.' It is not necessary that so large a capital be employed. Cane-grow- The work of cane-growing can be carried on without ing more antoninunon the more simple than entering upon the more extensive work of sugar manu. sugar- facture. Mill-owners are ready to take the produce of making. a farmer, and give him one-half to two-thirds the sugar, according to the yield. The better the growth, the more the sugar. There were last year from sixty to seventy mills at work. Tooth's process is an improvement. Mode of The planting must be according to the prevalent sys- culture. tem of the particular district selected. The trashing, or pulling off the dead leaves, is the main labour. Many lay the leaves between the rows to shield the land from the sun, and yield manure. The ash from the furnace and the lees of the molasses form the best cane manure. Of the 15,220 acres of cane in 1877, nearly 6,000 AGRICULTURE. 273 ield. duce. acres were in the North, 4,000 in the Maryborough QUEENSLAND. district, 1,340 in the Brisbane, and 2,600 in the Logan. i 1. Queens- Of the sugar crop of 1877–8, Mackay district produced land best 7,643 tons ; Brisbane district, 618; and Maryborough for sugar. district, 2,805. The total, 13,787 tons, were off 8,902 acres, the amount ready for crashing out of 15,220 acres in cane. Mackay averaged 13 ton ; Maryborough, 14; Logan, 1}; and Brisbane, 1. The average yield is greater in the North, reaching Average up to 5,000 gallons, or 25 tons per acre. As much as y 30 tons have been raised on 10 acres of rich soil. Ging- ham cane has yielded 31 per acre, when of superior density. Other favourite sorts are the Bourbon, Black- Varieties Java, Ribbon, and Yellow. Many varieties are grown of cane. there. The produce of 1879 was 19,000 tons. There were eleven distilleries last year in Queensland. Distilleries. In the year 1878 the rum produced was 196,000 gallons, Rum and in spite of much illicit trade unrecognised by the antho- sugar rities. In 1868, the quantity was but 35,599. There pf were 61 sugar-crushing mills in 1878, 10 in 1868. The molasses yield for 1877 was 510,260 gallons. But while the cane is perfect in one year at Port Mackay, Cardwell, or Herbert River, it takes nearly twice as long to mature in the cooler latitude of Brisbane. The season of 1879–80 is very productive. The Chief Inspector of Distilleries has an encouraging Cane word to men of limited capital, saying: 'The cultivators growers of small patches of well-grown cane, kept clean and well pro looked after, have received satisfactory returns from the mill-owners.' Of cane, 40 varieties are grown. The sorghum and the imphee, or Planter's Friend, is Sorghum well adapted to the Queensland climate. The imphee and imphee. is a summer crop entirely. Two crops can be raised to one of the cane. A ton of imphee yields about 90 lbs. of sugar and 60 lbs. of molasses. From 10 to 15 tons per acre can be expected. It is also an advantage that when the cane is crushed, the imphee is ready to keep the mill going. Splendid sugar land has been found on the Johnstone, Daintree, and other rivers of the far North. This is only sold by Government in small quantities to restrain speculation and to facilitate settlement. But while Southern Queensland is content with white For and against. have a profit. 274 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. QUEENSLAND. labour, the Northern part looks mainly to coloured men - for work, though the supply is got with difficulty. coloured Some planters extol Polynesian bands as superior to labour. all others. It is argued with much force that the swampy, rich scrubs of river flats in the tropics of Queensland are, from their sultry climate and confined air, unfit for Europeans to toil in. Mr. Trollope was pleased with the Polynesians of Port Mackay. He says: They who go to Queensland for three years are sent back to their islands with their hands full, in good health, and with reports of a life far better than that which Providence has given them at home.' On the other hand, missionaries speak of the returned labourer as being by no means morally improved by Moral the change. Others condemn the herding of so large a objection. number of men together without their wives, and dread the extension of the system as worse than negro slavery in moral effects. The kidnapping from the islands is kept under check by Government regulations, and the people are certainly well treated in the country. Sir Charles W. Dilke, speaking of the sugar fields of the north-east, remarks: Coloured labour is now almost exclusively employed, with the usual effect of degrading field work in the eyes of European settlers, and of forcing on the country a form of society of the aristocratic type.' This is a too strongly expressed opinion by a traveller, not a colonist. Southern Queensland condemns the system. The Brisbane Courier,' of January 24, 1873, writes thus : ‘Polynesian immigration, with all its attendant wrong- doing, we hope to see speedily and entirely discontinued.' Many there exclain with the poet, Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, Where wealth increases, but where men decay. Kingsley's That was a fine dream of the noble-hearted Kingsley, ideal tropi- cal state. when he says: “ The ideal of what a tropical white nation might be, when properly acclimatised, is, if we will then let our imagination but soberly work out the details, too dazzling to be dwelt on long without pain, beside the fearful contrast which the social state of Europe presents to it at this moment, and is likely to present for many years to come.' But such a future Queensland hopes to unfold. Already AGRICULTURE. 275 growers. trees. the agriculturist there is progressing beyond the most QUEENSLAND. sanguine expectations indulged in a few years ago. It is of such white sugar growers that a recent Brisbane White paper wrote: This class keeps but few buggies ; but sugar nevertheless they put in a good physical appearance, gr and mostly have a little ready money at call.' Who would not wish agricultural success, under such circumstances, to the hot, but not unhealthy, cotton and sugar plantations of Queensland ? The colony is peculiarly rich in forest trees adapted Timber for house and ship building, or for ornamental furniture, and large districts like Port Curtis give employment to woodcutters and sawyers. The species of the useful and health-giving Eucalypti are more numerous there than in any other part of Australia. Among the coniferæ are the bunga-bunya, the Moreton Bay pine, the cypress pine, and the kauri pine ; the first two are often 200 feet in height. There are also the hard wooded he, she, forest, river, swamp, and fire oaks. The cedar family are well represented. The Flindersia, yellowwood, the native plum, native orange, native tamarind, native lime, cumquat, satinwood, pit- tosporum, and capivi are all close grained and beautiful Use and beauty. woods. The tulipwood is very handsome. The silver-tree is so called from its silver foliage. The bottle-brush, tea- trec, black butt, ironbark, apple-tree, yellow box, red mahogany, bloodwood, and turpentine are both hard and durable. The white, blue, red, grey, and spotted gums are all valuable. Stringy bark is useful for boards; bloody bark for red gum; mountain ash for gunstocks; silky oak for staves; mangrove for ship-knees; myall for pipes; wattle for tan bark; coachwood for coach manufacture. The beefwood, Queensland nut, acacia, sandalwood, 'ironwood, crabtree, daphnandra, ebony, and tulipwood take a high polish. The dogwood gives out an offensive odour when burning, and one of the acacias yields the odour of violets. A huge native fig throws up wall-like abutments at the root. The Moreton Bay fig drops roots to the ground from its branches. The Moreton Bay pine is the king of Queensland trees for size, use, and beauty. Mr. Walter Hill, the Government Botanist, recently T 2 276 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. YUV Monster tree. saw a tree on Johnstone River, 60 miles north of Card- well, which, at three feet from the ground, had a girth of 150 feet; and, at 55 feet up, a girth of 88 feet. He calculated that if hollow it would shelter 440 persons, or stable 37 horses, allowing 6 by 8 feet for each. It con. tained 60,000 cubic feet of timber. MINIxG. Gold area. Mining, The importance of Queensland as a mining country is obvious from the fact that, upon a calculation of so much per head, it ranks next to South Australia for copper, and next to Victoria for gold, but first for tin in the colonies of the continent. This is the more remarkable, because the mineral development is so much more recent than in the others. Its mining future is most hopeful. The gold of New South Wales and Victoria was known several years before being revealed to any extent in Queensland. Now, to look upon a map, the colony seems studded with foci of this treasure for nearly half its width and the whole of its length. It is not merely along the main ranges where diggings exist, but they are scattered over the area between these and the sea.. From the southern border to Cape York, and where- ever the old rocks appear as ranges in the interior, gold fields may be expected. While the Talgai and Lucky Valley by the Darling Downs, and the Ennogera of Brisbane, are in the south, a nest of mines are in Burnett district. The largest is the Gympie, near the Mary River; this was the first of the important fields of Queensland, having been opened in 1817. In 1877, the Gympie quartz averaged the high value of 2 oz. 5 dwts. per ton of stone. The gold was first cat out by knives from the roots of trees and grass. In January 1879, 91 tons of Gympie quartz yielded 413 oz. of gold. Near the Gympie are the Kilkivan, Jimna, and Cania mines. Port Curtis had a rush as early as 1857; but its failure tended to retard for several years the auriferous develop- ment of the country. Rockhampton, the so-called northern capital of Queensland, was established by the miners of Canoona, and is now the centre of the mines of Central Queensland. These are the Peak Downs, Ridgelands, Morinish, Rosewood, Crocodile, Calliope, Cawarral, etc. Southern mines, Gympie, 1867. Mines of Central Queens land, MINING. 277 Ravens- But the most important auriferous display is in the QUEENSLAND. north. Ravenswood, opened in 1869, is a field of 550 R square miles ; the township is 100 miles south of Towns- wood, 1869. ville Port. The reefs have paid splendidly. Even the tailings, thrown aside as useless, have been recently determined by an assay at the School of Mines, Jermyn Street, London, to contain from 2 ounces to 18 ounces of gold, and 1 ounce to 5 ounces of silver, to the ton. The iron pyrites bave been the difficulty of Ravenswood miners. Some specimens of this impracticable ore have assayed 30 ounces to the ton. Among the other northern mines are the Palmer, Coen, Northern Etheridge, and Hodgkinson of York Peninsula, the diggings. Cloncurry, &c., S.W. of the Gulf, the Gilbert and Nor- manby, S.E. of the Gulf, the Cbarters Towers, west of the Burdekin River, the Star, west of Townsville, and the Cape River field. The Central mines are near Rockhampton, The southern ones are at Gympie and near Warwick. The Woolgar rush is by the Flinders. The escort returns in 1877 from Charters Towers were 87,200 oz. ; Palmer River, 52,077 oz.; Gympie, 44,527 oz. ; Hodgkinson, 32,004 oz.; Ravenswood, 12,962 oz. The total yield was 353,266 oz., besides what the Chinese carried home. The produce from 89,494 tons 1 oz. 17 dwt. of gold quartz was 169,387 oz., or 1 oz. 17 dwt. 20 grs. per ton. per ton. At Gympie, a cake of 5,800 oz. came from 739 tons. The cost of crushing varies from 98. to 50s. per ton, according to place. The known auriferous reefs were 1,569. The gold area is 7,000 square miles. Gold yield Of 17,903 miners, 13,269 were Chinese, who worked for 1873. the alluvial, while the Europeans were upon the quartz reefs. Copper in 1872 realised 196,0001. Prices fell after. Copper The Peak Downs mine has yielded a million pounds' mines. worth of metal. The dividends in five years were 215,2501. Mount Perry, of the Burnett district, is a more southern centre of copper-working. Kroombit is also rich in ores. Copper ore Nebo, Mt. Flora, Mt. Orange, West Moreton, and Tre- localities. verton Creek are hopeful places. Virgin copper and malachite are got from Cloncurry Australian mine, as well as from Rannes on the Upper Dawson. Cress- brook, 40 miles from Ipswich, Rawbelle, Edina, Bool. boonda, Drummond, Harpur, Clara, and Normanby are 278 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. tors. Tin- QUEENSLAND. hopeful localities. The copper export for 1877 was 167,3371. The low prices have restricted production. Keelbottom copper of Dotswood is very rich. Peak mine It is singular that in the Peak copper mine the lodes lodes. are east and west instead of north and west, with no branches or parallel lodes, and in conformity with the strata of the micaceous clay slate. Copper A good counsel is given by Mr. Daintree to copper prospec prospectors. “Distrust,' says he, 'carbonate surface ores coating bard crystalline rock, or spangles of metallic copper disseminated through it. Such may possibly be workable as copper-bearing rock, but such are not lodes. Trust rather “ gossan” ores on the surface, associated with quartz or regular load gangue.' The new tin exports for 1872 amounted to the sum of 109,8161. The export for 1877 was 133,4321. Stanthorpe, rightly named, is the centre of the south- ern stanniferous field by the Severn River. The area is called 550 square miles, and the country is granitic. The metal is also found at the head of the Burdekin and other more northern rivers. Stanthorpe, Quart Pot streaming Creek., 36 miles from Warwick of the Darling Downs, localities. was the first favourite locality for stream-tin. Sugar. loaf Creek, Four Mile Creek, Kettle Swamp, Pike's Creek, Broad Sound, and Folkstone have tin workings. In July 1872-only a few months after discovery- 850 selections of tin ground had been made, haviny a population of 1,500. The yield during 1873 averaged Tin yield. about 150 tons of ore weekly. It takes more trouble to refine than the Cornish tin, and, therefore, fetches a lower rate in the market. Smelting works are estab- lished at Stanthorpe. The lodes are like Cornish ones. Geology of The tin ore is a peroxide in red granite. When found the tin. in situ the mica is white and the granite is very coarse; but, ordinarily, the mica is black and the felspar is a red orthoclase. The rock is often much metamorphosed in the neighbourhood. The red rock of Ballendean is one of several known lodes. Forfeited claims of speculative companies are now being worked to greater profit by in. dividual miners. Tin granite is of the coal age. Iron ores. Iron ore is common enough, from the southern boun- dary up to lat. 12°. The Logan, the Burrum, the Burnett, the Styx of Broad Sound, and all coal lo. calities, are rich in iron; but chrome iron ore will MINING. 279 be the earliest worked. Of a lode near Ipswich, Mr. QUEENSLAND. Daintree remarks : This is said to be one of the largest deposits of chrome iron ore known in the world. The Iron. same is found also in the Rockhampton district. Brown hematite abounds at Toowoomba and Bandamba Creek, red hematite at Pine Mountain of West Moreton, specular at the Gilbert, and micaceous iron ore at the Cloncurry. Carpentaria red oxide showed 65 per cent. of iron. Among the Queensland formations rich in iron are the Desert Sandstone, the igneous, cretaceous, politic, mesozoic, carboniferous, and Silurian. Rich ferruginous clays, probably once volcanic matter, are seen in the basaltic Darling Downs district. All sorts of iron ore are detected in the gold fields. In the Southern coal field iron is abundant, and limestone is near it. The chrome of Brisbane River is in huge boulders over a large area. A similar deposit is known northward, toward Broad Sound. Micaceous iron is very common. The Northern coal district of the Dawson River has a fine bed of ironstone resting on clay over carboniferous sandstone. A part tertiary deposit of valuable ore has been lately discovered near C. York. The Mt. Hedlow blocks realised as much as 89 per cent. in the analysis. Mercury, in the state of cinnabar, occurs at the head Mercury, nin antimony, of the Mary, on the Clarke, and at Kilkivan and Gympie. It is not yet worked. Antimony is got at St. John's galena. Creek, the Burnett, and at Neardie. Manganese, with nickel and cobalt, are known near Gladstone ; and bismuth is brought down from the Cloncurry. The galena of Ravenswood, Minto, Western Creek, and the Gilbert may turn out some day valuable silver mines. Precious stones—as diamonds, sapphires, etc.—are Precious stones. gathered while streaming for tin; and are seen also in s the Burnett and Rockhampton districts. Agate Creek is near the Gilbert. Rich opals in situ are to be dug out of the sandstone and limestone of the western in. terior; but chiefly near the Barcoo, at Listowell, Barcoo where the rock is changed by contact with basalt. Opal epuis was first obtained from the shale at the head of the Bulla Creek, Barcoo River, in 1870. Queensland has immense stores of the best coal wait. Coal mines ing for the miner. North beds are older than the south. of Queens- The Aberdare mine is worked to a profit. It is five lando miles from Ipswich, with a seam of 5 ft. An analysis hiamuth. 280 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Coal in the future, QUEENSLAND. gives carbon 59.69 ; hydrogen," 4.29 ; oxygen and nitrogen, 9.64; sulphur, 0.22, ash, 24.25 ; water, 1.91. The Tivoli mine, near the Aberdare, has 79:01 of carbon, 6:56 of oxygen and nitrogen, 5:19 of hydrogen, and only 7.73 of ash. Its seam is 3 ft. The Allora of Darling Downs has 69.31 of carbon, 6.08 of hydrogen, 11:51 of oxygen and nitrogen, 0.31 of sulphur, 8.87 of ash, and 3.92 of water. Cannel is on the McIntyre. The Flagstone Creek mine, near Toowoomba of the Downs, is also worked. The Bingera mine of Burnett and the cannel coal of Gatton promise well. With readiness of access much will be soon available for export. The Mackenzie and Bowen have fine beds. Coal is seen southward, westward, eastward, and northward. York Peninsula contains it by the En. deavour river. The people are too busy in Queensland with other and more pressing demands upon their atten. tion, to pay present heed to their iron and coal. South Queensland coke is superior to that of England or Sydney. With population, the coal trade increases. Mining The mining regulations are wise and liberal. regula- Gold prospectors are encouraged by the promise of tions. having an extended claim given them on any new field. The Gold Commission of the district settles questions of disputes about claims. Each miner has 30 ft. front. age to the bed of a stream; but, for dry diggings, one person has 40 ft. by. 40 ft. ; iwo men have 40 by 80 ; three, 50 by 80; and four, 60 by 80. In wet alluvial claims two have 50 ft. by 100 ft.; three, 75 by 80; and four, 100 by 100. Chinese pay much more than Europeans. An ordinary quartz claim is 40 ft. on the line of reef; but 600 ft. may be bad, and 750 in width. Gold leases. Leases may be held for eight acres of alluvial ground, 500 yards of river bed, or 400 yards by 100 on a reef. The term is for five years. The annual rent is 51. an acre, or 100 yards of river bed, or 100 of reef. But leases of 25 acres at 11. an acre rent, are to be had for 21 years. A business license is 41. a year. A miner's right, which all workers must possess, costs 10s. for the year. Rights are now to be had for ten years. Leases for The Mineral Act of 1872 applies to the land worked other other for any other mineral but gold. than gold. Land may be bought in blocks of from 20 to 320 acres. TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 281 A deposit of 58. an acre is made, and the balance of 25s. QUEENSLAND. an acre has to be paid within a year. A frontage of not more than five chains to a creek is allowed upon a 20 acre purchase. Leases and licenses of mineral lands are granted. The annual rental is 58. an acre. The claim may be for 20 to 320 acres, and the term 99 years. Such leases are transferable upon payment of a fee. Miners may rent 40 acres for farming on Gold Fields at a shilling per acre. Licenses are granted annually for working mineral Crown land. Each miner so employed pays 10s. a year. Each license claim is 3 chains square. Trade and Manufactures. TRADE. When known as Moreton Bay, the trade was very limited, and almost confined to wool. The first steamer on the Bay was the James Watt,' in 1837. But in 1865 the trade of the colony was as great as of the whole Increase American colonies after a hundred years' existence. The of trade. inward tonnage for 1878 was 541,850. The exports of Queensland for the year 1878 were Exports 3,190,4191., and the imports were 3,436,0771. The and im- following may be quoted to show the character of the trade :- ports. Countries Imports from Exports to United Kingdom New South Wales Victoria South Australia Tasmania New Zealand Germany. China . New Caledonia United States Hong Kong 1,164,377 1,950,084 118,177 248,327 25,172 13,692 4,684 101,618 1,201,528 2,624,082 10,530 16,974 439 - 4,711 212,852 6,743 234 10,284 19,804 16,419 4,103,468 Total seawards Borderwise . Live stock (overland). 3,674,180 36,762 357,740 257,807 Total . 4,068,682 4,361,275 282 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. 2002. are outs and QUEENSLAND. Among the imports we find 580,1171. for drapery, etc.; 343,8391. for flour; 162,3111. for spirits; 131,0791. for tea; Import value. 108,3891. for boots and shoes ; 105,6711. for beer; 96,1491. for hardware; 166,8041. for iron; 15,8091. for sugar; 16,3001. for apparel. Export In the exports gold occupies the first place, realising value. 1,611,1031. ; wool then stood at 1,499,6821. ; copper, 167,3771. ; tallow, 73,0061.; cotton, 6,9401. ; preserved meats, 89,6521.; hides, 66,1181. ; sugar, 180,6681.; timber, 35,6291.; tin, 133,4321. The imports for 1877 were 201. 178. 1d. per head; the exports were 221. 7s. 1d. ; those for England being not a fourth part of that rate. Opening Trade is opening up with the Asiatic and South Sea trade. Islands. The pearl fishery in 1878 brought 112,3201. Pearl The Tariff, in 1879, comprehended the following :- fishery. Tariff. Per gallon : brandy, 12s. ; spirits, 10s.; methylated spirits, 58.; wine, over 25 per cent. 10s.; not over, 68.; beer in wood, 9d. ; in 6 qts. or 12 pts., 1s. ; oils, 6d. ; turpen- tine, 6d. Per lb. : tobacco and snuff, 2s. 6d. ; cigars, 58.; opium, 20s.; tea and roasted coffee, 6d.; raw coffee, chicory, cocoa, chocolate and butter, 4d. ; cornflour, rice, arrowroot, jams, candles, sago, starch, powder, and twine, ld.; biscuits, butter, candles, confectionery, dried fruits, ginger, spices, pepper, mustard, glue, honey, cheese, bacon, hams, hops, and leather, 2d. Per cwt. : sugar, refined, 6s. 8d. ; raw, 58.; molasses, 3s. 4d. ; soap, salt, and dried fish, 5s. ; sarsaparilla, 4s. and 10s. ; acids, cord- age, and saltpetre, 4s. ; paints, shot, galvanised iron, iron wire, nails, iron castings, and lead (white and red), 2s. Per ton: oatmeal, maizemeal, and salt, 40s. ; potatoes, hay, and onions, 10s.; coals, ls. 6d. Per doz. lbs.: bottled fruits and mustard, castor and salad oils, pickles, sauces, jams, 18.; preserved meat and fish, 2s. Per bushel : wheat, barley, maize, oats, and malt, 6d. ; bran, 2d. Per barrel : cement, 28. Iron tanks, 8s.; doors and sashes, 2s. 6d. The excise on spirits is a duty of two-thirds. All other articles pay an ad valorem duty of 5 per cent., except the following :-Unmanufactured metals, anchors, machinery, printed books and newspapers, live animals, manure, seeds, flour, trees, specimens of na- tural history, passengers' baggage, and naval and mili. tary stores. There is now no gold duty. Stamp duties are levied. There has been a decrease of ad valorem LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 283 duties; in October 1874, the rate was reduced from 10 QUEENSLAND. to 5 per cent. The six banks, Dec. 31, 1878, had assets 5,799,3281., Banks. and liabilities 4,207,6841. The Savings Bank in January 1878, had 702,3121., in 14,383 deposits. The postal work is not a trifling one over so enormous Post an area as nearly a dozen tiines that of England. One telegraph. telegraph line, from Brisbane to Normanton of the Gulf of Carpentaria, is 1,425 miles long. In 1879 there were nearly 6,000 miles of line. The railways, though constructed with great economy, Railways. are costly enough in the hilly districts, where the chief population reside. Nearly 500 miles are open. The one from Ipswich to Dalby is 130 miles long; and another from Brisbane to Roma is 330. From Rockhampton to Comet Junction is 120; and Gowrie to Warwick, 58. Over 600 miles more are contemplated. All are narrow gauge. MANUFACTURES are being now fostered by State bonuses. Manufac- The first to erect a cotton factory costing 3,0001. is to tures. have a bonus of 1,5001. ; while 1,0001. is given for the founder of a woollen manufactory. A bonus of 301. a ton is offered for the manufacture of the first 100 tons of iron. One woollen company is a great success. But boiling-down and meat-curing establishments, tanneries, sugar mills, arrowroot manufactories, agri- cultural implement works, etc., mark the progress in useful industries, for the encouragement of which land is readily granted by the Legislature. Woods are being utilised ; and no colony has finer timber. The Sida, or Queensland hemp, at present a noxious weed, promises to be a valuable manufactured export. A good fibre plant, the Sesbania, abounds in the Western Interior. At the Paris Exhibition these fibres were admired. The colony, however, is too busy raising raw produce Raw pro- to have much time and capital to spare for manufactures. duce at present. Land Laws and Immigration. LAND LAWS. Land regulations form the most important subject to Land intending emigrants. Queensland having nearly seven offers. times the area of either Victoria or New Zealand, with so much less population than these, can offer the most favourable land terms of all the colonies. 284 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Pre-emp- tion. QUEENSLAND. From the date of the first settlement, in 1823, up to Little sold 1853 very little land was sold, or even leased. In the of old. few straggling towns, allotments were to be had ; but country blocks were rarely offered for sale by the Sydney Government. Pastoral lords of the wastes occupied the Darling Downs, and but little more. The law of 1846 gave squatters a pre-emption of 640 acres upon every 16,000 leased from the Crown. When, Squatting after the proclamation of Queensland in 1859, a mania mauia. for runs was begotten, immense acreages were taken up by speculators, on a sort of rule of thumb measure, with a view of selling their right of pasturage to moneyed new comers. The bursting of this bubble involved the ruin of many, caught by the promoters, but led to more honest and satisfactory settlement upon the land. Free selec- The right of free selection,' introduced in 1860 by tion New South Wales, became the practice in the newer adopted. colony. Between free selectors and squatters no amicable Female feeling has existed. It was a liberal act, however, to allow land. women the right of selecting land. The Queensland Parliament advanced in the freedom of Liberal their land regulations. The 1866 Leasing Act was sup- Land Act planted by the Land Act of 1868, of which the fol- of 1868. lowing were the chief features :- Three .. A selection of agricultural land could be bought for classes of 15. on land. 15s. an acre; first-class pastoral at 10s.; second-class pastoral at 5s. The payment was distributed over ten in 10 years. years, at ls. 6d., 1s., and 6d. per acre respectively an- nually. The agricultural land must be in blocks of from 40 to 640 acres; the first-class pastoral from 80 to 2,560; the second-class pastoral from 80 to 7,680. Thus a farm of 640 acres involved a yearly rental of 481. for ten years, when the land became a freehold. In like manner, a station of 2,560 acres of first-class pastoral 7,680 acres land could be bought in ten payments of 1281. each; and fór 1921. 7,680 acres of a more moderate character at 1921. Plenty of Such lands were to be situated in the settled districts good land around the coast; above the half of 50,000,000 acres to be had. of this best part of the colony are still open for selec- tion. By application at a Government land agency, par- ticulars as to available blocks can be procured. In 1878, there were 2,772,014 acres freehold, and 2,001,946 lease- hold. Of 105,449 in cultivation, 71,020 were freehold. LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 285 Certain conditions have to be fulfilled before the deeds QUEENSLAND. are granted by the Crown. There must be residence by Conditional person or by bailiff. Permission is given to pay the purchase- balance of purchase at the end of three years, if there conditions have been residence for two years, and the fencing of the and rights. ground or the expenditure of 10s. an acre in improve- ments. The sanction of the Land Office is required for any transfer of the lease. During the term of the ten years' lease, miners are permitted to dig for and remove metals on the land. The conditional purchaser of pastoral land must like- wise prove that he has improved the property during the three years, at the rate of 10s. an acre for first-class land, and 5s. for the second ; or that he has put a sub- stantial fence around the whole of his selection. Such selectors, however, cannot run more than twenty head of cattle or fifty sheep for every hundred acres while the land is unfenced. This is necessary for the protection of the squatter. By the law, one-half of a run in the settled districts is liable to be resumed ; and conditional purchasers have the privilege, being provided with a license for the purpose, of running stock over that half area. Sugar and coffee leases are granted on very easy terms. Sugar and The block of agricultural class land may be from 320 to coffee 1,280 acres, within ten miles from the coast or a navi. gable river. The purchase will be at the rate previously mentioned-ls. 6d. per acre as an annual rent for ten years. If, howerer, one-tenth of the land be in sugar or coffee cultivation within three years, the lessee is relieved from the necessity of residence. On the wonder. ful new sugar lands in York Peninsula, no one can have more than 640 acres, as the Government seeks to promote cultivation rather than speculation. Rent 2s.6d. an acre. In ordinary Government land sales by auction, the Sales of upset price of town lots is 81. per acre; suburban, 15s. laud. and 20s.; agricultural, 158.; first-class pastoral, 108. ; second-class, 58. One-fifth of the purchase-money is demanded at the sale, and the balance within a month. The Homestead Areas Act of 1872 is the great boon to Homestead immigrants. Mr. Daintree's official work thus describes areas a great boon. it :- 'Proclaimed homestead areas are open to selection. The limit of the block is 120 acres of agricultural land, or 320 of pastoral and agricultural together. leases. LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 287 the second term of seven years ; neither can it be less QUEENSLAND. than 12s. nor more than 25s. for the remaining seven. . All runs are supposed to carry 100 sheep or 20 head of cattle per square mile. The stock must be kept up Pastoral re- to this average during the lease, and one-fourth that ease and one fouth that gulations. rate during a license. Runs may be subdivided or con. solidated, according to Government regulations. Unwatered runs, or those five miles from permanent water, are had on annual licenses, at only 38. per sq. m. Unwatered Leases are transferable, with the sanction of the autho. run rities. Lessees are allowed to purchase, without com. petition, a block of 2,560 acres of their land, at 10s. an acre. If part or the whole of a run be resumed by the State, adequate compensation for improvements is awarded, according to arbitration. The Mineral Lands Act of 1872 provides for the work. ing of any mineral but gold. The selections are from 20 to 320 acres, and the payment is 30s. per acre : 5s. Working must be paid down, and the balance within a year. No other minerals grant is given unless 11. per acre has been expended lucu than gold. within two years. Leases of mineral lands, from 20 to 320 acres, may extend to 99 years, at a rental of 58. an acre. Mineral licenses involve the annual payment of 10s. for each Mineral person employed upon the land. Licenses are trans. leases. ferred, with the sanction of Government and the payment of a fee. A special license, for not more than 15 years, can be obtained by the lessee of mineral lands, for the cutting and use of water races and reservoirs on Crown lands. In that year were 967 selections for tin, 958 copper, 47 silverlead, 38 cinnabar, 20 antimony, 32 coal, 24 opal, and 4 iron. Leases for auriferous lands are granted for five years, Leases of with 8 acres of alluvial ground, 500 yards of a river bed, auriferous or 400 yards by 100 on a line of reef. The rent is 51. an acre; 51. per 100 yards of river bed ; and 51. per 100 yards of a quartz reef. Special leases of not more than 20 acres are granted at an annual rental, or at a certain royalty upon the gold obtained from the land. IMMIGRATION has engaged the serious attention of the Immigra- Queensland Legislature. tion. In 1861, 402 immigrants arrived there; in 1862, 5,559; Number of in 1863, 9,039; in 1864, 4,040; in 1865, 9,494; in 1866, immi- '; grants. 7,385. A falling off appeared after the wild speculation of 288 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. QUEENSLAND. previous years. In 1867, 1,075 arrived ; in 1868, 453; in 1869, 1,909; in 1877, 6,212, 2,569 being females. As to nationality, 1,965 were English, 482 Scotcb, 2,002 Irish, and 1,599 Germans. In 1878 there were 5,139 males, 3,392 females; but in 1879, only 927 and 895. Land order Those who pay their own passage thither have a land warrants. order warrant, afterwards exchanged, with a year's resi. dence in the colony, for a 201. transferable land order for an adult, and a 101. order for a child under 12 years.. Assisted Assisted passages are granted to labourers and me. passages. chanics, upon their pre-payment of the following amounts :- Between 1 and 12 Between 12 and 40 Above 40 Male Female Voyage. The voyage is safe, if long. The vessels are well found, with good medical attendance free of cost. Single women are under a matron. A library is on board. The colonists can send for parties, subject to the ap- proval of the Agent-General, after previous payment of 61. for an adult, and 31. for a child. The land order is given to the party who pays the whole of the passage, whether the employer or the employed. Free Free passages were granted to female servants, single agricultural labourers, and to married couples, farm labourers, with not more than two children under 12 years; also, to daughters of assisted passengers. Remittance Remittance passengers have had part of the passage- passages. paid by friends in the colony, and agree to pay the balance, as below:- passages. Males Females Age Cash deposit Within a year after arrival Cash deposit Within a year | after arrival 1 to 12 years 12 ,, 40 Over 40 - HINTS TO EMIGRANTS PROCEEDING TO QUEENSLAND. 289 Further particulars obtained at the office of the Agent- QUEENSLAND. General, 32 Charing Cross, London. Agent- As to Wages, Pugh’s ‘Queensland Almanac' for 1880 general. gives the following for the rates the previous year:- Wages list. Tailors, 10s. per diem; masons, 98.; plasterers, 10s.; bricklayers, 11s.; carpenters, 8s. to 1ls.; painters, 10s.; blacksmiths, 11s.; wheelwrights, 10s., without rations. Farm labourers, ploughmen, reapers, mowers, and thresh- ers, 351. to 401. per annum, with board and lodging; shepherds, 401. to 601. ; stock keepers, 451. to 601.; hut keepers, 301. to 401. ; generally useful men on stations, 357. to 601. ; sheep washers, 58. to 7s. per diem; shearers, 178. 6d. to 258. per 100 sheep sheared, with rations ; married couples without family, 401. to 601.; married couples with family, 451. to 501.; men cooks for hotels, 501. to 601. ; grooms, 451. to 501. ; gardeners, 451. to 601.; female cooks, 451. to 501.; laundresses, 301. to 501.; geueral servants, 261. to 401.; housemaids, 201. to 261.; nursemaids, 181. to 251. ; farmhouse servants, 261. to 351.; dairy women, 261. to 351., with rations. Quarrymen, 8s. to 10s. per diem; general labourers, 5s. to 7s. per diem, with- out rations ; seamen, 41. to 61. per month, with rations. Hints to Emigrants proceeding to Queensland. Hists. There are fewer luxuries and refinements in this colony, but there is elbow room for a man willing to work hard and endure hardships a while. By rough- ing it for a few years, a prudent colonist may calculate upon that success which will lighten the cares of ad- vancing age. Queensland is not the place for all classes of labour. Not for all For some time to come, absorbing attention must be trades. directed to raw produce and not elaborate manufactures. Rough hands and not delicate fingers will find employ• ment. Utilities and not elegancies will be in demand. But while labour is honourable, no one need fear being caught at any honest toil there. Crawlers are not wanted, and will soon discover that they are in the way. No colony presents a finer opening for co-operative Co-opera- employment. That which certain religious communities tive parties. have done so well in America, could be advantageously attempted by others in Queensland. A company of 290 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. cation. QUEENSLAND. workers, knowing one another, and ready to sacrifice some self in the undertaking, could take up a fine block of agricultural or pastoral land, or even lease a mining piece of ground, and by patient perseverance, with the exercise of common sense and good feeling, they might attain to a very respectable position. Enormous as the area is, the settled parts for farmers and miners are accessible from one of the many ports Communi- now reached by coasting steamers. A good opening exists for those who will aid in promoting inland com. munication, as the people are essentially migratory. Climatic The climate may not suit some constitutions, although difficulties. there are lowlands and highlands from which to select a residence, and a territory a thousand miles long to camp in. Ague and intermittent fever, those common foes of the American prairies, are sometimes found in parts of Queensland, and must be met with doses of quinine. The new comer will be, perbaps, troubled awhile by flies and mosquitoes; though the latter, says Mr. Trollope, are nothing so virulent as the American ones. Diarrhoea in the summer need not be helped by imprudent drinking, but relieved by careful diet. Renewal of The man who fears to make a home in a distant enterprise. land, because of the endurance of evils he did not ex- perience in his own country, had better not venture from his quiet village, where he will suffer some evils not known in the colony, without tasting the blessings there in store for the courageous. Farming Queensland has land for the landless, and on easy openings. terms. At present it is far below other colonies in agriculture, growing a small proportion of the wheat per head which South Australia grows. But, then, as people are crowding in, the corn farmer has a good chance where there are heavy importations of flour. Small It is fortunate that the diggings, now drawing off so farms. much population, have generally decent land in their neighbourhood, with a capital market for the cultivator. While Chinese make fortunes raising cabbages, English spades ought to do well. A family of boys and girls upon a farm, not too ambitiously large, cannot fail to build up a comfortable future. Many persons hamper themselves by undertaking too much for the strength HINTS TO EMIGRANTS PROCEEDING TO QUEENSLAND. 291 of their pocket at first. A few good acres well tilled QUEENSLAND. give less care and more relative profit than an unmanage- able farm. As a mining community is a very uncertain one to rely upon for any great length of time, a selection easily worked and easily relinquished, if necessary, is worth consideration. But, for permanency of farming, a locality had better Where to be sought among the hills for grain, or lower for cotton or settle. sugar. A brilliant future is certainly before this colony for tropical and semi-tropical produce. The man of small means should be content to increase his capital as he goes carefully forward, and the real capitalist ought to watch and wait a little before venturing far. · A sugar plantation, or a well-managed stock farm to Sugar and provide squatters, with improved breeds, can hardly fail stock. to return good interest for investment and personal breeding oversight. The profits of cane-growing, especially in Northern Queensland, are likely to draw continued attention. Recent explorations show that the seaboard north of Cardwell, up to Endeavour River, has splendid spots for this cultivation. While sawyers get from 51. to 101. per 1,000 ft. for Forest native timber, the forest as well as the field has a voice openings. for labour and capital. While Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania, and Best : New Zealand are being practically closed against the easy openings system of squatting, by reason of the demand for farms ms squatting in their more limited areas, a growing population so en- hancing the rentals of Crown lands, Queensland, by its vast territory, can still hold out great attractions to the immigrant seeking pastures; though the fleeces are not so heavy there as in more temperate climes. The large capitalist can invest his tens or hundreds of thousands in the purchase or formation of stations, and may calculate upon satisfactory returns if his business arrangements are prudently conducted. It is absurd to quote rates of interest on such a specu- lation. Much depends upon first cost, selection of run, character of season, value of labour, ruling selling prices, and distance from market and depôt of supplies. The striking of an average for a certain number of years is the only consistent mode of calculation. It is sufficient to say that, while the richest men of Queensland are for U 2 292 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. QUEENSLAND. squatters, most of them have endured great vicissitudes, and a large proportion were originally men of no capital. Impru The impression that sheep and cattle in Queensland dent in- were a certain-fortune to aïl investors has occasioned vestments. much disappointment and misery. Fathers in Great Britain sent out inexperienced and often improvident sons there, who, purchasing stations at absurd rates, and managing them recklessly and ignorantly, soon got into the hands of the banks, and lost their all. To the man of moderate capital, content to plod along with economy and self-denial for a few years, always re- serving something in hand for a sudden emergency or to tide over a bad season or two, and who is determined to look after his own affairs, a future of substantial wealth may be pretty safely promised. But he must be prepared to forego some pleasures and endure some trials. Bush Still, bush enjoyments are neither few nor slight, in spite pleasures. of solitude ; but better with the companionship of a wife, loyally helping a man to make a bright future for a family. Station On a station, shearers, shepherds, etc., have few claims hands. upon their wages, which are high. Their weekly rations are from 10 to 14 lbs. of meat, 10 of flour, 2 of sugar, and of tea : few working men in England live so well. A few years' savings may purchase and stock a farm. Mining Mining matters have gone a-head so marvellously in prospects. the colony, that it is no wonder the intending emigrant has an eye to them. The sanguine expect to equal South Australia in copper, Cornwall in tin, and Victoria in gold. Without doubt a good percentage can be realised in the mines by more opportunities than ordinary town life presents. The time has come for the known but un- developed coal mines to be wrought by imported capital. Labour is well requited in the gold-fields; ordinary wages running from 40s. to 60s. per week. Business Commerce has hardly got under weigh yet. Sydney openings. men have hitherto conducted the Brisbane trade. Yet new comers with modern ideas of business may find a corner for themselves. The colony has now got such a start that all who commence trading there, and are con- tent to wait, can scarcely fail to secure a good stand. Manufactures will surely come with increased popula- tion, though their day is but just dawning. At present HINTS TO EMIGRANTS PROCEEDING TO QUEENSLAND. 293 all available cash and energy are directed to the production QUEENSLAND. of raw material. The pearl fisheries offer a splendid opening for com. Counsel to mercial speculators. One schooner northward netted the work- 8,0001. in a six months' trip. Australian blacks and ing man. Sonth Sea Islanders are employed as divers. About one hundred vessels are now engaged in the industry. Beche-de-mer is another paying product of the same warm seas off the north and north-east coasts of Queensland. Working men must be prepared not to keep to their own craft always, but turn a hand to anything offering. No one need fear the voyage. The mortality on board the Queensland emigrant ships is but 1.14 ; being much lower than the death-rate on land in England. A Brisbane settler, of much colonial experience, wrote an address to intending emigrants for Queensland. In that he speaks of the status of a working man thus :- 'Your master,' says he, 'may be an intelligent, culti- vated man, but you notice with surprise that he does not expect any bowing and scraping. He makes no descent to meet you, and you make no ascent to meet him. You are accosted and treated like a man, not as a chattel.' He adds: One last word. Every one of you, man, woman, and child, sign the teetotal pledge before you start from your native village. This simple act, faith. fully kept to, will remove many difficulties out of your way, and save you from a thousand snares and pitfalls.' The recent discovery of rich soil and good grasses, with some considerable streams, in Western Queensland, will greatly aid in the development of the colony. The outlet of this distant district, so promising in wool, copper, and gold, will be by the new Gulf port, near Point Parker. Though generally dry and warm, the climate is remarkably healthy, for the air is pure and not depressing. The new refrigerating process will be a great boon to meat-exporting Queensland. HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND WESTERN AUSTRALIA. Discovery and History. Dutch dis- coverers. WESTERN It is highly probable that the north and north-east AUSTRALIA. parts were known to Europeans not very long after the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope passage to India. It was the policy of navigators to keep their discoveries Early secret, from jealousy of other nations. Maps nearly 300 Maps. years ago indicate South Java,' 'Southern Land,' or in other terms, to express what we call North Australia. The Dutch, undoubtedly, surveyed the coast west of the Gulf of Carpentaria. De Witt's Land, to the north, received its name from the captain of the Vianen, in 1628. Tasman, the discoverer of New Zealand and Tasmania, visited the north coast of the continent more than once. The south-western district was discovered by the Dutch between 1616 and 1630. Dirk Hartog left his mark there in 1616. Edel, three years after, followed down Hartog's Shark's Bay country. Houtman suffered shipwreck, in 1619, on a desolate island off Shark's Bay. The Cape Leeuwin, or Lioness, was first seen by the Black captain of a vessel so called, in 1622. The river Swan was named after the black swans, which struck the curiosity of the Dutch sailors in 1697. The captain of the vessel then was Captain Vlaming. A thousand miles of the coast east of Cape Leeuwin was followed down by the Dutch ‘Galde Zeepaard,' or Nuyt's Good Shepherd, in 1627. This received the appellation of Nuyt's Land, from a distinguished passenger on board 1627.' going out to Japan. The bold, perpendicular cliff gave no opportunity of landing. Dampier in The English added their quota to the discovery. es portaDampier, the buccaneer, gave his name to land and west, 1688. islands on the north-west coast. He remained for two swans. Land, DISCOVERY. í 295 . . . overy 7,1792 months in that sterile country, and was annoyed and WESTERN surprised at the indisposition of the natives to do negro AUSTRALIA. work. He returned in 1696, eight years after his first visit. Captain Vancouver was the English discoverer of Vancouver, King George's Sound, in 1791. It is said of his seamen, 1791. that their guns and aim were too bad to hit a black swan. He was followed the next year by the French French dis- Admiral Bruni d'Entrecasteaux, who surveyed the south co and 1802. shore of Van Diemen's Land. In 1802, Captain Baudin, who professed to have dis- covered Flinder's Land of South Australia, made the first accurate survey of Swan river, and gave names to places after his two ships, Geographe and Naturaliste. Going further north, he, in like manner, honoured Voltaire, and other countrymen of reputation. The Frenchman was Flinders, followed by his southern rival, Flinders, who named Port 1802. Malcolm and other parts of the south coast. To Captain King, between 1820–4, belongs the credit King, of the best surveys of the northern coast. Prince Regent 1820-4. river, Admiralty Gulf, and Mounts Waterloo and Trafalgar were portions of his exploration. Captain Grey, 1837. Grey, subsequently Governor of South Australia, New Zealand, etc., came upon some fine country, in 1837, about Glenelg river of the north shore. He subsequently, after shipwreck near Shark's Bay, made an overland journey to Perth, crossing the Murchison and other streams, but experiencing the usual Australian difficulty of want of water. Further surveys of the northern coast were made by H.M.S. Captains Wickham and Stokes, of H.M.S. Beagle, Beagle. between 1837 and 1843. Land explorations were conducted by Captain Stirling, Stirling, in 1827; he became the first Governor at Swan river. 1827 Captain Bannister first crossed from Swan river to King George's Sound, in 1831. Mr. Eyre reached the Sound, Eyre. in 1841, by an overland journey from Port Lincoln in overland, South Australia. He suffered much from thirst. During that weary march of 1,500 miles he met with no surface water, and depended for his supply upon wells he sank in the sea sand, at long intervals. His description of that heartless coast has been since con- firmed by others, especially by Mr. Giles in 1875. 1841. 296 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. fishery. WESTERN Mr. Surgeon Roe from 1836 to 1848 made excursions AUSTRALIA. northward and eastward from the settlement, but came only to small patches of good land in the midst of dread. Roe's ex- plorations. ful deserts. He often failed to obtain water in the bed Salt lakes of so-called rivers. The salt lakes of the granite regions, and north-east of the Sound, were seen in the midst of a sterility. sterile country. The Forrests explored E. from 1870–8. Austin's Mr. Austin penetrated far into the interior, east of the sufferings. Murchison, encountering fearful heat and droughts on the sandstone plateau, and on the granitic wastes. The two brothers, Mr. A. C. and Mr. F. Gregory, did their best to reveal a better land, though without success. Mr. F. Gregory in Gregory was more fortunate, when he went in 1858 the north. across the country south of the Dampier Archipelago, discovering the Fortescue and De Grey rivers. Gregory In a later expedition of Mr. A. C. Gregory and Dr. and Von Mueller, Sturt Creek was seen to lose itself in a salt Mueller. lake of the desert in the north-east. Pearl Land south of Nichol Bay was afterwards shown to be available for pasturage, and the coast for pearl fishery. Good land. Col. Warburton recently crossed the desert from central South Australia to the North-West Coast. Forrest has since revealed vast tracts of rich soil in the north-east. History. The history of the Colony is not an eventful one, except for difficulties. As the attempt at French colonisation in New Zealand was prevented by the energy of the English, so was it in First settle- Western Australia. The report of a contemplated settle- ment, 1825. ment on that coast induced the Governor of New South Wales, in 1825, to forward a small party of convicts to King George's Sound. Private But a private colony was established on the banks of colony, the Swan River four years after. Capt. Freemantle had, 1829. in 1829, taken possession of the country in the name of the King of England, as Vancouver had that of the Sound. Mr. Peel It was resolved to establish a Colony there. Large the grants of land were made to a Mr. Peel and others, on founder. the condition of forwarding thither a certain number of free emigrants. Capt. Stirling, appointed Governor, was, like the rest, dependent for an income upon large grants. If able to induce men of some capital to come out and purchase land, the original proprietors would do well. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 297 land. Many entered sanguinely into the speculation, and WESTERN 1,300 were landed by the end of 1829. So long as AUSTRALIA, weather was fair, and cash lasted, the immigrants enjoyed Failure of life in their tents. But when the stormy rains came, specula- distress appeared. Colonial vessels from Hobart Town tion. and Sydney sold then flour at 1001. a ton to the nearly Flour 1001. starved out inhabitants. a ton, To add to their misfortunes, the land proved not to be Poor the paradise held forth. The soil was sandy, and the farming grass was poor. Those who had means to pay their pas- sage fled to Van Diemen's Land and other settlements. The rest endured many hardships for a number of years. The private Colony, of course, became by the failure of Crown the original company a Crown one. colony. At length, in 1848, the settlers resolved to forsake the country unless the British Government came to the rescue. As the eastern colonies were freed from con- Petition victism, the men of Perth asked for the transportation for convict labour. system rejected by others. Their petition was granted," and the convicts were sent the next year, and till 1868. The result has been, in a material sense, of great ad- Effect of vantage. A very large amount of money was put in transporta- tion. circulation, and Western Australia was proved to be a Colony better country than it was ever thought before to be. Mines in Victoria District, north of Perth, have repute. turned out very rich in lead and silver. The timber Metals, trees, equal to any in the world for shipbuilding, opened timber, and pearls. up a trade. Pearl fishery was successful on the coast. The pasturage turned out better elsewhere. New country brought new hopes for a future. The Colony, if not equal in variety of resources to New South Wales, or abounding in such tokens of civilisation as Victoria, can become a healthy and prosperous home to many. risen in PHY. Geography and Climate. GEOGRA- Western Australia occupies one-third of the continent, Area or 978,300 square miles, being nearly a dozen times as 978,300 square large as Great Britain. It is about 1,500 miles long. miles. Bounded on the north, west, and south by the sea, 1€ Boundaries. has the meridian of 129° E. as the eastern limit on the side of South Australia. Part of its shore is 300 miles from Timor, and 800 miles from Java. 298 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. WESTERN Though the coast line has been known more or less for AUSTRALIA. 250 years, very little of the interior has ever been ex. Swan - plored. Our information is almost limited to one- River set twentieth of its area, toward the south-west extremity, tlement. in what is called Swan River Settlement. What is be- yond eastward can hardly be conjectured, unless it be a desert with some salt lakes. On the north-west side, except a fringe of fair land for 30 miles, it is poor; but great tracts of rich black soil are known north-east. Districts. The lands discovered by Arnhem, De Witt, Edel, Dampier, and Tasman are on the Indian Ocean coast to the north. Nuyt's Land is only the southern shore to South Australia. The Denison Plains are south of Camden Harbour. Victoria District is in the neighbour- hood of Champion Bay, to the south-west. Mountains. Rivers. Mountains. Excepting Kyenneruf, near King George's Sound, which is 3,500 ft., there are few points over 2,000 ft. high. The Darling, Stirling, Roe, Bennett, Dundas, and Russell ranges are in the Swan River Settlement portion of the Colony. Churchman is in lat. 30°, long. 118°. A little northward lie the ranges known as Gairdner, Moresby's Flat-topped, and Victoria. Mount Bruce is to the east of North-west Cape. Mueller is near Sturt Creek. Waterloo and Trafalgar are in the extreme north-east. - Rivers. These are very few and feeble. Some, like the Swan and Murchison, may be from 200 to 300 miles long, but are often without water for many miles in succession. In the Swan River Settlement corner are the Swan, with its tributaries, Canning, and Avon. The Black- wood is near Cape Leeuwin. The Murchison, Irwin, and Greenough are toward Champion Bay. The Gas- coigne reaches Shark's Bay. On the northern side, east of North-west Cape, are the Fortescue and the De Grey, toward Roebuck Bay, Fitzroy River flows to Sunday Strait. Grey's Glenelg is not far from the north-east extremity, near Prince Regent River. The mouth of the Victoria is just outside the north-east border. The Oakover reaches De Grey. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 299 Lakes. WESTERN The shallow salt lakes are very numerous to the east AUSTRALIA, of the settled districts. Lakes Moore and Austin are Lakes. north-east. Bays. Bays. The Great Australian Bight, to the south, is the largest bay. There are, also, on the south side, Flinders and Irwin Bays, and King George's Sound. Géographe Bay and Peel's Inlet are south-west. Champion and Gantheaume Bays are north-west of Swan River. Shark's Bay is higher up on the west coast. Roebuck Bay and King's Sound are about lat. 18° S. Nickol Bay is west of Roebuck Bay, in lat. 2010. Cambridge Gulf and Sunday Strait are to the north-east. The mouth of the Glenelg is in Camden Sound or Harbour. Capes. Capes. Cape Leeuwin is the south-western extremity, and North-west Cape the north-west one. Londonderry is to the north-east. Naturaliste is to the north of Leeu- win, and Nuyt east of it. Arid is S.E. of the colony. Islands. Islands. Rottenest is near Swan River, and Dirk Hartog in Shark's Bay. The Dampier Archipelago is east of North-west Cape. Guano Lacepedes are north-west. Towns. Towns. Though very small settlements exist in the north, on De Grey's River and near Camden Harbour, all the other townships are located within 200 miles of Swan River. Perth, the capital, is in lat. 32° S., long. 116° E. Freemantle is its port. York is 60 E., Guildford is 9 E., and Albany, of King George's Sound, 250 S.E. of Perth; Geraldton, 300 N. Champion Bay. Bunbury, Busselton, and Pinjarrah are South; Roeburne, of Nickol Bay, is 1,200 miles N.W.of Perth.' Port Eucla, S.E. by the Bight. Climate. CLIMATE. The CLIMATE of Western Australia proper, that is, the south-western corner of the Colony, is one of the most 5 of the most Healthy healthy in the world. S.W . 300 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. WESTERN The sterility of the country is most favourable to its AUSTRALIA. healthiness, as there is no luxuriant vegetation decom. posing to produce miasma, and there are no rich mo- rasses and lowlands to breed agues and fevers. The heat of summer, of course, provokes attacks of dysentery and ophthalmia, but these are usually reduced by care and temperance. Dec. 4, 1877, heat in sun 152º. Rain. Near the coast, about thirty inches of rain may be ex- pected during the year, but much less an amount over the coast range in the interior. The rains come during the four winter months, and from the north-west quarter. Very dry. In some seasons hardly a shower falls during the rest of the year. Snow bas been known to descend on a range 3,500 feet high. Perth had 28 in. rainfall in 110 days. Heat of The mean temperature of Perth is 63º. The sea- interior. breezes qualify the heat of the sea-board settlements, though the interior is often subject to a considerable thermometrical elevation. The dryness of the air, how- ever, renders the heat more endurable. Monsoons prevail. Sandy soil. King George's Sound has the advantage of a better rainfall, though the sandy soil around soon absorbs it. Northern In the Northern District, though in the tropics, there climate. is very little humidity. The wet season is from the end of November to February. It is cool from March to July, and dry and hot from August to November. The south-east breeze prevails for months. The season for flowering plants on the elevated plains is two or three months later than in the valley of the northern rivers. GEOLOGY. Geology. The GEOLOGY of Western Australia is little known, as so very small a proportion of the Colony has been ex. plored. It would appear that there is much granite and unsatisfactory sandstone, with few oases. Granite Although a great part of the continent was once covered and sand with a thick deposit of tertiary cretaceous sandstone, yet stone the prevailing subsequent denudations relieved the eastern side from much of this barren covering. Western Australia, how- ever, has retained the chief portion, and is oppressed by its dry sterility. Victoria desert is 1,000 miles long. Trough The centre of the continent is trough-like, the country like centre. rising from it towards the east, north, and west, though rocks. GEOLOGY. 301 but to a lesser amount towards the south. The rise to WESTERN the west and north-west culminates in the vast plateau of AUSTRALIA. Western Australia, two to three thousand feet high, and Plateau seen from fifty to two hundred miles inland from the coast. land. The ranges in the south-west corner, by the settlement of Swan River, seldom reach three thousand feet. The central part is of primitive rock, and the sides are ter- tiary. No anticlinal axis has been clearly distinguished. Primary rocks. The slate runs through the Darling range, and in some portions makes its appearance in the metallic Old Red Sandstone district of Champion Bay. On the Old Red Sandstone cliffs of Collier Bay the tides have produced needle-like points. Fossil plants as in India and Africa. Some ancient limestone has been discovered in small areas to the north. But the vast bed of recent sandstone has been removed in too few places to make observations upon the primary rocks beneath. The granite, as in almost all cases in Australia, pre- Granite sents an intrusive aspect in Western Australia. Patches intrusive. crop out in the new country toward the Indian Sea, by the De Grey, &c. But eastward and northward from Cape Leeuwin, and north-eastward of King George's Sound, the granite is prominently visible as sheets on the surface, and as isolated hills. Granite knobs thrust themselves up through the dreary sandstone at intervals from the Sound to the Australian Bight. They appear beside the salt lakes, and crop up at Champion Bay. Mount Magnet, east of Murchison river, is of a gneiss character. The Flat-topped range contains many granitoid rocks. Near Mount Kenneth the green and white ribbons of hornblende and quartz are much contorted. All the so-called granite country bas only recently been freed from the incubus of sand. stone. The tertiary beds usually rest on granite. Secondary beds, of a cornbrash or inferior colite kind, Secondary have been noticed not far from the south-weet coast. A formation. spiriferous limestone occasionally crops out beneath the sandstone of the north. The mesozoic is middle and lower. The volcanic element is not strong. In the north, trap Volcanic rocks occupy the position which the granite ones do in rocks. the south. Columns of basalt and greenstone rise on Basaltic the coast from Cape Leeuwin and Cape Naturaliste. columns. Near Géographe Bay, they have quite the look of a 302 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. rocks. Giant's Causeway. Decomposed basalt is common on AUSTRALIA. Moresby's Flat-topped hills. There is syenitic green- stone with conchoidal fracture north of Glenelg; and trap at the De Grey, Roe Plains, and Camden Harbour. Volcanic The headwaters of the Fortescue and the De Grey ex- hills. hibit the basaltic formation. Black volcanic hills alter- nate with granite knobs, near the lat. 16° S. Greenstone is prominent at Nickol Bay. A volcanic region lies towards Shark's Bay and the Dampier Archipelago. Tertiary But the tertiary strata are all prevailing. In some cases, the sandstone element overcomes the cretaceous; in others, the limestone is stronger than the arenaceous. On the Denison Plains it is 300 feet thick. The table- land on the north side is 2,000 feet high. Around Mount Kenneth it rises 1,200 feet. Shark's Bay country is of limestone conglomerate, gypsum, and coral débris. The south coast rose suddenly in Miocene times. The Albrolhos are of sand, coral, and broken shells in limestone. The limestone shore of North-west Australia is similar to that of the Murray basin of South Australia. This is one of the largest formations in the world. Coal. Carboniferous rocks are known to be beneath, appear- ing on the Irwin and Murchison. They are doubtless connected with the carboniferous system of Eastern Australia. The lead area is 5,000 square miles. Government. Western Australia, by the introduction of convicts, has retarded its political enfranchisement. Council. · The Executive Council consist of a Governor, Colonial Secretary, Surveyor-General, and Attorney-General. The Legislative Council has eighteen members-four official, four nominee, and 14 elective. . . So vast an area, if it became at all populated, will naturally be constituted into several colonies, as New Resident. South Wales has been. At Nickol Bay, a Resident, or Commissioner, is the representative authority under the Governor at Swan River. Separation • A separation movement has, however, commenced in cry. the so-called Victoria District, by Champion Bay. The more energetic character of that population cannot sub- mit patiently to the style of government which contented the old class of colonists. GOVERN MENT. POPULATION. 303 POPULA- The revenue of so poor a colony was a very limited WESTERN one for a long time. In 1857, thanks to some prosperous AUSTRALIA. years from British outlay, it rose to 89,0791., while the Rever expenditure was 90,1001. In 1878 the first amounted to and ex- 165,4121., and the last to 182,9591. The present revenue penditure. is above that of 51. a head. The debt in 1878 was 184,5561. Population. TION, The population grew very slowly for many years. Im. migration was absolutely nothing after 1830. Twenty years after, the total gain to the Colony was but about à couple of thousand souls, so great had been the migration to other colonies. În 1850, the returns gave 5,293. The arrival of con. Numbers. victs, with officers and soldiers, swelled up the number, in 1851, to 7,096, though only 2,444 were females. In 1859, there were 9,522 males and 5,315 females. At the end of 1877, the population, 27,838, consisted of 16,326 males and 11,512 females ; in 1878, 28,166. · The births in 1857 were 507, in a population of 13,601; Births, &c. and the deaths were 153. In 1878 the former were 871, and the latter 394. The marriages for the year were 182. Births were 31, deaths 14, per 1,000. In ten years, after 1849, the convicts introduced into Convicts. the Colony were 5,500. The last arrivals came in 1868. The pensioners, 270 in number, do military duty for many colonial advantages. The Aborigines of the colony have not been utterly Aborigines. neglected in the settled district, though few practical results have followed the efforts for their civilisation, Several schools and missions have been organised. Outside the boundary of the settled parts, the country is too bad to keep the tribes in food, as game is very scarce there. Encounters have repeatedly occurred be- tween explorers and the Blacks. There is but slight difference in the manners, customs, and appearance of these natives and those of Eastern Australia ; though the languages, except in grammatical construction, are quite different. Dampier described them as more hideous than South Africans. They are far from being destitute of good feeling and intelligence. Their intercourse with the Whites has been no more happy and virtuous in Western than in Eastern Australia. HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. WESTERN Education and Religion. AUSTRALIA. LI. The work of the schoolmaster was not an encouraging Low state one of old. An effort is now being made, in the present Education. revival of the Colony, to get teachers from the home country. The cost of schools, 1878, was but 8,5781. A general system exists, with a very particular excep- tion. There were, at the end of 1877, 74 public schools, R. Catholic under the Board of Education. But, as the Roman schools Catholics objected to the instruction of their children alone. along with those of the Protestant community, special assistance, of a monetary kind, is given to the dissen. tients, who thus manage their own educational affairs. The fees of the Roman Catholic schools are lower than in the regular pnblic schools. Of the 74 schools, 20 were the assisted, or Roman Catholic ones. The total number of pupils in 1878 was: 2,344 in the public schools, 1,404 assisted, and 311 provisional. State aid State aid to religion is not abrogated in this Colony. to religion. One-half the people are Church of England, and nearly one-third are Roman Catholic. The Protestant Bishop of Perth has earned a good reputation for his devotion to the interests of the Aborigines. trials. AGRICUL- Agriculture. TURE. Though some good soil was found around York, on the banks of the Avon, Vasse, Arthur, and some other Farmer's rivers, as well as near Champion Bay, the farmer has to struggle against many difficulties. With water supply, a fair crop can be guaranteed. Land, for many years, was so cheap as scarcely to be marketable at all. The small town population furnished few consumers of produce. Convict establishments, how. ever, brought paying customers to the farmer. The aridity of the country, especially over the ranges, tells much against husbandry. Great Notwithstanding all troubles, there were 23,008 acres attention to in wheat, during 1878, 30,543 in corn, altogether ; 341 agriculture. in potatoes ; 614 in vines ; 18,013 forage. The total acreage in crop was 51,674; a fair amount for so small a population as 28,000 persons, yet but 1 acre in 12,000. 306 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. WESTERN AUSTRAL Wool. Palestine pastoral system. MINING. Not auriferous. In the north district there were 56,000 sheep; 800 cattle, and 400 horses in 1873. The wool export for 1877 was 3,992,487 lbs., valued at 199,6241., but only 150,9521. in 1878. Like as in the Holy Land, the owners of flocks and herds in Western Australia have to wander with them in search of pasture, and depend largely on wells for water. Early in 1879, 24,043,423 acres in 4,515 runs were leased and licensed, but 3,423,000 were free. Mining. Taking the area of the Colony as a whole, there is less prospect of an extensive mineral deposit than elsewhere in Australia, owing to the extra space covered by the tertiary or desert sandstone. It is not a golden land, though poor quartz has been awhile worked near Albany. A bonus of 5,0001. was offered for a payable field, and gold has been found in several places. Silver has been obtained in the argenti- ferous lead mines. Copper was discovered on the northern coast by Captain King. The iron is said to be equal to any in Sweden. Zinc is seen on the Canning. *Copper is hopefully exhibited in the Champion Bay district, the mineral region of the Colony. On the Irwin river some fine lodes have been cut. The Narra-Tarra, the Gwalla-Gwalla, Wheal-Arrino, Roebourne, Northam, and Fortune mines, once were in promising condition. - But lead is being worked to decided profit in the Champion Bay country. The province of Victoria is rich in such deposits between lat. 28° and 30° South, from the Irwin river to the Murchison, and for, perhaps, 30 miles inland from the coast. Northampton has mines. The mineral veins are only apparent where the over. lying cretaceous sandstone has been denuded. Doubt- less, therefore, other metallic treasures may be found by searching for places where this sterile covering has been removed by the action of rivers. The Geraldine lead and silver mine has been a success. The export in 1878 of lead ores realised 43,4101. The first amount sent to England was in 1845. Want of labour has been urged as the cause of limited production. The lodes almost invariably run north 32 east, and from 5° to 15º from vertical. Elvan dykes, as in Cornwall, Copper. Lead and Geraldine mine. TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 307 have the same direction. The country is not such a WESTERN killas one as the copper land of England. AUSTRALIA It is said that a rich reward will follow the judicious employment of capital in the Victoria district mines. The Gneiss rocks are those found to be most productive. The iron-stone of the Darling range has long been recog- Iron-stone. - nised as a future source of wealth to the Colony. It is rich on the Wizard Peaks and in Brecknock Harbour. Coal would be of great value if in suitably accessible Coal. localities. It occurs near the Irwin and the Murchi. son streams. One bed was seen, six feet thick ; but the mineral was 40 miles from the sea, and in a difficult country. A sort of Welsh coal is known by the Fitz- gerald river, near the south coast. A soft bituminous mineral has been found toward King George's Sound. ; Encouragement is given by Government for the work. ing of minerals. In 1878 were 26 leases, 52 licenses. Recognised mineral land is sold in blocks from 80 to Sales and 160 acres at 31. per acre, payable by instalments in three leases of years. Annual Prospecting Licenses are granted, on a 1 lands. payment of 2s. an acre for the first year, and 4s. for the second. If paying quantities be found, a transferable lease for ten years may be had at 88. an acre rent. Gold licenses have been issued for York, Avon, Vasse, Albany, and Victoria Plains Districts, with but poor results. mineral Trade and Manufactures. TRADE. Little communication is established between Western Horse Australia and the other Colonies, though a trade in horses trade. has sprung up with India, and hopes are entertained that the pearl fishery will open out prosperously for the colonial marine. The tonnage inwards in 1878 was Tonnage. 80,655 in 155 vessels. The noble forests of jarrah wood will some day be atilised by local yards for ship-building. The metals Openings. are already employing a good number of vessels, and more will shortly be required for the increasing yield of produce in wool. Nickol Bay is demanding steam traffic with India. Guano and turtle come from Lacepede isles. The imports for many years were double the exports Imports in value. In 1850 they were respectively 52,3511. and and 22,1957. ; in 1851, 56,9581. and 26,8701. ; in 1859, orts. x 2 308 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Flour and TURES. WESTERN 102,7031. and 44,1931. For the year to Dec. 31, 1878, AUSTRALIA. these amounts increased to 379,0501. for imports, and 428,4911. for exports. Above half the exports were to England, a seventh to Adelaide, a ninth to Melbourne. Shell, pearl, Tortoise shell was first exported from Nickol Bay in &c. 1868. In 1878 pearls and mother-of-pearl were 22,4501.; sandal wood, 35,0641. ; lead, 43,4101.; timber, 63,9011.; and wool, 150,9521. Flour, once almost wholly supplied wool. from abroad, is now home grown. Wool has greatly risen in production of late years. Guano fetched 66,0951. MANUFAC- Manufactures have been encouraged from the poverty of the colonists depriving them of the power of purchase elsewhere. Prisoners' labour has developed workshops; and a protection policy is already spoken of as a means of fostering local effort, and retaining capital for home trade. In 1878 were 3 breweries, 6 saw mills, 2 foundries. Telegraph The telegraph wires extend from Perth by Port Eucla to Adelaide. to Adelaide. The rail connects Port Geraldton with mining Northampton, 32 miles. Freemantle is being joined to Perth and Guildford. The timber south- western district needs tramways to carry jarrah wood. Pearl fishery boats pay 51. to 301. for license. Sandal wood brings 77. 10s. a ton. The 13 Savings Banks had recently 1,400 depositors, and 26,0001. Tariff. The Tariff is heavier than in some colonies. Upon spirits the duty is 14s. per gallon ; beer, 1s.; vinegar, 6d. ; wine, 4s. That upon salt, onions, and potatoes, 10s. per ton; rice is ll. per ton; soda, 11. Cheese, cocoa, coffee, hops, spices, bacon, salt meat, dried fruits at 2d. per lb.; manufactured tobacco, 2s. 60.; cigars and snuff, 58.; tea, 4d. ; sago, ld. Moist sugar is 3s. per cwt. Dog licenses, 2s. Ed. to 11. On other goods, not freely admitted into port, an ad valorem duty of ten per cent. is charged. The export duty apon sandal wood is 5s. per ton, and on kangaroo skins, Is. each. Pearl shells, 41. per ton; guano royalty,10s. LAND Land Laws and Immigration. LAWS. The Swan River Settlement originated in a system of grants of immense areas of country to a few individuals. Grants who were to supply the new Colony with free immi. grants, in number proportional to the acreage gift. As land became the medium of exchange, and was at first. LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 309 bartered for service and goods, it fluctuated in value. WESTERN When the brief good times departed, land was truly a AUSTRALIA. drug in the market, especially as its general character Low price. for poverty was well known. The revival of the Colony, since the convict migration thither, has increased the demand for land. Sales have Land sales. advanced. In 1856, 2,456 acres were disposed of; in 1860, 18,193; in 1865, 7,564; in 1868, 15,783 ; but in 1877, the sale fell to 7,233. Up to 1878, 376,546 acres were sold, and 1,591,641 were granted. Land sold, 1878, averaged 5s. 2d. an acre. Much more land would have been purchased were surface water to be obtained. Tracts of good soil are known in parts of the eastern country, where plenty of water can be got by sinking. Droughts are not Droughts. uncommon in parts where rivers exist, but which are repeatedly found dry for months together. The land laws of the Council are liberal. Country 10s. an land, in blocks from 40 acres, may be bought at 10s. acre. per acre. Mineral land is 31. Some runs are free. Tillage leases are granted all over the Colony. The Tillage acreage must be less than 320 acres. The term is for leases. 8 years, at a rent of ls, per acre, or for not less than 51. for a block. A freehold in 3 years if paying 7s. an acre. The country, as to lands, is divided into North Dis- trict and East District. The former is north of the Murchison river, and east of Mount Murchison. The latter is south of lat. 30°, and to the eastward. Lands are either A or B. The A are the best pasture Two lands, and are leased at the rate of 2s. per 100 acres, in syst of land areas not exceeding 1,000 acres each. But the leases leasing. are only annual. The purchaser of 10 acres of A land has a certain right of commonage granted to him over contiguous pasturage. Rent of B lands 10s. 1,000 acres. On the B lands an area of 10,000 acres may be had on a lease of eight years for 51. a year, and a fee of 10s. extra for each thousand acres selected. The lessee may pur- chase a homestead property, if not more than two acres for each hundred leased, at 10s. an acre. Such leased lands are available for purchase by the lessee after the first year, if not mineral land ; or, in Homestead Areas, at the end of three years if improvements be made. In other parts, called 0 lands, free pasturage is per- systems HINTS TO EMIGRANTS TO WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 311 the settlers to ask for convict immigration operated still WESTERN more strongly. AUSTRALIA. But with interest so high as it is there, some capitalists High must be making money. It may be, also, presumed that interest. the borrowers are so well engaged that they can afford to pay thus well for accommodation. The commercial position of the Colony in relation to Good prosa Asia ought to be turned to account by enterprising immi. pects for immi- grants, though the people have been too long content grants. with half labour to put forth energy for it themselves. The timber trade has never been well wrought, though no place has finer woods than that west of King George's Sound. Yarrah wood-cutters are in demand on the Vasse river. The wood resists the sea-worm. Sandal wood is an established and easily managed employment; but pearl fishery could be extended very largely, and with the aid of Asiatic divers. At present 600 to 900 divers are employed, one-third of whom are Malays, and two-thirds are Australians. The season is from September to April. The principal place is from Exmouth Gulf to Camden Harbour. Mother-of-pearl now brings 1201. a ton. One ship lately had 350 ozs. of pearls, and another 50 hogsheads of shells. One pearl was worth 5,0001. A recent season closed with 265 tons, worth 45,0001. A great fishery is between the head of the Ashburton and Fortescue Rivers, and in Shark's Bay. Tsin-Tsin, the pearlers' port, is N.W. Squatting pursuits are open to the investor, though he need avoid poison-plant localities, and dry sandy wastes. The grass is often very tufty, but still nutritious. The country is not, like New Zealand, fit for the man with a small flock. Mining pursuits reward labour, and are very promising. Families may get 150-acre grants. The high duty on spirits may check the prevalent Better than intemperance in the Colony; but the morals, generally, many parts of America. have not been improved by convictism, though that has now ceased. The climate is considered very favourable to health. An Englishman would be likely to find a better home in Western Australia than in many parts of Ame- rica, Wages are high, food is cheap, and farms are to be bad on easy terms, in this land of fruit and bright skies. 312 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. TASMANIA. discovery, His Island. Discovery and History. TASMANIA. This charming island lies to the south of Victoria, from which it is removed by a steam passage of twenty- four hours only. Tasman's On the first of December, 1642, Abel Jansen Tasman, a Dutch navigator, anchored off its shore in his voyage 1642. from Western Australia. He named it Van Diemen's Land, after the governor of Java; though, since the abolition of transportation, the appellation of Tasmania has been given to the Colony. Tasman had been despatched from Java, in the yacht search for 'Heemskirk,' and the Ay-boat • Zeehaarn,' with orders the South from Governor Van Diemen to find out, if possible, the southern extent of 'The Great South Land,' afterwards called · New Holland,' and now known as “ Australia.'' Particulars of this voyage are found in the brief journal of the captain. The introduction to the narrative sets forth the piety of the worthy Dutchman; as it says, • May God Almighty be pleased to give his blessing to this voyage! Amen.' Particulars After sighting Point Hibbs, on the west coast, on the of his visit. 24th of November, he rounded South Cape, and deter- mined, as he thought, the southern extremity of the Great South Land. On the 1st of December he an. chored in Frederick Henry Bay, so called after the Stadt- holder of Holland, the father of our English William III. Two days after he resolved to take possession of the new land. But the surf was too strong for a boat to approach the shore. The carpenter, however, one Peter Jacobs, boldly leaped into the sea with the flag of the Prince of Orange, and swam with it through the breakers. Maria, Off the east coast Tasman sighted a lonely island, daughter of which he tenderly called after Maria, the daughter of his friend Van Diemen. Van Diemen, DISCOVERY AND HISTORY. 313 French 1773. 1792. The next visitor was a Frenchman. Captain Marion TASMANIA. was in search of the southern Continent in 1772, when he fell in with the natives. This first meeting of whites Marion, and blacks in Tasmania was a bloody one, a sad omen 1772. for the future. Captain Furneaux, of the 'Adventure,' Furneaux, was the earliest English caller. He entered Adventure Bay, Bruni Island, in 1773. He afterwards reported to his commander, Cook, from whom he had got separated, that there was only a deep bay between New Holland and Van Diemen's Land. In January, 1777, Captain Cook, in his last voyage, Cook, 1777. saw the so-called Diemenese, and wrote the first story about them. Captain Bligh, of the ‘Bounty,' after- wards Governor of Sydney, was at Adventure Bay in 1788. Another distinguished visitor was the French Admiral D'Entre- D'Entrecasteaux, who arrived with Captain Huon casteaux, Kermandée in 1792, and who left a pleasing record of his intercourse with the aborigines. His naturalist, Labillardiere, wrote concerning the animal and vegetable wonders of the place. Captain Hayes followed in 1794, Hayes at and named the Derwent river. Derwent. Mr. Surgeon Bass has the merit of discovering the Bass and country to be an island. Leaving Sydney with Lieutenant Di Flinders, subsequently the discoverer of South Australia, circum- &c., he crept along the shore in a boat but eight feet long, navigate o the island, and noticed the great swell off Western Port. In a larger 1793 craft the two friends, in 1798, passed through Bass's Strait, and sailed round the island. The account Mr. Bass gave of the Derwent river was undoubtedly the means of the land being colonised five years after. Napoleon despatched the 'Geographe' and the Baudin's Naturaliste' on a voyage of discovery just when exploran Flinders was sent on his voyage. Captain Baudin spent tion, 1801. a considerable part of 1801 in the southern part of Tasmania. Being accompanied by twenty-three men of science, the island then received a valuablescientific exami. nation. Peron, the historian of the expedition, wrote a HISTORY. romantic story of their intercourse with the simple and interesting islanders. The earliest attempt at any settlement was made with a party of convicts from New South Wales, in 1803, to the Flinders 314 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. TASMANIA. counteract the supposed plans to form a French colony in Van Diemen's Land. Lieutenant Bowen landed at Risdon, First set- tlement of on the Derwent. It was there that, through the blunder- the ing or rashness of our marines, a terrible slaughter took Derwent, 1803. place of hundreds of aboriginal hunters. Hobart In October, 1803, Captain Collins sought to establish Town by a penal settlement on the shore of Port Phillip. Not Collins, approving of the site, he requested permission from 1804. Governor King, of Sydney, to remove to the Derwent. Early in 1804 the whole party left the continent, and organised a settlement at Hobart Town. Launces- About this time another location was made at the ton in mouth of the Tamar, and removed, in 1806, to Port 1806. Dalrymple, or Launceston. Two lieutenant-governors, independent of each other, ruled in the same island till 1812, when Hobart Town became the capital of Van Diemen's Land. The early history of the island is a dark and sorrowful one. The home of convicts was plagued by scenes of violence. Bushrangers in armed bands contended with Black War. soldiers and constables. The celebrated Black War be- tween the colonists and the natives lasted a number of years. In 1830 a levy en masse of the population took place, which resulted in the capture of a single black, and the death of no one. Peaceful negotiation effected what arms did not. The remnant of the race submitted. At the present time only one Tasmanian native, an old woman of seventy-eight years, is alive. Transpor The convict system of transportation was not abolished tation till after the gold discovery in Australia. Free settlers ceased. received grants of land on condition of employing the prisoners. The population gradually changed its cha- racter, till, from being a prison home of crime, it has become one of the most moral countries in the world, as it is, doubtless, the most healthful and beautiful. GEOGRA- Geography and Climate. The island has an area of 24,600 square miles, in. cluding the surrounding islands, being only about a couple of hundred miles across, and 200 from Victoria. Mountains. Mountains. It is one of the most hilly countries in the world. Though the shores are usually bold, the land generally- PHY. 316 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. TASMANIA. Capes. Marion, Frederick Henry, Prosser, Spring, and Oyster Bays, with Swanport, are on the east side. Southward are Storm Bay, Pittwater, Southport, and Recherche Bay. D’Entrecasteaux Channel, west of Bruni Island, meets Storm Bay not far from Hobart Town. Port Cygnet and Oyster Cove are in the channel. Cook's Adventure Bay is in Bruni. Norfolk Bay and Port Arthur are in South-eastern Tasman's Peninsula, which is joined to Forrestier's Peninsula by Eagle Hawk Neck. Capes. On the north are Table Cape, Circular Head, Cape Grim, and Portland at the north-east. On the west are Northwest Point, West Point, Point Hibbs, and Rocky Point. On the east are Bougainville, Waterloo Point, Long Point, Patrick's Head, and St. Helen's Point. On the south are South Cape, Southwest Cape, Whale Head, Flated Cape of Bruni, Raoul and Pillar of Tasman's Peninsula. Islands. Bruni, fifty miles long, and De Witt are to the south Schouten and Maria are eastern isles. Those in Bass's Strait are Flinders, 500,000 acres; King, forty miles long; Hunter's Isles, Robbins, Barren, Clarke, Crocodile, the Devil's Tower, Curtis, and Swan. Banks' Strait divides Furneaux isles from the main. Kent's group lie to the eastward of the Strait. There are altogether fifty-five Tasmanian islands, too rocky for fertility. Islands. Divisions. Divisions. The eighteen counties are thus situated :-Wellington, Devon, Cornwall, and Dorset in the north ; Glamorgan, east; Franklin, Russell, Montagu, Arthur, and Mont- gomery, West; Monmouth, Pembroke, Buckingham, and Kent, south; Lincoln, Somerset, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, central. The seven Police Districts are Emu Bay, Franklin, Georgetown, Hobart, Port Sorell, Russell to the north- west, and Selby on the Launceston side. There are, also, nineteen rural municipalities. CLIMATE. 317 TASMANIA, Towns. Towns. Hobart Town, on Sullivan's Cove of the Derwent, is in lat. 43° S., long. 1472° E., and contains 20,000 people. Launceston, once Port Dalrymple, 120 miles north, at the head of the Tamar, has 11,000. Of the southern townships on the road to Launceston, Newtown is 2 miles from Hobart Town; Glenarchy, 5; Bridgewater, 12; Pontville of Bagdad, 16; Greenponds, 28; Jericho, 44 ; Oatlands, 51 ; and Tunbridge, 65. Of other southern and eastern ones, Brown's River is 9; Sorell, 13; Richmond, 14; New Norfolk, 20; Jeru. salem, 25; Franklin of the Huon, 26; Hamilton on the Clyde, 40; Bothwell, 45; Dover of Esperance Bay, 50; Spring Bay of Prossers, 55; Port Arthur, 65; Hythe of Southport, 65; Swansea of Swanport, 90; Penquin, N.W. On the north side, Perth is 11 miles from Launceston, Evandale, 11; Snake Banks, 19; Longford, 14; West- bury, 20; Deloraine, 30; George Town, 35; Ilfracombe, 40; Campell Town, 40; Ross, 48; Fingal, 66 ; Torquay, 70; Black Boy, 84; Emu Bay, 102; Wynyard, 114. Burgess is at Port Sorell, Stanley at Circular Head, Bathurst at Port Davey, Victoria at Huon, Seymour, E. coast, Lempriere on Tamar, Bischoff 50 S. Emu Bay. CLIMATE. Climate. The CLIMATE of Tasmania gives the island the appel. lation of the Sanatorium of the South. Perhaps no part of the world equals it in adaptation to the physical condition of man. The area is so small, and the country so hilly, that a considerable change of temperature can be obtained by a journey of a few hours only. That the summer is not without a very high thermo. Heat meter is certainly true, though the night after a hot day tempered by breezes. is deliciously cool and restorative. The sea-breezes tem- per the heat, and the mountain airs perform the same office. The continued and exhausting high temperature of the continent is not experienced in the little island. The fierce hot wind visits the place in summer. It is Cause of probably but the northern blasts from Australia, which, hot winds. after rising in passing the cool Straits, descend upon the plains of Tasmania, giving an occasional 130° in the sun. 318 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. town mean Settled wet. TASMANIA. In the winter the cold is sufficient to produce thin ice on the lowlands, with snow showers among the elevated ranges. Hobart The mean temperature of Hobart Town, as ascertained 5479. in the observations of twenty-five years, is 54° 45'. The lowest usually felt is 29º. The summer mean is 62°, and the winter 47°, producing a most salubrious climate. The barometrical mean is 290.807, the extreme being 30°.812 and 280.510. The dew-point mean is 451 Rain. The rain is a very variable quantity. While some parts of the little island have not much more than falls in the interior of Australia, others suffer, like the west coast of New Zealand, from an excess of moisture. While the east coast had, like Hobart Town, but 20 inches, Launceston had 32; Circular Head, 35; Port Arthur, 45; Hampshire Hills, 65; and Macquarie Har- bour over 100. The mean, through thirty-five years, has been 24 parts not inches at Hobart Town. This is considerably less than almost any port of consequence throughout Australia and New Zealand. But the clouds laden with wet are usually arrested by the high ranges on the western or wet side of the city. All the settled part of the country is in like manner shielded by the lofty tiers from much rainfall. The north side, by the Strait, has more rain. Hobart The variation of Hobart Town humidity is not trifling, Town as the following record of inches will prove :-1843, humidity. 13:43; 1841, 13.95 ; 1847, 14:46 ; 1850, 14:51; 1863, 40.67; 1878, 29.76. South Australia and the interior portions of Queensland and New South Wales are the only places where such low rates may be observed. There is, nevertheless, a wonderful difference between the evaporation of Hobart Town and its neighbours ; yet, in the five years ending 1870, while the rainfall was 115 inches, the evaporation was 210, or 95 excess. Winds. The mean number of rainy days at the capital is 145. The prevailing winds are from the north-west and south- east. The mean force is 64 lbs. to the square foot. The island is in no want of winds, because of the mountains. Storms from the south-west render navigation rather dangerous off the south coast. The cyclones, though of less strength than along the shores of Australia, have the NATURAL HISTORY AND BOTANY. 319 NATURAL HISTORY. same direction. They have an opposite course to that TASMANIA. on the north side of the Line, being from N.E. to S.W. The ozonometer indicates a pure atmosphere, being as Ozone. high as 7.18. The ozone is most plentiful with a south wind and a humid atmosphere. Dr. Häll says, 'No part of the world is, perhaps, more Healthy favourable to infant life than Tasmania. About nine for.. out of every ten children born survive the first year of children. life.' Local Natural History and Botany. The fauna of Tasmania is, to a great extent, similar to that of Continental Australia ; still there are certain differences which demand a passing notice. It is a re- markable fact that in such a comparatively small island there should exist two genera of carnivorous marsupials, of considerable size, which are not to be met with on the mainland. These are the Thylacinus cynocephalus, or "tiger-wolf' of the colonists; and the Sarcophilus Tiger ursinus, or native devil.' The former dwells amidst the fastnesses of the rocky gullies,' in the impenetrable forests of the island. It is decidedly the most formi. dable and blood-thirsty of all Australian quadrupeds. This marsupial or pouched wolf, although not sufficiently powerful to attack man in ordinary cases, formerly com- mitted sad havoc amongst the flocks of the settlers in the vicinity of the densely-wooded mountains, from whence it issued forth at night in search of its prey. This creature, which has somewhat the aspect of a dog, with a prolonged snout and a long thick tail, has short powerful legs, and when full-grown measures between three and four feet from the nose to the tip of the tail. It is of a greyish-fawn colour, handsomely marked across the hind-quarters with dark bands or stripes. The Sarcophilis was styled the 'native devil' by the Native early settlers, on account of its black colour and dis- devil.' gusting appearance. It is a savage and untameable animal, and is not only destructive to the smaller native quadrupeds, but attacks the sheepfold of the farmer and the hen-roosts of the homestead. It attains a length of two and a half feet, is a short, thick-set, ungainly-looking beast, with a large bulldog-like head and jaws, armed with formidable teeth. It has a short, waddling sort 320 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. salmon. Valuable TASMANIA. of gait, and, like the Thylacinus, is nocturnal in its habits. Wombat. The wombat of Tasmania differs from the species in. habiting the mainland. It has a narrower head, with a short, sharp snout, and a very dark-coloured fur. It is the Phascolomys wombat of naturalists, the earliest discovered species of the genus. Birds. Birds are very numerous, and some of the smaller species appear to be peculiar to the island, though the majority are identical with those of other portions of Australia. Only three species of snakes occur in Acclima Tasmania, all of which are venomous. English salmon tised and trout have been successfully acclimatised in the Tasmanian rivers. The forests are far more densely Trees. wooded than those of the mainland, and the trees attain an enormous height and development. Many timber. of them are famous for the valuable timber they produce. Beautiful cabinet-woods and the largest Huon sized timber alike abound. The celebrated Huon pine pine. (Dacrydium Franklini), which grows profusely on the West coast, is a most important production ; its great durability and its quality for resisting the attacks of insects make it valuable for both house and ship building. The fragrant acacia, the sassafras, and the musk-wood, would all yield their grateful odours, were the perfumer only to exercise his art upon them. Myrtle- The beauty of the so-called 'myrtle-wood,' when polished, wood. can hardly be surpassed ; its immense size also (being 200 feet high and 40 in circumference) is a great ad- Blue-gum. vantage to the cabinet-maker. The blue-gum (Eucalyptus globulus) attains, in Tasmania, its extreme development in both girth and altitude. Fine examples of this noble tree are from 300 to 350 feet in height, and from 50 to 100 feet round the base. In the forests, trees are often found with a clear 200 feet below the first branch. The age of some of these trees has been estimated at 1,000 years. The wood of the blue-gum has proved to be the best kind of timber in the world for ship-building pur. Tree-ferns. poses. Tree-ferns, almost equalling in size and elegance Those of New Zealand, grow in the mountain glens; and a great variety of smaller ferns are to be met with everywhere. Many of the native flowers differ from those of Con. D 322 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. TASMANIA. among the Eldon Tiers, tesselated pavement at Eagle Hawk Neck, mudstone at the Huon, while perpendicular bands of crystalline rock appear in the pass leading out to the sea at Falmouth. Fine slate is at Piper's River. Granite. Granite forms almost the whole north-eastern coast, from Falmouth to St. Patrick's Head. It is the marked feature of the lake country, and of the mass of moun- tains east of Macquarie Harbour Frenchman's Cap, of granite and metamorphic rock, has a quartz top, and Mount Cradle granite is highly quartzose. While Mount Picton has the quartz on the west, it has true granite for its summit. But the Cape Portland country is par. ticularly granitic in character. The Ben Lomond and Ben Nevis chains, to the north-east, are chiefly of granite. Schouten Island has granite on the east side. The Straits have hundreds of rocky islets of granite. The Devil's Tower is 350 feet high. One island, from its supposed shape, is called the Slipper; another the Elephant, a third the Crocodile. Tors of granite are quite common. Mount Bischoff country is granitic. Secondary The Secondary, or Mesozoic, formations occupy a fair formations, space about Jerusalem and Bagdad, especially in rela- tion to coal beds, like the Wiannamatta of Sydney. Sandstone. The Hobart Tuwn sandstone is ranked by Professor McCoy with the New Red of Liverpool and Cheshire, and contains a good deal of salt and alum. It has been much denuded, the hills of it being seen capped with basalt. In this rock the femur of the Labyrinthodon was found just outside the town. The Knock-lofty and Cascade sandstones, with the beautiful building stone of Kangaroo Point, belong to that era. This rock is often seriously invaded or cut off by igneous floods. Where the sandstone has been removed, the claystone floor of the Mount Wellington formation comes to the surface. The Hobart Town sandstone is largely exported to the other colonies for the ornamental parts of buildings. Limestone, The carboniferous limestone appears as a sort of lon- gitudinal strip alongside of the sandstone in the Derwent Valley. Limestone caves of great extent occur on the north coast. One, about 15 miles from Deloraine, has been followed down for more than two miles, and con. tains fine specimens of stalactites and stalagmites. The carboniferous flagstones of Fingal merge into the GEOLOGY. 323 Wellington limestones. The limestones of the Mersey TASMANIA. country, onward to the Middlesex Hills, are much ad. mired. The marble of Chudleigh, by Deloraine, is ex. ported. The same rock lies on the siliceous slates of the Eastern Marshes. The western Gordon River has torn a passage through fossiliferous limestone, which is, like that by the Florentine, of the Wellington character. The Coal formation of the island has been regarded Coal of two by Mr. Selwyn and Prof. McCoy as only mesozoic. Mr. ag Gould, Tasmanian Government Geologist, contends that the coal is of two distinct ages-Palæozoic and Oolitic. Though the west side is not without some carboniferous element, it being seen near the Nive, the chief localities are eastward and southward. The Fingal coal-field is of large extent. The bituminous mineral is got from bori. zontal beds of sandstone and crinoidal limestone, and in seams of even a dozen feet in thickness. Near Mount Nicholas, above ten miles from the east coast, it showed, upon analysis, 70 parts of carbon, 5 of hydrogen, 5 of oxygen, and 10 of nitrogen. The coal is well developed about Seymour, Bicheno, and the Douglas River of the east coast. It is seen on the side of Ben Lomond at the height of 3,500 ft. Southward it is found in connection with the sand. stone in the neighbourhood of Hobart Town, at Rich. mond on the Coal River, and northward at Jerusalem in sandstone 1,000 ft. thick. The Jerusalem coal, 800 ft. above the sea, is in a grey sandstone, but much inter- rupted by intrusive greenstone. It contains 72 parts carbon, 14 hydrogen, 4 oxygen, and 9 nitrogen. On the eastern Schouten Island, Dr. Milligan believed three million tons of good coal existed. Maria Island is also rich in coal. The Newtown coal, by Hobart Town, is of a serviceable character, though with too much sulphur and anthracite. Dr. Hector calls it Jurassic. The Storm Bay has cut off the coal beds of Tasman's Peninsula from those of Bruni Island, Brown's River, Southport, and Recherche Bay. The basalt of Port Arthur is, perhaps, the cause of the anthracitic feature of the coal there. Greenstone cuts up the field on the shores of D'Entrecasteaux Channel. While the sulphur is so great in the anthracite of Southport as to make the mineral unfit for domestic use, the Recherche coal con. Y 2 GEOLOGY. 325 rocks. The igneous and volcanic rocks of Tasmania give it TASMANIA. quite a distinctive character. 1 Igneous Porphyries and greenstones of ancient date occur, with basalts of, according to Strzelecki, four different epochs, extending down to Pliocene days. But, unlike New Zealand, the country exhibits no modern development of lavas, cinders, and ashes; nor has it, like Victoria, a number of extinct cones and craters. The greenstone has been thought by Mr. Gould to Greenstone. have continued its eruption after the deposition of the coal beds, as it often cuts up the carboniferous fields. Unlike basalt, this rock never occurs as a lava. The rock forms a prominent feature on one side of Mount Wellington, where it presents a bold front of prismatic columns hundreds of feet in height, or lies strewed in enormous fragments, as the so-called Ploughed Field. It is the table land of Ben Lomond, 5,200 ft. The central plateau is almost a mass of greenstone, while on the shores of Bay Storm and the Channel it overwhelms everything. It boldly rears at Dry's Bluff and other steep mountain sides. On the western side, excepting toward the lake country, it is not conspicuous. On the north, likewise, its comparative rarity is obvious. In the middle of the island, from Hobart Town to Perth, the traveller can go but few miles without its presence. It is the capping rock of the hills in Fingal and Avoca districts, resting on the Domé, on Mount Nicholas, &c., and proving, by its isolation on such summits, how ex- tensive was the ancient denuding force. Schouten Isle has greenstone on the west side, and Bruni Island has it on the south. Diorites are at Whyte R. and Mt. Bischoff. Greenstone is often the formation of the celebrated Tasmanian waterfalls, as at Mount Wellington and at the cataracts of Launceston. Basalt often flows over greenstone, and extends in the Basalt. plains of Bagdad, Ross, Macquarie, Middlesex, Break-o'. Day, Salt Pan, &c. It meets the greenstone on Mount Wellington, and pierces the Hobart Town sandstone. Upon Tasman's Peninsula the basalt and greenstone monopolise the surface of the country. The waters of the Derwent and Huon are separated by basaltic moun. tains. Circular Head, North Bruni, Mount Hugel, Mount Picton, Maria Island, and Campbell Town dis- trict are highly basaltic, like the Bischoff tin area. POPULATION. 327 first for six years, and the other for five. There is no TASMANIA. manhood suffrage, as in Victoria. There are 32 electoral districts. The ordinary revenue was 381,9361. in 1878, and the Revenue. expenditure, 371,1451. The revenue for 1880 was esti- mated at 381,0001. The expenditure in 1856 was 440,6871. ; and in 1857, 369,6001. The public debt in Debt. 1878 was 1,747,4001. An interest of 6 per cent. is guaranteed upon an expenditure of 650,0001. for the Hobart Town and Launceston railway. The taxes are rather burdensome for the means of the inhabitants. It has been thought that Tasmania would be better joined to Victoria, under one common government. TION Population. POPULA- Though the colony was founded in 1804, the first re. liable census was in 1818, when there were 2,320 men, Few 462 women, and 458 children-3,240 in all. children at first. In 1841 a change appeared. There were 33,086 men, 11,388 women, 12,946 children. In 1854 the children for the first time overtook the men in number. In 1871 those under 20 were twice the number of the men. At the last census, that of 1870, there were 99,328 100,000 inhabitants—52,853 males, 46,475 females. people. The females under the age of 30 were considerably in excess of the males. After that age, the influence of the old system of transporting so many more men than women became apparent. Between 40 and 50 the Sex. males formed 11.88 of the population, and the females 9:13; between 50 and 60, 10-01 to 5.82; between 60 and 70, 6-10 to 2:71; between 70 and 80, 2:39 to 1.06 ; between 80 and 90, 0:45 to 0:17; above 90, 0:07 to 0.02. The births were as 1 in 100 of the population in 1827, Births. 1 in 56 in 1837, 1 in 43 in 1847, 1 in 25 in 1857, 1 in 31 in 1878. In the year 1871 there were fewer births than in 1870. In 1879 the population was 110,000. The marriages were few in the early convict times, Marriages. owing to the paucity of women. There was a remark. able increase with the prosperity that flowed in with the gold, and a singular falling-off in later years. In 1827 these were as 1 in 158; in 1837, 1 in 112 ; in 1847, 1 in 92; in 1853, 1 in 4*; in 1854, 1 in 48; in 1878, 1 in 328 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. TASMANIA. 68. The marriages in 1871 were 5.90 to 1,000; 6.61 in 1875; and 7.98 in 1878. Deaths. The death rate has been affected by several circum- stances. For many years the population consisted of a great majority of men. Even in 1847 the women were but 13,623 to 37,750 men; in 1825 the sexes were 3,213 to 10,979. When the people were mainly adults, their mortality must have been necessarily different to that when the children exceeded the number of adults. In 1827-keeping up the same years as before—the deaths were 1 in 68; in 1837, 1 in 71 ; in 1847, 1 in 61; 1853, gold year, 1 in 32; 1854, 1 in 33 ; 1878, 1 in 64. As children, more subject to disease, formed so large a proportion of the community in 1878, the more healthy condition arose from a bigher tone of morals. The dissipation of 1853 and 1854 accounted for the extra mortality of those prosperous years. Of the 1,700 dying in 1878, 992 were males, and 708 were females. According to the ratio of the sexes, the latter should have been at a higher number; the superior prudence of the women, doubtless, preserved their health the better. In the Hobart Town Asylum, with 400 children, only two deaths occurred in three consecutive years. But while in England 16 per cent. die under 1 year, only 9:45 die in Tasmania; with 31 under 10 years, to 50 in Australia. Numbers A number of persons have lived over a hundred years live over 100 years. of age. One died a few years ago, aged 109. Of lung disease in 1877, 5 males and 4 females died; heart Causes of death. disease, 80 and 35; cancer, 21 and 19; rheumatism, 4 and l; diphtheria, 47 and 25; dysentery, 18 and 20; diar- rhoea, 35 and 37 ; phthisis, 61 and 64 ; paralysis, 29 and 17; pneumonia, 62 and 28; apoplexy, 21 and 13; enteritis, 14 and 4; liver disease, 14 and 4; kidney disease, 8 and 5; accidents, &c., 66 and 31; stomach disease, 3 and 3. 1877, a fatal year; 1878, a good one. Aborigines. The Natives, or aborigines, of the island became re- duced to one old woman. The whole of the race have now died. Half-castes live on isles in the Straits. While in customs, superstitions, and ways of life they A BORI- GINES. EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 329 , , , . . . . . Finless were like the New Hollanders, yet in physique they were TASMANIA. stouter, shorter, stronger, and darker in complexion. Their eyes were bright, their teeth were powerful, their hair was almost woolly, hanging in ringlets, and their noses were wide, flat, and without bridges. Armed only with a wooden spear and a short club, War witlı they engaged in the celebrated Black War with the Europeans. whites. As the latter had, in many cases, acted cruelly to them, they sought revenge. After many had fallen in battle, or perished from fatigue and want, the rest were induced to surrender through Mr. George Robinson, the peacemaker. The remnant were taken to Flinders' Island after Removal to 1832. There, notwithstanding the care taken of them, Island. they died off in such numbers, leaving scarcely any chil. dren, that the few who were left were removed to Oyster Cove, near Hobart Town. Although some could read and write, and all had a End of the slight knowledge of Christianity, their babits were in- race. temperate whenever drink could be had ; and one by one dropped off, till neither an adult nor a child remained of the tribes of Tasmania. Education and Religion. The Government has taken much interest in the ques- tion of public instruction during the past thirty years. The changes in the system have corresponded with those described ander Education in New South Wales. There is now compulsory instruction, under a penalty of 21. Compul- from neglecting parents. sory. In the 164 public schools under the Council of Edu- Schools and cation in 1878 there were 12,453 on the roll, and 6,032 cost. in attendance, under 258 teachers. The cost averaged 21. 13s. 1 d. per head. Examinations are held each year, when there is conferred the degree of Associate of Arts. Six exhibitions of 161. each are awarded for Exhibi- four years, to enable youth to attend superior schools, tions. as the High School, Hutchins' School, Church Grammar School, and Horton Wesley College. Girls are now to have similar advantages to those granted to boys. Two scholarships are annually presented to successful Scholar- students from public or private schools. These are of ships. the value of 2001. each, held for four years, to enable the EDUCA- TIOX. AGRICULTURE. 331 1,666 ; onions, 70; carrots, 141; mangel wurzel, 1,074 ; TASMANIA. hay, 33,933 ; pease, 4,700 ; hops, 630; green forage, 1,606 ; permanent artificial grasses, 116,972. The produce per acre was 16.09 bushels for wheat; Average 24.21, for barley ; 24.82, for oats; 3:37 tons for potatoes : per acre. 11.06 tons for mangel; 1.19 for hay ; 1,271 lbs. for hops. The yield in March, 1873, was 17.6 for wheat ; Yield for 23, barley ; 25, oats ; 4:21, potatoes ; 1.44, hay. Thé 1873. wheap crop was 778,977 bushels; and hops, 801,226 lbs. in 1879. The prices through 1879 varied much according to locality. Thus, wheat was 5s. a bushel at Oatlands; 58. 6d. Variation at Ross; 4s. at Deloraine ; 58. 6d. Hobart Town; and 4s. 6d. of prices. at Launceston. . Hay was 41. 10s. a ton at Hamilton; and 51. in Hobart Town. Hops varied from 6d. at Hamil. ton, and 6d. at New Norfolk, to 2s. at Huon. Onions fetched 5l. per ton at Richmond, 71, at Hobart, 121. at Longford, and 161. at Greenponds. Oats were 2s. 6d. at Port Sorell, 3s. 6d. at Oatlands, and 4s. at Campbell Town. Potatoes were as low as 31. at Deloraine, 31. 10s. at Launceston, 41. at Evandale, and 61. at Bothwell. Agricultural machines in 1879 included 97 steam Machines. engines, 114 cultivators, 121 clod-crushers, 84 mowing machines, 148 reaping, 14 sowing. Recently the great sorrow of the Tasmanian farmer, Want of especially on the northern side, was conveyed in these market. words of an official at Port Sorell : The loss of Victoria as a market for our surplus produce, and the almost prohibitory tariffs at other more distant ports, has also had a serious effect upon this coast.' Formerly, Victoria was provided with flour from South Australia, and potatoes from Tasmania, but now grows sufficient of both articles. But in hops the island has Hop- no competitor. New Norfolk engaged 3,000 hop-pickers growing. last season. For keeping apples, pears, and roots, the Apple colony has decided pre-eminence. Butter and cheese are country. extensively produced in the Fingal district. The Van Diemen's Land Company of London Share- Van holders had a grant of 350,000 acres in 1825. They had Diemen's Land 150,000 acres at the Surrey Hills, 125,000 at Woolnorth, 50,000 at Emu Bay, 10,000 at Hampshire Hills, &c. The Circular Head was their great agricultural establish- ment. Their tenants bave, generally speaking, farms of Company. 332 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Good TASMANIA. the richest soil, though the land is conimonly covered at first with heavy timber. It is the density of the scrub, or the thickness of trees, which is the difficulty with Tasmanian farmers. On the Rich land north-west, where the earth is rich, the timber is removed N.W. with great difficulty. But when that productive district is opened up by the railway from Launceston to the Mersey, no place in the colonies will present greater at- Indian tractions for country settlement. To such a country settlement. Capt. Crawford directs the attention of his Indian brother officers, especially to Castra. The Huon River has wonderful depth of soil on its farms, banks, with trees 200 ft. to the first branch. Many Germans are now located on land once purchased by Lady Franklin there. The Denison and Sheffield Plains are highly recommended. Near Ringarooma, to the north-east, is a rich basaltic earth, which is also to be found on the Dorset Table-land. The charms of residing on a farm in such a delightful country counterbalances in no small degree the difficul- ties of a good market. Mr. Crawford lately reported 90,500 acres of first-class land open for agricultural selection, 395,600 of second-class, and 874,499 of third- Help for rate kind. One-third of the land fund is appropriated roads. to road-making, the Government giving 6d. to every 1s. raised by the settlers. PASTORAL. Pastoral. The colony was never a pastoral one. There are open plains, and some open forest, but of limited extent. The Scrubs and prevalence of impracticable scrub, dense woods, barren forest. rocks, and lofty mountains, is much against stock keep- ing. It is no small difficulty to gather in a mob of cattle, or collect a scattered flock of sheep. The best places were selected by the early grantees; whose farms, though now enclosed, are still the depas- turing lands of the island. Wool-growers on the north- ern plains have been very successful, and live in com- fortable style. Not the There is but little of the Australian system of squatting. Australian The Crown lands are not extensively leased. In 1842 style. there were but 39,000 acres so rented, yielding 6581. a year to the state. In 1853, owing to the pastoral dis- MINING. 333 orders in Victoria from the gold fever, 2,314,414 acres TASMANIA. were taken up, at a rental of 29,5691. But the amount fell off to 1,369,771 in 1866. In 1878 there were 1,249,992 acres leased on the main Land land, and 752,880 on the islands around. The former paid an average rent of a penny halfpenny, while the in- ferior grass of the islands was rated at one farthing an acre. Between 1836 and 1841 Tasmania exported 442,2701. Stock worth of stock to Port Phillip and Adelaide. Such export. good fortune has not occurred since. In 1878 the island exported to Victoria, in stock, 9,8571., and imported 17,3571. While the sheep-master of Australia fears the wild dog, the. Tasmanian dreads the night attacks of the marsupial tiger and devil. These animals find shelter in the rocky, scrubby country. They are only a plague to sheep, being too cowardly to attack a dog. The live stock in 1879 stood as follows :-24,107 Live stock. horses, 126,276 horned cattle, 1,838,831 sheep, 39,595 pigs. Fine stock is raised on the island. To show the small area available for free pastorage on Crown lands, the report of the Government gives only 280 horses, 5,719 cattle, and 163,066 sheep on land not being private property. . In 1816 the island had 34 horses, 1,956 cattle, and 20,501 sheep on the northern side. An estimate taken the following year of the other side showed 188 horses, 9,868 cattle, and 76,991 sheep. In 1829 there were more Not a pas- herds of cattle than in 1871, and thirty years ago there toral land. were more sheep. The pastoral circumstances of Tas- mania are not, therefore, like those of the continent of Australia. The export of wool in 1822 was only 147,840 pounds, Wool valued at 3,9171., or 54d. per pound. That in 1877 was export. 8,016,396 pounds, at 522,8851 or about 15d. per pound. In 1831 the yield produced 57,7251.; in 1841,254,8531.; in 1851, 249,9531. ; 1861, 326,4131. ; in 1864, 415,8911., at 18d. per pound ; 1878, 479,1651. for 7,511,662 pounds. Mining MINING. Tasmania may hereafter develop this interest to a greater extent than is now apparent, though not a little 334 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Search for licenses. TASMANIA. anxiety has been exhibited by the Government to have a paying gold-field, and a good export of coal. The mining regulations are liberal. A large reward gold. has been offered for the finding of a thoroughly working gold-field. Fingal, Brandy Creek or Beaconsfield, Back Cr., Mt. Arthur, Mt. Meredith, and Pieman's R. have gold. Coal leases. Leases are granted of from 40 to 320 acres of coal ground, and of from 20 to 80 acres of other mineral land. The length of the selection cannot be more than four times the width. While the rental for coal-bearing land is but half-a-crown an acre, that for other mineral areas is five shillings. The lease is for twenty-one years, though an extension of fourteen years may be subse- quently obtained. In 1877 were 13 leases on 1,840 acres. Gold Gold is rapidly developing; licenses are regularly issued for its working, but at the high rate of 21. a year. The gold districts are as beautiful as healthful. The cost of surveys of auriferous land varies from 25s. for less than two acres to 51. 13s. for fifty acres. Quartz claims may be from 100 to 440 yards long, and from 80 to 100 broad. The leading working claims are of quartz, and in the Fingal district. There were in 1877, 62 leases granted for 663 acres. Of miners' rights, 799 were issued, and 26 business licenses. The fees realised 3,143l. : with 91 men on the alluvial diggings, 2,4001. of gold was pro- duced. The yield from quartz-crushing was 12 dwts. 3 gr. per ton; and 263 men raised 20,8891. worth. The value of the gold in 1878 was 100,0001. In February 1879, 270 tons quartz yielded 1,160 ounces. • Coal mines. Coal ought, one would imagine, to be of more com- mercial importance than it has been. But the fields are difficolt of access. The bituminous product of the east coast cannot be made so available as is wished, owing to the approach being simply an open roadstead. The Mersey coal is easier reached, while that of Jerusalem and other inland fields is too far away from a port. In olden times the thick beds of anthracite at Port Arthur were wrought by convicts; the coal was then sold in Hobart Town at about 8s. a ton. The yield for the year 1878 was 12,311 tons. Of that quantity, 5,500 came from New Town, Hobart Town; 1820, Oatlands; 1,500, Tarleton; 1,336, Don; 1,225, Jerusalem; 150, Adventure Bay. Gold returns. TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 335 Iron promises to be an important source of wealth. TASMANIA. Mr. Gould calculated that 700,000 tons of hematite were Iron ve easily obtainable at Ilfracombe, on the north coast. The promising. ore there and by the Tamar cannot pay with labour high. A valuable lode of the same crops out in other parts also. The iron of the Severn and Forth will be of future value. Good specular iron may be wrought in the Dial range. Nodules of pyrites are gathered on the islands of D'Entrecasteaux Channel. Red and brown hematite is found with peroxide near the Blythe, and on the Hellyer. Mount Ramsay bismuth lode is 40 feet wide. Tin in rich lodes and sand is known at Mount Bischoff Tin and Mount Heemskirk, N.W., where the wash dirt is workings. thirty feet thick. Antimony is also seen there. Some tin nuggets are several hundredweight each. Silver lead is known at the Forth in a seam one foot thick. Manganese and zinc are at Penguin creek, to the north-west. In that creek, also, were specimens of copper. Plumbago is seen on the Norfolk plains, at the Den, Spring Boy, and Mount Bischoff. The tin exports for 1878 came to 1,801 tons Exports of ore, 4,146 of smelted, valued at 316,3111. 316,3111. · Mining areas of eighty acres can be leased for twenty- Mining one years with the right of extension for fourteen more. leases. The Flinders Island topazes are valuable. Trade and Manufactures. TRADE. The ports of Hobart Town and Launceston are nearly Two ports. equal in their trade ; for, though the fornier is the capi- tal, the latter is nearer Australia. As it was many years before a good road connected the two, the trade of the north side was conducted independently of that of the south. The commercial jealousy of the two ports is seen in the distinct returns of their imports and exports in the yearly Government blue-book. While the inward tonnage of Hobart Town in 1878 Tonnage. was 85,573, that of Launceston was 54,534. Of colonial vessels, there cleared out 270 of 76,489 tons, at Hobart Town, and 394 of 69,812, at Launceston. The tonnage inwards of the colony was 159,063 in 693 ships; that outwards was 156,791, in 688 ships. The shipping trade has had some changes since 1822, when the tonnage was 16,987. Just before the gold era, 336 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. TASMANIA. in 1850, it was 104,017. But three years after it rose to 198,612. The dream of wealth was not destined to bo realised. In 1865 the tonnage fell below what it had been before the gold discovery. In 1872, it was 102,379. Imports. The imports and exports tell a similar tale. The imports of 1822 came to 22,2141. In 1851 they were 641,6091. Under the inspiration of auriferous times, they ascended to 2,604,6801. in 1854. After that they gradually declined; being 1,068,4111. in 1860; 762,3751. in 1865; 778,0871. in 1871; and but 1,324,8121. in 1878. Exports. The exports for 1824 were valued at 14,5001. In 1839 they were 875,1651. ; in 1851, 665,7901. ; in 1853, 1,756,3161. ; in 1860, 962,1701. ; in 1865, 880,9651. ; in 1872, 910,6331. ; yet the exports mounted during the Whaling. year 1878 to 1,315,6951. The whaling trade brought 135,2101. in 1837; but in 1878 the oil yielded only 17,5771. Bank In like manner the banks held coin to the amount of deposits. 1,340,3521. in the good year of 1853; 280,5031. in 1860; · 174,3571. in 1865; but rose to 257,1351. in June 1873. The bank deposits on Jan. 1, 1879, were 1,873,0031. As the population has varied but little for the last dozen years, it may be presumed that the circumstances of the colonists are not so good as they were. The loss Decline. of the expenditure by the Commissariat has also affected trade. The arrest of transportation in 1853 reduced the Home Government outlay in the island from 309,1381. to 60,9531. in a few years. The colony is now inferior many ways to Victoria, which was indebted to the little island for its first flocks and its first inhabitants. Colonial Of the Launceston imports of 606,7381., those from trade of Victoria amoanted to 440,1131. ; but, of the exports, north and 179,1121. went to Melbourne, and 162,6101. to Sydney. Hobart Town then imported goods worth 273,7071. from Melbourne, 62,9791. from Sydney, and 20,6801. from New Zealand; exporting 138,6471. to Sydney, and 130,5471. to Melbourne. The following items of export in 1877 will show the re- lation of these to the north and south sides of the islands. Hobart Town Launceston Flour. . 722 south. 2,471 100,069 501 Green fruit. . 44,001 2,718 Jams .. TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 337 TASMANIA. Hobart Town Launceston Hides 2,193 4,451 36,457 2,486 Oil . 33,547 305 Timber 53,612 19,237 Gold . 1,898 25,061 Wool. . . 299,514 223,371 Hops. tures. But Tasmania, if not so rich as it hoped to be, es. Still good pecially since the Victorian tariff has almost closed the times. door to its produce, is comfortable in circumstances, and in the enjoyment of more solid peace and real happiness than it was in the prosperous times twenty years ago. The five banks had, in Dec. 1878, assets of 2,101,9321. Banking. The Hobart Town and Launceston Savings Banks had assets of 343,7041. at the beginning of 1879. The sub- marine telegraph to Victoria is landed at Cape Otway. To encourage local manufactures, the Government has adopted the Victorian system of bonuses and a protective Bonus for tariff. Corn sacks and wool sacks, salt, beet sugar, and manufac- woollen stuffs have their manufactures encouraged by bonuses up to 2,0001. In 1878 were 3,218 works and trades. Railways and good roads promote the trade of the Railways. colony. The rail from Launceston to Deloraine has been open some years. That from Deloraine to the Mersey is proceeding; and another, 120 miles long, now unites the northern and southern capitals, but is not successful. The island has splendid high roads. The TARIFF of the island is rather high, and is largely Tariff. protective. On goods not named below, an ad valorem duty of ten per cent. is levied. Spirits are charged 12s. per gallon, and wine 2s., Duties though a dozen pint bottles pass for 3s. Malt liquors are at 6d. per gallon, or 1s. for a dozen pints. Methy- lated spirits pay 3s. per gallon. Sugar is 6s. per cwt. ; tea, 6d. per lb.; coffee and cocoa, 3d. and 4d.; spices, 4d. ; hops, hams, bacon, cheese, butter, candles, pepper, mustard, sago, macaroni, &c., at 2d. ; soap, glue, and starch, 1d. ; dried fruits, 1 d.; rice, pearl and Scotch barley, rape seed, dried fish, and paints, id. ; sulphur, alum, soda crystals, dry paint, d. Manufactured gold, 28.; silver at ls. an ounce; iron- mongery, brooms, handles of forks, &c., and lamps, 5s. per cwt.; nails, iron boilers, and pots, 2s. 6d. per cwt. ; 338 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. TASMANIA. cutlery, 2d. per lb. ; tobacco, 3s. per lb. ; cigars and snuff, 58.; tobacco for sheep-wash, 3d. Duties. Carriages on two wheels are rated at 51., and, on four wheels, 101.; pianos, 51. ; organs, 101.; harmooniums, 21. 10s. Apparel, boots and shoes, hats, furs, drapery, drugs, woollens, brushes, &c., 58. per cubic foot; harness and stationery, 4s.; blankets, blacking, carpets, confection. ery, oilman's stores, 3s. ; biscuits, cornflour, furniture, wicker, 2s.; paper, ls. 6d. ; watches, toys, pickled fish, 18.; boards, cutlery, matting, 6d. ; earthenware, glass- ware, 9d. Gunpowder, 4d. per lb.; blasting powder, 1d. ; twine, 1d.; oatmeal, kd. ; spices, 4d. ; shot, ld. Sewing ma- chines, 10s. per cwt.; molasses, 3s. 6d. ; lead, 2s. 6d.; agricultural machines and tools, 28. 6d. ; galvanised iron, 2s. 6d.; rope, ls. 6d. ; iron fencing, 9d. ; chalk and cement, 9d.; salt, 1s.; iron castings, 6d. Fresh meat, 1s. 6d. per 100 lbs.; tallow, 38.; flour, 1s. ; wheat and other grains, 10d. Coals, ls. per ton. Oils, ls. per gallon ; turpentine and varnish, 1s. ; vinegar and cider, 4d. Sauces, 3s. per dozen pints'; pickles, 2s. Timber, 8s. per 50 cubic feet. Bags, from id. to 24d. ; bagging, 100d. for 1,000 yards. Sheep, 1s. 6d. each; cattle, 30s. Buckets, 3s. per dozen. Malt, 1s. per bushel. A pro- perty tax is now required. Among the articles exempted are manures, trees, horses, pigs, poultry, hay, grasses, canvas, boats, anchors, ice, printed books and maps, ink and type, railway plant, steam-engines, hides, iron bridges, works of art, ores of metals, unmanufactured steel and tin, slates, and specimens of natural history. LAND LAWS. Old system. Land Laws and Immigration. The old land system of the colony was similar to that in New South Wales, and grants were made of areas proportionate to the capital one brought into the country, or the number of convicts the party felt willing to em. ploy. Sales were afterwards effected, though the upset prices varied from 58. in 1831 to 128. in 1838, and then LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 339 fourths 20s. an acre in 1842. Of 16,778,000 acres in the island, TASMANIA. only 4,138,945 bad been granted or sold up to 1879. . 2 Three- 44,933 were sold in 1878. The area leased was 2,002,872 for acres ; averaging 1d. per acre. unsold. Although the island is of such limited extent, but a very small amount of it was actually utilised. When, then, other colonies attracted population by the liberality of land regulations, it became necessary for Tasmania to present more tempting offers for settlers. There were no more square-mile grants to the new-comer with 5001., Land as in 1828, but there were cash purchasers at land selection. sales. In 1863 the principle of selection was introduced. A man could select 320 acres, and by paying 4s. an acre cash, he could have eight years in which to pay the balance of the pound, though one-fifth of the purchase was added to the amount by way of interest. But, though some 13,000,000 of acres were open to selection, it was admitted that not half thereof was fair land. At present, some parts are open at 58. an acre on twelve years' rental. Agricultural land is 11. an acre, in addition to survey fees, for an area of 320 acres. The new credit system requires a thirtieth cash, and the Credit balance distributed in fourteen annual payments. In that system over case, one-third of the purchase-money is added for in- fourteen years terest. The lease is transferable with Government con- sent. Pastoral land may be had on a fourteen years' lease, Pastoral at a rental determined by the character of the country. leases. To encourage immigration, land orders were given to Land those paying their own passage out. For those over orders to fifteen years of age the land grant was equal to 181. ; "; grants. for those under, 91. Cabin or intermediate passengers could claim 30 acres for themselves, 10 for their wives, and 5 for each child; but they must reside five years upon the land before legal title could be given. A man who took out a wife and four children, paying steerage pas- sage, could secure land to the value of 901. Bounty tickets, obtained in the colony, can bring Bounty out a person with his wife, and all children under twelve, tickets. on the payment of 151. only. If leaving the colony before four years, repayment of the balance of passage money is required. Single females are able to go thero on payment of 51. in Europe ; men pay 101. Children z 2 340 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. Wagesa home. TASMANIA. over twelve are reckoned as adults. Only 7 bounty emigrants were sent out in 1877. Wages are not quite equal to those prevailing in the Australian colonies. All classes of labour are less paid. For this reason it is, perhaps, that the emigrants from the island have exceeded the immigrants. Most men regard the cash question before that of mere health and comfort of life. Labour Yet labour is much required there, although the re- required. turns for agricultural produce will not permit the pay- ment of the same rates as Victoria can afford. A man with a family, looking for a healthy and pleasant home, with wages far in advance of those in Britain, would do better by going to Tasmania than to many other places. HINTS. Hints to Intending Emigrants to Tasmania. Healthy The advantages of the island, in point of salubrity of climate and beauty of scenery, are not to be despised. The maintenance of health, and the enjoyment of a fine country, are esteemed by many above the mere accu. mulation of a fortune. As a home, undoubtedly it has unsurpassed claims. The editor of the 'Australasian'justly remarked: 'In com. puting the sources of personal happiness and of national progress, one can scarcely attach too much value to the possession of a climate so favourable to infant life, and to the growth and development of healthy childhood and of vigorous youth, as that of Tasmania.' Dr. E. S. Hall adds: Good for Emigrants from Europe with the consumptive tendency, consump if not too far gone, soon have the germs of this disease eradicated, if they observe the necessary laws of health.' Though the population have neither the energy nor the refinement to be found in Victoria, there is a vigorous heartiness, a genuine simplicity, and a kind hospitality among them, rendering them honest friends and good neighbours. If not, then, the place in which the most money can be made, it is pre-eminently the one in which a little money can be effectually enjoyed. Land of Working men may do better for themselves by cross- enjoyment. ing Bass's Straits, and going to Melbourne, Sydney, or Brisbane; but they may not have the pleasure to be gained on the banks of the Derwent and Tamar. Professional tion. HINTS TO EMIGRANTS TO TASMANIA. 341 open- men cannot have much scope for their talents; and TASMANIA. business men may, possibly, carry their wares and their talents to a more profitable market. ings for all As none of the Australian colonies possess such classes. water power in mountain streams as the southern island, Water a person might find in some of those romantic glens and power. lovely valleys not only a pleasant home, but a position in which to establish a manufacture. The Government, Bonus for having commenced the bonus system to encourage local works. works, would be ready to render the enterprise of an immigrant as successful as possible. The colony has got the colonial reputation of being slow, from the old leaven of convictism remaining. But that would be a reason for the migration of some more energetic spirits thither. In few places is there such a Social safe hoarding of savings, and so great an indisposition aspects. to embark in doubtful speculations. There are not there the activities of Victoria and Queensland, nor the same desires to grow rich in a hurry. But, with the quiet resolution of living and dying in so charming a locality, there is not the impetus, nor apparent necessity, to make a fortune and spend it in England. But if the colony be slow, it may be pronounced safe. Slow and Though not exactly the one to court the dashing, fiery sure. spirits among men, nor the gay, excitement-seeking among women, it may nevertheless afford the opportunity of giving a family a prosperous future, while it certainly yields them an enjoyable present. The social difficulties once existing, when it was a convict settlement, have been gradually but surely dis- appearing since transportation thither ceased in 1853. In fact, a family man may find that, in taking his child. Moral ren to Tasmania, he removes them from many tempta- status. tions prevailing in a supposed higher condition of civilisation. Both Hobart Town and Launceston are provided with schools and churches, mechanics' institutes, and public libraries, with organisations for the decrease of evil and the promotion of good. The agriculturist will find, especially on the north Wonderful side of the island, land of such marvellous fertility that fertility in he will have no difficulty in making a living. The pur- chaser of a thousand acres, at a pound an acre, can Advan- demand from the Government the expenditure of one tages to north. 342 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. men of TASMANIA. half his purchase-money in the making of roads and - bridges near bis estate. moderate To a person of means, on the look-out for a cheap capital. and agreeable place of residence, with occupation for his leisure, and a real retreat from the annoyances, hypocrisies, and unhealthy stimuli of old-world civilisation, there is an especial attraction in this quiet, but lovely and salu- brious island. Whether residing on a garden plot near town, or on a farm in the country, he would realise a tranquillity, and yet a zest of life, not easily procured elsewhere. The gold, iron and tin mines present a splendid opening for British capital, and the employment of mining experience and engineering skill. It is for this reason that Tasmania has been, above all the colonies, the chosen retreat of Indian officers and civilians. The increase of health and peace, which these have gained there, would be the happy lot of others who choose to emigrate for the same object to the fern-tree land. Particulars of emigration can be obtained from C. D. Buckler, Esq., Emigrant and Colonists' Aid Corporation, Limited, 25 Queen Anne's Gate, Westminster, S.W. Invalids' retreat. DISCOVERY AND HISTORY. 343 NEW ZEALAND. Discovery and History. To Tasman, the Dutch navigator, is due the honour of Tasman, first discovery. After leaving Van Diemen's Land, in 1643. December 1642, he steered to the eastward, and fell in with the west coast of New Zealand on January 4, 1643. He made a rough survey from lat. 34° to 43° S. Land. ing nien for water near what is now known as Nelson, the Maories killed several of the sailors. The captain, therefore, named the locality the Bay of Murderers, since called Massacre Bay. The extreme north-western point of the island receired the appellation of Cape Maria Van Diemen, after the daughter of the Dutch Governor of Java. The Frenchman Marion, who had a contest with the French and Tasmanians in 1770, came into collision with the New sailors Zealanders, who cooked and ate him, as well as sixteen eaten. of his crew. The year after, the wild tribe dined off ten Englishmen belonging to Captain Furneaux's ship. Captain Cook first circumnavigated the Islands in his Captain three visits, and accurately suryeyed the principal bays. Cook, 1769. It was on October 16, 1769, that he saw the first land at Poverty Bay. Greatly interested at all times with native races, Cook was much struck with the noble appearance of the Maories, and the superior display of native civilisa- tion. He evidenced his desire for their good, in his gifts of the pig and the potato. The earliest white settlers of the country were sailors, HISTORY. and some runaway convicts from New South Wales and First Van Diemen's Land. The beneficial influence of such New intercourse was not obvious in the character of the can. Zealand. nibals. Our countrymen formed marriage alliances some. times with the tatooed tribes, and purchased farms on very easy terms. Whalers frequented the ports of Cook's Strait and the Bay of Islands. settlers o 314 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. the NEW The heathenism and cannibalism of the Maories drew ZEALAND. forth the Christian charity of the Rev. W. Marsden, chaplain of New South Wales, who attempted to esta- Massacre of the Boyd. blish a Mission among them. The fearful massacre, in 1809, of seventy persons who belonged to the ship ‘Boyd,' Missions to delayed the execution of the scheme for five years. Mis- sionaries of the Wesleyan and Roman Catholic com- Maorics. munions followed those of the Church of England, and the islanders forsook their idols, while their ovens were defiled no more with human flesh. Relapse of the subsequent relapse of some tribes from Chris- tribes. tianity, in the adoption of pagan rites, has been owing to their hatred of the pakela, or white man, and not to religious convictions. Missions Missionary successes paved the way for true colonisa- helped colo- tinn 010- tion. The nestone of The pastors of native flocks have been charged nisation. with obstructing the work of British settlement. Though decidedly objecting to the presence of vicious and dis- orderly countrymen among the coloured converts, the missionaries undoubtedly promoted the establishment of English rule in New Zealand. New Zea. The country had been appropriated, on parchment, as land a de-, early as 1787 as a dependency of New South Wales, by virtue of Captain Cook having taken possession of it. Wales. And yet, in 1814, any jurisdiction of the kind was re- Baron de pudiated by the Government. In 1820 an eccentric Thierry. Frenchman, Baron de Thierry, purchased from two of the chiefs the barren right of sovereignty over New Zealand. His Majesty, however, was the subject of ridicule from his quondam subjects, while his limited resources but poorly supplied his own table. United In 1830, the tribes that had always hitherto preserved most jealously their independent existence made an New attempt at a confederation. The King of England, Zealand. William IV., warmly approved of the object; and, while disclaiming any right of interference, sent out a national flag to the United Chiefs of New Zealand.' English British Government was much required there, owing Consul, to the reckless conduct of many of the European resi. 1837. dents. A consul, or Government resident, Mr. Busby, was established at the Bay of Islands in 1837. Much disorder arose from the irregular purchase of land, as from continual wars the rightful owner of the soil was New South Avuo V vapuain Vun chiefs of 348 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. at an end. ton. Otago by Free Otago NEW fulfilment of certain conditions of the Treaty of Waitangi ZEALAND, so long neglected by the Government. The Maories, too, have felt themselves ignored in the new constitution granted to the Colony. Native The more recent disputes and conflicts with the difficulties natives need not be described here. They involved the country in much expense and anxiety, and seriously retarded its progress. Firmness and justice have, how- ever, greatly removed any further cause for alarm. The Maories, unhappily, are rapidly decreasing in number ; and the white population are already eleven times as many as the coloured. Settlement Auckland was chiefly settled from New South Wales, of Auck- and Wellington by settlers from Great Britain. land and Welling- The Free Church of Scotland sought, in 1848, to estab. lish a New Zealand settlement, upon restrictive religious views. Nearly half a million acres were taken up near Port Otago. The land was to be sold at 21. an acre; Church, 1848. one-eighth of the proceeds was spent on schools and churches, one-eighth for emigration, and the rest on the purchase from the New Zealand Company, etc. But the Crown difficulty of cash payments to the British Government, 1852. according to their charter, obliged the Company to yield in 1852, when Otago became a Crown Colony. Canterbury In 1849 a Church of England Association attempted to Associa- form the model Canterbury Colony. Two millions of acres tion, 1849. were bought in the South Island. The land was sold at 31. an acre. The company devoted a third of the proceeds of land sales to emigration purposes, and one-third for schools and churches; the balance went to pay for the Crown purchase, and for road-making. Inability to pay a few Colony, thousands owing to the British treasury obliged the 1852. Company to surrender their territory, in December 1852; since which time Canterbury has been a Crown Colony. French set- The French Company that had settled Banks' Penin- tlement in Canter- sula failed about the same time, and their lands were bury. united to Canterbury province. One central The union of the Islands under one head and one egislation, central Legislature has been favourable to their progress. GEO- Geography and Climate. New Zealand consists of two large islands, and several smaller ones, of which Stewart, to the south, is the Colony, GRAPHY MOUNTAINS. 349 500 miles long. principal. The country is above 1,000 miles in length, NEW but of little breadth. Its total area is 100,000 square ZEALAND. miles, or 64,000,000 acres. It is, therefore, rather larger Are than Victoria, but one-seventh the size of Queensland. 100,000 The coast line is 3,000 miles. square miles. The North Island is less compact than the South one, forth and having projecting peninsulas, while the other is almost s South an elongated rhomboid in shape. Cook's Strait divides islands each them. The North Island is 500 miles long, and the 5 South Island is a little longer. Stewart Island, 50 miles in length, is separated from Other the south coast of the south Island by Fouveaux Strait. islands. The Auckland group are south of Stewart, in lat. 51° S., and the Macquarie Isles are further southward. Mountains. Mountains, North Island has a few small ranges; but the South Island has an elevated backbone from north to south, near the west coast, in addition to much elevated land in the central part. The Rua Hine range, from the centre of North Island, North runs southward to Cook's Strait, having two branches, Island the Tararua and Remutaka. À coast range extends ranges. along the Strait to the north-east. Coromandel range is eastward of Auckland. These ranges are not lofty. But the North Island is crowded with volcanic peaks Volcanoes. and elevated craters. Edgecombe, by the Bay of Plenty, is very high, and Ruapehu, near the centre of the island, is nearly 10,000 ft. Tongariro crater, not far from Ruapehu, is 6,500 ft. Egmont, in Taranaki, near the sea, is 8,300 ft. The South Island has many lofty peaks in the Southern South Alps. Mount Cook is 13, 200 ft., having extensive glaciers mountains. Island on its sides. Tyndall, to the north-east of Cook, is Cook nearly as lofty. Spencer is 10,000 ft.; Kaikaro, 9,300 13,200 ft. ft.; and Skiddaw and Franklin are 8,000 ft. each. The Alps are not so elevated at the southern ex- tremity. Arthur, Murchison, Lyell, Ben Nevis, and Brunner are alpine peaks in Nelson. The Wakefield range is north of Canterbury; which pro- vince possesses the fine Malvern Hills; Hutt, 6,800 ft.; and Torlesse, 6,160 ft. The Canterbury Plains rise Canterbury Plains, nearly 5,000 ft. at their western or alpine end. BAYS.-CAPES.— ISLANDS. 351 Bays. The Hokitika is in Westland. Jacob's river and New NEW river are in Southland. ZEALAND. Bays. North Island has three large bays : Gulf of Hauraki, Bay of Plenty, and Hawke's Bay. The Bay of Islands is to the north-east. Hokianga is west of it. Manukar Harbour leads up to Auckland from the west, and Waitemata from the east. The Frith of Thames is east of Auckland Harbour. Parengaranga Harbour is near North Cape. Mercury Bay and Tauranga Harbour are in the Bay of Plenty. Poverty Bay is north of the eastern Hawke's Bay. Wangaroa and Kawia Harbours are north of Taranaki. Palliser Bay and Port Nicholson are south of Wellington Province. Blind Bay, Massacre Bay, Cloudy Bay, and Port Underwood open into Cook's Strait on the south side. Akaroa Harbour is in Banks' Peninsula of Canterbury, and Pegasus Bay is north of it. Port Cooper is the chief harbour of Canterbury. Otago Harbour leads up to Dunedin. Bluff Harbour is the port of Southland. The west coast of South Island has scarcely any ports. Roadsteads The settlements are reached from roadsteads. Martin's coast. Bay, Milfordhaven, and Preservation Inlet are in Western Otago. Paterson Inlet and Port William are in Stewart Island. Jackson Bay is in West Otago. Capes. Capes. The Reinga, North Cape, and Maria Van Diemen are northern extremities. Egmont is the western head land. Runaway and East Cape are east of the Bay of Plenty. Kidnapper Point is south of Hawke's Bay. Cape Palliser is the south-eastern end of North Island Cape Campbell is opposite to Wellington. Farewell is the north-western end of South Island. Foulwind, south of Farewell, is on the west coast. The Bluff is in Southland. Akaroa Head is on Banks' Peninsula. Cape Saunders is south of Otago Harbour. South Cape is the southernmost point of Stewart Isle. on west Islands. Norfolk and Phillip Islands to the north belong to Islands. 352 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. names, NEW New South Wales. The Three Kings lie off the Cape ZEALAND Maria Van Diemen. Barrier is at the entrance of Hauraki Gulf; and the smoking White Island in the Bay of Plenty. Kapiti, or Entry, and D'Urville are in Cook's Strait. The Chatham Isles are about 300 miles east of South Island. The Snares are in 48° S. Divisions. Divisions. Change of North Island, or Eahei Nomauwe, was once called New Ulster. South Island, or Tavai Poenanmoo, the Green- stone Isle, has been known by two other appellations, the Middle Island and New Munster. Stewart Island was then called the Southern Island, or New Leinster. Nine pro There are now nine provinces and 63 counties. vinces and In North Island, Auckland is the northern, Taranaki one county. the western, Hawke's Bay the eastern, and Wellington the southern. In South Island, Nelson is to the north-west, Marl- borough the north-east, Canterbury the east, Otago the south, and Westland the west. New Hawke's Bay was once a part of Wellington; Marl- provinces. borough, of Nelson; and Westland, of Canterbury. Southland, once detached from Otago, is now re-united to it. Auckland Province contains 18,500,000 acres; Tar- provinces. anaki, 2,399,000; Hawke's Bay, 2,816,000; Wellington, 7,400,000; Nelson, 6,700,000; Marlborough, 3,000,000; Canterbury, 8,690,000; and Otago, with Southland 15,438,240. All have been united since 1876. Towns. Towns. In Auckland Province, Auckland city is on the bank of the Waitemata in lat. 36° 50', long. 174° 50', contain. ing 31,000 people. Kororarika or Russell is on the Bay of Islands. Hokianga is on the north-west coast, with Waimate near. Sbortland and Grahamstown are at the Thames diggings. The Pensioner settlements are near Auckland. Kupanga is on Coromandel Peninsula. Napier is the capital of Hawke's Bay. Nelson town is at the head of Blind Bay, and Colling- wood on Massacre Bay. Greymouth, on the west coast of South Island, has gold and coal. Picton and Blenheim are in Marlborough. Gisborne is in Porerty Bay. Campbelltown is the Blaff of Southland. Areas of CLIMATE. 353 50 210 13 ,, 55 . 110 . 150 180 240 150 Christchurch, the capital of Canterbury, is eight NEW miles from the port Lyttleton, and Akaroa is the French ZEALAND. port of Banks' Peninsula. Kaiapoi is on the Courtenay. Dunedin, capital of Otago, 9 m. from port Chalmers. Invercargill, Southland, is 20 miles from Bloff port. The distances of the principal places are here given :- of towns. Akaroa to Lyttleton 30 miles Albertland to Auckland . Arrow River to Dunedin . Ashburton to Christchurch Auckland to New Plymouth Cambridge to Auckland . 104 Clyde or Dunstan to Dunedin Collingwood to Nelson Coromandel to Auckland . Drury to Auckland .. Dunedin to Christchurch . Grahamstown to Auckland Greymouth to Hokitika . Hokianga to Auckland . Hokitika to Nelson . Hokitika to Christchurch . Hutt to Wellington Howick to Auckland Kingston to Dunedin Manchester to Wellington Molyneux to Dunedin Mount Ida to Dunedin Napier to Wellington New Plymouth to Auckland Oamaru to Dunedin Onehunga to Auckland Oxford to Christchurch Queenstown to Dunedin . Palmerston to Dunedin Riverton to Invercargill Russell to Auckland Shortland to Auckland Taieri to Dunedin Tauranga to Auckland Timaru to Christchurch Westport to Nelson Wellington to Nelson Wanganui to Wellington . • 130 , The CLIMATE of a country a thousand miles in length, CLIMATE. with lofty mountains and broad plains, cannot be expected to be uniform. While one portion is in the latitude of Differs Sydney, and another is fourteen degrees nearer the Pole, much as the temperature is far from being equal. The south. to places. 14 90 200 120 20 140 . 100 140 150 AA 354 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. North NEW western coast, exposed to stormy sea breezes, must have ZEALAND, a higher amount of humidity than the country sheltered by the lofty Sonthern Alps. The warm sun and balmy airs of the North are not to be experienced among the glaciers of Mount Cook. Captain Drury speaks of eight atmospheric districts in the colony. Hot winds. The heat in the summer months is so tempered by the sea-breezes, as never to be so unpleasant as in corre- sponding latitudes on the continent of Australia. The fiery breath of the latter is unknown in the flax land, unless it be in the dry summer blasts of Otago and Canterbury interior. The vast marshes, broad lakes, Mild in dense forests, and many ranges of the warmer North Island tend to ameliorate the fervour of the sun. Island. Hawke's Bay has the best climate. South Is- The South Island, less timbered and with fewer land much marshes and lakes, has its summer temperature modi- cooler. fied by the cold currents from the Alps of 12,000 feet, not less than by the frigid airs from antarctic icebergs. Stewart Isle and the storm-beaten islets beyond have no sultry seasons to sigh over. Ice and Cold is almost unknown in the North Island, except snow there. during the prevalence of south-westerly gales at Wel- lington. During the wet weather, so common on the western shore, shivering sensations are not uncommon. Snow lies for weeks together upon the plateaux of Otago, and substantial ice is trodden by the men of Southland. Even the plains of Canterbury are covered with snow for two or three months of winter. In both islands most of the lofty peaks are never free from white caps. Climate of Canterbury, taken as a province, experiences the great- bury Plains. tres est vicissitudes of temperature. The winds which pass over its extensive plains are very cold in winter, and hot in summer. The prevailing breezes, coming from the west, must pass over the lofty, snowclad Alps; and, though, reasonably enough, they are cold in winter, it was not so apparent why they were so hot in summer. But as the hot winds of Australia are felt in Tasmania, it has been held that they might also visit New Zealand. It is said that the warm airs rise when passing over the cool surface of the ocean, but descend when brought over the warmer earth. It is certain that the sirocco raises whirlwinds of dust in Canterbury, as on the plains the Canter- CLIMATE. 355 ble of Australia. Otago, and even Southland, have visits NEW from these heated western breezes. ZEALAND. Archdeacon Paul refers to the Canterbury Plains as having a mixture of the climate of the south of France and the Shetland Isles.' On Christmas Day, 1872, the thermometer was 920.3 in the shade at Christchurch of Canterbury. The cold of winter, 1876, was 12°.6. Nelson only suffers in a lesser degree, being better Of Nelson favoured with sea breezes. Hawke's Bay, on the con- and Hawke's trary, being sheltered from these cool winds by the Bay. Ruahine Mountains, is a hotter province in summer, while its limestone rocks reflect the heat still more. The Northern Island, being so much more wooded North Is- than the South, has, upon the whole, a more equable land more climate. The elevated, volcanic district in the centre, 9 than South in spite of its numerous hot springs, is not without its Island. frost and snow. New Plymouth, though with a seaboard, is not favoured as Auckland town with water on both sides, and has a wider range of temperature. Observations made at Bealey, in lat. 43°, on the slope Bealey and of the Alps, at an elevation of 2,104 feet, point out, as Hokitika. might be expected, a lower winter thermometer than at places several degrees more to the south. Hokitika, on the coast, not far from the latitude of Bealey, has a much milder winter and a cooler summer. Invercargill, Invercar- though 11° farther south than Auckland, has even hotter gill and hot summers. days in summer. In 1877 it was 157° in the sun. The official returns for 1871 will afford the reader the opportunity of comparing the temperature of certain towns, though learning little by that means of the climate of the several provinces. The thermometrical readings were as follows:- Maximum Minimum Range Tempera- ture of Auckland 58.5 different 83.2 34.0 49.2 New Plymouth 56:3 82.6 29.0 53.6 Napier 58.0 86.0 34:0 52.0 Wellington , 54.6 78.5 33.9 44.6 Nelson 55:1 84.0 28.0 56.0 Christchurch. 52:0 86.9 62.0 Bealey 46.8 79.2 17.0 62.2 Hokitika 53:1 74:9 29.2 4707 Dunedin 50:3 85.0 30.0 55.0 Southland (in 46°) 86.0 21.0 65.0 Mean towILS. 24:9 50.0 AA 2 356 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW The mean temperature of Auckland, after 13 years'. ZEALAND. observations, is ascertained to be 60•3°; Wellington, from 10 years, 55.7° ; Nelson, 16 years, 55°; Christ- church, 11 years, 55.1°; Dunedin, 15 years, 50-7°; Marl- borough, 5 years, 53:4°; Hokitika, 10 years, 54º. In 1876 Auckland averaged 60:0; Napier, 59:4; Nelson, 55.9; Hokitika, 54:0; Dunedin, 51.5. The mean of the North Island was 58.2; and of the South Island, 54.2. Rain. The temperature, therefore, of New Zealand gene- rally may be pronounced decidedly agreeable. But the humidity of some parts is unpleasant, and on the west coast of the South Island is obstructive to agriculture. The east coast of both Islands is hy no means troubled with an excess of moisture, having a less quantity than the Australian shores. Hokitika had 136 in. fall, 1877. Relative The Alps shield the plains of Canterbury from the moisture. clouds, as the Ruahine hills do for Hawke's Bay District. Nelson is more sheltered than New Plymouth. The Bay of Islands has far less rain than Auckland, while Wan. ganni has more than its neighbour Wellington. Westland Westland is not only wet, but foggy. The coast lower down, toward the south-west corner, has excessive rain- fall. Most of this rain comes in the winter, though summer is by no means dry. There fell 13 in. at Pakawau, Golden Bay, in 1872, during 12 hours. Snow days. The snow days in 1877 were 3 in Wellington ; 0 in Nelson; 4 in Christchurch; 0 in Hokitika; 7 in Dune- din ; 4 in Invercargill; and 22 in Bealey. In June, 1873, the snow was 15 inches thick for 5 days in South- land. Rainfall in 1875 gave the following results of rainfall:- the year. Auckland . 51.310 inches in 200 days Taranaki . 66.960 Napier . . 38.260 144 Wellington . 65827 Nelson . . 69.070 Christchurch . . 32:310 Hokitika . . 130·790 186 Dunedin . • 42-631 158 Invercargill . . 44:180 2011 West side For 1877 the official figures stood thus:- five times Auckland . 40•37 inches in 203 days Taranaki 173 , wet. 169 176 106 135 as wet as east . 52 CLIMATE. 357 151 117 » Napier. . 33.450 inches in 108 days NEW Wellington • 51.92 ZEALAND. Nelson . 48.52 85 , Christchurch . . 23.72 Hokitika . . 136.66 214 Dunedin. . :. 37:46 134 , Invercargill . .43.15 , 222 „ The winds are boisterous enough off the western and Winds. southern shores, and the tempestuous seas of those neighbourhoods are thoroughly appreciated by voyagers. Cook's Strait and Fouveaux Strait have an unenviable notoriety for blasts. The course of the winds, as else- Course of wind in where in the Southern Hemisphere, is with the sun, or Southern contrary to the hands of a watch. By far the most Hemi- common wind is west-south-west. In Cook's Strait, sphere with owing to the land, there are but two directions in which the sun. the winds blow, north-west and south-east. In Port Cooper, of Canterbury, the summer sea breezes Change of are from the north-east in the day, and the light ones winds. from the south-west at night. In winter the prevalent ones are the south-east at sea and the south-west on land. The north-west is the hot or cold plains' wind. On the west coast of the North Island it is fine from West November to April. South-east winds are experienced prevalent. often in June and July. North-west winds are twice as common as south-east, and south-west twice as many as the rest. Wellington, or Port Nicholson, is much troubled with boisterous weather. Landing at western ports is sometimes a source of real danger, from the heavy surf rolling in after rough breezes outside. To show the windy character of some parts, it may be stated that in 1876 the number of calm days in the year was 89 for Queenstown, 97 for Danedin, 45' for Bealey, 86 for Wanganui, o for Auckland, 13 for Christchurch, 1 for Wellington, and no calm day for Invercargill, Nelson, Taranaki and Hokitika. In Auckland the winds with a westerly direction blew 161 days in the year 1876, and with easterly, 119. In Napier they were 109 to 151; in Wellington, 198 to 166; Christchurch, 191 to 168; Dunedin, 137 to 107; Hokitika, 134 to 178; Southland, 208 to 138. The barometer is very variable in some parts of the Barometer coast of New Zealand, as off Tierra del Fuego. It may action, go down very low without an observable change of GEOLOGY. 359 olcanic crystalline and primary. The North has elevated volcanic NEW cones, and the South has long ranges of lofty mountains ZEALAND. of slate and granite. The centre of the North Island is a mass of craters, boiling springs, lava, and sulphur. The central parts of the South Island have hardly a trace of igneous action. The geological difference gives a different landscape Effect on to the traveller. In the basalt of Banks' Peninsula the land- and Otago Harbour only will he behold in the South the scape. romantic scenery so often presented in the volcanic country of the North. The beauty of the western coast of the North Island is strikingly brought out in the elevations of lava hills. The solemn grandeur of the primitive rocks is made apparent to the voyager by the Alps of the South. There are, nevertheless, points of resemblance between Similarity the two. Both contain beds of true coal, and of tertiary of geology. or Bovey coal. Both have gold and copper workings. But while the gold of the North is almost confined to the valley of the Thames, that of the South is seen in every province; being found in the north, east, south, west, and middle. Perhaps it may still with truth be said that, though New Zealand is altogether only about the size of Great Britain, and has been known to the Europeans so many years, not much of the area has been sufficiently ex- plored to determine its geology accurately The Primary formations are to be seen in the south Primary and west of the North Island, forming mainly the Pro- rocks of North vince of Wellington. They are far from being pro. Island. ductive there. In the valley of the Thames and on the Coromandel Peninsula they are fertile in metals. Meta- morphic rocks are chiefly seen in south Silurian beds. In South Island the primary constitute the main Primary of country of Nelson, Marlborough, Otago, and Westland South Island county. The mighty Alps, rising 13,000 ft. and running through the Island, as another Andes, beside the western sea, are formed of slates, sandstones, and limestone of Silurian ages, often very highly metamorphosed. There are also many mountains of granite there. The strong stony bulwark of the south-west coast is of the slates and granites. The intermediate land froin the Alps to the Otago eastern bays is of the ancient GEOLOGY. 361 NEW for a tertiary covering. The fertile Oamara district of Otago rests upon a tertiary limestone. Other farming ZEALAND. land at Timara and Caversham is indebted to that age. Syenitic granite débris rests in south-west Otago. A drift, forty miles by ten, stretches from the Buller to Lake Brunner. Eocene fossils are 9 per cent. of existing kinds. Septarian boulders, of limestone in clay, strew the · Lacustrine beach north of Dunedin. Lacustrine remains are found deposits. north of the Clutha; while, in the basin of Invercargill, they cover an area of thirty by twelve miles. The celebrated Canterbury Plains, reaching from the Canterbury sea to the foot of the Alps, are of glacial production in Plains from glacial the pliocene period. Already thirty terraces have been action. counted in the ascent of the plains. A vast number of years must have passed while glaciers, from twenty to eighty miles in length, carried down those moraines, now recognised as horizontal terraces. At that time the island must then have had the appear- ance Greenland now has. For the country to have had such enormous glaciers, as we detect from the moraines, the elevation must have been considerable. The longest Glaciers glacier of the New Zealand Alps at present is Tasman, and moraines. from Mount Cook, and it is eighteen miles in extent. Large moraines are to be seen near Hokitika and other parts of the west coast. The glaciers are after bordered by luxuriant and even semi-tropical vegetation. Waka- tipu lake of Otago, 1,400 ft. deep, is the effect of glacial erosion, says Capt. Hutton. The Canterbury covering may be called a pleistocene Pleisto- alluvial derived from the glacial action. Floods still cene. bring down much débris on those plains. The pleisto. cene of Timaru rests on a tafa. The dolerite of Mount Horrible is recent tertiary. The pleistocene shore of Taranaki is 150 feet above the sea ; and the Timaru silt is 686 feet. Pleistocene glaciers carried down the gold. In the North Island there is a cretaceous and a yellow Various argillaceous deposit at the Bay of Islands, a horizontal tertiary deposits. limestone at Tauranga Bay, a sandstone at Auckland, a calcareous rock at Kawia, a boulder formation south of Hokianga, a cretaceous cliff at Wanganui, and the débris of clay slate at the Hutt valley. The two islands were separated before the pleistocene period. As volcanic tufa, as conglomerate, as cinder heaps, as GEOLOGY. 363 deeds. Roto-rua is the centre of a volcanic desolation. NEW For hundreds of square miles, sterility is as heartless as ZEALAND. in a Sahara. Volcanic Lake Taupo, an ancient crater, has lofty cliffs of tra- desert. chyte; and, though silent awhile itself, reflects upon its Lake waters the fires of Tongariro. The island has a great Taupo number of lakes whose lava sides tell the old story of 9 fire. Mt. Tanakira, or Devil's Thumb, thought once a volcanic cone, is only recent clay. Nothing in Iceland can compete with the wonders of Iceland Rotomahana, with its extensive siliceous deposits, the charac- cascade of boiling water, the smoking sulphurous lakes, yawning caves, and gaping chasms. Auckland city, within a dozen miles, has sixty cones Craters round and craters, from 300 to 900 feet high. The harbour * Auckland guardian, Rangitoto, may well be called the 'Sky of Blood' by the natives. The craters there have been ages quiet. The South Island, though with no actual volcano, Tufa in and very few extinct ones, can exhibit its scars from south Island. these throes of nature. Tafa may be seen at Oamaru, and also in Nelson Province, Westland, and to the north of Invercargill. Auckland and Chatham is. are volcanic. Basalt and greenstone, so common in the North, can Basalt. be traced among the Alps of the South. Banks' Pe- ninsula of Canterbury is a chaotic mass of these rocks. The trappean harbour of Otago is sixteen miles in length. According to Dr. Hector, the square miles of formation in New Zealand are as follows:- Fluviatile ... 8,447 north 6,286 south = 14,733 Marine Tertiary. 13,898 , 4,201 „ = 18,099 Secondary . . 2,390 2,110 = 4,500 Palæozoic . . 5,437 , 20,231 , = 25,068 Schistose . . .. 15,308 , , = 15,308 Granite . . . 5,978, = 5,978 Volcanic ... 14,864 , 1,150 = 18,714 44,736 55,264 100,000 Earthquakes, as may readily be supposed, are no more Change of absent from New Zealand than from the countries of coast level. Vesuvius and Hecla. A great elevation in Cook's Strait took place during the shocks of 1823. In 1848, 200 square miles were raised. The west coast, however, has been steadily sinking, especially on the South Island. 364 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW ZEALAND. Earth- quakes. Fossils. The Moa, Wellington and Wanganui have been most troubled with earthquakes, especially in 1848 and 1855, when the earth opened and walls cracked. In 1871 there were eleven days of earthquake shocks. No other pro- vince had more than three days of such disquietude. While fossils peculiar to formations distinguish New Zealand as other places, it is interesting to observe that the old Saurians, as the Plesiosaurus, and Ichthyosaurus, have their representatives, these being found at the Waipara. Ostreæ, one foot long, are found in the Kawia limestone. The Wanganui sands contain shells of which one-tenth are extinct; and those of Patea, one quarter. But the Moa is the attraction to men of science. As the Dinornis, and broader skulled Palapteryx, the wing- less Moas are discovered in alluvium, and sometimes with the bones of the dog and existing species of birds. In one case, the remains of a cannibal feast of ancient days contained the charred bones of the Moa'and man. Eggs, ten inches by seven, have been unearthed. The islands once contained a gigantic bird of prey. The fossil forms of large birds of flight have lately been found. Evidence exists of an ancient race of man. As the bones of the Dinornis have been discovered in Queensland, where the Plesiosaurus has been also in Queensland, W found, another evidence is afforded of Australia and New Zealand having once been united. Norfolk Island was formerly connected with New Zealand. New Zea- land and Australia once united. NATURAL Natural History. HISTORY. Whilst Australia presents us with the very earliest forms of mammalian life, and with low types of organi. sation, the Islands of New Zealand-representing as they do the remnants of a former continental area now submerged beneath the ocean-offer for the study of Ancient the biologist a still more ancient fauna. The only ter. fauna. - restrial mammals strictly indigenous to New Zealand appear to be a small frugivorous rat, called “kiore Bats. maori' by the natives, and two species of bat. In former times the indigenous rat was largely used as an article of food by the natives, but it has of late years Native rat. become nearly extinct, except in a few places of the interior of the Northern island, in consequence of the NATURAL HISTORY. 365 extermination carried on against it by the introduced NEW European rat. ZEALAND. At the period of Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand there existed a small species of wild dog, Wild dog. resembling a jackal, and of a dirty yellowish colour. This animal has disappeared within the last twenty years. Although bearing certain affinities to the wild dog or dingo' of the Australian continent, it is doubt- ful if this animal can be regarded as indigenous, having probably been introduced at some period antecedent to the discoveries of Captain Cook. The marine mammalia inhabiting the shores of New Zealand and the adjacent groups of the Auckland and Chatham Islands, include several species of seals, Seals. amongst which are the 'sea lion' (Phoca jubata), the sea leopard' (Stenorhynchus leptonya), the “fur seal,'or sea bear' (Arctocephalus ursinus), and the bottle-nosed seal (Phoca proboscidiu of Péron). One species of por- poise is met with on the coast, the Delphinus Zelandice, Porpoise. or New Zealand dolphin. Formerly, and probably down to as recent a period as the last two or three hundred years, there existed in these islands a remarkable group of gigantic wingless wingless birds, allied to the cassowaries, and varying in size birds. from that of a bustard to a stature far exceeding that of the ostrich. It is now about thirty years ago since the first bones of the moa' (the name applied by the natives generally to all the species of these great extinct birds) were discovered in an alluvial deposit on the East coast. Since that period the semi- fossilised, and, in some instances, comparatively recent remains of no less than ten species of the moa' have Many spe- been found, together with fragments (and, in one in. : stance, a perfect example of their eggs. All these have been carefully examined and described by Professor Owen, who resolves them into two genera, Dinornis and Palapteryx. In the former genus the Professor includes eight species, and in the latter two. In their general aspect, characters, and habits it is supposed that these birds resembled much more nearly the cassowary tribe than they did the ostrich or the emu. To convey some idea of the stature of these birds, as ascertained from their skeletons, it may be mentioned that the largest Great 366 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW The apteryx. species of the moa,' the Dinornis maximus, stood, when erect, ten feet six inches in height, and the D. dro- mooides and the P. elephantopus both exceeded five feet; whilst the Dinornis struthiöides attained the altitude of seven feet. Still more recently, Dr. Haast, of Canter. bury, New Zealand, who has carefully studied the re- mains of these extinct birds, has divided them into four genera, viz., Dinornis, Meionornis, Palapteryx, and Eury. apteryx, comprising altogether no less than twelve well- established species. In the Glenmark deposits, in the South Island, Dr. Haast has also discovered the bones of a huge diurnal bird of prey, which he has described under the name of Harpagornis moorei. These huge birds might yet have been extant, had it not been for the arrival of the present aboriginal inhabitants on the shores of New Zealand, by whom they were gradu. ally exterminated. Nearly allied in structure to these gigantic creatures, there still lingers in New Zealand a remarkable genus of wingless birds called Apteryx, of which four species are described. Their bodies are covered with long, loose, hair-like feathers, and their legs and feet are remarkably powerful, and armed with sharp claws for digging in the earth. The beak is long and slender, having the nostrils nearly at the extremity of the upper mandible. This they introduce into the ground in search of grubs and worms. Like many of the New Zealand terrestrial birds, the Apteryx is nocturnal in its habits, concealing itself during the day beneath the extensive beds of fern. Its nest is a burrow in the earth, in which it lays one egg of enormous size compared with that of the bird itself, which is not larger than a domestic fowl. Amongst the other extraordinary birds that yet exist in New Zealand, constituting the remains of an almost extinct fauna, is the Notornis mantelli, a huge hand- somely plumaged rail, about the size of a goose, and having very small wings, a single living example of which was taken several years ago by some sealers in the neighbourhood of Dusky Bay. This bird has much the aspect of a gigantic water-ben. Both its beak and feet are large and strong, and of a bright red colour; the general plumage is glossy bronze-green, with the head and breast purple, and the tail-coverts snow-white. Notornis. NATURAL HISTORY. 367 There are also other rails belonging to several distinct NEW genera, the most interesting of which are the wood-hens ZEALAND. (Ocydromus), a group of brevipennate rails quite peculiar to the New Zealand fauna. Amongst the strange ornithological forms that occur in the Southern islands is a very remarkable bird of the owl tribe, called the 'wekau' by the natives, and the laughing owl' by the settlers. It is larger The laugh- than the ordinary screech-owl, spotted with chesnut and ing owl. black, and has long legs and small green feet. The head is very small, with the beak somewhat resembling that of a hawk. It is a ground-feeder, and nocturnal in its habits. It is now almost extinct. Its scientific name is Sceloglaux albifacies. The extraordinary Strigops habroptilus, or' Kakapo' of Nocturnal the natives, is a large, greenish-coloured nocturnal parrot parrot. having certain owl-like characters, which was formerly abundant in New Zealand, but is now extinct every- where except on the south-west coast of the South island, where it dwells in inaccessible ravines, living in communities in holes under rocks, and is never seen during the day. At night it comes out to feed, nibbling the grass and roots like a rabbit. A singular group of parrots, belonging to the genus Nestor (also remnants The Nestor. of an ancient fauna), are peculiar to New Zealand and the adjacent islands ; of four species described, one is already extinct, and two of the others are extremely rare ; whilst the remaining one is still comparatively common, and is often domesticated by the natives, who style it kaka.' Its chief peculiarities consist in its having the upper mandible of the beak very long and hooked, and in the brown, grey, and orange colouration of the plumage. There are two singular birds, denizens of the forests of the Northern island, well worthy of notice. These are the Neomorpha gouldi, or 'huia' of the natives ; and The Huia' the Prosthemadera Novo Zeelandice, or tui,' the . Parson and . Tui.' bird,' of the settlers. The first of these birds is about the size of a small crow, with glossy black plumage, the tail feathers being tipped with white. The beak of the male is straight and pointed, whilst that of the female is long, slender, and curved into the arc of a circle. The tail feathers are much valued by the natives for 368 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. • Parson- NEW purposes of ornament, and are carefully preserved in ZEALAND. finely-carved wooden boxes. The ‘Parson-bird'derives its clerical appellation from the circumstance of its The having two little tufts of white feathers under the throat, bird, contrasting strongly with the shining black colour of the rest of its plumage. The 'tui' is a very lively and amusing bird in captivity, and rivals even the mocking- bird in its powers of imitation. It is the size of a blackbird. Fruit- The fruit-eating pigeon (Carpophaga Novo Zeelandice) pigeon. is a fine bird, of handsome plumage, and is much esteemed for the table. Amongst aquatic birds some nine or ten kinds of ducks are enumerated as inhabiting New Zealand, and some of them are delicious eating. There are several Cormorants species of cormorants, and the crested shag (Phalacro- and shags. corax punctatus) is a very beautiful bird. Dr. Buller, in his History of the Birds of New Zealand,' enumerates one hundred and forty-five species as already described ; the greater portion of which, together with many of the genera, are peculiar to the country. Reptiles. New Zealand presents a striking contrast to Australia in the paucity of its reptiles. The traveller may walk in safety through the long grass and the thick fern without the uneasy feeling arising from the dread of treading on a poisonous serpent, which pedestrians in the No snakes. latter country so often experience. Of snakes there are none, the only indigenous reptiles being a few species of lizards, the most remarkable of which is the Hatteria The punctata, or 'tuatara,' which is now nearly extinct. ‘tuatara.' This large lizard possesses a bird-like skeleton, and, according to naturalists, constitutes of itself a distinct order of reptiles ; it formerly existed in abundance, dwelling in holes in the sand-hills on the sea-shore, and was killed by the natives for food. At the present time it has been completely exterminated by the wild pigs, and is only to be met with in some of the islands in the Bay of Plenty, on the East coast. One species Batrachians are represented by one small species of of frog. frog, which is uncommon and but seldom seen. Fish. The coasts of New Zealand abound in fish, many of which are excellent for the table. Upwards of 150 kinds have been enumerated. Some of the most impor- NATURAL HISTORY. 369 Chimera. bait.' tant species for edible purposes do not, however, frequent NEW the bays and inlets of the sea, but are gregarious in the ZEALAND. more open waters, where they frequent banks, upon which they may be systematically sought for Sharks are numerous, especially on the Northern coasts; one fierce and dangerous kind, the tiger-shark, is killed by Tiger- the natives for the sake of its teeth, which they use as shark. ornaments. The flesh of the shark is much valued by them as an article of food; it is dried in the sun, and was formerly consumed in large quantities at their public feasts and convivial gatherings. That hideous- looking fish, the Chimera, or elephant-fish' (Callor. The hynchus antarcticus), is frequently met with on the coasts. Eels are found in the fresh waters of the Thames and others rivers. In many of the streams and lakes small fresh-water fish of delicate flavour are abundant, espe- Fresh- cially a small kind resembling whitebait, which are water fish caught in nets, and, when cooked in bundles wrapped a White- up in flax-leaves, in an oven formed of heated stones, are delicious eating. Among the forms peculiar to the country is a very remarkable species of mud-fish, described by Dr. Günther as Neochanna apoda, which is met with in gravelly clay, inhabiting a little cell some- times ten feet below the surface of the ground! In the first specimen examined, which was sent to England by Sir George Grey, the eyes were undeveloped, but it is now found that the fish has perfect vision and swims actively in clear water. Salmon from Europe have been introduced into some of the rivers of the South island." Large crayfish and other crustaceans are numerous Mollusks. along the rocky coasts; and the mollusks are, to a great extent, peculiar specifically to New Zealand. Some of the marine shells are very beautiful, and highly prized by collectors. In Cook's Straits we meet with the imperial turbo, several species of Struthio- laria ; the large Haliotis iris, the richly-coloured, irides- cent lining of which is used by the natives for orna- menting their canoes and weapons, and also for a kind of glittering fishhook. Some species of Elenchus they use as ear-drops. Oysters are numerous and well- flavoured. The land-shells consist of a great many species of Land-shells. small snails, together with three or four of considerable BB 370 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. size. The Bulimus hongi is four inches long, brown ZEALAND. outside, with a beautiful orange-coloured mouth. Two species of large flattened snails also occur, Helix busbyi, or papa-rangi' (the 'shell that fell from heaven,' ac- cording to the natives), which is of a curious shining dark green hue, and is found at the roots of the 'rata' tree; and another species, lately discovered on the moun. tains of the South island, which is olive banded with black, named Helix Hockstetteri. Insects. Insects are not especially numerous, though some remarkable forms are to be met with. A large brown tree-cricket, armed with spines, is a formidable insect. Beetles. Amongst the coleoptera are several fine species of Brentus, with their long attenuated snouts. Butter- flies are poorly represented, though one or two kinds Sand-flies are especially beautiful. Sand-flies and fleas are and fleas. troublesome, especially the former, which attack the bare hands and feet with unceasing pertinacity at sunrise and sunset, when exposed to their influence in the forests and bush-clearings, and in low swampy Poisonous places. A poisonous spider, called Katepo by the spiders. natives, is black, with a red stripe down the back. Botany. Although in its flora New Zealand has some relation- ship with the two large continents of America and Aus. tralia, between which it is situated, and even possesses a number of species identical with those of Europe (with- out the latter being referable to an introduction by Peculiar Europeans), yet the greater number of species, and even genera, are peculiar to the country. New Zealand, with the adjacent islands of Chatham, Auckland, and Mac- quarie, forms a botanical centre. Scarcity of The visitor to the shores of New Zealand will be struck Flowers. with the scantiness of annual and flowering plants, of which very few possess vivid colours to attract the Ever attention of the florist. On the other hand, he will find greens. a vast number of species of evergreen and forest trees, together with an endless variety of ferns, some of gigan. tic size, of which the greater part of the flora consists. Contrast to The glaucous character of an Australian landscape, pro- Australia. duced by its Eucalypti, Casuarince, and Banksice, is ex- changed in New Zealand for the glossy green of a denso flora. 372 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. land NEW impassable by the rope-like stems of the Smilax, or supple jack. The whole is shaded externally from the sun by the lofty canopy of foliage overhead, and nourished by the ceaseless moisture that drops from every spray, ren. dering these antipodean forests rank with vegetation. Parasites sprout from the loftiest trees, while mosses and smaller ferns clothe their trunks with green, carrying a profusion of vegetable life up into their topmost branches. All is of the deepest green, and amidst the gloom an almost unbroken silence reigns; whilst the warm, damp, windless air is laden with the delicious fragrance of the blossoms of the wax-like pink hoya; and the tangled undergrowth of fuchsias is rendered gay by the large, star-like blossoms of a species of white clematis. Coming Open fern suddenly out of the forest, the traveller enters upon vast tracts of undulating land, without a tree, except here and there a solitary dracena or cordyline, the whole being densely covered with the social fern, breast-high, through which wind the narrow footpaths of the natives. The Swamps. third phase of vegetation is represented by the swampy flats near the lakes and rivers, which are covered with clumps of the Phormium tenax, or New Zealand flax, and clusters of a sort of large Tussack grass, the Typho, angustifolia, or raupo' of the natives, who employ it for building and thatching their houses. Besides these three distinctive features there are certain volcanic tracts on the barren table-lands in the interior of the North island, where a coarse, wiry sort of Grasses. grass called wiwi takes the place of ferns; and in the South island, and to the north of the valley of the Hutt, are large areas of land suitable for cattle and sheep. Amongst the climbing plants which seek the support Freycinetia of large trees the principal one is the Freycinetia Banksiä. Banksii. It attaches itself principally to the ‘Kahikatea' pine. It flowers in September, and the natives are very fond of the sweet and luscious bracteæe of the blossoms. . Aralia. The Aralia crassifolia, or Fish-bone tree, grows to a height of twenty-five feet, and from its remarkable growth forms a curious object in the landscape. During spring, the banks of the large rivers are made gorgeous by the blossoming of the Edwardsia, or New Zealand laburnum, with its pendulous clusters of golden blossoms. Many of the timber trees yield excellent woods, suit- GOVERNMENT. 373 MENT, able for all kinds of purposes. The most important of NEW all these is the dammara pine, or "kauri.' This magni. ZEALAND. ficent tree is a model of symmetry, growing very erect, Kauri nine and producing whorls of branches at regular intervals up the trunk, tapering to the top. It attains the alti- tude of 100 feet, and a circumference of from 20 to 25 feet. The timber is close-grained, durable, and valuable either in plank or for the yards and masts of vessels, for which purpose it has long been in requisition for the ships of Her Majesty's navy. This tree also yields a pure white resin, now in great demand as an article of Kauri gum. commerce for the production of a clear and beautiful varnish. European grasses, fruits, vegetables, and flowers of all Fertility of kinds thrive in New Zealand to an extent perhaps un. soil. equalled in any other region of the globe. Government. GOVERN- By the Treaty of Waitangi, in 1840, the sovereignty Chiefs of the Islands was yielded to our Queen by the natives. The right of this surrender has been questioned, as a indepen- certain proportion of chiefs could not act for others, dent of old. individually as independent as themselves. But the interests of the Maories were consulted, as one rule in One rule New Zealand has prevented those tribal wars which were good. so common before. At first one Governor at Auckland controlled the Dual go- island. A Lieut.-Governor was nominated in 1846, vernment. resident at Wellington, while the supervision was at Auckland. This duality soon gave way to unity of government. The rise of the southern settlements necessitated another change. In 1852 New Zealand was Six divided into the six provinces of Auckland, Taranaki, provinces, 1852. Wellington, Canterbury, Nelson, and Otago. While each of the provinces had its own local legis- lation, a central parliament at the capital regulated general affairs, and held control of the lands. A Super- intendent, elected by the people, presided over each province. Subsequently, the local councils had the administration of the lands within their own territories, and more ex- tended prorincial freedom was granted, including the right of borrowing money for internal improvements. 374 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW Hawke's Bay was separated from Wellington in 1859, ZEALAND. Marlborough from Nelson in 1860, Westland County from Change of Canterbury in 1868, and Southland from Otago in 1861, provinces. though re-united in 1870. Westland was last formed. Parlia- The General Assembly, or Parliament of New Zealand, ment. answering to the Congress of the United States, meets now at Wellington, as more central than Auckland, the former capital. The Executive Council consists of the Governor, appointed by the Queen, and five members of Legislative a Ministry responsible to the country. The Legislative Council. Council has 49 members nominated for life by the Go- House of vernor, and the House of Representatives has 88, inclu. Represent- atives. ding the four Maories elected by their own race. Thirty of the Lower House were from the North Island, and 44 from the South. There is now manhood suffrage, as well as a property tax. There are 69 electoral districts. Provincial The Otago Provincial Council had 50 members, Can- Councils. terbury 40, Auckland 40, Wellington 25, Marlborough 20, Nelson 20, Hawke's Bay 20, and Taranaki 15. New Zealand had political freedom before Australia, but now enjoys a lesser amount of privileges. Finance The great difficulty of the New Zealand Government has been that of finance. The first Governor was so hard pressed with a heavy expenditure and small income, that he had to issue two- shilling paper assignats to tide over a season. But the Maori wars wars with the Maoris have occasioned great outlay. expensive. Although these wars cost 6,000,0001., a large part of that sum was paid by the British Government, whose errors of judgment, perhaps, had produced no small amount of the dissatisfaction of the aborigines. But Cause of much burden of this expenditure was thrown upon the public debt. settlers, and so originated a large part of the public debt. Thus it was that in 1873 the General Government Loans and owed no less than 6,881,6211., and the several Provincial Councils had loans to the extent of 3,448,4751. more, making a total of 10,329,7361. On the union of the several governments in 1876, the debt became one. That was 20,900,0001. in 1877, since increased to 25,900,0001. Public debt But the increasing prosperity of the country, and the growth of population, enable the rulers to contemplate so large a loan without much apprehension now, though difficulties. interest. less bur- densome now. 376 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW ZEALAND. 470,7961. ; from post and telegraph, 194,3401. ; from stamps, 127,2921. ; from gold fields, 25,2941. ; from gold duty, 36,801. Among items of expenditure in 1877 were : Interest of debt, 1,040,8371. ; payment to counties, 667,0321.; Financial troubles. provincial debts, 134,0281. ; aid to local bodies, 128,8181.; defence, 145,7091. ; natives, 50,7371. ; police, 85,2861. ; charitable institutions, 76,5361. The working expenses will be lessened by the union of the nine provinces in one. The difficulties of New Zealand finance have been of long standing. Deficiencies have called for increased taxation, and disheartened the colonists. But the work- ing of the mines, and the prodigious development of the farms, encourage the financiers in the hope that better days have come, and that no new disorders are likely to occur. With exports at above 151. per head, and imports at 181., the wealth of the country seems established. The embarrassment of a Government, however, is possible, while the people may be prosperous. The colonial revenue for 1878 was 4,167,8891., and the expenditure, without loans, 4,365,2751. The revenue of the year ending June 30, 1879, was 3,551,8141. The taxes are heavy to meet the heavy interest on loans. A new land tax may bring 100,0001, extra, a fresh burden. The property tax is one penny. But railroads were a necessity in such a colony, and the profits will soon meet the interest. There will be 1,200 miles by 1880, all State property. Railways gave 145,0001. profit in 1877. The land is being rapidly taken up, and the increase of stock is remarkable. Excessive speculation and impru- dent immigration may retard progress, but be of no lasting injury. Revenue, expendi- ture. POPULA- TION. First in- habitants. Population. Soon after the settlement of New South Wales, in 1788, runaway sailors and convicts found their way to New Zealand. It is true that some were eaten by the cannibals, but others settled among them, and raised families of fine-looking half-castes. When whaling commenced with Sydney and Hobart POPULATION. 377 Town merchants, New Zealand was a favourite ground NEW for the blubberly fish; and stations, with boats' crews, ZEALAND. were established permanently at the Bay of Islands, and whaling in Cook's Straits. Associations were formed with the settle- natives, land was irregularly purchased, and settlements ments. grew in the whaling ports. The first great exodus from Great Britain took place British im- in 1842. The English immigration soon swamped the migration. old colonial one. For a number of years no reliable census was obtained. As with other colonies, New Zealand had intervals of rest from European immigra- tion. The gold discovery in the Colony sent thousands of diggers thither from Sydney and Melbourne. The increase from 1851 to 1858 was at the rate of 122 per cent.; from 1858 to 1861, 40; from 1861 to 1864, 73; from 1864 to 1867, 27; and thence to 1871, 17 per cent. In 1878, 230,998 males, 183,414 females. In the three years preceding that last census, Auckland Ratio of increased 29 per cent. ; Otago, 25; Canterbury, 22; increase. Marlborough, 19; Hawke's Bay, 147; and Wellington 9 per cent. Nelson was the only province that lost Prorincial ground. In 59 boroughs, 1878, were 163,028 people. gro The population in 1843 was 13,128; 1854, 32,554; in Census 1860, 79,711; in 1865, 190,607; in 1871, 266,986; and returns. in March, 1878, above 414,000; and 42,000 Maories. The proportion of population in the capitals is thus Popula- placed by the Census of 1878, taken February 27:- tion of incha the 1878, 231867, 22861, 40, Provinces. Towns Males Females Total .. Christchurch Dunedin Wellington . Auckland . Hokitika Napier . . Invercargill. Plymouth . 12,663 11,599 9,854 6,969 4,500 4,545 1,912 1,321 12,313 10,891 9,183 6,762 3,475 3,823 1,841 1,357 24,976 22,490 19,037 13,731 8,975 8,368 3,753 2,678 . In 10 years, Otago province had in excess of births over deaths, 25,225 ; Canterbury, 18,827; Auckland, 16,730 ; Wellington, 9,477; Nelson, 5,136; Westland, 3,376; Hawke's Bay, 2,611 ; Taranaki, 1,966; Marl. 378 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW ZEALAND. Proportion of sexes. borough, 1,891. The Chinese in 1878 were 4,300 males, 5 females. The disproportion of the sexes has varied much. In 1858 the excess of males was 13 per cent. ; in 1861, 231; in 1867, 20%; and in 1877, 131 per cent. New Zealand is thus far from presenting that equality of the sexes which marks the advance of civilisation, and dis- tinguishes several of the Australian colonies. The Maori, or aboriginal, population was estimated in 1871 to be about 35,000 in the North Island, and only 2,350 in the South Island. After years of decline, the number rose in 1877 to 45,000 and 1,826 half-castes. The occupations of the whites were, 1878, classified : trade and commerce, 17,622; agricultural and pastoral, 47,356; mechanics, &c., 20,625; mining, 21,522 ; la- bourers, 13,554 ; servants, 4,614 ; paupers, 2,225 ; professions, 3,795. The number under 21 years of age was 108,358 males and 106,900 females; over 21, 121,279 males and 76,104 females. Above the age of 65, there were 3,103 men and 2,232 women. In 1878, 79 females to 100 males. The sexes, in a total of 414,412 in March 1878, ranged thus in the provinces :- Occupa- tions. Males and Females. Provinces Males Females Total Otago Canterbury .. Auckland Wellington . Nelson Westland Hawke's Bay. Taranaki . Marlborough. 64,850 50,424 44,800 27,877 14,385 10,557 8,509 5,173 4,283 49,619 41,498 37,861 23,192 10,743 6,355 6,506 4,290 3,274 114,469 91,922 82,661 51,069 25,128 16,912 15,015 9,463 7,557 Some of the townships were wider in this relation a few years ago :- Males Females Total Grahamstown 1,252 824 519 525 2,181 1,406 Port Chalm Westport Cobden. 929 582 359 192 . . . . . . 878 717 380 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW ZEALAND. average for about twelve years has been 1 death to 79 of the population. In 1876 it was 1 in 78. The ism. The Maories.--Space is too limited to enter far into Maories. this interesting subject, especially to speak of the differ- ences between the white and coloured races. Captain Captain Cook, one hundred years ago, found these a Cook's ob- servations. people living in good houses, well clothed in garments of native manufacture, having boats elaborately orna- mented, dwelling under fixed laws, happy and numerous under their own civilised conditions. But he saw that they were heathens and cannibals. Numbers. From a population of some hundreds of thousands, they have become a miserable remnant. In 1856 there were but 65,000. In 1871 they were estimated at about 37,000, 35,000 of whom were in the North Island. More recent reports make the number about 42,000. Cannibal- Though missionaries were established among them sixty years ago, through Mr. Marsden, chaplain of Syd- ney, cannibalism existed down to a few years since. Te Whero, the invader of Taranaki, cooked 2,000 prisoners in the ovens. Gradually the tribes accepted European civilisation and religion, though not altogether improved in some respects by the change of habits. Change of They are now an educated, well-behaved people, in- dustrious on their farms or vessels, worshippers of the dollar, and successful in mercantile enterprises. Many of them are wealthy men, and maintain some pretensions to grandeur. In the sale or leasing of lands to Euro- peans, especially to gold miners, they have secured a large income. For one block in Hawke's Bay the tribe receive a rent of 12,0001. a year. Wealth and If more civilised and rich, they are less simple and morals. religious. There are many symptoms of their dissatis- faction with Christianity, and a return to heathen cus- toms. The Hau Haus opinion probably arose greatly from dislike to the pakeha, or white man. As so-called savages, they were far above the state of Austra the Australians. The latter never desired to rise above lians the condition of wandering hunters, never manufactured clothing, never cultivated land, and never had a form of worship. Native On the contrary, the Maories had an advanced civilisa- civilisation. . fortune and habit. Far above THE MAORIES. 381 tion of their own, like that of Tahitians in the south NEW and Hawaiians in the north of the Pacific, They knew ZEALAND. the eight points of the compass, and had a Calendar. Their traditions and songs exhibited a superior develop- ment of thought. But, more remarkable, they had an organised system Mythology of mythology, as elaborate as that of Rome and Greece. remark- able. Many of their customs, as circumcision, washings, sacrifices, and views about food, were observed to be like those of the ancient Jews. But these, like their Jewish mythological ideas, must have been derived, ages ago, customs. as those of the Mexicans and Peruvians, whom they so resemble, from a highly advanced people. While re- Heathens specting inferior spirits, they believed in and worshipped not the One God. Though heathen, they were not idolaters. That which astonishes the learned is to recognise in Religion the religion of the Maories so decided a likeness to that like the. U Phænician of the Phoenicians and ancient Egyptians. The New and Egyp- Zealanders, who are of the family of the light-coloured tian. Pacific Islanders, must have had formerly some associ- ation with old-world civilisation. It is grievous to observe that, since they have relin. Our civilis- quished cannibalism, tribal wars, polygamy, slavery, ation not fitted to the tapu superstition, human sacrifice, sorcery, and heathen- race. ism, they have so strangely lost their former elasticity of spirit, their hearty enjoyment of life, and have become almost a childless community and a fast-decay- ing race. Our civilisation never suited them. Native wars with the Colonial Government sprang to Cause of some extent from misapprehension of our object in coloni- native sation, though British statesmen openly advocated the wars. seizure of the Maori lands, as had been done with Aus- tralian lands. When submitting to the sovereignty of England, by Rebellion. the Treaty of Waitangi, in 1840, the coloured inhabitants were guaranteed the safety of their possessions. But, suspecting the faith of the Government, a party rose in rebellion under the chivalrous Honi Heki, in 1845. Other wars have followed land difficulties, especially Wars from in the Waikato country. The Waikato chiefs had never land signed the Treaty of Waitangi, and did not approve of a disputes. yoke to which they had never submitted. Some indis- cretion on the part of hasty officials and designing 382 IANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, Doubtful NEW civilians complicated affairs, and led the impetuous and ZEALAND. suspicious tribes into open war. Another cause of trouble was the sort of double govern. rule. ment which existed. The Maories were considered sub- jects, but denied the rights of citizens. They had to obey laws, with the constitution of which they could have no part. They sought to be united under a King, with their own native rule, and yet they were amenable to the colonial authorities. King Tawhiao, living in the interior of North Island, and long estranged from the whites, has lately shown a return of friendly feelings toward them. Effect of No one denies the courage and military prowess of concilia the Maories, while their intelligence as men is admitted. tion. A better policy, giving them two representatives in the Assembly, and two members in the Council, has done more than steel to quiet the disloyalty of the tribes. Native Every year the difficulty diminishes, for the whites saying. increase as the Maories die off. As the English clover destroys the native grass, and the English rat is annihi. lating the native rat, so, believe the natives, must the Maori be swept off the fern-home of his fathers by the ever- rolling wave of British colonisation. EDUCA- Education and Religion. Otago and Some of the Provinces, as Canterbury and Otago, have Canterbury taken more interest in schools than others; doubtless, best from a stronger religious principle actuating the original settlers of Dunedin and Christchurch. Otago and Canterbury have maintained their early educational pre-eminence for the character of their in. stitutions, though recently their neighbours have made rapid advance. Expendi- In 1871 the following proportions of ordinary revenue ture for were expended in education :- Auckland, about to; schools. Taranaki, nearly av; Wellington, tho; Hawke's Bay, 23; Nelson, ; Marlborough, it; Canterbury, ji; Otago, . The secular system prevails in most parts. High The High Schools of Dunedin and Christchurch have schools. quite a colonial reputation. The rush of immigration to the gold-fields, and the consequent demand for public works, although distracting attention for awhile from the school question, cannot affect it long. The Scotch TION. educated. EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 383 founders of Otago made admirable arrangements for NEW public instruction. There is a high school for girls there. ZEALAND. The poverty of New Zealand, until the recent growth Debt re- of the wool and gold exports, necessarily restricted school tards pro- expenditure. In 1878 the cost per head was 61. 3s. 9d. gress. Education land reserves exist. There were at the beginning of 1879, 748 public schools, School re- having 1,611 teachers, 66,040 children on the roll, and turns. 50,639 in attendance. The Government expenditure for these was 306,6791. The number belonging to private schools were one-third those with State aid. Schools for the Maories cost 10,7401. Taranaki has not a public system of instruction, but Advanced grants so much a head for children taught in private subject taught. schools. In the Otago public schools, in some instances, Latin, Greek, German, French, chemistry, drawing, and science are subjects for the class room. The New Zealand University has an annual grant of University. 3,3001., and fifty scholarships of 201. each. Religion has not been unheeded by New Zealand RELIGION. colonists. Though the first settlers bore not the best of repu. Character tation, a better class afterwards migrated thither from of immi- grants. Sydney, Hobart Town, and Melbourne. The early British migrations had, perhaps, a larger percentage of religiously-disposed persons than subsequent ones have exhibited. Canterbury and Otago were avowedly established on Religious Christian principles, the former by a Church of England foundation Association, and the latter by a Free Presbyterian one. • Though neither could, from the nature of things, main- bury. tain such sectarian exclusiveness, the influence of the foundation is still obvious in both. The gold fever, spreading through so very quiet and orderly a popula- tion as existed in Otago, produced as great a moral con- vulsion as a commercial one. The wild spirits of the colonies gathered to the diggings, and considerably modified the supposed Puritan laws of the Old Dominion. The Church of England and the Wesleyan body had Mission in. established Missions among the Maories long before the fluence. foundation of the Colony. Their ministers, therefore, exercised the earliest religious influence upon immi- grants. The Presbyterian element was introduced at a later date. nd Can- 384 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW ZEALAND. Church census. Protes- tants. Roman Catholics fewer than in Australia. In 1871 the various denominations, who are equal in the sight of the law, and equally unsupported by the State, occupied the position given below :- Church of England, 102,389; Presbyterians, 63,624; Wesleyans, 19,971; Baptists, 4,732; Independents, 3,941; Lutherans, 2,341 ; Primitive Methodists, 1,883; Society of Friends, 201; Protestants, without church described, 4,852; Christians, 1,256; Unitarians, 269; Mormons, 107; Christadelphians, 111; while other Methodists, Moravians, Spiritualists, Universalists, &c., were 1,722. The total number of Protestants in New Zealand would be, therefore, 207,418, without estimating 8,630 persons who declined to state their opinions. The Jews were 1,262. The Roman Catholics were 35,608, or one-seventh the Protestant population. They are, consequently, fewer relatively in New Zealand than in Victoria, and less still than in Queensland and New South Wales. Auck- land has the largest proportion of Roman Catholics, from its old connection with Sydney. Half the population of Canterbury claim to belong to the Church of England, four-ninths of Auckland, and one-fourth of Otago. But about one-half of those in Otago are Presbyterians, one-fifth of Auckland, and nearly one-fifth of Canterbury, by the 1871 census. The Wesleyans claim one-twelfth of Auckland, one- tenth of Wellington, one-eleventh of Nelson, one-ninth of Canterbury, and less than one-twentieth of Otago. The Lutherans are but 1 in 110; and the Jews, 1 in 200. The pupils attending Sanday schools were 28,601. The denominations in 1878 numbered as follows:- Church of England, 176,337; Presbyterian, 95,103 ; Roman Catholics, 58,880; Methodists, 37,879; Baptists, 9,159; Independents, 5,555; Lutherans, 5,643 ; Jews, 1,424. The 4,379 Chinese are pagans, but the Maories are mostly Christians. Agriculture. As the geology and meteorology of a country deter- mine its capacity for agriculture, New Zealand, as a whole, may boast of its superiority over most colonies. A far larger area of the South Island than of the North Provincial churches. Sunday scholars. Denomina- tions. AGRICUL- TURE. Area available. AGRICULTURE. 385 Difference soil. must be pronounced unfavourable, though the centre of NEW the North is generally unfit for cultivation ZEALAND. As to soil, while the upper half of the North Island D is somewhat sandy, the strong clays appear toward of soil. Wellington, and the very deep deposits of black mould in Taranaki. The volcanic character of the Island ren. Advantage ders it peculiarly attractive to farmers. The decom- of volcanoes. position of lavas and volcanic ash gives a wonderful fertility to the region round Auckland and New Ply- mouth. While the same geology runs eastward in one part, carrying productiveness with it, the primary rocks to South-east the south-east yield no such agreeable deposits of mould. poorer. In the South Island, while igneous rocks have provided South arable soil in Nelson Province, and in the neighbourhood Island of both Christchurch and Dunedin, yet the prevalence of slates and ancient crystalline sandstones elsewhere has thwarted the hopes of the agriculturists. Few places, however, are preferred to the Oamaru Good loca- lities for and Timaru of Otago, and some portions of the Canter. farming bury Plains near the rivers. Good land is also obtained in Southland. Marlborough has some rich soil. It is difficult to come to a just estimate of the relative advantage of the various provinces from a comparison of their population and average crop. Some, as Auckland, Westland county, Nelson, and Otago, employ a large number of men in gold-mining, while Wellington and Hawke's Bay are not suffering from that withdrawal from their fields. Bearing this in mind, let the reader look at the average cropping. In this calculation, however, the acres relate to 1872 and the population to 1871. Auckland Province had 2 acres per head; Nelson, 21; Provi acreage. Otago, 41; Taranaki, 5); Marlborough, 54; Canterbury, 63; Wellington, 87; Hawke's Bay, 123. Golden West- land had but one-seventh of an acre. This has no reference to the enclosures of the Maories, Maori farms. who, unlike the Australian natives, are essentially agri, cultural in their habits, and were so before accepting European civilisation. They have withdrawn themselves to their reserves, and enter into active competition with the whites in their produce. Their land in Auckland and Taranaki provinces is equal to any in the world, CC AGRICULTURE. 387 fitted for potatoes, though hardly yet to be styled an NEW agricultural centre. Nelson, Otago, and then Auckland, ZEALAND. are strongest in roots. Table of 1878 differs from 1873. The acres under grain crop in 1874 were: Auckland, Roots. 5,190; Taranaki, 1,337; Wellington, 4,756; Hawke's Bay, 1,193 ; Nelson, 6,888; Marlborough, 5,470; Westland, 94; Otago, 119,163; and Canterbury, 120,099; a total in grain of 264,014; but, in 1878, of 456,462. The fluctuations in yield are not trifling, although the Yield climate is called so equable. Thus, wheat averaged 224 variations. bushels at Wellington in 1871, and 18 in 1873; while in Auckland it was 141, in the first, and 18 in the second. Oats varied from 66 to 18 those years in Westland, and from 29 to 24 in Canterbary. Barley ranged from 221 to 11 in Nelson, and from 223 to 171 in Auckland. Potatoes were 62 tons, in 1871, in Westland, but 41 in 1872. Taranaki had nearly the same crop both years; but Wellington dropped from 63 to 5, Auckland from 4 to 23, and Otago from 54 to 31. The wheat crop, which in South Australia is the abso- Wheat lute dependence of the farmer, was not at one time of so crops better than in much consequence in New Zealand. The total acreage Australia, in wheat, for 1873, 131,797, is but one-eleventh of the whole in cultivation. The yield, however, was far ahead of that in one of the Australian Colonies, being no less than 3,188,696- bushels, or 24 per acre. The year before it was 237 bushels. Canterbury and Otago in 1873 took the lead in wheat. Acreage The lands are open, fairly fertile, and in not too dripping in wheat, a climate. The west coast is too wet for wheat. While Westland had not an acre in this grain, Hawke's Bay had 474 acres, Taranaki 1,052, Wellington 1,770, Marlborough 2,309, Auckland 3,372, and Nelson 3,576, Otago had 50,781, and Canterbury 68,463 acres. In 1878 the wheat crop averaged 10 bushels in West- Jand, 15 Marlborough, 16 Nelson, 23 Auckland, 23 Can. terbury, 27 Wellington, and 32 in Otago. The oats were 20 in Auckland, 27 Canterbury, 36 Otago. The barley was 23 in Auckland, 26 in Wellington and Canterbury, 25 Marlborough, 28 Hawke's Bay, 34 Otago. The po- tatoes were 4 tons in Taranaki, 41 Westland, 53 Otago and Nelson, 53 in Wellington and Hawke's Bay, but 6 in Canterbury. The hay crop was good in Wellington. CC 2 388 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW ZEALAND. Potatoes. Yield per acre. Land for artificial grasses. The colony had a reputation for potatoes before the Government was formed there. Captain Cook's gift of the root bas been gratefully acknowledged. The original ground in which his seed was placed has been tabooed, or made sacred. The crop of 1878, on 17,564 acres, amounted to 94,478 tons, or more than 5 per acre. In 1871 the average was 54, and 3 in 1872. Bay of Plenty grows tobacco. It is not to be expected that the climate would allow of the growth of the sugar-cane, as in Queensland, or of maize, as in New South Wales. But with the heavy production of grain and roots, New Zealand is placed at no disadvantage. In one respect, bowever, it is in ad- vance of all, and that is, in its capacity to raise artificial grasses. In 1877–8, 7,379,447 lbs. butter were made. The hay of Australia is made from Cape barley, oats, and even wheat. But the hay of New Zealand is from sown grasses. The crop of February, 1878, on 45,090 acres, was 58,671 tons, or 14 ton to the acre. No less than 1,077,454 acres were laid down in perma- nent English grasses, or three-fourths of the cultivated land. In 1872 the grain of Auckland was one-fortieth of the acreage, the grass lands were about eight-ninths. In Wellington they reached to forty-three forty-fifths. Nelson's grass lands occupied about eight-elevenths, Taranaki's seventeen-twentieths, and Marlborough's eleven-fifteenths. But Otago and Canterbury had each but one-half in grass, owing to the greater dryness of the climate, and the openness of the country. New Zealand has since doubled its grass in five years. It will thence follow that a considerable amount of wool and meat is raised by the farmer in New Zealand, instead of, as in Australia, being left almost absolutely in the hands of the Crown-leasing squatter. Nothing will tend to raise the character of farming in New Zea- land so much as this wonderful capacity for laying down green and succulent grasses. The increased attention to this profitable crop is evi- denced in the rapid advance of its acreage. This, in 1858, was 98,061; in 1861, 158,062 ; in 1864, 272,123; in 1867, 427,893; in 1878, 2,608,339 sown grass. In 1878 there were 985 thrasbing machines, 4,829 reaping machines, and many steam plough:. Farmers there are meat and wool producers. Increase of grasses. Imple- ments. AGRICULTURE. 389 The recent statistics for 1878 show the great superiority NEW of South Island for agriculture; having 229,695 acres ZEALAND. in wheat, 177,838 in oats, 21,723 in barley, and 10,516 Farm in potatoes, while North Island had but the respective work. amounts of 13,711, 12,506, 990 and 7,048. The average area of farms was 97 acres in the North, and 89 in the South. The amount under artificial grasses, ploughed land, was 328,640 in North Island, and 748,814 in South; sown unploughed, 1,166,143 and 365,242. Some of the products are herein compared in acres :- Products. Wheat Oats Barley Artificial Grasses Canterbury . Otago Nelson Marlborough. Westland 147,255 76,628 2,794 3,017 86,815 87,924 1,422 1,668 បាំ បាំ បាំ បាំ បាំ | zzz 13,757 418,000 3,027 292,304 2,074 21,161 2,865 15,227 2,122 Auckland Wellington Taranaki Hawke's Bay. 5,073 5,891 2,069 3,229 6,523 699 2,055 198 367 91 334 173,121 77,298 20,717 57,504 678 The farmer in that colony is certainly not so tried by the climate when at his work as he would be elsewhere. But he will have his difficulties. It is not easy to drain a swamp to get at its rich, fat ground ; nor is it a trifle to lay low a thick forest, or get rid of tussack grass and fern roots. But he is sustained in his toil with the hope of valuable results when he shall have achieved his task. In 1878 there were 8,869,000 acres freehold, and 3,709,000 leasehold, besides 12,700,000 leased for pas- toral purposes from the Government. Pastoral. PASTORAL. New Zealand is not, like Australia, very favourable for squatters. The wooded, marshy, and mountainous character of Not a the country, the small area over which pasturage could squatting take place, the limited extent of the colony, the great co demand for agricultural plots advancing the price of land, the occupation of the interior by natives jcalous of 392 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. resources. Wool 1878. NEW The leap forward of the last two provinces has been ZEALAND. very remarkable; though, with a less limited area, other Growth portions farther north have done well. Unlike most pastoral squatting countries in the world, New Zealand is every year largely adding to her pastoral resources by the growth of permanent artificial grasses. There are no Less heat, but more' wild dogs there to carry off the flock. But, though catarrh for animals suffer less from exbaustion, heat, and dronght, sheep. sheep are more subject to catarrh and footrot. Heavy The wool product is extraordinary, especially as the fleeces. fleeces of the colony are so much heavier, though coarser, than in Queensland and New South Wales. The yield has advanced from 1,071,340 lbs. in 1853, produce. to 59,270,256 lbs. in 1878. In 1860 it had mounted to 6,665,880 lbs. ; in 1864 to 16,691,666; in 1868 to 28,875,163 lbs.; in 1871, to 37,793,734. In 1877 the wool export came to 3,658,9381. The wool value for 1853 was 66,5071.; for 1850, 3,292,8077. 444,3921.; for 1870, 1,703,9441. ; but for the year 1872, the returns were 2,537,9191. on 41,886,997 lbs. of wool. The value for 1878 was 3,292,8071. Wool In the yield for 1877, the wool export was as follows export. from the provinces :- Auckland Taranaki Hawke's Bay. . 5,480,445 . 13,946,610 Marlborough. Nelson .. 15,363 Westland . 107,113 Canterbury . 17,101,431 Otago · . 24,719,111 The export of wool was about the seventieth part of that of Victoria for 1848 ; it is now above one-half. Meat-pre Preserving meat companies will continue to arise serving. while the worth of stock is low, and industries will hereafter utilise the skins that are now being exported as raw material. Tor 1873 the export of potted meats realised 139,0461., and of tallow 43,9331. In 1878 the first was 74,2251., and second, 178,5021. The regulations pertaining to squatting leases vary in different provinces. Full details concerning them can be found under the head of “Land Laws and Immigra- tion.' lbs. . 3,111,251 Wellington MINING. 393 In 1877, Auckland had 64,700 acres leased to NEW ZEALAND. squatters, Hawke's Bay had 121,916 ; Wellington, - 686,364; Nelson, 620,368; Marlborough, 1,079,945 ; Sonatting Westland, 447,560; Canterbury, 4,168,461 ; and Otago, acreages. 6,331,046, making a total of 13,520,360, paying about 113,5801. rent. The Wairau Plains of Marlborough bave the richest pastoral land for sheep. The Wairarapa Plains of Wellington bave excellent feed. Mining MINING. The comparatively sudden development of this in. dustry has excited surprise. The subtraction of labour for the gold-fields of Victoria led the various neighbouring colonies to make active search after the treasure, in order to retain their population. And yet ten years Gold-fields. elapsed, after the gold appeared in New South Wales and long before Victoria, before it burst forth in its glory upon New appearing. Zealand. Some small fields were known before ; but the year 1860 gave but an export of 4,538 ounces. The year after, Yield of the amount was 194,234 ounces; in 1862, 410,862 ; and gold. in 1863, 628,450, valued at 2,431,7231. After this famous Rush to Otago, the yield fell. The export for 1864 was 480,171 ounces; for 1865, 574,574 ounces. But 1866 gave the summit of prosperity- 735,376 ounces, or 2,844,5171. The fall was gradual, bnt sure, till 1870, when it got down to 544,880 ounces. Yet, in 1871, the amount was 733,029 ounces, or 2,787,5201. The yield for the year after showed a decrease of nearly one million pounds' worth. Decrease of In 1871, Auckland, by its wonderful mines in the Thames late. Valley, raised the largest amount, as seen in the follow- ing table :- Provincial Auckland • 1,888,708 yield. Otago . 619,760 Westland 531,648 Nelson. 439.936 Marlborough . 7,468 But, fortunate as Auckland was that year, the export for the whole period preceding 1871 realised only 1,005,2381.; while Nelson had raised 4,018,4041., West- land 5,812,1871., and Otago 10,588,0001. The total Total amount exported up to 1879 was valued at 35,000,0001. raised. 394 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW The distribution of gold is far greater in the South ZEALAND. Island than in the North. With the latter it is confined South - to one province out of four, Auckland, and to but few Island more places there. The South Island has diggings in every auriferous province. Wellington offered 2,0001. as a bonus for the than North. discovery of gold-fields. Likeness to Some have seen a singular correspondence between the fields in mines of New Zealand and those of Australia. Thus, the Australia. Thames is said to correspond with the Queensland Gympie field, Collingwood with Bingera, Buller and Hokitika with Ophir and Tambaroora, Tuapeka and Wakatipu with the Ovens. One field is entirely in the carboniferous formation. The gold is found under similar circumstances to those Glacial of New South Wales and Victoria. But glaciers have in work, olden times carried off the gold drifts from the Alps of New Zealand. There are gold deposits covered still by portions of moraines. Beach- On the west coast 'beach combers' rush down to the combers. beach after a gale, to gather the fine golden sands brought down by the current from the north. These are golden beach terraces. Export The gold exported for the year ending June 30, 1878, from ports. from the ports was as follows:- Dunedin . Auckland. Hokitika, Greymouth Westport. Nelson Invercargill Picton 378,627 224,454 243,052 268,276 60,758 23,525 • 43,770 1,617 £1,240,079 : Auriferous terraces, The total for 1877 was 1,476,3121. Miners are 15,000. The cement leads of the west coast are of indurated sand. The hydraulic hose is extensively employed upon the terraces there. These terraces are of two ages. The first, containing much auriferous treasure, run parallel with the mountain chains. Rivers coursing through them have carried off gold to settle it in other terraces nearer the coast. The reason why gold-fields have not opened on the MINING. 395 east side of the Alps is owing to the overlying deposits NEW being of great depth. In 1877 the machinery on Gold ZEALAND. Fields cost 526,3371. The mining leases, 547, were over 3,738 acres. The water races, 6,000 miles, cost 400,0001.; Quartz. the tail races, 103,0001. There were, in 1877, 13,062 Mining much im- European miners, and 3,708 Chinese, or 16,770. proved in Besides gold, the mineral wealth of the colony is not 1873. great. Silver, on the Thames, Rangitoto, &c., is in Silver and paying quantities. It is found, with gold, in the iron tin. sands of Westland shore. Tin, seen at Taupo, and Shortland, may be valuable some time ; for, though re- cognised for many years in Australia, it has only just begun to be worked there. Platinum sand exists on the coast of Southland and Westland; Nickel is in Auckland. Chrome iron ore is in such quantities at Dan Moun- Iron ore. tain, Nelson, as to have an excellent prospect of being a paying export. The Parapara iron of Nelson has been wrought. Iron of a rich quality can be procured from large boulders of ironstone. The Taranaki iron sand has long been known and valued, though the difficulty of rescuing it on that stormy coast for many years prevented persons undertaking the work. Greymouth antimony ore has gold and silver. Wellington has graphite. A lease now granted by Government requires a royalty Taranaki of one shilling per ton. But the lessees have to smelt, iron sand. after the expiration of two years, at least 2,500 tons a year, or pay a fine of 10s. for every ton deficient of that amount. A recent analysis of this sand gave 88 per cent. per- oxide of iron, and 11 of oxide of titanium, realising 61 per cent. of pure iron. The iron sand of Stewart's Island is also good. That of Onehunga, Auckland, will pay well, as well as the Manukao steel. Graphite is in Taranaki. Copper once promised well. Barrier Island was spoken Copper. of as a second Burra Burra. Paying lodes may exist at Aniseed Valley, Dusky, Kawan, Coromandel, &c. Tin is found in the Buller, and antimony at Greymouth. Coal is being worked at Greymouth on the west coast. Coal. That of a tertiary kind at Port Chalmers, Malvern Hills, Auckland, and many parts of the interior of Otago, Nelson, and Canterbury, will be utilised. Raglan and Westport are turning out good coal. The Bay of Islands seam is thirteen feet thick. A railway must bring the 396 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW ZEALAND, Grey coal to Nelson, as the west coast is without har. bours. Several seams are eighteen feet thick. In 1877–8, 32 collieries produced 140,000 tons. TRADE, inter- trade. Trade and Manufactures. New Zealand, with its splendid coast line, is well Not much situated for inter-provincial trade. But its inter-colonial trade, from its distance away from Australia, is not ex. colonial tensive. Communication with California has benefited the islands in a commercial sense. The South Sea Islands trade is a growing one, and will be more im. portant as British colonisation extends throughout the Pacific. Shipping. The shipping is, nevertheless, a very important in- terest in New Zealand, as steamers are almost the only available means of communication of one place with another. The gold rushes of late years, and the occasional rushes of immigrants, affect the returns of shipping. Tonnage. The tonnage entering the ports in 1853 was recorded as 65,504 ; in 1860, 140,276; 1863, 419,935; 1865, 295,625 ; 1868, 277,105; 1877, 388,568 in 812 ships. The tonnage belonging to Auckland was 120,669 ; to Wellington, 65,687; to Dunedin, 64,651; to Lyttleton, 62,067 ; to Blaff harbour, 26,919. The coasting trade is very great. Imports The Imports for 1878 were valued at 8,755,6671., only 1878. a small proportion of which was re-exported. The im- ports from Great Britain were 5,533,1701. ; from Mel- Goods from bourne, 1,443,7021.; from Sydney, 789,7391. Drapery bourne was 838,3451. ; sugar, 425,4611.; spirits, 240,618l. ; and Sydney hardware, 230,0971. ; tea, 212,9061. ; boots, 181,1051. ; apparel, 176,7051. ; wine, 95,3821. ; flour, 87,4861. The exports for 1878 were 6,015,7001. Those to 1878. Great Britain were 4,727,2421. ; to Melbourne, 750,3901. ; to Sydney, 239,1901. ; to Pacific Isles, 75,5181. ; to China, 21,4341. ; to Adelaide, 51,7231. Wool was the chief, 3,292,8071. ; gold, 1,244,1901.; wheat, 423,0321.; tallow, 178,5021.; Kauri gum, 132,9751. ; preserved meats, 74,2251.; timber, 51,1541. ; oats, 39,0741.; barley, 24,4681.; leather, 18,3441. ; butter, 12,111l.; hides, 9,5711. Exports TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 397 NEW ZEALAND. The imports and exports for the year endirg Dec. 1, 1877, were as follows:- Imports Exports Auckland . £1,163,788 £823,159 Taranaki . 18,570 238 Wellington 1,370,839 1,033,829 Hawke's Bay 152,624 344,998 Marlborough 10,505 Nelson . 237,049 28,417 Westland. 272,827 237,412 Canterbury 1,318,939 1,878,964 2,398,277 1,980,455 Table of exports and imports. Otago £6,973,418 £6,327,472 For 1878 the imports were 8,755,6631.; and the ex- ports, 6,015,5251. The wool growth has been from a million pounds in Wool 1853 to over sixty-four millions in 1877. growth. The flax has had some alternations of fortune. So Flax. long as labour was cheap, the fibre paid. It is only since the introduction of suitable machinery that the manu- factare has so sensibly affected the export. In 1855 the export was 150 tons, worth 4,6741. ; in 1856, it was but 22, at 5521. ; in 1861, 2 tons; and in 1865, 3 tons. But in 1869 it rose to 2,028 tons, at 45,2451. ; and in 1870 it reached 5,471 tons, or 132,5781. The year after it fell again to 4,248 tons, at 90,6111.; though for the year 1873 the export was 139,2671., one-third of which went from Auckland. In 1877, it was only 18,8261. The Kauri gam export has considerably advanced Kauri gum. during the last few years. Up to 1864 it gained the ex. tent of 2,000 tons, but in two years. Since that it has been but once below that amount. In 1872 it was 4,811 tons, valued at 154,1671. ; in 1877, 3,632 tons. The value of the article has often changed. Thus, in 1853, it was about 201. a ton; in 1855, 131. ; 1860, pot 101. ; 1863, 191.; 1864, 271. ; 1869, 391. ; 1878, 701. 168,78812.2451. Male For The tallow, in 1872, realised 68,7881. ; the hides, Tallow, &c. 31,7631. ; leather, 18,224.. ; sheep skin, 18,2451. Meats, fresh and salt, brought 173,0411. Timber sold for 50,9011., 1877; tallow, 178,5021. in 1878. TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 399 The shipping business of the provinces may be in some NEW way indicated by the shipping returns for 1877, giving ZEALAND. the number of vessels and their tonnage with cargo or Shipping in ballast. returns. Inwards Outwards Vessels 224 120 83 168 Auckland Wellington Dunedin Lyttleton The Bluff Hokitika Nelson Napier Timaru 120,699 65,687 64,651 62,067 26,919 11,340 6,501 5,446 4,883 125,649 73,209 48,188 66,877 31,535 7,647 3,658 9,082 3,556 53 11 28 15 TURES. tures. For the year 1878 the total tonnage inwards was Relation 456,490; and outwards, 428,493. Regular and frequent of trade. steam traffic exists from port to port, and to other colonies. There is a monthly mail to San Francisco by Honolulu. Manufactures commence hopefully. A colony with MANUFAO- such resources must eventually be provided with flour. TURES. ishing industries, though never, perhaps, to the extent of some other colonies nearer to a market. At present, like its energetic rival, Queensland, it has mainly to attend to raw materials. The leading towns have, at present, too small a popu. Bonus for lation for many manufactures. The flax promises to be manufac- a great success, though a few difficulties in its manu- facture have yet to be removed. Bonuses were offered as encouragement by Government, of 5,0001. for the first 1,000 tons of iron, and 10,0001. for 100 tons of steel; 10,0001. for 250 tons of beet-root sugar; and 2,5001. for 100 tons of paper. Government recently tendered for 100,000 tons of steel rails made in the colony. The works and manufactures in 1871 were 529, and Works. 942 in 1878. There were 32 meat preserving, 204 saw. mills, 28 foundries, 100 tanneries, 25 malt, 13 soap works. The trading progress of New Zealand is a remarkable Trade one. It is something to develop an export of 5,282,0841. increase 700 per in 1871, from 303,2821. of 1853, or some 1,700 per cent.de advance. But the growth of some of the provinces is 18 years. interesting to observe. ent. in 400 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. different and bad - - - NEW In 16 years, Auckland's exports have increased 1,290 ZEALAND. per cent. ; Wellington, 330; Nelson, 800; Canterbury, Trading 1,500; and Otago, 6,000. But in 12 years of separate progress in existence, Hawke's Bay gained 440 per cent. On the other hand, Marlborough has made little or no provinces. move in 11 years, and Westland has declined in its 4 years. Auckland and Wellington have been the steady growers, though not at the same rate, owing to the for- tunate finding of gold at the first. They, too, occupied the best position in 1856. Estimating only to 1870, one had advanced 710 per cent., the other 370. It was the fol- lowing year that made the great difference between them. Good times Hawke's Bay fell off rather from 1870. Nelson was in its glory in 1867 and 1868, when the gold poured in so times. fast. The export fell from 650,4001. in 1868 to 258,9261. in 1871. Westland fell 25 per cent., from 1867 to 1871. Canterbury had its good times in 1865, 1866, and 1867. If estimated by the years 1856 and 1866, the growth was the enormous amount of 56,000 per cent, in exports. Two years afterwards, Westland was cut off from it. The yield of 1871 was not much above one-fourth of what it was in 1866. Export one Otago has not had the Canterbury extent of decline, as hundred- its export for 1871 was 60 per cent. of that in its grandest folid in eight years. year, 100 year, 1863. But, while Otago's growth has been 6,000 , per cent. in 16 years, it was 10,400 in half that time, from 1856. Few other countries in the world ever in- creased their export one hundredfold in 8 years only. Tariff. The Tariff of New Zealand is here corrected to Jannary 1879. Per pound. By the pound, the following is the rate: Tartaric acid, dried fruits, preserved fish, sardines, mustard, nuts, jams, and blue are ld. ; sugar and rice, kd.; candles, įd. and ld. ; almonds, ld, and 3d.; confectionery and fancy biscuits, 2d. ; spices, ginger, chicory, cocoa, chocolate, hops, and sheep wash tobacco, 3d. ; coffee, 3d. and 5d. ; tea, 4d.; powder, 6d. ; tobacco, 2s. 6d.; cigars and snuff, 5s. Boots, from 2s. to 12s. per doz. pairs; cement, ls. barrel; glass, ls. 100 super. ft.; fruits, 12 quarts, ls. ; pickles, 12 pints, 9d. ; sauces, 12 pints, 2s. ; woolpacks, 2s. 6d. doz. ; malt, ls. 6d. bushel; tire arms, 5s. ; caps, 1,000, ls. ; doors and sashes, 1s. ; lead, 2s. 6d. ; soda, 1s. ; Per cwt. biscuits, 3s. ; nails, 28.; starch, 3s. ; sulphur, 1s. ; chalk, - - TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 401 d valorem. 1s. ; rope and cordage, 5s.; pearl barley, 1s. ; shot, 10s.; soap, common, 3s. 6d.; paper, 2s. to 2s. 6d.; paper bags, 58. ZEALAND. By the gallon, ale and beer, bottles, ls. 3d.; bulk, 1s. ; Per gallon. cordials, 12s.; mineral and veg. oil, 6d.; foreign spirits, 14s.; liqueurs, 12s. ; varnish, 6d. ; wine, 4s., or for 6 quart bottles; sparkling wine, 6s.; tarpentine, 6d. ; vinegar, 6d.; Australian wine, 2s. An ad valorem duty of 10 per cent. is put upon nitric 10 per cento acid, alam, American cloth, apparel, art-union prizes, bags ad and sacks, bales, beer engines, billiard tables, bird cages, blacking, black lead, blankets, bonnets, boot uppers, brass work, brewery plant, brushware, buckets, caps, cards, carpet bags, carpets, carriages and carts, carriage wheels and bolts, and cloth, chains not gold or silver, cheque books, chinaware, clocks and watches, coffin furniture, collars of paper, combs, confectionery, copper works, cotton counterpanes, cotton goods, cutlery, demijohns, desks, drapery, drawing instruments and paper, dressing cases, drugs, druggets, earthenware, engravings and pictures, essences, fish paste, floorcloth, flower pots, forfar, furniture, fars, gelatine, ginger, glass coloured, glassware, haberdashery, hair brushes and cushions, hardware, hats, hollow ware, horse shoes, hosiery, ink, iron bolts, rivets, ironmongery, isinglass, japanned ware, jars, jewellery, lamps, lasts, lead works, leather and leather cloth, linen, lime juice, looking glasses, mangles, matches, mattresses, mats, meats potted, millinery, music, oils in bottle, ornaments, paper boxes, paper, paper- hangings, papier mâché, pearlash, pepper, perfumery, pipes, picture frames, plate gold and silver, printing cards and labels, rice ground, rugs, saddlery, safes, shafts, shirting, silks, soaps scented, soap, stationery, syrups, tinware, toys, trunks, turnery, ambrellas, anfermented wine, velocipedes, whips, wooden-ware, woollen mann- factures, zinc sheets and works. Among articles allowed free are, anchors, blasting. Admitted powder, empty bottles, springs, &c., for carriages, chloride free. of lime, copper nails and sheathing, cotton waste, felt, filters, honey, iron for bridges and wharves, screws .and castings for ships ; machinery for agricultural pur. poses, boring, brick-making, sawing, turning, quartz- crushing, manufacturing shoes, mills, steam vessels, presses, &c.; maps, organs and harmoniums, church * D D 402 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW ZEALAND Stamp duties. furniture, printing paper, passengers' luggage, potash, printing material and books, pumps, ploughs, railway plant, sail cloth, seed, school apparatus, sewing machines, sheep-dipping specific, steam-engines, tarpaulin, tin, watch works, and water pipes. · The stamp duties are many : being, for agreements, from 1s.; annual license of companies, ls. per cent. ; appointment of trustees, 10s.; transfer of shares, from 1s. ; bills and notes, on demand, ld.; otherwise, from ls. upward ; bills of lading, ls. ; cheques, 1d. ; convey. ance of sale, 58. ; deed, 10s.; land transfer or lease, 108.; leases, from 2s.; memorials, 10s.; notarial act, 1s. and 28. 6d.; policies, from ls.; power of attorney, 10s. ; receipts, from 2s. ld. ; deed of settlement, from 58. ones. LAND Land Laws and Immigration. LAWS. New Zealand is actively competing with the Australian Colonies, in the attraction of immigrants. The 'unlock- ing of the lands' first successfully achieved by Victoria after the gold discovery, grew to be a public cry among the inhabitants of all the southern settlements. But Difficulties while the Australians had only to contend with the vested different interests of squatters, New Zealand had the formidable from Australian difficulty of considering the claims of an alien race, the real and just owners of the soil. In their days of savagedom, the Maories were willing to part with blocks of land to white visitors for merely Maori sales. nominal rates. A small payment in old guns, iron toma- hawks, and gaudy cottons, might then have purchased a large estate. And yet, the unpleasant neighbourhood of warlike cannibals, not always scrupulous in the observ. ance of bargains, and occasionally indulging in the slaughter of whites, was not conducive to extensive im. migration. Little The New Zealand Company, as has been mentioned, trouble in paved the way for Crown rule in the Islands. The law the South was then passed, that no land could be legally transferred from the natives, except to the Colonial Government. Maori rights were strong and firmly maintained, in the Northern Island ; but, in the provinces of the Southern Island LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 403 natives. Island, little impediment to settlement had existence, NEW as the coloured people were few and powerless. : ZEALAND. Two great changes have since followed. The war be. Confisca- tween the two races led to confiscations of land; though, tions of by the Amendment Act of 1865, it was ruled, that, “The land of Governor's prerogative over the ground of rebellious tribes was not to be exercised after December 3, 1867.' But the Act, 26 Victoriæ, No. 42, was a great concession, as, by its provisions, ‘Natives were enabled to sell land to private individuals. They now sell land freely. It was seen that the best farming land, as well as the choicest sites of auriferous treasures, were in the posses- sion of the tribes. Civilisation having sharpened the Maori natural wit of this intelligent race, the agricultural seeker bargaining. for river frontages, not less than the eager miner after quartz reefs, had to make a close bargain with the abo- riginal lords of the soil. There are no native owners in South Island. The land has been appropriated fairly, and reserves allowed for the few tribes there. The freedom from land restrictions, and the cessation of native wars, have given an immense impetus to the settlement of this healthy Colony. The General Assembly hastened to take the tide at the flood. A vigorous effort was made to people the land. The Act of 1868 authorised any of the provinces to ap- propriate, for a certain time, one-fourth of their land revenues for this object. Increased facilities were afforded for the contraction of provincial loans, that public works might be constructed, new labour introduced, and a broader foundation laid for future prosperity. AUCKLAND PROVINCE had, by the Acts of 1858, 1867, Auckland and 1869, sought to open up the lands. Grants were land laws. made to those who paid their own passage out to the colony. Naval and military settlers were provided with farms; from 60 acres, to privates or sailors, up to 400 acres, to commissioned officers. Even teachers, who con. ducted a school there for five years, received a present of land. But the Act of 1870 was the crowning of the edifice. Free The bona fide settler, who should have resided for three grants. years upon a block of land, and cultivated one-fifth part in that time, became entitled to a grant of 40 acres ; DD 2 LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 405 ment for schools. Facilities are afforded for the purchase NEW of land for cemeteries, or church use, before a district is ZEALAND. opened to the public for sale. The upset price of rural land in this fertile province is 10s. per acre. If not sold at auction, other arrangements are made for lots of from 40 to 240 acres. WELLINGTON PROVINCE is favoured with liberal land Wellington regulations. Pasturage within the limits of the hundreds land laws. is only enjoyed by grantees, pensioners, or natives. Out- side of such boundary inferior land may be had for 58., and better at 10s. an acre. The holders of runs have a right of pre-emption over their homesteads at 10s. an acre. In 1870 special settlements were sanctioned. Occupa- Special tion licenses were to be issued for fourteen years, at 1d. settle- ments. per acre rent for the first four years, at d. for the next five, and ld. for the last five. Such runs must, of course, be stocked according to the regulations. In 1871 the system of deferred payments was adopted. Deferred The prices range from 20s. to 40s. an acre. If, after payments. two years' occupation of land, the person has built a house, fenced the land, or cropped one-tenth of the farm, he is entitled to pay the balance of the purchase in four equal annual instalments. Non-fulfilment of agreement, or non-payment of rent, involves the forfeiture of the land. The area of these blocks varies from 40 to 200 acres each. NELSON PROVINCE made reserves for public purposes, Nelson and appropriated one-twentieth of each district for edu. land laws. cational endowment. All lands are sold by auction. Grants for The upset price is according to the quality of the land, schools. from 58. to 40s., determined by the Land Board. One- tenth of the purchase-money is to be deposited at the sale, and the balance within one month. Lands not open toʻsale may be privately purchased at 21. an acre. Squatters obtain fourteen years' leases of ground not Pastoral land held suitable for agricultural purposes. The area may be from 50 to 10,000 acres, at an annual rent of five per cent. of the assessed value of the land. The lease may be renewed once, for fourteen years, but at a doubled rental. Any portion of the run may, at six months' notice, be resumed by the Crown, after compensation to the tenant. The occupier has a pre-emption of home- stead, though not exceeding 80 acres. 406 IIANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. licenses. NEW Mineral licenses form an important feature of the ZEALAND. land laws of this mineral province. Prospectors, for other minerals than gold have a license for twelve Mineral months over six contiguous square miles of unsurveyed land, upon payment of ld. an acre. Mineral licenses, Mining för all minerals other than gold, require a deposit of 2s. land leases. an acre, with a rental of 6d. an acre for the first two years, and ls. for each year following. The term of lease is for twenty-one years, though the area cannot exceed two square miles. The rent is reduced by the royalty, which is not less than one-tenth, nor more than one-twentyfifth. When the royalty equals or exceeds the rent in any year, no rental is to be paid. The lessee may renew his term at the rate of double rent and royalty. The land cannot be sold during the period of a mineral lease. Auriferous Gold leases are procurable for blocks of land not ex- land. ceeding 10 acres, at a rent of ten per cent. upon the value of the lands assessed by the Land Board. Recent changes have, however, affected the law of gold leases. Timber Timber licenses are granted for 10 acres at a fee of and flax 51. for the year. Licenses to cut flax may extend for licenses. seven years over 500 acres. Land pay. By the Act of 1872, Nelson grants land in part or ment for public whole payment of public works, road making, &c., works. within two miles of the scene of labour. Auriferous land is not included in a grant. Under some circumstances, the occupier of land on a gold-field may purchase a quarter acre for 101. when reserved for a township. Canterbury CANTERBURY PROVINCE has been well administered. land laws. ws. Its increasing prosperity has demanded a reduction in its land privileges. But there has been no want of Pastoral claimants for areas at increased rates. Runs, duly stocked, containing less than 1,000 acres, paid, after May 1st, 1873, not less than 31. 4s, rent per 100 acres. If extending to 5,000 acres, 21. 13s. 4d. per 100 acres would be required for the first 1,000 acres, and 11. 6s. 8d. for each additional 100 acres. Above 5,000 acres, the rent is 11. per 100 acres. This rate will continue till May, 1880. Certain improvements must be made upon these pastures; though over certain proportionate parts of runs rights of pre-emption can be exercised. Grants for public Canterbury has always taken deep interest in educa- purposes. leases. LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 407 tion, and a recent Act enables the Government to appro- NEW priate to school purposes, or other objects of public ŽEALAND, utility, any unsold township sites. WESTLAND PROVINCE, formerly a part of Canterbury, is Westland so essentially an auriferous region, that its land laws land laws. have a more than usual force of direction to mineral clauses. Though contractors for public works may be paid partly or fully in land grants, yet if such unimproved lands are subsequently discovered to be auriferous, the . Provincial Council can repurchase them at double the price at which they were first taken. Suburban lands are sold by auction at an upset price of 21. an acre, in blocks under 10 acres, in payments of one-fourth cash, and the balance in a month. The upset of rural lands is 11. an acre, though special blocks of not less than 160 acres must be put up at 10s. Yet the in. terest of the gold miner overrides that of the agricultu- rist, as the suburban and rural purchased areas may be entered by the miner, subject to Government regulations. Land not required for commonage for stock, and not open for sale, may be had for pastoral purposes, under annual licenses only, at from 2d. to 6d. an acre rent, according to extent of acreage. Flax-cutting licenses are issued at not less than 1s. per acre rent. In so-called settlement lands, which are blocks under Settlement 50,000 acres each, unsold town lots may be leased at lands. 30s. an acre rental; suburban at 6s.; and rural, if from 25 to 250 acres, at 38. During the term of lease a pur. chase may be effected at the upset price, when rentals previously paid will be counted as part of the purchase- money. In seven years the lessee, provided he has oc- cupied and improved his lands according to regulations, becomes the freeholder. OTAGO PROVINCE, though established by members of Otago land the Free Church of Scotland, has been thrown open laws. to all comers by its land laws. Provision was made for the few natives from whom the province was purchased, by reserves of 16,000 acres. The three great interests of the pastoral, agricultural, and mining have been duly regarded in Otago. Pasture leases are for ten years, the area being stocked Pastoral according to regulations, at a rental of 7d. for every leases. head of sheep, and 3s. 6d. for horses or cattle. Upon the 408 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. tions. sales. NEW proclamation of a hundred, the lease ceases, if within ZEALAND. such a limit, though 80 acres may be had at 11. an acre, and improvements are paid for on other portions of the run. On granting a lease, the Government require a fee of from 51. to 701., according hundred, annual licenses Pastoral 3,000 to 40,000 acres. Within a to extent of lease from regula- are issued to resident occupiers, pensioners, patives, or half-castes. The assessment is ls, a year for small stock, and 5s. a head for great cattle. Lessees may purchase 640 acres of their run, if not recognised as auriferous . land, at the usual upset price. Special Land may be rented from the State for the cutting of leases. timber and flax, removal of clay, gravel, or stone, for the working of quarries, or as sites for saw mills, flour mills, potteries, tanneries, slaughter yards, and, in thinly popu. lated districts, for houses of accommodation, though not for the sale of alcoholic drinks. Land Rural land is put up for auction at an upset of 11. an acre, in blocks of not more than 320 acres. If within a run, the sale needs the consent of the lessee. If not sold within seven years after such proclamation, the upset price will be reduced to 10s. Applications for unsur- veyed lands must be accompanied by a deposit of 2s. an acre for the estimated area, as payment for survey, to- gether with one-tenth the value of the land. Both sums are returned if the purchase be effected. Should the survey cost more than 2s. per acre, however, the excess will be first deducted from the deposit. Colonisa ColONISATION SETTLEMENTS were authorised in 1869, tion settle- for the western parts, at Martin's Bay and Perseverance ments in - Inlet. The lands are divided into blocks A, B, and C. the south- west. In the first, free grants, if not exceeding 100 acres, may be made to persons over fifteen years of age, subject to residence of two years out of three. In block B, 100 acres are sold at 5s. an acre. In block C, the land is exposed by auction at an upset of 5s., or open to selec- tion at 10s. an acre, in areas of not more than 500 acres. Female By a recent Act, licenses of occupation over 200 acres, licenses. for three years, may be obtained in Otago. Women, if not living with husbands, can be licensees. The annual fee is 2s. 6d. an acre, and certain improvements are re- quired to be made. At the end of the three years, 178. 6d. will be demanded before the Crown grant is LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 409 Leases for leases. given. If the person prefer, a further lease of seven NEW years may be had. The freehold is gained when 25s. per ZEALAND. acre has been paid. Inferior land, valued at 10s., can be leased at ls. 3d. per acre annually, and the farm ex- purchase. tended to 320 acres. Payment for labour on public works can be made in land by the Government, at the rate of one acre for every pound value of work. With special sanction, a man may thus obtain 1,000 acres. Mineral lands, when not more than 80 acres, are Mineral leased for twenty-one years, at a reserved rent, though leas they may be put up to auction, after three years, at the lessee's request. The Land Board may refuse to sell land leased from the Crown, in the event of gold being discovered thereon. But holders of agricultural leases in gold-fields can purchase at the upset of 11. an acre. SOUTHLAND, once an independent province, has been Southland re-united to Otago since 1870, though subject to its own and laws good for land laws. These were very liberal to the squatter; squatting. as, when sales were made within the area of an exclusive pasturage license, he received not only compensation for improvements, but from sixpence to two shillings for each acre disposed of, according to the unexpired term of his 14 years' license. The rental was the same as in Otago. The pre-emptive right is limited to 250 acres, or 5 per cent. of the run when under 5,000 acres. The Hundred system prevailed there, as in other parts Hundreds. of New Zealand, to the advantage of residents; whose right of depasturing, however, was regulated by the amount of land held within the area of the hundred. HAWKE'S BAY PROVINCE has much the same land re- Hawke's Bay land gulations as it neighbour Wellington. But the Act of laws. 1872 provides that special blocks of 20,000 acres be put up in farms of from 40 to 200 acres, at from 10s. to 40s. an acre, in payments extending over five years. Marl- MARLBOROUGH PROVINCE was separated from Nelson A borough in 1856, when new land laws were promulgated. While land laws. rural land can be obtained at the upset of 1l., pasture land is rated at 5s. only. One-tenth of the purchase is deposited at the sale, and the balance within one month. Privileged sales are allowed for sites for churches, schools, Part of cemeteries, etc. Of all gross proceeds of all land sites. land sales by to schools. 2) per cent. are paid over to the Board of Education. 412 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW ZEALAND, . Millers, 7s. to 9s. Nelson ; 8s. to 10s. Auckland ; Is. to 10s. Christchurch and Dunedin. Miners, 8s. to 9s. Auckland ; 78. to 8s. Christchurch ; 12s. to 20s. Nelson. Painters, 8s. to 10s. Auckland and Christchurch; 10s. to 12s. Dunedin and Invercargill. Coach painters, 9s. to 10s, Auckland ; 10s. to 128. Christchurch, Wellington, and Dunedin. Paperhangers, 8s. to 9s. Auckland; 88. to 10s. Dunedin. Plasterers, 10s. to 12s. Nelson, Wel- lington, and Christchurch ; 14s. to 16s. Dunedin and Invercargill. Plumbers, 8s. to 9s. Auckland ; 10s. to 12s. Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin. Com- positors, 8s. to 10s. Nelson; 10s. to 12s. Wellington ; 12s. to 15s. Christchurch. Pressmen, 8s. to 10s. Nelson; 10s. Dunedin ; 10s. to 12s. Christchurch. Lithographers, 10s. Dunedin; 10s. to 12s. Christchurch. Saddlers, 6s. to 8s. Nelson ; 8s. to 10s. Christchurch and Dunedin. Shipwrights, 9s. to 10s. Auckland; 10s. to 12s. Nelson, Wellington, and Christchurch. Shoemakers, 6s. to 10s. Auckland ; 8s. to 9s. Nelson ; 10s. to 12s. Blenheim ; Surveyors, 10s. to 14s. Auckland; 12s. to 14s. Dunedin ; 15s. to 20s. Nelson. Slaters, 8s. to lls. Christchurch. Tailors, 8s. to 9s. Nelson ; 10s. Auckland ; 10s. to 12s. Christcharch. Tanners, 78. to 8s. Auckland ; 8s. to 10s. Christchurch ; 10s. to 12s. Dunedin. Turners, 8s. to 10s. Christchurch. Watchmakers, 10s. to 12s. Christchurch; 12s. to 14s. Auckland and Dunedin. Wheelwrights, 8s. to 10s. Christchurch; 10s. to 12s. Napier and Welling- ton. Labourers, 5s. to 6s. Auckland ; 6s. to 8s. Nelson and Christchurch; 78. to 8s. Dunedin ; 8s. to 10s. In- vercargill. Shopwomen, 4s. to 58. Nelson; 4s. to 78. Christchurch; 5s. to 8s. Auckland. Dressmakers, 2s, 6d. to 48. Auckland and Nelson ; 38. to 58. Christchurch. Milliners, 3s. to 58. Auckland ; 78. to 10s. Christchurch. By the week: Cooks, 12s. to ]4s. Auckland and Na- pier; 12s. to 158. Nelson ; 15s. to 20s. Invercargill. Dairymaids, 88. to 10s. Nelson; 10s. to 12s. Auckland. General Servants, 78. to 108. Taranaki ; 108. to 12s. Auckland and Nelson. By the year: Ploughmen, 451. to 601, and found, Wellington ; 551. to 601. Dunedin. Shepherds, 501. to 651. Wellington and Invercargill ; 701. to 801. Timaru. Married couples, 501. to 701. Taranaki ; 601. to 701. Christchurch ; 751. to 801. Dunedin. Farm hands, 307. 414 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. NEW than in some other localities. An attentive perasal of the ZEALAND. provincial land laws will inform the intending emigrant Where to how to get a farm. But, if prudent, he will first con- look for sider what he wants, or he may select the wrong place. farms. The North Island is not the wheat-growing one. The farmer who intends depending upon the plough had better choose the open plains of Canterbury and Otago, or the deep and fertile soils of Southland. The best crops for weight and quantity are undoubtedly got near Invercargill. As the acres near old settlements are now enclosed, the selector will have to go back on the New Zealand prairies. But the Canterbury Government is resolved to run a railway along the Plains as far as the Alps; and the Otago rulers are equally resolved to bring the produce with ease to market. Grasses. If, however, the man wishes to follow the distinctive style of the New Zealand farming, laying down artificial grasses, he will probably prefer Auckland or Taranaki. The settlers of Canterbury and Otago, however, contrive to get a first crop of corn, and then lay down in grass for stock. Nelson, Marlborough, and Wellington are more available for that kind of work. The interior of South Island is generally too rocky and rough for cultivation; while that of North Island is still a region of craters, hot springs, sulphur fumes, and too often of aridity. The natives hold the latter part, though having elsewhere still some of the richest soil of the country. Vines ani Vineyards can be profitably raised in Auckland and filax. Hawke's Bay Provinces, though scarcely equal to those of New South Wales and South Australia. Flax can be grown easily enough, though the native Phormium is be- coming, through new and successful treatment, a most important local manufacture. If one can bear the wet climate, the largest yield of oats and barley can be raised Butter and in stormy Westland. Dairy produce is in the greatest cheese. plenty on artificial grass lands. If not a land for wine and oil, it is pre-eminently one of butter and cheese. Railways Railways are essential to the success of the country necessary. which depends so much on agriculture; for the extra moisture, the prevalence of morasses, the multiplicity of streams, are all unfavourable to road-making. North Island, too, is so full of forests and scrub, that a tra- HINTS TO EMIGRANTS FOR NEW ZEALAND. 415 veller can make little use of a horse in his way. South NEW Island is more open for horseback, but rough for wheel ZEALAND. tracks. The railway has now been completed between Christchurch, of Canterbury, and Dunedin, of Otago; thus the best farming district of New Zealand will have ready access to two ports. The country is not a squatting one, though fine areas Openings can still be selected for such a pursuit in Otago and for Canterbury. When the latter province had 230,000 squa acres taken up in seven months, it may be presumed that much of this was for stock. But Australia has no com- petitor for squatting. For all that, New Zealand has the pre-eminent ability for feeding animals on artificial grass through the year, and can thus realise a future pastoral prosperity which the founders of the colony never contemplated. Gold-mining can be wrought with more personal com. Gold- fort in the Thames Valley of Auckland than in the mining. tropical heat of Northern Queensland; though none but the most robust should encounter the tempestuoas climate and hardships of the west coast of South Island. Yet Westland offers a great temptation to visitors, in its sands thrown up after storms. Crucible work on the shore extracts gold and silver from these ferruginous deposits. Commerce, with such a coast line, must become a great Commerce industry. Small steamers were much called for, as the settlements rarely extend beyond a few miles from the coast. Seamen and engineers get high wages. In short, the emigrant to New Zealand, if sober and Advan- industrious, is not an object of commiseration, but one tages of. to be congratulated upon his enterprise. He must not, emigration however, expect all the refinements and luxuries of life to be found in Victoria, which has gained its fortunate position at a bound. Though essentially agricultural, the land supports an ever-increasing number of sheep, tended more after the English than the Australian style. Mines of gold, copper, and coal add to the resources. The progress of coal is a most hopeful sign. 416 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. THE FIJI ISLANDS. FIJI ISLANDS, THE protectorate of these important Islands, or rather the annexation of them to Great Britain, having been more than once offered to Her Majesty by their King, Thakambau, and the principal native chiefs, the re- sponsibility was finally accepted by this country in October 1874, when the King sent his club to Queen Victoria in token of submission and friendship; and this large group of islands, so admirably situated for trade, and favoured with a good climate and rich soil, has already become a centre of considerable commercial importance to this country in the Pacific. Discovery. The first account we have of the discovery of these islands is by Tasman, who, in the year 1643, sailed past several of them, to which he gave the name of Prince William's Islands; the inhabitants themselves styling them collectively “Viti,' which, by the Tongans and other nations, has been corrupted to Fiji. For 200 years after Tasman nothing further was known re- specting them, although Captain Cook sighted one of the islands; and Captain Wilson nearly lost the first Missionary ship, the Duff,' on the reefs of Taviuni. It was not until the visits of D'Urville, and of Commodore Wilkes, of the United States' Exploring Expedition, that anything was known to us of the Fijis and their inhabi. tants; whilst the still more recent survey of the entire. group by Captain Denham, in H.M.S." Herald,' has rendered us familiar with their geographical features. History Towards the commencement of the present century the Fijis were occasionally visited by vessels in search of sandal-wood and “trepang,' for the Chinese market. These ships were always well armed, and no bartering was commenced with the natives until some of their chiefs had been sent on board as hostages, these people being then regarded as the most ferocious of cannibals. In 1804 a number of escaped convicts from New South Wales managed to reach Fiji, and dwelt amongst GEOGRAPHY, ETC. 419 mass of vegetation, huge trees, and innumerable palms, FIJI ISLANDS. ferns, creepers, and epiphytes-hardly a break occurring in the luxuriant green mantle spread over hill and dale. The leeside, on the contrary, displays a fine grassy country, scattered, with the pandanus, or screw-pine, casuarinas and acacias. The high ridges of mountains that form the backbone of the two large islands, at- tracting the moisture from the clouds, and intercepting the numerous showers, send down streams of never- failing water to fertilise the valleys below. The coast- line is, for the most part, fringed with a dense belt of cocoa-nut palms, intermixed with bananas, plantains, and other tropical trees. White beaches extend for miles round the various bays. At a greater or less distance from the shore are the encircling coral reefs, against which the surf of the outside ocean dashes in majestic grandeur ; whilst the sheltered lagoons within are glassy and smooth, teeming with gorgeously coloured fish and beautiful marine productions of all kinds, which are clearly seen at the bottom through the trans- parent water. The Fijian Islands owe their origin to volcanic up- Geological. heavings and the busy operations of corals. At present there are no active volcanoes ; but several of the highest mountains must, in former times, have been formidable craters. Hot springs occur in different parts, especially at Savu-savu, where the temperature of the water stands at from 200° to 210°. Earthquakes are occasionally experienced ; and some few years ago an entire island was lifted above the level of the sea between Tonga and Fiji. The soil consists in many places of a dark red or yellowish clay, or of decomposed volcanic rocks, which prove very fertile, when plentifully supplied with moisture. Near Namosi, in Viti Levu, is a mountain abounding with malachite and antimony ore. The only terrestrial mammals are a species of rat, and Mammals. five kinds of bat, one of them being a large fruit-eating bat, called Notopteris Macdonaldi. The white settlers have introduced cattle, horses, goats, sheep, rabbits, dogs, and cats, all of which seem to thrive well. Of birds Dr. Birds. Seemann has given us a list of forty-six species, con- sisting of hawks, owls, ducks, pigeons, &c., and several kinds of parrots; the scarlet feathers of one, the “kula,' E E 2 420 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. FIJI ISLANDS, or Coriphilus solitarius, being greatly esteemed by the natives for ornamental purposes. Over 120 species of Fishes. marine fishes have already been enumerated, most of which are good eating, and form a considerable portion of the food of those Fijians dwelling on the sea-coasts. There are no less than nine kinds of salt-water sharks, beside several fresh-water ones. Amongst the endless variety of beautiful little fishes that adorn the coral beds inside the reefs is one as large as a gold-fish, Reptiles. entirely of the finest ultramarine blue colour. Reptiles are not numerous. There are ten sorts of snakes, none of them more than six feet long, and mostly arborescent and harmless. A large frog is common in the swamps, the Platymantis vitianus. The green turtle is called "Vonu-dina,' and that which yields the tortoise-shell, • Vonu-taku.' Lizards are represented by a chameleon and four other species, the largest of which is a beau. tiful green lizard (Chlorascartes fasciatus), with a body two feet long. Land and fresh-water shells appear to be numerous, and some of the species are of consider- Shells. able size. The reefs abound with handsome marine shells. On the south-west coast of Viti Levu, at a place called Nandronga, that rare and valuable shell the orange-cowry (Cyproea aurantia), or morning dawn,' is occasionally met with. The possession of a specimen formerly gave a man a certain rank amongst his tribe. Crustaceous animals are well represented in Crabs. the Fijis. There is a very large kind of land-crab (Birgos latro), which climbs the most lofty cocoa-nut Insects. trees and breaks the nuts, upon which it feeds. Insects are very numerous, and some of the butterflies and beetles are extremely handsome. At dusk the woods swarm with myriads of fireflies. Botany. Very few regions are so prolific in vegetable produce tions as is this favoured group of islands. Whilst the indigenous trees and plants are endless in their variety and usefulness, all those that have been hitherto intro- duced appear to flourish remarkably well. The seeds of the Dilo' tree (Calophyllum inophyllum) produce a valuable oil, which enjoys a wide reputation as a lini. ment in cases of rheumatism; and its timber, of which hoats and canoes are built, is valued on account of its beautiful grain and hardness; whilst a resin which BOTANY. 421 tan exudes from its stem is used as a perfume. The candle. FIJI ISLANDS. nut, the croton-oil plant, and the castor-oil plant are abundant. The Fijians manufacture fine arrowroot from the Tacca pinnatifida. Groves of the sago-palm extend for miles in the swamps of Viti Levu; and turmeric grows plentifully in all the lower districts, as does a species of ginger, and the 'male' nutmeg. The staple food of the natives is the yam, which in Fiji attains an enormous size and the perfection of mealiness. Next to the yam, as an article of food, come the 'Taro' (which is grown on irrigated ground), the cocoa-nut, the bread- fruit, the banana, and the plantain, of which two last there are about eighteen varieties. The Wi' (Evia dulcis) is a tree 60 feet high, covered with large oval yellow fruit of a fine apple-like and most agreeable flavour, highly suitable for pies. Boiled or roasted taro, with the fruit of the 'wi' as a dessert, is a common dinner with a Fijian family. The papaw, the guava, citrons, oranges, lemons, loquets, and custard-apples have all been introduced at various times, and flourish luxuriantly. Shaddocks are extremely common, and the treesline the banks of the rivers. Water-melons and bottle- gourds grow everywhere, and sweet melons, pumpkins, and cucumbers have found their way to these islands. The pine-apple thrives well, especially near the sea. The national beverage is the 'kava,' prepared from the root of the Macropiper methysticum by chewing, and the plant is cultivated in small patches around the dwellings of the natives. Nearly all the lowest class of whites in Fiji are 'kava’-drinkers. A tree dreaded by the inhabi. tants for its noxious qualities is the itch-wood (Onco. carpus vitiensis). A drop of the juice falling on the skin produces a pain similar to that caused by contact with red-hot iron. Another poisonous tree is the 'Sinu gaga' (Excæcaria agallocha), the thick black smoke from the burning wood of which is the native cure for leprosy. Two kinds of nettles, one 60 feet high, sting most unmercifully. In former times the sandal-wood (Santalum yasi) was plentiful in Fiji; but, owing to the great demand for this perfumed wood in the China market, it has now become exceedingly scarce, only a few trees here and there remaining. The Paper-mulberry tree (Broussonetia papyrifera) supplies the Fijians with 424 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. FIJI ISLANDS. sheep-runs, the wool being of a good quality, and realising a fair price in the market. Exports The value of the exports in 1878 was 192,8651. They and imports. consisted chiefly of Sea Island and other cotton, sugar, coffee, cocoa-nut oil, wool, tortoise-shell, beche-de-mer, candle-nuts, and other products of the islands. The imports amounted to 136,6081. Land. Many of the earlier white settlers possess large tracts of land, which they have obtained from the natives. Desirable holdings may be bought from them at prices vary from 6 to 25 dollars per acre. In purchasing direct from the native chiefs much care is necessary to see that the lawful owner is the party dealt with. The capital. Levuka, on the island of Ovalau, was the commercial capital. It is supplied with Christian churches and schools for the natives, and all the appliances of modern civilisation. But Sava is its rival for official residences. Levuka is 1,180 miles from Auckland, and 1,730 from Sydney. Progress of As a British colony, under Governor Sir A. H. Gordon, the colony. Fiji has greatly progressed. The revenue was 16,0001. in 1875, and 61,0201. in 1878. Sugar, cotton, tobacco and coffee are largely raised. A wise system of local taxation, on a native plan, maintains the authority of chiefs and preserves order. Climate. The climate, though tropical, is healthy. But measles in 1875 carried off 40,000 out of 150,000. The tem- perature at Delanassau ranged from 58° to 98°, with 124 inches of rain, on 170 days. But 212 inches fell in 1875 on 230 days at Vuna Point. Summer is wetter than winter. Rotumah Rotumah Isle, north of Fiji, has recently been pro- annexed. claimed a British colony, at the request of the in- habitants. It is but 6 miles long. INDEX. 427 BER BUN Berwick, farming township, 112 liberal leases, 62; proclaims Mel- Beverley islands, 243 bourne, 105 Bight, the Australian, 198, 299 Bowen downs, 241; river, 241; Birds, 28, 32, 320, 419; singing, 33; town, 243 bower, 33; wingless, 365, 366; Bowling-Green cape, 242 aquatic, 368 Boyd, massacre of the, 344 Birri-Birri, gneiss-like laminæ at, 23 Boydtown, 15 Bismuth, 168; and silver mines in Brady's Look-out peak, 315 South Australia, 220 Braidwood, town of, 15 Blackall town, 243 Branxholme, farming township, 113 Black Bluff mountain, 315 Break Sea Spit, 242 Blackman river, 315 Bremer river, 198, 242 Black swans, 294 Bribie island, 243 Black war in Tasmania, 314 Brickmakers, no place for, 172 Blackwood, diggings township, 112; Bridgewater town, 317 river, 298 Bridgewater cape, 110 Blanche lake, 198 Brighton, a suburb of Melbourne, Blanchewater river, 198 112; town, 199 Blenheim town, 353 Brisbane, Governor Sir Thomas, his Bligh county, 14; district by Mac views, 9 quarie river, 14; Captain, opposes Brisbane, the capital of Queensland, the rum-trading monopoly, 7; 243 ; settled, 238; county, 14; his explorations, 313 river, 4, 241, 242 ; climate, 244 Blind bay, 351, 352 Broadmeadows, farming township, Blowhard mountain, 109 112 Blue mountains, salubrity of the, 16 Broad sound, 242 Blue mountain tier, 12 ; Lake, 206 | Broken bay, 3, 13; river, 109 Bluff, the, 351; down, 241; harbour, Broughton river, 198; town, 200, 243 351 Brown mountain, 197 Boga lake, 110 Browns' diggings township, 112 Bogan aborigines, 5; river, 13 Brown's river town, 317 Bogbutter, 27 Bruce mount, 298 Bogong mountains, 108; county, 111 Bruni island, 316; mountain, 315 Boloke, salt lake of, 110 Brunner, Alpine peak of, 349; lake, Bonnay, salt lake, 198 350 Border town, 200 Brunswick, a suburb of Melbourne, Borung county, 111 112 Boston isles, 199 Bryan mountains, 197 Botany Bay, Cook's discovery of, 1 ; Buckingham county, 316 as a penal settlement, 2 ; settle | Buckland, mining township, 112 ment of it, 2; first fleet at, 6; the Buckley, William, thirty-two years bay, 13 with the blacks, 103 Botany of Australia,41; of Tasmania, Buffalo mountains, 108 320; of New Zealand, 370; of the Building societies in Victoria, 178 Fiji Islands, 420 Buke Levu peak, 418 Bothwell town, 317 Bullarook mountain, 108 Bougainville, cape, 316 Buller river, 350 Bourke, Fort, town of, 15; county, Buln-Buln county, 111 111 Bundaberg, 243 Bourke, Governor Sir Richard, his Buninyong mountain, 108, 109; dig- services, 9; wishes for more gings township, 112 INDEX. 433 GEL GRE mania, 321; of New Zealand, 358; number of diggers, 165; quartz of the Fiji Islands, 419 mining, 165; mining companies, Gellibrand, Mr., joins John Batman 166; yield per ton, 166; men at Port Phillip, 104; his desires, 104 employed, 167; gold leases, 170; Gellibrand river, 109 in South Australia, 220; gold George, salt lake, 198; river, 315; regulations, 220; in Queensland, town, 317 240, 253, 276, 277; in Queens- Georgetown, police district, 316 land diggings, 277; in Tasmania, Geraldton, town, 299 334; in New Zealand, 393 German element in the population Gold-fields, 11, 22 of South Australia, 209, 234 Goolwa passage, 199, 200 Gibbo mountains, 108 Goulburn, 14, 15; mountains, 108; Gilbert or Van Diemen river, 241 river, 109 Gipps, Sir George, comes into colli Gordon river, 315 sion with the squatters, 9 Gordons, diggings township, 112 Gipps land, discovered by Count Gourock, the, 12 Strzelecki, 102; height of, 12; Government of New South Wales, rivers, 109; lakes, 110; frontier 45; of Victoria, 126 ; of South diggings at, 112; climate of, 113; Australia, 207; of Queensland, advantages of, 160 254; of Western Australia, 302; Gisborne mountain, 109; farming of Tasmania, 326 ; of New Zea- township, 112 land, 373; of the Fiji Islands, Glaciers and moraines in New Zea 417 land, 361 Grafton, town of, 15; cape, 242 Gladstone county, 111; town, 243 Grahamstown, 352 Glamorgan county, 316 Grampian hills discovered, 102 Glasgow mountain, 109 Grampians, geology of the, 118 Glasshouses mountain, 240 Granite, 23; in South Australia, Glenarchy town, 317 205; of Queensland, 246; locali- Glenelg river, 109, 299; discovered, ties for, 247; of Tasmania, 322 102 Granite of all varieties, 120, 121 Glenorchy, farming township, 113 Grant, Lieutenant, his discoveries, Gloucester county, 14 101 Gog and Magog hills, 315 Grant cape, 110; county, 111 Gold:-Alluvial, 23; the diggings Grape, see Wine brought a good market, 69; the first Graptolites, 124 gold-field, 75; licenses for miners, Grass-cloth plant, 72 76; progress of mining machinery, Grasses, English, 72, 372 76 ; extent of the eighty gold Great lake, 315 fields, 77; gold mining improving, Greenock mountain, 109 77; export of, 77; gold coin, 77; Greenough river, 298 quartz mining, 77; gold locali Greenponds, town of, 317 ties described, 78; extent of a Greenstone, 25, 250 digger's claim, 78; leases of au Greenstone, or diorite, in Queens- riferous land, 78; rentals, 78; land, 249; in N. Zealand, 360 discovery of, 106; effects of the Greenstone in Tasmania, 325 gold fever, 106; history of the Greenstones, 121 gold discovery, 160; source and / Gregory, Mr. A. C., his discoveries, age of, 125, 163; nuggets, 163, 194 export of, 164 ; licenses and Gregory, the brothers, their disco- duty, 165; mining boards, 165; L veries, 296 FF 434 INDEX. GRE HUN Gregory district, 240; downs, 241; | Heidelberg, a suburb of Melbourne, river, 241 112 Grenville, cape, 242 Hellyer river, 315 Grenville county, 111 Henry bay, 316 Grey's Barrier range, 197; county, Henty family, the, 102; at Portland 199; river, 298, 350 bay, 104 Grey, Captain, his discoveries, 295 Hepburn of Jim Crow, diggings Grey, Ear), elected member for Port township, 112 Phillip, 127 Herbert river, 241 Grey, Governor, his administration, Herbertsvale town, 243 196 Hervey bay, 242 Greymouth town, 352 Hexham, farming township, 113 Grim, cape, 316 Heytesbury county, 111 Groote-Eyland island, 199 Heywood, farming township, 113 Guildford, town, 299 Hibbs, point, 316 Guinea, New, 242 Highland district, the, 11 Gulf islands, 242 Hillesborough, cape, 242 Gummeracha town, 200 Hinchinbrook island, 243 Gunbower county, 111 Hindmarsh, Captain, appointed Go- Gundagai, town of, 15 vernor, 196 Gwydir river, 5, 13; district, 14 Hindmarsh lake, 110; river, 198; Gympie town, 243; mines, 276 county, 199 Hobart police district, 316; town, 314, 316 LTACKING, PORT, 13 Hoddle mountains, 108 1 Hahndorf town, 200 Hokianga bay, 351 Hahn river, 241 Hokianga town, 352 Halifax bay, 242 Hokitika river, 351 Hamilton of the Grange, farming Holland, New, 1 township, 113 Hope lake, 198 Hamilton town, 317 Hopeless, mount, 197 Hampden county, 111 Hopkins river, 109 Hampshire hills, 315 Horrocks mountain, 197 Hanging Rock, height of, 12 Horses and cattle in Queensland, 265 Harrow, farming township, 113 Horses boiled down for tallow, 150 Hartog, Dirk, island, 299* Horses, trade in, 64 Hastings river, 3, 13; town of, 15 Horsham, farming township, 113 Hauraki, gulf of, 351, 352 Hot springs, 419 Hawdon salt lake, 198 Hot winds in Victoria, 114; of South Hawea lake, 350 Australia, 200; of Tasmania, 317 Hawke's bay, 351; province, 352 House rent, 94 Hawkesbury river, 13 Hovell, Captain, his explorations, Hawthorne, a suburb of Melbourne, 102 111 Howe, cape, Captain Cook off, 1 Hayes, Captain, his explorations, Howe, cape, 13, 110 Howqua river, 109 Hay, town of, 16 Humo, Hamilton, his explorations, Heat at various places, 19, 114, 200, 4, 102 245, 300, 317, 355 Hunter county, 14 Heathcote of McIvor, diggings town Hunter, Governor, his introduction ship, 112 of free immigrants, 6 313 INDEX. 437 LEI Leichhardt mount, 138; district, 240; downs, 241; drained, 241 ; river, 241 Leigh river, 109 Lethbridge, farming township, 113 Levuka, capital of the Fiji Islands, 424 Lexton of Burn Bank, diggings township, 112 Leyburn town, 243 Liberty, results of, 47 Libraries, free state, 141 Licenses, mineral, 169; water-right licenses, 170; squatting, 63 Light river, 198; county, 199 Lincoln port, 199; town of, 200; native settlement at, 210; county, 316 Lindsay, height of, 12 Linton, diggings township, 112 Lion, the butcher-pouched, 125 Liptrap cape, 110 Liverpool plains, discovery of the, 3 ; range, 12; area of, 14; town of, 15; river, 198 Lizard island, 243 Lizards, huge fish, 254 Llamas and alpacas, 148 Loan fund, 48 Lockwood, farming township, 113 Lockyer, Major, his explorations, 4 Loddon river discovered, 102, 109; district of, 110; squatting district, 111 Lofty mountain, 197 Lofty range, 197 Logan river, 242; town, 243 Lomond, Ben, 12, 313 Londonderry, cape, 299 Longford town, 317 Long point, 316 Lonsdale, cape, 110 Lonsdale, Captain, appointed as commandant on the Yarra, 105 Look-out point, 242 Lowan county, 111 Lyell mount, 349 Lynd river, 241 Lyttleton, port, 353 MAR MACALISTER RIVER, 109 M Macarthur, Mr. John, founder of Australian squatting, 60 Macarthur river, 198 Macedon, mount, discovered, 102; mountains, 108 Macclesfield town, 200 Macdonnel mountain, 198; port, 199, 200 McIntyre river, 11, 242 McIvor mountains, 108 Mackay town, 243 Mackenzie river, western, 241 M-Kinlay mountains, 240 Macleay, east, district, 14; river, 13 McMillan, Mr. Angus, his disco- very, 102 Macquarie county, 14 Macquarie, General Lachlan, his appointment, 8 Macquarie, Governor, called the Prisoner's Friend,'9 Macquarie river, traced to a marsh, 3,4; port, established, 3; river, 13, 315 Maffra, farming township, 112 Magnetic island, 243 Magnetic variation of places in South Australia, 203 Maitland, town of, 15 Maize, 71, 72, 269 Maldon of Tarrengower, diggings township, 112 Malmsbury, farming township, 113 Malvern hills, 349 Manganese, 168 Manifold, cape, 242 Manning river, 13 Mansfield, farming township, 113 Mantuan downs, 241 Manufactures progressing, 86; of Victoria, 180; of South Australia, 222, 223; of Queensland, 282 Manukau harbour, 351 Maories, the, 380-382 Maranoa district, 240 Margaret mount, 200 Maria isle, 312, 316 Maria Van Diemen, cape, 351 Marion bay, 316 438 INDEX. MOU MAR Marion, Captain, his explorations, Miners' Rest, farming township, 113 313; killed and eaten, 343 Mining, in New South Wales, 75; Marlborough town, 243; province, in Victoria, 159; in South Aus- 352 tralia, 219; in Queensland, 276; Marsden, Rev. Samuel, of Sydney, 7 in Western Australia, 306; in Martha mountains, 109 Tasmania, 333; in New Zealand, Martin's bay, 351 395 Marulan, town of, 15 Minister of Education, 139 Maryborough, diggings township, Mint, Melbourne, 177 112; population of, 113; town, 243 Miocene, not auriferous, 122 Maryland, town of, 15 Mitchell district, 240 Mary river, 241 Mitchell, Major, his discoveries, 5, Maryvale town, 243 102, 236; on the geology of Vic- Massacre bay, 343, 351 toria, 116 Matlock, diggings township, 112 Mitchell river, 109, 241 Meander or Western river, 315 Mittagong, town of, 15 Meat-preserving, 65, 150, 265 ; im Mitta-Mitta river, 109 proved freezing process, 65; Moa, the, 364 nearly ended in Victoria, 150 Moama, town of, 16 Melbourne, founder of, 103; rise of Moira county, 111 the town of, 105 ; first govern Mokau river, 350 ment, 105; commandant arrives, Moliagul, diggings township, 112 105 ; Mr. Latrobe superintendent, Monaro plains, 5; mountain, 12; 105; Governor Bourke proclaims district, 14; south-east, 14 the town, 105; losses in conse Monmouth county, 316 quence, and subsequent recovery, Montagu county, 316 106; city of, 111; population, &c., Montgomery county, 316 of, 111, 113; temperature of, 114; Moonie river, 242 mean heat of, 114; rain, 114, 115; Moonta town, 200; copper mines, geology of, 115; rainfall for ten 219 consecutive years, 115; ozone at, Moore lake, 299 115, 116; first Sunday service in, Moraines in Tasmania, 324 142; the mint, 178. Moresby's flat-topped mountains, Melton, farming township, 113 298 Melville bay, 199; island, 199; cape, Moreton bay discovered, 4, 11, 235, 242; district, 240; cape, 242 Menindie, town of, 15 Moreton island, 243 Mercer mountain, 109 Morinish town, 243 Mercury bay, 351 Mornington county, 111 Meredith, farming township, 113 Morpeth, town of, 15 Merino, farming township, 113 Morphett vale, town of, 200 Mersey river, 315 Mortgages in Victoria, 178 Mesozoic formations in Victoria, Mortlake of Mount Shadwell, farm- 119; rocks of Queensland, 248 ing township, 113 Metamorphic rocks of Queensland, Morua bay, 13; town of, 15 248 Mountains of New South Wales, 12 : Methodists. See Religion of Victoria, 108; of South Aus- Middle-aged, openings for the, 100 tralia, 197 ; of Queensland, 240; Milfordhaven, 351 of Western Australia, 298; of Miller's Bluff, 315 Tasmania, 314; of New Zealand, Millewa county, 111 349 242 INDEX. 439 MOU NEW Mountmorris bay, 199 New England, Mr. Oxley's surveys Mud craters, 25; inflammable, 27 in, 3; district, N. Tableland, 14 Mudgee, town of, 15 Newland mountain, 197 Mueller, Baron von, his explorations, New river, 351 296 New South Wales, the parent colony, Mueller mountains, 240, 298 1; exploration of, 5; origin of a free Muirhead, volcanic crater of, 198 people, 8; emancipists versus free Muniong mountain, 12 immigrants, 8, 9; a perfect sheep Murchison mountain, 198, ; river, and cattle mania at, 9; loses 298; settlers at, 299; mount, 349 Moreton bay, 10 ; loses Port Marragural, height of, 12 Phillip district, 10; list of gover- Murray, Lieutenant John, his dis nors, 10; geography and climate coveries, 101 of, 10; rivers and lakes of, 12; Murray river, explored, 4, 5, 12, 13, bays and capes, 13; counties and 109, 198, 199, 205 ; its depth districts, 13; pastoral districts in places, 205; mountains, 12; of, 14; police districts of, 14; county, 14; town of, 15; inhabited towns, 14; climate of, 16; rain- by fresh-water fish, 39; district fall, 16; diseases, 17; geology of, of the, 110, 111 21 ; fossils of, 27 ; cave fossils, Murrumbidgee river discovered, 4, 27; fossil kangaroo, 27 ; natural 13; mountains, 12; district, 14 history, 28; government of, 45 ; Murrurundi, town of, 15 early society, 45; population of, Museum, public, of Melbourne, 140 48 ; bond and free, 48; a settled- Muswelbrook, town of, 15 down society, 50; the aborigines, 50; education and religion, 51; pastoral, 58 ; agriculture in, 67 ; NAIRNE TOWN, 200 fertile land in, 68; mining in, 75; N Namosi, in Vita Levu, 419 immigration to, 89; advantages of Nanango town, 243 colony, 90; so called by Capt. Naomi river, 13 Cook, 236; manufactures, 82 Napier mountain, 109; capital town Newstead, farming township, 113 of, 352 Newtown, 317 Narrawong, farming township, 113 New Zealand, discovery and history Narrien mountain, 240 of, 343 ; a consul at the Bay of Natal down, 241 Islands, 344; the New Zealand National School Board, 136 ; of Company, 345; payment for land, Victoria, 136 345, 346; treaty of Waitangi, Natural history of Australia, 28; 346 ; establishment of the colony, of Tasmania, 319; of New Zea 346; war with the settlers, 347; land, 364; of the Fiji Islands, settlement of Auckland, Welling- ton, and Otago, 348 ; Canterbury Naturaliste cape, 299 Association established, 348; geo- Neales river, 198 graphy and climate, 348 ; moun. Nebo town, 243 tains, lakes, and rivers, 349, 350; Nelson, cape, 110; province, 352; bays, capes, islands, divisions, and town, 352 towns, 351, 352; climate, 353; Nepean cape, 110 hot winds, 354; temperature of Nevis, Ben, 108, 315, 349, 350 different towns, 355 ; rain and Newcastle, station of, established, 3, moisture, 356 ; earthquakes, 358; 14; coal port, 13; town of, 15 ; geology, 358; once united to bay, 242 Australia, 364; natural history, 419 440 INDEX. NGA PAS 364; botany, 370; government, I Oil of New Zealand, 398 373; fertility of soil, 373; debt, Olives in South Australia, 216 374; revenue and expenditure, Omeo, lake, 110; mining towship,112 374, 375; population, 376; the Onkaparinga river, 198 Maories, 379; education and reli. Oolite, absence of, 120 gion, 382 ; agriculture, 384; Ophir, mines of, 15 farming, 385; corn, 386 ; oats Oranges, 74 and potatoes, 387 ; grasses, 388 ; Orange, town of, 15 products, 389; pastoral, 389; Orion downs, 241 stock, 391 ; wool, 392; meat Orphan school, female, established, preserving, 392; mining, 393; 52; male, 52 railways and telegraphs, 398; Osmond, Glen, town, 200 banks, 398; manufactures, 399; Otago, elevated district around, 350; land laws and immigration, 402; harbour, 351; province, 352 hints to emigrants, 412 Otway, cape, discovery of, 101, 110 Ngau island, 418 Ouse river, 315 Nicholas, mount, 315 Ovalau island, 418 Nicholson mountain, 240 ; river, Ovens river, 109; district, rain in 241 ; port, 351 the, 114 Nickol bay, 299 Oxford down, 241 Nive river, 315 Oxley, Mr., Surveyor-General, his Noalunga town, 200 survey, 3 ; his supposition of an Nogoa river, 241 inland sea, 3; discovers the Liver- Noorat mountain, 109 pool plains and the Peel and Hast- Noosa head, 242 ings rivers, 3 ; his discoveries in Norfolk bay, 316 Queensland, 236 Norfolk island, Pitcairn Islanders Oxley's peak, 12; height of, 12 at, 6; Rose hill, or Parramatta, Oyster bay, 316; cove, 316 6, 351 Ozone in New South Wales, 19; at Norfolk, New, town of, 317 Melbourne, 115; uses of, 116; Normanby county, 111 in Tasmania, 319 Norman river, 241 Norman town, 243 North cape, 351 D ALÆOZOIC HILLS, 22; forma- North-eastern pastoral district, 199 I tion, area of, 118; forms, 124; Northern coast range, 12; pastoral Palliser bay, 351; cape, 351 district, 199 Palmerston town, 200; cape, 242 Northern territory of S. Australia, Parengarenga harbour, 351 225 Parliament, formation of, 47; and Northumberland county, 14 the franchise in Queensland, 255 North-west bend, town of, 200; Paroo river, 242 point, 316 Parramatta, location of, 6, 14 Norwood town, 200 Parraroo town, 200 Notatherium, 27 Pastoral affairs, history : – New Nuyt's archipelago, 199; his land South Wales, 58; produce, 65 ; discovered, 294 the Auditor-General on the pas- Nuyt, cape, 299 toral returns, 66; most pastoral land rented from Government, 67; freeholders and leaseholders, 69; ATLANDS TOWN, 317 progress of cultivation, 70; the U Oats, 73 crops and average in 1871, 70; 442 INDEX. ΡΥΑ Pyalong, farming township, 113 Pyrenees mountains, 108 QUADRUPEDS, 28, 319; two W only in New Zealand, 364 Quartz, barren and fertile, 163 Queenbeyan, town of, 15 Queenscliff, 111 Queensland, discovery of, 3, 5; colony of, 10; establishment of, 11; climate of, 113; discovery and history, 235; the colony pro- claimed, 239; geography and climate, 239 ; area of, 239; moun- tains, 210; rivers, 241 ; very few lakes, . 242; bays, capes, and islands, 242; towns, 243 ; climate, 244; geology, 246; the country once 2,000 feet higher, 253 ; bar- rier reef of coral, 253; metals, 253; fossils, 253; government, 254 ; separated from New South Wales, 255; first parliament, 255; population, 256; native. police, 257; Chinese, 257; Polynesians, 257 ; populations of the towns, 258; census of age and sex, 259; education and religion, 262; pastoral, 264; how to get a run, 267; and its rental, 286 ; agri- culture, 268; mining, 276; pre- cious stones, 279, 280; trade, 281; banks, post, telegraph, and railways, 283; manufactures, 283; land laws and immigration, 283; homestead areas, 285; pastoral regulations, 287; mining and mineral leases, 287; auriferous lands, 287; number of immi- grants, 287; assisted and free passages, 288; wages, 289; hints to emigrants, 289 ROB Rainfall in New South Wales, 17; in Victoria, 114; in South Austra- lia, 201; in Queensland, 246; in Western Australia, 300; in Tas- mania, 318; in New Zealand, 356; in the Fiji Islands, 422 Ram's head, height of, 12 Rangitota river, 350 Raoul, cape, 316 Rapid bay, 198, 199 Ravenswood town, 243 Razorback mountain, 197 Rebellion, the Irish, of 1804, 7 Recherche bay, 316 Redruth town, 200 Reef leases, 170 Reeve lake, 110 Reinga cape, 351 Religion, in New South Wales, 55 in Victoria, 142-146; in South Australia, 200; in Queensland, 263; in Western Australia, 304 ; in Tasmania, 329; in New Zea- land, 383 Remarkable mountain, 197 Remutaka mountains, 349 Rent paid in tithes, 172 Reptiles, 36, 368, 420 Revenue, of New South Wales, 47; of Victoria, 129; of South Aus- tralia, 207; of Queensland, 256 ; of Western Australia, 303; of Tasmania, 327; of New Zealand, 375; of Fiji, 424 Rewa river, 418 Richmond, river, 13; town of, 15, 317; down, 241 Ridley's reaping machine, 213 Ringarooma bay, 315 Ripon county, 111 Riverina, claims separation, 11; country, 14 Rivers of New South Wales, 12; of Victoria, 109; of South Australia, 198; of Queensland, 241; of Western Australia, 298; of Tas- mania, 315; of New Zealand, 350 Rivoli bay, 199 Roads, history of, in Victoria, 179 Robbins isle, 316 Rochester farming township, 113 DAFFLES BAY, 199 n Raglan, diggings township, 112 Railways, 86; a help to the far- mer, 69; in Victoria, 179; fares, 179; in South Australia, 223; of New Zealand, 398; essential,414 444 INDEX. SIL upper Silurian has little gold, 119 Silver mine, 167, 220, 395 Simpson, Mr., appointed arbitrator, at Melbourne, 105 Singleton, town of, 15 Skiddaw, mount, 349 Skipton, farming township, 113 Smeaton mountain, 109; farming township, 113 Smoky cape, 13 Smythesdale, diggings township, 112 Smyth mountain, 108 Snake Banks town, 317 Schnapper point, 111 Snares, the, 352 Snowy river, 109 Social condition in New South Wales, 50 Sofala, mines of, 15 Soils, variety of, 68, 139 Somerset town, 243; county, 316 Sorell lake, 315 ; port, 315; police district, 316; town, 317 Sorghum, 75, 273 South Australian Company, 195; the colony settled, 196 South Australia, discovery, 193; history, 195; Colonisation Asso- ciation, 195; failure of the As- sociation, 196; becomes a Crown colony, 196 ; its prosperity, 196; geography and climate, 196; area and boundaries, 197; mountains, 197; rivers, lakes, and bays, 198; islands, divisions, and towns, 199; climate, 200; rain, 201; hail- storms, 202; barometrical action, 202; water in the centre of Aus- tralia, 203; hot winds, 203 ; waterspouts, 203; geology of, 204; metalliferous wealth of, 206; gold, 206; no coals, 207; govern- ment, 207; Legislative Council and House of Assembly, 207; re- venue and expenditure, 207, 208 ; debt and economy, 208; popula- tion, 208; diseases, 209; kind treatment of the aborigines, 209; education and religion, 210; places of worship and Sundayschools, 211, L STO 212; agriculture, 212; wheat, 213; Ridley's reaping machine, 213; hay, 215; orchards and grapes, 215; wine, 215; olive, flax, and silk, 216 ; pastoral lands, 217 ; in- crease of exports, 218; mining, 219; trade and manufactures, 221; railways, post-office, tele- graphs, and banks, 223, 224; tariff, 224; duties, 224; sugar lands, 226; land to be lent on credit, 227; farms and sugar or cotton land, 227; pastoral land, 227; other leases, 228; copper leases, 228 ; occupation licenses and gold mining, 228; land laws and immi- gration, 229 South cape, 316, 351; island, 349; has no volcanic hills, 350; lakes at, 350; called Tavai Poenam- moo, the Greenstone isle, 352 Southland, province of, 352 Southport town, 200; bay, 316 Southwest cape, 316 Spencer's gulf, 199 Spencer mount, 349 Spring hill, 108; river, 315; bay, 316; of Prossers, town of, 317 Springsure town, 243 Squatters versus farmers, 63, 150 Squatting. See Pastoral Staaten river, 241 Stamp duties, 48, 402 Stanley barrier range, 197 ; county, 199; town, 317 Stanthorpe town, 243 Stawell of Pleasant creek, diggings township, 112 Steamers, river, 179 Steiglitz, diggings township, 112 Stephens, port, 13 Stewart island, or Southern island, or New Leinster, 349, 352 Stirling, Capt., his discovery, 226, 295 Stirling mountains, 298 Stock, history and statistics of, 60; annual assessment of, 63; the farmer versus the squatter, 63; breeding, 158; in South Austra- lia, 218; in Queensland, 266 ; 446 INDEX. TAD VAL Tauranga harbour, 351 the Adelaide river, 198; tertiary Taviuni island, 418 rocks, 205; town, 200 Taxation. See Government Torres straits, 235, 242; Captain Teacher, the first, and grant in aid, Pool murdered there, 235 51, 52; technical education, 141; Tower hill, 109; crater, 124 technological museums, 141 Towns of New South Wales, 14 ; of Telegraph, 86 Victoria, 111; of South Australia, Telegraphs in Victoria, 179; rates, 199; of Queensland, 243; of 179 ; in South Australia, 224 Western Australia, 299; of Tas- Temperature of Melbourne, 114 mania, 317; of New Zealand, Temple bay, 242 352; distances of towns, 353 Tenterfield, town of, 15 Townsville, 243 Terang lake, 110; farming township, Trachyte, 25 113 Trade :-Trade in New South Wales, Teresa river, 241 82; trade per head, 82; trade Terrible peak, 197 with other states, 82; imports Tertiary beds, 23, 121; in Queens per head, 84; trade in Victoria, land, 251; varieties of, 252; of 170; in South Australia, 221; in Tasmania, 324; deposits, 22, 361; Queensland, 281; in Western of New Zealand, 360 Australia, 307; in Tasmania, 335; Thakambau, King of Fiji, 416, 417, in New Zealand, 396 418 Trafalgar mountains, 298 Thames diggings, 352 Transportation ceases in Tasmania, Thames river, 350; Frith of, 351 314 Thierry, Baron de, in New Zealand, Travertine beds in Tasmania, 324 344 Trees, 41, 320, 372 Thompson river, 109, 241 Trial bay, 13 Three Kings, island of the, 352 Trias at the Clarence, 22 Thumbs, the, mountain, 315 Tribulation, cape, 242 Thylacoles carnifex, of butcher Trinity bay, 242 pouched lion, 28, 125 Tufa beds of New Zealand, 362 Tiberias, lake, 315 Tumat mountain, 12; river, 13; Tides in various places in South town of, 15 Australia, 243 Tunbridge town, 317 Tiger, bones of the, 125; wolf, 319 Turon, mines of, 15 Timber, trees, 184 ; wood splitters, Twofold bay, 13 184 Tyers lake, 110 Timboon lake, 110 Tyndall mount, 349 Tin, 22, 168 ; very rich, 79; leases, Tyrrell lake, 110 169 ; mining, 278; mines in Tas- mania, 335; N. Zealand, 395 TTMBRELLA MOUNTAINS, 350 Tithes paid for rent, 172 U Underwood, port, 351 Tobacco, 72, 73, 423 University of Victoria, 140 Tonga islands, 417 Unley town, 200 Tongans, 423 Tongariro volcanic peak, 349 Upstart bay, 242; cape, 242 Useful mountain, height of, 108 Toowoomba town, 243 Torlesse mountain, 349 Torquay town, 317 VALENTINE MOUNTAIN, 315 Torrens, lake, visited, 194; country V Vancouver, Captain, his dis- about, 195, 198; mountain, 197; 1 coveries, 295 S. W. SILVER AND Co.'s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. HOULDER BROTHERS & CO'S LINE OF CLIPPER PACKETS AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, SOUTH AFRICA, &c. Vessels of the highest class specially selected for the service are despatched at regular intervals to MELBOURNE, SYDNEY, ADELAIDE and BRISBANE, CAPE TOWN, ALGOA BAY, EAST LONDON and PORT NATAL. FARES. First Class, from 40 guineas each ; Second and Third Class, from 13 to 22 guineas. Passengers are also forwarded at Through Rates to the various Ports of Queensland and New Zealand. 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Lusitania 3825 550 . C. A. F. POWELL. Orient 5386 1000 W. F. HEWISON. Potosi 4219 600 A. GORDON. Sorata 4014 600 .................. 0. FOWLER. These steamers have been specially fitted for carrying all classes of passengers through the Tropics on long voyages, and the passages hitherto made are the fastest on record. "FARES. First Class, 50 guineas and upwards; Second Olass, 30 guineas and upwards; Third Class, closed cabins, with two berths, 20 guineas each ; Third Class, closed cabins, with four berths, 18 guineas each; Steerage, open berths, for Men only, 14 guineas each. For plans and full particulars, apply to the Managers of the Line :- F. GREEN & Co., & ANDERSON ANDERSON & Co. FENCHURCH AVENUE, LONDON, E.C. COLONIAL AGENTS :- JOSEPH STILLING & Co., Adelaide. BRIGHT BROS. & CO., Melbourne. GILCHRIST, WATT, & co., Sydney. 4 . 8. W. SILVER AND Co.'s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. Æ OF STEAM AND SAD SAILING PACKETS COLONIAL LINE ON TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. The Steam Ships of this Line are well known for their speed and freedom from accident. The arrangements are of the most complete character, and combine every. convenience for the health and comfort of passengers. The Commanders have a high reputation as skilful and careful navigators, and for their kindness and attention to passengers. The following are some of the magnificent Steamers which have been dispatched by this Line. 88. AUSTRALIA . . . . Captain W. CARGILL .. 2,737 tons. 88. AFGHAN .. J. ROWLEY . . . 2,202 88. CITY OF LONDON .. R. McNeil ... 3,212 88. HANKOW ..... W. SYMINGTON . . 3,594 88. NEMESIS .... R. G. STEUART .. 3,452 88. ROTOMAHANA. .. , T. UNDERWOOD . 1,800 89. ST. OSYTH. . . . . R. McNABB, L3,541 , 88. TE ANAU · · · · · - T. CARRY. ..1,652 88. WHAMPOA. . . . . . W.J. HINES... W 3,835 , 88. ZEALANDIA , ... J. S. FERRIES ... 2,730 in . SAILING VESSELS MONTHLY. FOR PARTICULARS APPLY TO JOHN HENRY FLINT, 112 FENCHURCH STREET, LONDON, E.C. 8. W. SILVER AND Co.'s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. 5 NEW ZEALAND—THE PASSENGER'S LINE. SHAW, SAVILL, AND CO. 34 Leadenhall Street, London. FIRST-CLASS CLIPPER PACKETS Sailing regularly at short intervals for AUCKLAND | HAWKE'S BAY | WELLINGTON | OTAGO TARANAKI CANTERBURY NELSON SOUTHLAND This Line, which now embraces the old original one of Messrs. Willis and Co., was established in 1858 to meet the rapidly-increasing requirements of New Zealand by the organisation of a Service specially adapted for the safe and comfortable conveyance of PASSENGERS and FAMILIĒS. Upwards of 1,400 First-class Ships have already been despatched by it, conveying upwards. of 150,000 passengers. The Packets forming the PASSENGER'S LINE' are Al First-class Ships, constructed on some of the finest models of combined speed and strength, and commanded by experienced Officers familiar with the voyage. In the arrangement of Cabins and Berths, and in the general equipment of the Ships, all modern marine sanitary improvements, suggested by practical experience and the progress of science as conducive to the health, comfort, and safety of Passengers, continue to be adopted. Nearly all the Special Settlement Parties have been conveyed by the Ships of this Line. Intending Passengers should communicate with the undersigned. All particulars, together with full information on all questions relating to Ships, Rates of Passage, Freight and Insurance, Shipment of Luggage, Remit- tances, &c., may always be obtained by writing to SHAW, SAVILL, and CO. SHAW, SAVILL, & CO.'S PASSENGER LINE OF PACKETS FROM LONDON TO NEW ZEALAND, TONS TONS TONS ADAMANT. . . . 815 HALCIONE . . 843 MARGARET GALBRAITH 841 ANAZI . . . . 468 | HELEN DENNY 728 | MAY QUEEN. . . 730 BEBINGTON . . . 941 | HERMIONE. . 1120 MEROPB . . . . . 1054 CHILE . . . . . 768 HUDSON . 794 PLEIADES . . . . 997 CRUSADER . . . 1058 | HIMALAYA . . 1008 PLEIONE . · 1092 ELIZABETH GRAHAM 598 HYDASPES . . 2093 ST. LEONARD'S . . . 1054 EUTERPE . . . . 1197 LADY JOCELYN 2138 SOUKAR . . . . . 1304 FAMENOTH . . . 983 LANGSTONE . 746 TREVELYAN . . . . 1042 FORFARSHIRE . . 1238 LOCHNAGAR . 464 WAYB QUEEN . . . 853 FLENLORA.... 764 | LUTTERWORTH 841 | ZEALANDIA . . . . 1116 8. W. SILVER AND Co.'s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. 7 Shipwrecked fishermen and Mariners' Royal Benevolent Society. INCORPORATED BY ACT OF PARLIAMENT, AND SUPPORTED BY VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. Patron–HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN. Vice-Patrons-H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, K.G. H.R.H. THE PRINCESS OF WALES, H.R.H. REAR ADMIRAL THE DUKE OF EDINBURGH, K.G. President—HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF MARLBOROUGH, K.G. This Society was instituted in 1839, for Relieving the Widows and Orphans of Fishermen, Mariners (whether of the Royal or Mercantile Navy), Coastguardmen, Pilots, and Boatmen; and for Boarding, Clothing, and Forwarding Home, Wrecked Seamen and other Poor Persons of all Nations cast destitute on the Coasts, and for assisting Fishermen and Boatmen to replace their Boats, or Clothes, when lost by Storm or Accident; also for giving Gold and Silver Medals, or other rewards, for Saving Life on the High Seas or Abroad. Last year 11,863 persons were relieved, in. cluding 2,635 Widows, who, in addition to what they were awarded at the time of their husbands' deaths, receive annual grants in many cases sufficient to pay the rents of their Cottages. Since the formation of the Institution in 1839, 297,677 PERSONS HAVE BEEN RELIEVED. FRANCIS MAUDE, Captain R.N., Chairman of Committee. W. R. BUCK, Secretary. Office:–Hibernia Chambers, London Bridge, S.E. Donations and Annual Subscriptions will be thankfully received in Stamps, Cheques, or Post Office Orders, by Messrs. Williams, Deacon, & Co., Birchin Lane, City, Bankers to the Society ; by all the London and Country Bankers; by the several Metropolitan Army and Navy Agents; by the Honorary Agents throughout the Kingdom; by the Travelling Secretaries; and by the Secretary at the Office of the Society, Hibernia Chambers, London Bridge, S.E. The Society publishes a Quarterly Maritime Magazine, "THE SHIPWRECKED MARINER,' price 6d. May be had of Geo. Morrish, Warwick Lane, Paternoster Row, or through any Bookseller. 8 S. W. SILVER AND Co.'s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. AUSTRALIA LONDON LINE LONDON LINE. QUEENSLAND, MELBOURNE, SYDNEY, AND ADELAIDE. The superb high-classed clipper Ships of the LONDON LINE Load in the East INDIA Docks, are noted for their great speed, regularity, and comfort, and are specially fitted for the AUSTRALIAN Passenger Service. Separate Cabins for Families. FARES FROM THIRTEEN GUINEAS. FREIGHT OR PASSAGE, Apply to TAYLOR, BETHELL, & ROBERTS, 110 FENCHURCH STREET, LONDON, E.C. P. HENDERSON & CO.'S LINE of PACKET SHIPS. From CLYDE OTAGO, NEW ZEALAND. Landing Cargo at PORT CHALMERS, and taking Goods and PASSENGERS at Through Rates to all other Ports in NEW ZEALAND. Tons Tons Register Register NAPIER WILLIAM DAVIE 840 JESSIE READMAN : 962 OTAGO 992 CANTERBURY .. • 1,250 WILD DEER • 1,016 AUCKLAND . • 1,250 DUNEDIN . • 1,250 WELLINGTON . • 1,250 INVERCARGILL . 1,250 OAMARU • 1,300 | NELSON • 1,250 MARLBOROUGH . . 1,150 TARANAKI • 1,150 LYTTELTON . 1,110 WESTLAND • 1,110 TIMARU . . . . 1,300 The Ships of this Line are of the highest class and fitted with conducive to the comfort of Passengers. They are well known for their rapid Passages and conducive to the comfort of the highest class and fitted with all modernim delivery of Cargoes in good order. For Particulars as to Passage Money, &c., apply to P. HENDERSON & CO., 15 St. Vincent Place, Glasgow, Or, to the Agents, GALBRAITH, PEMBROKE, & CO., 8 Austin Friars, London, 992 UNION BANK OF AUSTRALIA LIMITED. ESTABLIHSED 1837. Paid-up Capital . . . . .£1,500,000 Reserve Funds . 816,500 Reserve Liability of Proprietors. 3,000,000 Total Capital and Reserve Funds £5,316,500 HEAD OFFICE-1 BANK BUILDINGS, LOTHBURY, LONDON. NELSONNE, POST COLONIAL BRANCHES. VICTORIA. TASMANIA (Van Diemon's Land). MELBOURNE. SANDHURST (BENDIGO). HOBART TOWN. OATLANDS. ROCHESTER. LAUNCESTON. DAYLESFORD. LATROBE, TARNAGULLA. ALEXANDRA. GEELONG. NEW ZEALAND. BALLARAT. EGERTON. AUCKLAND. SMYTHESDALE. GRAHAMSTOWN (THAMES GOLD OLUNES. FIELDS). STAWELL (PLEASANT CREEK). HAMILTON (WAIKATO). MARYBOROUGH, WELLINGTON. PORTLAND. NAPIER WAIPUKURAU ! HAWKE'S BAY. NEW SOUTH WALES. PORT AHURIRI SYDNEY. GISBORNE, (POVERTY BAY.) DENILIQUIN. HAY. HOKITIKA WAGGA WAGGA. GREYMOUTH NEWCASTLE. WESTLAND, WAIMEA QUEENSLAND. RUMARA BRISBANE. CHRISTCHURCH ROCKHAMPTON. LYTTELTON TOOWOOMBA. TIMARU ASHBURTON SOUTH AUSTRALIA. CANTERBURY. RANGIORA ADELAIDE. SOUTHBRIDGE PORT ADELAIDE. WAIMATE WESTERN AUSTRALIA. SEFTON PERTH. DUNEDIN YORK. OAMARU OTAGO, FREMANTLE. INVERCARGILL ALBANY (KING GEORGE'S SOUND). GERALDTON (CHAMPION BAY). Letters of Credit and Bills of Exchange upon the Branches are issued by the Head Office, and may also be obtained from the Bank's Agents throughout England, Scotland, and Ireland. Bills on the Colonies are purchased or sent for collection. Deposits are received at the Head Office at rates of interest and for periods which may be ascertained on application. LONDON: June 1880. W. R. MEWBURN, Manager. 8. W. SILVER AND Co.'s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. 11 THE COMMERCIAL BANKING COMPANY OF SYDNEY. ESTABLISHED 1834. INCORPORATED 1848. CAPITAL, £500,000. RESERVE FUND, £570,000. HEAD OFFICE, SYDNEY-GEORGE STREET. BRANCHES IN SYDNEY. EASTERN BRANCH-Oxford Stroot. SOUTHERN BRANCH-Haymarket. BRANCHES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. Adelong. Cannonbar. , Goulburn. | Mudgee. | Singleton. Albury. Carcoar. Grafton. Murrurundi. Tamworth. Armidale. Casino. Gundagai. - Muswellbrook. Taren. Barraba. Cobar Gunnedah. Narandena. Wagga Bathurst. Coolamundra Gunning. Narrabri. Wagga. Bega. Cooma. Inverell. Newcastle. Walcha. Berrima. Coonamble. Kempsey. Orange. Walgott. Bingera. Copeland Kiama. Parkos. Warren. Blayney. North. Lismore. Parramatta. Wellington. Bombala. Coraki. Lithgow. Penrith. Wentworth. Bourke. Dubbo. Maitland. Picton. Wilcannia. Bowral. Dungog. Merriwa. Queanboyan. Windsor. Brewarrina. Forbes. Milton. Quirindi. Woodburn. Camden. Germanton. Molong. Richmond. Wollongong. Campbell- Glen Innes. Morpeth. Shoalhaven. | Yass. town. Young.. BRANCHES IN QUEENSLAND. Brisbane. | Dalby. | Mackay. | Maryborough. | Rookhampton, BRANCH IN LONDON-39 Lombard Street. AGENTS, ENGLAND-LONDON-London and West TASMANIA-HOBART Town and LAUNORA- minster Bank ; London and County Bank. TON-Bank of Van Dieman's Land. LIVERPOOL - Liverpool Union Bank, NEW ZEALAND–National Bank of New MANCHESTER - Manchester and Salford Zealand and Branches. Bank. SAN FRANCISCO-Bank of British Columbia IRELAND-Belfast Banking Company and VALPARAISO-Banco Nacional de Chile. Branches : National Bank and Branches. NEW YORK-Messrs. Drexel, Morgan & Co. SCOTLAND-Commercial Bank of Sootland INDIA, CHINA, and SINGAPORE-The and Branches. Chartered Bank of India, Australia, and VICTORIA-Bank of Victoria and Branches; China ; The Chartered Mercantile Bank of National Bank of Australasia; Colonial India, London, and China. Bank of Australasia; Commercial Bank CEYLON-The Chartered Mercantile Bank of of Australia. India, London, and China. WESTERN AUSTRALIA-National Bank BATAVIA --The Chartered Bank of India, of Australasia and Branches. Australia, and China. SOUTH AUSTRALIA-National Bank of | MAURITIUS-Messrs. Scott & Co. Australasia and Branches : Bank of South HONOLULU-Messrs. Bishop & C Australia ; Bank of Adelaide. EGYPT-Crédit Lyonnais. Money can be remitted to the oredit of parties in the Colonies with the Head Ofice of the Bank, or either of the above Branches or Colonial Agencies, free of charge. The London Board of Directors grant Letters of Credit, payable on demand, and Bills of Exchange, upon all the Branches of the Bank. They also negotiate approved Bills upon the Australian Colonies, and send out Bills for Collection. NATHANIEL CORK, Manager, 39 LOMBARD STREET, LONDON. 12 8. W. SILVER AND Co.'s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. BANK OF NEW ZEALAND, Bankers to the New Zealand Government. CAPITAL SUBSCRIBED AND PAID UP, £1,000,000. RESERVE FUND, £555,000. HEAD OFFICE: AUCKLAND. LONDON OFFICE: No. 1 QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, MANSION HOUSE, E.O. BRANCHES IN AUSTRALIA. New South Wales-SYDNEY Branch, 131 Pitt Street; NEWCASTLE Branch. Victoria-MELBOURNE Branch, 15 Queen Street, Fiji Islands-LEVUKA Branch. BRANCHES AND AGENCIES IN NEW ZEALAND.. AUCKLAND, Head Office. | HOKITIKA Branch. Rakaia. Akaroa. Hutt. Raleigh. Alexandra, Inglewood. Rangiora. Amberley. INVERCARGILL Branch. Reefton. Arrow. Kaiapoi. Riverton. ASHBURTON Branch, Kaikoura. Ross. BLENHEIM Branch. Kowai Pass. Roxburgh. Bulls. Kumara. Russell. Cambridge. Lawrence, Sanson. Carlyle. Leeston. Southbridge. Carterton. LYTTELTON Branch, Stafford. Charleston. Mangawhare. Tapanui, OHRISTCHURCH Branch. Marton. Tauranga. Clinton. Masterton. Te Aro Clutha Ferry. Mataura, Te Awamutu. Coromandel. Mosgiel. Temuka. Cromwell. NAPIER Branch. TIMARU Branch. Dargaville. Naseby. TOKOMAIRIRO Branch, DUNEDIN Branch. NELSON Branch. Waikouaiti. North Dunedin. NEW PLYMOUTH Branch. Waimate. Featherston. Ngaruawahia (or Newcastle). / Waipawa. Foxton, Normanby. Waipukuran. Geraldine. OAMARU Branch. Wairoa. GISBORNE Branch. Opotiki. Waitahuna. Gore. Outram. WANGANUI Branch. GRAHAMSTOWN Branch. Oxford. Wangarei. GREYMOUTH Branch. Palmerston, South Waverley. Greytown. Palmerston, North WELLINGTON Branch. Halcombe. Picton. WESTPORT Branch. HAMILTON Branch. Port Chalmers. Winton. Hawera. Queenstown. Wyndham. This Bank grants DRAFTS on any of the above-named places, and transacts every description of BANKING BUSINESS connected with New Zealand, Australia, and Fiji on the most favourable terms. The London Office receives DEPOSITS at interest for fixed periods, on terms which may be learned on application. F. LARKWORTHY, Managing Director. 1 QUEEN VICTORIA STREET, LONDON, E.C. S. W. SILŇER AND Co.'s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. THE NATIONAL BANK OF NEW ZEALAND, LIMITED. Incorporated under the Companies Acts 1862 to 1879, and the New Zealand Act I., 1873. HEAD OFFICE: 37 LOMBARD STREET, LONDON, E.O. CAPITAL, £2,000,000. FIRST ISSUE, £1,000,000. PAID UP, £350,000. RESERVE FUND, £10,000. NUMBER OF SHAREHOLDERS ... ... ... ... 1,406. DIRECTORS. Deputy-Chairman-DUDLEY ROBERT SMITH. Esa. IE GRAHAME, Esq. K.C.M.G. EDWARD BRODIE HOARE, Esq. Sir CHARLES CLIFFORD. CHARLES MAGNIAC, Esq., M.P. ALEXANDER GRANT DALLAS, Esq. I JOHN MORRISON, Esq. SIDNEY YOUNG, Esq. General Manager-WILLIAM JOHNSTONE STEELE, Esq. (The BANK OF ENGLAND and BRANCHES. Bankers Messrs. BARNETTS, HOARES, HANBURYS, & LLOYD. (The ROYAL BANK of SCOTLAND. BRANCHES AND AGENCIES IN NEW ZEALAND: AUCKLAND. NAPIER. TIMARU. BALCLUTHA (or Clutha NELSON. TOKOMAIRIRO. Ferry). NEW PLYMOUTH. WAIKAIA BLENHEIM. OAMARU. WAIMATE. CHRISTCHURCH. OUTRAM WANGANUI. DUNEDIN. PORT CHALMERS. WELLINGTON. Do. (North.) REEFTON (West Coast). (TE ARO.) GREYMOUTH. RIVERTON. Do. (THORNDON. INVERCARGILL. TAPANUI. MOSGIEL. TAURANGA, Do. THE NATIONAL BANK OF NEW ZEALAND, LIMITED, 37 LOMBARD STREET, LONDON, E.C. Grants Letters of Credit and Drafts on New Zealand payable on demand, or Bills of Exchange at Thirty or Sixty days' sight; and these may also be obtained of any of the above-named Agents throughout ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, and IRELAND. Receives Deposits of £50 and upwards, for periods of from two to five years at a fixed rate of 5 per cent. per annum, and for shorter periods on terms which can be ascertained on application. Opens Current Accounts for the convenience of New Zealand constituents. Negotiates Drafts against Goods, on hypothecation of Bills of Lading, Invoices, and Insurance Policies. Collects Bills payable in New Zealand. Undertakes the Agency of constituents connected with New Zealand, the purchase and sale of New Zealand Government and other Securities, Shares, &c., receiving the same for custody, and drawing the Interest or Dividends thereon as they fall due; and Conducts every other description of Banking business between London and New Zealand. W. J. STEELE, GENERAL MANAGER. 37 LOMBARD STREET, LONDON, E.C., May 1880. HH 16 8. W. SILVER AND Co.'s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. LONDON & LANCASHIRE LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANY. HEAD OFFICE : LONDON: CORNER OF LEADENHALL STREET, CORNHILL. BOARD OF DIRECTION. Chairman-Colonel KINGSCOTE, C.B., M.P. Deputy-Chairman-Alderman Sir THOS. DAKIN. HON. EVELYN ASHLEY, M.P. | JOHN J. KINGSFORD, Esq. ABEL CHAPMAN, Esq. R. BARCLAY REYNOLDS, Esq. SAMUEL ĠURNEY SHEPPARD, Esq. PROGRESS OF THE COMPANY. Average Annual Amount of New Business for Five Years to Dec. 31, 1877:-- Sums Assured . . . . £318,120 New Premiums ; . nearly £10,000 Amount for the Year ending Dec. 31, 1879 (the 2nd of the New Quinquennium): Sums Assured . . . . . . . £338,148 Now Premiums . . . . . . £11,873 On this occasion the New Business covers a period of only Eleven Months, in order that the books for the New Premiums, as well as Renewals, might be closed on Dec. 31. The Amount of £12,984.17s. 4d, as the result of the past year was added to the Funds, which now stand at £183,329. 12s. 5d. Special attention is drawn to the Revised Moderate Rate now charged for persons proceeding to or residing in India, and to the improved facilities for Foreign Travel and Residence generally. Assurances of every description effected on most favourable terms. MELBOURNE BRANCH: 9 MARKET BUILDINGS, WILLIAM STREET. Secretary, THOMAS W. MOULE. SYDNEY BRANCH : NEW PITT STREET. W. II. MACKENZIE & CO. Agencies throughout the Colonies. . W. P. CLIREHLGJ, Manager and Actuary. S. W. SILVER AND CO.'S HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. 23 BEAN, WEBLEY, & CO. WWholesale, Export, & Manufacturing Stationers, ENGRAVERS, LITHOGRAPHERS, LETTERPRESS PRINTERS, AND ACCOUNT BOOK MANUFACTURERS, 34 & 35 ST. MARY-AT-HILL, EASTCHEAP, LONDON, E.O. Particular attention paid to all SHIPPING ORDERS, which are executed on the shortest notice. STEPHENS WRITING FLUIDS AND COPYING INKS. PARIS, 1867.-Silver Medal. HAVRE, 1868.-Silver Medal. AMSTERDAM, 1869.-Silver Medal. LYONS, 1872.-Prize Medal. VIENNA, 1873.-Prize Medal. PHILADELPHIA, 1878.-Medal of Merit. PARIS, 1878.-Silver Medal. SYDNEY. 1879-80_First Award. Being the highest award made at each exhibition. They embrace the higher qualities of Writing and Copying Inks, and each possesses some special character adapted to the many different requirements of correspondence and counting-house. These distinctive features, and their general excellence, make them preferable to, and more widely useful than the ordinary class of manufactures, STEPHENS' BLUE-BLACK WRITING FLUID. STEPHENS' BLUE-BLACK COPYING FLUID. STEPHENS' SCARLET INK FOR STEEL PENS. THE ABOVE, WITH EVERY DESCRIPTION OF WRITING AND COPYING INK, GUM MUCILAGE, to resist Fermentation in hot Climates, QUILLS AND SEALING WAX, Are Manufactured by H. C. STEPHENS, CHEMIST, Proprietor of Stephens' and H. C. Stephens' Labels and Trade Marks, ALDERSGATE STREET, LONDON, E.C. Sold by all Booksellers and Stationers throughout the world. S. W. SILVER AND Co.'s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. 25 ONE 'SPORTING'ARM FOR BOTH LARGE & SMALL GAME. The attention of Hunter-Sportsmen and other Travellers who desire to take- the least possible quantity and weight of equipment is directed to the advantages of the Transvaal,' the compactness and portability of which! are among its prominent features. THE 'TRANSVAAL' TrvԱԿ{\:ՀԵրի/]}}|Սալոս THկի լ որոստագրել | GUN AND RIFLE COMBINED, Is a short and light, but powerful Sporting Arm with Martini Breech action: for rapid firing, and has the New Barrel Detachment,' by means of which interchangeable barrels are adapted, to take Snider, Martini-Henyr, 577 Express, and No. 12 Rifle Ammunition, for big game; and shot barrels of 20, 16, or 12 Bore for Birds and ordinary sport. The Shot Barrels may be Choke-Bored or Cylinder for Ball or Shot. One Mould casts Hollow or Solid Bullets. By the Barrel Detachment, which is adapted without adding a single piece to the Rifle, the parts of the works which require oling and cleaning as well as the barrel itself, are exposed to view; whilst the length of the Arm is considerably reduced for packing. THE ' TRANSVAAL, The Transvaal' is fitted with With Interchangeable Shot Barrel, forming Gun and Silver's Patent Heel-Plate which Rifle combined. neutralizes the Recoil, and admits of the weapon being made unusually light; the extra weight of metal generally put into heavy shooting guns to counteract the recoil being dispensed with. Thus the Transvaal' is very handy for use on horseback, for which purpose the Transvaal’ Bucket has been specially designed. The weapon is also readily convertible into a Small-bore Rifle for shooting deer and small game, using revolver ammunition. DE DETI SANS With Patent Detachment, showing Barrel separated from Stock, and facilities for cleaning. A very considerable number of Transvaal’Rifles are in use in many parts of the World, and have received tbe unqualified approval of many well-known hunters, Weight of Rifle, 7 lb.; length of barrel, 27 inches; case when packed. 2 ft. 5 in. long. PRICES: Transvaal,' with Martini or Snider Barrels and Safety Bolt, £7.12s.; ditto, with .450 Express Barrel, £10; with ·577 Express or No. 12 Rifle Barrels, £12. 12s. Interchangeable 12, 16, or 20-Shot Barrels, 60s. each. Converting Chambers to fit Martini Barrel, and taking Revolver Cartridge, 5s. each. FULL PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION TO S. W. SILVER & Co., Sun Court 67 Cornhill, London, E.C. 28 S. W. SILVER AND Co.'s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. S. W. SILVER & CO.'S DEPARTMENTS. CLOTHING of every description for use in INDIA, the COLONIES, and EVERY PART OF THE WORLD-including Naval and Military Uniforms—PRIVATE CLOTHING FOR HOME ÚSE, and of Gossamer Cloths, Tropical Tweeds, and other Specialities for various Climates, &c., SHIRTS, Pyjamahs, Hosiery and Underclothing, &c. PORTABLE BARRACK AND CABIN FURNITURE; Deck Chairs, Ship Bedding, Packing Cases, and Boxes for the Hold; Tents, Hammocks, &c. ORIENTAL AND OVERLAND TRUNKS of regulation EST Cabin size, Portmanteaus, 'Gladstone' and fitted Bags, Hat Cases, Dressing Cases, and Leather Goods generally. Japanned Tin Air-tight 1 Boxes fitted with Indiarubber. FIREARMS, including Guns, Rifles and Revolvers of the most improved patterns, also S. W. SILVER & CO'S Patent Transvaal’Rifle, and Patent Anti-Recoil Heel-plate, and Steel Chambers for converting á Breech-loader into a Muzzle-loader; Ammunition, Loading Imple- ments, &c. SADDLERY: Colonial’ Saddles—Pack Saddles, &c.-Web Bridles -Mule Harness-Stock Whips, &c. COLONISTS' TOOLS: Roll-Up Cases of Farriers' or Carpenters" Tools, Felling Axes, &c.-Surveying and Scientific Instruments—Sporting Knives, &c., in every variety. WATERPROOF GARMENTS and Indiarubber Goods of L every description, Oilskin Suits and Sou’Westers. VENTILATED FELT AND PITH HELMETS, TWEED HATS AND CAPS. LADIES' AND CHILDREN'S UNDERCLOTHING T FOR INDIAN, COLONIAL, AND HOME USE. CONTRACTS for the Supply of Clothing, Accoutrements, &e., for Home and Colonial Volunteer Forces, and for Emigrants' necessaries, &c. EXPORT DEPARTMENT : Indents entrusted to S. W. Silver & Co., for Agricultural Implements, Machinery, Seeds, Furniture, and Goods of every description will be carefully executed, and the goods forwarded in the most economical manner to British Possessions and elsewhere all over the world. PASSAGES SECURED, INSURANCES EFFECTED, PASSENGERS' BAGGAGE AND GOODS OF ALL KINDS RECEIVED, PACKED, AND SHIPPED. w COLONIAL HANDBOOKS, MAPS, &;- CIRCULAR NOTES (S. W. SILVER & CO.'S) IN DUPLICATE, PAYABLE ALL THE WORLD OVER. SUN COURT, 67 CORNHILL, LONDON. 30 S. W. SILVER AND COO'S HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. OF IMPERIAL FEDERATION GREAT BRITAIN AND HER COLONIES. By FREDK. YOUNG, Handsomely Bound, Small 4to. 6s. WESTMINSTER REVIEW :-'Brings all the aspects of the subject forward in a controversial form. the writers differing somewhat from one another on points of detail, though mostly agreed on the general policy of incorporating the Colonies closely with each other and with the United Kingdom.' GLOBE: The arguments in favour of the proposal will be found stated with much force and clear- ness. It is probably a subject destined to be more warmly debated hereafter.' ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS:-* It affords & comprehensive display of various shades of opinion with reference to the best plan of organising federal union.' DAILY TELEGRAPH :-*With evidently earnest faith in the practicability of averting the disruption and loss of our Colonial Empire, a compilation of letters which originally appeared in 1he Colonies-a journal devoted to the interests of English settlements in all parts of the world-has been made by Mr. Frederick Young. ... The book may fairly be commended to all who study the outlook of colonial fortunes.' STANDARD :-'A valuable contribution to the discussion of a large question.' SCOTSMAN :-'The volume is likely to be useful, as presenting a vigorous statement of both sides of a most important question.' CIVIL SERVICE REVIEW._' We earnestly commend Mr. Young's valuable book to the attention of the public.' HOME NEWS :_' A most valuable book , well worth reading. THE POCKET DOCTOR FOR THB TRAVELLER AND COLONIST. BY HARRY LEACH, M.R.C.P. Late Medical Officer of Health to the Port of London, &c. Second Edition, revised. With Coloured Season's Chart of the World. Limp cloth, price 38. This little book shows what ought to be done and what ought not to be done in cases of illness or injury. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. LANCET.–Such a work was very much needed. It is, indeed, surprising that so few such exist, considering the number and extent of our Colonies. What the Colonist wants are plain, praetical, short accounts of disease and treatment, and with these he is now well supplied in this little work. ILLUSTRATED LONDON NEWS.—May be strongly recommended to all travellers ashore and afloat, including yachtsmen, sportsmen, settlers in the bush and the prairie, railway engineers in India, miners, sheep-farmers, and lonely Colonists, who are beyond the reach of medical aid PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL.— It is one of the most practical handbooks of the kind we have yet seen for the purposes of the ship captain and Colonist, and well calculated to meet most emergencies.' I i S. W. SILVER & CO., Sun Court, 67 Cornhill, London. S. W. SILVER AND Co.'s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. 33 CUAL PRODDRAM BY APPOINTMENT TO HER MAJESTY'Rev FRENCH, RUSSIAN, AND ITALIAN GOLD MEDALS. CHARLES FRODSHAM & Co. 84 STRAND, LONDON, W.C. Makers of Clocks, Watches, &c. OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. ONLY PLACE OF BUSINESS- 84 STRAND, LONDON. SIMNITT & CO. BOOTMAKERS, 18 BISHOPSGATE STREET, LONDON, In returning thanks to their numerous customers in Australia, India, China, and the Colonies for their kind support, beg to renew their Instructions for Self-Measurement, a close attention to which will ensure the continuance of such an article as that for which their Firm has been so long celebrated. Lay the foot on a piece of paper, and take the outline with a pen or pencil, then take the size round the ball or joint; the same round the instep; again from the heel to the upper part of the instep, and round the calf. If Riding or Long Hunting Boots are required, it will be necessary to state the length of the leg, and measurement round the thigh. Orders to be accompanied by a remittance or reference for payment in London. A SPECIAL DEPARTMENT FOR LADIES,