THE
G
AUSTRALASIAN
ARMERE


i
ADVERTISEMENTS.
Zu-

U.CD. LIBRARY
BBS Speedzielai
PARA
Roll In
Til
BONGO
Avis
MELBOURNE WOOL WAREHOUSES.
R. GOLDSBROUGH & CO., LIMITED,
In which are amalgamated the Australasian Agency and Banking Corpora-
tion, Limited, and R. Goldsbrough & Co.
CAPITAL
£3,000,000.
Directors :
RICHARD GOLDSBROUGH, Esq., Chairman.
J. S. HORSFALL, Esq.
ANDREW ROWAN, Esq.
A. W. ROBERTSON, Esq.
D. M. PARKER, Esq.
Head Office : BOURKE & WILLIAM STS., MELBOURNE.
Branches :
40 Hunter Street, SYDNEY, & 156 & 157 Leadenhall Street, LONDON.
WOOL BROKERS, STOCK & STATION AGENTS,
MAKE LIBERAL CASH ADVANCES ON MOST FAVOURABLE TERMS
On Wool, Tallow, Hides, Wheat, and other Produce, whether for Sale in the
Colony, or Shipment to London ; also on Stock, Stations, and all
descriptions of
SQUATTING SECURITIES.
AUCTION SALES OF WOOL
Held twice each Week during the Season, and at frequent intervals during
the Winter months.
SALES OF TALLOW, HIDES, SHEEPSKINS, AND OTHER PRODUCE,
On TUESDAYS, THURSDAYS, AND SATURDAYS.
Current Accounts and all Departments of Financial Business conducted.
Full Rates of Interest allowed on Fixed Deposits.
F. E. STEWART, General Manager.


ADVERTISEMENTS.
ii
TANGYE BROTHERS ,
ENGINEERS
And
Importers of Steam Engines
(HOISTING
AND
WINDING).
TANCES FETS
Hydraulic Machinery
Patent Lifting Blocks
Tangye’s Steam Pumps Tangye’s Ram
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Saw Benches Band Saws
Weighing Machines, &c., &c.
Gas Engines.
Crab Winches

I!and Pumps
Hydraulic Jacks
Tangye's Governors, &c., &c.
Shaping Machines Root's Blowers
Panching and Shearing Machines
Amateur Lathes
Screw Jacks
Engineers’ Lathes

TANGYE BROTHERS,
CORNWALL HOUSE,
Collins Street West,
MELBOURNE,
AND
119 Bathurst Street,
SYDNEY,


iii
ADVERTISEMENTS.
THE WONDERFUL
WERTHEIM
Sewing Machines
AND
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RETAIL BRANCHES
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AT
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GEELONG, STAWELL, MARYBOROUGH, HAMILTON,
BEECHWORTH,
AND IN EVERY TOWN IN
NEW SOUTH WALES, QUEENSLAND, NEW ZEALAND,
SOUTH AUSTRALIA, and TASMANIA.


ADVERTISEMENTS.
iv

ADAMSON
WILLIAM
ESTABLISHED 1852.
ESTABLISHED 1852.
SEED MERCHANT
MELBOURNE
AGRICULTURAL SEEDS.
Cocksfoot, Rye Grass, Prairie Grass, White Clover, Red Clover, Alsyke
Clover, Cowgrass, &c., &c.
Samples and Prices forwarded post free on application.
VEGETABLE SEEDS.
New and true to name.
All Vegetable Seeds, except Peas and Beans, post free.
FLOWER SEEDS.
The Largest Collection in the Australian Colonies. Adamson's Incom-
parable Collections, 2/6, 5/-, 7/6, 10/-, 15/- and 21/-, post free.
Adamson's Australian Gardener.
Eleventh Edition.
Has more than three times the circulation of any other work yet published
on gardening
Price, 1/6 each ; cloth bound, 2/6. Postage 3d. extra.
ADAMSON'S Beautifully Illustrated and Descriptive Catalogue
of Seeds, Bulbs, &c., &c., post free.
AGENT for G. BRUNNING and Son, Nurserymen.
PLANT CATALOGUE POST FREE.
WILLIAM ADAMSON,
Wholesale and Retail Seed Merchant,
43 COLLINS STREET WEST, MELBOURNE,
VICTORIA,


ADVERTISEMENTS.
THE NEWEST NOVELS.
SPECIAL AUSTRALIAN EDITIONS.
Picture Boards.
MRS. ARGLES
WALTER BESANT
ROBERT BUCHANAN
WILKIE COLLINS
B. L. FARJEON
JUSTIN M‘CARTHY
D. C. MURRAY
GEORGES OHNET
MRS. OLIPHANT
OUIDA
Doris
Dorothy Forster
Uncle Jack, &c.
Foxglove Manor
The New Abelard
“I Say, No!”
Grif
Great Porter Square
The House of White Shadows
Maid of Athens
The Way of the World
The Ironmaster
Madam
Frescoes: Dramatic Sketches
The Princess Napraxine
Wanda
The Canon's Ward
Kit
The Hands of Justice
Huckleberry Finn
The Prince and the Pauper
The Breadwinners
JAMES PAYN
F. W. ROBINSON
MARK TWAIN
ANONYMOUS
1
GEORGE ROBERTSON & COMPANY,
MELBOURNE, SYDNEY, ADELAIDE, & BRISBANE.


ADVERTISEMENTS.
vi
THE NEW HIGH-ARM
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Matchless, Rudge, Humber, and Sanspareil
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Matchless, Coventry-Rotary, Rudge, Humber,
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The New Sewing Machine Lamp is adapted for any Sewing
Machine, or can be used as an ordinary Table Lamp.
PERAMBULATORS
In every Variety.
Importers—HENRY BISHOP & CO.,
79 BOURKE STREET EAST, MELBOURNE.
U.CO, LIDRARY


vii
ADVERTISEMENTS.
LAW, SOMNER & CO'S
TESTED
SEEDS

SEEDS,
K Send for our ILLUSTRATED and DES-
CRIPTIVE CATALOGUE of
Vegetable, Flower, and Field
BULBS, FLORISTS' SUP-
, PLIES, and IMPLEMENTS
of ALL KINDS, posted FREE on application to
PLANTS,
LAW, SOMNER & Co.,
seed and Plant Merchants,
87 SWANSTON STREET,
MELBOURNE.
And CREMORNE NURSERY, RICHMOND.


Portakandle and eamente miriazi enega
w Rosen
il Jeriz. O. Grao ewe
Finan
THE
133
AUSTRALASIAN FARMER
A PRACTICAL HANDBOOK FOR THE FARM AND STATION
BY THE AGRICULTURAL, HORTICULTURAL, AND PASTORAL
STAFF OF THE AUSTRALASIAN"
Published for
WILSON AND MACKINNON, PROPRIETORS OF THE
AUSTRALASIAN
BY
GEORGE ROBERTSON & COMPANY
MELBOURNE, SYDNEY, ADELAIDE, AND BRISBANE





CONTENTS.
PAGE
INTRODUCTION
..
...
CHAPTER
1.-SOILS
...
...
...
1
II.-THE COMPOSITION OF PLANTS
...
...
...
3
III._SETTLING UPON LAND
...
...
..
6
IV.-CULTIVATION...
...
:
...
20
...
V.-IRRIGATION
...
...
...
...
51
...
VI.-GRAIN CROPS...
..
...
...
62
VII.-THE HAY CROP
...
...
87
VIII.-CULTIVATED PASTURES
«.
...
...
91
IX.-GREEN CROPS...
...
...
...
...
99
X.-ROOT CROPS
...
...
...
...
101
XI.-MISCELLANEOUS CROPS
...
...
...
106
XII.-VINES ...
...
...
127
XIII.-DAIRYING
...
...
138
XIV.-FARM CALENDAR
...
..
...
151
XV.-THE GARDEN OF THE FARM
...
...
...
178
XVI.-THE FRUIT GARDEN...
..
...
...
198


iv
CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAPTER
XVII.-SHEEP HUSBANDRY...
...
...
.
207
XVIII.-HORSES
...
...
...
...
240
XIX.-CATTLE
..
...
...
...
...
249
XX.-SWINE...
...
.
...
...
...
...
264
XXI.-POULTRY
...
...
268
XXII.-BEES
...
...
275
XXIII.-RULES AND RECIPES
...
...
282
XXIV.-THE TREATMENT OF WOOL
...
...
293
XXV.-LAND ACTS
..
...
306
XXVI.-THE FENCES STATUTE
...
...
...
335
INDEX ..
...
...
...
...
...
...
345


INTRODUCTION.
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER is intended to supply the
occupiers of land in the colonies with that class of practical
information which cannot be obtained in existing works upon
agriculture. In the Australasian colonies the various rural
industries connected with the cultivation of the soil and the
breeding of live stock are carried on under new conditions,
requiring the adoption of methods differing widely from those
followed in the older countries of the Northern Hemisphere.
There are peculiarities of climates, differences of soils, the higher
rate of labour ruling in a sparsely-populated new country, the
value of land as an element in the cost of production, the
market value of products, and various other circumstances
which render it necessary to carry on all branches of rural
industry upon a system suited to the requirements of local
conditions. Hence it is that standard agricultural treatises
prepared in other countries contain but little of the practical
information which the colonial cultivator or stock-breeder
requires. The general principles of agricultural science are
taught in English and other works upon the subject, but the
directions given for applying those principles to the operations


vi
INTRODUCTION.
of the farm, the station, the vineyard, orchard, or garden cannot
be taken as a guide under the altered conditions met with in
the Australasian colonies. It is probably largely due to the
absence of any reliable guide in these matters, and to the
evident want of such information which is experienced by land-
owners and occupiers, that the newspaper press in the colonies
has come to devote such a large share of attention to agricultural
subjects. The Australasian, as the leading weekly journal of
the colonies, has from time to time enlarged its agricultural
department, the spread of settlement and the rapid develop-
ment of rural industries demanding for its readers an increasing
amount of practical information of the kind unsupplied in
available works upon agriculture. At first the operations of
the cultivator, as well as of the grazier, were largely experi-
mental in the new surroundings of this part of the world. As
experience was gained, the results were noted and published in
the newspapers, and thus the best methods of carrying on the
various operations became known to those who came after the
pioneers. There is still much to be learned from the results of
future experiments, and the Australasian's work of collecting,
by means of its staff of special reporters, and disseminating
through its columns agricultural information as it becomes
available, will no doubt have to be continued for a long time.
Even in England agricultural science continues to make new
discoveries, and we may, therefore, expect that in the Southern
Hemisphere there is available a wide and fruitful field for
investigation. A great deal has been learned, however, by the
intelligent and enterprising men who have been for a generation


INTRODUCTION.
vii
or two following farming pursuits in these colonies. There is,
in fact, an unwritten law of Australasian practice in regard to
all branches of farming and grazing, and it is this which the
present work attempts to put into collective form.
The con-
ductors of the Australasian have been so frequently asked to
recommend their readers a suitable book upon colonial farm-
ing that the want of such a work as is now provided has been
clearly shown.
The weekly list of questions which are
answered in the correspondence columns of the journal has
also formed a guide as to the lines upon which the work
should be prepared. With such a guide to the require-
ments of the reader before them, the members of the agri-
cultural, pastoral, and horticultural staff of the journal have
endeavoured in the following pages to provide a thoroughly
practical band-book for the farm and station. The book is
not intended to take the place of more exhaustive standard
works, but to apply the principles laid down in these to
the practical conditions of farming in the Australasian
colonies. Although confining the treatment of each branch
of the subject within reasonable limits, it is believed that the
directions include everything that is really essential, and the
scope of the book is sufficiently comprehensive, including
chapters upon all the industries connected with the occupation
of land in the colonies. Directions are given concerning
settling upon land, and the various operations of cultivating
and harvesting cereal, root, and green crops, together with
chapters upon pastures, vineyards, orchards, gardens, hop
grounds, and tobacco plantations. The live stock department


viii
INTRODUCTION.
of the book deals with horses, sheep, cattle, swine, poultry, and
bees, and directions are given upon dairying, the treatment of
wool, the drying of raisins, the preservation of fruit, and other
rural operations. The information has been methodically
arranged, and a complete index has been provided to facilitate
references to any department of the work.
72
OFFICE,
THE “ AUSTRALASIAN
May, 1885.


THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
CHAPTER I.
SOILS.
The soil is the basis of all agricultural operations, being that
portion of the earth's surface which supports vegetation. Its
origin is the rocks, and it has been formed by the various
forces of nature, which have disintegrated the mineral
particles, and produced, by chemical changes and mechanical
combinations, the conditions favourable to vegetable life.
Soils differ in character according to the composition of the
rocks from which they have been formed, and according to
the proportion in which they contain their different con-
stituent parts, as well as according to the physical agencies
which have been most potent in their formation. Owing to
the numerous varieties of soils, all systems of classification are
more or less unsatisfactory; but that which divides the soils
into classes according to the proportion of clay and sand
which they contain is popularly adopted as sufficiently accurate
for practical purposes.
Pure clay, consisting of silica and alumina, is a substance
in which the particles are so fine as to be perfectly
soft to the touch. It readily absorbs and persistently
retains water, forming, when moist, an adhesive and
impervious mass.
Pure sand is the reverse in characteristics from clay. It
consists of small granules of rock, which do not
adhere to each other, and it is rough and gritty to
the touch. Sand will absorb only a small quantity
of moisture, and it possesses a very limited capacity
for retaining water.
Strong clay soil consists of clay mixed with 5 to 15
per
cent. of sand.
Clay loam is a soil containing clay, mixed with from 15
to 30 per cent. of sand.
2


2
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
A loamy soil consists of clay and from 30 to 60 per cent.
of sand.
Sandy loam is a soil in which sand predominates, the
clay amounting to from 10 to 40 per cent.
A sandy soil contains over 90 per cent. of sand, and less
than 10 per cent. of clay.
This classification of soils gives five divisions, but the terms
vegetable soil, alluvial soil, volcanic soil, marly soil, and
calcareous soil are also in common use, and, therefore, may be
taken as convenient names for designating the kinds of soil to
which they refer.
Vegetable soil contains more than 5 per cent. of decayed
vegetable matter, called mould or humus. When
soils of this class contain 60 or 70 per cent. of
vegetable matter, they are also called peaty soils.
Alluvial soils are those which have been formed by the
action of water, the substances of which they are
composed having been carried by water, and deposited
in their existing position.
Volcanic soil is the name given to soil formed directly
from lava or volcanic rocks.
A marly soil is one which contains from 5 to 20 per
cent.
of lime.
Calcareous soils are those which contain over 20 per
cent. of lime.
The subsoil, as its name implies, is the stratum which lies
under the surface soil.
When soil is exposed to the action of fire, a portion of it is
consumed and dispersed in the form of gases, and a portion
remains in the form of ashes. The portion which passes off is
organic matter, and that which remains is inorganic, or
mineral. It is important to remember the two distinct
characters of the matter of which soils are composed. The
inorganic or mineral substances are derived directly from the
rocks, while the organic matter has been derived indirectly
through organized plants or animals, or through the atmo-
sphere. The following are the inorganic or mineral constituents
of soils :-
Silica
Lime
Phosphoric acid
Potash
Carbonic acid
Soda
Sulphuric acid
Magnesia
Chlorine
Oxide of iron
Alumina


SOILS.
3
The organic constituents of soils are carbon, oxygen, nitro-
gen, hydrogen.
The fertility of soils depends upon the proportion in which
these constituents are contained, and upon the condition in
which these elements exist. Thus a fertile soil not only con-
tains a sufficient quantity of the elements necessary for the
support of vegetable life, but contains those elements in a
condition which renders them available as plant food. In the
treatment of soils, therefore, it is essential to bring about the
conditions necessary to make the constituent parts available
for the use of plants, to maintain the supply of the various
elements required by the crops which are cultivated, and to
add any constituents that may be absent, or not present in
sufficient quantities.
CHAPTER II.
THE COMPOSITION OF PLANTS.
As all vegetation is supported by the soil and the atmosphere,
it follows that the constituents of plants are identical with the
elements of which the soil and the atmosphere are composed.
The substances of which plants are composed are divided into
two classes, viz., inorganic or mineral, and organic. The
mineral or inorganic parts are those which remain in the form
of ash when plants are subjected to the effect of fire, and the
organic parts are those which pass off in the form of gases
under similar treatment. All the inorganic elements of plants
are derived from the soil; but the organic constituents are
obtained partly from the atmosphere and partly from the soil.
In the process of vegetation chemical changes are wrought,
and chemical compounds are produced, bringing into existence
substances which are distinct from the elements of which they
are composed. Chemical changes are also produced on the
soil and atmosphere apart from those produced by vegetation,
so that when the composition of plants is analyzed a number
are found which have not been named in treat-
ing of the constituents of soils.
THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE ORGANIC PART OF PLANTS.-
The organic matter of which plants are composed consists of
the following elements-carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
of substances


4
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
sulphur, and phosphorus. Chemical compounds produced
from these elements are found in the organic parts of
plants, and the compounds are divided into two classes
viz., nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous. The nitrogenous
substances are composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and
nitrogen ; while the non-nitrogenous bodies contain carbon,
oxygen, and hydrogen, without nitrogen. The following are
the principal constituents of the organic parts of plants, thus
classified:
Non-nitrogenous.
Nitrogenous.
Cellulose
Albumen
Starch
Fibrine
Sugar
Caseine
Gum
Oil
A large proportion of all vegetable matter consists of water,
which is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. When the
water is evaporated by heating the vegetable matter in an
oven, what remains consists of combustible and non-combus-
tible substances. The combustible part, or that which can be
consumed by fire, passing off in the form of gases, consists of
organic matter; and that which remains in the form of ash, is
inorganic or mineral matter. The following table (MacIvor's)
shows the proportion of water, organic, and inorganic matter,
contained in several farm plants :-
Peas.
Clover Hay. Potatoes.
15.0 75.57
14.2 2.06
14.0
23.5
Wheat.
Grain. Straw.
14.4 14.4
13.0
2.0
18.54
30.1
Water
Albuminous bodies
Starch, sugar, and other
non-nitrogenous bodies
Cellulose (fibre)...
Fat
Ash
37.2
24.8
3.1
5.7
2.11
0.75
0.99
50.0
9.0
1.0
2.5
67.0
3.0
0.6
2.0
47.5
0.5
5.5
100.0 100.00 100.0 100.0 100.0
Taking vegetable produce after the watery constituents
have been dispelled, or in a perfectly dry state, it is found to
contain chiefly the following substances, in the proportion
stated :
Wheat.
Clover Hay. Potatoes. Peas.
Grain. Straw.
Carbon
47.4 44.0 46.5 46.1 48.9
Hydrogen...
5.0 5.8 6.2
5.8 5.3
Oxygen
37.8 44.7 40.0 43.4 38.4
Nitrogen
2.1 1.5 4.2 2.3 0.4
Ash
7.7 4.0
3.1
2.4 7.0
:::::
::::
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0


THE COMPOSITION OF PLANTS.
Grain.
Straw.
Grain.
Straw.
Roots.
...
7.8
8.3
THE MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF PLANTS.—Nearly all the
mineral constituents of soil are found in the composition of
plants. They generally exist in the form of compounds, to
which distinctive names are given. The following elements
and compounds are the principal constituents of the ash
of plants
Potash
Phosphoric acid
Soda
Sulphuric acid
Lime
Carbonic acid
Magnesia
Silica
Oxide of iron
Chlorine
The proportion in which these mineral constituents exist in
several different plants is shown in the following table by
MacIvor:
WHEAT.
PEAS. MANGELS.
SUGAR
Leaves. CANE.
Potash
31.1 11.5 40.4 21.8 46.6 25.5 13.7
Soda
3.5 2.9 3.7 5.3 18.4 23.3 3.1
Lime
3.1
6.2
4.2 37.9 5.9 10.4 5.1
Magnesia
12.2 2.6 8.0 7.7 4.8 9.7 13.0
Oxide of iron
0.8
1.2
Phosphoric acid 46.2 5.4 36.3
5.4 6.6
Sulphuric
2.4 2.9
3.5
5.6 3.7 7.2 6.4
Carbonic
Silica
1.7
66.3
0.9
4.0 3.3 50.0
Chlorine
2.3 6.1 9.9 17.8 2.4
From the foregoing statements in regard to the composi-
tion of plants it is evident that in the process of vegetation
the plant derives the substances of which it is composed from
the soil and the atmosphere. Water, the source of which is
the atmosphere, is the largest component of most plants, while
of dry vegetable produce the larger part consists of organic or
non-inineral substances, the mineral constituents forming the
smallest part of the plant. It is observable, too, that different
plants are composed of the various constituents in different
proportions, that different parts of a plant contain a different
proportion of substances, and that a plant absorbs varying
quantities of constituent elements at different periods of its
growth. A knowledge of these facts guides the agriculturist in
choosing the crops most suitable to his land, in manuring, and
in arranging his rotation of crops, &c. The constituents of
soils and plants have only been named in the foregoing brief
chapters, but, as complete knowledge upon this branch of
agriculture is of great value, the farmer is recommended to
consult a text-book on chemistry in order to learn the pro-
perties of the various substances referred to.
5.7
...


6
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
E
CHAPTER III.
1
SETTLING UPON LAND.
As the largest proportion of the land in the Australian
colonies is unoccupied, except for grazing purposes, taking
up new country and forming homestead settlements is
likely to form an important branch of rural industry for
a lengthened period. In addition to the land yet unoccupied
there are extensive settlements still in the preliminary stage,
so that the details of settling upon new holdings possess an
interest for a large proportion of the rural population. For
the terms upon which Crown lands can be occupied the reader
is referred to the chapter at the end of this book, in which the
leading features of the Land Acts of the different colonies are
given. In America, and most other countries, the first con-
sideration of the settler is a house to protect himself from the
severity of the weather, but in Australia the genial climate,
with its mild winter, enables the settler to place house-building
in a secondary position. It is only in the south island of New
Zealand that the average amount of attention must, of
necessity, be paid to this department of pioneering work, and
even there the winters are much less severe than in the United
States or British America. The Australian settler can live in
tents or quickly-built huts until the more urgent wants of his
new position are supplied. His first care should be a supply
of water for himself and his stock; he next must fence in his
holding, and then attend in due course to house-building and
cultivation. It will thereupon be the proper course to treat
of these departments of pioneering work in their natural
order.
PROVIDING FOR WATER.
The settler who is fortunate enough to be near a permanent
stream or lake will be saved the necessity of making this
question his first consideration, but in the majority of
cases a permanent supply of water has to be provided
upon newly occupied land. It is a mistake to hurry on
with fencing and cultivation before taking steps to provide
water for domestic purposes and stock in the summer
months. The first work in the dry inland districts should be
the making of the dam, the excavation of the tank, or the
sinking of the well. Care should be taken that the well is not
a shallow surface one, which will dry up when most required.
1


SETTLING UPON LAND.
The dam should be provided with a wide bye-wash to prevent
its being taken away by the floods, and it should have a wall
of puddled clay in the centre of the embankment extending
through the surface to a solid subsoil. The greatest mistake
in making tanks or dams is to provide such small reservoirs
that the supply of water becomes exhausted when most re-
quired. Let the reservoir be large enough to hold at least
two years' supply of water, and then the settler can safely
begin to think of fencing and cultivation. For further remarks
upon water supply see the chapter upon IRRIGATION.
FENCING.
Fencing and subdivision are important matters in the
colonies, where, both upon purely grazing estates and farms,
stock-keeping upon pastures is extensively carried on. In the
mild climate of Australia, where stock can thrive upon pastures
all the year round, and where housing and stall feeding have
not to be resorted to, more than ordinary attention has to be
paid to fencing. In many countries, such as Belgium, Holland,
Italy, France, as well as China and other Asiatic countries,
there are seldom fences between the different holdings, and
in the Eastern States of America a similar absence of fences is
observable. In some of the Eastern States of America “no
fence laws" are enacted, only such fields as are kept in per-
manent pasture are fenced in, while the stock is herded on the
remaining land during certain seasons of the year. No stock
is allowed to go into the fields until autumn, and crops have
to be removed by a certain date; while each farmer is allowed
to run a certain number of animals, according to the size of his
holding, upon the open land of the district. In Australia,
however, permanent pasture is always the largest part of the
land, and the rule is for every settler to fence in his holding,
be it large or small. Even the pastoral tenants who occupy
large stock runs upon lease from the Crown adopt some system
of fencing the boundaries. In the Western and South-western
States of America, where extensive sheep and cattle runs or
are occupied, the herding system is adopted, the
stockowners having no legal right to their runs; but in Texas,
New Mexico, Arizona, and California, where there are large
freehold estates, fencing is rapidly taking the place of the old
plan of shepherding and herding. In Australia, where all de-
partments of the grazing industry are further advanced than
in America, experience has shown good fencing and complete
subdivision to be highly profitable.
ranges


8
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
ADVANTAGES OF SUBDIVISION.—Whether for cultivation or
grazing purposes land must be subdivided in order to be
economically employed. Where grazing alone is carried on it
is necessary, in order to carry on the various departments of
breeding and to obtain the full benefit of the pastures.
Skilful breeding cannot be carried on without several pad-
docks for the different sexes and ages of stock, while, as
affording a change of pasture alone, subdivision is necessary.
When stock are allowed to roam over an extensive range
of
country, they tread down and soil a certain extent of pasture,
and lose the relish for the whole. The finer grasses are
eaten out and the coarser kinds are untouched, while feeding
time is lost in travelling to water. The same piece of
country, divided into several paddocks, each paddock being
supplied with water, will keep a much larger quantity of
stock in better condition. When one paddock begins to get
stale, the stock is removed to another which is fresh, the
coarser grasses are kept down, the finer grasses preserved, and,
while the pastures are kept in good order, the animals thrive
on account of the frequent change of food and the nearness of
the water. The grazing properties of the Western District of
Victoria are known to carry fully twice the number of sheep
and cattle that they did before fencing and subdivision were
adopted. When agriculture is combined with grazing the
importance of subdivision is even more apparent, for without
numerous paddocks it is impossible to make full use of the
pastures while the crops are growing.
BOUNDARY FENCES. - In erecting a boundary fence the
landowner has to consider not only the keeping of his own
stock in, but the keeping of other stock out. All kinds of
travelling stock-horses, cattle, and sheep—have to be kept
off his land; and, if he wishes to be a successful breeder of pure-
bred animals
, he must be fenced against stray mongrel bulls,
stallions, and rams. The wild animal that can jump, and the
loafing settler's starved brute, that will push and crawl for a
mouthful of stolen grass, have alike to be taken into consi-
deration. The boundary fence, therefore, that will give
satisfaction must be high, close, and strong. Live hedges
along the boundary fence will assist to make it close and high,
and will not only provide shelter, but keep stock from being
disturbed by the traffic upon the roads. For further remarks
upon hedges, see the “Farm Calendar” in another part of this
volume.
SUBDIVISION FENCES.- While all kinds of stock have to be


10
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
to suggest such fences, posts and rails should be used in
preference. The log fence, at best, should be looked upon as
a pioneering expedient, and, before timber becomes too scarce
in the locality concerned, posts and rails or wire should be
substituted. With the erection of the post-and-rail fence on
the boundary, a hedge should be planted. In the case of
the subdivision lines, hedges planted along the log fences
may be made to serve the purpose of dividing the fields after
the logs have been removed.
POST-AND-RAIL FENCING. Where
-Where local circumstances
suggest posts and rails as the most economical material for
fencing, the most important point is to have the fences properly
erected. The kind of timber available depends upon the
locality, and the characteristics of the different timbers are
generally locally known. The harder timbers, such as red gum,
are generally the best for posts, while other varieties, such as
messmate, are equally suitable for rails. Charring the posts
is a course justified by experience, and dressing the posts with
coal tar is considered equally effective in preserving the part
inserted in the ground from decay. As the part most liable
to decay is that which is near the surface, the usual course is
to char or dress with tar a belt of the post about a foot in
width 2 ft. 6 in. from the end, so that when the post is
put 3 feet in the ground the protected part is a little above
and a little below the surface. Effective boring machines can
now be used, which economize the work of mortising the posts.
The strength of the rail should not be destroyed in adzing,
but the rails should be put in so as to completely fill the
mortise. It is generally found that wires can be advantage-
ously used along with posts and rails. Good substantial sheep
and cattle proof fences are made with a top rail, or two
or three rails, with from two to six wires, according to circum-
stances. In making a sheep-proof fence the combination of
rails and wires is preferable to rails alone, being lighter on the
posts and less liable to be effected by winds.
WIRE FENCES.—In erecting wire fences a top rail should be
provided wherever practicable, especially on the boundaries of
a property, but there are extensive areas in the colonies where
the price of timber renders this course too expensive. Where
wire fencing is adopted, timber is generally scarce, and it is an
important object to use as little as possible. When a top rail
is used, posts have to be the width of the ordinary panels
apart, and this also contributes to the difficulty of adopting
the top rail system. Wire fences, which are fairly effective in


SETTLING UPON LAND,
11
keeping stock in their proper paddocks, are erected without the
top rail, and with the posts much farther apart than in the
ordinary post-and-rail fence. In some cases the wires are
run through battens, which, occupying a position midway
between the posts, serve to keep the wires in their places, and
not as substitutes for more substantial supports. Good strong
straining posts, well shored, are important, especially when the
ordinary posts are placed very wide apart. Very handy and
effective wire strainers are now made, which facilitate the
tightening of the wires, and it is advantageous in every way
to keep the wire fence well strained up, and in good order.
The use of iron studs instead of posts, besides being of service
in stony ground, where the sinking of post holes is difficult,
is economical where timber is dear. The relative cost of timber
and iron, taking durability into account, will be a guide as
to which kind of supports to adopt.
STONE WALLS.--For durability and serviceableness no fence
is superior to the well-built stone wall. When cultivation is
to be carried on in stony districts, the stone wall, like the log
fence, can be erected in conjunction with clearing the land.
In such localities also it is difficult to sink post holes, while
the material is abundant and handy for building stone walls.
If the well-built stone wall is to be commended, the badly-built
wall is to be emphatically condemned. The well-built wall
lasts for generations, requiring but little repairs. That which
is badly built is continually tumbling down, and requiring a
constant expenditure of labour in keeping it in order. Con-
stant supervision is needed in the erection of stone walls, as
the slightest carelessness or want of skill on the part of the
builder entails trouble and labour for all time in constant
repairing. The cheap, badly built wall consists of two shell
walls, with loose stones filled in between. Such an erection
is a good barometer, for it will tumble down at every change
of air, but it is wanting in all the necessary qualities of a good
fence. The stones, and especially those on the lower tiers,
should be carefully laid, so as to rest on a solid foundation,
and be capable of bearing the weight above, while binding
stones should be put in not more than 4 or 5 feet apart.
The binding stone extends through the wall from one side to
the other, and binds the whole together.
OTHER FENCES.—There are various combination and other
special fences suitable to particular cases. A useful com-
bination fence is that formed partly of stone and partly of
posts with rails or wire. The stone part consists of a low
>


12
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
wall 2 or 3 feet in height, and the other of posts rising above
the wall, bearing either rails or wires. Turf or sod fences
have been tried with indifferent success in the colonies, and
they are seldom worth the labour expended upon them.
Stake or stub fences, when timber is plentiful, are erected at
comparatively little cost, and serve many useful purposes.
They are made of posts or slabs placed on end in the ground
close together, and are useful for keeping out rabbits or dogs,
and even answer well for enclosing pig paddocks.
Wire
netting is an expensive fence, but it is employed advan-
tageously in special cases.
GATES.—The swing gate is established as a decided im-
provement upon the slip panel, although too many farmers
cling to the old system. It will be found advantageous to
erect substantial gates with good iron hinges and proper
latches. Let the road be formed through the gateway so as to
keep dry and sound, and don't try to save money off the
Gates, whether of iron or wood, last much longer
if regularly painted, and appearances should not altogether be
disregarded in the country. Where nature is seen at the
best, man's work should not be the most slovenly.
paint bili.
BUILDINGS.
The buildings required upon a homestead vary according to
numerous circumstances. A residence for the occupier is
generally required, but the outbuildings necessary depend
upon local conditions and the nature of the industries carried
on upon the holding.
the holding. The building materials to be chosen
must also be dependent upon local circumstances, that which
is cheapest, when durability and suitableness are taken into
account, claiming the preference. The mild character of the
Australian climate enables agricultural and pastoral pursuits
to be carried on without much attention being paid to
providing buildings. The cold of winter does not force
people to build substantial residences, and stock can be kept
with comparatively little shelter. The result is that home-
stead buildings, especially in the early stages of settlement,
are generally of a very inferior description. It is to be
regretted that many settlers are led by the mildness of the
climate to an injurious degree of carelessness in regard to
buildings. The poor character of the homestead buildings not
only gives an unattractive appearance to our settled districts,
but also occasions considerable loss. The poor erections,


SETTLING UPON LAND.
13
which are put up to serve the turn of the new settler, are too
often retained after the preliminary stages of taking up new
country have been passed through. This tendency is all the
more inexcusable when land is generally owned by its
occupiers. It should be remembered that substantial, con-
venient, and neat-looking buildings pay for themselves, and
add more than their cost to the value of the holding upon
which they are placed.
DWELLING HOUSES.—The occupier of land in the country
should live in a good house. No man has more need of a com-
fortable house than the farmer, and no man has a better right
to possess one. Building blocks are cheap, materials are not
dear, and it is a poor business that cannot afford a house for
those engaged in it. The house, however, is too often neglected
by the farmer. A poor makeshift is erected to serve until fencing,
grubbing, and tank digging are completed, or until the first crop
is taken off, and this inconvenient dwelling is too often allowed
to become permanent.
It should be remembered that the
farmer's returns, as a rule, come only once a year, and that
when house building is put off from one harvest to another, an
important part of a lifetime soon passes.
A number of years
passed in a hut tells on the health, and otherwise robs a man
of the comfort he ought to enjoy. Children are also growing
up, and a few years of hut life has a serious effect upon them
both physically, mentally, and morally. In whatever way
the
subject is looked at, it must be evident that building a good
house should not be neglected by the occupier of land. It is
not necessary to suggest what materials should be used; these
will be recommended by circumstances. The house should be
roomy, and calculated to protect the inmates from both cold
and heat. It should also be neat and attractive in appearance.
A tasteful house need cost very little more than one which is
gloomy and ugly in appearance; and much can be done in
beautifying the homestead by attending to the garden and
orchard, and in planting trees and hedges.
OUT-HOUSES. -The stables, barns, and other out-houses can
also be made to look pleasing, and neatness will be found far
more profitable than unsightliness. Although the climate is
mild, grain and other farm produce will be destroyed by the
rains, and thus the cost of a barn is soon lost. Stock can live
without shelter, but they will thrive much better with it.
Valuable horses should not be kept in open sheds with straw
roofs that will not keep out the rain, and the losses of horses
will soon absorb the cost of a good stable. Implements and


14
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
machinery are generally costly, and they are soon destroyed by
the winter rain and the hot sun. He is a bad farmer and
a mistaken economist who leaves his costly reaping machine
in the field to be ready for the next crop. A machine shed
will soon pay itself, and the damage done by the weather will
rapidly come to more than the cost of a building. Stables and
sheds made of rough timber and covered with straw roofs
answer very well as a temporary makeshift, but if erected at all
they should be as soon as possible replaced by permanent
buildings. Wool sheds, dairies, wine cellars, fruit sheds, and
other buildings will be required in special cases, and the
industries concerned will be found capable of paying for the
erection of suitable buildings.
GRUBBING AND CLEARING.
A large proportion of the country occupied by settlers is
more or less thickly timbered, and clearing and tree grubbing
have generally to be attended to. When timbered land is in-
tended for grazing purposes, the pastures are much improved
by ring-barking the trees and burning off the dead wood, and
where cultivation is contemplated trees and stumps have to be
grubbed out. Occupiers of timbered land lose a great deal by
neglecting to improve the pastures by ringing and clearing, and
farmers often make the mistake of carrying on cultivation
without grubbing out the stumps and trees. Experience has
proved that these operations are remunerative, and they
should be attended to by all who wish to make the best use of
their land.
TREE RINGING.-All trees are more or less injurious to
pasture on account of shading it too much from the sun, thus
Iessening the fattening properties of the grass, even where the
quantity is not diminished. Australian trees, moreover,
through possessing surface roots, rob the pastures of the plant
food in the soil; while in the case of box, sheoak, and other
species, the fallen leaves render the surface soil sour and
unsuited to the growth of grass. Tree ringing, or the
killing of trees, or cutting a ring around the stem to prevent
the passage of the sap, is extensively practised all over the
timbered portions of Australia, owing to the beneficial effects
resulting to the pastures. In the moist coast districts the
operation generally doubles the carrying capabilities of the
land, and in the warmer inland districts the beneficial effects
are still more striking.


16
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
branchii
and that the pasture is improved by destroying the timber, it
frequently happens that settlers rush to the extreme of
ringing all the trees upon their land. Hence the holding not
only possesses a dismal appearance, but, after a time, the want
of shelter for the stock is severely felt, and a lifetime is not
long enough to reproduce the shade and shelter required. It
is an easy matter to pick out the best trees for timber and
shade purposes and leave them living. A few trees will do
more good in furnishing shade from the sun and shelter from
the cold winds than the extra grass which might be obtained
by their destruction. Belts of timber should also be left so as
to break the force of prevailing winds—a course which will
not only be beneficial to the stock, but will also supply timber
and firewood, and add to the beauty of the country; while
the effect upon the climate of general attention to these
particulars is likely to be beneficial.
CLEARING UP.—To go to the expense of tree-ringing, and
leave logs and branches scattered over the land, is a mistake
which is far too common. In addition to the fact that the
grass which is shaded from the sun by logs and withered
by growing trees, there is a large extent of land actually
covered by the debris, and prevented from producing grass at
all. The folly of keeping land in such an unproductive
state is self-evident, and many settlers greatly improve
the character of their grass land by clearing off the rubbish.
Gathering up the smaller wood and branches, and stacking
them against the larger logs, preparatory to being burned,
is a course which has been found highly remunerative.
Except where it is necessary to burn off large logs, the heaps
may be small and numerous, involving very little labour in
gathering the wood together. It will be found advantageous
to scatter the ashes over the adjacent pasture, and sow grass
seed on the bare patches formed by the fires.
GRUBBING.-When land is intended for cultivation the
trees have to be grubbed out and removed. In many cases
throughout the wheat-producing districts the land is only
partially grubbed prior to being cultivated. The smaller
trees and saplings, up to about a foot in diameter, are grubbed
out and burned off. The larger trees are ring-barked and left
standing in the fields. As a preliminary process this system has
something to recommend it. To grub and burn off green trees
is a much more expensive process than dealing similarly with
dry timber. By carrying on cultivation around the trees for


SETTLING UPON LAND.
17
career.
a year or two nature does much to assist the farmer in clearing
his land, and less outlay is demanded at the outset of his
It is a common mistake, however, to carry on from
year to year without completing the clearing of the land.
Limbs are continually falling, more or less crop is destroyed
every year, and agricultural operations are interfered with in
many ways. The trees should be grubbed out after the first
crop
has been taken off. When trees have been ring-barked
for the improvement of the pasture, and cultivation is about
to be carried on, there is no excuse for adopting the partial
system, which, in such a case, has nothing to recommend it.
HAND GRUBBING.–The system of grubbing trees and
stumps without mechanical assistance has
has been much
practised, but is likely to be in a large measure abandoned in
favour of cheaper processes. According to this system the
earth is dug away from the tree or stump, the roots are cut
through with the axe, and then the tree is made to fall or
the stump is taken out. Burning the roots is an important
part of the work. Many of the larger roots extend horizon-
tally for a considerable distance under the surface, and, if not
taken out, will seriously interfere with ploughing. All roots
should be removed which come within a foot of the surface,
and this work must be carefully superintended, for, if
imperfectly carried out, serious trouble will be involved in
future agricultural operations.
GRUBBING BY MACHINERY.—Grubbing is an operation in
which mechanical aid is of great service, and there are many
kinds of grubbing appliances which work well. The general
principle is to apply lever power to pulling down the trees
or drawing up the stumps, breaking the roots instead of
cutting them. The ordinary kind of tree-grubber consists of
a 15-ft. lever and an iron fulcrum plate of 9 ft. in length. At
the one end the machine is attached by a strong chain to an
anchor stump or tree, and at the other by means of chains.
and rods to the tree to be operated upon. The chain around
the anchorage is as near the ground as possible, and the rods
are attached to the tree which is being grubbed 15 ft. or 20 ft.
from the ground. When the gear has been attached, the lever
is moved as far as possible in one direction, when a pin is put
into a hole in the fulcrum plate. Then the lever is moved
in the opposite direction, and when the half-circle has been
completed another pin is put in to retain the advantage
gained. Thus, at every movement of the lever the fulcrum is.
shifted a few inches along the plate, and the process is con-
3


18
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
tinued until the tree is uprooted. In most of the grubbers
made upon this principle the iron plate is in one piece, with
two parallel rows of pin holes, but some makers have adopted
a double plate. There are in such machines two narrow
plates, each containing one row of holes, the advantage claimed
being that either a longer or a shorter leverage can be em-
ployed. Before the strain on the rods becomes heavy the
outer leverage can be employed, the plates spreading out as
required, and as the strain increases the inner or shorter
leverage can be resorted to, the plates coming close together
for the purpose. With the outer leverage there is less power
but more speed, and thus time is saved at the beginning of the
process, when much power is not required. In some cases
horses or bullocks are employed in working the lever, but in
general two men can apply sufficient power for practica)
purposes.
BURNING OFF.—Trees have not only to be grubbed out, but
the timber must also be got rid of, and burning is generally
had recourse to. Box timber burns well, and can be got rid
of without much difficulty, but red and white gum, and some
other kinds of timber, are not so easily dealt with. In burning
large logs it is advantageous to heap earth up about them,
thus keeping in the heat of the fire, and a good plan is to
adopt the pit system. A long narrow pit about 6 ft. deep is
formed, sloping at the ends. This pit is filled with timber,
and after a good fire has been created it will consume logs
rapidly. The pit forms a kind of oven, keeping in the heat,
which quickly affects the logs as they are put in. Such a pit
placed at the foot of a slope can be conveniently fed by
rolling logs towards it.
By heaping logs up over the pit at
night the fire will feed itself till morning, the logs from above
coming down into the fire as those below become consumed.
HINTS TO SETTLERS.
PREPARING STUMPS FOR BURNING.—The saltpetre and
kerosene system of treating stumps is thus described by a
correspondent of The Australasian ;-“After cutting off the
live tree in the autumn, a hole 18 in. deep is bored with a
14-in. auger down the centre of the stump; into that two or
more ounces of saltpetre are put, and a plug is driven in to
prevent the entrance of rain. In fine weather in the spring
the plug is removed, and about a quarter of a pint of kerosene


SETTLING UPON LAND.
19
soil.”
is put in. This, being set on fire, will continue to burn away
quietly until the stump and roots are consumed right into the
WORKING A TREE-GRUBBER.—The system of grubbing by
mechanical means will be understood by the following account
of a trial which took place before a large number of farmers
in the Avoca district, in 1884:-At the trial the machine was
anchored to a stump by means of a chain, made of iron, nearly
an inch in thickness, and by means of rods formed of z-in. iron
connection was made with a green gum tree about 40 yards
distant. A short chain, similar to that around the anchor
stump, was put around the tree 16 ft. from the ground, and
to this the rods were attached. The grubber is intended to
be worked by two men at the lever, and a boy to put in the
pins, but at the trial three boys worked the lever, and the
inventor himself attended to the pins. The stem of the tree
was 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter, and proved to be exceptionally well
rooted, constituting a good test for the grubber. Before the
tree came over the boys required help at the lever, but, on
being assisted by a bystander, they succeeded in bringing the
tree to the ground. The tree had a sound tap root, 18 in. in
diameter where broken off, and a surface one a foot through.
All the roots were so disturbed as to be easily taken out in
completing the work of grubbing the land.
Owing to the strong surface root, which did not break, but
twisted after the tree had been partly uprooted, the length of
the fulcrum plate was exhausted before the tree was made to
fall. Several men leaned on the rods, and by this means
brought the tree to the ground. This shows the value of the
light single chains attached to some machines for the purpose
of taking up the slack. By the use of this chain the rods are
tightened before the plate is brought into use, and then there
is no danger of exhausting the plate before the work of up-
rooting the tree is completed. Owing to the delay caused by
the tree failing to fall after the lever plate had been used up
the time occupied in bringing the tree to the ground was 20
minutes; whereas, if the delay had not occurred, the time
would have been less than 15 minutes. As already stated,
the tree was a very difficult one to manage, and in actual
work the average time required would probably be about 10
minutes. The machine was handily worked, and all present
were convinced of its
power to answer the
purpose intended.
The simple work of taking out and putting in the pins
might easily be done automatically, and thus save the time of


20
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
the boy who has now to be employed in this department.
The pins in the ratchet wine-presses adjust themselves auto-
matically, and some grubbing machines are also similarly
constructed—an improvement which might be easily intro-
duced in all cases. The side chains for taking up the slack
are also an important addition which should be attached to
every tree-grubber, in order to prevent the delays which are
otherwise apt to occur.
It is seldom that the grubbers are
required to uproot green trees. The more economical system
of clearing land, which is generally adopted, is to kill the
trees by ring-barking, and afterwards complete the process by
grubbing. The partly-decayed roots are much more easily
burned or taken out than the green ones, and the dry trees in
falling break up in such a way as to facilitate their being
There is no doubt that tree-grubbing machines
save a great deal of labour, and should receive the attention
of all those who are engaged in clearing the timber off their
land.
burned up.
CHAPTER IV.
CULTIVATION.
CULTIVATION is the work of bringing about and maintaining
in the soil conditions favourable to vegetation. The cultivator,
therefore, has to concern himself with the mechanical con-
dition of the soil necessary to enable seeds to germinate and
the roots of plants to absorb nutriment, as well as with the
temperature of the soil, and the supplying of deficient
constituents of plant food.
TILLAGE.-Tillage operations are necessary to destroy
weeds, and reduce the soil to the mechanical condition
favourable to the growth of cultivated crops. As plants
absorb their constituent elements in a liquid form through
the minute openings or mouths in their numerous thread-like
rootlets, it is necessary for promoting vegetation that the soil
should be reduced to fine particles, lying loosely together.
In this condition the rootlets of plants can freely search for
the nutriment required, and air and moisture can readily
convert the mineral and organic substances into the form in
which they can be taken up and assimilated by the plants.


CULTIVATION.
21
In the process of tillage weeds are destroyed, and the soil is
separated into fine particles, forming a bed of loose earth, in
which seeds can germinate and plants can grow. Spade
tillage or digging is the system of working which produces
the best results. The gardener digs deep, turns down the
weeds, and thoroughly pulverizes each spadeful of earth. In
ploughing, harrowing, or scarifying, we are only endeavouring
to produce the effects of digging by less laborious means; and
it should be remembered that our tillage is only complete in
the proportion in which it approaches in depth, in the burying
of weeds, and in completeness of disintegration, the spade-
tilled beds of the gardener.
PLOUGHING.—The plough is a substitute for the spade.
This fact is the best guide to its use, and should not be
forgotten, as it is apt to be in a country where ploughing
matches are frequent. Prize ploughing possesses many
qualities which have no bearing upon practical tillage, and
which should not be allowed to render the important essentials
of ploughing to be overlooked. The proper rounding of the
lands is important as a drainage expedient in wet districts,
but is of no consequence over those extensive portions of
Australia where there is only a light rainfall. It is important
that the sod should be turned over in such a way as to cover or
bury the grass or weeds, but the angle of the sod need not be
considered further than it affects the action of the harrow in
breaking up the soil. Flat ploughing answers very well for
sandy soils; but in the case of stiff, clayey soils, which are
intended to lie in bare fallow, setting the sods at an angle
facilitates the pulverizing action of the rain, the air, and the
In this treatment of stiff soils we have the example of
the spade husbandman, who digs " rough” in such circum-
stances. In all cases the object of the plough is the same
as that of the spade, viz., to reduce the soil to a fine tilth.
DOUBLE AND SINGLE-FURROW PLOUGHS. — The double-
furrow plough, with which one man and very little extra
horse-power turn two furrows instead of one, is an example of
an assured advance in labour-saving agricultural appliances.
Three-furrow, four-furrow, and multi-furrow ploughs are in
the experimental stage, but the double-furrow has established
itself as a pronounced success. In the colonies, where wages
are high, the saving of labour is a most important considera-
tion, while economizing horse or bullock power is of much less
moment. The double-furrow plough would be an advantage,
therefore, if it saved manual labour at the expense of in-
sun,


22
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
creasing the need of horse-power, but the implement economizes
both labour and power. In the ordinary ploughing of broken-
up land three horses and one man with the double-furrow
turn over three acres of land in a day, which would be good
work for four horses and two men with the single-furrow,
while the quality of the work is completely satisfactory.
double-furrow plough costs less than two singles, and there
is a saving of one horse and two men in working the imple-
ment. It is not surprising, therefore, that the wheatgrowers
of Northern Victoria, South Australia, and the farmers in
other parts of the colonies are extensively adopting the
double-furrow plough.
LEVER AND HANDLE PLOUGHS.—The lever double-furrow is
generally used in the coast districts of Victoria ; but in
South Australia and Western Victoria the double-furrow
with handles is coming into general use. The lever double-
furrow is familiar to all farmers, the plough-heads being fixed
to short iron beams, and the implement being guided, raised,
and lowered by means of levers. The implement is strong,
well made, and capable of doing first-class work, but it is
heavy, being in striking contrast to the light gang plough of
America. The handle double-furrow of South Australia is a
much lighter implement, and of simpler construction. It is
like an ordinary single plough, but having two beams instead
The beams to which the plough heads are attached
are strongly braced at the required distance apart, and they
taper backwards, forming the long stilt handles of the plough.
The implement is easily managed, requiring no more skill or
strength on the part of the driver than the lever plough, and
the style of construction enables a lighter implement to be
produced. Experience is teaching farmers the advantage of
using a lighter and less elaborate implement than the standard
lever plough.
THREE-FURROW PLOUGHS.—Three-furrow ploughs are being
used in increased numbers, but they are not so generally
adopted as double-furrows. They are generally well spoken
of, however, and are likely to increase in favour with the
farmers. In making three-furrow ploughs the lever principle
is generally adopted. The implement becomes too unwieldy
to be managed by handles, and hence the adoption of the
general design of the standard double-furrow, with the
necessary levers and steering rod. In ground that has been
broken up four horses are used, and four acres is considered a
fair day's work. There is evidently a substantial saving by
of one.


CULTIVATION.
23
this process as compared with double-furrow ploughing, and
the system will no doubt become increasingly popular as its
advantages are better known. In breaking up new land the
double-furrow is generally employed with a team of four
horses, and the three and four-furrow implements are in most
cases used only in ploughing cultivated land. When the
three-furrow plough is used for breaking up, six horses, or a
bullock team of equivalent strength, are required. It is
generally considered best to do the stiff work of breaking up
with the double-furrow, and employ the three or four-furrow
in the lighter operation of turning over the land which has
been previously ploughed.
FOUR-FURROW Ploughs. - Four-furrows are sometimes
employed in the inland districts, and, although not many of
them are used, they are generally appreciated by those who
have put them to the test. There is no doubt that light four-
furrow ploughs, made especially for old land, could be
employed with great advantage. After the land has been
ploughed deep once or twice an occasional shallow ploughing
can be profitably resorted to, and this work could be
economically carried out by ineans of a light implement,
turning four or more furrows. Such a process would be
much preferable to the system of scarifying for a crop which
is too frequently resorted to.
DEEP PLOUGHING.–Science and experience alike condemn
shallow ploughing, and point to deep culture as producing the
best results. The growing crops can only obtain nutriment
from the portion of soil prepared by the plough, and when this
consists of a shallow layer the roots of the plants are confined
within narrow limits. When there is only a shallow soil upon
a gravelly or unfertile subsoil, deep culture cannot be carried
out, and the soil will soon become impoverished. There is no
reason, however, why a deep soil, or one having a good subsoil,
should be deprived of these natural advantages by shallow
ploughing. By cultivating deep the roots of plants are given
facilities for extending in search of nutriment, a greater
quantity of plant food is provided, and by the absorption of
more water by the soil a larger quantity of the constituents are
rendered soluble and ready to be taken up by the roots of the
plants.
DEEP CULTURE IN DRY DISTRICTS.—There are many who
fail to recognize that the advantages of deep ploughing are
available in localities where there is a deficient rainfall, and it
is a common mistake in the dry sections of Victoria and South


24
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
Australia for farmers to plough shallow. Now, it is in dry
localities that the benefits of deep culture will be most decidedly
experienced. In such districts moisture is the chief require-
ment of the crops, and it is only by pulverizing a sufficient
depth of soil that the rain which falls can be retained. A hard
pan is formed below the surface soil by the sole of the plough.
Through this the rain cannot penetrate, and the whole store of
moisture must be held by the surface soil. The more of this
pulverized surface soil, the greater will be the quantity of
moisture absorbed, and the deeper the soil the longer will the
moisture be retained. Deep ploughing is best in all deep soils,
but it is specially necessary where the climate is dry.
SUBSOIL PLOUGHING.-The facts which render deep plough-
ing advantageous are those which account for the benefits
derived from subsoiling. In the case of a sandy or gravelly
subsoil nothing is to be gained by disturbing it, for it
is already too loose in texture; but clayey subsoils are always
improved by being pulverized. A sandy soil is improved by
mixing portions of the subsoil with it when the subsoil consists
of clay, and, in the case of land which has been under cultivation
for a long time, a fertilizing effect is produced by bringing up
virgin soil from below the original surface soil. A part, however,
from the benefits arising from mixing portions of the subsoil
with the surface soil, there are other and more important
advantages resulting from stirring the land to as great a depth
as practicable.
lt frequently happens that the subsoil is not of a fertile
character, and, consequently, that raising it to the surface injures
for a time the productiveness of the surface soil. In the great
wheat-growing plains of Northern Victoria and of South
Australia the clay loam of the surface extends down without
apparent change for two or three feet, or becomes slightly
more clayey from the surface downward. Although there is
but little difference apparent in the soil, that nearest the sur-
face is found to be the most fertile, having evidently been
rendered productive by the action of the sun and the atmosphere.
Even the virgin surface soil is found to be improved by lying
for a time in naked fallow before bearing a crop. This inferior
fertility of the subsoil accounts for the unsatisfactory results
sometimes obtained from deep ploughing in such localities.
When the subsoil is of this character the practical course is
to plough somewhat shallow at first, and work down deeper
and deeper from year to year, thus gradually fertilizing the
soil by cultivation until a sufficient depth is obtained.


CULTIVATION.
25
SUBSOILING.—This operation differs from deep ploughing,
in that it does not bring the under soil to the surface, and its
advantages are therefore available when the subsoil is not
suitable for mixing with the upper soil. It consists in stirring
and loosening the portion of the soil which lies beneath that
turned over by the plough. The work may be done with a
subsoil plough made for the purpose, or by means of an
ordinary plough with the mouldboard taken off, the subsoiler
working in the furrow after the ordinary plough. The plough
and subsoiler combined is an implement which is employed
in this work with good results. A subsoiling attachment like
the coulter of a grubber or scarifier is fixed to the plough, so
as to follow in the furrow behind the sole of the plough, thus
stirring the earth below the ordinary ploughing. The loosened
subsoil adds to the depth of earth in which the roots of crops
can penetrate in search of plant food, and also increases the
body of soil capable of absorbing and retaining moisture. In
a dry climate the importance of increasing the power of the soil
to absorb moisture cannot be overestimated. The air, too, is
able to affect the soil to a greater depth, thus fertilizing the
subsoil and deepening the body of friable mould which
supports vegetation.
HARROWING.— The first object of harrowing is to complete
the work of pulverizing the soil begun by the plough. It is
therefore necessary to avoid harrowing when the soil is too
wet to separate or crumble under the operation. In the case
of clayey soils, especially, it is important to harrow when the
soil is comparatively dry. A heavy stiff harrow, with the tines
not too close together, is required in reducing a heavy stubborn
soil, and the team should travel quickly to facilitate the pul-
verizing action of the implement. For lighter soils, or after
the first breaking down of stiff land, and for the covering of
seed, light flexible harrows with close-set teeth are the best.
In all the applications of the harrow, whether for pulverizing,
covering seed, or weeding, it is important to avoid carrying on
the operation when the soil is wet.
SCARIFYING AND GRUBBING.–This operation is carried on
for two purposes, viz. (1). To prepare the soil for seed as a
substitute for ploughing; and (2) to cultivate fallow land,
as well as between the rows of growing crops, such as
roots vines. For the first purpose it should be
sparingly adopted, for it is less effective than ploughing,
just as ploughing is less thorough than digging with the
spade. The chief defect of the system is that it fails
or


26
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
to cover in all the weeds which it disturbs; while it also
pulverizes the soil less effectively than ploughing. In dry
localities, where weeds do not grow luxuriantly, grubbing, or
scarifying with an implement which is designed by the
arrangement of its coulters to shift the soil more than once in
passing through, will occasionally serve to prepare old land
fairly well; but the practice of substituting the grubber or
scarifier for the plough two seasons in succession can only
produce poor results. It is a common mistake to suppose:
that there is any gain in relaxing thoroughness in working
the soil. The proper use of the scarifier is not to take the
place of the plough, but to help that implement. Thus it is
useful to destroy weeds on fallow land, between one ploughing
and another, and to cultivate the soil between growing crops,
killing weeds, and keeping the surface in a friable condition.
ROLLING.–The roller serves the purposes of pulverizing the
soil, breaking down the clods which have escaped the harrow,
pressing the earth close about the roots of plants, and con-
solidating sandy or gravelly soils which are too open in
texture. It is in the case of loose, sandy, or gravelly soils
that the beneficial effects of rolling are most strikingly
manifested. By pressing such soil together the roller is found
to greatly increase its productive power. In rolling stronger
soil the clods are broken down, and the land is rendered
smooth for the working of harvesting implements or machines.
The surface soil is also pressed together in such a way as to
enable it to more effectively retain moisture, a point of great
importance in nearly all parts of Australia, owing to the
rainfall being light and the evaporation great. In addition
to these advantages a further benefit is derived from rolling
several crops after they have begun to cover the ground. The
slight disturbance of the plant causes it to root more
vigorously, and it is also benefited by having the earth pressed
about its stalk and roots by the action of the roller. When
the soil is stiff
, and inclined to form hard clods, a spiked roller
or one of the various "clod-crushers” is most effective. The
clod-crusher, formed of movable plain or angular-toothed
rings, produces excellent results, pulverizing the clods and
leaving the surface smooth without the glazing effect of the
plain roller. The spiked roller is also a serviceable implement,
consisting of an ordinary wooden roller with numerous iron
spikes driven into it, the spikes projecting about two inches.
As in the case of harrowing, it is necessary to avoid rolling
when the ground is wet. It is better not to roll the land at


28
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
furrows, which are filled in by the harrows, are not opened up
for drainage purposes. Where deep ploughing and subsoiling
are carried out in these dry localities the moisture is quickly
absorbed by the soil, and draining is unnecessary. In all but
the driest localities, however, the winter rains cannot be
absorbed by the soil, and it is necessary to provide for carry-
ing off the surplus water; where the rainfall is medium, and
the land possesses a sufficient fall, surface drains will prevent
the soil from becoming overcharged with water. Land
with a sandy or porous gravelly subsoil will require very little
attention in the way of draining; but heavy soils, with more
or less impervious subsoils, are apt to become unproductive
through overmuch water. By ploughing a wet field in small
lands, well thrown up, and cleaning out the finishing furrows
after sowing and harrowing have been completed, the rapid
passing off of surplus water is facilitated. From the water-
furrows between the lands the water runs into cross furrows
along the headlands, or through low-lying portions of the field.
These cross furrows will connect with the drains at the sides
of the fields. The size of the lands, and the height to which
the crown is elevated, must be regulated according to the damp-
ness of the soil. Small high-crowned lands are a serious
obstacle to the successful employment of harvesting machinery,
so that when land is sufficiently wet to necessitate such treat-
ment, underground drainage should be resorted to. The drains
into which the water-furrows empty must be sufficiently deep,
with fall enough to facilitate the rapid carrying off of the water.
The width of the drain, too, must be regulated according to its
depth and the quantity of water to be carried. The bottom of
a drain must be wide enough to prevent its being choked up
by stones or debris, and the width at the top should equal
twice the depth with the bottom width added; thus, a drain 4
ft. deep and 2 ft. wide at the bottom should be (4 ft. x 2
8 ft. + 2 ft. = 10 ft.) 10 ft. wide at the top. The
earth taken from the drains should not be placed near the
edge, but at a sufficient distance to avoid falling in, or removed
altogether, and employed for the purpose of filling up
depressions in the field.
DRAINING PASTURE LAND.--Pasture land is very much
injured by insufficient drainage. In the same way as soil is
rendered unproductive of cultivated crops by too much water,
pastures are injuriously affected. Upon wet land grasses grow
slowly, and the quality of the pasture is inferior. The nutritious
and fattening grasses give place to rank, sour pasture, and


CULTIVATION.
29
even when good varieties of grass remain they lose their
nutritive qualities. Not only are such pastures poor in
feeding qualities, but they are fruitful causes of diseases
in stock. The surface water should be quickly run off from
pasture lands, while, by means of deep drains, facilities should
be afforded for the escape of surplus water from the subsoil.
In forming deep drains the slope of the sides should be in
accordance with the rule given above, under the head of
“Surface Draining.” Where there is a good fall, and the chief
object is to relieve the surface of surplus water, the drains may
be wide, shallow, and crescent shaped. In such drains the
gass will grow both on the sides and in the bottom; they do
not tend to fill up, and, as they are clothed with grass, they can
be as numerous as required without taking from the area of the
pastures.
UNDERGROUND DRAINAGE.—A complete system of drainage
can only be obtained by means of conduits beneath the subsoil.
Such a system is naturally provided in some cases by the
character of the subsoil when sand, gravel, or porous rock
underlie the surface. The porous rock beneath the rich vol-
canic soil at Tower Hill, near Warrnambool, forms one of the
best instances of natural underground drainage. In the case of
wet soil, surface drains are only a partial remedy, and thorough
effectiveness can only be attained by underground drainage.
Upon the advantages of subdrainage, Lacoppidan, the Danish
Professor of Agriculture,says:“Whilst the open ditches may be
of service as an incomplete system,
proper drainage has many
and varied beneficial influences. The more complete drainage
carries off completely, and at the proper time, all the stillicidious
water the land contains, prevents washing out, and causes
rain water, by filtering through a thick layer of soil, to give
off the greater part of its plant-nourishing matter; and, lastly,
produces a renewal of air in the whole mass of soil that is
situate above the level of the drainage pipes.”
DEPTH OF UNDERGROUND DRAINS.- In all cases the under-
ground drains should be deep enough to be out of the reach of
the subsoil plough. This, however, is not the only consideration,
for, in addition to keeping the conduits below the subsoil, it has
to be decided whether a shallow system, with the drains
from 18 in. to 2 ft. deep, or a deep system of drains 4
ft. deep is the more effective. Authorities differ upon the
subject, but deep draining seems to be most generally
approved of, and to give the best results. In deep drainage
the channels do not require to be so close together, so that the


30
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
system is less expensive than shallow draining, and it is held to
be more effective. The land is not only more thoroughly drained,
but the water from deep drains is clear, while that from shallow
drains is muddy, showing that the latter system carries off
valuable constituents of the soil.
TILE PIPE DRAINS. The most approved system of under-
ground drainage is that in which tile pipes are used.
The
distance apart of the drains depends upon the nature of the
subsoil, a stiff clay soil requiring a greater number of con-
duits than land of more open texture. If a shallow system
be adopted, the distance apart of the drains will vary from
16 ft. to 25 ft., and if a deep system be followed the distance
will range between 25 ft. and 40 ft., according to the character
of the soil. Professional assistance, or, at least, ability to take
levels, is necessary in laying out a field for draining. The
main drain will be execavated along the lowest level of the
field, and the various branch drains will connect with it, the
whole system having a sufficient fall to carry off the water
from the pipes. The drains are excavated with the spade,
but the bottom is formed by means of a draining spade, which,
being only 3 in. wide, makes a narrow channel, into which the
pipes fit, and are held in position. The pipes are laid one after
another, and close together, fine soil being then filled in to a
depth of a few inches, and the trench closed with the ex-
cavated earth.
SUBSTITUTES FOR TILE PIPES.—While tile pipes are the
most suitable materials for underground drains, good practical
results are frequently obtained by using substitutes which
circumstances render more easily available. The best substi-
tutes are stones, and when this material is plentiful the cost
is much less than that of pipes. Stones, 21 in. or 3 in. in size,
may be put into a drain to a depth of 12 in., covered with a
thin layer of smaller stones, and then covered with earth,
thus forming an effective sub-channel. Another method is to
press sods into narrow sloping channels, with the grass down-
wards, leaving a few inches space below for the pasasge of the
water. Brushwood and straw are also used to fill the bottoms
of drains, but it is false economy to employ such perishable
materials.
HINTS ON CULTIVATION.
SHALLOW PLOUGHING.—Shallow ploughing is supported by
farmers who state that they have in dry years obtained the


CULTIVATION.
31
best crops from land which had only been stirred on the surface,
while the fact that good yields have been obtained from simply
harrowing in the seed on the surface is also quoted in favour
of the theory. The explanation of this theory is interesting as
showing the dryness of the climate, and the small quantity of
rain expected by the farmers. It is argued by the supporters
of shallow ploughing that deep ploughing makes the soil dry.
They say that the land at ploughing time is dry on the surface.
There is a layer of dry soil on the top, say 3 in. in thick-
ness, with a moist layer of soil beneath. If you plough to the
depth of o in. you turn down the dry soil and bring the
moist soil to the top. The moist soil on the top becomes dry,
and you have 6 in. of dry earth. If you only plough
3 in. deep you have 3 in. of moist subsoil in which the roots
of the crop can be supplied, while the light showers will
probably be sufficient to moisten the surface. It is evident
that the supporters of this theory do not fully recognize the
increased powers of absorption given to soil by pulveri-
zation. If the 3 in. of subsoil, which they mention as
being moist, has not been ploughed it will contain but little
moisture, whereas if thoroughly pulverized it will contain
enough to moisten the whole seed bed when turned down.
The theory begins to consider the situation at ploughing
time, but the whole year has to be taken into account.
When there is a good depth of pulverized soil it will absorb
and retain a supply of moisture from the rain which falls
during the year to provide for the crop in the growing season.
Theory would have to give way to experience, but when ex-
perience is divided accepted theories must stand.
PLOUGH DEEP-Mr. J. C. T. Heard, of Natimuk, a retired
champion ploughman and a successful Wimmera farmer, has,
during the course of his experience, put the two systems of
ploughing to the test, and the results
were such as to confirm
him in his support of deep culture. He has ploughed portions
of the same field shallow and deep, and observed the difference
in yield. The difference has always been in favour of deep
ploughing, both the straw and the grain being superior. He
has cultivated about 200 acres for 10 or 11 years, and has
always obtained such yields as to encourage him to continue
the system of ploughing deep. Mr. Heard would re-
commend ploughing deep in breaking up the land, and
ploughing, if possible, for every crop in preference to
scarifying. It is not so important to plough deep every year,
but the first ploughing should be to a depth of 6 in. or 8 in.


32
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
In some cases the subsoil is of a cold, sourish nature, and
when turned up to the surface does not yield good crops for
a season or two. In such cases Mr. Heard would not dispense
with deep culture, but would avoid bringing the subsoil to
the surface. The combined subsoil and double-furrow plough,
by which the surface can be turned over and the subsoil
stirred to a good depth, is recommended in such cases. It is
considered specially necessary in such a dry climate as that of
the Wimmera that there should be a deep bed of pulverized
soil to absorb and retain a supply of moisture for the support
of the crop.
ROTATION OF CROPS.
While all plants are made up of the constituents contained
in the soil, different plants do not contain these constituents
in the same proportion. Thus, one crop takes from the soil a
large quantity of a substance which another assimilates in a
very small degree. When continuous crops of the same kind
are grown upon land, the available supply of one or more
constituents required by that crop becomes deficient, and the
yields cease to be satisfactory. In such cases the land is
sometimes said to be exhausted, or worked out; but the
expression is erroneous, for other crops of a different kind can
be successfully grown upon the same soil. There is only a
deficiency of certain substances, and it may be that even these
are not really abstracted, but only in an unavailable condition.
Plants can only assimilate their nourishment in a certain form,
and a soil may be lacking in fertility, not from an absence of
the elements of plant food, but owing to these substances
being in a condition unfavourable to the process of vegetation.
Thus, when land becomes incapable of producing a certain
kind of crop, a period of rest in bare fallow will have the
effect of restoring fertility sufficiently to enable a crop of the
same kind to be grown. From this fact it is evident that the
forces of nature, having time to operate, set free and reduce
to an available condition the mineral substances of the soil..
It is not necessary, however, to resort to bare fallowing in
order to allow the forces of nature sufficient time to operate
upon the soil ; for, when land becomes incapable of producing
one kind of crop, it is able to support another. When the
principal constituents of one kind of crop have become
deficient in the soil, there may be a plentiful supply of plant
food suitable for another. By changing, therefore, from the


CULTIVATION.
33
one crop to the other, the land can be kept profitably
employed; while natural causes, operating in the soil, are
supplying, in an available form, the conditions specially
required by the original product. Bare fallow, or allowing
the land to rest, had to be resorted to before the changing or
rotation of crops was understood ; but a system of rotation is
now a recognized part of intelligent farming. Not only are
different crops unlike in the proportion which their constituent
parts bear to one another, but in their habits of growth.
Elements which are in an unavailable condition for assimila-
tion by one plant may be available for another, and deep-
rooting crops can search for nutriment in soil which cannot
be reached by those whose roots grow near the surface. By
possessing a knowledge of these facts, and studying the com-
position and habits of the various crops, the farmer can adopt
such a system of rotation as will greatly assist to maintain
the fertility of the soil.
There are three classes of cultivated crops which differ
widely in the proportion in which they contain the consti-
tuents of plant food, viz., cereals, leguminous plants, and root
crops; and the members of these classes also differ from one
another in the quantities of the principal elements of which
they are composed. Thus the cereals, such as wheat, oats,
and barley, contain more silica than leguminous plants, like
beans, peas, clover, and lucerne, in which lime preponderates;
while root crops, such as potato tubers, mangolds, sugar-beets,
turnips, and onions, which contain but little silica, possess a
large proportion of potash. It is evident that, owing to the
different composition of the various classes of plants, a system
of cultivating the different kinds of crops in rotation is less
exhaustive to the soil than adhering exclusively to a single
class. Thus, while one class of crops tends to render the soil
deficient in silica, a change to leguminous plants allows time
for the accumulation, in available form, of that constituent;
and a further change to root crops, in the same manner, allows
potash to accumulate, so that a system of rotation not only
renders the process of exhaustion slow, but gives the natural
agencies in the soil a lengthened period in which to convert
the mineral constituents into an available, soluble condition.
In arranging a system of rotation, crops of one class should
be followed by those of a different kind, and the less frequently
the classes are repeated the better, while in the same way
there should be a sufficient number of members in each class
to avoid the necessity of frequent repetition.
4


34
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
In practically applying the above principles to the require-
ments of the different parts of the colonies, the farmer will be
guided by a variety of circumstances, such as the value of
produce and the suitableness of the soil and climate to the
cultivation of the various crops. In the dry districts of the
colonies, where wheat is the only crop capable of being grown,
rotation is, of course, impossible, except in so far as bare fallow
and allowing the land to lie in pasture are connected with the
system. Grasses in such dry localities cannot be cultivated,
but the natural grasses and weeds form a pasture upon which
stock are grazed, while the soil is being prepared for future
crop growing by the operation of natural agencies.
In the more moist portions of Australia the character of
the climate admits of a wide range of products being culti-
vated, and renders an extended system of rotation practicable.
The various common cereals, such as wheat, oats, and barley,
are alternated with potatoes, mangolds, and peas by the
most advanced farmers in the oldest established districts, and
the cultivation of crops is frequently relieved by the sowing
of rye-grass, clover, or other pasture plants. The sowing of two
or more wheat or other crops in succession is seldom practised
by good farmers, and should be avoided wherever practicable.
Allowing the land to rest in pasture for longer or shorter
periods is a frequent and commendable practice, but the cul-
tivation of root and green crops should be more generally
attended to.
In addition to the value of growing crops so different in
composition from cereals, there are other advantages derived
from the cultivation of root and green crops. The opportunities
afforded by green and root crops, of cultivating the land and
destroying weeds, should be valued by all farmers who wish to
maintain the fertility of the soil. In addition to the ordinary
advantages of rotation, some leguminous plants, such as peas,
beans, and clover, produce a beneficial effect upon succeeding
crops by the nitrogenous roots and leaves which they leave
in the soil. Thus, the cultivation of the pea crop has had
a striking effect upon the exhaustively cultivated soil in
such potash-growing districts as Warrnambool, Lancefield,
and Ballarat. A system of rotation is necessary, not only
to maintain as long as possible the fertility of the soil without
manuring, but also in connection with the application of
!
1
manures.


CULTIVATION.
35
MANURING.
The foregoing branches of agriculture—viz., Tillage,”
Drainage," and “Rotation of Crops ”-are means of culti-
vating various vegetable products, and, however skilfully
these operations are carried on, their ultimate effect is to
exhaust the fertility of the soil. As the object of cultiva-
tion is to obtain heavy yields of farm crops, the more
successful it is the more quickly will the soil be deprived
of its elements of fertility. Thus, thorough tillage and good
drainage, by securing large quantities of produce, facilitate
the system of land exhaustion; while rotation of crops,
although prolonging the period of fertility, by allowing time for
recuperative agencies to work, must ultimately impoverish the
soil. A system of rotation adds nothing to the soil to compensate
for the mineral constituents removed by the crops, but only
gives time for the accumulation in soluble form of substances
already present in some other condition. Unless, therefore,
the process of accumulation is as rapid as that of extraction by
growing crops, exhaustion, although slow, is none the less
certain. The
The power of natural agencies to act upon the soil
and subsoil in the way of providing a supply of available
plant food is probably greater than many authorities have
supposed; but experience teaches that it is not sufficient to
permanently maintain fertility. A wise system of rotation,
providing for the infrequent repetition of similar crops, will
sustain the fertility of the soil for a long time; but to
recuperate thoroughly exhausted land, or to secure permanent
productiveness, the application of manures is necessary.
THE APPLICATION of MANURES.—Manuring consists in
adding to unfertile soils elements absent or existing in
insufficient quantities for the growth of crops, or in main-
taining in fertile soils a sufficient supply of those constituents
necessary to the full development of cultivated plants. As
the quantities of the various constituents of plants existing in
fertile soil are generally large in proportion to the require-
ments of crops, the addition of small quantities of manure are
sufficient to maintain fertility, while large quantities are
necessary to recuperate land after exhaustion has taken place.
Manuring, therefore, should not be deferred until the soil has
become impoverished; but the more economical course is to
add fertilizers to maintain the soil in a productive condition.
As also a soil may be unproductive, not through some of its


36
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
constituent parts being deficient, but through their being
in an unsuitable condition for assimilation, the practice of
manuring has to be directed to more than merely adding a
supply of deficient substances to the land. The substances
added must be capable of taking a suitable form; and some
manures will be valuable, not so much on account of what
they add to the soil as owing to their effect in rendering other
substances soluble and available as nutriment to plants.
GENERAL AND SPECIFIC MANURES.—Some manures contain
all the constituents of plant nutriment, and others consist of
a limited number of fertilizing elements. The first class, of
which animal or farm-yard manure is the best example, are
called “general manures;” and the second class, such as salt,
bone-dust, and guano, are called “special manures.” In ordinary
circumstances the general manures are the best, as they supply
all the substances removed by all crops, but the special manures
are useful in supplying any particular deficiency in the soil, or
maintaining productiveness where a limited class of crops
has to be cultivated.
THEORIES OF MANURING.—In the chapter upon the “Com-
position of Plants” it is pointed out that vegetable products
derive their mineral or ash constituents from the soil, and their
combustible or organic constituents partly from the soil and
partly from the atmosphere. It is important to consider what
portion of their non-mineral constituents is obtained from the
soil. Baron Liebig at one time asserted that plants obtained
the whole of their nitrogen from the atmosphere, and that,
therefore, nitrogenous substances in the soil were unnecessary
to the growth of crops. The supporters of this theory held
nitrogenous manures to be unessential, and maintained that
fertility could be maintained entirely by the application of
special mineral manures. A series of field experiments, however,
carried out by Lawes and Gilbert, at Rothamstead, proved the
mineral theory of Liebig to be erroneous. The great German
chemist afterwards practically endorsed the conclusions of
Lawes and Gilbert, so that it may be taken as established that
many farm crops obtain the largest part of the nitrogen which
they contain from the soil. This fact gives to nitrogenous
manures the value which former experience had assigned to
them, but which the mineral theory would have dissipated.
That cereals and root crops depend upon the soil for their
supply of nitrogenous substances is proved by the Rothamstead
experiments, but in regard to leguminous plants the case is not
so clear. Upon this point the following opinion is expressed


38
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
12s. 6d.; beans, linseed, and peas, £3 14s. to £3 2s. Od. ; oats,
wheat, and barley, £1 15s. to £1 10s.; clover hay, meadow
hay, and bean straw, from £2 5s. 6d. to £1 Os. 6d. ; those fed
upon other straw and roots would produce a manure worth
only from 18s. 9d. to 4s.; that from pea, oat, wheat, and
barley straw, ranging from 18s. 9d. to 10s. 9d.; and that from
potatoes, mangolds, turnips, and carrots from 7s. to 4s.
THE MANURE HEAP.-From the foregoing it will be evident
that mixing the different kinds of manure together in the heap
is an important matter. It is necessary to add sufficient straw
or litter to absorb the liquid manure, and to guard against
losing the most valuable constituents of the heap through
drainage or evaporation. The best way to add the straw is to
allow it to be trodden in by the stock, cattle and swine
accomplishing this object most effectually. By leaving the
manure to lie too long in the yards its best constituents are
apt to be lost, and to avoid this the yards or sheds should be
frequently cleaned out and the manure removed to the heap.
The heap should be placed in such a position that the liquid
will not be inclined to drain off. Ā pit about 2 ft. deep
should be excavated in a retentive soil, and, if such soil is not
available, means should be adopted to render the pit capable of
retaining water. Spread straw or other vegetable refuse over
the bottom of the pit and commence building the manure heap,
taking care to mix by spreading the drier and more moist
matter in alternate layers. As the nitrogenous and other
valuable constituents of the manure are in danger of being lost
by evaporation, especially in a dry climate, covering the heap
is a matter of special importance. The more completely the
heap is protected from the sun, the better will be the quality
of the manure; covering the heap entirely with a layer of earth
is one of the most practicable and effective means of retain-
ing the valuable constituents of the manure. As the climate
of the Australian colonies is a dry one, and the evaporation
great, there is special need for covering the manure heap, and
it is also more than ordinarily important that the manure be
well rotted. When there is a heavy rainfall, fresh or unrotted
long manure may be profitably used, but only well made farm-
yard manure is of service in the dry climate of most parts of
Australia.
THE COMPOST HEAP.--Compost is a mixture of various
refuse animal and vegetable substances in a condition suitable
for manuring land. Such substances as nightsoil, fowls' drop-
pings, ashes, soot, sawdust, seaweed, blood offal, &c., which are


40
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
Cugi molt
reception of the drainage from the stables, sheds, and piggeries.
The liquid collected in the tank should frequently be used to
spread over the manure heap, as this is the best means of
utilizing the liquid manure. The manure heap and compost
heap should be made to absorb as much as possible of the
liquid manure, and the remainder should be quickly spread
upon
the land. Should it not be practicable to employ the
catch-pit frequently or once a fortnight, a small quantity of
diluted sulphuric acid should be put in to fix the ammonia,
which would otherwise be thrown off in the process of decom-
position.
APPLICATION OF FARM-YARD MANURE.—Manure should,
when practicable, be carted to the field as soon as rotted, and
spread upon
the field at once, instead of being left to lie in heaps.
When left in heaps the manure is impoverished by having a
larger quantity of its fertilizing matter washed into the soil,
causing unevenness in the succeeding crops, and producing
blight where the heaps have stood. The manure should also
be ploughed into the soil quickly after being spread, to prevent
the loss of nitrogenous constituents through evaporation. The
quantity of manure required depends upon a variety of circum-
stances; but the general principle is, that root and fodder crops
can scarcely receive too much manure, while cereals are apt to
be blighted by over-manuring the land. Well-informed custom,
therefore, follows the course of manuring the fallow crops
or the pasture for the benefit of succeeding cereal crops, instead
of manuring directly for cereals. As a top-dressing for pastures
the manure gives good results both immediately and in the
succeeding cultivated crop.
BONE-Dust.—The bones of animals contain about 50 per
cent. of phosphate of lime and 30 per cent. of gelatinous matter,
rich in nitrogen. Bones constitute a valuable manure, owing
to containing a large quantity of such valuable constituents as
phosphoric acid and nitrogen. The importance of nitrogen
has been already referred to, and it will be remembered that
phosphoric acid, an important constituent of most crops, is
frequently represented in soils in a small proportion. 1,000 lbs.
of fresh horse or cow dung contains about 4 lbs. of nitrogen
and 3 lbs. of phosphoric acid, while 1,000 lbs. of bone-dust con-
tains 50 lbs. of nitrogen and 240 lbs. of phosphoric acid. Bones
will remain in the ground for years without being dissolved,
but if ground to a fine powder their valuable organic and ash
constituents become quickly available as plant food. It is this
fact that leads to the use of bone-dust instead of broken bones


CULTIVATION.
41
as a manure, and the finer the powder to which the bones are
reduced, the quicker will be the action of the manure.
SUPERPHOSPHATE OF LIME.—This manure is made by
treating moistened bones with sulphuric acid in such a way as
to render their constituents easily soluble. In treating the
moistened bones with the acid, heat is produced by chemical
action, the bones are dissolved, and a thick liquid is produced,
which, on drying up, leaves a moist, greyish powder, called
superphosphate of lime. The same process is carried out upon
other phosphatic substances as well as bones, and thus super-
phosphates are made from minerals which, in their natural
state, are so insoluble as to be unavailable as manures.
Superphosphates are of varying quality, according to the
substances used in their formation, and the nature of the
treatment carried out. A good superphosphate, made from
bones, should be rich in soluble phosphates and nitrogenous
matter. The superiority of this kind of manure over bone-
dust consists in its fertilizing constituents being in a more
soluble and available condition. The dry climate of Australia
makes this property of the manure especially valuable.
THE BONE HEAP.—The bones of the farm can easily be
rendered suitable for manure by breaking them into half-
inch lengths, heaping them up, moistening them with water or
liquid manure, and covering them with earth. After a few
days the mass will become heated, and in the course of a few
weeks the bones will be so soft as to be easily dissolved in the
soil. When the process is properly carried out the manure is
better than bone-dust, as the loss sustained in boiling for the
crushing process is avoided. Owing to the dryness of our climate
rendering bone-dust frequently incapable of dissolving in the
soil, it is advantageous also to mix this phosphate in a heap
with farm-yard manure, and thus render it more soluble.
APPLICATION OF BONE MANURE.—Bone-dust is slow in
its action, and requires moisture to render it effective. In
our dry climate its benefits are frequently obtained more
effectually in the second and third than the first year. It is
valuable for land of open texture, from which more soluble
manures are apt to be lost through the subsoil. For pasture
land it is an excellent manure, encouraging the growth of
clover and fine grasses, and it can be advantageously used in
sowing down, or as a top-dressing. In applying bone-dust to
cereal and root crops, it should be harrowed into the soil as early
as possible, so as to get the advantage of the winter rains.
When put early into the ground, bone-dust is a good manure,


42
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
both for root and cereal crops, and is profitably employed
where hay is frequently grown upon the same land. For
retentive soils, and when quick results are required, super-
phosphate of lime should be used in preference to bone-dust.
This manure gives good results when applied to both roots and
cereals, and, like bone-dust, should be worked into the soil in
preference to being used as a top-dressing.
GUANO.—This manure consists of the droppings and other
remains of sea fowls. Its quality depends upon the climate in
which it has been accumulated, that from a dry region being
rich in nitrogenous matter, while that from a moist climate is
poor in such substances, and largely made up of phosphate of
lime. The best Peruvian guano contains from 12 to 14 per
cent. of nitrogen, 12 per cent. of phosphoric acid, and 11 to 2
per cent. of potash; while some guanos contain little else than
phosphate of lime.
LACEPEDE ISLAND GUANO.—This guano is rich in lime and
phosphoric acid, and contains a fair percentage of nitrogenous
matter. It is slow in its action, giving the best results in the
second year, and it has been successfully used for root crops,
peas, and cereals.
.
MALDON ISLAND GUANO.—The guano obtained from Maldon
Island is mainly composed of phosphate of lime, and is better
suited for yielding a superphosphate than for use as a
manure in its natural state. Huon Island Guano, Flat
Island Guano, and Bat Guano are also chiefly of a
phosphatic character.
APPLICATION OF GUANO.—As Peruvian or other nitro-
genous guano contains its valuable fertilizing constituents in an
available form, it is a powerful and quick-acting manure. It
is a good manure for clayey soils, and can be used with
advantage for either cereal, root, or fodder crops. When used
upon pastures it has a forcing effect, and it is serviceable in
producing a rapid growth when it is desirable to force a crop
through a critical point of its growth. Owing to its richness in
nitrogen, Peruvian guano can be profitably used along with
phosphates, but when used by itself it should be mixed with twice
its own bulk of earth to ensure its even distribution. Although
guano does not readily part with its ammonia, it should be
worked into the soil soon after being taken to the field.
COMMON SALT.-Common salt, which is composed of sodium
and chlorine, is an important mineral constituent of all plants.
It is useful for destroying weeds and grubs in the field, and is a
very valuable special manure. Its power of attracting and


CULTIVATION.
43
retaining moisture gives it special value in a dry climate,
making it one of those manures which act beneficially upon
others, and upon the insoluble substances in the soil. Near
the seashore there is generally sufficient salt in the soil, but
in other cases its application as a manure increases the yield
of both root and cereal crops. Mangolds, onions, beans,
turnips, and cabbages are specially benefited by an application
of salt to the soil. It is suitable for using along with other
manures, and when employed by itself it produces good effects.
When applied to the wheat crop upon rich soil it strengthens
the straw and checks a too abundant growth. In the dry
portions of Australia it is particularly valuable owing to its
affinity for moisture, and in such circumstances will give
better results than a richer manure. Salt may be either
sown upon the land and worked in, or mixed with other
manures.
SULPHATE OF AMMONIA.—This nitrogenous manure, when
pure, contains about 25 per cent. of ammonia, and is
consequently highly valuable as an application to soil deficient
in nitrogen. It is used with good effect in cultivating either
root or cereal crops. As a spring dressing for backward
cereal crops it is very effective, and it is good for potatoes,
mangolds, and beets. Sulphate of ammonia is economically
used along with special phosphatic manures.
NITRATE OF SODA.- Pure nitrate of soda contains 364 per
cent. of soda and 63} per cent. of nitric acid. It is a highly
valuable special manure, enriching the soil mainly with
nitrogen. Nearly all farm crops are benefited by its
application, but the best effects are produced upon cereals and
grasses. Its effects upon wheat, oats, and barley are strikingly z 1
beneficial, and it is well suited for application to root crops.
MacIvor states that " there is no source of nitrogen better
suited for application to cereals cultivated in a dry climate
than nitrate of soda.” It is a quick-acting manure, and as its
soluble constituents are apt to be washed away by rains,
spring is the best time for its application.
POTASH MANURE.—Many farm crops, and especially roots,
take a large quantity of potash out of the ground, and
although this mineral is largely represented in most soils it is
liable to become deficient by constant cropping. In the case
of strong clay soils, rich in potash, exhaustion does not rapidly
take place, but poor, sandy soil soon becomes impoverished of
its limited supply of potash. The potash salts available as
manures contain from 10 to 50 per cent. of potassium,


44
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
combined with sulphuric acid or chlorine magnesia and
common salt. These salts are beneficial manures for grass and
hay crops, for beans and other leguminous plants, and for
root crops. It is better to apply them along with phosphatic
or nitrogenous manures than by themselves.
The potato
crop is greatly benefited by the potash manure, and it also
improves the land for the succeeding cereal crop.
WOOD ASHES.—The ashes from wood constitute a highly
valuable manure, being rich in potash as well as containing
phosphate, sulphate, and carbonate of lime. Soil deficient in
potash is greatly improved by the application of wood ashes
for the cultivation of all kinds of crops. Roots and leguminous
plants are specially benefited by this manure, and it is also
used with advantage for grasses and grain crops. It may be
used either by mixing with the soil or as a top-dressing. Care
should be taken to collect and preserve all the ashes made on
the farm, and they should be protected from the rain, which
would wash out their most valuable constituents. In dry parts
of the colonies, where straw cannot be readily converted into
farm-yard manure, the practice of burning the straw left
standing by the stripping machine has the merit of returning
the ash of the straw to the soil, and is preferable to the system
of selling the straw off the farm. Ashes can be conveniently
and well
preserved in the compost heap.
NIGHTSOIL.—This manure, which is rich in nitrogen, phos-
phoric acid, potash, and other constituents of plant food, is a
highly valuable fertilizer. Chiefly by its means the Chinese
have maintained the fertility of the soil for thousands of years,
and its value is now becoming appreciated by western nations.
The supply of nightsoil upon the farm should be utilized to
the greatest possible extent, and the sewage of our cities and
towns should be returned in some form to enrich the soil of
the country. The compost heap is a suitable means of pre-
serving the nightsoil of the farm. This manure, both the
solid and liquid parts of which are valuable, should not be
exposed to the air, but covered with earth, which will absorb
and preserve its fertilizing constituents.
POUDRETTE.—The nightsoil of large towns and cities is dried
and put into a form suitable for being conveniently transported
under the name of poudrette. The contents of closets and
cesspools are emptied into shallow reservoirs, and when the
excreta is nearly dry it is mixed with earth, ashes, sawdust,
or other absorbent material, disinfected, and placed in sacks or
barrels to be sold as manure. The value of poudrette depends


CULTIVATION.
45
to a great extent upon the process employed in drying and
absorbing the nightsoil. The different kinds produced contain
from 29 to 79 per cent. of nitrogenous organic matter, and from
6 to 7 per cent. of phosphates.
BLOOD.—As blood contains nearly all the constituents found
in the composition of plants, it forms a very valuable manure.
It contains, besides phosphates, salt, and potash, a large per-
centage of nitrogen. Blood and the flesh and bones of dead
animals, which are also rich in the elements of plant food,
should all be treated in the compost heap, and the “ blood
manures" made from the drainage of the abattoirs should be
highly appreciated by farmers.
FISH.-In Europe and America fish are successfully used as
a manure, and it is stated by an American writer on agricul-
ture (Mr. R. L. Allen) that the Indians followed the practice
long before the discovery of the new world. The bodies of
fish, and the offal obtained from fish markets, are composed of
organic nitrogenous matter, phosphoric acid, lime, and other
minerals. The fish are sometimes simply ploughed into the
soil, but it is better to form them into a compost with earth,
when the manure, at the rate of from 25 to 35 cwt. per acre, can
be advantageously applied to nearly all kinds of soil and
crops.
REFUSE ANIMAL MATTER.—Horns, hoofs, hides, hair, and
wool are all rich in nitrogen, and therefore valuable as manure.
They are difficult to dissolve in the compost heap, and are
acted upon very slowly by the soil. Even when steeped in
sulphuric acid, horns and hoofs take several months to dissolve,
and a longer time is required in the compost heap. As they
contain about 16 per cent. of nitrogen, however, and only
require time to dissolve, they should be frequently gathered and
put into the compost heap. Rotted woollen rags is an important
manure in the hop gardens of Kent, and nearly all such animal
substances contain valuable fertilizing qualities.
SEAWEED.-Seaweed is a well-known manure of light quality,
extensively used along the shores of all old agricultural coun-
tries. It contains a large proportion of potash and soda salts,
and quickly dissolves in the soil. It is esteemed as being more
valuable than farm-yard manure for the potato crop; while its
value for turnips and other roots, as well as for the succeeding
grass or grain crops, has been thoroughly established by ex-
perience. The seaweed is generally spread over the field, and
ploughed into the soil.
Soot.—Soot is a valuable manure, especially that from coal,
which is superior to soot produced from firewood.
It consists


46
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
principally of carbon, but contains about 25 per cent. of mineral
matter. As a quick-acting manure for young cereal crops it is
very effective, and it is highly valuable for root crops.
REFUSE VEGETABLE MATTER.-As all vegetable matter con-
tains the elements necessary to the growth of other plants,
it is evidently important to utilize as manure all the waste
vegetable products of the farm. The waste leaves of root
crops, stubble, weeds, and such vegetable matter as can be
effectively utilized by being ploughed into the soil, produce a
fertilizing effect; but the roots and seeds of weeds likely to
sprout in the soil, as well as other vegetable refuse, should be
collected and rotted in the compost heap.
LIME.—The value of lime as a manure is owing both to the
constituents which it adds to the soil and the beneficial effect
which it produces upon the existing organic and mineral
substances. Some soils are naturally deficient in lime, and
others become impoverished of lime through continual cropping.
In both of these cases the application of lime is necessary,
while it is also beneficial in changing the physical condition of
some soils, and setting free their insoluble constituents. Heavy,
cold, clay soil and damp, sour soil are improved by being
opened in texture and sweetened by the action of lime. Upon
light, dry soils lime has little beneficial effect, but nearly all
heavy soils are improved by the application of this manure.
As it only adds one important mineral constituent to the soil,
it cannot be expected to supply deficiencies of other elements of
plant nutriment, but it improves land by acting upon sub-
stances which are present in the soil in an unavailable form.
Lime performs an important service in thus liberating the
insoluble or unavailable organic and mineral constituents
which support vegetation. It is, therefore, in a sense, a means
of exhausting the soil, and cannot be used to an unlimited
extent without the application of other manures.
Used judi-
ciously, lime, in addition to applying an important mineral
element of plant food, improves all, excepting light, sandy soil,
rendering them the better able to produce leguminous root and
cereal crops and grasses.
APPLICATION OF LIME.—The quantity of lime required by
land depends upon a variety of circumstances, but as a general
rule the more clayey and damp the soil the heavier will
be the dressing needed, the average being from 50 to 200
bushels
per acre.
After being burnt the lime may be carried
to the field and placed in heaps ready for spreading when
slaked, or it may be slaked previously in the compost heap, or


CULTIVATION.
47
in a heap by itself. The heaps, whether on the field or else-
where, should be covered with earth, and, if there is no rain,
water may be poured on to facilitate the slaking process. The
slaking will reduce the lime to powder, and then it may be
spread over the land. A common practice is to plough the lime
in, but as its tendency is to work into the subsoil, harrowing
in is a preferable method. A good dressing of lime should last
10 or 12 years. Turnips and other root crops, and peas,
beans, and clovers are specially benefited by the application
of lime, and after being exposed to the air long enough to
become effete or form a carbonate, it serves as a good top-
dressing for pastures.
MARL.-Deposits of marl which have been formed for the
most part by accumulations of shells at the bottoms of lakes
supply a useful kind of manure. Marl is a mixture of lime,
clay, and sand, in varying proportions, and its value as a
manure is mainly regulated by the quantity of lime which it
contains. The proportion of lime in different marls varies from
20 to 90 per cent., the average being about 30 per cent. ; and
sulphuric and phosphoric acid are generally present in small
quantities. In marl deposits the proportion of lime generally
increases from the surface downwards, so that mixing the marl
from different parts of the face of the pit is advantageous. As
lime is its principal constituent, what has been said as to the
uses and applications of that manure will also apply to marl.
It should be pulverized as much as possible before being
ploughed in, and is benefited by lying some time after being
spread upon the field. Burning marl before applying it to the
soil facilitates its pulverization and increases its activity as a
manure.
SHELL SAND.—This manure consists of broken shells, mixed
with more or less sand, and as lime enters largely into its com-
position, it produces beneficial effects upon heavy clay and
peaty soils. An application of about 12 tons per acre to stiff
clay soil has the effect of opening the texture, and generally
acting in the same way as lime. Its value has been well tested
in old agricultural countries, as well as in some of the coast
districts of Australia.
GAS- LIME.—This substance consists of lime which has been
used in the manufacture of gas. When exposed to the action
of the air for some months it loses the objectionable sub-
stances derived from the manufacturing process, and becomes
available as a manure. It is not nearly so strong as lime, but
in a slighter degree it acts in a similar way upon the soil.


48
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
GREEN CROP MANURE.- Manuring land by means of plough-
ing-in a green crop sown for the purpose is recommended by
the experience of farmers in both ancient and modern times.
We have already seen that the fertility of soil depends both
upon the constituents of plant nutriment which it contains
and its physical condition, and in each of these particulars
green crop manuring produces beneficial effects. By rendering
the soil moist and mellow the green manure tends to set free
the unavailable mineral constituents of the soil, and it also adds
to the soil some of the substances contained in the green crop
which is cultivated. The carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, of which
the green crop is composed, is derived from the atmosphere,
and added to the soil by the ploughing-in of the crop, and in
the case of deep-rooting plants mineral constituents derived
from the subsoil are also added to the surface soil. The decay
of the vegetable matter in the soil produces humus, or vegetable
mould, the presence of which is necessary to the growth of
plants, for without it the important constituents of plant food
assume conditions in which they cannot be assimilated by the
roots. By the improved texture of the soil, resulting from the
presence of mould, and owing to the chemical action which
results, the constituents of the soil are set free and made avail-
able to the growing plants, and when the green crop consists
of deep-rooting plants, mineral constituents brought up from
the subsoil are added to the store already within reach. Such
a system of manuring is especially valuable in a country where
labour is dear and conditions are unfavourable to the making
of large quantities of farm-yard manure. In Australia, also,
where the dryness of the climate tends to produce an absence
of humus, or mould, in the soil, green-crop manuring should
receive special attention.
PRACTICE OF GREEN MANURING.–Crops for supplying green
manure should be rapid in growth, and produce a large quantity
of vegetable matter, while deep-rooting plants also possess an
additional element of value. The pea crop has been most fre-
quently tried, and with the most satisfactory results, as a green
manure in Victoria. In the Warrnambool and Lancefield dis-
tricts especially, ploughing-in a crop of green peas is found to
be an excellent manure for potatoes, and the productiveness of
the exhaustively cultivated land has greatly increased since the
custom was introduced. The
crops used as a green manure in
different countries are clovers, lucerne, peas, beans, vetches,
maize, buckwheat, spurry, white lupine, turnips, rape, and
white mustard. All these crops are suitable for green manur-


CULTIVATION.
49
ing purposes, and may be selected according to local circum-
stances. The deep-rooting crops are clovers, lucerne, and the
white lupine. As the most frequent defect of the soil in such a
dry climate as that of most parts of Australia is a deficiency
of humus, the deep-rooting character of a green manure crop
is seldom the most important consideration. The crop which,
under local circumstances, will produce an abundance of green
vegetable matter to mix with and mellow the soil should be
cultivated. In the dry wheat-growing areas the growth of
green weeds and wheat which springs after the autumn rains
should be ploughed into the soil, as this course is calculated to
yield more profitable results than feeding off with stock. For
green-manuring root crops in moist climates many of the plants
named can be used, but in the dry wheat-producing districts
the choice of the farmer is limited, owing to the difficulty of
getting green crops to grow in time for ploughing-in before the
sowing season. Some such quick-growing plant as the white
mustard and rape can only be resorted to in these circum-
stances. It would be a profitable practice in the wheat-pro-
ducing districts to adopt green-manuring along with bare
fallowing. During the autumn, winter, and spring a growth of
green crop manure from spurry, rape, or mustard could be
obtained, which, being turned down before summer, would
keep the soil in good condition for the sowing of the early
wheat crop. Green manure crops should be ploughed into the
soil when the plants are coming into bloom.
HINTS ON MANURING.
ASHES AS A FERTILIZER.-Unleached wood ashes contain all
the constituents of plant food that the ordinary or worn-out
soil needs, except nitrogen. By their chemical action they
render much of the inert nitrogen in soils available, and in
that way may be said to furnish nitrogen. This is true of
lime, and on this power of making nitrogen available the
greatest value of lime, when applied as a fertilizer, depends.
Åshes also have a good mechanical effect upon the soil,
especially heavy clay soils, which are made lighter and more
porous, so that air and water circulate more freely. Ashes do
not suffer waste by being washed out to the extent that is
true of the more uble and concentrated fertilizers sold in the
markets--their effects are therefore more lasting.
5


50
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
GREEN MANURING.—The practice of ploughing down green
crops with the object of " manuring
manuring” the land is a recog-
nized method of effecting that end. If plants obtained the
whole of their nourishment from the soil, it is obvious that
the soil would not be enriched by ploughing down a green
crop. But as they obtain part of their nourishment from the
atmosphere, through their leaves, the beneficial action of the
practice of green manuring can be understood. Thus, after a
green crop has been ploughed in, the soil necessarily contains
more of the organic elements essential to vegetable nutrition
than it did before that crop was grown. In like manner the
succeeding crop has the advantage of a ready supply of
mineral elements which have been worked up by the roots of
the fertilizing crop from the soil and subsoil, and which, in
many instances, owing to their sparing solubility, are with
difficulty obtained under ordinary circumstances.
PROFESSOR LAWS ON NITROGEN.-In a letter reprinted in
the Australasian Professor Laws says :-“ Boussingault, the
most thorough investigator of modern times, has conducted
numerous experiments on this subject, and has arrived at the
conclusion that plants could not assimilate free nitrogen. At
Rothamstead we carried out similar experiments for three
years with the same result; and quite recently Boussingault,
in a letter to Dr. Gilbert (which he gave him permission to
publish), says - If there is one fact perfectly demonstrated
in physiology, it is this of the non-assimilation (of nitrogen)
by plants. This opinion from one who conducted scientific
experiments on his farm in Alsace long before the time
when the Rothamstead experiments were commenced, and who
lately received one of our Royal Society's medals for his
services rendered to agricultural cheinistry, will, I hope, show
that I have some ground for ignoring the scientific fact to
which he alludes. I will pass on to another point. Mr. Barclay
compares the action of nitrogen on vegetables to that of alcohol
on man; 'that it is stimulative and useful within narrow limits,
but an application in excess is positively injurious.' If being
told incessantly that nitrogen acts as a stimulant to vegetation
could make me believe it, I should have nodoubt of the fact;
it is, I may say, the almost universal agricultural belief. Now,
when we say that alcohol is a stimulant, we mean that
it produces a certain action on the brain, nerves, and
muscles, but it forms no part of these organs. There are
millions of people who never tasted alcohol,
and its presence
in the body is not necessary for the performance of any of the


CULTIVATION.
51
/
vital functions. Compare this with nitrogen in vegetation.
Wherever you find the most activity, there you find the most
nitrogen. I may also say that chlorophyl, the green colour-
ing matter of leaves (where alone carbonic acid is decomposed
and starch and sugar formed), is a nitrogenous body, The
whole structure of plants consists of cells. Sach, the
eminent German botanist, says— If a cell contains a nitro-
genous body, it can develop new chemical combinations and
form new cells ; if it contains none, it is not capable of further
development. Now, a substance which is thus closely con-
nected with all the most important functions of vegetable life
is surely entitled to occupy a higher position as regards plants
than alcohol does as regards man. That the use of nitrogen in
manure may be abused there is no doubt; associated with
nitrogen in plants we find certain mineral substances, but if
these be absent the nitrogen accumulates in the plant, and
the decomposition of carbonic acid ceases. In the annual
report of the Aberdeen experiments Mr. Jamieson says
that our attention at Rothamstead is chiefly directed to
nitrogen. This is so far true, inasmuch as it is the
most complicated and important substance with which we
have to deal, and also because we feel sure that, until correct
ideas are formed as to the position of nitrogen, there will be
no progress in scientific agriculture. My own opinion
is that at the present moment nothing would contribute so
much to the well-being of the farming interest, or enable
us to compete against the cheaper agriculture of the United
States, as a large and inexpensive supply of nitrogen in
manures.”
CHAPTER V.
IRRIGATION.
IRRIGATION, or the artificial watering of land, is specially
valuable in a dry climate. Water, as already shown, enters
largely into the composition of all plants ; and it has also been
pointed out that the constituent substances of soils must
assume a liquid form before they can be assimilated in the
process of vegetation. Soil may, therefore, be barren while
containing large supplies of plant food, owing to the absence
of moisture to reduce the substances to an available soluble


52
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
condition. Mr. T. K. Dow, who visited America as representa-
tive of the Australasian, reported that the barren desert land
of Utah becomes fertile when irrigated by the Mormon
settlers, the sandy-looking, sterile soil changing, under the
effects of water, to dark, productive loam. In Texas, New
Mexico, Arizona, and parts of California, similar effects have
been observed, proving the correctness of Professor Johnson's
opinion. The last-named authority referred to says—“The
great deserts of the world are not sterile because they cannot
yield the soil-food required by vegetation, but because they
are destitute of water.
Poor soils give good crops in
seasons of plentiful and well-distributed rain, or when skilfully
irrigated; but insufficient moisture in the soil is an evil that
no supplies of plant food can neutralize.” This truth is
further borne out by the fact that the soil is known to be
exceedingly fertile in those extensive tracts of northern
Victoria and South Australia, where, through the dryness of
the climate, poor yields are nearly always obtained. There
are but few sections of the globe where the rainfall is so
copious and regular as to render irrigation entirely non-
effective; while the benefits derivable from the system in any
case are likely to be in proportion to the dryness of the
climate. As, therefore, insufficiency of moisture is a charac-
teristic of the Australian climate, irrigation is a subject of
special importance in these colonies.
OBJECTS OF IRRIGATION.—The chief object of irrigation is
to supply a deficiency of moisture in the soil. Upon this
branch of the subject Professor Church gives the following
reasons for resorting to irrigation :-
“1. To make up the absence of irregular seasonal
distribution of rain, or for a local deficiency of
rainfall.
“ 2. Sometimes a particular crop is irrigated because the
crop is of an aquatic or semi-aquatic nature.
“3. To encourage early and rapid growth by warmth of
the water, or by the dissolved plant food which it
contains.
“4. That the land may be enriched, and its level raised by
means of the deposit from the water.'
It is only in the first of these objects that the Australian
farmer is generally interested, for in our warm, dry climate
the most important consideration is to make up for the absence
or deficiency of rainfall.


IRRIGATION.
53
EFFECT ON Soil.—The artificial application of water affects
both the texture and the composition of soils. “ The im-
mediate effect,” says Professor Church,
says Professor Church," upon the consistence
of the soil is to soften it and render it more easily penetrable
by the plough and by the roots of the plants. Hence, in dry
climates, water is frequently applied before ploughing, at the
rate of about 400 to 500 cubic yards per acre, or barely enough
to loosen the earth to the depth of a foot without drenching it.
But it is most important to observe that the ultimate effect of
long-continued irrigation is to condense and harden the surface
to a very inconvenient degree. Irrigation affects the quality
of the soil by introducing into it common air and other gases,
and vegetable and mineral matter held in suspension or solu-
tion by the water. In most cases the substances so introduced
are beneficial to vegetation ; but in some they are highly
obnoxious. Even the water of large rivers sometimes, as has
been observed in India, deposits on the surface, or introduces
into the texture of the soil, salts, which in the course of time
render it wholly sterile.” It is obvious, therefore, that only
water of suitable quality should be used for irrigation. When
water free from noxious ingredients is used, it sets free the
constituents of plant food in the soil, and renders all the
beneficial services of a sufficient rainfall. Too much irrigation
is injurious in the same way as too much rain, and the damage
is in proportion to the quantity of the over-supply.
EFFECTS UPON CROPS.—Irrigation properly applied affects
vegetation in the same way as a sufficient fall of rain. Crops
of all kinds can be grown to perfection by a judicious applica-
tion of water, but over-irrigation may result not only in
checking vegetation, but also in giving quantity of produce at
the expense of quality. Owing to the heavy yields obtainable
by means of irrigation, it is too frequently forgotten that the
quality of the product suffers when too much water is applied.
Excessive watering also renders the land sodden and sour.
The aim of the farmer should be not to drench the land, but
to supplement the deficiency of the natural supply of moisture.
SUPPLY OF WATER.—A supply of water for irrigation may
be obtained from running streams, wells, or reservoirs. Per-
manent running streams give the best supply, as the water is
generally of a suitable kind, and is available whenever required.
The alluvial soil usually found adjacent to rivers and streams
is well suited for irrigation, and the permanent supply of water
enables a variety of crops to be cultivated in different seasons
of the year.


54
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
RUNNING STREAMS.—The water in running streams is
generally fresh, and free from injurious salts or other ingredients.
deleterious to vegetation. On the other hand, it usually holds
in suspension valuable mineral and organic matter, which is
deposited on the land in the process of irrigation, increasing
the fertility of the soil. None of the Australian rivers are
known to contain water unsuitable for irrigation, while most
of them are more or less muddy streams, carrying large quanti-
ties of matter calculated to improve the quality of the soil upon
which their waters may be used for irrigation. Of this
character are the Murray and its numerous tributaries, which
traverse a large portion of the continent.
WELLS.—The brackish water obtained from wells is in many
cases injurious to vegetation, and consequently unsuitable for
irrigation All water which is not fresh does not contain
noxious ingredients, or they are not always present in sufficient
quantities to be injurious to crops. Analysis, or experimental
results, must decide in each case the suitableness of the well
water for irrigation; and the water can be improved both in
quality and temperature by standing some time exposed to
the sun and air before being applied to the land. Water may
be “brackish” or “hard” through containing ingredients which
are not only harmless, but positively beneficial, and hence the
necessity of testing it by analysis or experiment. First experi-
ments are apt to be misleading, for, in the event of the water
being unsuitable, its injurious effects may not appear until
through repeated applications the land becomes impregnated
with the noxious minerals. Land reclaimed from the sea, or
containing injurious or surplus salts owing to other circum-
stances, can be rendered fertile by the application of fresh
water, which washes out the objectionable ingredients.
WELL-HEAD RESERVOIRS.-It is seldom advisable to irrigate
with water drawn directly from a well. The water is
improved both in quality and temperature by standing for
some hours exposed to the sun and air. Well water is.
frequently cold, and, if applied to crops in warm weather,
produces injurious effects. It is customary in California,
where well irrigation is extensively practised, to form a large
surface reservoir around the pump or pipe-head, and in this
the water is aired before being applied to the land. Such a.
reservoir not only enables the water to be exposed to the air
and sun, but it stores a supply for the purposes of irrigation.
The supply of water from wells is necessarily limited. In the
case of deep wells the quantity available is limited according


IRRIGATION.
55
means.
to the capacity of the pump, and artesian wells according to
the pressure and the measurement of the pipe. In all cases
the supply is sufficiently limited to render the reservoir
important. The pumps are kept working at all times, night
or day, and at seasons when irrigation is not being carried
on; while in the case of artesian wells the flow is also
continuous, so that a large reservoir can be filled, giving a
valuable supply available for irrigation. The reservoir is
conveniently formed by excavating with the plough and
scoop, and using the earth taken out to erect surrounding
banks. From the reservoir the water can be led by gravi-
tation over the land at a lower level in the same way as from
a canal.
ARTESIAN WELLS.—The supply of water from artesian wells
is specially valuable, owing to its being available without the
necessity of pumping or being raised by other mechanical
The volume also being constant furnishes another
advantage as a means of irrigation. In California, orchards
and vineyards are frequently irrigated from artesian wells;
and, in some cases, fields of wheat, forty acres in extent, are
also supplied. Artesian wells of equal volume, with water
flowing several feet above the surface, have been found at
Sale, Portland, and other points near the coast; while, in the
central districts of New South Wales and South Australia,
similar discoveries have been made, so that there is good
grounds for expecting large quantities of water to become
available from artesian wells all over the Australian continent.
A considerable area of land could be irrigated from such wells
as have been discovered without the assistance of storage
l'eservoirs, while, by means of well-head supply reservoirs, the
area could be largely increased.
DAMS OR TANKS. -Limited supplies of water for irrigation
can be obtained by means of dams and tanks. By erecting
dams across watercourses, or at the outlet of natural reservoirs,
large quantities of water can be stored at comparatively little
cost, and such favourable conditions can be profitably taken
advantage of. In the case of open plains in dry districts, it
is also practicable to store considerable quantities of water.
Even where the rainfall is light a large quantity of water
runs off the land; and, although the quantity that can be
stored is comparatively small, the circumstances make it
proportionately valuable. There are few localities, however,
where nature has not provided basins and depressions that can
be easily converted into reservoirs to conserve water, which


56
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
would otherwise be lost Even when tanks have to be
formed, economy can be effected by building banks of the
excavated earth. A reservoir a quarter of an acre in extent,
and 10 ft. deep, would contain 108,900 cubic feet, or about
680,625 gallons, sufficient to give a watering one inch in depth
to 30 acres of land. A cubic foot of water contains 6.232
gallons, or nearly 61 gallons.
CANALS.—Canals to convey water from the source of supply
to the land which is to be irrigated are formed by excavating
a channel of the required dimensions, and using the earth
taken out for erecting banks on each side. A system of form-
ing canals entirely on the surface, by making banks with earth
taken from the excavations on the outside, has been advocated;
but it has not been supported by competent authorities, or
adopted in any part of the world. To utilize the earth
excavated from the channel in forming banks is a manifest
advantage, and the practice is universally followed in the irri-
gating states of America. The carrying capacity of a canal
depends upon its dimensions and its gradient. Å fall of one
foot in the mile is a safe and convenient gradient; but at the
rate of two feet per mile there is more or less danger of the
banks and sides of the canal being cut away by the force of
the water.
WEIRS AND FLOOD-GATES.—In ordinary circumstances a
supply of water, available by means of gravitation, is the most
desirable for irrigation, but much depends upon the circum-
stances of each case. Sometimes the banks of a river or
creek are low enough to admit of a canal being filled without
the aid of a weir, and in such circumstances the water is applied
for irrigation in the most economical manner. The head of the
canal is lower than the level of the stream, and all that is
required is a flood-gate to shut off the water or regulate the
supply. Substantial stone or wood work is needed in erecting
the flood-gates on the banks of the stream, but this is much
less expensive than constructing a weir. In Colorado and
California several canals are supplied in this way, and it is
seldom in those states that high weirs are necessary. Next to
requiring no weir at all, the most favourable conditions exist
when the water of the stream has to be raised only 1 ft. or 2 ft.,
and when the object can be accomplished by forming a ford
of loose stones. Difficulties increase as it becomes necessary
to raise the water higher above its natural level. Timber is
extensively used in forming weirs in America, but it is seldom
that the water has to be raised more than 8 ft. or 10 ft. The


IRRIGATION.
57
weirs are usually constructed by driving piles into the ground
to support transverse beams, a rear apron of stones or wood
being provided, over which the water Hows from the crest of
the dam. Upon a similar plan a large number of weirs have
been erected over small creeks in the northern parts of Vic-
toria ;
but the result has been somewhat disappointing. In
the case of large streams no other system is practicable; but
the smaller creeks were more successfully dammed by the earth
banks erected by the original pastoral settlers. The squatters'
dams in the interior districts are solid earth banks, entirely
turning the stream in flood time into a wide by-wash, and
these have stood for many years, while the more expensive
wooden weirs of a recent date have, in many cases, been washed
away. The banks of Australian rivers are higher, and the
streams have a wider range of rise and fall than in America,
so that there is greater difficulty in constructing weirs.
Fewer weirs, however, are necessary, for a much larger area of
land can be commanded by a single canal owing to the more
level character of the country.
PUMPING.—When water has to be raised by mechanical
means for irrigation the cost is generally greater than when
the supply is obtainable by means of gravitation. Experience
in the Murray Valley, however, has demonstrated that large
supplies can be raised by centrifugal pumps at a reasonable
cost. Pumps, with pipes 15 in. in diameter, and raising
5,000 gallons per minute, and others 18 in. in diameter,
raising 7,000 or 8,000 gallons per minute, are used on the
Murray, near Echuca, and the whole cost of pumping and
distributing the water is estimated at less than 5s. per acre
of land irrigated. When large quantities of water have to be
raised a height of under 25 ft. or 30 ft. the centrifugal pump is
most economical, but for higher lifts and smaller quantities
of water pumps upon the plunger principle are generally
preferred. Water wheels, California pumps, and pipe and
chain water lifts are also successfully employed in raising
a supply for irrigation, in special cases, and local circum-
stances must decide as to the best means to employ.
DISTRIBUTION OF WATER.--In applying water to root crops,
vines, or fruit trees, the most approved method is to run
furrows from the supply channel between the rows of trees,
vines, or roots. In the case of trees or vines, flooding the
surface soil tends to make the roots grow upwards,
encourages suckers, and otherwise injures the plantation. By
running the water along the furrows, the subsoil becomes


58
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
moistened, and the roots are encouraged to grow downwards
to the supply. When flooding the surface is resorted to, a
small embankment of earth is formed around each tree to
keep the water off the land near the stem, and thus cause the
moisture to reach the roots through the subsoil. When
practicable, irrigation should be practised in the evening or
at night, rather than during the heat of the day.
FLOODING.—In watering cereal crops flooding is the method
generally adopted in America and Australia. The water is
made to cover the surface of the fields, finding its way among
the growing crops.
In the case of the American farmer
there is a continuous though limited flow from his “lateral”
or supply ditch, and the farmers along the Murray fill the
supply channel by means of pumping. When the channel is
full, the water is a foot above the surface of the field, and
small openings are made in the lip of the aqueduct about 10
yards apart. The water flows from these openings over the
land. At first it might be thought that furrows would be
necessary to convey the water to a distance from the main
channel, but it has been found from experience that no
assistance of this kind is required in the case of the clayey
soil of northern Victoria. If it were desired to use a limited
supply of water in giving a slight wetting to a field, some more
detailed means of distribution would be needed, but not when
level land is to be thoroughly soaked. Remembering that a
continuous supply of water is coming from an elevated
channel, it will be easily understood how the distribution
takes place. The soil nearest the supply takes in water until
it is completely soaked and will take no more.
Then an
overflow takes place to land further out, which in turn gets
saturated, leaving the water to be forced on to a further
distance, and so on until the limit of the field is reached.
With a plentiful supply of water the channels need not be
closer than 10 chains apart, but, in order to economize the
supply, more frequent channels are desirable.
DISTRIBUTING FURROWS.—Where there is a limited supply
of water, or where it is desirable to economize what is available,
distributing furrows may be profitably introduced. Mr. Leitch,
of Gunbower station, has prepared for an experiment this
season, which will probably show good results. A field sown
with wheat is provided with a system of distributing furrows
designed to assist the rapid watering of the soil. The furrows
are shallow, being more correctly described as "plough marks,"
and, after being formed, the land was rolled, so as to level


IRRIGATION.
59
down the earth thrown out by the mouldboard. By running
the roller one way only the earth was pressed away from the
plough mark and levelled down, so that while nothing was
left that would interfere with harvesting machinery, there
remained a shallow, smooth channel to carry water. The plough
marks are 15 ft. apart, and crossed with similar marks 21 ft.
apart. It is considered that the water will run quickly along
this network of shallow channels, and soak in from one to the
other, thus more rapidly and thoroughly moistening the soil.
This system is a modified form of that followed in America,
where the farmer has a limited head of water to deal with,
but as long a time as he wishes to attend to its distribution.
HOSE DISTRIBUTION.- Where the soil is a loose alluvium, or
of a sandy character, flooding according to the above methods
cannot be carried out, for the water will sink into the subsoil
and fail to spread itself over the surface. In such circum-
stances the use of the canvas hose is a convenient and practical
method of distribution. Mr. Pearse, of Bacchus Marsh, who
has been engaged for some years in growing chicory, as well
as other root crops, employs this means. The water is raised
from the Lerderderg by means of a Californian pump, driven
by an engine to supply some of the fields, and by a water-
wheel to supply others. An aqueduct runs along the banks
of the river, with a slight elevation above the cultivated land.
It would be a waste of pumping power to attempt to force the
water along furrows to the bottom of the paddock, owing to
the great loss by absorption, and it was to overcome this
difficulty that Mr. Pearse invented his system of irrigating by
means of calico hosing. A thick calico or canvas hose, made in
20 ft. lengths, is attached to the aqueduct, and when the first
length is filled with water its end is inserted 10 in. or 12 in. into
an empty length. This forms a complete join by the pressure
of the water, and length after length is added until the bottom
of the field is reached. The water is now allowed to run until
as large an area as possible is irrigated, when one of the lengths
of hose is taken off, which brings another space of 20 ft. in
width within reach of the water; and so the process is
continued until the top of the land near the aqueduct is
arrived at. The hose is again attached to the aqueduct at a
point two chains further along, and another strip of land is
irrigated from the bottom to the top of the field, and so on
until the whole of the crop has been watered. The same
system is adopted by some of the hop-growers on the Mitchell
and Ovens rivers with marked success.


60
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
SUB-IRRIGATION.- Applying moisture to the subsoil would,
no doubt, be as beneficial to grain crops as in the case of trees
and vines, but there are difficulties in the way of carrying out
the system. In some countries, and in one notable instance
in California, pipes have been laid underground for the
purpose of irrigating the subsoil. Results have been highly
satisfactory, but the cost is excessive. Fair success, however,
has been attained by watering grain crops by means of
furrows, as in the case of root crops or trees, without flooding
the surface. Mr. Patchell, of Kerang, has followed this plan
for years, and finds the result to be much better than when
flooding is resorted to. Mr. Patchell's plan is to get the land
as level as possible. Having been perfectly levelled, the land
is cultivated deep, and ploughed into medium-sized lands.
The lands are made as flat as possible, and the water-furrows
are deep and well defined, so that when tillage is completed,
the appearance of the field is, as far as practicable, like a level
plain traversed by drains. The furrows are connected with
The water-channels, and they are filled, but not to overflowing:
The furrows are full of water, but the surface of the field
is dry. By keeping the furrows full for a time the water
soaks to the right and left, wetting all the subsoil, and even
the soil near the surface, but not producing the effect of
forming a hard crust under the subsequent influence of the
In irrigating the garden this method is found to be
especially necessary; and for the purpose of carrying it out
the land is divided into small plots, separated by water-
channels.
DRAINAGE.—It is as necessary to drain off the surplus water
as to supply a deficiency of moisture. The most frequent
mistake of irrigators is to put too much water on the land,
and an equally common error is a failure to provide for
drainage. Where the subsoil is porous less care is needed;
but in the case of such a retentive subsoil as exists in most of
the dry regions of Australia, drainage cannot be neglected
without injurious results. The channels which convey the
water to the land can be made to serve as drains for taking
off the surplus. Provision should be made for employing the
channels as soon as the fields have been irrigated, so that they
may act as drains to take off the surplus supply. A quick
application of water, giving the land no more than it can
absorb in a few hours, and then a quick draining off of the
surplus, constitutes the treatment most approved by practical
experience.
sun.


IRRIGATION.
61
RusT DISEASE.-In cultivating the wheat crop by means of
irrigation, the rust disease must be guarded against. Although
Australian farmers have not had much experience of irriga-
tion, enough has been learned to show that this disease can be
encouraged by an unskilful use of water. Rust is apt to be
produced by too much water, or deficiency of drainage, and by
irrigating at the wrong season. The wheat producer will,
therefore, have to avoid putting too much water on the land,
and will find it necessary to provide for draining off the
surplus supply, while he will irrigate his wheat crop not too
late in the season. It will be found advantageous to irrigate
soon after sowing, and again early in the spring, avoiding late
irrigation as a source of danger.
IRRIGATING PASTURES.- Flooding is the principal method
employed in watering pastures in the Gunbower district; a
large area of grass land has been irrigated in an imperfect
manner, but the following is an improved method in older
countries. A system of small channels or furrows from 20 ft. to
30 ft. apart is formed across the paddock, the furrows
running at right angles to the fall of the land. The furrow
on the highest side of the paddock is filled first and made to
overflow, the end being dammed up. The water flows over
the land to the next furrow below, which, being similarly
dammed up, overflows, sending the water to the next,
and on until the whole field or meadow is covered.
Night is the best time for irrigating pastures, and care must
be taken to drain off the water. Too much water will destroy
pastures, and it is necessary to provide for the rapid draining
of the surface. As a rule six hours will be long enough to
leave the water upon the pastures.
QUANTITY OF WATER.—The best method of measuring
water is to allow it to run over a weir without pressure.
A notch or opening in a weir in which water is standing
without pressure is measured, and these dimensions, with
the depth of water flowing over the weir through the notch,
give the number of inches being delivered per second. In
California one cubic foot per second is allowed for each
water-right, and in Colorado the allowance is 1 44-100
cubic feet, or nearly 1} cubic feet per second, a water-right
serving 80 acres of land. A flow of water equal to one
cubic foot per second would cover 4 acres of land to a
depth of about 6 in. in 24 hours. By noting the effect
of 3 in. of rain upon a crop, we may infer that a large
quantity of water is not required at one time, and the aim
SO


62
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
in irrigation should be only to make up the deficiency of the
natural supply of moisture.
CHAPTER VI.
GRAIN CROPS.
WHEAT.
WHEAT, which has been cultivated since the most ancient
times, increases in importance as a farm crop with the advance
of the human race in civilization. Flour, the manufactured
product of wheat, becomes more and more the staple food of
nations as they rise in the scale of modern advancement; and
hence the cultivation of this cereal receives an increasing share
of attention. Although growing to the greatest perfection in
the temperate zone of the earth, wheat can be successfully
cultivated in a great variety of climates, from the equator to
beyond the arctic circle, being, like man, whose food it seems
designed to supply, capable of thriving under widely varying
circumstances.
CHOICE OF SOIL._Soils containing a large proportion of
clay are best suited to the requirements of the wheat crop.
A good firm soil, consisting of clay or clayey loam, yields the
best results, and the presence of lime is essential. Carbon and
oxygen are important organic constituents of both straw and
grain, and the ash constituents of the grain are mainly phos-
phoric acid, potash, magnesia, and lime, while silica is an im-
portant element in the composition of the straw. Wheat can be
successfully grown upon light calcareous or marly soils, but
the suitableness of land for this crop is generally in proportion
to the degree in which it possesses a clayey nature. Rich alluvial
or vegetable soils are apt to produce too luxuriant a growth of
straw, with a liability to rust and blight.
PREPARATION OF SOIL.-Wheat is a deep-rooting plant, and
a good depth of well-prepared soil is, therefore, advantageous
to its growth. In addition to its tap roots, which penetrate
the subsoil, the plant possesses lateral roots, which search for
food near the surface, so that a deep, well-worked seed bed is
essential. Upon suitable soil, in a high state of fertility, good
crops are sometimes obtained by shallow and imperfect culti-


GRAIN CROPS.
63
vation, but this fact should not mislead the agriculturist into
supposing that such treatment is advisable. As a rule, the
success of a crop will be in proportion to the depth of pul-
verized fertile soil in which the roots are able to search for
nutriment; and in a dry climate, where moisture is always
insufficient, such will be more especially the case. A loose
tilth is not required, but a firm soil, well pulverized, and a
deeply stirred subsoil, should be provided for the wheat crop.
MANURE FOR WHEAT.-Farm-yard manure has to be very
carefully applied to the wheat crop, as it is apt to produce over-
abundant growth, an undue proportion of straw, and a tendency
to “lay” or lodge, and to rust. It is better to apply the farm-
yard manure to the previous root crops, or, when applied
directly to the wheat crops, salt, ashes, or effete lime may be
used to check the evil effects. Peruvian guano sown broadcast
and harrowed-in with the seed at the rate of 2 or 3 cwts. per acre,
or an equal quantity of bone-dust or superphosphate, may with
advantage be applied to the wheat crop in moist localities; but
in the dry districts of the colonies immediate results need not
be expected from any manure, owing to a deficiency of moisture
to render the constituents soluble. The following year, how-
ever, after the winter rains have moistened the soil, advantage
will accrue.
Nitrate of soda is one of the best manures for
wheat in dry districts, and in such localities it may be either“
applied in winter, or used as a top-dressing in spring for late
crops. The burning of stubble or the straw after the stripper
in dry districts supplies the soil with ash constituents, and
destroys the seeds of weeds. While inferior as a system to the
making of farm-yard manure, it is the only one available over
a large area of Australia. Green manuring could be followed
with advantage in such localities, as a deficiency of moisture
and humus is one of the principal defects in the condition of
the soil.
VARIETY OF SEED.—The distinction between winter and
spring wheat is of little importance in Australia. In countries
where there are cold frozen winters, quick-growing spring
wheats are valuable as maturing after the winter in time for
harvest; but as there is an absence of such winters in Aus-
tralia, the best winter varieties can always be cultivated suc-
Cessfully. In choosing the variety of seed, local circumstances
form the best guide. A wheat which is the best for one country
is not successful in another, and the same rule applies to
different districts. The most profitable wheats cultivated in
Australia are Tuscan, Purple Straw, Port M'Donnell, and English
✓
1
مرزا
i jari


64
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
Velvet, and it is well known in each district which variety
thrives best under local circumstances.
SELECTION OF SEED.- Opinions are divided upon the ques-
tion of plump or thin seed, but Mr. Hallett's theory is backed
up by admirable results. His method is to apply the principles
of selection, and to study the laws of descent in the vegetable as
well as the animal kingdom. “Like begets like," he contends,
in the case of plants equally as in the case of animals. Every
plant of wheat, for instance, possesses one ear that is better
than the rest, and every ear one grain that is superior to the
others. By selecting these superior ears and their best grains,
and sowing them, seed is obtained which produces a wheat
possessing superior qualities. This system of selecting seed
and regarding its pedigree is held to maintain and improve the
quality of the cereal, and those who have acted upon the theory
have succeeded in producing a fine sample. Objectors assert
that plumpness of condition is no test of pedigree, as a well-
bred animal may be thin and poor; and that good grain is pro-
duced from thin seed in the same way that good stock is raised
from well-bred parents low in condition. It is also a matter
of fact that when rust has been destructive in South Australia
good crops of excellent grain have been raised in the following
seasons from the sowing of shrivelled seed. Extremes in this
controversy, as in all others, should be avoided.
A single
season is not likely to produce striking effects. Shrivelled
grain from a plant having a good pedigree would not show
inferior progeny in a single season ; but it does not follow that
the continuous use of thin seed would maintain a high standard
of quality. Careful selection year after year of well-developed
seed will be found to act in the direction of maintaining the
quality of the grain, and the pedigree of the plant will not fail
to tell upon the character of its progeny.
Thus, a well-filled
sample, produced under exceptionally favourable circumstances
from a poor variety, should not be relied upon to reproduce
good grain, as it would not be so likely to yield satisfactory
results as a less plump seed from a stock of better pedigree.
In changing seed, therefore, pedigree, as well as the appearance
of the grain, should be taken into account.
PREPARATION OF SEED.—The most important preparation
for seed is to make it clean. Passing through the screen
dresser will not only remove all light and imperfectly developed
grain, but also remove foreign seeds. Keeping the seed clean
is better than attempting to destroy weeds after they have
been sown, and this is especially the case in those dry


GRAIN CROPS.
65
districts where wheat is the staple crop. In those localities,
owing to the infrequency of rains, weeds are destroyed with
difficulty. There is generally no rain until that falls which
is needed for the wheat crop, and then it is too late to destroy
weeds. Wild oats, drake, and other weeds grow with the crop,
spoiling the sample, and propagating themselves in the ground
until further cultivation becomes impossible. “Keep the land
clean by sowing clean seed" is the best advice to farmers in the
wheat-growing areas, and the most successful wheat-growers
have always acted upon the injunction. Thoroughly cleaning
the seed by passing it through the screen will save much
afterwork in the way of destroying weeds, and prolong the
period during which wheat can be grown on the same land
in dry districts.
PICKLING SEED.—Pickling seed is generally carried out by
farmers, and chiefly as a prevention of smut. The system is
sometimes called “steeping,” but this term is misleading, for
steeping seed wheat should be carefully avoided. The seed
should not be left in the pickling liquid long enough to
become steeped, but should only be covered by the pickle,
and then allowed to dry before being sown. When seed is
thoroughly moistened in the pickling-tub, and then sown, it
will germinate ; and, should the season be dry, the absence of
moisture in the soil to carry on vegetation will cause the seed
to perish. If not allowed to remain too long in the pickle,
the seed will lie in the dry ground until the soil becomes
moistened by the rain, and thus receive no injury. The
most common, and the most effective pickle, is a solution of
sulphate of copper (blue vitriol), generally known as blue-
stone. The bluestone is dissolved in hot water at the rate of
about a quarter of a pound to a gallon of water, and this
quantity is sufficient for half a bag, or two bushels of wheat.
Half a pound per bag is a sufficient quantity of bluestone. A
handy method is to partly fill a large tub with the liquid, and,
putting about two bushels of wheat in a bag, submerge
the bag in the liquid. In about two minutes the liquid will
have reached all of the grain in the bag, and then the bag
can be raised upon a cross-bar on the tub and allowed to
drain. The salt or brine pickle, extensively used in America,
is a brine made of salt water sufficiently strong to float_an
egg. The wheat is steeped for five minutes, then taken out
and mixed with one-twelfth its own quantity of dry lime.
Another plan is to dip the wheat in a strong solution of lime,
the lime forming a thin coating upon the grain. In all
6


66
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
cases care must be taken to avoid soaking the wheat. While
the method of dipping the wheat sacks saves labour, putting the
grain loose into the liquid has the advantage of assisting to
clean the seed, for light grain and foreign seeds rise to the
top, and can be skimmed off.
BROADCAST SOWING.—Sowing the seed broadcast is the
system most generally followed, as it involves the least labour.
Regularity is the principal object to be aimed at, as loss
results from having the seed too thick in one place and not
thick enough in another. Where a large area is to be sown
broadcast sowing machines are used with advantage. There
are several machines in the market which save considerable
labour, and do the work more regularly than it can generally
be done by hand.
DRILLING.—The drilling system possesses many advantages
over broadcast sowing. Not only can greater regularity be
obtained, but the horse hoe can be afterwards used to destroy
weeds and stir the soil while the crop is growing. When the
soil is rich, and inclined to produce weeds, drilling is specially
advantageous. The only drawback to the system is that it
involves more labour than broadcast sowing, but the extra
labour is claimed to be more than paid for by the increased yield.
obtained. In the dry wheat-growing areas of the colony
there is not much to recommend drilling in preference to
broadcast sowing, but in the more moist localities, and
especially on rich volcanic soil, where weeds grow luxuriantly,
the system can be adopted with advantage. In such localities,
both in the colonies and in America, drilling has been adopted
as the more profitable, even when a high rate of wages has to
be paid for the kind of skilled labour required.
QUANTITY OF SEED.—The quantity of seed to sow is a
debatable question, but thin sowing is recommended by the
experience of large numbers of practical farmers. Some
varieties of wheat require to be sown thicker than others, and
plump seed has to be sown in greater quantity than more
shrunken grain, as there is a greater number of seeds to the
bushel in the latter case. It is natural for the plant to tiller
or produce numerous shoots, and as many as 100 stalks have
been known to sprout from a single seed. Thick sowing
retards tillering, and produces a weakly straw, bearing an
inferior head of grain ; while thin sowing induces tillering
and the production of strong, well-bearded straw with plump
grain. In the dry wheat-growing areas, where early sowing
is the rule, and the crop has a long time for tillering,


GRAIN CROPS.
67 a.ch
from three-quarters of a bushel to a bushel and a quarter are
generally sown; while in more moist localities, with a later view.ados
period of sowing, the quantity varies from one and a quarter
to two bushels per acre.
TIME OF SOWING.—Early sowing has been proved to be
essential in the dry districts of the colonies. Not only do the
early crops yield the best results, but a late period of sowing
cannot be depended upon to secure an average crop. The
annual rainfall is so light that the wheat crop requires the
benefit of all that is available during the season. If the
autumn rains have fallen before the crop is sown, the plant
remains backward during the dry winter, and is not so fully
benefited by the spring rains as the crops which have been
well established through being sown early. Many farmers
begin to sow in March, and the sowing season is well on in the
month of April. A considerable breadth is sown in May, but
those farmers who sow in June or July only do so in hope of
meeting with an exceptional season. In the more moist coast
districts, May, June, and July are generally favourable sowing
months for wheat, but May sowing is in most cases more
successful than that sown in July. Wheat should be sown
in a comparatively dry seed bed early in the winter.
WATER FURROWS AND DRAINAGE.— Wheat is liable to be
injured when there is deficient drainage by an over-supply of
moisture during winter. In the dry areas of the colonies there
is very little danger from this cause, except where irrigation is
practised. Underground drainage will be found advantageous
in the moist coast districts, and, where there are no underground
drains provided, care should be taken immediately after har-
rowing to mark out well-defined water furrows, as it is mondanna
undesirable to allow surplus water to lie upon the wheat land.
Where irrigation is practised the work of providing water
furrows is especially important, for, in addition to killing the
seed, a surplus of moisture is apt to produce the rust disease.
ROLLING.—As the wheat crop flourishes in a firm seed bed,
rolling is an operation of special importance. It may be carried
out immediately after harrowing, or when the crop is beginning
to cover the ground. When carried on after the braird has
appeared, rolling not only makes the surface soil firm and
levels down the clods, but acts beneficially by pressing the
earth about the root of the plant. Fine weather should be
chosen for rolling, when the soil is not moist enough to be
sticky. It is better to roll when the dust rises after the
implement than when the soil is too moist. Although of great


68
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
importance, the operation had better be left undone than
carried out in wet weather when the soil adheres to the roller.
AFTER HARROWING.—Upon the clayey land usually sown
with wheat the crop is greatly benefited by harrowing in the
spring. The surface becomes crusted and set during winter,
and the harrow breaks the crust, giving the roots of the plant
a better opportunity of spreading. It also, by breaking some
of the roots and shifting their position, revives the vitality of
the plant, causing it to grow more vigorously and send out
fresh shoots. Upon late or thin crops the effect is most
beneficial. The few plants destroyed are more than com-
pensated for by the increased vigour of those which remain.
A light harrow should be used, the soil should be comparatively
dry-in fine weather following showers—and the operation
should be carried out before the braird is quite covering the
whole of the surface. Harrowing and rolling are both carried
out with advantage to the wheat crop early in spring.
FEEDING-OFF.—When the approved system is adopted of
sowing early to get advantage of all the rains, it is frequently
found that the wheat crops are very forward early in the
spring. In such cases there is danger of rust, and the crop
will possess a weakly straw, liable to lodge or “lay." Feeding-
off the crop at the end of winter in such cases is generally
attended with advantage. If not delayed too long, the
feeding-off may be complete, baring the crop to the ground.
Sheep are the best kind of stock for this purpose, but light
also be used. A large flock of sheep which will
quickly eat off the crop should be preferred. The crop will
tiller vigorously after the grazing, receiving benefit both from
being nipped off and from the treading of the ground. The
principal danger is in delaying the operation until too late in
the season. It is advisable to put on the sheep in dry
weather, and soon enough to allow the crop to recover under
the influence of the spring rains.
TIME OF HARVESTING.-It has been well established that
the wheat crops yield the largest quantity of the best quality
of grain by being harvested before it is dead ripe. Where the
stripper is used this matter cannot be considered, for the
grain has to be ripe and dry for the successful working of the
machine.
When wheat is reaped, however, it should be
remembered that there is an advantage in harvesting early.
When the grain has become glazed, but before it has become
hard, it is in the best condition for reaping. It is kept from
shrivelling by drawing nutriment from the straw after being cut,


GRAIN CROPS.
69
and both weight and quality are benefited by being reaped
before the grain becomes hard and dry. Grain stripped" on
the
green
side shrivels as it is cut off from connection with
the straw, but the case is different when the wheat is reaped.
Wheat that is stripped or reaped after it is dead ripe possesses
dryness, flouriness, and other excellent qualities, but is inferior
in strength to that which has been reaped slightly on the green
side.
REAPING.—Over a large portion of the earth's surface,
reaping in one form or other has to be adopted in harvesting
grain crops, the Australian system of stripping or threshing
the grain on the uncut straw being possible only upon a
limited area under a special climate. The reaping-machine,
which took the place of the sickle and cradle, is now being
superseded by the reaper and binder-a machine which reaps
and binds the grain at one operation. The reaper and binder
is the most economical harvester yet invented which is
capable of general application. Upon the coast districts of
Australia, in New Zealand, in Europe, and in all parts of
America except on the Pacific coast, the reaper and binder is
the most labour-saving harvester available. Farmers in the
colonies have a choice of several American and English
reaping and binding machines, which work in a thoroughly
satisfactory manner. It is only in a dry climate like that of
northern Victoria, or the inland districts of the continent,
that the reaper and binder meets with a formidable rival.
STRIPPING.-In South Australia, northern Victoria, and
western New South Wales, or what may be called the interior
sections of the Australian continent, climatic conditions admit of
the use of the Adelaide stripper. In the interior districts,
therefore, farmers can either use the reaper and binder or
the stripper, and they thus possess an advantage enjoyed,
perhaps, nowhere else, except on the Pacific coast of America,
where a somewhat similar though inferior machine, “The
Californian Header," is used. As to whether the stripper or
the
reaper and binder is the better machine to use in the
inland districts there are differences of opinion. There can
be no question that stripping is much the cheapest system
of harvesting wheat; the only question is as to whether the
cheapness is not counterbalanced by other considerations.
Cost OF STRIPPING.—Cheapness is the principal recom-
mendation of the stripping system. Amongst the first
settlers in the Wimmera district were a considerable number
of Germans from South Australia, who came to the colony


70
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
1
6 bor,
with their stripping machines, and an intimate knowledge of
the South Australian system of making wheat-growing pay.
The other selectors, who came from the southern parts of
Victoria, soon learned to appreciate the stripper, and the
result was that cheap production and an almost complete
independence of the labour market were established from the
first in the Wimmera district. Thus, having been able from
the outset to harvest the crops at a very low cost, and having
been saved from the extortionate wages which had to be
paid in other districts, the Wimmera farmers had an
advantage which has contributed in no small degree to
what measure of success they have attained. Some idea of
the cheapness of stripping may be formed from the fact that
the work is done by contract for from 4s. to 6s. per acre.
Taking 6s. per acre" as the contract price for stripping an
average crop, and remembering that a farmer will be able to
harvest his own crop at something below the contract rate,
it is not difficult to see that no other machine has any
chance
of competing in price with the stripper. The farmer engages
to supply food to the men and horses working the stripper,
and this, with the charge per acre, brings his crop, in the
shape of wheat and chaff
, to the winnower. By supplying
a winnowing machine and finding food for the men he gets
his wheat cleaned and put into bags at 6d. per sack, so that
the whole harvesting process up to carting the bags to the
railway station is done cheaply and quickly. When it is
considered that, even with the reaper and binder, after
supplying string and going through the processes of reaping,
stocking, and stacking, the item of threshing has still to be
paid, it will be admitted that for cheapness the stripper is
unrivalled.
OBJECTIONS TO THE STRIPPER.—The principal objections to
stripping are that it wastes the straw and tends to foul the
land. As to wasting the straw, the objection is most potent in
those districts where there is a good growth of straw, and
where the commodity is most valuable. Over a large area of
the inland districts, however, the straw is thin and short, so
that if saved it would be of little value. When there is a good
growth of straw, the importance of saving it will increase in
proportion as the advantages of keeping stock are appreciated.
As to fouling the land, there is no doubt that more wild oats
and other foreign seeds fall on the ground by letting the crop
get dead ripe for the stripper than when the grain is reaped
earlier in the season, but this evil is to a large extent modified
.
الي -


GRAIN CROPS.
71
by keeping the land clean and sowing clean seed.
“ There are
no wild oats or weeds in a stripper, and we sow clean seed,”
say those farmers who use the stripping machine with success.
The stripping system is not consistent with the principles of
good farming, but good farming cannot be carried out in those
inland portions of the continent where continuous wheat-
growing alone has to be resorted to. The growing of wheat,
however, in combination with the keeping of stock, can be
profitably carried on, and the Australian stripper is a valuable
aid to the system.
STRIPPING AND CLEANING.—“ The Combined Harvester,"
inspected by the gentleman who visited America in 1883 on
behalf of the Australasian, was described as the latest in-
vention in harvesting machinery. The machine is a Californian
header, with cleaning appliances attached. It reaped or headed,
threshed and cleaned the grain at one operation, the bags being
filled and turned off ready for market. In the following season
two Australian inventors patented combined machines, consist-
ing of strippers with cleaning appliances, and at a trial held
that year at Dookie in competition for a premium offered by the
Government of Victoria, work was done which gave promise
of the new machines being ultimately successful. As the
Australian stripper is a more economical machine than the
Californian header, the combined stripper and cleaner, if per-
fected, will be superior to the combined harvester of California.
There is therefore a good prospect of the dry districts of the
colonies continuing to possess the cheapest system of harvesting
in the world.
REAPING AND STRIPPING.–The same objections which are
urged against the stripper affect the combined harvesters,
while, if the chaff is blown out on to the field, there will be an
additional tendency to render the land foul. There will,
however, be increased cheapness of harvesting to act in the
way of compensating for losses of this kind. The contest
between strippers and reapers and binders is confined to the
interior districts, and in such localities both the machines
have their share of patronage. In the coast districts the
reaper and binder has no successful rival. A number of
successful farmers in the northern district use both machines.
The reapers and binders are set to work fully a fortnight
before the grain is fit to strip, and thus a large area is cut
before the rush of the harvest commences.
The stripped
gra can be sent to market should prices be favourable, and
that which has been reaped is stored in the straw until


72
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
threshing time. By this means the period of harvest is
advantageously extended, and a portion of straw is also saved
for the use of stock.
STOOKING.—The treatment of the cut grain upon the field is
of less importance in Australia than in more rainy climates.
Where the stripper is used as a harvester there are, of course,
no sheaves to stook; and, even where reaping is resorted to in
the dry inland districts, stooking is of so little importance
that it is roughly carried out or dispensed with altogether.
One of the latest improvements in the reaping and binding
machine is a sheaf carrier, by means of which the sheaves,
instead of being dropped singly in rows over the field, are
deposited in groups of four or six. This facilitates the work
of stooking, but it is a common practice in the inland districts
to allow the sheaf carrier to supply the place of stooking
entirely, the grain being carted directly from the heaps or
groups of sheaves.
The weather is so warm as to render the
drying process rapid, and as rain seldom falls during harvest
stooks can be neglected with comparative safety. In the coast
districts, however, stooking is generally necessary, and the
importance of the work increases with the moistness of the
climate of the locality. Both stacking and stooking are
very important departments of farm work in New Zealand, for
there the grain has to complete the process of ripening both in
the field and in the stack. The best system of stooking in
moist climates is that of forming the stook of two rows of
sheaves placed upon their ends, about 18 in. apart, and leaning
towards each other so as to meet at the top. The stook is
formed by taking a sheaf in each hand, placing the butts on the
ground the required distance apart, and pressing the tops
together. A second couple of sheaves is similarly placed
alongside, and then another and another, until all the grain
has been gathered from a convenient distance, and thus a long
stook is formed with a space between the sheaves through
which the air can pass. The stook is strengthened by the
finishing operation of placing a sheaf at each end, leaning
inwards. Where the climate is moist the end sheaves should
be so placed as not to stop up the space intended for the
passage of air. There are few parts of Australia, however,
where much care is needed to facilitate the drying of the grain,
and a common method is to simply form round
stacks. This
method consists in placing one sheaf on end, and building
circles of others around it with their heads leaning inwards
until the stook is the size desired.


GRAIN CROPS.
73
CARTING-IN.—In carting in the grain the Australian farmer
is saved much anxiety owing to the general prevalence of dry
weather during harvest. His chief care must be to avoid
bringing the grain to the stack too soon after any rain which
may have fallen.
The grain dries quickly in the stook, but
slowly in the stack. Small or medium-sized drays or waggons,
with light, quick-moving teams, will be found more profitable
than attempting to save time by extra large loads. The
principal labour involved is the pitching of the sheaves, and
but little can be done to economize in this department. The
sheaves have to be hand-pitched on to the framed drays or
waggons, and in most cases they also have to be pitched off
upon the stack.
On the Pacific coast of America the loose
“ headed” grain is transferred from the waggon to the stack
by means of derrick forks like hay, or by placing a rope net in
the waggon, by which means the load is lifted on to the stack
through the operation of the derrick. Derrick forks cannot wel
be worked upon sheaves, but the net rope can be used—a
system by which a portion of the work of hand-pitching can
be economized. The derrick or spar elevator used in stacking
hay can easily be used to raise the net ropes employed in
carting in the grain crop.
STACKING.-Although the climate of Australia renders the
treatment of the grain upon the field a matter of comparatively
little importance, stack building cannot be neglected with
impunity. Much loss is sustained through insufficient attention
being given to this department of farm work. It is seldom
the intention of the farmer to leave the grain long in the
stack, and hence the building of stacks receives too little
attention. There is so little extra labour involved in building
good stacks that as much care should be taken in carrying
out the work as if they were intended to stand throughout
the winter. It should not be assumed that the grain will be
threshed before the autumn and winter rains come on, and
as these rains are very penetrating the stacks should be built
with care.
STACK STANDS.-.. The practice of building stacks upon the
bare ground, so generally adopted, should be avoided. Even
in a dry season the sheaves next the ground are damaged, and
frequently several tiers of sheaves are more or less injuriously
affected. The loss of grain is generally more than would
pay for a stack stand, and the sample of a much larger
quantity is frequently damaged by mixing with the musty
wheat from the bottom of the stack. It is shortsighted


74
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
policy to lose any grain after all the expense of cultivating it
and carting it to the stack has been incurred, while if grain
is worth growing it is certainly worth saving. A thick
foundation of straw is better than nothing, and a better plan
is to place logs or stones in position, and cover with straw; but
the best stack stand is made by putting a timber frame upon
supports about 1 ft. or 18 in. above ground. A stand of this
kind is not expensive, will last for years, keeps the grain dry by
admitting a current of air, and is a protector from mice, weevil,
and other vermin.
STACK BUILDING.— The most important principle in building
a stack is to keep the centre higher than the outside, from the
beginning to the completion of the work. It is only by
attending to this from start to finish that the grain will, after
the stack has settled, lie in such a way as to keep the rain
from penetrating. The extent of damage likely to result from
the stack getting wet is the measure by which to gauge the
importance of attending to this essential. A sheaf is first
placed on end in the centre of the stack stand, and others are
placed around it, in the same manner as in forming a round
stook in the field. This process is continued until the edge of
the stack is reached, when a beginning is again made in the
centre, and so on. It will be necessary occasionally to lay
extra sheaves in the centre, to keep it higher than the sides,
and in placing the outer tier in position care will have to be
taken to keep the butts far enough out, so that the eaves will
overhang the foundation. In the case of a square stack, par-
ticular attention is required at the corners to make the corner
sheaves overlap and bind each other. Place the tier at the
eaves further out than the lower one, and then begin to draw
in, continuing with each succeeding tier until the top is formed,
in the case of a round stack, by a single sheaf placed on end.
THATCHING AND COVERING.—Covering the grain stacks is
a course too often neglected, and the loss resulting is consider-
able. All that has been said in regard to the mistake of pro-
ducing grain and failing to save it, through careless stacking,
applies with equal force to neglecting to provide suitable cover-
ing from the weather. The mildness of the climate, which en-
courages a careless system of stacking, results also in insufficient
attention being paid to covering the grain ricks. When stacks
are intended to stand only for a short time they should be well
covered with rick cloths of tarpaulin, or other waterproof
material, as providing covers will be found cheaper than thatch-
ing; but in the case of stacks intended to stand throughout the


GRAIN CROPS.
75
winter thatching is the more profitable course. Rushes and
tussock grass are sometimes available for thatching, and can be
used with advantage; but straw, of which there should always
be a sufficient supply, answers the purpose well. The straw
should be carefully sorted out into bundles, and then put on
by an experienced thatcher. Begin at the eaves, and add tier
after tier upon a section 4 ft. or 5 ft. wide, until the top of the
stack is reached. A quick method is to lay on bundles, spread
them out until the layer is about 9 in. thick, rake and pat
down firmly, secure with straw rope or hemp lashing to pegs, and
proceed with the next tier, continuing until the top is reached ;
but in the more complete system the thatcher takes small
bundles, amounting to a good handful, and places each in
position singly. The top of the bundle is gathered in to a point
and inserted under the straw or hay of the roof, the bottom
spread out, raked, and beaten down, and each section secured
by ties as completed. In putting in the pegs which secure the
ties they should be driven slightly upwards into the roof, so as
not to lead water into the stack.
THRESHING.—The farmer who keeps a threshing machine of
his own can have this important operation carried out to his
mind, but as threshing for the most part is done by travelling
machines worked by contract, it is often difficult to prevent s',
waste and loss. It is frequently the contractor's main object
to get through the work, and it should be the farmer's aim to
see that the threshing is properly carried out. Frequent in-
spection of the straw will be necessary to see that all the grain
is being taken out, and the sprouts will also have to be watched
to see that the grain is not being cracked. Equal supervision
will be advantageous to ensure that the grain is properly
cleaned, and that it is not being blown away over the riddles. The
farmer will earn more money in attending to these things than
in trying to fill a man's place in pitching sheaves or hauling,
away chaff.
chaff. The system of threshing by contract adopted in
the colonies might be improved upon. At present a certain
sum per bag is paid for the threshing, the thresher being re-
lieved from all trouble as to finding men and supplying food.
The farmer has to collect a large staff of men for a few days,
and make arrangements for supplying them with food. The
American system, as described by Nr. Ť. K. Dow in the Austral-
asian, seems much more convenient. A certain charge is made
for threshing, and the owner of the machine carries out the
whole work, paying men's wages, catering for his workmen,
and relieving the farmer of a great deal of anxiety. A gang of
!


GRAIN CROPS.
77
There are
STACKING SACKS.-In stacking sacks the most important
consideration is to protect the grain from mice.
two ways of securing this end. The first one is to leave
space for the cats to run all through the stack, and the other is
to leave no spaces through which the mice can penetrate.
According to the first plan the first tier of bags is laid about
a foot apart, and the next tier, which is laid transversely on
top, is also made up of bags about a foot apart. By thus
leaving a space between all the bags the cats can creep about
through the stack in every direction, keeping the mice from
the grain. The other system is quite as effective, and equally
practicable. A layer of sacks is placed in position close
together, and chaff from the thresher or winnower is spread
over, being tightly pressed into all the spaces. After laying
the next tier more chaff is put on, being rammed into every
space, and the process is continued until the stack is built.
The whole is then covered with chaff and straw, and the
mice are unable to make their way into the sacks. In the
dry districts sacks can be stacked in this way in the field
with safety for a considerable time. When stored in the
field, sacks should be kept well off the ground and covered
with a thick layer of chaff or straw.
RUST IN WHEAT.—Hardly a season has passed during the
last twenty years without announcements being made of the
discovery of some new "rust-proof” varieties of that cereal.
Australian farmers have been told to look to India for wheats
possessing the desired immunity, and we are bound to admit
that in that direction there should be, theoretically, the best
chance of obtaining what we all must so ardently desire. No
sooner has wheat-growing become well established in a newly
occupied country than symptoms of rust begin to appear; in
fact, after five or six splendid yields the dreadful parasite often
makes a clean sweep of the most promising crops, and this
ultimately leads to the abandonment of wheat-growing in
the locality affected and to the return of the land into pastur-
age. Such was the early history of wheat-growing in New
South Wales ; such is the history of the results of wheat cul-
ture in many localities in every Australian colony in which
that industry has been extensively carried on at any time.
Nor does the history of wheat-growing differ in other parts of
the world. The country whence the Romans drew their chief
supplies of wheat became afflicted with the scourge, and that
to such an extent as to induce the establishing of the feast
called “ rubigalia,” at which prayers and sacrifices were offered


78
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
up to induce the gods to spare the wheat crops and avert the
attacks of rust. Coming down to modern times, we have all
seen how wheat-growing has rolled westward over that
greatest of agricultural countries, the United States of
America, and how the eastern states having been rendered, by
constant cropping, temporarily unfit to produce the staple
breadstuff, are now chiefly utilized in dairying and grazing.
History, however, both ancient and modern, records no dis-
covery of a method of evading visitations of rust, of which
practical use can be made. Modern science has nearly laid
bare the mutations of the microscopical fungus which is fami-
liarly known as rust, but our increased stock of knowledge of
its natural history has not even faintly suggested a method of
preventing its attacks. The black-bearded Russian wheats
introduced by Signor Marteli, some twenty years ago, were
free from rust for a considerable time, but when grown ex-
perimentally in gardens whose soils were too rich in nitro-
genous matters the straw became rank, and the dreaded red
stripes appeared. The experience of cultivators in all ages has
gone to show that soil containing an excess of stercoraceous
matter, combined with moisture in such quantity as to induce
rank and watery growth, will assuredly lead up to a develop-
ment of rust. The spores of the parasite are, during the whole
of the summer months, floating in the air, and, as Tyndall has
said, are ever ready to fix on a host which presents condi-
tions which will enable them to thrive and increase on it.
Science has hardly yet determined whether the cracking of
the cuticle of the straw arises before the spores have taken
possession of it, or whether the cracking is occasioned by the
inability of the watery stem to withstand the heat of the
sun, and the spores, which are floating about, are then
lodged in the openings, and are there developed. The
point is not essentially important, for rust invariably takes
possession of the straw under certain well-ascertained con-
ditions; these, plainly stated, are an unhealthy state of the
plant caused by the assimilation of an excessive proportion of
certain elements, and of too small a proportion of others
(notably of silex). Experience, especially in Australia, has
also shown that the constitution of the wheat plant undergoes
a considerable modification. Thus, after several years' culture,
the red wheats of America and Great Britain lose their distinc-
tive characteristics, and gradually become light in colour. Red
wheats are, in fact, rarely grown in these colonies, not because
they are not in favour, but on account of their undergoing a


GRAIN CROPS.
79
gradual change of character, the natural effect of the climate.
Even in the very first season the red varieties of Mold's and
other imported wheats have yielded grain decidedly different
from the seed sown, although of unquestionably superior
quality. In starting, then, on a quest after rust-proof varieties
of wheat, the would-be discoverer should allow due weight to
each of the foregoing conditions, That certain varieties are
less liable than others to the attacks of rust needs no further
proof than that already within the ken of the multitude; but
that any existing variety will withstand rust after culture for
a series of years in unfavourable soil and climate has yet to be
proved. Whilst Defiance and Champlain have not been rusted
on certain farms, they have on others not enjoyed immunity
from the scourge.
The most severe test to which any wheat
could be put would be to sow it on the site of an old dunghill,
one of those sometimes seen in the corner of a paddock. Wheat
that will grow healthily on such a spot would be fairly entitled
to be regarded as rust-proof until its constitution has been
changed by a long continuation of adverse conditions. A
knowledge of the conditions of soil and climate which have to
be encountered, and of those in the plant which will help it to
withstand the rust, is of the first importance to the grower.
Given a variety having hard, smooth straw, soil of the most
suitable quality and in the most favourable condition, as much
will have been done as at present can be to ensure immunity
from rust. The conditions of weather and soils which usually
conduce to the development of rust are-(1) a rank early
growth caused by a loose condition of soil, and the frequent
occurrence of genial showers ; (2) the occurrence of dry hot
weather as the spring advances, checking and almost stopping
growth. In seasons of the foregoing character crops stunted
by growing on hard soil often turn out healthy, although the
yield may not be large.
HINTS TO WHEAT-GROWERS.
Sow CLEAN SEED.—Sowing clean seed is a matter of special
importance in the northern districts.
It is of importance
anywhere, but the cleaning of land is so difficult in the dry
areas of the colonies that the best system of weeding is to
keep the weeds from getting a hold. Prevention is better
than cure. By sowing nothing but clean seed the land can
be kept free from wild oats, barley, and drake for a long


80
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
seen.
time; but if these foreign seeds once get into the wheat-
fields it is almost impossible to get them out. Bare fallow
and feeding-off with sheep is the best remedy, but, owing to
the infrequency of the rains, it is difficult to get the weeds to
sprout. The soil is not easily exhausted, but when care is
not taken in the choice of seed it becomes so foul that
cropping it is rendered unprofitable. In these circumstances,
“sow clean seed” is advice which should receive special
attention. By means of an adjustable screen all the seed can
be carefully prepared, so that, beginning with new land, the
mistake which so many commit is avoided, and not only are
the paddocks kept in good order for a long time, but a clean
sample is always sent to market.
FEEDING PLOUGH HORSES.—Do not cut a dirty crop for hay,
or the crops will soon all be dirty. This is a mistake which
is commonly made, and the result is only too frequently to be
As a part of the system of keeping the land clean, a
portion of the wheat crop which is free from wild oats, barley,
or drake should be made into hay, and then the land will not
be made foul by the plough horses. Wheaten hay and chaff
with bran are the only food given by many wheat-growers to
the farm horses, and this is, no doubt, a very safe means of
preventing weeds from getting into the soil. Upon some
wheat-growing farms crushed oats are used as horse feed, but
if there is any fear of the crushing machine not doing its
work completely, the system of using bran and clean wheaten
hay cut into chaff can be relied upon as effectual. After
using all these precautions to keep the land clean bare fallow
can be had recourse to as a means of giving the land a rest and
dealing with any weeds which may make their appearance.
TRY GREEN-MANURING.—Manuring does not yet receive
any attention in the dry wheat-growing areas, and is not
likely to do for some years to come. If the land can be kept
clean it will produce average crops for a long period, and
when manuring becomes necessary some kind of fertilizer will
be needed which will better suit the requirements of a dry
climate than those in use in more moist localities. Green-
manuring is a subject which farmers should study, and in
regard to which experiments should be tried. With such a
rich subsoil the ploughing-in of some deep-rooting green crop
like lucerne would no doubt be found to be an excellent
means of re-fertilizing the surface soil.
Sow EARLY.—In regard to the time for sowing, the only
difference of opinion now existing in the inland wheat-growing
*)


GRAIN CROPS.
81
districts is as to whether early or very early is the best, late
sowing being out of the question. Some farmers believe in
getting the seed in as soon as possible, even as early as March,
and, in the event of a luxuriant growth, feeding-off with
sheep, while others consider from the middle of April to the
end of May the most suitable season. As it happened once or
twice that the very early sown crops have perished and had
to be resown, April and May are regarded as the safest
months for putting in the seed.
OATS.
The oat crop is cultivated over a wide range of climate, but
it requires more moisture than wheat. In New Zealand the
climate is more favourable to the growth of oats than in any
of the Australian colonies, and, as a rule, it is only in the coast
districts of Australia that the crop can be profitably cultivated.
In the colonies, besides being cultivated as a grain crop, oats
are extensively grown for hay.
VARIETIES OF SEED.—There are numerous species of oats,
but for practical purposes they may be divided into two classes,
viz., the common oat and the Tartarian oat. In the common
oat the seeds grow on all sides of the central stem, and in
the Tartarian oat the seeds grow on one side of the stem. Of
the common oat, some of the principal varieties are—the Potato
oat, the Sandy oat, the Hopetown oat, the Dun oat, and the
Poland oat. The potato oat has a somewhat compact ear, with
round short grains and thin husks. It has rather a short straw,
and, owing to being liable to shake out, should be cut on the
The sandy oat possesses a somewhat smaller, but
hard, bright, heavy grain of good quality. Its straw is tall
and stiff, and does not shed its grain freely. The Hopetown
is a short, thick, bright grain, yields well, and grows straw
of medium length. The Tartarian oat has a long, strong straw,
and a long bright grain, yielding well in favourable conditions,
but requiring more moisture than some other varieties. The
Calcutta brown oat is an inferior grain, but can be successfully
cultivated where the climate is too dry for white oats. As
in the case of wheat, varieties should be chosen according to
local conditions.
SOIL AND CLIMATE.—The oat crop flourishes in a less clayey
soil than wheat. Fair yields can be obtained from loamy soils
and medium soils of different variety, but the best results are
green side.
X
7


82
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
obtained from fertile alluvial soil. The habit of the roots is
much the same as in wheat, so that the same system of culti-
vation is required; deep and thorough working of the soil
giving the best results. The crop can only be successfully
cultivated in a moist climate, as the plant requires more
moisture than wheat.
SOWING.—Pure seed should be sown, and at the date found
best suited to the circumstances of the locality. June is a good
month for sowing. Oats do not require to be sown so early as
wheat, but the end of June is generally late enough. Oats
require sowing thicker than wheat, as the plants do not tiller
so much.
Two bushels per acre is little enough seed on good
land, and from three to four bushels may be sown with ad-
vantage on medium soils.
AFTER-TREATMENT.—Rolling after the crop is up is advan-
tageous, but the crop does not benefit by harrowing in the
same way as wheat. Feeding-off should as a rule be avoided,
as the crop will not suffer so much as wheat from overgrowth,
and does not recover well after being eaten down. Top-dressing
with salt, at the rate of 2 cwts. to the acre, has been found ad-
vantageous, and, except in very rich soil, the land should be
well manured with guano, bone-dust, or well-rotted stable
manure before sowing.
HARVESTING.–The reaper and binder is the best machine
for harvesting the oat crop in all parts of the colonies. In
the inland districts the stripper is used, but, except when the
straw is too short for reaping, the process is a wasteful one. )
THE CATERPILLAR.-Oats are singularly free from disease,
rust and smut generally giving very little trouble.
The
caterpillar pest, however, is sometimes very destructive. No
practical means of saving the crop from this pest has been
discovered, the best course being to sow early varieties that
ripen before the advent of the caterpillars, and cutting the
crop before it is over-ripe. For notes on stacking, threshing,
&c., see remarks under the heading of " Wheat.”
BARLEY.
Barley is a highly valuable grain, which is cultivated
successfully in the moist coast districts of Australia, and in
Tasmania and New Zealand. Requiring a more moist
climate than wheat, the crop is not extensively cultivated in
the inland portions of Australia, although near the mountain
ranges fair yields are obtained in average seasons.


GRAIN CROPS.
83
VARIETIES.- In the colonies the varieties of barley are
generally divided into two classes, viz., malting barley and
feeding barley. Cape barley, used chiefly for feeding
purposes, is a hardy variety, easily cultivated, and yielding
heavily, but commanding a lower price on account of not
being suitable for malting. Of the malting kinds the common
English barley, the Chevalier, and the Battledore are the
principal varieties cultivated. The Chevalier possesses a strong
straw, less liable to lodge than the common English, and the
grain is much esteemed. It ripens a fortnight later than the
common variety, but this can be overcome by sowing earlier.
The Battledore is a good variety for malting, and is a heavy
yielder
Sowing.–Barley should be sown about the same time as
oats, June being a suitable month in the coast districts and
May in the inland districts. Pure seed should be chosen, and
down at the rate of about two bushels per acre, and early varie-
ties are preferable where the crop is in danger of being attacked
by caterpillars. Like oats, the barley crop is liable to be
destroyed by this pest, and the best preventive is to get the
crop harvested before the visit of the caterpillars.
CHOICE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL.—Barley flourishes in a
well-worked soil. The soil should be put into a loose, fine
tilth, and the crop is generally admirably suited after one of the
well-hoed root crops. The soil should be of medium richness,
and manure should not be applied directly to the crop. After
potatoes or other root crop, to which manure has been applied,
barley can be sown with advantage. Rolling after the
grain is up is advantageous, but harrowing or feeding-off are
not advisable.
HARVESTING.-In the coast districts of Australia the reaper
and binder is the best machine for harvesting barley, and even
in the inland portions of the continent the same machine will
be found most profitable. The stripper harvests barley fairly
well in the inland districts, but, although the waste is less
than with oats, reaping is preferable. The stripper is
essentially a wheat harvester. General directions for
harvesting will be found under the heading of “ Wheat.”
RYE.
Rye is not extensively cultivated in Australia, nor is it grown
so largely, in proportion to other grains, in New Zealand as in


84
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
America and Europe. It grows well upon poor soil, and is
resorted to in America after the land has become impoverished
by continuously producing other cereals.
PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.-Rye flourishes in a generous
sandy loam, and grows well on light sandy and gravelly
loams. It requires more moisture than wheat, but grows in a
poorer soil. Upon a rich loam, where wheat would lodge, rye
will do well, owing to its stronger character of straw. The
preparation of the soil is much the same as for the wheat
crop.
SOWING AND AFTER-TREATMENT.-Rye intended for grain
should be sown at the same time as the earliest wheat, at the
rate of from one to two bushels per acre, according to the
soil. Rolling and harrowing are beneficial as with wheat, and
feeding-off when early growth is luxurious is also advan-
tageous.
HARVESTING.-As rye straw is not valuable, stripping would
be a good means of harvesting but for the fact that the crop is
not frequently grown in the dry districts where the stripper is
used. The reaper and binder can be efficiently used for
harvesting rye, and the remarks upon that machine as a
harvester for wheat will generally apply to the crop.
RYE AS A GREEN CROP.— As a green crop rye is much
esteemed in different parts of the world and in the colonies.
It produces an abundant growth of green fodder, possessing
valuable feeding properties, particularly suitable for animals
giving milk.
When intended as a green crop, about four
bushels per acre of seed can be sown, and it can be mixed with
rape or tares. The rye should be cut or fed-off before the
straw gets too stiff, as it becomes less suitable for stock as it
matures.
MAIZE OR INDIAN CORN.
Maize is not cultivated to any great extent in the Aus-
tralian colonies, although some of the moist coast regions
have been found well suited for the crop. It is the staple
crop of the United States, being much more important than
wheat, as it forms the chief food for farm animals. The
climate of North America not admitting of cattle being fat-
tened upon the natural pastures, stock have to be fattened by
food raised by cultivation, and maize is the chief crop culti-
vated for this purpose.


GRAIN CROPS.
85
SOIL AND CLIMATE.—Maize is in its natural home in the
rich alluvial soil on the vast flats along the rivers of America.
It thrives best, therefore, upon loose alluvial soil, and river flats
are more suitable for its growth than any other soil. It is a
gross feeder, requiring abundance of plant food to support its
stalks, leaves, and grain. The crop can be manured freely
without danger of injuring it, and a good yield can only be
obtained from soil in a fertile condition. A warm summer is
required to ripen the grain, and a good supply of moisture is
necessary for the growth of the plant. It will ripen in any
part of Australia, but it is only in the moist coast districts of
the continent that there is a sufficiently heavy rainfall to pro-
duce a good crop. There is a large area of land—especially
along the rivers draining the eastern slopes of the continent-
well suited for maize. In such districts yields as heavy as in
any part of America are obtained, and the crop might be more
extensively cultivated with advantage.
CHOICE OF SEED.—The varieties of seed are numerous, and
the best kinds are easily obtained in the colonies. The yellow
varieties are the best for general purposes, and the white for
table use or human food. The kind of seed which has been
found most suitable for a given district should be chosen. The
varieties differ widely in regard to yield, quality of grain, and
date of ripening; early varieties are generally the best, as least
likely to be injured by frosts.
PREPARATION OF Soil. The plant requiring a large supply
of nutriment from the soil, and having both deep and wide-
spreading roots, depth and thoroughness in cultivation are
necessary. Plough deep, and reduce the soil to a fine tilth;
manure well if the land is not in good heart, the crop paying
well in increased yield for liberal treatment.
SOWING OR PLANTING.-A common practice in this country
is to sow the seed in continuous drills, but the best results are
obtained in America from sowing in separate hills, 3 ft. or 4 ft.
apart. The land is marked off into squares, and the hills set
equal distances apart each way. Eight or ten seeds are sown
at each point, and, after the plants have come up, the surplus
stalks are weeded out, leaving four or five healthy plants in 3
each hill. Sowing machines are used in America, which
deposit and cover-in the seed in the manner required. A c!!.,.!
boy and a horse working one of these machines can plant
about ten acres per day. Thin sowing is preferred, as
giving the best yield of grain. Seed is frequently steeped
for one or two days in a solution of saltpetre, a course
1910


86
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
which is found to accelerate the growth of the plant and
protect the seed from birds, mice, and worms. Dressing
with tar is also carried out when mice or birds are specially
troublesome ; it is found to be an effectual remedy. The
seed should be covered about 2 in. deep, and the sowing season
must be chosen so as to escape as far as possible the late
frosts. In Victoria the crop for grain is sown from the
beginning of October up to the middle of November.
AFTER-TREATMENT.— The ground should be stirred with the
scarifier, and the weeds destroyed, soon after the plants are
well above the surface. Surplus shoots must be weeded out
and the soil kept loose and clean until harvest. Hilling-up, or
turning the soil up towards the stalks, is a common practice in
the colonies, but it is disapproved of in America. A main point
is to conserve the moisture for the benefit of the crop, and
leaving the surface flat and keeping it loose is the best means
to this end. Potato-growers have found hilling-up to be a
mistake, and maize-growers would also do well to avoid the
practice.
HARVESTING. When the stalks are intended for fodder they
should be cut whenever the grain in the cob is glazed, and
before it hardens. The grain then hardens without shrinking,
and the valuable feeding qualities of the stalks are preserved.
The effects of frosts can also be guarded against by early har-
vesting, the crop not suffering any injury in the stook. In the
Western States of America, where labour is dear, the cobs are
pulled from the standing stalks, hogs and cattle afterwards
being turned into the fields to eat the best part of the stalks.
As the cobs are pulled off, they are “husked” or stripped of
their covering, and carted to a crib or shed to dry; when dry
they are threshed or “shelled.” In husking, the cob is taken
in the left hand, and, with a short husking pin fixed to a strap
in the right hand, the husk is torn off. A man can gather and
husk about an acre a day, representing about 70 bushels of
shelled corn.
SHELLING OR THRESHING.—Shelling machines of all sizes
are used when maize is intended for market. Mr. T. K. Dow,
writing of the maize-growing industry of America in the
Australasian, says " Only a small proportion of the crops,
however, is shelled at all. It is a general custom to give the
unshelled cobs to cattle, pigs, and nearly all kinds of stock.
There are farmers here and there who both shell and grind the
corn for the stock, but the rule is to feed upon the unshelled
cobs, the cattle and hogs between them utilizing the bulk of


GRAIN CROPS.
87
!
2
men,
the nutritive constituents. Such corn as is sent to market for
the purpose of going to other states, or being exported, is
shelled by large machines driven by horse or steam-power.
Hand shellers are used upon very small farms, but when any
considerable quantity of shelling is done horse-power is eni-
ployed. One of the smallest horse-power machines in use-
the Duplex '—is worked by one horse, or, if required, by two
The cobs are carried into the shellers by a revolving
apparatus; the cobs and corn are separated after being shelled,
and the corn is carried up an elevator to a bagging spout.
When worked by one horse the machine shells and cleans about
600 bushels per day. Such a machine would cost to the
American farmer from £9 to £10 without the horse-works.
The Keystone Manufacturing Company, of Sterling, Ilinois,
do a large business in turning out corn-shellers of all kinds.
Some of the machines are four or six horse power, and are
capable of shelling as much as 2,000 bushels a day, the only
labour required being to shovel the cobs into the elevator
which carries them into the stripping gear, and to bag up the
shelled corn from the spout. There is seldom any bagging,
however, for the spout generally runs the corn into a waggon
or a railway truck-corn, like wheat, being handled in bulk
and stored in elevators.'
MAIZE AS A GREEN CROP.—As a green crop maize possesses
many valuable qualities. It produces a large quantity of
fodder possessing highly valuable feeding properties. For
this purpose the crop should be sown upon well-worked, rich,
or liberally manured soil. Seed should be sown at the rate of
three or four bushels per acre. Good results are obtained from
broadcast sowing, but when weeds are troublesome, continuous
drills are preferable. The fodder can be used for stock at all
stages, but it is better to cut it and house it than expose it to
severe frosts.
CHAPTER VII.
THE HAY CROP.
In the Australasian colonies very little grass is cut for hay,
the system of having hay meadows adopted in Great Britain
and the eastern and central states of America being almost


88
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
entirely unknown. Oats or wheat are sown for hay in the
colonies as in the Pacific coast states of America. Owing,
also, to the warm dry climate, the work of haymaking differs
considerably from that carried out in colder and more moist
countries. Instead of leaving the hay to dry for days, and
spreading or "tedding” it out of the swath, it is gathered
without much delay into windrows and cocks, the warm dry
atmosphere rapidly maturing the hay. Oats are the most
common cereal sown for the hay crop, but wheat also makes
good hay, being sweet and much relished by stock.
CULTIVATING FOR HAY.—It is too frequently the case that
farmers who are careful about other crops give very little
attention to the field which is intended for hay. While
grain crops are kept clean and well cultivated, the hay is often
allowed to be foul with weeds and stunted in growth, so that
the yield is light. It should be remembered that wild oats and
other weeds in the hay will soon spread to other parts of the
farm, and that it is a loss to expend labour upon harvesting a
light crop. Cultivate the land well for hay, and sow clean
seed, manuring liberally with bone-dust or farm-yard manure,
if necessary. The seed should be sown thicker than for grain,
and the land should be harrowed fine and rolled so as to
present a smooth surface to the mowing machine.
MOWING.—The mowing machine has taken the place of the
scythe. A machine should be chosen which will cut close to
the ground, as the heaviest hay is near the roots, and "an
inch at the bottom is worth two at the top.” As to the time
for cutting, a good deal will depend upon the purpose for
which the hay is intended. The most nutriment is in the
hay which is cut after the grain has filled, for there is
then substance in the straw, while there is also the grain.
Hay for market is best to have a bright green appearance,
which can only be attained by cutting early. The most
advisable course, in general, is to cut whenever the grain has
pretty well filled, and before the straw begins to lose its green
appearance. This is generally when the straw, below the first
or second joint, and the flag leaf turn white.
SHEAFING HAY.—The custom of binding the hay crop into
sheaves is becoming more and more general every season, a
system which has gained ground rapidly since the introduc-
tion of the reaping and string binding machine.
Hay for
manger feeding is better to be made in the ordinary way, but
the process is expensive, and the sheaf hay is better for
cutting into chaff. The reaper and binder now cuts low


THE HAY CROP.
89
enough, and binds the sheaves well without missing, while the
sheaves, being dropped in groups of from four to six, are con-
veniently stooked, and the work of haymaking is complete.
There is thus a great saving of labour, and the hay is in the
best condition for cutting into chaff, a form in which the
greatest quantity is now used. In the climate of Australia the
hay cures with sufficient rapidity in the stook. Make the
sheaves small, and the stooks to contain not more than twelve
or fourteen sheaves, and the hay will not be in danger of
heating in the field.
WINDROWING AND COCKING.--The hay wilts sufficiently in
a few hours after being cut to be raked into windrows, and
a day or two afterwards, according to the weather, the cocks
may be formed. The hay should not be put up into large cocks
before well dried. In the case of rain falling, and the weather
remaining damp, of course longer time has to be allowed than
in fine dry weather. In fine weather there is generally more
danger of delay in making the cocks than in gathering the
hay too quickly; but the medium must be aimed at. The hay
will cure well enough in the small cocks, where it will not
become so dry or lose its green colour so much as in the
swath or windrow. The larger cocks should be broad at the
base to resist the wind, and built high in the centre from the
beginning so as to keep out rain. In windy localities it will
be better to tie down the cocks with hay ropes than rebuild
them after a rain and wind storm.
STACKING.–First of all a rick-stand should be made to keep
the bottom of the stack off the ground, as it is unprofitable to
grow hay and allow it to be spoiled after being carted. A
thick bedding of straw is better than nothing; but a timber
rick-stand, through which the air can circulate, and the cats
can hunt for mice, will pay for itself in a single season. A
tarpaulin is always handy on a farm, and it will be of service
in case of rain while the stack is being built. The most
important point in building the stack is to keep the centre
high from start to finish. Thatch, sheets of corrugated iron, or
some form of covering, should be put on when the stack is
made, as there is much waste on the top of the stack when left
exposed, however well it has been built. It is important to
save labour in carting and stacking, as well as in making the
hay, and the farmer will do well to adopt such cock-lifters
.and stacking-elevators as may be within his reach.
CALIFORNIAN HAYMAKING.—As the rate
wages is even
higher in California than in Australia, the employment of


90
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
labour-saving appliances is a feature of the hay harvesting in
that country. “Mr. T. K. Dow, in the Australasian, thus
describes the Californian system :-" The leading principle is.
not to use manual labour where horse-power can be applied ;
but in carrying out this end there is a great variety of
contrivances. In dealing with the hay harvest it will be
borne in mind that the hay is not put up into stacks.
permanently, but only as a preliminary step to being pressed
into bundles and packed into barns. The stack is narrow,
so as to save pitching, and it is not high, for the same reason,
the length being extended as required. In some cases the
hay is pitched into waggons by hand, and in the same way
pitched on to the stack, these stacks being made only a little
higher than the frame of the waggon. In the vicinity of
large towns, where hay is grown for market, hundreds of low,
long stacks without tops are to be seen in the fields. These
will later on be sent to market before the rainy season, or
pressed and put into barns. It never rains during the summer
months, but it is thought necessary to have hay under cover
before the end of autumn. In conveying hay from the field to
the stack, a common method is to employ a large wooden
rake, with very long teeth, or a large 'bunching rake.' This
rake, which is drawn by one or two mules, according to the
size of the hay-cocks, is driven under the bundle of hay, forming
a sledge for it, and by this means it is drawn to the stack. In
other cases a rope is passed around the hay-cock near the
bottom, and thus the whole is drawn over the field to its
destination. Raising the hay on to the stack, or directly into
the barn, is generally managed by some arrangement of block
and tackle. In one case it will be a projecting beam from the
ridge-pole of the barn, to which a block is attached, a mule
drawing the load to the hay-loft; while, again, it is a derrick
erected for the purpose and set on wheels, so as to be easily
conveyed to any part of the field. A very common plan is to
pitch the hay into waggons in which a rope netting is laid.
The loaded waggon is drawn under the derrick, a hook
attached to both sides of the net, and a span of mules raises
the whole load above the stack, a man guiding the swinging
mass to any part of the stack required, and setting loose the
tackling by means of a check-line. There is nothing difficult
or mysterious in any of these contrivances, and many of them
are already partly adopted on some Australian farms. Α.
clear idea of the end to be attained, and the application of
well-known mechanical principles, alone are necessary. The


THE HAY CROP.
91
saving of labour is the end in view, and that is an end which
we also wish to attain in the colonies.”
GRASS HAY.—In making grass hay in Australia, particular
care has to be taken to prevent too rapid drying. Lucerne is
not unfrequently cut for hay, and, if properly treated, is very
valuable in this form. The lucerne should be raked up into
windrows almost immediately after being cut, and taken to
the stack before the leaves begin to fall from the plant. If
not harvested quickly in warm weather the leaves will fall
off and the hay will be dry and brittle. In making prairie
or other grasses or clovers into hay the same rule must be
observed. There is little danger in gathering quickly, but
the hay becomes injured by being allowed to dry too much.
As a rule, grasses should be cut for hay when in flower.
CHAPTER VIII.
CULTIVATED PASTURES.
The practice of laying down land to what is known
in Great Britain as permanent grass can hardly be
said to have attained much importance upon farms in
the colonies; real permanence is not greatly in favour,
the intention being simply to give the land a few years'
rest in grass to prepare it for another course of spoliation.
But on many of the larger grazing estates extensive areas
have from time to time been laid down with the express
object of forming permanent pasturage.
The course of
practice commonly pursued is to take a series of crops of
cereals from the new ground and then lay it down with a
mixture of grasses, in which rye-grass is the principal
ingredient. The results of this system of management have
been widely different, real permanence having, apparently,
been secured in some localities, and quite the contrary in
others. It is noteworthy, in connection with these differences,
that good permanent pastures, in which rye-grass largely
predominated, were not few in the colonies several years
ago. Of late years success has not so commonly followed
attempts to form permanent grazing grounds; after a term


92
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
of, say, five years and upwards the sown grasses have
usually become thin, and the native species they were
intended to have supplanted have reappeared, although
weakly, and have been left to do duty as pasturage as best
they could. At this stage the owner has usually arrived at
the conclusion that the grasses are worn out, and that
another course of grain-cropping is indicated as the proper
thing. To graziers who desire to grow only sufficient hay
and oats for the use of the establishment, the necessity for
periodically resorting to arable farming on a considerable
scale is annoying:
The continued improvement of grass lands in England,
under certain conditions as regards stocking, is so well
established a fact as to justify inquiry why results of an
opposite character are held to obtain in this country. The
climate of Victoria and the adjacent colonies is not a fixed
quantity, but it may be said generally that excepting in
the cooler districts—it is less favourable for the grasses
known as English than the climate of Great Britain. As a
rule, English grasses succeed fairly for a time in the more
elevated and least arid portions of these colonies—together
a very considerable area of first-class country; but it can-
not be said that in any large number of instances their
longevity is even fairly satisfactory. There is little room for
doubting that the very general use of rye-grass is a fertile
source of their early decadence. That grass belongs to the
same natural order as wheat, and removes from the soil
nearly the same constituents. If, therefore, rye-grass is sown
after cereals, the land, so far from obtaining the designed
spell or rest, is still subject to a continued exhaustion,
mitigated by the substitution of feeding-off by stock for the
total removal which occurs in the case of cereals, whether
the object be hay or grain. Full allowance must be made,
in estimating the causes of the early wearing-out of our
pastures, for the persistent overstocking to which most of
them are subjected. The paucity of vegetable matter in the
soil must also be allowed due weight in considering the
question before us, but that is only in part due to the
climate, for in its virgin state the soil is found to contain
more humus than after it has passed through the customary
routine of colonial cropping. Beyond all the considerations
already suggested comes the question whether greater
permanence might not be assured for our pastures-especially
for those in the cooler farming districts—by sowing grasses


CULTIVATED PASTURES.
93
in mixtures which would not be open to the same objection
justly urged against rye-grass. On examining any old English
pasture, or any native Australian one, the careful observer
will be enabled to count quite a large number of genera and
species in a single square yard. It will be found that
leguminous plants are present, and that besides these (which
include clovers) there are many feed plants other than
grasses proper. And yet in England, also, it must be said,
complaints have become frequent of late years of the early
decadence of new pastures which wereintended to be permanent.
The result is attributed by a recent writer-Mr. Launce de
Laune, who has been permitted to contribute a paper to the
Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England-
(1) to the presence of rye-grass and other annual grasses,
which die after seeding once or more, according to the
opportunity afforded them; and (2) to the absence of those
grasses which are by nature perennial. It must not be
forgotten that rye-grass is by nature an annual, and that the
permanence of the so-called perennial characteristic of certain
varieties of that grass depends wholly on the maintenance of
those conditions of culture under which it was first evoked.
A third cause of the early failure of new pastures in England
is said to be the use of an insufficient quantity of seed, and
also of biennial clovers which die out. The writer above alluded
to challenges the soundness of certain seedsmen's advice to sow
largely of rye-grass and only some 4 lbs. per acre of cocks-
foot, and condemns in toto the introduction of annual grasses
into mixtures for permanent pastures. His experience has led
him to suggest that the four coarse grasses, valuable beyond
all others for permanent pasture, are cocksfoot (Dactylis
glomerata), meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis), catstail or
Timothy (Phleum pratense), and to these he adds meadow
foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis). These five grasses, he says,
should form the bulk of all pastures on good soil, either
for sheep or cattle. The finer or minor grasses are crested
dogstail (Cynosurus cristatus), hard fescue (Festuca durius-
cula), rough meadow grass (Poatrivialis), fiorin (Agrostis
stolonifera), sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina), and golden oat-
grass (Avena flavescens). He observes that a meadow com-
posed of the above would be perfect as regards grasses, assum-
ing that the proper proportions are used; it would produce
food for stock nearly all the year round. The clovers, which
should be used in much smaller quantities than the grasses,
are perennial red clover (cow grass), alsike, and white or Dutch


94
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
clover. Seeds of milfoil or yarrow (achillea millefolium)
ought never to be omitted. The above he considers to be all
that are needed to constitute a first-class pasture on the best
and medium soils. For poor soils the mixture would have to
be modified. Thus, on dry lands, foxtail, rough meadow grass,
and fiorin would have to be omitted, and a smaller quantity
of meadow fescue used, whilst the proportion of cocksfoot,
crested dogstail, and yarrow should be increased. He con-
demns rye-grass in all its varieties, and Yorkshire fog (Holcus
lunatus) as "the grasses most pernicious to newly-formed
pastures.” The value of cocksfoot and its superiority over
rye-grass has been well established by experience in the
colonies.
A MIXTURE OF SEED.-Although rye-grass should not be
sown alone, it fills a valuable place in a mixture. In addition
to the grasses mentioned above, prairie-grass should be
included as one of the most valuable elements in a mixture of
sced for pasture. The advantages of sowing a mixture are
not confined to securing permanency of pasture, but a more
healthy food is provided for stock. The change of food
provided by the different grasses is good for the stock, and as
in the mixture there will be early and late winter and summer
grasses, the pasture is likely to be kept in good order all the
year round.
VARIETIES OF GRASS.
The characteristics of various grasses are thus given by Mr.
F. Willis, of Rothamstead :-
LOLIUM PERENNE (Common Rye-grass) is a very valuable
grass to the grazier, not only on account of its nutritive
qualities, but because it produces abundance of root-leaves
throughout the season, until checked by frosts. It is mode-
rately early, and succeeds best in wet and warm seasons,
and is a very prevalent grass in the fine old ox pastures of
Leicestershire.
LOLIUM ITALICUM (Italian Rye-grass).—This is generally
considered a bearded variety of the common rye-grass; but it
arrives sooner at maturity, has a greater abundance of foliage,
which is broader, considerably taller, and less inclined to
spread out. Its comparatively limited duration fits it well for
sowing in mixture with other grasses intended for permanent
pasture, or for renovating bare places, as it dies out and gives


CULTIVATED PASTURES.
95
place to the more slowly maturing perennial sorts, which are
destined to fill the ground.
PALEUM PRATENSE (Timothy or Catstail Grass).—This
species thrives best on moist loamy soils. It is unsuitable for
chalk, or stiff clay lands, but can withstand extremes of
temperature. It yields an early and productive growth on
first laying down, but appears to die out after a few years.
Some authorities state that this variety is more agreeable to
cattle than any other grass, and in America it is cultivated
almost exclusively where the soil is favourable.
ALOPECURUS PRATENSIS (Meadow Foxtail Grass).-One of
the earliest and best of grasses for continuous cropping, because
it yields a very large proportion of leaf to the stems, which
are broad, long, and soft, and grow rapidly when cut or eaten
down. It succeeds best on rather superior soils of medium
texture, and requires about two years after sowing to arrive at
full maturity.
DACTYLIS GLOMERATA (Rough Cocksfoot).—A perennial
grass with stiff fibrous roots, descending often to a consider-
able depth into the soil. Its habit of growth is tufty and
rather unsightly when on very rich soil, but it is a very
valuable grass in most pastures on account of the great
quantity of produce which it yields, and the rapidity with
which its leaves grow after being cut or grazed down. It pre-
fers good moist soils, and is one of the first to start in the
spring, but if allowed to stand too long its leaves get hard
and coarse.
FESTUCA OVINA (Sheep's Fescue.)—A densely tufted peren-
nial grass, growing plentifully on dry elevated pastures where
there is but little struggle or competition. It will thrive on a
variety of soils, and will resist the effects of severe drought in
summer better than some of the larger growing and deeper
rooted species. Its leaves are narrow and fine, and produce a
soft towy herbage. It is moderately early, and yields a fair
share of later growth, especially if the autumn rainfall is not
deficient.
FESTUCA DURIUSCULA (Hard Fescue).—Apparently a variety
of Sheep's Fescue, and upon some soils the two kinds blend
one into the other in such a manner that it becomes almost im-
possible to mark the distinction. Like F. ovina its leaves are
rounded and wiry, but longer, more luxuriant, and earlier. It
thrives on a great variety of soils, but prefers those which are
light and dry; it is, therefore, recommended for most pasture
lands, particularly as it yields a greater amount of fodder than


96
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
might be expected from its comparatively dwarf habit of
growth, and retains its verdure during the winter in a remark-
able degree.
FESTUCA PRATENSIS and F. ELATIOR (Meadow Fescue and Tall
Fescue).—These plants have a slightly tufted habit of growth,
with broad, lively, green coloured foliage. They are moderately
early, and are very partial to moist soils. They form excellent
pasture grasses, well liked by all kinds of domestic herbivorous
animals. Although their root fibres descend to a greater depth
into the soil than those of F. ovina or F. duriuscula, yet they
can with difficulty withstand the effects of a very dry season,
requiring shade and abundance of moisture ; whereas the
former species are generally the most conspicuous grasses under
defective soil and climate conditions.
POA ANNUA (Annual Meudow-grass).—This species is one
of the most common grasses in all temperate climates, and is
considered as a very troublesome weed. In some parts of
Suffolk it forms whole fields, to the exclusion of all other
grasses, being a very early and rapid grower. It is greedily
eaten by cattle, consequently is recommended as a meadow
grass, and especially for making good thin or blank places.
POA TRIVIALIS (Rough-stalked Meadow-grass).--A very
valuable grass in a mixture for pasture lands, particularly on
damp soils. Its stoloniferous shoots begin to grow tolerably
early in spring; as the season advances these shoots are dried
up by the effects of the sun, but they start again towards the
end of the summer, when the weather becomes moist, and
continue green during the greater of winter.
POA PRATENSIS (Smooth-stalked Meadow-grass).-A peren-
nial grass with a powerful root-growth. It is generally recom-
mended for sowing in pastures from its yielding a large quantity
of herbage at a very early period of the season; but it is not a
great favourite with agriculturists, owing to its thickly matted
creeping roots, which are considered to impoverish the soil, and
its foliage ceases in a great measure to grow after the month
of June; it is also very liable to be injured by the disease
called “rust.” It flourishes naturally in dry situations, pro-
ducing rather long, narrow leaves, which are of a coarse and
hardish nature.
AGROSTIS VULGARIS (Common or Creeping-rooted Bent-
grass).-A most variable perennial grass, having a kind of
subterraneous creeping stem. Owing to the extensive root-
possession, especially in the upper or richer layers of soil,
which this plant acquires, and the consequent difficulty of


CULTIVATED PASTURES.
97
extirpation, it is usually considered as a troublesome pest in
any light arable soils, being one of the grasses known as
"twitch” or “couch.” It is naturally distributed in pastures
and waste places, wet or dry, and will grow on gravelly soils
where more valuable grasses fail. It is a very late grass, but
continues to yield its foliage far into the winter.
AGROSTIS SPICA-VENTI (Silky Bent-grass).—A useful grass
for sowing in blanks of grass fields, or on first laying down
pasture, as it quickly produces a supply of luxuriant foliage,
much relished by cattle. It, however, entirely disappears
after about two years.
AVENA PUBESCENS (Downy Out-grass).—A very early and
hardy grass, natural to dry pastures, especially in chalky or
limestone districts ; foliage rather narrow, not attaining to
any considerable length. It succeeds in meadows best where
the herbage is thinnest.
AVENA FLAVESCENS (Yellow Out-grass).—A late variety,
yielding a considerable bulk of fine herbage. It deserves a
place in all mixtures for light, dry soils.
ANTHOXANTHUM ODORATUM (Sweet-scented Vernal-grass).
This grass is very early, but produces a scanty portion of
herbage. It is remarkable for giving out a pleasant smell
during the process of drying, and it is principally to the
presence of this species that hay from natural meadows owes
it peculiar fragrance. It is said that pastures where this
grass abounds produce the finest quality of mutton.
CYNOSURUS CRISTATUS (Crested Dogstail).-A late grass
that will grow on the poorest soils, and in seasons when many
other species can with diffieulty exist—due most probably to
its penetrating roots, which draw up moisture from the lower
depths of the subsoil and ensure the herbage against suffering
from drought. It has fine light green foliage, and forms a
close, dense turf, being therefore well suited for lawns and
grazing pastures to fill up the places between the larger-
growing species.
TRIFOLIUM PRATENSE (Red Clover).—A perennial plant of
many varieties, and of longer or shorter duration, that which
is usually found in permanent pasture being sometimes termed
by agriculturists Pratense perenne. It is very valuable for
feeding, and should find a place in all good pastures.
TRIFOLIUM REPENS (White or Dutch Clover).—A low-
creeping and much more dense and leafy species than the red
clover. Grows naturally in meadows and on a great variety
of soils and situations, being in great repute in all the better
8


98
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
class of grazing lands. In fact, it is to the prevalence of this
species that the goodness of the herbage is often attributed.
It is a late variety, but continues to produce a continuous
supply of fresh foliage far into the autumn.
TRIFOLIUM FILIFORME (Yellow Clover or Trefoil).- This is
a small clover, recommended for growing on very gravelly or
rocky places, which are incapable of supporting the more
valuable grasses and clover.
LOTUS CORNICULATUS (Birdsfoot Trefoil).—A plant well
suited for growing on dry elevated pastures and healthy soils.
It gives a bulk of short herbage, and from the depth to which
its roots penetrate it is not liable to be injured by drought,
and is thereby enabled to retain its verdure when other plants
are dried up.
ACHILLEA MILLEFOLIUM (Milfoil, or Yarrow).—A perennial
plant that will grow in the poorest, driest, and most sandy
soil, being capable of bearing extreme drought without injury.
It gives abundance of leafy herbage throughout the season,
which is well liked by cattle.
LUCERNE.— Although more properly a fodder plant for
cutting, lucerne forms the best and most serviceable pastures
in the warm, dry portions of Australia. The best results are
obtained by cutting the lucerne and feeding it to stock, but if
not eaten too close it will stand grazing for some time. Its
chief recommendation is that it grows rapidly in the summer
and autumn, showing quick growth after every shower. When
water is available for irrigation very large quantities of fodder
can be obtained from lucerne, and, even when it cannot be irri-
gated, it constitutes a highly valuable kind of pasture. Its
roots strike very deep, rendering it able to resist the effects of
drought, and in its cultivation the soil requires to be well
worked to a good depth.
THE CULTIVATION OF GRASSES. — The soil requires to be well
worked in preparation for grasses.
Weeds will choke the
young grass, and the early stages of the plants deter-
mine the future condition of the pasture. Let the soil be
worked deep, and harrowed to a fine tilth. The system of
sowing grass seed along with a cereal crop has been found by
experience to be objectionable. One of the crops must suffer,
and it is important that the grass should get a good start.
In moist districts spring sowing is sometimes successful, but
April and May are the best months. Cover in the seed with
a seed harrow or light brush harrow. In moist climates grass
seed may be sown upon the unbroken surface, and worked in


CULTIVATED PASTURES.
99
with harrows or the treading of sheep, but this can only be
done successfully in special localities. The young crop may
be lightly grazed with sheep during the first summer. The
grass crop is a good one to top dress with farm-yard manure.
It is greatly benefited by the treatment, and the soil is
manured for the succeeding grain crop. Cultivated pastures
should be subdivided into four or five fields.
This course
will not only benefit the stock, but keep the pastures from
being destroyed. Such pastures as lucerne and prairie-grass
especially require the aid of subdivision, and all grasses are
benefited by being allowed time to recover and to seed.
CHAPTER IX.
GREEN CROPS.
GREEN crops, which consist of a different order of plants from
cereals, and assimilate the elements of the soil in different
proportions, are valuable to the agriculturist as affording him
a means of giving the land a change and introducing a system
of rotation which is less exhaustive than continuously growing
one class of produce.
PEAS.
The pea crop, which is referred to at some length in the
chapter on “Green-Manuring,” is one of the most profitable
in itself, as well as affording a beneficial change to the soil.
It requires a somewhat moist climate, and, therefore, can
rarely be successfully cultivated in the dry inland parts of
the Australian continent. In the coast districts, however,
and in Tasmania and New Zealand, peas are successfully
cultivated.
SEED.— There are numerous varieties of both garden and
field peas, with varying characteristics, rendering them suitable
for different localities. As in the case of all other seeds, the
kind which does best in some localities will be found less
suitable for others, and it is consequently fruitless to recommend
varieties. The variety which is found to do best in the dis-
trict should be chosen, and the general direction to secure pure


100
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
seed should be attended to. With mixed seed there are unequal
ripening, a poor sample, and other drawbacks, which are
avoided by sowing pure seed.
PREPARATION OF THE SOIL.-Strong clay land is suitable
for peas, but a free, volcanic loan or limy wheat soil gives the
best results, and a good rainfall is necessary to ensure a heavy
yield. Manure should not be directly applied to the crop, as
such a course is likely to produce too strong a growth of
haulm, but after a well-manured potato crop good results are
likely to be obtained. The land should be well and deeply
cultivated, and reduced to a pretty fine tilth.
SOWING.—Except where weeds are likely to prove trouble-
some, peas may be sown broadcast at the rate of two or three
bushels per acre; but in rich soil, where weeds are liable to
spring drilling is preferable, as the land can be worked between
tħe rows with the scarifier, and kept clean... July is a good
month for sowing in the coast districts of Victoria, but when
there is danger of frosts sowing may be more advantageously
delayed till August.
HARVESTING.-The most expeditious method of harvesting
is by using the wooden pea rake. Instead of cutting the
haulm with the sickle, the turnover horse rake is put in, which
gathers the crop in the same way as in haymaking. The rake
pulls up and breaks off the plants, and the system is found to
be economical and effective. Peas are frequently threshed
with the flail on cloths spread in the field, but by carting and
threshing in the barn or stack-yard there is less waste, and the
haulm can be saved for feeding stock, it being valuable for
this purpose.
BEANS.
The common bean and the English horse bean are both
extensively cultivated as a field crop in Europe and America,
but are not generally grown even in those moist portions of
Australia and in Tasmania and New Zealand where the climate
is suitable. The valuable feeding qualities of both the bean
and the haulin should cause the crop to receive more attention
in those parts of the colonies where climatic conditions are
favourable to its cultivation.
SOIL AND CULTIVATION.—The bean flourishes in a loose,
generous soil of medium fertility. The soil should be well
worked, but not heavily dressed with fresh manure. As the
bean is a tender plant in its younger stages, the seed should


GREEN CROPS.
101
not be sown until all danger of frost is past. Upon clean
land the seed may be sown broadcast, but the best system is to
sow in drills about 2 ft. apart, covering to the depth of about
2 in., and sowing from 11 to 2 bushels per acre.
HARVESTING.—When the pods assume a yellow colour the
crop is fit for gathering ; when ripe the stalks are easily
pulled up, or they are sometimes cut with a scythe. In the
drying climate of Australia a day or two in the field after
cutting is generally sufficient to render the beans fit for
carting and threshing. Thresh with the flail, and preserve
the haulm for stock. Sheep especially do well upon the bean
haulm.
TARES OR VETCHES.
Tares or vetches are a valuable green crop cultivated
extensively in Europe and America, but not receiving a
sufficient share of attention in the colonies. It is chiefly used
as a green fodder crop, for, although the seed is nutritious,
the best results are obtained from using the crop in a green
state.
CULTIVATION.—The crop grows best upon well-w
worked
clayey soil, but does satisfactorily upon any fairly fertile or
well-manured land. Work the soil well and deep, and dress
liberally with farm-yard manure. Sow either in winter or
spring, at the rate of from 2 to 24 bushels per acre, broadcast.
The crop may be grazed or fed-off by folding sheep, but it is
better to cut the fodder as required. The fodder is good for
horses and cattle, and specially valuable for feeding milking
COWS.
CHAPTER X.
ROOT CROPS.
Roots being a different order of plants from cereals and
leguminous plants, and consequently differing in the proportion
in which they take the various elements of fertility from the
soil, play an important part in the system of cultivation by
rotation while producing valuable crops, and enabling the
fariner to carry on operations for the destruction veed
When roots are cultivated in rotation with green and cereal


102
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
crops, the farmer has not only a variety of products to reward
his toil, but possesses the additional advantage of following a
system which is most favourable to maintaining the fertility
of the soil.
POTATOES.
The potato, which is a native of the American continent,
is extensively cultivated in nearly all parts of the world.
It can be successfully cultivated both in warm and cold
climates, but a certain quantity of moisture is necessary to
produce a good yield. In the inland dry districts of Australia
the rainfall is generally insufficient for the potato crop, but
in the coast districts, and near the mountain ranges, the
climate is favourable, as well as in Tasmania and New
Zealand.
Soil.—The most suitable soil for potatoes in the colonies
is a reddish or chocolate clayey loam of volcanic origin,
but the crop grows well in any free, fertile loam. In the
valleys of rivers, or upon rich forest lands, where there is a
fairly copious rainfall, the potato crop can be successfully
cultivated.
SEED.—The varieties of potatoes are numerous, and the
kinds best suited to different localities are well known. New
varieties can be tried upon experimental plots, but the main
crop should be planted with the sort best suited to the locality.
In preparing the seed, it is false economy to cut the potato
into numerous small sets; it is better to select medium size
potatoes and plant whole. Cutting the potato into two parts,
and thus making two sets from each, is adopted with good
results, but making numerous small sets is generally found to
be less satisfactory.
PREPARING THE LAND.—The land should be thoroughly
worked for the potato crop. Work the soil deep and well,
reducing to a good tilth, and enriching with manure. Farm-
yard manure spread liberally upon the surface and ploughed
in generally gives satisfaction, and salt, ashes, and bone-dust
can also be advantageously employed. When the soil has
been well pulverized and manured, the potatoes can be planted
with every expectation of a good crop.
PLANTING. -Ploughing-in is the system of planting generally
adopted in the colonies, and the results are entirely satis-
factory. The sets are placed in the furrow from 10 in. to
12 in. apart, being set at one side so as to be protected by the


ROOT CROPS.
103
brand
soil from the horses' feet. The next furrow turned covers the
seed, and two more sods are turned over before the next row
of sets is planted, so that the rows are about 18 in. apart. In
some cases the three-furrow plough is used, and the sets are
planted in the open furrow every round. Deep planting is
adopted in some countries, but in the best potato-growing
parts of the colonies the seed is seldom put in more than 4 in.
or 5 in. in depth.
AFTER-TREATMENT.—After planting, the ground should be
harrowed down fine, and the principal attention required
until harvest is to keep down the weeds. In very moist
localities the earth may be hilled up on each side of the
plants, but there are few parts of Australia where this course
is not injurious. It is generally important to conserve the
moisture during summer, and leaving the surface flat is the an
best course. Keeping the surface stirred tends both to attract
and retain moisture, and this is the principal treatment
required by the potato crop.
DIGGING AND STORING.—When the tops are withered near
the roots the potatoes are ripe and fit for digging. They should
then be dug up before the rain comes, which otherwise will cause
second-growth. Digging machines have been invented, but they
all require special conditions which seldom exist, and they are
not generally adopted. Ploughing-out the potatoes is sometimes
adopted, but if the work is done well there is not much saving
of labour, so that hand-digging with the fork is the system
most generally followed. The potatoes should be bagged-up
as soon as taken out of the ground, as exposure to the heat of
the sun soon injures them. In storing potatoes they must be
kept cool and dry. This is best done in a covered building,
but when such is not available they may be pitted in the open
field. A shallow excavation, about 1 ft. or 2 ft. deep, is made
in a dry situation, and protected by drains from moisture. The
potatoes are put in and heaped up in the form of a pitched
roof. The heap is then well covered with straw or thatch
sufficiently to keep the potatoes from the wet or from injurious
effects by the heat.
THE SWEET POTATO.- This root, which is extensively grown
in the United States, is highly esteemed both for the table and
as food for stock. It flourishes in a free, generous, and rather
sandy loam. The soil should be well manured and thoroughly
worked. A moist, warm climate is required for the crop,
and, under favourable conditions, the system of cultivation
differs little from that followed with the ordinary potato.


104
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
MANGELS AND BEETS.
Beet and mangel-wurzel are root crops extensively culti-
vated as food for stock. In France and Germany a variety of
beet is much used for making sugar, and in California the in-
dustry is also profitably carried on. It is as a food for stock,
however, that the beet crop is most generally used, and the
large productive variety known as mangel-wurzel is most
commonly cultivated for this purpose.
A somewhat moist
climate is required, and consequently, as far as the colonies
are concerned, it is only in New Zealand, Tasmania, and the
coast regions of Australia that the crop is cultivated suc-
cessfully.
Soil.--The beet or mangel crop requires a somewhat friable
or well-worked soil. The soil may be inclining to a sandy
loam, but it must be fertile. Work the soil thoroughly to a
good depth, and dress liberally with farm-yard manure.
Artificial manures may also be used, such as bone-dust,
which can be drilled in with the seed. Liberal treatment is
necessary except upon the richest soil, but the crop will
generally pay well for the labour and manure.
CULTIVATION.—Soak the seed in water from twelve to
twenty-four hours before sowing, and sow in drills about 2 ft.
apart, at the rate of from 4 lbs. to 6 lbs. of seed to the acre.
The land should be prepared in the autumn, and kept in
order until sowing time, which is the early spring. When
frosts are not likely to be injurious the seed may be sown
early in August; but in other cases September will be a
more favourable month, and upon shallow soils the globe
varieties will be the most suitable; while the long sorts will
do best where the soil is deep and fertile. After the plants
have come up, thin-out to about a foot apart, and keep the
surface well stirred and free from weeds during the spring
and suminer. The roots may be used during the autumn,
but must be taken up and stored on the approach of winter.
They are stored in the same way as potatoes, and can with
little care be preserved throughout the winter.
TURNIPS.
The turnip crop is a valuable one in moist climates, which
alone are favourable to its cultivation. It is extensively grown


ROOT CROPS.
105
2 oua
as food for sheep and other stock in Europe and America,
while in New Zealand it is one of the most profitable resources
of the farmers. There are only limited districts in Australia
where the climate is sufficiently moist for the successful culti-
vation of the crop.
Soil.—A fertile sandy loam is best suited to the turnip
crop. In New Zealand fair crops are obtained from new land
without manure, but, as a rule, the soil should be worked
into a fine tilth and well manured.
Sowing.–The chief varieties are the white turnip and the
Ruta Baga or Swede, the latter growing upon a stronger soil
and keeping better than the former. The soil having been
well prepared as for all root crops, the seed shculd be sown in
drills 2 ft. apart, at the rate of about 2 lbs. per acre. Broad-
cast sowing is generally adopted upon the virgin soil in New
Zealand, but drilling is preferable in most cases. Use a turnip
drill, which will furrow, cover, and roll at the one operation.
Turnips are sown in England and America in the month of
June, or about midsummer; and a favourable time for sowing
the main crop in the southern hemisphere should be chosen
between September and January, according to locality, Swedes
being sown a fortnight earlier than white turnips. Bone-dust
drilled in with the seed is advantageous.
AFTER-TREATMENT.—When the plants show themselves
above the ground, the scarifier should be set to work to keep
down weeds and stir the surface soil. Thin-out the drills when
the plants are well up, leaving a space of about 6 in. between
them.
DISEASES. — The turnip is subject to many diseases, the most
common in the colonies being an aphis hlight, known as “the
fly.” The best remedy is to facilitate the healthy and rapid
growth of the plant. Manuring the soil and drilling-in manure
with the seed are generally relied upon to enable the crop to
survive the disease. The seed is also soaked before sowing, to
facilitate rapid germination, and some New Zealand growers
find it advantageous to plant turnips in alternate rows with
mangels, as a means of mitigating the effects of the disease.
STORING.—When turnips are not all eaten off in the field
they are stored for winter use. Special care must be taken in
storing turnips to prevent them from heating. Heaps may be
formed in the same way as with potatoes or mangels
, but it
is necessary to provide, at frequent intervals, holes, extending
from the bottom to the top of the heap, for ventilation. These
can be kept open by inserting a bundle of straw, or rather


106
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
building the turnips around a bundle of straw in forming the
heaps.
CARROTS.
The carrot is one of the most valuable farm products. It
possesses rich nutritive qualities, and will grow in a great
variety of soils, but, like other roots, requires a considerable
supply of moisture to bring it to perfection.
Soil.—The soil best suited to the carrot crop is a generous
şandy loam, but it will grow well upon stronger and more clayey
soils, provided there be depth enough for its roots to search in
for plant food. The soil should be deeply and well worked,
and liberally dressed with farm-yard or other manures.
CULTIVATION.—Carrots are sometimes successfully cultivated
by sowing broadcast, but drilling is preferable. The drills
should be about 20 in. apart, and it is a good practice to assist
the germination of the seed before sowing, so as to ensure that
the crop should get ahead of the weeds. An approved method
is to mix the seed with fine mould, damp the mixture with
water, and keep for about 10 days before drilling. Sow about
2 lbs. of seed to the acre, and, after the plants are up, thin-
out to about 1 ft. or 8 in. apart. A top-dressing of liquid
manure can be profitably applied, while the scarifier will have
to be kept at work stirring the soil and destroying the weeds.
When it is required to keep the carrots till winter, the tops are
cut off, and the roots stored in the same way as potatoes or
turnips.
CHAPTER XI.
MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.
In addition to the various farm crops treated of in the
foregoing chapters, there are several others of a more special
character, the cultivation of which is limited to certain
localities possessing peculiarities of soil and climate favourable
to their growth. In the present chapter it will be sufficient
to deal with such as can be successfully cultivated in different
parts of the Australian colonies.


MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.
107
Hops.
Hop culture, which is a profitable industry in many parts of
Europe and America, has been established in most of the
Australasian colonies, and there are in various parts of the
Australian coast, as well as in Tasmania and New Zealand,
extensive districts peculiarly suited to the growth of the hop
plant. Tasmania has for a long time produced a large surplus of
hops for export. The industry has been established for some time
at Nelson, New Zealand; and, although comparatively little pro-
gress has been made in other parts of the Australian continent,
there has been a rapid increase of hop culture in the colony of
Victoria. About Bairnsdale, in the valley of the Mitchell river,
forms one of the chief centres of the industry. Mr. Howett,
P.M., one of the pioneer hop-growers, read a paper before
the North Gippsland Agricultural Society, which contained
most of the following practical directions =
SELECTING THE GROUND.—The most suitable soil is such a
rich, loose, moist alluvial loam as is found in the valley of the
Mitchell and other rivers. In selecting ground for a plantation
it is, therefore, necessary to consider whether floods are likely
to spread over, and remain for any time upon it; it is also
most necessary that the hops should be exposed as little as
possible to the high winds, such as blow in Gippsland from the
west and south-west. Such winds have a most injurious action
in bruising the bines against each other or against the poles
when growing, or by breaking down the poles bodily when the
hops have thrown out laterals, and are full of bloom. The
Mitchell valley is much sheltered, but even there it is most
advisable to create shelter by planting quick-growing hedges
and break-winds.
PREPARING THE GROUND.—Assuming the land to have been
selected and cleared, and the roots followed for a depth of at
least 20 in., it must then be well broken up to as great a depth
as possible. It ought to be subsoiled, and it is found that a
very good condition may be obtained by two ploughs following
each other in the same furrow. The ground is then carefully
harrowed down and rolled.
PLANTING.—The ground having been got ready, and the
direction of the rows having been determined upon, the next
step is to mark out where each hop plant or crown-set is to be
placed. This must be carried out with scrupulous exactitude,
so that whichever way the rows are looked at, the plants will


108
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
be line in line. No plant must stand out of the row, for other-
wise it would be liable during cultivation to have its bines
seriously injured by the horse implement used in tilling the
ground. The best distance at which the hop plants should
stand I have found to be 7 ft. each way. If the distance is
less than this—as say 6 ft.--I have found that the hops
become entangled at the tops, and form a shade, which prevents
the sunlight reaching the lower laterals. In marking out the
ground I have used a surveyor's chain accurately marked at
such distances as it is intended to plant the hops. The chain
being placed along the direction in which it is intended the
rows shall
run, the two men using it walk towards each other,
each having with him a bundle of "marks” of suitable length,
one of which he places in the ground at each of the places
marked off in the chain. Perhaps the most convenient marks
that can be used are pieces of reed about 18 in. or 2 ft. in
length. They can be obtained readily in almost all places
where hops are being planted. The marks being placed in the
ground, the chain is now shifted, and the process repeated
until the whole ground is marked off. If the process is carried
out with care, and the rows of marks examined and found to
be regular in every direction, the ground may be considered as
ready for planting. Where bedded sets are used, each one
must of course be carefully planted out so that its “crown” is
as exactly as possible in the position occupied by the mark,
which it is well to replace so as to indicate the rows until the
plants are above ground. Where “crown-sets” are used, they
may be dibbled in so that the two “ eyes " which must be left
are about a couple of inches below the surface. When crown-
sets are used, not much may be expected from them the first
season, as they will have quite enough to do to establish
themselves, yet I have found it decidedly advisable to place
some kind of pole for them to climb; it is then easier to keep
the ground clean, and any little crop there is helps to pay
expenses. The hops will be all the better next year for being
attended to than by being allowed, as I have seen, to run wild.
As the hop is a dicecious plant, that is, has the male flowers
on one plant and the female flowers on another, it is necessary
to plant out some “ male hops," and in doing so attention
should be paid to the quarter from which the prevalent
wind comes, and to plant the “male hops” on that side
of the ground. The hops cultivated at Bairnsdale are two
principal varieties-one early and the other late. These are
known locally by various names, but I cannot say with cer-


110
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
aware.
places the hop bines are subjected to various processes-even,
I believe, passed through chaffcutters—to reduce them to such
fragments as can be readily dug or easily buried in the ground.
But these plans are not followed in Gippsland, so far as I am
The principal point which I have endeavoured to aim
at has been to supply the hop with those constituents which
it especially requires to abstract from the soil. Amongst these
phosphoric acid and lime form a large percentage. In my ex-
perience perhaps the best way of supplying these constituents is
by mixing fine-ground bone-dust, or, better still, superphosphate
of lime when it can be found in a reliable form, with the soil
that has been removed during the process of pruning. The
hop by this means is amply supplied with plant food from the
first commencement of the year's growth. In addition to this,
I find it advantageous to apply a dressing of Peruvian guano
at the time when the plants are "hilled-up.” The young bines
have by that time good hold of the poles, and the guano gives
them increased vigorous and healthy growth.
These two
classes of artificial manures supply those mineral constituents
which the hop especially requires to take up in a soluble form
from the soil.
AFTER-CULTIVATION.--In order to keep the ground in good
order, and free from weeds, the "nidget" is kept going con-
stantly. Continual stirring of the ground, a liberal use of
manure, and constant irrigation from the time, at latest, when
the lateral bines show, I regard as essential to success in hop-
growing
POLING. -The next proceeding is to plant the poles in the
ground, and my rule has been to place them 1 in. deep for
every foot of their length. Where three poles are used they
should be placed so as to form a triangle, having the hop plant
in the centre, but not so near to it as to injure its roots. The
poles should be so placed as to obstruct little of the sunlight
from those behind, and they should spread a little outwards.
If it were possible to look down upon a hop-ground newly
poled, the tops of the poles should be as nearly as possible
equidistant from each other all over it. The poles now used
are almost all ti-tree, cut on the margin of the Gippsland
lakes and their backwaters. I have used stringybark poles
peeled, and wattle, but on the whole the most satisfactory are
the ti-tree. The extraordinary demand for poles for hop-
grounds threatens, in a few years, to make their cost a most
serious item. For present cost I refer to the estimate at the
end of these directions on page 113.


MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.
111
TYING-UP THE BINES.—When the poles are planted in the
ground the next process will be to tie up the young bines, which
by that time may be about ready. There is, however, not im-
mediate need of doing this, if only the first strong pipey shoots
have appeared, which must be rejected, producing more leaves
and rank growth than hop-blooms. Two bines of the proper
kind should be carefully trained round each pole, and it will
be necessary from time to time to go over the ground in order
to help the weak ones to get a hold and to replace those ties
which have come loose. I observe that a practice obtains of
stripping the buds from the lower parts of the shoots tied up
so as to prevent the growth of runners, which would require
to be cut off.
IRRIGATION.—From this time forward the principal point
should be to keep the ground well worked and free from weeds,
and, where it is possible, to irrigate, unless the season is ex-
ceptionally moist. I am inclined to think that it might be
said with truth that the number of the hop-blooms depends
upon manuring, and their individual size upon irrigation. In
the Bairnsdale district irrigation has been effected by pump-
ing and by raising water by “lifters.” The water is then con-
ducted in main ditches as required to the various parts of the
ground, and thence distributed in small furrows drawn beneath
the rows.
The amount of water allowed to run at one time
must be carefully regulated, or injury may be done to the
hops.
TIME OF PICKING.-It may be taken as a general rule that
hops will be ready for picking about six weeks after the
bloom—or, as it is technically called, the “burr”—appears, and
this is a critical time, for much now depends on the favourable
or unfavourable weather, on irrigation, high winds, &c., as to
the individual size of each hop-bloom, whether the hops fill
out well or ill, or have much or little “condition.”
PICKING.—When picking operations are carried out properly
on a system, the ground is taken “on a face,” the poles are
drawn with their bines, so that the bins are shifted regularly
and kept in line, and do not lay behind the other, and thus
cause the pole-pullers to travel greater distances in supplying
the bins with poles than is necessary.
The more the bins are
scattered, the further the pole-pullers will have to travel to
and fro, and the fewer bins each one will be able to attend to.
On a proper system such as that I have mentioned, when the
ground is taken “ on a face,” it is possible to have the picked
poles thrown in such heaps as will materially lessen the labour


112
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
of cleaning and stacking them. This system was possible some
years ago in Bairnsdale, but is not at present so far as I
know. The greatly increased area under hops, and the con-
sequent competition for pickers, has naturally made these
extremely independent, and disinclined to follow any system
except one which conduces to their own interest and benefit.
Thus in the present condition of affairs there is much loss to
the grower; poles are carelessly broken off when the pole-
puller cannot attend at a moment's call, poles are carelessly
picked or thrown down half-picked if the hops happen to be
small in size, and are also thrown down anyhow or anywhere.
The hops picked are also full of leaves and twigs if the
greatest vigilance is not exercised; and, the pickers being
scattered about, a larger number of pole-pullers is required
than would otherwise be necessary. Under present conditions,
the loss to the producer cannot, I fear, be avoided; but in the
future, when the supply of hops shall have fully overtaken
the demand, it may be. According to my experience, about
40 bins may be required for a hop-ground of ten acres, giving
a daily yield of say 600 bushels of green hops, equal to about
700 lbs. or 750 lbs. of dried and pressed hops. The bins are
periodically measured out, so as to afford at each measuring
sufficient for one kiln.
DRYING.—The kilns, as formerly used in Bairnsdale, were
circular wooden buildings, so constructed that a current of air,
heated by one or more charcoal fires, passed up through the
hops laid on a haircloth supported by a batten floor. More
substantial brick buildings are now erected in many cases.
Attached to the kiln is a cooling room, having usually
underneath it space for storing bales, bins, &c. The form,
dimensions, and construction of the kilns and cooling rooms
have now become varied in the newer established grounds, but
the principle on which the hops are dried is in all essentially
It may be taken as a general safe rule that a kiln
will, or should, dry one bushel of hops to each square foot area
of floor in ten hours. This, however, is subject to modification,
as, for instance, by the weather or the degree of ripeness of
the hops. I shall not attempt to describe the minutiæ of the
drying process. To attempt this would require a long and
minute description, and even then it would be impossible to
impart the technical knowledge which can only be gained by
actual experience in the kiln. The drying and cooling of the
hops until the proper stage for pressing is reached requires
careful and skilled attention, for much of the value of the crop
the same.


MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.
113
depends upon this. A few minutes' carelessness or inattention
during drying may seriously depreciate the value of the
sample.
PRESSING AND BALING.—In the newer and larger hop-
grounds screw presses are generally used. I have found, how-
ever, that a double-action lever press, which can be easily
constructed, and kept in repair for a small amount, will answer
every purpose. A later improvement in this has been to haul
down the end of the lever beam alternately by means of a
windlass below each end, and to elevate the lever beam by a
third windlass. I have found in my experience that bales of
about 250 lbs. weight are most convenient, both for a good
sample and for carriage.
WORK AFTER HARVEST.—After the crop has been gathered
the only work remaining is to clear and stack the poles, and
then turn up the ground to check weeds, and to benefit by
exposure to the winter weather.
COST OF PRODUCTION.—Estimate of annual expenses at per
acre on the basis of rates for 1882 :-
£ S. d.
25 0 0
3 7 6
20 0 0
...
Labour of all kinds—ploughing, pruning, poling, tying-
up, irrigating, &c., up to time of picking
600 new poles, including pointing and laying on the
ground
Picking 1,200 bushels at 3d. per bushel
Pole-pullers' wages, measuring, and carting hops to
kiln
Wages of kilnman and assistants, including pressing
hops
Charcoal, woolpacks, twine, &c.
Clearing and stacking poles when picked
2 10 0
3 0 0
2 15 4
2 0 0
Total
£58 12 10
...
In addition to the above must be added the cost of conveyance
from the kiln to market, insurance, agents' charges and com-
mission, the wear and tear of tools, plant, &c. The above
amount represents the actual necessary outlay in cash to
produce a crop of say 15 cwt. of hops per acre, without taking
into account the rent of the ground.
TOBACCO.
Although the cultivation of tobacco has not been extensively
carried on in Australia, a fair measure of success has been
attained in the different colonies, especially in Victoria and
9


114
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
New South Wales. The best results have been attained in the
sheltered river flats on the western slopes of the eastern coast
range, both quality and yield having been very satisfactory.
Mr. John Owen, of the Virginia Tobacco Manufacturing
Company, Melbourne, who is also a grower of 36 years' ex-
perience in Victoria and New South Wales, published in
pamphlet form the following practical directions, which were
afterwards reprinted in the columns of the Australasian,
and which may be taken as a guide, the grower suiting the
directions to local circumstances :
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.— The principal thing is to understand
the nature of the plant, that is, the necessary requirements of
soil, climate, and culture, and the reason why all the work
connected with its culture is performed, for this must be
adapted for the end aimed at, and not only may be different,
but often must be so. I have, therefore, tried to explain
why the work is done, and to show the best method
of doing it. I consider the climate of Victoria is all
that could be desired for the proper culture of tobacco,
especially that of the Murray district; but experience has
shown me that Virginia and Kentucky do not ripen to
perfection when grown near the sea coast, while what is
termed in the trade as cigar-leaf grows better near the seaboard
than inland.
SEED.-For seed I recommend—1st, Virginia and Kentucky
for tobacco manufacture; 2nd, Connecticut seed-leaf, Hav-
annah, for cigar making. Virginia and Kentucky yield the
largest crops, and are in constant demand, though the Con-
necticut seed-leaf, Tana, Havannah, &c., if well grown and
cured, will bring a better price. The latter bears a thin silky
leaf, and is, therefore, not so heavy a cropper. The “Orinocoes."
are the best seed for Kentucky variety, the Blue Prior and the
Yellow Prior for Virginia. The White Burly, a new variety,
which, when properly cured, is of a bright yellow colour, should
bring a high price in this market. Some parts of Gippsland,
such as Sale, Bairnsdale, &c., should grow cigar-leaf to per-
fection, and to much greater profit than the varieties hitherto
grown in those districts.
RAISING THE PLANTS FROM SEED.—Raising tobacco plants
from seed is somewhat similar to raising cabbage plants,
but different in two important things--it takes consider-
ably more time for the seed to sprout (from four to
six weeks), and, on account of disturbing the roots, will
not stand weeding. Therefore the principal care in forming


MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.
115
the seed-bed is to prepare for the early starting of the
seed, and to have the bed free from all weed seeds. In
Virginia they prepare the seed-bed in the following manner :-
They choose a plot of rich good land, newly cleared if possible,
in a dry, sunny corner, sheltered from cold winds. The seed-
bed should be 4 ft. wide and 8 ft. long (4 x 8) to raise plants
sufficient for each acre intended to be planted. On this
they pile brushwood, logs, &c., sufficient to keep up a good
fire for nearly a day, and burn it. When the coals begin to
die out, or before the soil is cold, the bed is cleared off, and
only the fine ashes are left. Then it is hoed thoroughly, as
deep as the strongest heat has penetrated, say a few inches,
after which it is raked across and lengthwise until the soil is
entirely pulverized. Everything that might hinder the
growth of the plants is carefully removed. On this bed,
when cold, a thimbleful of seed, well mixed with ashes or
dry earth, is sown broadcast; the ashes will enable the
seed to be sown evenly. The above-mentioned quantity is
sufficient to raise plants for one acre.
Then take a hand-
roller, and roll the bed evenly, or place a board on one end of
the bed, walk on it to press the ground to the seed, move it
over and repeat this until the bed is all pressed over. Do not
rake the seed in. After this the bed is thoroughly wetted
with weak manure water—12 lbs. of fowls' droppings in
10 gallons of water—or pure water with finely-powdered
sheep manure sowed over the bed; or if these may not be at
hand, with a weak solution of guano.
The seed does not
require much attention at first if the weather remains mild,
but for fear of night frosts and very heavy rains the bed
must be well protected by a canvas or calico awning. Care
must be taken that the beds have sufficient moisture; and if
timely rains do not fall, they must be watered with weak
liquid manure as often as needful. Should weeds appear, not-
withstanding all precaution, they must be removed with the
utmost care.
Tobacco differs from most weeds when making its first
appearance above the surface of the ground by its bright
green colour, and by lying very flat on the ground. They
should stand about an inch apart, as it is evidently important
to have the plants uniform in size, and as many of them
as possible put out at the first planting. Therefore endea-
vour to have enough plants in your beds to have them of
the same size, that all may be planted out about the same
time. When this is the case, the topping, suckering, and


116
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
a
cutting can be done regularly ; but when planted at intervals
of two or three weeks, all the subsequent operations come on
irregularly.
Seed should be sown from 1st July to 1st October in the
Murray district; or, if sown later, it is a good plan to sprout
the seed, which is done by mixing it with some fine mould or
decayed wood (which is found in old hollow trees), by placing
it near the fire or in a warm place, keeping it moist. Let it
remain four or five days, or until you can see that it has just
sprouted. If the seed is sprouted, it ought to be up
in
week. Whoever is in possession of a hot-bed can raise the
plants much easier; he can sow later and have plants earlier,
and with more certainty. But even the common bed
may
be
made into a kind of hot-bed. The burnt and hoed surface-
soil
may be removed and put on one side; then one foot of
fresh horse dung can be laid on the subsoil, and the surface-soil
put back again. Boards may be placed around, cross pieces
Taid over them, and the straw covering put on these. While
the plants are in the seed-bed they are sometimes attacked
by the fly. It is a small insect somewhat like the flea, and
delights in cold, dry, harsh weather, but disappears with mild
showers and warm suns of opening summer.
The best remedy
I know of is to dust the plants occasionally with a mixture
composed of three-parts soot and one of powdered sulphur,
with a very little salt added.
CHOICE OF SOIL.–A dry warm soil (loam or sandy loam),
rich, deep, and containing lime, is most suitable for tobacco.
The more sandy to a certain degree the soil is, the better
will be the quality of the tobacco. The nearer the soil is
to clay the poorer will be the crop, under similar circum-
stances, although the yield may yet be satisfactory. Wet
and stiff soils are not, under any circumstances, suitable
for tobacco.
PREPARATION OF SOIL.—Old or poor land must be well
manured; the land must be ploughed deep, 10 in. or 12
in., and harrowed thoroughly until it is as fine as garden
soil. This is best done by ploughing early in the autumn,
exposing the rough and hard furrows to the weather. After
the soil is dry it should be harrowed thoroughly, then ploughed
across and harrowed a second time, and rolled before planting.
The different ploughings, &c., should, of course, be done at
intervals long enough to allow the land to settle and mellow.
This is the treatment of soil which has been cultivated with
the plough before tobacco is grown on it. It is somewhat


MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.
117
different with newly-turned (virgin) soil, which the tobacco
particularly likes. Deep and thorough working is the rule
here also, but it is done in a different way. In the virgin soil
all the roots must be picked out, because they would make the
soil too loose for the secure insertion of the plant, and then
they would hinder the grower with the hoe and plough to a
great extent. The land is broken up about three weeks before
planting, 10 in. to 12 in. deep, taking care that the furrow is
entirely turned, so that the grass is placed at the bottom.
After from eight to fourteen days, when the soil is settled, it is
thoroughly harrowed in the direction of the furrows, to prevent
the sod being turned up again, which must remain below
undisturbed. Shortly before planting the soil is harrowed
again, and, if necessary, rolled; this time it may be done cross-
wise. This treatment has these advantages—the newly-turned
sod prevents the weeds from coming up, and the under-turned
grass acts as manure.
MANURING.-I must here caution all intending cultivators
of tobacco not to attempt to grow it on poor land, without well
enriching with animal manure. In Virginia and the Western
States of America, where tobacco cultivation has become a
science, they think it is not too much to plough in 40 loads to
the acre, their maxim being, the richer the land the heavier the
crop. And on no account plant the same land with tobacco for
three consecutive years. Guano, sheep dung, or stable manure
are all suitable.
TRANSPLANTING.— As soon as the seedlings are of the size of
cabbage plants—that is, having four leaves, and being 4 in.
to 6 in. high-they are ready for transplanting. The first
thing is to lay out the land in lines with a one-horse plough.
These lines are either furrows or ridges-according to whether
there is little or much rain expected, or as the soil is more or
less porous—the furrows give the young plants shade, and
protect the soil from drought by sun or winds; the ridges
absorb the sun and protect from dampness. In this respect the
planter must be governed by experience. Ridges and furrows
may be omitted in small plantations; a strong cord is stretched
over the whole width of the field by stakes at each side, and
one in the middle ; alongside this cord the plants are inserted
at regular distances, which are shown by some mark on the
cord.” When one row is planted, the cord is removed to the
next, and the planting done in the same manner, and so on
until the field is done. This method has the advantage that
the soil may be made fine with the hoe shortly before the


118
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
inserting of the plant, if it has not been done sufficiently by
horse labour. However the rows may be made, they must be
equally far apart; and so with the plants in the rows. The
distance apart depends somewhat upon the richness of the soil,
for very rich soil will grow larger leaves than poor; and then
it must be considered whether the after-cultivation is to be
done entirely by manual labour or partly by horse power.
The farthest distance for Virginia, Kentucky, and Connecticut
is with the rows, 4 ft., and the plants 3 ft. in the row;
but I think that on most lands in this colony, 3 ft.
between the rows, and 2 ft. 6 in. between plants, would be
the best distances. When all is ready for transplanting,
watch must be kept for rain, or for one or two cloudy days. If
the weather is favourable, the planter must lose no time, but
go
to work with all the hands at his disposal. Notwithstanding
the hurry, everything must be done methodically, and in
proper order, for all carelessness in transplanting tobacco is
severely punished by the necessity for renewing plants which
fail. After thoroughly wetting the seed-bed, proceed in the
following manner to remove the plants :—Take a common
two-pronged dinner fork, or a stick sharpened to a flat point
at one end; run this down by the side of the largest sized
plants (which should be always planted first), with the other
hand gather the leaves carefully, and gently lift them out of
the ground, so that the roots will not be hurt, and the earth
not disturbed around the remaining ones, and only take out as
many as can be planted in a short time. As soon as taken up
they are laid straight in a basket, and the roots covered, and
transplanted at once. This is best done by having two persons
to plant, one (a boy will do) to drop a plant at the requisite
distance, the other to insert them in the soil. This latter is
done by taking plants by the leaves, near the roots, in the left
hand, and with a dibble, or with the hand, make a hole where
the plant is to grow, by running the dibble down straight;
withdraw it, and place the roots of the plant, held in the other
hand, in the hole, taking care that the roots are not doubled
up, and with the aforesaid dibble push the dirt up to the side
of the roots, finish off by pressing the dirt in and around the
plant. If the weather is favourable this must be continued
until all is completed, but if there is no rain, nor cloudy days,
and transplanting cannot be postponed any longer, then the
grower must water the plants at time of transplanting, and
cover them immediately after; this requires the additional
help of three persons, namely, one who waters, one that puts


MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.
119
dry earth around the watered plants so that no lumps will
form there, and a third to shade the plants. Transplanting,
under these circumstances, can only be done mornings and
evenings, and should even be done only towards evening.
Shading is done with leafy branches, straw, bark, or shingles.
After the transplanting, care must always be taken that the
plants, until they are rooted, are not suffering from want of
moisture, and it may be necessary that they be watered a
second time. Dead or weak plants must be removed, and
replaced by healthy ones. In some of the tobacco-growing
districts of the United States the young plants are attacked
immediately after transplanting by a large brown or black
worm, called the cut worm, and though I have not seen them
in this colony, it would perhaps be as well to keep a lookout
for them; you can tell where they have been by seeing a plant
with the leaves eaten off and drawn down into holes about the
roots like small ant hills. By poking about a little in the dirt
you will find the worm very near the mouth of these little
holes. This fellow is quite distinct from what is called the
tobacco worm.
WORK UNTIL HARVESTING.—This work is done partly for
the benefit of the soil, and for that of the plants themselves.
The working of the soil is for keeping it open to the influence
of the atmosphere, and to destroy the weeds; experience has
proved that only soil that is open and free from weeds will
fully develop the plants. Loosening and stirring the soil
from time to time is, therefore, not only beneficial but necessary,
especially when the soil is hardened by heavy rains, or a crust
has formed through other influences, when weeds appear.
is important that the soil should be kept open with the plough,
scarifier, or with the hand-hoe. In the rows between the
plants, where the working is even more important, it must be
done with the hand-hoe. Care must always be taken not to
damage the roots, and at the second, and especially the third
hoeing, the soil must be drawn towards the plants, partly to
protect them against storms, and give them a stronger hold,
and partly to absorb excessive moisture. The soil must never
be worked while wet. Where help is plentiful, it is better
to dispense with all horse work; the plants can be put closer
together, a large crop is gained, less damage is done to the
plants, and, in closing up the accounts, the cultivator with
manual labour will not be the loser.
WORMS.—The tobacco having got up to 10 in. or 12 in. high,
look out for the green worm, which eats the leaves. They are
It


120
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
often found earlier. You will see a small round hole, often-
times no larger than a pin-hole, in the leaf; if you turn it
up
you will be very apt to discover on the under side a small
worm of the diameter of a common thread-needle, and half an
inch in length; kill him and all his kind, for if left he will
grow to the size and length of your finger, and would not
make much of a breakfast of a third of a full-grown leaf.
These worms are hatched from eggs deposited by what is
called the tobacco fly—it is a large, dusky, brown-winged
miller. The eggs will hatch out in 24 hours. Look out and
destroy these eggs; they will generally be found on the under-
side of the leaf, and near the edge. Much of the value of the
crop depends on care and attention in performing this part
of the work; the plantation, therefore, should be gone over
carefully at least twice a week. A flock of turkeys, if given
access to the tobacco-field, is a very valuable help. A negro
from South Carolina told me, some time ago, that a solution
of blue vitriol in water, sprinkled over the plants, will kill the
worms. The remedy may be worth trying-of course, the
solution must be made weak enough, so that it will not
destroy the plants as well as the worms.
HARVESTING.–The ripeness of the tobacco plant is known
principally by its colour, and it is no easy matter with abso-
lute accuracy to describe any particular shade of colour; but
there are other signs accompanying which have reference to
the general appearance of the plant. When it begins to ripen
it will gradually assume a " piebald” or greenish-yellow spotted
appearance. The spots will soon become more distinct. When
the spots can be distinguished at the distance of ten yards,
and the leaves of the plant turn down, become very sticky
when bent, break off short and clean, and their ends curl
under, the plant is ripe and should be cut. As soon as a plant
is matured it begins to deteriorate; still, there is decidedly
less danger of tobacco getting too ripe than there is of its
being cut too soon; many a crop is seriously injured by being
harvested before being perfectly matured; the plant should
never be cut while the dew is on the leaves. No more tobacco
should be cut than can be taken to the drying-room, put upon
the sticks, and hung up the same day, beginning at the top
tier and filling up downwards, being careful to leave a space
between each plant as it hangs; the plant should be taken by
the butt end, shaken gently to allow the leaves to hang free,
and the stick pushed through the slit in the stalk. A stick
4 ft. 2 in. long will hold ten or twelve plants, according to


122
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
moisture suitable for good wheat land ; not too rich, or the
crop will be coarse and apt to “lay.” Moist and stiff soils will
yield a large quantity of fibre, but the quality is inferior to that
raised on lighter lands. A light, deep, mellow bottom is best
adapted for raising the finer class of flax, but the quantity must
be partly sacrificed to the quality. A limestone soil is not
suitable for flax.
PREPARATION OF SOIL.-Flax will follow any cereal, and
may precede grass seeds. The stubble of previous crops should
be “skimmed,” or lightly ploughed, directly after harvest, and
if the land has not been subsoiled, the subsoil-plough ought to
follow the swing-plough, for the longer the subsoiling is done
before the flax is sown the better. After the subsoiling the
cultivator will be the best implement to incorporate the top
and bottom soils and keep the weeds under. At the last the
land must be left very level, so that the seed may be deposited
at one depth, and the plant will then ripen equally, a most im-
portant point.
SEED AND SOWING.—The seed for a crop ought always to
be of the previous year's growth, and in this particular the
farmer cannot be too careful. The last season's seed will
always sink in water, and be very lively when thrown into
the fire. The “Riga” sort is preferred for its oil-producing
properties, but the Dutch ripens sooner, and produces largely of
both fibre and seed. The American flax is a very fine fibre,
but unequal to the others in the yield either of oil or flax.
August and September are the best months for sowing. The
quantity of seed to sow depends entirely upon the object of
the grower; if he wishes to produce seed alone, he must allow
room for his plants to throw out branches, and a bushel and
a half per acre will give a full seeding; should fibre alone be
desired, another bushel may be added. Flax is better drilled,
when
grown for the seed, and the drills may be from 16 in.
to 20 in. apart; this width will allow the hand or horse
hoe to be used during its early growth. When the larger
quantity is sown for fibre the broadcast plan is equally as good
as drilling, but the seed-bed ought to be very free from weed-
seeds before sowing. All crops subjected to serious injury
from the intrusion of weeds (and flax is especially so) ought
to be drilled; the horse-hoe can then be easily introduced, and
the necessary manual labour will be afterwards trifling, com-
pared with what broadcast
crops cause.
HARVESTING.–For some few years our colonies will only be
able to grow flax for its seed, in consequence of the entire


MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.
123
absence of “middle men” to purchase from the grower for the
manufacturer. Neither are there at present any simple
"scutching machines” to be had, and which every grower
ought to be possessed with, so that wet days may be taken
advantage of, in which to prepare flax for market or home use.
When ripe, the leaves will droop and the stalk will be quite
yellow; the plant may then be treated as a crop of corn.
Sheaves may be bound, stooked, and stacked; pulling is pre-
ferable to cutting
CHICORY.
Chicory is successfully cultivated in different parts of the
colonies, but, excepting in the more moist coast districts, the
assistance of irrigation is required. The late Mr. Abraham
Lincolne, of Melbourne, published the following directions for
its cultivation "The growth of this plant is extending in the
colonies, and the quantity of imported root is yearly diminish-
ing. It is a hardy plant, and not at all difficult to produce.
The greatest objection is that, like horseradish, every particle
of root left in the ground will grow, and when once a plot of
land is laid out and sown with chicory, it must be kept to
chicory. This peculiarity frequently affects to an injurious
extent the quality of successive crops, for many stringy roots
which happen to show themselves in the rows are descendants
of former crops, and not of the freshly sown seed. To prevent
this as much as possible, it is advisable to be very particular
in taking up the crop at a good depth, and just before
sowing time the broad-share scarifier might be used at as great
a depth as possible on purpose to cut off any rising heads from
the old roots. This will, in a growing season, enable the owner
to single out his new crop before the intruding plants appear.
“SOIL.-Chicory will grow in any soil appropriate for
parsnips or carrots, and the same preparatory culture will do.
Deep black soil, or chocolate loams, are well adapted for the
growth of this plant. Three pounds of good sound seed per
acre, sown in drills, 2 ft. apart, will give a sufficient plant;
but it is of the utmost consequence to secure pure seed from
transplanted selected roots. It is always preferable for farmers,
after the first
year,
to grow their own seeds. There is a differ-
ence of opinion as to the time of sowing. In the cool districts
of Sunbury and Lancefield, the first week of October is con-
sidered the most desirable period; in the Warrnambool district,


124
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
the first week in September is the favourite time; but in
Kyneton, on the Upper Campaspe, and north of the Dividing
Range, the middle of September is preferred. A little observa-
tion and inquiry into the growth during past seasons will
assist the intending cultivator.
“ PREPARATION OF Soil.-In preparing the ground, the latter
must be trenched or subsoiled with plough fully 20 in. deep;
and, as chicory is a very exhausting crop, the necessary
manure must not be stinted, but applied with a liberal hand,
and ploughed-in immediately after the preceding crop is taken
off. After this ploughing the cultivator may be set in, and not
only will the manure and soil be thoroughly incorporated, but
the tilth will be fine, and the land in a proper condition for
the reception of the seed. A light rolling may be given after
the seed-bed is prepared, and then the hand-drill may go to
work whenever the proprietor thinks proper.
SOWING.—Chicory ought to be drilled in rows 24 in. apart,
and thinned out as soon as the plants can be fingered,
and this thinning out need be done very carefully, for it
is astonishing how small a piece of root will establish
itself if allowed to remain. The plants may be left standing
to within 9 in. of each other, and a 4-in. hoe is as handy
a tool for this work as any. It will be necessary, of course,
to roll the land firmly after the drill, but as soon as the rows
appear the intervals must be kept perfectly clean; in fact,
the spaces cannot be stirred too much, and the small horse-hoe
cannot well be improved upon for this work. When the roots
are fit to lift, very careful men ought to be employed for the
work, for the reasons already stated.
“ DIGGING.—This digging and preparing the roots for market
is the most troublesome job connected with the growth of the
стор. The roots are better in the eyes of the manufacturer if
free from small fibrous roots and perfectly clean. To obtain
the latter qualification, the revolving root-washing machines
are the most effective, and not only more expeditious, but
cheaper than when done by hand. As every chicory grower
ought to raise his own seed, the choicest roots should be chosen
at time of digging and laid on one side for transplanting.
They must be without flaws, straight, clean, and large. The
transplanting can be done any time before August. Chicory
tops are excellent fodder, and the crop may be cultivated for
this purpose."


MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.
125
BROOM CORN.
Broom corn (sorghum saccharatum) is extensively cultivated
in America, of which country it is a native, for the purpose of
providing material for broom-making and feed for fattening
stock. In general appearance and habits of growth the crop
is like maize, growing to a height of 10 ft. or 12 ft. At the top
of the plant there is a long bunch of slender stems called the
brush, which bears the seed. It is this brush that is used for
making brooms.
CHOICE OF Soil-As a rule, wherever maize will grow broom
corn will thrive. The broom corn requires about the same
quantity of moisture, but it is a little more liable to be injured
by spring frosts than maize. The soil should be a loose, rich
loam, such as is found in the flats of rivers, and it should be well
worked, as in the case of the maize crop. If not naturally rich,
it should be well dressed with sheep or horse manure.
METHOD OF PLANTING.—In America the broom corn is
planted 2 ft. apart, with 2 ft. 6 in. between the rows.
About 20 seeds are put in each hill about an inch and a half
deep, and after the plants come up about 10 plants are left at
each hill. The time of planting is the same as for maize, with
special care to escape spring frosts.
AFTER-TREATMENT.-Keep the weeds down by cultivating
between the rows with the scarifier and hand-hoe. When the
seeds are nearly ripe, break the bunches by bending them
downwards from a point 14 in. below the brush, and let
them hang till the seed is fully ripe, when they must be cut
and carried to a shed to dry.
SEPARATING THE SEED.-Separating the seed is managed
either by hand threshing or machinery, the hand method leav-
ing the brush in the best condition. The yields of brush run
from 200 lbs. to 1,000 lbs. per acre, according to circumstances,
and the price in America ranges from 1d. to 8d. per lb. An
average yield of seed is about 50 bushels per acre, there
being about one pound of seed to a pound of brush. The seed
weighs about 50 lbs. per bushel, and sells in America at froin
1s. to ls. 4d. per bushel.
ARROWROOT.
This is a plant which grows well in all of the colonies, and
although its culture has been the most extensively developed
in Queensland, successful results have been obtained in Vic-


MISCELLANEOUS CROPS.
127
Scientific American says that every poultry keeper who tries
it will find that this seed is the best food known for glossing
the plumage of fowls, and is almost indispensable to those who
want to fit their birds for exhibition to the best advantage.
Requiring little care, the sunflower can be grown in odd corners
and other places difficult of regular cultivation. The yield of
seed is large. Three quarts to the acre is the proper quantity
to sow.
THE CASTOR BEAN.
The castor bean, or castor oil tree, a native of the West
India Islands, is found to grow well in the dry inland portions
of Australia, although its cultivation has as yet received very
little attention. It is cultivated extensively in the central
parts of the United States of America. The soil most suitable
is a rich mellow alluvium, and it requires cultivating much in
the same way as maize. In a favourable warm climate the
plant attains a height of 6 ft., and bears at the rate of 28
bushels of beans per acre.
When the beans are separated
from the pods, and crushed under a heavy pressure, they yield
about a gallon of superior oil to the bushel. The oil is required
for so many purposes, and possesses so many fine qualities, that
it generally brings a high price. The castor bean, therefore,
should receive the attention of agriculturists, and advantage
should be taken of the favourable climate of the colonies for
its cultivation.
CHAPTER XII.
VINES.
It has been demonstrated that Australia is a country peculiarly
suited to the vine. In the valley of the Murray River vine-
growing has been the most extensively developed, but the
industry has been placed upon a firm footing along both slopes
of the Dividing Range in Victoria, upon the Hunter River and
other parts of New South Wales, and in the coast districts of
South Australia, while a limited degree of success has been
attained in Tasmania and Queensland. The quality of the fruit
and the character of the wine are excellent, and the various
branches of the vine-growing industry are capable of almost
unlimited development. Vineyards have been cultivated for


128
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
a sufficiently long period in various parts of the colonies to
enable vignerons to learn the best system of treatment suited
to the peculiarities of soil and climate, and the experience
thus gained is a better guide than rules adopted in Europe,
where the conditions are different. In the following pages the
directions are founded upon Australian experience. The
opera-
tions of vignerons reported upon from time to time in the
Australasian have been taken as a guide, and the useful little
book published by Mr. F. Couslandt, manager of the Chateau
Tahbiſk Vineyard, on the Goulburn River, Victoria, has also
been extensively quoted from. The Australasian's reports
deal with all the colonies, and Mr. Couslandt's practical treatise
refers to the Lower Goulburn, which represents the great valley
of the Murray River.
CHOICE OF Soil. The vine flourishes best in a well-drained,
loose, sandy loam, but it grows to great perfection in a variety
of soils. Thus, in a well-worked clayey soil the vine will, in a
warm climate, produce a fair quantity of wine, rich in sugar,
giving alcoholic strength ; while in light sandy loam it will give
a larger yield, with wine lighter in body. As a general rule, rich
land will give quantity, and poor, hilly soil quality, so that
the profits of vine-growing in different kinds of soil are
equalized to a great extent. Climate also has a great influence
upon the character of the vine product. In warm, dry situations
the vine is generally strong, while a moist climate with a lower
temperature tends to produce a larger yield, with lighter body
and more delicate quality. The rule is, in Australia, that the
moist districts on the coast side of the mountain ranges produce
light delicate wines, and those inland from the ranges wines.
of a richer and stronger character.
VARIETIES OF WINE GRAPES.—In regard to the varieties of
vines much depends upon the locality, and it is best to plant,
the kinds which are proved to be most productive in districts
similarly situated to that in which it is proposed to establish
a vineyard. The following remarks by Mr. Couslandt will
apply to the largest vine-growing area in Australia :-“ As
many ofthe new vignerons, for whom these remarks are intended,
will be new hands at wine-making, they should have grapes
that will make the best wine with the smallest amount of skill
or knowledge. Those grapes for red wine are-Hermitage,
Carbinet or Sauvignon, and Melbac. But the last-named is.
such a poor bearer in the Goulburn Valley district that I would
not advise anyone to plant it unless it would be near the
Murray, where, I am told, it grows well and bears heavily. It


VINES.
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has always been kept under the short pruning system in this
district. Perhaps with a more liberal system of pruning it
might be also more liberal in bearing. I have never seen it
tried, but I am going to try it this season, and if the trial suc-
ceeds I will say next year= Plant Malbec, because it will give
you a wine for which you shall never want a market.' But
for the present Hermitage and Carbinet are the best vines to
plant. Blended with Malbec, they produce the best red wine
I have tasted in Australia. They bear fair crops in every kind
of soil and every year. They grow here in nearly pure sand,
and also in very stiff clay, and wherever the latter can be
properly worked they grow luxuriantly. Among the best
white grapes are the Reisling, Verdeilho, Pedro, and Chasselas.
White Hermitage carried the day at the last Melbourne Exhi-
bition, but I know little about it personally, and would not
recommend it until I know more. I planted upwards of twenty
acres of this variety two years ago, but I have not got any
produce, and do not know how it may suit the district. I be-
lieve any information required may be obtained from Mr. De
Castella, who grows it very successfully at St. Hubert's, where
I have tasted some excellent wine bearing the name of White
Hermitage. Reisling and Verdeilho are rather shy bearers,
but give a superior wine if skilfully made, and carefully at-
tended to afterwards, but both require a deal of care in making
and conservation. Pedro is a large bearer, and its wine, although
lighter than that of the two former, is generally liked by wine
drinkers who use wine as a daily drink. It has not the same
market value as the Reisling and Verdeilho. The Chasselas an-
swers with advantage the double purpose of wine and table grapes.
It ripens very early, and so comes into the market when grapes
are still scarce, and if not sold can be made into wine. It gives
a light wine, but very agreeable to drink. Although an early
ripener, the Chasselas can be gathered the last of the vintage,
as it resists the weather better than any other grape I know.
There are many other grapes which in other countries and in
other climates give excellent and even superior wines. But
the first five named above are the best grown in this district."
Mr. Couslandt does not recommend the Muscat, but nearer the
Murray than this gentleman's district it is cultivated with
success, the wine frequently commanding a high price. There
are a great many other varieties of vines which do well in the
colonies, such as Tokay, Burgundy, Aucarot, Poulsart, Mataro, !
and Roussillon, and they are well known in the different
districts.
10


130
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
VARIETIES OF TABLE GRAPES. — With the exception of the
Chasselas, which is suitable for both purposes, wine grapes
are not as good as other varieties for the table. The grower,
therefore, who does not intend to produce grapes for wine-
making should choose table varieties. Of these there are
many kinds, such as Black Hamburgh, Black Prince, Golden
Chasselas, Brown Muscat, and Muscat of Alexandria, and
several varieties known in the different vine-growing districts
of the colonies.
RAISINS AND CURRANTS.— For this purpose the Muscat of
Alexandria, White Muscatel, and Gardo Blanco are the best
: varieties. The Sultana grape, producing the small stoneless
raisins, grows well in many of the inland parts of Australia.
It is a very prolific bearer, and the grapes in drying require
very little attention. In drying raisins, when the heat of the
sun is not sufficient, or where there is risk of loss from wet
weather, drying houses can be erected for the purpose. The
system pursued in California, where large quantities of raisins
are dried, is thus described by Mr. T. K. Dow in the Austral-
asian :-" The methods of curing the raisins differ materially
from those adopted in the south of Spain, the rate of labour
rendering the European system impracticable. It is the custom
of the growers to cut the bunches when perfectly ripe, and lay
them on trays 3 ft. long by 2 ft. 6 in. wide. The trays are
placed between the rows of vines, with an inclination towards
the sun, to give the grapes the benefit of more direct rays.
When the grapes are cured on one side they have to be turned,
and here a labour-saving system is adopted. An empty tray
is placed upon the grapes, and the two being held together by
a man at each side are turned over, the original tray, which is
now at the top, being removed, leaving the turned grapes on
the new tray. The old tray is used for turning the next one,
and so on.
Two men in this manner turn from 4,000 to 6,000
trays in a day without in any way injuring the grapes.
Not
only is the turning managed very cheaply by this means, but
it is more perfectly done, and with less injury to the raisins
than if attempted by hand. When sufficiently dried—or, if
artificial heat is employed, when partially dried—the raisins
are taken to the shed or raisin-house. In the case of using
artificial heat, it is believed that trays of wire netting would
be an improvement, as likely to facilitate the circulation of the
hot air in the drier. When dried-a process which takes
about fifteen days in drying houses, and from twenty to thirty
days in the sun, according to the weather--the raisins are slid


VINES.
131
off the trays into "sweating boxes.” In these, each of which
contains 100 lbs. of raisins, they remain for three days. This
process equalizes the moisture in the raisins, those which are
too dry absorbing from those which are not dry enough, and
giving the whole an improved appearance. The sweating box
is not used in Spain, and its employment in California is
necessitated by the less perfect system of drying. In very
few cases are the raisins while drying protected from the dews--
or light showers which occasionally fall
, and this must be a
detriment to the quality, and bring about a condition which
necessitates the sweating box. It is not claimed that the best
Californian raisins are equal to those of Spain, and no doubt
the superiority of the latter is largely attributable to their
being protected from the night dews while curing." The Zante
vine also bears well in the warme portions of Australia. The
crop is a very heavy one, and the berries are dried readily
in the sun. The production of raisins and currants might
profitably occupy the attention of landholders in all the vine-
growing parts of Australia.
PREPARING THE GROUND.—Formerly it was considered
necessary to trench the ground for vines, but experience has
shown this course to be unnecessary. The following, from the
treatise already quoted, embodies more or less accurately
the system generally followed with success in the colonies :-
I plough the ground from 15 in. to 16 in. deep. To reach that
depth I make two single ploughs follow each other in the same
track, the first one ploughing the same as if for any other crop,
with the only difference that it goes as deep as the ground or
traction power will allow. The second plough, drawn by
another team of horses, is divested of its mouldboard, which
is replaced by a small sheet of iron, bolted or riveted to the
body of the plough to prevent it from wearing or clogging with
dirt. This second plough tears the soil 7 in. or 8 in. deeper than
the first, but neither raises nor turns it over. The only work
it has to perform is to loosen the soil to a depth of 16 in or 17 in.
In stiff ground an inch or two more would be all the better,
but in ordinary ground it is all that is required. Very deep
and expensive trenching used to be the practice in this country
when people had more money than experience. But as this is
a very expensive process, and in nine cases out of ten entirely
useless, few people have kept it up. I can only think of one
instance where trenching would be of any use to the vine in a
new country like Victoria. It would be in a case where the
subsoil would consist of very stiff clay, with a surface soil of a


132
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
loose, loamy character. In this case the water prevented from
draining through the subsoil would become stagnant in the
surface soil, and render it useless for vine-growing. In this
case it would become necessary to break through the subsoil
and mix it with the surface soil, in order to render it open and
fit for the purpose intended. But in no other case would I
advise a beginner in vine-growing to sink his money in deep
trenching, from where he will find it difficult to raise it again.
The deep ploughing or subsoiling (which is, perhaps, a better
name for it), as I have described above, will be found to give as
good a result, and in many cases better than deep trenching.
After the ploughing, or subsoiling, the ground ought to be well
harrowed and rolled in order to close all the cracks or fissures
between the furrows, and give the ground a smooth surface.
These two operations help the young vine wonderfully to fight
against the long drought of summer, which, in this district
especially, is as regular as the summer itself, and must be taken
into account.” When the subsoil is of a stiff character, and
ploughing is found insufficient, a good system frequently
adopted is to hand-trench a strip about 3 ft. in width, where
the rows of vines are to be planted, cultivating the in-
tervening land between the rows with the plough in the
ordinary manner. Even in carrying out this system of trench-
ing it is generally found best to retain the surface soil on
the top, instead of turning up the subsoil.
WIDTH OF PLANTING.— Wide planting has become the
rule in Australia, as it has been found the best. Vineyards
formerly planted on the close system have been thinned out
with advantage, and new vineyards are planted with the vines
8 ft. and 10 ft. apart. A space of 8 ft. each way answers very
well, while 8 ft. by 9 ft. is also good; while, by some practical
vignerons, 10 ft. by 10 ft. is considered the best. In the warm,
dry climate of Australia the heaviest and most certain yield
is obtained where the vines are wide apart, and the cost of
cultivation is less. There are fewer cuttings and stakes
required, and the land can be cultivated more cheaply, the
whole work being done by horse implements. The work of
harvesting is also facilitated, for the dray can go between the
rows in any direction; and where manuring is carried out there
is a similar advantage.
SEASON FOR PLANTING.–Vines should be planted towards
the end of winter. July and August are the best months in
the Murray valley; and although September is suitable where
a moist spring can be depended upon, it is as a rule generally


VINES.
133
unsafe to be late. In order to attain success it is well to plant
in time to enable the vines to get the advantage of the late
winter and early spring rains.
SYSTEM OF PLANTING.—The proper depth to plant vines will
be readily understood if the character of the climate is studied.
Shallow planting may do in a moist climate, but in Australia
the land dries in summer to a considerable depth, and we must
plant deep to secure moisture for the cutting or young vine.
It will generally be found best to plant 15 in. deep and leave
very little wood above ground. Those, especially in the inland
districts, who plant as deep and cut off the top of the cutting,
leaving only one bud above the surface, have been most
successful. Mr. Couslandt gives the following details of his
system of planting :-"I make the first line or row of vines by
planting one long stake at each end of the intended line or row
at exactly the same distance from the fence, and then a few
between them, and strictly in a line. This done, I strike
another line across the paddock at right angles with the first
one, and mark it with long stakes as in the first instance.
Once these two lines determined, I measure and mark with
smaller stakes, along both lines, every spot where a vine is to
be planted ; and from all these spots I trace other lines parallel
one way, and at right angles the other way, to each other.
Wherever these lines cross each other I plant a vine; and if the
operation is well conducted, and the distances thoroughly
measured between the rows and the vines, the result will be that
rows will be seen in all directions from whatever part of the
vineyard or the road they may be observed. It is not necessary,
to obtain that effect, that the vine be planted the same distance
both ways. It may be planted 10 ft. by 6 ft., 8 ft. by 9 ft., 8 ft. by
12 ft., or any other distance. As long as the measurement in all
directions is thoroughly done the same result will be obtained.
It is worth some trouble to have a vineyard appear well planted
from whatever point a passer-by may look at it. It does not
bear any more, perhaps, than if it was crookedly planted, but it
does not bear any less, and it is far more agreeable to look
at, and also a great deal easier to work. This last consideration
alone is worth some trouble in planting. Last season, however,
although obtaining the same results, I did not employ the same
means. I took three wires of a small diameter, and about 100 ft.
long. After having stretched them, to make them thoroughly
straight, I made marks on one of them every 10 ft. by twisting
a small copper wire round it, and soldering it on one side to the
long wire to keep it in its place. I made the same kind of


134
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
marks on the two other long wires every 8 ft., as I was
planting 10 ft. by 8 ft. This done, I fixed a sharp stick, about
18 in. long, to each end of these three wires, and used them as
garden lines. I took the two first lines traced at right angles
in the paddock as a base of operations, and, starting from their
junction, stretched a wire with 8-ft. marks as far as it would
go.
Eighty feet from the junction on the other line I stretched the
other wire, marked also every 8 ft., exactly parallel to the first
one, after which I laid across the two the third wire, marked
every 10 ft., so that two of its own marks would lie on the
first mark of the two others. With these three wires thus
forming three sides of a perfect square, or rectangle, as the
case may be, I proceeded to plant a vine, or a small stake
(because I planted the stakes first), opposite every mark on the
10-ft. wire; after which, removing the wire 8 ft. further, I
renewed the planting operation time after time until I came to
the end of the two 8 ft. wires, which were then removed ahead,
in order to go over them again as formerly. If the first laid
out wire is well kept in the line, and the first mark of the
cross wire touches successively all its marks, the plantation
cannot fail to be straight ; unless, however, the other side wire
is neglected, and not kept parallel with the first one. To plant
the vine when the lines are all traced, I use an iron bar with
a wooden handle. This implement consists of a round piece
of iron about 15 in. in length, 11 in. in diameter, tapering to a
sharp point at the bottom, and having a socket in the upper
end in which is inserted a straight wooden bandle. A short
piece of iron projects at right angles to the head of the borer,
and by applying the foot to this in the same way as to a spade,
the borer is forced into the ground.”. A quantity of fine earth
is then run into the hole to fill up the pointed bottom, which
otherwise would form a vacuum injurious to the vine. The
vine cutting is next put into the hole, penetrating the fine
mould at the bottom, and the earth rammed with medium
firmness about it from the bottom to the surface. Before being
planted the cutting should be trimmed. The lower end of the
cutting should be cut off as near an eye as possible, and, after
the earth has been firmly filled in, the vine should be cut off
immediately above the nearest eye to the ground. This is the
method recommended for warm, dry districts.
PREPARATION OF CUTTINGS.— The difficulty of getting
cuttings to grow in dry districts is one of the greatest draw-
backs to the extension of vineyards, the new vines sometimes
requiring replanting, and a year's time being thus lost. The
1


VINES.
135
following system is adopted in some districts with success :
The cuttings are tied in bundles of 25 each, and laid horizontally
in a shallow pit. Over each layer of bundles a thin covering
of earth is placed, and 18 in. deep of soil is put on the top
of the uppermost layer. The cuttings are thus completely
covered with earth, and in the spring, when required for
planting, they have both rootlets and buds. The following sys-
tem of planting the cuttings is also adopted in some localities :-
A hole 18 in. deep is made with a crow-bar, and instead of filling
in dry earth the vine is put in and the hole filled with a
mixture of water, earth, and farm-yard manure. The vine has
thus a supply of moisture to support it until the roots become
strong enough to act upon the soil
. In the case of dry localities
soaking the cuttings before planting is also advisable, and
dipping the lower portion of the vine in paste formed of earth
and farm-yard manure is likewise an effective means of en-
couraging growth when the supply of moisture is limited.
Many planters have saved their cuttings in a dry season by
watering them, and this course, when necessary, is certainly
preferable to losing a year's growth.
PLANTING ROOTED VINES.—In planting rooted vines the bar
or dibble should not be used, but holes should be made with
the spade. It is best to make the holes fully 18 in. deep, and
about the same width. If there is a hard pan at the bottom of
the hole this should be broken, and the subsoil loosened with
the bar. Then fill in fine mould to the depth of 3 in. or 4 in.,
and upon this spread the roots of the vine. Before puttting in
the vine it is well to trim off all the upper roots, leaving only
those springing from the lower buds. All except one of the
branches should be pruned off, and the stronger shoot which is
left should be cut off above the first or second bud. After the
roots have been spread upon the fine mould already put in, fill
with fine soil
, pressing down the earth so secure that no vacuum
is left around the roots. After pressing the fine mould about
the roots, the remainder of the hole may be more loosely
filled in.
TREATMENT OF YOUNG VINES.- After being carefully
planted and got to start growing, the vines require very little
attention for three years. They should be allowed to make
wood, spreading out their branches in every direction. It
should be remembered that trimming the tops of the branches
checks the spreading of the roots, and, therefore, the vines at
this stage should be left as much as possible in a state of
nature. They need not be interfered with at all until it


136
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
becomes necessary to tie them up to short stakes in order to
keep the ground well cultivated. The thorough cultivation of
the ground is, in fact, the only thing requiring attention.
Through the summer months weeds should not only be kept
down, but the surface should be kept well pulverized, as the
vines require all the moisture and nourishment that the soil
can supply.
PRUNING AND TRAINING.—The system of pruning varies
with the character of the soil and climate and the method of
training the vines which is adopted. Thus, where trellises are
employed, the system of pruning will differ from that adopted
where vines are cultivated upon the gooseberry-bush system,
without supports of any kind; and also where soil and climate
favour heavy yields the vigneron will prune differently from
what he would do in a dry climate, where small yields are
obtained. The details of each system of pruning can only be
mastered by practice and experience, and intelligence alone
will enable the grower to follow the course best suited to the
local conditions of his vineyard. It should be borne in mind
that no pruning can get from the vine more than it obtains
from the soil, and that an over-heavy yield one season will be
followed by a light crop the next year.
With a rich soil,
sufficient moisture, liberal manuring, and a wide space between
the vines, the grower can prune year after year for heavy
yields, but in ordinary circumstances it is best to aim at
moderate returns. The drift of experience goes in the direction
of showing that the vine should be interfered with as little as
possible. The leaves are wanted to feed the fruit as well as
the roots, and the more the branches are left in a state of
nature the better is the result. Topping the branches is being
generally abandoned in the colonies, and the tendency is to
interfere as little as possible with the vines after the pruning
THE USE OF STAKES.—During the first four or five years
after coming into bearing the stock of the vine requires to be
supported by being tied to a prop or stake, and a few varieties
continue to require such support, the branches also needing the
assistance of stakes. In some countries props are always used,
but colonial experience is in favour of dispensing with the
stakes after the stock has attained sufficient strength. In Cali-
fornia, where nearly 100,000 acres of vines are cultivated, props
are never used; and in many parts of the colonies a similar
system is adopted with satisfactory results. In some cases the
system of dispensing with props is accompanied by training
season.
7


138
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
GENERAL NOTES.—Keeping the land free from weeds, and
the surface well pulverized, is an important work in connection
with vine-growing. Putting a flock of sheep into the vine-
yard after the vintage is found to have a good effect. The
sheep do not injure the vines, but destroy weeds and manure
the soil. Like all other plants, the vine responds to good treat-
ment, and although, on account of its deep-rooting character,
it takes some time to exhaust the soil, it shows signs of re-
quiring manure after bearing for many years. In irrigating
vines, care must be taken not to produce quantity of grapes
at the expense of quality of wine. The water should be put
on in winter, spring, or summer, and not while the grapes are
approaching the ripening stage. The mildew or oidium should
be kept down by dressing the vines with sulphur; and, in order
to guard against phylloxera, stocks should, if possible, be used
of the Vitis Riparic, one of the wild vines of America.
CHAPTER XIII.
DAIRYING.
DAIRYING can be carried on with more or less success in all
parts of the Australasian colonies. New Zealand is probably
not equalled by any country in the world in regard to natural
advantages for dairying, while in Tasmania and the coast dis-
tricts of Australia the natural conditions are very favourable
to the carrying on of this industry. If in the colonies there is
warm weather and a limited supply of ice, rendering extra care
necessary in the treatment of milk, and the manufacture of
butter and cheese, there is also a genial climate for dairy
stock, and an absence of severe winters, which are compensating
advantages. Dairying, in order to supply local requirements,
has been carried on with marked success in most of the colonies,
and some steps have been taken in the direction of exporting
a surplus of produce. The circumstance of Australia being in
the southern hemisphere is likely to prove a great advantage
to its export trade in dairy produce. Europe, being in the
opposite hemisphere, experiences its season of scarcity while
Australia is enjoying its time of plenty. The United States of
America, which exports large quantities of dairy produce to
European countries, has its seasons occurring at the same time;
so that, for instance, when butter is dear in England, it is, owing


140
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
ingen
the atmosphere pure and sweet. Impure air will taint the
milk, so that care must be taken in underground dairies to
prevent damp or sour odours from arising. A fireplace with a
chimney acts well as a means of ventilating underground
dairies. A good supply of fresh cool water is an important
requisite of the dairy, and it should be laid on in pipes sup-
plied either by gravitation or horse or steam power, so as to be
easily available whenever required. A cemented tank, about
2 ft. deep, provided with a supply and overflow pipe, should
be provided in the floor of the dairy, in which to set the milk,
keep the cream, or preserve any product which requires pro-
tection from the heat. A small stream of water, kept running
into the tank and out of the overflow pipe, will make a low
temperature even in very warm weather. Every expedient
should be adopted to secure in the dairy coolness, cleanness,
and sweetness.
MILKING.—In milking, both the cow and the milk require
proper treatment. The cow should not be driven to the
milking yards faster than at a slow natural walk, and she should
not be otherwise heated or excited. The art of milking is
easily learned by practice, and, as a rule, it is easier for people to
learn to milk than to govern their temper. The temper of the
milker requires governing, for he can only indulge in anger
at the expense of the milk supply. The cow should be
milked quickly, should not be left until the milking is
finished, and should be milked dry. Care must be taken to
obtain all the milk, for the strippings are not only valuable,
but, if allowed to remain, diminish the cow's milking capacity.
Regularity is another point of importance. The cows should
be milked at the same time every day, an equal interval being
allowed between each milking. Cleanliness must be observed
in milking as in every department of dairying. If rubbing the
teats is not sufficient to render them clean, they must be
washed and dried before milking. If filth is allowed to mix
with the milk as it enters the pail, all after-efforts at cleanliness
will be in vain-hence the special importance of clean milking.
TREATMENT OF MILK.--For whatever purpose milk is to
be used, it must be carefully attended to when taken from the
Milk quickly absorbs noxious gases, and hence should
not be allowed to stand near the manure heap or pig sty. It
is warm when it comes from the cow, and the animal heat
must be allowed to pass off quickly, or the effect will be in-
jurious. The milk should not be allowed to stand exposed to
the heat, but be removed at once to the dairy or milk house.
COW.


DAIRYING.
141
Here the milk should be strained. If the dairy is a cool one,
the animal heat will pass off gradually; but should it be
necessary to send the milk away to market or the factory
quickly, it should be run through the refrigerator. In the
absence of a refrigerator, place the cans in the water-tank,
which should be provided in every dairy.
BUTTER-MAKING.
Cleanliness is the most important condition of butter-
making. Care is needed throughout the process to keep the
milk and its product clean. There must be good milk, and
then good treatment will produce good butter.
SETTING MILK.—Setting milk to allow the cream to rise is a
department of dairying which has received a great deal of
attention, and there is still some difference of opinion as to the
merits of the deep and shallow systems. In the shallow
system the milk is placed in wide, shallow dishes, while in the
deep system, deep narrow cans are employed. The use of deep
cans receives the larger measure of support in America and
Europe, and it is a system peculiarly adapted to the
require-
ments of Australia. As it is essential that the milk should be
cooled and kept at a lower temperature than that which generally
prevails during spring and summer in Australia, deep cans
could be advantageously adopted, and would give the best
results. The cans generally used are 8 in. in diameter and
about 20 in. deep, with a close-fitting lid. When filled, they
are immersed in a tank of water, and as a stream of water is
kept running through the tank, covering the cans, the milk is
kept at a low temperature. The temperature cannot be so
well regulated with the shallow dishes, and much more room
is required for setting the milk. Mr. T. K. Dow, who visited
the principal dairying districts of New York State, on behalf
of the Australasian, says :—“The leading features of the
butter-making process are the treatment of the milk and the
working of the butter. Cooling milk to raise the cream is
universally practised. No matter how large or how small the
dairy, deep cans and some method of keeping the milk cool
seem to be regarded as indispensable. In the case of the vats
already referred to the milk was not set deep, for there was a
large body of milk to be cooled; but cold water was applied
in the space between the double bottom and sides. The object
sought is to produce a difference of temperature between the
milk and the surrounding atmosphere as a condition favourable


142
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
to the rising of the cream. In those creameries which did not
produce a large quantity of butter I always found what is
known as the cooley system ' in operation. The main feature
of this system is the placing of the milk in deep closed cans
submerged in cold water. The cans are about 20 in. deep, and
they are placed in a tank of cold water, the water rising to about
2 in. above the top of the can, so that the whole is submerged.
There is generally a small stream of water flowing into the
tank from a tap, and an overflow pipe to take off the surplus,
,
so that the temperature of the water is kept at from 40 to 45
degrees Fahr. Although this system involves less labour than
the usual method of setting milk in broad shallow dishes, a
still more labour-saving plan is adopted in the large factories,
viz., setting the milk in the vats.' Of course, deep setting,
apart from cooling by means of water, would not be as good
as shallow setting, as the cream would not rise before souring
commenced; but when cooling is adopted, the rising of the
cream is promoted by the falling temperature of the milk, and
as the milk is kept sweet the cream is allowed longer time in
which to rise.
CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATORS.—The system of separating the
cream from the milk by means of the centrifugal machine,
extensively employed in Europe and America, is both effective
and economical. The milk as it comes from the cow is placed
in a milk-can and delivered by means of an ordinary tap into
a funnel at the top of the separator, and through a smaīl tube
connected with the funnel into the rotating vessel, which runs
at a velocity of 5,000 revolutions per minute. To the bottom
of the funnel is soldered a thin wing, which forces the milk to
follow the rotation of the vessel. As soon as the fresh milk
enters the rotating vessel, an instantaneous separation takes
place. The heavier portion, or the skim-milk, is thrown to the
circumference of the vessel and forced up bent tube, whence
it is delivered through an aperture into the lower of two tin
trays or covers, which is provided with an outlet pipe. The
cream remains nearer the centre, rises around the outside of
the funnel, and through a small hole in the cylindrical upper
part of the rotating vessel it delivers itself into the upper tin
cover, whence it is discharged through an outlet pipe. The
opening is regulated by means of a screw. To enable the use
of a high speed, the rotating vessel is mounted in such a manner
that it acts on the same principle as the spinning top. For
this purpose, and in order to transmit by friction the rotation
of the driving spindle, a wooden cup is inserted in the same,


DAIRYING.
143
and the corresponding spherical end of the upper spindle rests
in this cup. Around the neck of the upper spindle there is a
bearing surrounded by an elastic packing, which allows the
spindle with its vessel, when rotating, to take its natural per-
pendicular position. Such a rapid and convenient means of
obtaining cream possesses many advantages. There is a saving
of space, as no setting of milk dishes is necessary. All the
labour of cleaning milk dishes and skimming is avoided, and
it is not necessary to provide means of cooling the milk. When
milk is carried a long way to the factory it is difficult to obtain
the cream pure and sweet, but by the separating process all
danger of souring is avoided. The milk can also be put through
the separator as it comes fresh from the cow, so that both cream
and skim milk are perfectly sweet. The separator can be
regulated so as to take off every particle of cream, or to take
whatever quantity is desired, so that in making skim-milk
cheese the milk can be left in any condition required. In the
Australian climate, where the temperature is high, and the
supply of ice for cooling purposes limited, the separator is
peculiarly valuable, as the dairyman is able to quickly convert
the milk into butter, thus avoiding the risk of souring,
TREATMENT OF CREAM.—Many butter-makers make the
mistake of allowing the cream to remain too long without
churning. It should not be allowed to become quite sour, but
should be churned whenever ripeness is indicated by a slight
Different skimmings should be mixed together
about 12 hours before churning, so as to ensure that all the
cream is, as far as possible, in the same condition and of equal
maturity. The cream should be kept cool, and whether the
deep or shallow system of setting is adopted, or the separator
used, the cream jars should, especially in an Australian sum-
mer, be kept in the dairy water-tank.
COLOURING.— When the condition of the cream indicates that
the butter will be of a pale colour, steps may advantageously
be taken to alter this condition. In no case should colouring
be added to the butter after it is churned, but the colouring
matter should be put into the cream. The use of grated carrots
or other vegetable matter is objectionable, as it changes the
flavour of the butter and injures its keeping qualities.
colouring preparations made of annatto are the best. These
applied to the cream in small quantities give good results, but
in any case colouring should be sparingly used.
CHURNING.–The various kinds of churns need no description,
as they are familiar to all farmers. A churn should be chosen
sourness.
The


144
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
which suits the requirements of the dairy best, and which
offers the least obstacles to taking out the butter when made.
The most general and injurious mistake in churning is to con-
tinue the operation after the granules of butter have been
formed. Whenever the butter comes, the temperature should
be reduced by adding cold water, and, after a few slow turns of
the churn, the milk should be run off and the washing com-
menced. By keeping on with the churning afterthe butter comes,
the globules are broken and mixed with the milk. This destroys
the finer qualities of the butter, and renders it impossible to
wash out the milk. The best temperature for churning is
about 60 degrees, and, immediately after the butter comes, the
temperature of the churn should be lowered three or four
degrees. This can be done by adding cold water, which causes
the granules to form globules about the size of peas. In Aus-
tralia the temperature of the dairy is seldom too low for churn-
ing In such cases it can be raised by heating, but to make
good sweet butter it is necessary to secure a temperature of
about 60 degrees. The water must be perfectly clean for
washing the butter, and it can with advantage be mixed with
pure salt forming a weak brine. When the granules have not
been broken up by overchurning, the work of washing the
butter is simplified, as no buttermilk has become mixed with
its texture.
WORKING.—In proportion as care has been taken to avoid
overchurning will the process of working be made easy, the
object being to expel the buttermilk and mix with salt.
There are many different butter-workers, but the hand imple-
ment is of simple construction, being less elaborate than the
circular ones sometimes used. It consists of a triangular board,
upon which the butter is placed, and a wooden pestle, about 3 ft.
in length, with which the butter is worked. The end of the
pestle fits into a hole in the frame surrounding the butter-
board, and by means of the handle at the other end it is worked
up and down. These workers are practically more convenient
and effective than those with revolving butter-boards. Upon
a frame above the worker a vessel with water is placed, and
through a tap a supply is kept running while the butter is
being operated upon by the pestle. When the appearance of
the water running away from the butter indicates that the
buttermilk has all been removed the salt should be added.
SALTING.—The choice of salt is an important matter. Ap-
parently pure salt often contains a large quantity of foreign
matter, and notwithstanding what care has been taken in


DAIRYING.
145
making the butter, if filth of any kind is put into it with the salt,
it will not keep: some of the most successful dairymen not only
purchase the best salt, but also purify it for themselves, using
à pure, clear brine, instead of the dry salt. If the salt and
butter are perfectly pure, a small quantity of the former is
sufficient, the quantity required for flavouring being large
enough to preserve the butter for a long time.
PACKING. — There is no department of our dairying system
which needs more improvement than the packages in which
butter is sent to market. Nothing is more unsightly than a
butter merchant's receiving-room, where his parcels of butter
come in to from different parts of the country, while in America
a butter store is a pleasing and appetizing sight, owing to the
clean and neat packages which are sent out from the dairies.
A farmer who likes to buy his groceries in neat and attractive
parcels will often persist in selling his own produce in dirty
second-hand barrels or cases. The best butter-box is on
the American model. It is made of strong inch boards
neatly and strongly put together, being 2 ft. 6 in. long by 1 ft.
3 in. wide, and I ft. deep. Three inches from the bottom
there is a ledge for a shelf to rest upon, and after the first
layer of prints is put in a tray containing another layer
rests upon the ledge. There is at each end of the wooden
trays a cross piece of wood higher than the prints, and these
support another tray. Trays are thus placed one above an-
other until the box is full, without the layers of prints touch-
ing one another. Such a box not only suits the customers,
but also the railway porter. That official cannot be changed,
so boxes must be made to suit his fixed habits. It has been
found by observation that the railway porter will seize a
handle if one sticks out, and the wise dairyman will put strong
straps around his boxes, which will serve as handles. There
should be various packages to suit the wants of different cus-
tomers. Two-pound bottles or jars, with air-tight tops, which
screw on and off, meet one demand, and tins frequently are
employed when butter is to be exported to distant markets. In
this case cloth is placed in the tin around the butter, and the can
is hermetically sealed before leaving the dairy. One of the most
important methods, however, for the colonial market is the
system of preserving butter fresh in saline liquid. This system is
adopted by Mr. Wilson, a leading Victorian butter-maker. A
clean cask made of American white ash is filled with rolls of fresh
butter placed on their ends. Each roll is folded in linen cloth,
and when the cask has been packed all the remaining space is
Palengka
11


146
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
filled with saline liquid, similar to that used in making the
butter. The cask is then headed up, and the grocer at Denili-
quin, Hay, or Dimboola during the hot weather allows the
rolls to stand in the liquid until required. In this way fresh
butter is sold in good condition seven months after leaving the
creamery. In using casks in the ordinary way care should be
taken to thoroughly clean them, and to select casks of such
available timber as is the least likely to stain the butter. Most
of the colonial timber is apt to stain the butter when used for
casks—an objection from which the American white ash is
free.
THE FACTORY SYSTEM. — Co-operative dairying, or the
factory system, which has so extensively developed the
butter and cheese export trade of America, has been intro-
duced into several of the colonies, and is likely to become
general. The factory system of dairying was commenced
by Mr. Jesse Williams in 1851 at Rome, some twenty or
thirty miles from Utica, in the State of New York, Mr.
Williams had attained a reputation as a cheesemaker, and
could command a higher price than his neighbours for
his manufacture. His son commenced business in the same
neighbourhood, but not being able to obtain as high a price as
his father, an arrangement was entered into by which the
advantage of the family name might be made available. Mr.
Williams took the milk from his son's farm, made it into
cheese with his own, and allowed him a proportionate share
of the proceeds of the sales, making also a charge for manufac-
turing. This was found to be profitable to both parties, and
soon one neighbour after another, anxious to obtain a similar
advantage, sent milk to Mr. Williams's dairy, and the result
was the establishment of the first cheese factory in the United
States. The system soon spread, until now it may
sidered the distinctive feature of American dairying. The
leading principle is that a whole neighbourhood gets the
advantage of the best skill within its limits. It is not every
farmer who is a skilful dairyman. Special qualifications and
extensive experience are necessary to manufacture butter or
cheese of a thoroughly sound character, capable of being sent
to any part of the world. These qualifications are rare, but
by the associated system the whole district gets the benefit of
the best man available. Thus the butter or cheese of a whole
district is brought up to the standard of the best in the locality.
The produce is not only raised in quality, but it gains the
valuable property of evenness. Large quantities of an even
be con-


DAIRYING.
147
sample can be put upon the market, and thus higher prices can
be obtained than for separate parcels of mixed quality. The
saving of labour is also an important consideration, and by
the factory system the general character of a whole district's
produce is not only raised, and a higher price realized, but
the expenditure upon labour is reduced to a minimum. It
was soon found that the same principle applied to the making
and selling of butter, and butter factories were established,
creameries soon afterwards coming into existence. A creamery
is a dairy or factory in which the making of butter or cheese,
or both, is carried on. In America cheese factories are not so
numerous as they were, but creameries are on the increase. At
times butter pays better than cheese, and at other times most
profit is to be made by producing butter and skim-milk cheese.
The creamery is fitted up with appliances for either branch of
dairying, and is, consequently, always ready to turn the milk
of a district to the best account.
PRESERVING BUTTER.— In order that butter may keep
through the hot months it must be well made, and especially
it must contain no cheesy matter. The place in which it is
kept must be always cool; the best of butter will be spoilt if
it is subject to great alterations of temperature. These pre-
liminaries secured, there will be no necessity to overload the
butter with salt; a little more salt than is ordinarily used in
“ fresh” butter will suffice. For domestic use obtain jars of
convenient size. Spread salt on the bottom; pack the butter
tightly by ramming it down, so that all air may be excluded;
smooth the top, and cover thickly with finely-powdered salt.
Another plan is as follows :- Make a brine strong enough to
float an egg. Provide a small, clean cask, or large jars-four-
gallon jars are suitable. After the brine is perfectly cold, the
butter, made up in solid lumps, say from 1 lb. to 4 lbs. each,
wrapped in muslin, may be dropped into the brine. Each day's
making may be added in turn. The butter must always be
covered with brine. Well-made butter thus stored will turn
out equal to fresh for several months if kept in a cool cellar.
COOLING MILK.--In the cooley system of setting milk in
deep cans, Mr. W. Bowron, Government Inspector of Dairy
Produce Factories, N.Z., says :—"Proper attention to the tom-
perature of the water is absolutely necessary for the satisfac-
tory working of the system A temperature of from 45 degrees
to 50 degrees Fahr. is all that is required, but it is necessary to
keep the water at this temperature. To do this, you must bearin.
mind that, when the warm milk is submerged, until it has cooled


148
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
down to the temperature of the water it will cause the tempera-
ture of the water to rise. But, as the heated water naturally
rises to the top, this difficulty is easily overcome, as follows :
After having set the milk for, say, fifteen minutes, remove the
cork in the wooden overflow pipe, thus allowing the heated
water which is at the top to flow off ; then immediately refill
the creamer with cold water. This should be repeated three
or four times during the first hour after submerging the milk;
it will then be chilled down to the temperature of the water,
and must then be left undisturbed until the cream has risen.”
CHEESE-MAKING.
The Cheddar system of making cheese, an essential feature of
which consists in heating the curd, is now generally adopted
both in factories and private dairies with minor modifications.
Where private dairies are carried on, many of the labour-saving
appliances of the factories are adopted; and in Australia, where
the rate of labour is high, it is essential to simplify the process
as much as possible. Thus heating the milk by pouring in
warm whey is laborious, and can be much more simply managed
by employing a cheese tub that can be heated with hot water
or steam. The light, tinned iron hoops of the factory are much
handier than the large wooden cheese vats, and the American
screw presses are preferable to the ordinary old-fashioned
kind.
CHEESE TUBS.—There are various kinds of cheese tubs, some
heated by steam, others by hot water, and yet another kind by
means of a fire flue.
The latter principle was adopted in
some of the first heating tubs introduced into the colonies.
Instead of being heated by steam, the hot water system of
raising the temperature is adopted. The vat is set inside of a
larger vessel, which is filled with water, and along the bottom
of which a flue is carried to supply the heat. The flue
consists of a copper fire-pipe about 12 in. in diameter, and a
space is provided for allowing the water to circulate around
the furnace pipe. The pipe extends from one end of the vat
to the other, and terminates in a chimney of the building, up
which the smoke funnel is carried. A small wood fire lit just
inside the pipe is sufficient to heat the water in the vat above,
the heat being carried along the pipe by means of the draught.
By means of damping slides at each end of the fire-pipe the
heat can be regulated with perfect accuracy. Another kind of
tub is that in which water is heated in a boiler and poured


DAIRYING.
149
into the space around the cheese tub. This method involves
too much labour, those tubs being preferable in which the
water is heated either by steam pipes or a fire flue.
THE MAKING PROCESS.—In well-regulated factories the pro-
cess of working is as follows :-In private dairies less attention
is needed in the way of testing the milk; in the case of purchasing
milk from other farms, testing is the best for both parties.
The milk begins to come in, say, at half-past 7 in the morning,
and the whole day's supply will arrive at 9 o'clock. As it is
received it is tested and strained into the vats or tubs. The
glass system of testing is simple and sufficiently accurate. A
sample of each supplier's milk is put into a test glass, and set
in a frame provided for the purpose.
Next morning the
supplier can see for himself whether the milk shows sufficient
cream, or how it compares with the other samples supplied by
his neighbours. At 9 o'clock, when the vats are filled, the fires
are lighted, and the temperature of the milk raised to between
80 and 85 degrees. The rennet is now put in, and the best
kind is Vesser's liquid rennet. Half a pint is sufficient for 300
gallons of milk, and it acts more evenly and with greater
certainty than old-fashioned rennet. About 45 minutes after
the rennet is put in the curd is formed, and the cocking process
is commenced. The curd is first cut up into cubes about half
an inch in dimensions, and then moved about while being
cooked. In cooking the heat is gradually raised to 100 degrees,
and this temperature is maintained until the proper degree of
acidity has been attained. Care must be taken not to cook the
curd too quickly, and the skilled cheese-maker must regulate
the process according to the condition of the milk and the state
of the atmosphere. In warm weather two hours is frequently
sufficient, while in winter three, four, and even six hours are
sometimes necessary. It is here that skill and experience are
especially necessary, for upon the proper cooking of the curd,
giving the exact degree of acidity, the quality of the cheese
very largely depends. Too rapid cooking, or raising the tem-
perature too high, will give the cheese a tendency to crack, as
well as rendering it deficient in fat, and consequently poor in
quality. In regulating this part of the process, the maker is
guided by the appearance, smell, and taste of the curd. When
the cooking process has been completed, the whey is taken off
and the curd removed to the coolers. The coolers are large,
shallow, open receptacles, covered with cheese-cloth, upon
which the curd drains, and is cooled and salted. In taking off
the whey from the vats a syphon is generally used, and this


150
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
is a very simple and effective system. A cylindrical strainer
surrounds the syphon, keeping off the small particles of curd,
and the whey is rapidly run off over the side of the cheese tub
or vat and carried in a pipe to a distant tank, from which it is
either fed to pigs or returned to milk supplies, according to
arrangement. After cooling and salting, the curd is removed
to the press. In cutting the curd, the use of the American
knives will enable the cheese-maker to reduce the curd to
pieces about the size of maize grains, and in agitating it care
will have to be taken to avoid breaking it up too much and
mixing it with the whey. The curd mill may be used by
those who prefer it, but its use is dispensed with by many
good makers as unnecessary.
PRESSING AND STORING.—The curd on being put into the
hoops or press-vats is pressed and taken out to be wrapped in
cheese-cloth, the formed cheeses being returned to the press and
allowed to remain for 18 or 20 hours. On being taken to the
storing-room the cheeses are set on shelves. The storing-room
should be cool and even in temperature, and the cheeses should
be turned and rubbed on the ends once a day. Rubbing the
ends of the cheeses with melted butter will prevent cracking
should the weather be very dry. After being attended to in
the way of turning for three months the cheese can be per-
manently stored. In a cold climate the storing-room for new
cheese requires to be heated, but old cheese will keep well in a
low temperature.
SKIM-MILK CHEESE.—Skim milk cheese is such an inferior
article that its manufacture is not generally attempted. Half
skimming, however, is frequently carried out in America, and
is often attended with profit. According to this system, either
a portion of the milk is put into the cheese tub as it comes
from the cow, or the whole is only set for cream a short time,
leaving a greater or less proportion of the cream in the milk.
In this way a certain quantity of good butter and of medium
cheese is obtained from the milk. Where the centrifugal sepa-
rator is used, half-cream cheese can easily be made, and it is in
the creameries that the process is most frequently carried out.
The process of making will take longer than in the case of
new milk in proportion to the poverty of the skim milk, the
rennet will have to be applied at a lower temperature, and
more salt will be required.
GENERAL NOTES ON CHEESE.—Before commencing to treat
the milk it must be cooled. When coming in from suppliers
the milk will have parted with its animal heat before the tubs


DAIRYING.
151
are full, but in the case of a large private dairy it has to be
cooled. This can easily be managed by filling the space between
the double bottom and sides of the cheese tub with cold water,
and not applying the heat until the milk is cooled. If the milk
is tainted with lucerne, or some weed in the pasture, a sniall
quantity of saltpetre put into the tub while the milk is warm
will assist in removing the taint. Another remedy is to heat
the milk to 150 degrees, which removes the taint, and then the
temperature is reduced in order to manufacture in the ordinary
way. As in the case of butter-making, the milk must be good
in order to obtain a good product. The hot-iron test of acidity
is employed by some good makers. A piece of the curd is
pressed against a heated iron bar, just hot enough to make
water simmer, and then drawn away. If sufficient acidity has
not been created, the curd will not adhere to the iron, but when
the proper degree of acid is formed, the curd will adhere, and,
on being taken away, draw out into thread-like fibres from } in.
to fin. long. Longer and finer threads will be formed if the
curd is too far advanced.
CHAPTER XIV.
FARM CALENDAR.
In the following calendar or directions for agricultural and
pastoral operations for each month of the year, it must be noted
that the date of the seasons refer to the latitude of Melbourne,
Victoria. Within little more than 100 miles inland from the
city named, or northward beyond the Dividing Range, the
seasons are from three to five weeks earlier, and in the more
northerly colonies there is a still greater difference observable.
Settlers, however, in the different parts of the colonies, in using
the calendar will have little difficulty in making allowar
ance for
the varying dates of the seasons, and in selecting the directions
suited to local circumstances.
JANUARY.
During the month of January harvesting operations absorb
a large share of attention, but other farm work should not be
neglected, as what is not done in its season is not done at all.


152
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
MANURING.—In the wheat areas, those that are devoted
entirely to grain-growing, very little can be done in the way
of manuring, either by means of sheep or any other kind of
stock. Any description of manure that serves to prevent
the consolidation of the soil in those parts by the winter rains
does more harm than good. The liquid excreta of stock is
beneficial, but not the solid. If moisture during the spring
and summer could be insured, stock manures might be used
with advantage, as they are in cooler and more elevated
districts. But in the absence of spring and summer rains,
sheep in the wheat areas proper can be utilized only in clearing
up the weeds and grasses amongst the stubbles.
BURNING SYSTEM.— The old system of burning the straw
after the sheep have taken all they can, appears to be still the
best for the dry wheat districts. The mineral contents of the
straw are returned to the soil without being accompanied by
vegetable matter, which in so dry a climate is injurious, and
not beneficial, as theorists assume. The ash of wheat straw,
as shown by a mean of ten analyses, contains silica 67.88 per
cent. ; potash, 12-14; lime, 6.23; phosphoric acid, 5:43 ;
sulphuric acid, 3-88; magnesia, 2:74 ; soda, :60; peroxide of
iron, 74; chloride of sodium, .22. The kinds of manure that
promise to be most useful in the wheat-growing areas are
bone-dust, coprolites, or manures of similar character.
SUMMER FODDER.- In the cool and late districts attempts
should be made to secure crops of feed for the autumn and
early winter. A good stretch of suitable land should always
be kept ready for sowing upon the occurrence of rain. Maize
is the best green crop for the summer season in all except the
very coldest districts, and drilling is the best method of putting
it in. The land cannot well be too highly manured for this
green crop; one acre in high condition will yield more than
three or four acres of badly-prepared land. The soil in the
intervals should be kept stirred with the horse-hoe until the
roots of the maize would be interfered with. Rape may be
sown either broadcast or in drills under similar conditions. In
certain localities Calcutta oats and Cape barley may be tried,
also the latter with vetches. On most of the hill farms are to
be found flats adjoining creeks or gullies, which will carry
summer green crops with the help of only an occasional shower.
On such bottoms mangels may be grown all the year round.
It is good farming to sow a moderate area 10 months out of the
12. Mangels, with a certain proproption of dry fodder, are
invaluable upon farms where a system of mixed husbandry is


FARM CALENDAR.
153
practised. They are useful alike for dairy cattle, sheep, and
pigs. Carrots also should be more generally grown as farm
crops ; the yield of Belgians and Intermediates is much greater
than would be suspected by farmers who have never grown
them, and have never ascertained by weighing the amount
yielded by an acre. Sixty tons of mangels may be readily
grown on that area, and from well-manured sandy soil as much
as fifty tons of carrots have been pulled. Farm soils generally
being of a stronger and less humid description, carrots would
less commonly reach the highest yield, but of mangels much
heavier crops have been marketed from areas up to 25 acres
on black land on which sheep were nightly hurdled previous
to ploughing.
TREATMENT OF STOCK.—It should not be forgotten that the
stock-carrying power of any farm is determined by the extent of
its ability to carry stock at the period at which feed is scarcest.
Were the drawbacks to success in farm husbandry correctly
estimated, those arising from want of feed and water would be
found to outbalance all others. Farmers generally are too
anxious that feed should not “go to waste;" they would be
acting wisely, and pursuing a sounder policy, were they to
plan so that feed should always be abundant. Overstocking
or under-providing are amongst the greatest evils against
which farmers should labour. In districts fairly adapted for
mixed husbandry, the value of a feed crop is not to be charged
wholly against the stock by which it is consumed; the soil, if
the crop be utilized upon it, is improved, and the results are
forthcoming throughout a long series of years. The fertility
of land properly managed should be augmented and not
lessened, as has been the case with the majority of farms in
these colonies.
FAT LAMBS.–Farmers in the vicinity of markets may do
much in the way of keeping up regular supplies of fat lamb,
by arranging for the dropping at certain seasons. The sheep
that are most tractable and most profitable for this branch of
husbandry are the long-woolled breeds; the lambs come
sooner to market, on account of their more rapidly attaining a
good size. In the course of time, perhaps, Southdown and
Shropshire ewes and long-woolled rams may come to be kept
by farmers who go in for lamb breeding, ewes of those breeds
being by far the most prolific, and in other respects the most.
easily managed


154
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
FEBRUARY
later on.
Sown.
This month generally affords the farmer time, after the rush
of harvest, to attend to miscellaneous work, which is as im-
portant in its place as any other. In dry seasons the ground
may be too hard for ploughing; but scarifying is most destruc-
tive of weeds in warm weather, and most heavy soils benefit
from being worked in a dry state.
PREPARE FOR GRASSES. -Land intended for sowing with
grasses should receive preparatory treatment. The main
object is to destroy weeds, and reduce the soil to a fine tilth
for the reception of the grass seed. Skim ploughing or scari-
fying will be good treatment preparatory to deeper ploughing
Root CROPS.—It will be necessary to attend to the root
crops in the way of keeping down the weeds. Even if
weeds are not plentiful, owing to dry weather, the crops will
be benefited by the stirring of the soil, which tends to both
attract and retain moisture, while a hard, cracking surface
tends in the opposite direction. Should there be enough
rain to ensure the germination of the seed, turnips may be
Rape can also be sown under similar conditions.
Potato digging and the raising of onions will have to be
attended to in many localities.
GREEN CROPS. If the month is not a very dry one, maize,
sorghum, and millet may be sown. The soil must be well
prepared and in good condition, and with the showers which
may be expected towards the end of the month a good sup-
ply of green fodder may be expected in the driest part of the
autumn.
PREPARING FOR CEREALS.—When the land is not too hard
farmers will find it advantageous to begin ploughing for the
wheat crop. As early sowing is essential in the inland wheat-
growing areas, preparatory operations cannot be commenced
too soon after the harvest. Experience has shown that the
crops
which are put in on soil that has been worked in a
comparatively dry state are the best. As farmers have gene-
rally to cart their grain to market during this month, it is
difficult to get the ploughing forward, and hence the sowing is
not completed until late in the season. The result is a large
area of late-sown crop, which reduces the average of the
colony, and, consequently, lowers the profits of the industry.
The best course in the dry wheat-growing areas is to have a
considerable area of land in fallow, or bearing rape or other


156
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
root, a good crop becomes a moral certainty. The large Norfolk
combined drills are made to deposit from 60 to 120 bushels of
ashes per acre in the drill with the seed. The smaller quantity
is, as a rule, enough. A hundredweight of best Peruvian
guano, or a proportionately larger quantity of inferior, is some-
times drilled with the seed. This being a most economical and
effective method of applying manures, should be more generally
adopted by colonial farmers in connection with a variety of
crops.
DRILLING.—The advantages of drilling are many, but they
are not yet recognized by farmers generally, because broad-
cast sowing appears to be done at a smaller expenditure for
labour. When the results of the two systems are compared,
the cheapness will be found where least expected. Drilled
crops can be readily horse-hoed, and thus the cleaning of the
ground is effected, whilst the slight tillage incidentally given
promotes the growth of the crops. In the case of wheat
hoeing should be only sufficient to destroy the weeds; the crop
will not, as a rule, derive benefit from the hoeing, a firm bed
being more to its liking.
SELECTING SEED.—In the selection of seeds of every kind
much may be done towards preserving the cleanliness of the
farm. Seed grain should be perfectly free from all other
substances; it should be as clean as the best screen-dresser can
make it. Dock, cockle, and drake require special attention;
the screen must be set with the object of taking out every seed
of these noxious weeds. The seeds of many weeds are re-
movable by winnowing, but cannot all be taken out by screening.
Seed grain is cleaned with comparative ease, but not so grass,
clover, and other small seeds. It is with these that weed seeds
are most commonly introduced to colonial farms. If the
cleanest sample of rye-grass were carefully treated, and all
foreign matter taken out, it would be found to have contained
quite a considerable quantity of weed seeds. Farmers, therefore,
should give the seed they buy a final cleaning. Those who
cannot possibly do so should be the more careful to purchase
only the cleanest and best samples; a saving of money in the
price of a sample usually proves to be the greatest extravagance.
GREEN FODDER.—Amongst the first work to be done is that
of providing supplies of winter green stuff. Grass may become
more plentiful, but a good stock of fodder places the farmer
in an advantageous position, whilst without it he is dependent
on the chances of the weather. In planning for a green crop
it is wise to remember that one acre well done will yield more


FARM CALENDAR.
157
than two acres roughly put in, and with a stingy supply of
manure.
APRIL.
Insufficiency of moisture is most generally felt at this time
of year in the inland districts, and in such localities conserving a
supply of water, both for stock and in the soil for crops, is an
important undertaking which should not be neglected.
PREPARING FOR WHEAT. After making due provision for
conducting a sufficient portion of the surface water to the
nearest reservoir, some thought should be given to the question
how can the greatest part of the remainder be made to perco-
late downwards to the subsoil, which has been rendered quite
dry by evaporation steadily continued through the dry season.
Every intelligent farmer will recognize in the smooth furrow-
sole the greatest obstacle to the further descent of the water.
The most important step is to break that up, and to that end
an implement allied to the cultivator or scarifier would be the
most effective. It will be observed that probably very little of
the surface soil ploughed for last crop was subsequently run
together in the dry districts; except that the furrows were
broken down by harrowing and by the action of the weather,
the soil is in much the same condition as it was after the last
ploughing. As far, then, as the portion actually ploughed is
concerned, the scarifier would be likely to produce a good seed-
bed, and would have the additional effect of breaking into the
compact sole, and thus opening up the subsoil to the percolat-
ing moisture. There cannot be much room for questioning
the expediency of thoroughly breaking up the pan by cross
scarifying. The rains, when they come, will enable farmers to
dispense with rolling, especially if the subsoil is opened in the
manner described. It is not intended that this system of tillage
may be advantageously applied to every condition of soil ;
intelligent husbandmen will not fail to recognize differences of
condition which will suggest to them appropriate treatment.
DRAINAGE.—Whilst preparing for the admission of rain
to the subsoil, it will be necessary, excepting in the driest
districts, also to make provision for allowing any surplus
moisture to get away from the substrata. That matter
is of the utmost importance. Furrow drains should be run
down between the lands, and be met at their lowest points
by cross drains leading to an outfall. This course is suggested,
not as being the proper one, but the best in the absence of the
more costly underdrainage which at some time, more or less


158
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
distant, will become recognized and adopted as the most efficient
assurance against loss of crop by drought. In this country the
opening up of the soil by drains will eventually place farm-
ing on a sounder basis. At present the farmer is entirely at
the mercy of the weather for the time being; a few months of
over-wet or over-dry alike prove disastrous to his crops. The
first business, then, is to push forward the working of all land
intended for autumn or winter grain, and the next to complete
the plan of furrows and drains for the removal of the surplus
rainfall. The course of cropping will have to be determined
by circumstances, amongst which the time at which the fall
occurs and its amount will be the principal factors.
GREEN CROPS.--The preparation of fodder for winter dairy-
ing, and as a help to the cattle and sheep generally through what
can hardly fail in general to be a scant season, should be one of
the first things taken in hand. A week earlier or later will
make more than an ordinary week's difference in the amount of
crop. After the first week's rain the weather will be likely to
cool rapidly; the nights also will become more chilly, and thus
growth will progress at a gradually reduced pace. The required
area, therefore, should be got ready for Cape barley, Calcutta
or Cape oats, tares, peas, and any other fodder crop that may
be deemed suited to the circumstances. Turnips are by far too
much neglected in the colonies. liberal breadth should be
sown at this season, or as soon after as rain chances to come.
The sowing may be done even now with perfect safety, unless.
seed-eating birds are present. If undisturbed, they would lie
perfectly safe until rain came.
LUCERNE.—In warm districts April is the best time to lay
down large areas of lucerne, and lucerne is in turn the best of
fodder crops for these districts. The most important matter
in connection with this crop is that it be divided into at least-
three paddocks (four would be far preferable), only one to be
stocked at a time, and each in its proper turn. This, indeed,
is an essential practice in conjunction with dairy husbandry.
There should also be a set of at least four grass paddocks, to
which the entire dairy herd have access in turn; such turn
ought not, as a rule, to exceed 10 days, but should never be
over a fortnight. By this arrangement the feed will be kept in
steady supply, and the milk yield be in proportion.
MAY.
During this month signs of winter begin to appear, and in
all except the late coast districts sowing of wheat should be


FARM CALENDAR.
159
well nigh completed. In elevated districts the temperature is
nearly sure to range comparatively low, so that the new grass
will be washy, and will do more harm than good to the stock
unless straw or rough hay can be given in addition. In the
low lands, prairie grass within orchards and other places to
which stock has not access should now be giving a fair cutting.
PRAIRIE GRASS.—The proper use of this grass is overlooked
by most farmers in Victoria, but in parts both of New South
Wales and New Zealand its value and the right way of treating
it are better understood. Divided into four
paddocks, only one
being stocked at any time, the stock being shifted at intervals
of from 10 to 14 days, according to the season of year, prairie
grass will keep a greater number of head than any other grass.
Let it be understood that it will not grow without moisture,
but that it will respond to heat and moisture combined, and in
climates having a Melbourne range will supply two heavy
cuttings of green fodder during the winter months. If the
paddocks are not allowed to seed, a sprinkling should be given
early each autumn; and seed scattered now will braird strongly.
The present is the proper time of year to sow prairie grass
in districts having a mild winter climate. At Kyneton,
Ballarat, and in other districts having cold winters, prairie
grass usually has a dark, starved appearance until spring sets
in. In such districts it is a summer grass, and one of the best
that can be grown. The proper time for sowing in such
localities is early in August. The land should be naturally
fertile, and also in good heart.
GREEN CROPS.- As pasturage is sure to become scarce in
most districts, fodder crops should be sown at once. Cape,
Swiss, and Calcutta oats and Cape barley will give the
quickest returns for cutting. There will be few wheats early
enough to need feeding down unless the winter
proves
unusually mild, in which case sheep may be put on to
the most forward crops. Farmers who have surplus peas,
vetches, or turnip seed may sow any of these for feed. Early
white turnips will be fit for sheep in six weeks, especially
if the seed be drilled with a little guano. Rape also may be
sown at this time ; as with turnips, soil in good heart is
required ; one acre well done will yield more than three acres
of partially exhausted land, and will give its return in less
time.
MANURES.-For all winter crops guano containing a large
amount of nitrogen is the most economical and effective
Where Peruvian is obtainable of average quality,
manure.


160
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
it is the best stimulant that can be applied to winter
fodder crops. Even where the land is in fairly good heart, a
hundredweight of this guano per acre, sown broadcast over the
crop, will administer a fillip whose effects will be quickly per-
ceptible. For permanent effects bone-dust and other manures
of that class are preferable in cases where farm-yard and stable
manures are not available.
Sowing GRASSES.—At this season grass-Sowing for per-
manent pastures or for rotation cropping should be early
brought to a conclusion, but on many farms it is made to stand
aside until wheat-sowing has been finished. To delay it
without sufficient reason would, however, be unwise; a week
gained in sowing might prove a great advantage in the event
of the winter being cold. A clean seed-bed should be regarded
as of primary importance. Weeds appear quickly enough in
pastures without being left there at the outset, and although
some delay may be occasioned by the steps needed to kill
weeds, even that will be preferable to sowing grasses on foul
land. The first work should be harrowing, either with a light
seed or brush harrow, in order to cover the weed seeds on the
surface of the soil, and thus insure their quick germination.
As soon as that has been effected, the working of the land may
be commenced. Ploughing will best insure the destruction of
the germinated weed seeds by covering them too deeply to
grow. It is to be feared that frequently much of the early-
ploughed land is permanently fouled by the weed seeds on the
surface being ploughed down dry. At the next and successive
workings a number will be brought to the surface, or near
enough thereto to cause them to germinate, and thus weediness
may be perpetuated. In some instances the stubbles are clean,
and the soil so loose (in consequence of the absence of rain
during the summer) as to be fit for the reception of grass seeds
without any other working than a harrowing. In other cases not
even that is required, and whilst the surface is so wet harrowing
would do harm. The seed may, however, be sown and left to
the weather. Some of the finest pastures in the Western
district of Victoria have been formed by surface sowing under
suitable conditions of soil and weather. In this, as in all other
branches of farm husbandry, no hard and fast line of proceeding
can be laid down. The course that would be right in one
locality and on one class of soil would be entirely wrong in
another.
PEAS.—The pea crop should now receive attention. May is
the month for early sowing, and in many of the dry districts


FARM CALENDAR.
161
peas might be successfully grown by sowing at this season,
especially if some early variety were employed.
JUNE.
The sowing of cereals should be well forward in the early
inland parts of the colonies, and completing the putting in of
the crops will keep farmers busy. It is a common mistake to
continue sowing late, and perhaps tilling badly, in order to put
a large area under crop.
SOWING CEREALS.- Wheat sowing, especially in dry localities,
should be completed. If the season is rainy farmers are
tempted to keep on sowing, but this should be resisted, as the
late wheat is rarely a good crop. Oats and barley, however,
may still be safely sown in most districts.
TREATMENT OF CEREALS.—Rolling will be attended to this
month, care being taken to avoid rolling when the soil is so
wet as to adhere to the implement. Forward wheat crops may
be eaten down with sheep this month, and generally it will be
more profitable to attend to the growing crops than to go on
sowing fresh fields.
CARE OF IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES.— The harvesting
machines, which should have been placed under cover (if some-
what hurriedly) when the crop was cut or stripped, will now
require attention. If any farmers have left the machines stand-
ing out ready for next harvest, they should bring them in now.
It is better late than never. Overhaul the machines in the
shed, take a note of the repairs required, and use the paint
brush. Saving money in paint is almost as foolish as saving
labour by leaving the machines in the field from one harvest to
another. Paint is a good investment.
HEDGES.—In planting hedges the kind best suited to the
locality must be taken into account. Given a healthy clay
subsoil with a fairly good surface soil, the hawthorn makes a
fine vigorous hedge, which is truly a fence against farm stock
of every description. One of the most essential matters in
connection with the rearing of hedges is the preparation of the
soil. A great width is not required ; 3 ft., or six furrows each
6 in. wide, will suffice for that, but the land should be subsoiled.
In the absence of a subsoil plough (but every farmer should
possess and use one) the mouldboard may be removed from an
ordinary plough, and thus a subsoiler may be extemporized.
The land may be left rough until the planting time, when it
should be harrowed down fine. The old English system of
12


162
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
cutting a ditch on one side of the hedge is adapted only for
very wet districts ; instances in which the plan can be profitably
followed in this country must be rare. Instances of an opposite
character, i.e., where the hedge may be advantageously planted
on the level, or even in a slight hollow, are necessarily numerous;
in all the lowlands and dry districts such a plan is preferable.
In planting a line should be strained along the intended site
and the soil opened by inserting a spade to its full depth, or
even more, if the quicks have extra long roots. Two-year-old
quicks are, as a rule, preferable to yearlings. The tops may
be reduced in length somewhat, but the Scotch system of
cutting them back within 4 in. of the ground is not to
be recommended. The quicks, if bought, are in bundles; the
tops of each bundle may be cut with two or three blows of a
billhook, and the roots the same.
PLANTING HAWTHORN QUICKS.--As it takes fully three years
to raise from seed quicks suitable for planting, it is usually
better to buy them; the price has of late years become very
reasonable. They should be planted about 9 in. apart; if
planted closer the individual plants do not attain a good size,
and the hedge is consequently weak. In dry land or in a dry
district a foot apart is to be preferred.
FURZE HEDGES.—In cool districts the furze has been much
grown, and it makes a nice, close breakwind and shelter for
sheep, but it is neither stiff nor strong enough for cattle. It
is likewise liable to be burned, either accidentally or purposely;
the centre being a mass of dry matter, the destruction of a
hedge on a hot-wind day is quickly over. Furze hedges, how-
ever, possess the advantage of being readily raised from seed
sown on the site, and require little trimming thereafter, whilst
they possess also the disadvantage of spreading over the ad-
jacent land by seeding.
OTHER HEDGES.—Of hedges better adapted than either of
the foregoing for general planting in these colonies there are
several, viz., the Cape boxthorn, the Osage orange, the thorny
acacias, and Gleditschia triacanthos and G. horrida. The Cape
broom should be carefully excluded, lest it cover the land, and
cause endless labour in eradicating For the same reason the
sweetbriar should be avoided. Of all the foregoing the box-
thorn is practically the best one generally available. The ease
with which it is propagated has almost driven all competitors
out of the field. Seed sown in July or August, in an enclosure
away from stock, will come up with unerring certainty, and
if sown in rows as thinly as possible strong plants 2 ft. high


FARM CALENDAR.
163
will be grown the first year. These should be shortened to a
foot before lifting, and be then treated and placed in the same
manner as hawthorn quicks. The hedge will, however, require
very little pruning for three or four years, the plants having
a tendency to fill out well from the bottom.
KANGAROO ACACIA.—Experience has taught farmers to avoid
Kangaroo Island acacia and A. armata, on account of their
liability to die out in patches and leave gaps. For a like
reason Hakea bracchyrhynca has fallen into disuse.
OSAGE ORANGE.— The Osage orange (Maclura aurantiaca)
makes an admirable hedge ; but the business of ensuring a
good strike of seed is difficult in the event of dry weather
occurring in August or September just as the seed is germinat-
ing. Where watering can be attended to, this objection need
not be thought of. The outlay for seed is much greater than
for that of the boxthorn, and the cost of plants is also higher,
but the hedge is one of the best all-round that can be grown.
It grows strong and vigorously; there is rarely a gap in one, and
the more it is cut the thicker it grows. If cut to the ground
it will throw a mass of shoots forming a perfect wall. It is
only right to say that boxthorn will do the same, but it is not
so vigorous a grower. The Osage orange is deciduous, but the
boxthorn, except in very cold districts, is green during the
winter; in long summer droughts, on the contrary, it often
loses the whole of its foliage, bursting again into leaf on the
occasion of a heavy shower. The Gleditschias would make
grand hedges were the seed obtainable in quantity and at
reasonable rates. They would, however, not make better
fences than the two just previously described, and, therefore,
we need not trouble the reader with further observations
regarding them. The value and utility of hedges as shelter
for stock from the cold, and for pastures and crops from hot
winds, has been well taught to colonial farmers by experience.
The boxthorn possesses the special advantage, shared also by
the Osage orange, of not burning readily when green, its skin
being of a watery character.
JULY.
In ordinary seasons the cereal crops are showing well above
ground this month, but operations must be ordered according
to whether the growth is forward or late, there being con-
siderable variations in different years.
FEEDING-OFF.—In average seasons the month of July is
rather too late for feeding-off wheats in early districts. No


164
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
rusted crops.
general rule can, however, be laid down; moreover, where the
land has been soaked to a good depth, feeding-off may safely
be done later than otherwise would be prudent.
RUSTED CROPS.—An effort should be made to feed-off all
rusted wheats, as unless that done no useful results can be
hoped for. Those who have the means to procure
salt or lime
might test the effect of either or both
upon
their
apparently
PEAS AND BEANS.—In late districts peas may still be sown;
in such localities this time of year is as suitable for this
crop as an earlier one. Some of the short-strawed or dwarf
varieties, both blue and white, are heavier croppers than the
dun or grey pea, which is long-strawed. The large Egyptian
or poor-man's-pea, which has the reputation of being a heavy
cropper, is not so much grown as formerly, for what reason it
is difficult to say.
In late districts tick beans may still be
sown upon suitable soil ; a moist year will suit them better
than ordinary seasons.
Root CROPS.—The preparation of land for potatoes, mangels,
and carrots should by this time be nearly finished. When the
weather in July is found to suit, a first planting of potatoes
should be made during the first fortnight. This early crop,
being somewhat risky, should not be a large one. The August
planting will be on a more extensive scale, and against that
occasion the soil should be got into first-rate order, except where
an old pasture is the site. If artificial manure is to be em-
ployed, 1} cwt. of Peruvian guano, with 30 lbs. of salt, per acre,
distributed evenly in the seed furrow, will produce better
results than any other manure generally available to farmers
at the same expenditure. The first general crop of mangel and
carrot may be sown in August, but for the former the land
should be in very good heart. The flock should be folded on
the land either before ploughing, or, better still, between the
first and second working.
PREPARE FOR MAIZE.—Whether maize be grown for ripen-
ing or for fodder, August is soon enough time for sowing, even
in the early districts, and in the present month all the work of
preparing the land should be done. Maize being a gross feeder, ,
requires not only rich soil, but a steady supply of moisture in
order to yield the best results. If the soil be deeply worked
and contains a fair share of vegetable matter, it will hold
in suspense a great deal of moisture during several dry
months; if, on the contrary, it has been worked shallow and
is wanting vegetable matter, maize will receive a severe check


FARM CALENDAR.
165
on
just when it should grow rankly, viz., when the hot weather
comes.
GREEN MAIZE. - Maize for fodder is a crop that may be
benefited by irrigation. Where water is available in the summer
an immense bulk of succulent food may be easily grown
a comparatively small acreage that has been liberally
manured, or from land that is naturally good. Here, again,
the services of the flock are invaluable in manuring the land
cheaply and well. It should, as already suggested, not be
forgotten that the absence of vegetable matter from the sur-
face, and also from the subsoil, is hostile to success in all
summer cropping East Indian experience has determined
that better results are produced in warm climates by working
land containing a due share of humus to an extra depth, than
from irrigating land shallow-worked and containing a very
small proportion of humus.
SORGHUM.—Where sorghum is grown for fodder it should be
sown under the same conditions of soil as maize, but the first
sowing should be made a fortnight later in each locality.
RAPE AND OTHER GREEN CROPS.—Rape may be sown at
any time that moisture can be obtained; it is a valuable fod-
der crop for feeding off upon the land. The small white or
pearl maize should have special trial, also the pearl millet. In
warm districts the Guinea and Phillips's panic grasses should
be tested. Their merits are, however, already so well known
as to leave little more to be discovered. August and Sep-
tember are the best spring months for sowing lucerne, and
the most suitable time of year for sowing that invaluable
crop in the cooler districts; deep soil is essential. In the
cooler districts, also, grasses and clovers should be sown
towards the end of this month. Between maize, sorghum,
millet, and Guinea and Phillips's panic grasses and surplus
lucerne, farmers ought to be able to cut a large quantity of hay
for the use of their stock in times of scarcity, which occur both
in the height of summer and in the depth of winter.
SUPPLY OF FODDER.-It should be the farmer's special care
to keep plenty of feed (and water) for his stock at all seasons
It is only by doing this that he can keep suffi-
cient head of stock to maintain his land in good heart or ensure
such yields of cereals per acre as will enable him to carry on
tillage husbandry in a profitable manner.
TOBACCO.-The first sowing of tobacco is made in July.
Choose for the seed-bed a piece of new ground, if possible.
Mark off the ground into strips 4 ft. wide, and for every acre
of the year.


166
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
to be planted allow 8 ft. in length. The practice adopted in
Virginia by way of preparation is to pile brushwood and logs
on the ground and keep up a good fire for nearly a day. In
this way all surface weeds are destroyed, and a thick coat of
wood ashes, in which tobacco delights, is left. All coarse
matter is raked off, leaving only the finest ashes. The bed is
then hoed thoroughly as deep as the strongest heat has pene-
trated-say a few inches-after which it is raked across and
lengthwise until the soil is entirely pulverized. When the bed
is cool a thimbleful of seed well mixed with ashes or sand is
sown over each space of 8 ft. by 4 ft. The bed is then rolled
firmly and evenly, or rendered smooth by placing a board upon
it and treading thereon; no raking is allowed. The bed is after-
wards watered with weak liquid manure—12 lbs. of fowl drop-
pings to 10 gallons of water, or a similar infusion of sheep
dung
AUGUST.
Operations for August will depend to a great extent upon
the locality and the character of the season. Where there has
been a good rainfall up to date, and there are prospects of a
moist spring, the course to be pursued will differ greatly from
other cases in which different conditions exist.
BARLEY.-If the condition of the soil as regards moisture
will justify, late sowings of barley may be made in cool districts.
In England, where the climate in the spring and early sum-
mer resembles that of some of our cool districts, barley is sown,
in ordinary seasons, in March, and not often much earlier, for
malting sorts only are grown. Around Lancefield, Ballarat,
the cooler parts of the Kyneton district, and in other localities
enjoying a similar range of temperature, English barley may be
sown during the early part of the month, provided land in good
heart and reduced to a fine tilth be available. It has to be
remembered that for malting a bright silvery skin is desired
—a coarse yellow-skinned sample is not esteemed. English
experience has shown that the best malting barley is produced
upon light limestone and chalky soils which have been well
manured by sheep for a previous crop of wheat or oats, the
extreme rankness of the manure, which would impart a coarse
appearance to the barley, having been removed by the pre-
ceding crop. Our climate has a tendency to prevent rank-
ness, and some very fair samples are produced both on alluvial
and volcanic soils in districts possessing also suitable condi-
tions of climate.


FARM CALENDAR.
167
PEAS.—There need be no hesitation in sowing peas at any
time during the next six weeks in the cool districts. Early
varieties, or else dwarf growers, should be chosen for this crop,
as being the least likely to suffer from dry weather in the
summer.
OATS.—Very fair returns have been made by oats on the
Yarra and other suitable sites, sown as late as September, but
the practice of risking them at that time is not expedient,
except where green stuff or hay can be disposed of in the event
of the season proving unsuitable for grain. If oats are sown
in late districts—even in August—some early variety, such as
Cape or Calcutta, should be employed.
MAIZE.—Where maize is to be grown, either for green fodder
or to ripen, the first sowing should be made in August, early
or late, according to the promise of the weather. On the
eastern coast the time for sowing is as late as October. For
fodder the land should be heavily manured unless it be already
in extra good heart. It is more profitable to grow a heavy
crop on five acres than a much lighter one on double that area.
To keep up a regular supply of fodder throughout the summer
sowings should be made at intervals of three weeks. The best
results are obtained from sowing in drills 3 ft. apart, and
keeping the intervals horse-hoed until the crop can take care
of itself. If water be at command an immense quantity of
this kind of fodder can be obtained from comparatively small
areas of ground. On dairy farms it should form a principal
summer crop.
There should be no lack of green feed during
the warm months, nor of maize 'hay during cold ones. For
hay it is better that the crop be specially grown. The seed
should be sown thickly, in order that the stalks may be smaller
and thus more readily dried; but the drill system should be
adopted in any case.
SORGHUM AND MILLET.—Sorghum and the various other
kinds of millet may also be sown during the latter part of
August and through September and October. Phillips's panic
grass is a useful kind for summer fodder.
MANGELS.—A first sowing of mangels should be made with-
out delay. This crop will be found useful in dairy herds
throughout the winter in conjunction with such hay as may
be available. Mangels are useful also for store pigs, but are
not of much value for fattening them. Small potatoes and
refuse grain and peas will together make very good bacon.
Land should be got ready for a second sowing of mangels a
month later.


168
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
CARROTS.—Carrots are a most profitable and useful crop.
The yield in deep land is enormous if the soil be sandy or
friable, and also in good heart. For carrots it is customary to
choose land that was manured for a previous crop, as they are
liable to become forky in land that has been newly manured,
or in which the manure has not been thoroughly and finely
intermixed.
POTATOES.—Potato planting will now be getting forward in
the early districts.
CHICORY AND HOPS.—In the course of the month the pre-
paration of land for chicory should be got forward. The subsoil
plough should be used, and a fine tilth secured. The final work-
ing to land intended for hops should also be given, and sets
be procured and prepared for planting. The work of pruning
the hills should be completed and all manuring be done for
the season.
RAPE.—Rape may be sown at this time for feeding-off, or in
sowing grasses 1 lb. of rape seed per acre may be added. This
affords a good bite for the sheep before the grasses are ready.
Heavy stock should not be admitted until the grasses are
thoroughly established.
LUCERNE.--In late districts August and September are the
best months for sowing lucerne. For this the land should have
been well worked. Subsoiling should constitute a portion of
the working, for it is essential that the roots find easy access
to the lowest depths of good soil. In open black soils adjacent
to creeks lucerne roots have been exposed by floods to the
depth of 15 ft. The utmost, therefore, that can be done to
assist the plant in developing itself in a natural way must be
far below its requirements.
HEDGES.—Hedge-sowing or planting, according to choice,
may now be pushed forward. The two best hedges for this
country are the Cape boxthorn and the Osage orange. Seeds
of the former may be sown at this time and in September, or
yearlings may be bought and planted. If seed be obtained,
it is best upon the whole to sow it in rows and plant out
next season. Osage orange plants may be planted during the
present and next month.
SEPTEMBER
The present month is generally a critical one in the inland
districts. The wheat crops are frequently in need of rain, and
upon a good supply of moisture during September their fate


FARM CALENDAR.
169
to a great extent depends. In districts where fairly copious
rains have fallen the soil is in good condition, and seasonable
work can thus be carried out as usual in such localities.
CHICORY.—Where chicory is grown the ground should receive
its final working in readiness for the seeding, which is done
from the middle of September forward into October, according
to local conditions. New manure should never be applied for
any tap-rooted crop, but it is essential that for chicory the land
be in good heart.
CARROTS.-Carrots are less particular about the quality of
the soil, if it be only well worked and to a good depth. For
all tap-rooted crops the depth is an item of moment in this
climate; if the soil has been stirred to a depth of 15 in. the
plant will soon find its way to that depth, and will there find
supplies of moisture when the surface soil is dry.
MANGELS.--- As mangels make their principal growth above
ground, depth of tillage would not be so important in their
case were our climate less subject to droughts.
In the more
humid climate of Great Britain heavy mangels have been grown
on a 4-in. ploughing, the rock being immediately under; such
roots could only be grown here in the same way in our cool
and moist districts. In the event of drought, it will be very
advantageous to have the mangel crop on low moist ground-
creek flats are suitable, and not only for these, but for summer
fodder crops, of which every farmer who keeps live stock should
grow a full supply.
GREEN CROPS.---When a drought is threatened, early efforts
should be made to crop a larger area than usual with green
maize, sorghum, rape, or other approved fodder, unless special
reasons exist for concentrating work and attention on a small
This will be advisable when only a small portion of good
deep soil is to be had, or when the supply of manure is very
limited, if water can be spared only for a small area, or
can be carried by gravitation to only one particular spot.
Water with manure and heat will produce very heavy crops of
maize or sorghum ; the yield may be more than trebled by
using water and manure judiciously.
MAIZE.—Where maize is grown as a grain crop, sowing should
not be further delayed in the early districts. Whether for
grain or fodder, land that has borne a crop of winter fodder
(barley, vetches, &c.), and that has been folded over with sheep,
is in capital condition for maize; each land after the sheep
have done with it should be ploughed at once. Where bone
manure is to be used, it is cheaper to employ finely ground
area.


170
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
bones than the preparation known as superphosphate of lime.
If the bone-dust be heaped, moistened, and covered with earth,
earth ashes or wood ashes, it will ferment and be reduced to a
state in which a large proportion of it will be available as
plant food. Recent English experiments have determined
that in this state bone manure can be employed with better
pecuniary effect than in any other; it is, moreover, the most.
generally useful of all commercial manures. The question has
been much debated whether maize is an exhaustive crop or not.
That it exhausts land considerably will be learnt by farmers
who try it for a few seasons; but that it exhausts the land out
of proportion to the amount of feed it returns can hardly be
alleged. When the cob is just formed the plant is in perfection
for fodder, and it is highly nutritious feed. But when thus
advanced it is usually allowed to ripen; it is grudged to the
cattle. Maize as commonly grown for fodder, either on low
ground or by the aid of water, is, according to its bulk,
healthful and refreshing rather than nutritious food. In
what stage, therefore, it shall be used is a matter for con-
sideration by the grower, who will determine according to
circumstances.
IRRIGATION.— The importance of even a small supply of water
for irrigation should be kept in view in choosing sites for
summer fodder crops. In the cooler districts, the beginning
of September is an excellent time to sow lucerne. During
the last year or two, small annual weeds (mostly sown with
the lucerne, it is thought) have become very prevalent in some
paddocks. Where the crop is in drills, the horse-hoe or a pair
of harrows should be run over the ground either before growth
has commenced or after the crop has been fed down, or, if
necessary, on both occasions. Lucerne should not be kept
constantly stocked, but should be divided into at least three
paddocks, only one of which should be stocked at a time.
It succeeds best when mown-not stocked-the next best plan
being quick feeding, and then allowing it time to grow up,
until it begins to show flower again. In warm weather, four
paddocks, each stocked a week in turn, enable the owner to
manage his lucerne in a profitable manner. If water can be
given in dry seasons, the crop will be the better.
GRASSES. On grasses intended for mowing, stone-picking
should have been attended to before the grasses became too
high. It is never expedient to save grass seeds from paddocks
that are not reasonably clean; weedy seeds are unprofitable to
the grower by necessitating too large an outlay for cleaning


172
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
have found that a clover crop, even when it has been seeded,
is an excellent preparation for wheat. This experience has
led to the practice of sowing clover in oats and barley when
wheat has to follow them. The clover is sometimes left to
stand the next year, when it is mown for hay; the after-math
is fed-off in lands by sheep, the ploughing following as each
land is cleared, the sheep being kept between hurdles. It
should be unnecessary to repeat that the action of leguminous
plants in improving the soil for wheat is threefold; that the
plant brings up by means of its roots the elements of fertility
from the subsoil ; that it abstracts from the atmosphere more
elements of fertility, and that the remains of the plants and
the excreta, liquid and solid, of the sheep not only add fertiliz-
ing matter to the soil, but also improve its mechanical condi-
tion. Vegetable matter, moreover, absorbs moisture, and thus
soil in which it is incorporated in finely-divided particles is
better enabled to withstand drought than soil from which
vegetable matter has been systematically abstracted under a
course of wheat-growing with bare fallows.
Fallow CROPPING. — For the success of the system of fallow
cropping it is essential that the soil be well and deeply worked.
If the vegetable matter be simply ploughed down in one
solid bulk, and there left upon the hard sole of the furrow,
it will, in the event of a dry summer, prove only a snare and
a delusion. Deep and thorough working, which will incorporate
that matter with the subsoil, is required. The wheat will then
send its roots downwards to the full depth of the working,
and be thus enabled to withstand an amount of drought that
would destroy any crop depending only on shallow ploughing.
WHEAT-GROWING.-. It should be evident that the system of
perpetual wheat-growing, with only the usual alternation of
summer fallow, adhered to in the earlier districts, is not calcu-
lated to last, especially since the value of wheat grown in the
colonies has to be determined by the prices ruling in the great
markets of Europe. Under that system the yield, although
fluctuating according to the character of the season, shows a
general average decline. As in South Australia so in Victoria,
the wheat lands in the warm and early districts are gradually
but surely wearing out, as the price realized by growers upon
their farms is too low to permit of the recuperation of the soil
by the purchase of artificial manures.
FODDER CROPS.—The season is not yet too far advanced to
sow maize as a fodder crop to be consumed upon the land,
provided there be moisture sufficient to establish the crop.


FARM CALENDAR.
173
Where the soil and conditions are suitable, rape and peas may
be sown to be likewise fed-off, but in the warm districts there
will now be little opportunity for these crops to establish
themselves.
MAIZE.—This is also a good time to sow maize for grain in
some late districts.
OTHER CROPS.-In the cooler and later parts of the colonies
much may still be done. Further sowings of mangels and
carrots may be made, also of rape and other crops for feeding-
off. Some of the early sown pea crops will now be ploughed
down, and the ground be ready for a seeding of maize. The
importance of letting sun and air into this crop, even when it
is grown for fodder, must not be overlooked. When it is grown
in rows 3 ft. apart, the stems are well ripened, and the juices
contain a larger proportion of saccharine matter than when it
is grown broadcast. There can be no doubt that the bad opinion
formed of maize as fodder is due to experiences of weak, watery
stalks, standing thickly on the ground and possibly on very
poor soil. When the plant is well grown it is really a valuable
feed for stock of every description; it may be consumed in any
stage of growth, according to the requirements of the stock or
the use to which the ground is next to be applied.
FEEDING-OFF MAIZE.—When in cob, maize can be profitably
consumed by pigs upon the ground. Under such a system the
yield annually increases, and thus the fertility of the land is
really augmented instead of, as under the exhaustive system
of perpetual wheat-growing, steadily diminished.
HOPs. In the hop-grounds the poles should be got ready
It is a spurious economy not to point the poles that
have already been used, so as to lessen, as far as possible, the
risk of their being blown down by anything short of an unusually
powerful gale. Hop-grounds should be well sheltered from
winds, especially from the quarter whence they most prevail.
In the adjoining ground on that side, three lines of blue gums
should be planted or seed be sown, and the plants thinned
to proper distances. These trees should be topped when of
the required height, and thus be induced to spread laterally,
making an effective protection. Where gum-trees can be
obtained of the sorts indigenous to the locality, they should be
preferred ; but pollarding (occasional heading back) must not
be omitted, or they will fail to screen the hop-ground.
HAYMAKING.—Ere the month closes, much of the early hay
crop will have been cut and stacked. Farmers should not
forget that the truest economy is shown in securing a good
for use.


174
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
article; the value of a rick-sheet or two is paid several times
over in a single season by one stack of hay of average size.
CHICORY.-In the chicory districts sowing is partly done,
and should be completed this month.
NOVEMBER
Harvesting the hay and grain crops will absorb a large
share of attention during the month, and it is important to
guard against neglecting other seasonable work.
HAY STACKS.- As the season is generally a “catching' one,
every hay-grower who is unprovided with rick-sheets in pro-
portion to the number and dimensions of the stacks he is
building should at once obtain them. When good hay is
abundant, and consequently of low value, damaged hay is quite
unsaleable. The cost of making and spoiling it thus involves
the grower in additional loss, so that in effect it is even more
important to make good hay when it is cheap than when it is
dear. In the latter case, inferior is saleable at some price. A
stack once commenced should never be left uncovered at night,
nor in showery weather at any time.
PROTECTION FROM FIRE.—There may not be much danger of
bush fires whilst the crops are green, but ere November ex-
pires there will assuredly be in some parts abundance of dry
grass on which fire will feed. Now is the time to prepare
against such unwelcome visitations by ploughing breaks of
suitable width, according to the conditions. The plan of keep-
ing headlands of grain paddocks in lucerne, or of cropping
them with potatoes or mangels when the climate is suitable,
is a good one. If hay be in demand the strip of wheat or oats
next each fence may be mown at once, and as soon as cleared
the land should be ploughed. Through the middle of exten-
sive grain paddocks fallow breaks may be run, but it should
not be forgotten that root crops afford better protection against
fire than bare fallows, and at the same time enable a profit-
able use to be made of the land.
Fallow.—Bare fallows should be kept free from weeds by
running the flock over them at short intervals. It is not to
be understood that summer fallowing is the best possible plan
of treating land to a rest from grain-growing. Fallowing does
not enrich or restore the fertility of soil. By the action of
sun and air an additional quantity of plant food is rendered
available for the use of the next crop, which is therefore by so
much the better than a crop taken the previous year would


FARM CALENDAR.
175
have been. Unless, then, the soil be sodurate clay, whose
mechanical condition would be improved by exposure to the
atmosphere, it is not expedient to allow it to lie bare. The
ground may as well be carrying a crop of peas, clover, or rape,
or of pasture of which clover is a component part, as be lying
altogether unused.
Grass Seeds.-A large proportion of the samples of grass
seed put upon the market are impure and mixed with weeds.
These to the owner of new and clean land would be dear
at a gift. Better by far would it be for occupiers of new land
to thoroughly clean a small parcel of seed, and from that grow
and save seed for their own sowing, even though the crop
might be small in some districts. Where good yields of grass
seed can be grown, and the crop is not very weedy or mixed
with other kinds of grass, it will pay to send hands through
the crop, to pull out the strangers, but such course cannot be
profitably taken with eight or ten bushel crops of rye-grass or
cocksfoot. The best method of harvesting grass seeds of all
sorts is to cut the crop with a nice light mower.
In the case of
prairie-grass, and also rye-grass, do not wait until the seed is
ripe, but (especially with prairie) cut before ripening has set in,
and cut early in the morning, whilst the dew is upon the
стор. Let the binding and stacking of the sheaves follow
quickly, and in carting line the dray with a tarpaulin, or great
loss of seed will be experienced. Gentle handling in loading
is also essential, and it is to facilitate the work of loading and
thus prevent loss of seed that sheafing is practised by many
large growers.
MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES.-On the management of pastures
during the summer months their stock-carrying capabilities
chiefly depend. Overstocking is incompatible with profit.
When the sole is once destroyed a whole season or more is
required to restore it. The pasturage on any farm should be
divided into at least three paddocks, but four would be prefer-
able. If the stock has to be classified there should be as many
sets, each of three or four paddocks, as may be required for
such classing. The stock should be shifted at intervals varying
from 10 to 14 days, according to the season of year and the
number of stock per acre. Frequent removals are preferable.
LUCERNE.—In the case of lucerne it is particularly desirable
to have the crop eaten down quickly, as the plant does not
like constant nibbling. On that account the series of paddocks
should comprise not less than four, by which arrangement
weekly shifts could be made.


176
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
owners.
PRAIRIE-GRASS.—The objection that prairie-grass will not
stand grazing would not be urged were such a system as the
foregoing adopted for its management. Around Melbourne it
has given enormous cuts of green
stuff in average seasons. In
order to maintain a good sole year after year, it is necessary to
allow the grasses time to re-seed the ground; failing such
opportunity, seed must be sown in the autumn. This is, how-
ever, no real substitute for the self-seeding; the latter is
indispensable if the native grasses are to be perpetuated,
because their seed cannot be bought, and amongst them are
many of the most valuable pasture plants known to stock-
GREEN CROPS.— In order that the pastures may not be
damaged by overstocking during the dry season, provision
should always be made of green
fodder crops
for summer use.
Maize, although not highly nutritious until the cobbing
stage is reached, is upon the whole most useful to fill the gap.
A piece of low-lying ground in good heart will throw a crop
that will relieve the pastures very materially, and help to
maintain the flow of milk at the most critical season. Rape
also is fine summer feed, especially if some grass pasture or
maize be also available. Early mangels should also be ready
by Christmas, to eke out the supply of green fodder. Advantage
should be taken of the occurrence of showery weather to make
monthly sowings of mangels, maize, and such other green
fodder crops as may be adapted to the climate of the district.
DECEMBER.
The month of December is a busy one with various
harvesting operations. Reaping, stripping, threshing, and
winnowing all occupy attention, and care must be taken not
to neglect sowing of fodder crops and other seasonable work,
which, though not so pressing, is none the less important.
PROTECTING THE PRODUCE.—Good husbandry does not end
with the ripening of the crops, but is often rendered nugatory
by the neglect of obviously needed precautions for protecting
the gathered crops against damage by rain, or total destruction
by fire. Against the latter insurance is the only perfect
protection; but against bush fires much may be done with
the plough even where no foresight has been exercised by
growing belts of mangels, lucerne, or other green crops, with
the express object of breaking the progress of fire. When


FARM CALENDAR.
177
lucerné is thus grown, it should be kept green by mowing
each land in turn, so that the belt be never entirely broken;
a lucerne field makes the safest stack-ground.
THRESHING AND CLEANING.—The manner in which threshing
and cleaning are done is an important factor in the year's
accounts. Each year there appears to be a larger quantity
of grain brought to market in dirty condition. When wheat
was high, foul samples lost for their owners from 6d. to 1s. a
bushel, but even such a discount left the grower a fair price.
Now that prices are comparatively low, the smaller of the
above figures makes more than the difference between a profit
and a loss. Farmers are, of course, obliged to employ such
threshing-machines as are present in their district; oftentimes
there is not even a choice, and the grain frequently contains
as much chaff and trash as though it had come through a
stripper. The purchase of an efficient corn screen would be
recouped many times over by any crop of considerable extent.
Fortunes have been made in these colonies simply by buying foul
samples and cleaning them. Prizes have been won year after
year at certain up-country shows by the same practice. Fully
two-thirds of the grain sent to market is depreciated more or
less in value by a want of cleaning, which could have been
done at comparatively trifling cost. The extra cost of carriage
by rail and of the extra bags are items of some moment,
especially when prices are low. Although the purchase of a
corn screen should be within the means of every grain-grower,
such not being the case, neighbours might club together, buy
one jointly, and assist each other in doing the work ; but, at
whatever first cost, some means of cleaning the samples should
be resorted to.
CLEANING GRASS SEED.-In the case of grass seeds foulness
not only depreciates the money value of the samples, but
renders them unsaleable to many buyers. Land is every year
permanently fouled by sowing grasses and clovers containing
seeds of noxious weeds—many of them the unsuspected causes
of maladies amongst stock.
FODDER CROPS.—In the event of rain occurring in suitable
districts, maize may be sown with every prospect of success,
provided land be ready prepared. On low ground in warm
districts cattle-melons or pumpkins may be grown instead of
mangels for winter food. The usual plan is to sow them
between drills of maize about 20 ft. apart; the season being
well advanced, no further delay can be permitted in sowing
such crops. In cool districts mangels should be sown monthly,
13


178
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
according to the extent of requirements in winter and early
spring. Green fodder crops should also be sown as opportunity
offers, using for these low-lying land in good heart. Buckwheat
is a quick-growing summer crop adapted for warm districts,
but the quantity of feed is not an inducement to substitute it
for maize, rape, Cape oats, or barley in districts adapted for
these crops. There need be no fear of overdoing green crop-
ping; if the produce will make hay of any kind, it will form a
valuable addition to the winter stock of fodder. Farmers
should recognize the importance of keeping as much live stock
as possible on their holdings, but without overstocking, and
there can be no overstocking where feed is abundant. The
plan of allowing the stock to depend upon the pastures and
stubbles necessitates the disposal of a large proportion of the
stock whenever feed happens to run short. The stock-carrying
capability of any farm is measured by the number of head the
land will carry at the period of greatest scarcity; the wise
husbandman, therefore, will make such provision against times
of probable scarcity as will equalize the stock-carrying capacity
of his farm at all seasons of the year.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE GARDEN OF THE FARU.
Good farmers are proverbially bad gardeners; it is not that
they are incompetent to grow vegetables and fruits, but that
the routine work of supervising their farm business is allowed
to absorb the whole of their time and attention. Then they
grudge the alienation of the smallest quantity of manure
from the farm proper, and thus, even where a garden exists,
it is commonly neglected to such a degree as often to leave the
household without a vegetable of any description. A diet of
bread, meat, and tea exclusively is bad, even for adults, but it
is
very much worse for children. There are good reasons for
assuming that the excessive use of meat has injuriously
affected the health and physique of a large percentage of
the rising generation of these colonies, more especially of
children on farms and stations. In the cooler districts, where
potatoes are farm crops, the evil is reduced to a minimum ; it
is in the hot and dry districts, which constitute our chief grain-
growing areas, that the scarcity of vegetables is most severely


THE GARDEN OF THE FARM.
179
felt. That this need not be the case is often shown by the
success of the Chinese in growing vegetables under really
adverse conditions; but without devoting much time to this
matter, sufficient green vegetables for the household may be
grown all the year round in districts comparatively dry. In
some instances a low-lying spot of deep ground may be en-
closed, but where that cannot be done, a limited area of ground
can be fenced in near the homestead, where, by utilizing waste
water, be the quantity ever so moderate, crops can be started
and established until they are able to care for themselves.
In most cases, hardy vegetables such as cabbage, broccoli,
cauliflower, turnips, carrots, peas, and beans may be grown
as farm crops on a land in an adjacent paddock, thus avoid-
ing the use of special labour, even for what are really prime
necessaries of life. In order to economize space we shall
state very briefly
THE WORK OF EACH MONTH.
JANUARY.
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. — Sow cabbage, cauliflower,
Brussels-sprouts, savoy, broccoli, curled kale, lettuce, radish,
spinach, dwarf kidney beans, red beet, celery. Plant celery,
cabbage,' cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, savoys, curled kale,
lettuce; sow peas in cool districts. Plant potatoes of both
early and late varieties.
THE FRUIT GARDEN.--Bud stocks of stone and pip fruits,
orange, lemon, lime, shaddock, and citron. Remove cross shoots
from peach trees; stop vines ; apply sulphur if mildew appears.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.— Bud roses; plant cuttings of
carnations, pentstemons, and other herbaceous plants ; place
stakes to delphiniums, dahlias, gladioli, and all tall-growing
plants.
FEBRUARY
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.—Sow cabbage, cauliflower, red
beet; and after the middle of the month, sow peas, lettuce of
the Cos varieties, spinach, turnip, carrot, radish, mustard, and
cress. Plant also fluke and lapstone potatoes, towards the end
of the month. Plant celery in trenches, and earth up previous
plantings; also plant largely of all the cabbage tribe sown
during the previous month or six weeks.
THE FRUIT GARDEN.—Gather apples as they ripen, and
pears three weeks before they are ripe. Store apples that will


180
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
kеер. . Apply water to table grapes if the season be droughty.
Bud stocks of the various fruits mentioned last month.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.-Towards the end of the month
plant rose cuttings and bud roses. Prepare ground for sowing
annuals next month. Slightly prune China roses. Prepare
ground for planting bulbs of the various spring-blooming
kinds.
MARCH.
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.—Sow carrot, parsnip, turnip,
spinach, red beet, radish, peas, lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower,
and parsley. Plant out celery, cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce.
Plant fluke and lapstone kidney potatoes, potato-onions, tree-
onions, shallots, and garlic in warm districts. Plant cuttings
of thyme and sage.
THE FRUIT GARDEN.—Plant strawberries in well prepared
ground, which is not to be dug when once it is planted, the only
working being hoeing of the surface. Gather apples and pears
as they become fit, leaving late keepers on the tree for at
least another month. Plant bush fruits and the orange tribe
after the middle of the month.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.-- Sow all hardy annuals ; plant
hyacinths, tulips, narcissus, snowflake, crocus, anemone,
ranunculus, sparaxis, ixia, tritonia, lilium candidum, and
others of that class. Plant deciduous shrubs, also evergreen
shrubs of all kinds from pots, and herbaceous plants generally.
Cuttings of the last-named may also be planted.
APRIL.
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.—Sow carrot, parsnip, leek, onion,
turnip, radish, lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower, and spinach.
Plant out rhubarb, seakale, potato-onions, shallots and garlic,
cabbage, cauliflower, and lettuce. Earth up celery and pota-
toes. Prepare ground for the great May sowing of peas. Plant
out thyme, savory, marjoram, mint, and sage.
THE FRUIT GARDEN.—Continue to gather and store the keep-
ing varieties of apples and pears, leaving the latest until May.
Plant strawberries and bush fruits generally; also plant
almonds and cherry-plums, oranges and lemons, and prepare
ground for planting other fruits as soon as their places can be
got ready.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.—Sow hardy annuals. Plant all
kinds of shrubs, deciduous and evergreen, not omitting


THE GARDEN OF THE FARM.
181
camellias, daphnes, azaleas, ericas, boronias, and, excepting
in cold districts, the various pelargoniums. Plant cuttings
of herbaceous plants generally, carnations and picotees
especially. Finish planting all spring bulbs. Plant box and
other edgings, and sow grass plots.
May.
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.—Sow largely of peas for the first
spring gathering. In cold districts the hardy varieties, but in
milder districts the finest marrows of the Yorkshire Hero type.
Sow some early-hearting cabbage. Plant out cabbage, cauli-
flower, broccoli, lettuce. Plant out leeks and onions. Clear
asparagus beds, and give a dressing of manure. Plant rhubarb
and seakale. Commence to force them by covering their stools
with pots or boxes, and those again with hot stable manure.
THE FRUIT GARDEN.—Continue to plant fruit trees as
already recommended. The pruning of vines may be begun as
soon as the leaves come off freely; also the pruning of goose-
berries, strawberries, and the work of putting strawberry beds
in order. Finish gathering and storing apples and pears.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.—The work here will be simply a
continuation of the previous month's. Planting of hardy shrubs
should be brought to a close. Hardy annuals may be sown.
Dahlias may be lifted and stored. Lilies may be planted; also
edgings of box, thrift, violets, &c.
JUNE.
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.—Sow peas and broad beans.
Plant out onions, leeks, lettuces, cabbages, and cauliflowers.
Sow also early-horn carrots, spinach, green-topped and yellow
turnips, and radishes. Cover down another batch of rhubarb
and seakale. A hot-bed for raising cucumbers, tomatoes, and
other tender plants may be made.
THE FRUIT GARDEN.—Planting fruit trees, strawberries, and
bush fruits should be brought to a close. Pruning vines and
fruit trees generally should also be completed as early as
possible. Treat mildewed vines by painting them with hot
lime-wash, in which sulphur has been mixed at the rate of a
pound to each bushel of lime. Gather up all prunings and
leaves of such vines and burn them.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.-Hardy annuals may be planted out
when quired. Late-blooming bulbs may be planted; also all
species of hardy shrubs, especially those in pots. It will be


182
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
expedient to keep tender ones in their pots until August.
Cuttings of hardy plants may be struck in the open ground.
JULY.
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.—This is the time of the year
when the principal sowings of hardy vegetables are com-
menced in mild districts. Sow carrot, parsnip, leek, onion,
salsafy, and red beet. Plant out onions, leeks, cabbage, cauli-
flower, and lettuce. Sow also peas, radish, lettuce, cabbage,
and cauliflower. In late districts plant shallots, potato and
tree-onions, and garlic. Plant asparagus, seakale, rhubarb,
globe artichokes. Maintain the temperature of hot-beds. Sow
in them cucumber, melon, marrow, pumpkin, capsicum, tomato,
and egg plant.
THE FRUIT GARDEN.--Clear strawberry beds and mulch
them with manure, giving a slight dressing of spent tan on the
top, that being noxious to insects. Grafting of young fruit
stocks should be carried through in this month. Planting
and pruning should be finished.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.—Conclude the pruning of all kinds
of roses. Watch for aphis on the young shoots, and syringe
with a solution of Gishurst or some other preparation. Sup-
port camellias with liquid manure.
Divide and replant
perennial phloxes, pentstemons, chrysanthemums, and other
herbaceous plants. Finish planting out hardy annuals and
all kinds of border flowers. Sow seed of tender annuals in
the hot-bed.
AUGUST.
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.-In early districts the work of
sowing the principal crops named last month should be con-
tinued until completed. In the hot-bed sow celery, tomato,
and capsicum, if not already done ; sweet potatoes also may
be started in heat. Asparagus beds should be cleared and put
in order for the appearance of the young shoots. Potatoes of
early varieties may be planted in early districts; tomatoes
may be sown in the open ground on chances Plant out as
recommended last month. Sow a few dwarf kidney peas on
a warm border.
THE FRUIT GARDEN.-Orange, lemon, and the rest of the
citrus tribe may be planted early or late in the month, according
to the season. Vines and vine cuttings may be planted.
Mulching of raspberries and strawberries should be finished.
Grafting may be continued ; scions for late grafting of large


THE GARDEN OF THE FARM.
183
trees should be laid in the ground in a cool place. The first
sulphuring to prevent mildew should be given to vines as soon
as the leaves are three inches broad.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.—In late districts the pruning of
roses should be brought to an early close. Dahlias for early
flowering may be planted, also perennial phloxes, perennial
delphiniums, chryanthemums, and other herbaceous plants.
In bulbs, tuberoses, gladioli, tigridias, &c., may be planted.
Hardy annuals may be sown in all districts; and, in mild ones,
a sowing of asters, zinnias, balsams, and cockscombs may be
risked. Cuttings of pelargoniums may be planted.
SEPTEMBER
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN -Sow, both in early and late
districts, carrot, parsnip, onion, leek, red beet, spinach, peas,
kidney beans, broad beans, turnip, cabbage, and lettuce. Clean
and thin advancing crops. Clear manure away from forced
rhubarb and seakale, and put the beds in order. Sow in the
open ground cucumber, marrow, spinach, pumpkin, tomato,
capsicum, and egg plant. Sow sugar maize.
THE FRUIT GARDEN.—All the orange tribe may still be
planted; orange stocks may be grafted early in the month.
A second sulphuring should be given to vines from three to
four weeks after the first. Orange trees should be dressed
for scale before growth commences.
Gishurst compound is
useful in small gardens, but line and wood-ashes are used on
a large scale ; they are applied to the trees after syringing
with water. Vines and large fruit trees may be grafted.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.—Tender annuals
may
be sown.
Spring bulbs and hardy annuals should now be at their
best. More dahlias may be planted, also all species and varie-
ties of herbaceous plants, Japanese liliums, &c. Lawns should
be kept well mown. Buffalo grass lawns may be planted.
Plant out celery, cabbages, and lettuces. Thin-out the drilled
crops to proper distances.
OCTOBER.
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.-Sow further in both early and
late districts the various crops named for September sowings.
Sow and transplant cabbage, but only in cool districts should
cauliflower be sown at this time. Continue to plant potatoes.
Sow in the open ground and plant out cucumbers, squashes,
marrows and pumpkins, egg plants and celery.


184
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
THE FRUIT GARDEN.—The third sulphuring should be given
to vines as a preventive of mildew. If any indications of the
disease appear, it may be politic to remove the affected portions
and burn them. Tie and stop vines generally ; also disbud
peach trees and thin their crops of fruit to proper standing
distances; peaches should have at least intervals of 6 in. Water
strawberries and raspberries if the weather prove dry.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.— When mildew appears on roses,
sulphur should be applied as in the case of vines. Liquid
manure should be given to roses, camellias, and other plants-
not of the heath tribe-requiring immediate support. Peruvian
guano, at the rate of two or three ounces to the gallon, is an
excellent stimulant. Put stakes to tall plants, especially to
dahlias and gladioli. Plant more of both if space can be
spared ; reserve enough for planting the last week of Novem-
ber. Tender annuals may be planted out and another
sowing be made.
NOVEMBER.
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.--Sow kidney beans, and any of
the cucumber tribe, tomato, capsicum, and egg plant. Stop
cucumbers, melons, and tomatoes to throw the strength of the
plants into the fruit and increase its size. Secure tomatoes so
that the fruit may not touch the ground; the plants should
have stakes or trellises. Plant potatoes, earth up celery and
plant more; sow lettuce where it will stand; sow cabbage,
turnip, spinach, peas, and radish.
THE FRUIT GARDEN.—Disbudding and thinning peaches,
apricots, and nectarines will still engage hands; but the latter
work should be brought to a close early; disbudding may be
resumed from time to time. The stopping of vine shoots
should be attended to in order to enlarge the size of the
berries. Let a watch be kept for mildew on vines, and sulphur
be applied on its first appearance.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.—Roses, annuals, and perennials,
should now be at their best, and should make a grand display.
Tender annuals may be planted out to fill vacancies, and some
seed may be sown. Let all “hips” (seed vessels) be nipped
off roses, or rather let all flowers be picked off as they go out
of bloom. Chrysanthemums of the tall-growing kinds should
be stopped, and weak shoots be taken out altogether.
DECEMBER
THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.-Sow for provision against the
autumn, kidney beans, cucumbers, bush squashes, and marrows.


THE GARDEN OF THE FARM.
185
Sow cabbage and cauliflower, and make a planting of the
former, leaving the work of planting cauliflower until the
middle of January. Celery may be planted, and the earth be
drawn to previous plantings; another sowing may also be
made. Sow spinach, turnip, lettuce, and radish.
THE FRUIT GARDEN.—Watch strictly for mildew in vines,
especially after a spell of droughty weather. Let it be met
by sulphuring as previously advised. Thin off the surplus
bunches of grapes, if not already done. Overcropping is in
this, as in all other fruits, an evil, whose effects do not pass
with the season in which they occur. Gather the early
varieties of pears, such as Doyeune d'Ete, from ten days to a
fortnight before they will be fully ripe.
Lemons and oranges
should be thinned off when the fruit is of about the size of
large peas.
THE FLOWER GARDEN.—Plant out dahlias for autumn
blooming ; small plants struck in August or September will
be suitable for this purpose. Bud roses at convenience; mow
lawns and maintain verdure by watering. Let all seed vessels
be removed from roses, azaleas, and rhododendrons whilst
they are in their early stage; after the seed has formed, their
removal affords little relief to the plant.
VEGETABLES.
ASPARAGUS.—This requires a permanent position. Although
a system of shallow cultivation has been adopted successfully
in France and, in some instances, also in England, the plan of
preparing the soil deeply and manuring it throughout is far
better adapted for the Australian climate, more especially
should it be carried out where water cannot be spared. It is a
marine and river bank plant, and of all vegetables it owes the
least to the skill of man, such varieties as the Giant and
Connover's Colossal being simply somewhat larger than the
species as ordinarily grown by skilful gardeners. To grow
this vegetable prepare land by trenching it 30 in. deep,
mixing with each spit a liberal allowance of manure.
Mark it off into beds 5 ft. wide, leaving alleys 3 ft. wide
between them, or if only one bed leave fully 3 ft. of
trenched ground on each side of it. If very fine produce be
desired, plant only three rows lengthwise in the narrower
bed, and four in the wider. Some growers prefer single
rows 3 ft. apart, but this is quite unnecessary. The plants
are raised from seed, but a year or two can be saved by
buying plants. They should be carefully and newly lifted-


186
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
second year:
not left lying exposed to air—and be planted a foot apart in
the rows, the roots to be nicely spread out, any broken ones
being cut off clean above the injury. They should be covered
4 in. deep the first year, the ground being on the level.
The next season soil from the alleys should be laid on the
beds, increasing the depth of soil over the crowns to 6 in. or
8 in. No cutting should be allowed until the third
year, unless there chance to be some extra strong heads the
When the stalks become yellow they are to be
cut down, the beds to be forked lightly over, manure spread
on, and left throughout the winter. This manure is to be
removed to the alleys towards the end of July, and the beds
be neatly raked over or dug if the soil be close, care being
taken not to touch the crowns of the plants. This culture to
be repeated annually. In this country it is not expedient to
grow any other crops in the alleys; the roots of the asparagus
will soon occupy that ground if permitted to do so.
ARTICHOKE.—Globe artichokes are not very commonly used.
Their culture is of the simplest. The plant resembles a large
thistle, and requires only deeply worked rich soil to make a
strong growth, and throw the large heads of flower which are
the portion eaten as a vegetable. The plants should stand
from 4 ft. to 5 ft. apart.
ARTICHOKE (Jerusalem).- This is the tuberous-rooted sun-
flower. The tubers resemble badly formed potatoes, and are
cooked in much the same manner as that popular vegetable.
The plant would also be found useful on the farın; as pig
feed it might be cultivated with profit. The sets should be
planted about 2 ft. apart; good agricultural land suits it
the best. Plant in July and August.
BEANS (Broad).—There are several good varieties of these
beans; new strains are introduced almost yearly. Sow in
May, June, July, and August, in rows at least 3 ft. apart;
the beans from 9 in. to 12 in. apart in the rows, according to
the variety. The Early Longpod, Johnston's Wonderful,
Taylor's Broad Windsor, Green Windsor, and Munster Giant
are approved varieties.
BEANS (Kidney).-The dwarf varieties of kidney bean are
sown early in the season. They come into bearing more
quickly than the running kinds, but do not continue so long
in bearing. Growers, therefore, sow both varieties, and by
sowing them at the same time in August) they ensure a
succession of produce. Later sowings of both are also made.
Deep rich soil and abundance of moisture are required to


THE GARDEN OF THE FARM.
187
ensure the most profitable results.
Of the dwarf kinds,
Canadian Wonder is a great bearer, but wanting flavour.
White Advancer and Early Dun are also approved. The
white and zebra runners are excellent varieties, yielding heavy
crops of finely flavoured beans. The scarlet runner is not so
generally adapted for this climate as the foregoing ; but in
moist districts it is grown to great perfection, and for flavour
it cannot be surpassed.
BEET (Red).-- This well-known vegetable is sown in drills
about 2 ft. apart, in August and September for the early
crops, and from November to February for late crops, thus
covering nearly the whole year. The seedlings when up
should be singled to a foot apart. Roots of moderate size being
more convenient than large ones, frequent sowings are to be
preferred. Several excellent varieties are kept on sale.
BEET (Silver or Spinach Beet).—This is a variety having
green leaves, with large white midribs. The latter are cooked
in the same manner as seakale; the blades of the leaves are
cooked separately as spinach.
BORECOLE OR CURLED-KALE.—The varieties of this vege-
table are very numerous; in colour they range from red to
variegated green and white. Curly-greens, as they are com-
monly called, are at best a coarse vegetable, and need not be grown
in our warmer districts, although, as a fact, they grow freely
in any part of the colony of Victoria. If the young leaves
only are used, they make a palatable winter dish. When the
plants have attained full growth the young central leaves may
be cut for use; this will cause the side shoots to grow and
become fit for use the more quickly. The dwarf green, Aber-
geldie, and Ragged Jack are good varieties for the table. Some
of the coloured varieties are employed as decorative plants in
bedding
BROCCOLI.—This is a hardy vegetable, and therefore adapted
for cold districts, where cauliflowers will not succeed in the
winter. As it is inferior to cauliflower, and as most of the
varieties take from nine to ten months to attain perfection,
broccoli is not much grown in this country. The ground
requires to be prepared in much the same way as for cabbage,
but it need not be quite so richly manured.
BRUSSELS-SPROUTS.—This is a winter green, forming a tall
stem and broad flat head. The stem is clothed with little
cabbage-like buds—the sprouts. The head is usually first cut
off to throw vigour into the sprouts. These, when nicely
cooked, form a delicate dish. The seed should be sown about


188
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
six months before the crop will be required for use. The old
variety is still one of the best. The Rosebery and Scrimgour's
Giant are newer varieties.
CABBAGE.—To have cabbage in perfection, it must be grown
quickly. To that end the soil should be deeply worked and
very liberally enriched. The flavour of the whole of the
cabbage tribe depends greatly on the character of the soil,
and fortunately the tribe attain the finest flavour on good
agricultural land. There is no comparison between cabbage
grown on such land and that grown on the naturally poor,
sandy soils in which, for convenience and ease in cultivation,
it is produced so largely in the vicinity of Melbourne. The
cabbage tribe afford a large amount of healthful food, and on
a farm not a blade need go to waste. The Drumhead varieties
will supply an immense quantity of cattle, sheep, and pig
food per acre; and when grown on good land it is highly
nutritious. Sowings should be made monthly: The December
sowing is an important one, as it furnishes plants for the first
autumnal supply. Both early and late varieties should be
sown at that time to provide a succession of supplies. As
cabbage goes to seed in August and September, supplies would
run out were not sowings made early in June and July of
some of the small quick-hearting varieties. These require
forcing with good soil and rich manure from the first; if any
check occur in the growth, they too may run to seed. The
Little Pixie, Wheeler's Cocoanut, and Early Dwarf York may
be sown first. The Schweinfurt is recommended as a larger
early variety to follow. Cabbage should be sown in beds and
transplanted. Red cabbage is used for pickling; the seed
may be sown in July and thenceforward. The Savoy is a
curled-leaved variety, adapted for culture in cold districts.
Wherever broccoli is grown, this cabbage also may be
cultivated.
CAULIFLOWER.- From the beginning of March to the
beginning of November this highly-esteemed vegetable may
be had in perfection in all the milder parts of Victoria and
the adjacent colonies. In the cooler districts it does not attain
perfection during the winter, but may be grown finely during
the rest of the year. Soil naturally good, as on farms, deeply
worked and highly manured, is required to produce fine
heads. The larger varieties should be planted 30 in. apart,
in rows 3 ft. apart ; the smaller sorts 6 in. closer in each
direction. There are numerous very fine varieties in cultiva-
tion. Buyers can hardly go astray at any Melbourne or district


THE GARDEN OF THE FARM.
189
seed shop of importance. Early London, Walcheren, and
Large Asiatic are the names of varieties imported many years
ago. Local growers have raised or selected strains of these
which they deem superior ; they are, at any rate, good when
true to name. Sow in mild districts from the middle of
November forward for autumn, winter, and spring crops ;
plant out from the end of December to the middle of July.
Monthly sowings should be made.
CAPSICUM.—The seed should be sown, four or five in a pot,
in a hot-bed early in August ; this will give plants to turn into
the open ground in October. In the absence of a hot-bed, sow
in the open ground in September, protecting the patches
nightly by inverting a box over each. These red peppers are
of various strengths. The smallest, or bird's-eye pepper, is
the most powerful ; it is the source of cayenne pepper. The
very largest sweet or bell peppers possess no pungency what-
ever; they are used in salads, or are sometimes eaten
separately.
CARROT.For this crop the ground should not have been
newly manured, lest the roots become forked, and their
symmetry be thus spoiled. The soil should be of uniform
character, and sandy soil is preferable to any other. For table
use the Early Horn is the best variety; it is small, but of fine
quality, and comes quickly. The French Short Horn is still
smaller. James's Intermediate is larger, and it is a good
variety for general purposes; any surplus will be welcome in
the stable or cow-shed. A first sowing may be made in July
or August. The smaller varieties may also be sown then, but
further sowings may be made in March, April, May, and June;
this last sowing being intended to furnish supplies in
September, when older crops will have gone to seed. The
young plants should be singled to 3 in. apart as soon
as they are in second leaf. When they are an inch in
diameter a further thinning (for use) should take place to 6 in.
or 9 in., according to the size desired for the crop.
CELERY.—The first sowing should be made in heat, in July
or August. After the latter date sowings may be made in
the ground or in boxes, according to convenience. When the
plants are 2 in. high, or rather more, they should be
pricked off in pans, boxes, or the open ground, according to
the season of year, the soil being made specially rich and fine.
When they have attained a height of 6 in. they will be
fit for planting out in trenches, prepared as follows :-For a
single row, dig the trench 18 in. wide and about 1 ft. deep,


THE GARDEN OF THE FARM.
191
cold ones.
grown in the open ground in Britain, are not worth growing in
this country, where the finest grow quite as readily.
EGG PLANT.-Aubergine is the name of the egg-shaped fruit
of this plant. The seed is sown in hot-beds in July and August,
or in the open ground in September. The plants being tender
require the same protection for a time as cucumbers. When
the plant has grown strong, pinch out the eye of the leading
shoot, and thus induce it to branch. Every shoot will flower
and set fruit; five or six fruit on each plant are quite as many
as should be allowed to remain. The others should be taken
off soon after they have set.
GARLIC.—This is grown by dividing the bulb into cloves,
into which it will be found to separate naturally. Plant in
very good soil in March, in warm districts, and in August in
The sets should be 8 in. apart; the rows 18 in.
GOURD.—The fruit of the gourd is more ornamental and less
useful than that of its near relative, the pumpkin. Gourds are
of various forms, colours, and sizes. They are usually trained
over fences or arbours, where their shining, handsome fronts
form conspicuous objects. They require much the same treat-
ment as cucumbers.
HORSE RADISH.-This may be grown from root cuttings,
long or short. Thongs the size of a penholder may be inserted
straight down a foot or more in depth, or pieces an inch in
diameter and length may be dibbled to that depth, leaving the
holes to fill themselves in this latter case. Once established,
the plant will not easily be got rid of.
KOHL-RABI.-- This is evidently a cross between a Swedish
turnip and a cabbage, and, like many other crosses, it is inferior
to both parents. As a culinary vegetable, the best table
varieties of kohl-rabi cannot be compared with any of the
turnips—white, yellow, or Swedish. As a farm crop also turnips
are far superior. Skirving's purple-top Swede, sown in March,
has often given more than 60 tons per acre in this country,
and, as regards nutritious quality, no kohl-rabi can approach it.
LEEK. -Sow thinly in fairly rich soil in May, June, July,
and August if a long succession of supplies be desired.
When the plants have attained the size of a large penholder
they may be planted out from 8 in. to 12 in. apart,
in rows from 15 in. to 18 in. asunder. The soil should
be made very rich, and should be worked deeply. Some
growers plant in a shallow trench, and fill in the earth as
the plants grow in order to blanch the stems at least
8 in. high; this is preferable to planting on the level and


192
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
earthing up. The Musselburgh and London Flag are the
varieties grown here.
LETTUCE.—To have supplies all the year round, sowings
should be made once a month. If lettuce be not quickly
grown, and of good size, it cannot possess the crispness and
sweetness which constitute its points of excellence. Soil
for lettuce cannot easily be made too rich, but it must never
be waterlogged, i.e., the subsoil should be either naturally open
or artificially drained. The Cos varieties are so superior in
quality to the Drumheads that they will always be grown for
spring use by those who have once tried them. The seed of
Cos lettuce should be sown early in March or in February,
should weather permit. For cold districts the Brown Cos is the
hardiest, but Carter's Giant White, White Bath, and Paris Green
will succeed in any part of this country. Of the Drumhead
varieties, which are grown for summer, autumn, and winter
use, the Green Drumhead, White Silesian, and Neapolitan are
good, and so indeed are most of the varieties kept on sale.
MELON.-Rock melons, or musk melons as they are also
called, are grown in precisely the same manner as cucumbers.
The seed may be sown in a hot-bed in July or August, and the
plants be get ready for turning out in September and October,
or it may be sown in the open ground in September under the
protection recommended for cucumbers. The soil should be
of naturally good quality; a friable red or chocolate soil is
very suitable; a little rotten manure should be added, and the
soil be worked two spits deep, but it should not be made
nearly as rich as for cucumbers. A great point is to get the
whole crop set at one time. This is necessary, because the
fruit has to ripen fully, and if one or two fruits set their
seeds it is difficult to get others to set until after those have
ripened. Both with rock melons and cucumbers the leading
shoot of the plant should be stopped beyond the third or
fourth leaf; this will ensure the production of three or four
shoots, which should be stopped beyond the third leaf. Thus
nine or twelve shoots will be produced, and each will hear a
fruit at sufficiently near the same time to permit of the whole
being set. The varieties are numerous, but they may be
classed into white-fleshed (this is whitish green), scarlet-
fleshed, and green-fleshed. The flavour of these sections is
decidedly different, the scarlet being the richest and most
luscious.
MELON.—Water melons are very distinct from the fore-
going, but their culture is nearly identical. Large size of


THE GARDEN OF THE FARM.
193
fruit is a special object, and, therefore, fewer branches have
to be provided, because fewer fruit must be carried by
the plant. It is expedient to place all kinds of melons on
boards, to preserve them from contact with the soil, which
sometimes causes them to rot. The number of varieties is
considerable ; amongst the best are—Rattlesnake, Ice Cream,
Black Spanish, Long Island. The pie or preserving melon
is used only for making jam, supplying the bulk, whilst the
flavour is given by other fruits. Now that all kinds of fruit
are abundant and cheap, there is no excuse for adulteration
of the kind indicated in the use of pie-melons.
MUSTARD.-White is used as a salad, chiefly in conjunction
with curled cress. It is sown thickly in a row in good soil,
and is cut when in the seed leaf; sowings every second or
third week.
ONION.—The quality of onions depends more upon climate
than upon the skill of the grower. The character of the soil
is a second element in the production of quality; the most
dense, firm, and fine-skinned onions are grown either upon
black soot-like soils, or upon sandy ones suitably enriched.
Spanish onions and Victorian onions are both excellent,
because of the climate and soil in which they are grown.
There are, however, varieties which are naturally coarse, and
others which are naturally good. James's Keeping is the
highest type of a naturally good British onion. The Brown
Spanish and Brown Globe are both of Spanish origin, and are
naturally good varieties. They grow quite as large as can
reasonably be desired in soil of a fairly good description.
Onions which are forced by late watering, or whose late
growth is stimulated by heavy rains, will not keep as well as
those which suffered neither of these occurrences. Long-
keeping being a matter of the greatest importance, the crop
intended to be kept until early spring onions come in for use
should be specially grown with that object. It should be
sown, not before August, in ground suitably enriched and
rendered close by rolling after working ; loose, open soil would
induce rank, coarse growth. The drills should be from 20 in.
to 24 in. apart. Many good growers make no drill, but drop
the seed by the side of the line, and cover the seed by simply
passing a light roller over the land. This presses the seed into
the soil quite deep enough, unless the weather continues dry
a long time. The after-treatment consists of hoeing between
the drills, hand-weeding the latter, and singling out the plants
to 7 in. apart when large enough ; the thinnings are either
14


194
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
sold or transplanted. If the latter, the ground is prepared as
for sowing; a small dibble is employed in planting, special
care being taken not to insert in the soil anything more than
the roots of the young onion ; the base of the bulb should be
just level with the surface of the soil. An early crop is raised
by sowing from the beginning to the middle of April, and
planting out in July or August, or as soon as the plants are of
the size of a goosequill
. For pickling onions let a sowing be
made of the silverskin variety. Sow broadcast on a bed a
yard wide, and of any required length. Potato-onions are
raised by planting single onions of that variety in March in
mild climates, or in August in cold districts. They are
planted in drills 30 in. apart; the onions half that distance
asunder; a little earth is drawn to them as they grow. Tree-
onions are propagated by planting full-grown onions of that
variety in drills, as in the foregoing case ; from these will
arise stalks, each carrying a bunch of small onions. These
are stored; and, being planted singly, they grow into full-
sized bulbs.
PARSLEY.--Two sowings of this should be made each year-
the one in March, the other in July. The seed lies a long
time in the ground; the rows, therefore, should be kept hand-
weeded until the plants can be seen. These, when large
enough to be handled, should be singled to 18 in. apart.
PARSNIP.-If large roots are desired the drills should be
wider apart than for carrots, and the distance between the
plants greater; in all other respects the treatment and manage-
inent of carrots and parsnips are identical.
The first sowing
should be made in July in mild districts, and a month later in
cold ones.
The Hollow-crown, Student, and Guernsey are
approved varieties.
PEA.—Excepting in very cold districts the finest wrinkled
marrows may be grown all the year round, although in the
height of summer peas usually give way to other vegetables
which can be had at no other season. The principal crop
to give the first spring picking is sown in May. The rows
should be at least 3 ft. apart, and be staked, as peas lying
on the ground in the winter do not pod well. The hardier
varieties are sown in cold districts, and are staked. Even
when Tom Thumb or Little Gem are sown it is expedient to
support the sides of the rows with short stakes placed cross-
wise. In the summer peas may lie on the ground. A sowing
should be made whenever the preceding sowing is 3 in. above
ground.


THE GARDEN OF THE FARM.
195
POTATO.—This being a regular farm crop wherever the
climate of the district is suitable, we have to treat in this
place only of garden varieties. The Ashleaf is the type of a
class of white kidneys held in high estimation. For favour
it has no equal, but, as it is a small bearer, it has given way
to the Fluke and Lapstone kidneys, larger varieties of the
same type. By planting monthly from July forward, new
potatoes can be had the year round. Potatoes of this class
will attain perfection in old garden ground moderately
manured, and in which round potatoes, such as those grown
for winter use, would be watery and inferior. Where new
soil can be spared, the variety so long known as Brown's
River cannot be excelled or equalled by any of the more
recent introductions, especially those originated in America.
PUMPKIN.—The quarter intended for this crop should be
prepared as recommended for cucumbers. The hills should be
9 ft. apart, two or at most three plants being allowed to
a hill. Vigorous growth being essential to the production of
the large fruits desired in this instance, the plants should not
be stopped more than once, three or four shoots to each plant
being sufficient in the first instance. The after-stoppings
which are made beyond the fruit are intended to increase its
size by directing into it the sap that would otherwise be
expended in the growth of the plant. The Mammoth variety
attains the largest size; but where the crop is grown to be
stored, and should, consequently, be able to bear some handling,
the Ironbark or other varieties having a hard skin, and not
attaining so large a size, should be preferred. As a farm
crop these would pay well for feeding cattle in the winter.
Seed should be sown in September and October. (See also
" Squash.")
RADISH.-The long red and scarlet short-top, so called, are
the long varieties most generally obtainable. The seed inay
be sown all the year round, and in sandy soil no varieties
succeed better. For summer, the turnip-rooted and olive-shaped
varieties are sometimes preferred, but these will do equally
well in winter. Sow as often as required at all seasons.
RHUBARB.-Although this grows freely from seed, the
variety thus obtained is not likely to resemble the parent very
closely. The better plan is to purchase yearling roots of
approved varieties. These may either be planted whole or
divided into sets, each having at least one eye. The rhubarb
quarter needs deep working and ample manuring. The
trenching should be not less than 2 ft. deep, and plenty of


THE GARDEN OF THE FARM.
197
be
wherever there is moisture enough to grow them. Frequent
sowings are made in drills 2 ft. apart, the plants being singled
to 1 ft. apart when 3 in. or 4 in. high. The thinnings may be
cooked. The necessity for frequent sowings arises from the
fact of the plants running to seed very quickly. New Zealand
spinach is sown, where water cannot be afforded, as a summer
vegetable.
SQUASH.-Under this name are comprised vegetables widely
differing in character. The bush squash belongs to the marrow
class, except as regards shape; the Mammoth Chili is to all
intents a large pumpkin, and one of the most useful that can
grown, easily arriving at the weight of 100 lbs. The
preparation of the soil is the same as for cucumbers. Plants
of bush squash need not be more than 5 ft. apart.
SUGAR MAIZE.—This is much used by Americans, who cook
the green grains as peas, or eat them uncooked from the cob,
at all times. There are several varieties on sale. Sow in
August and following months; thin the plants to 2 ft. apart,
in rows 3 ft. apart.
TOMATO.—This has become a most popular fruit or vege-
table, for it is used as both. As fruit the smaller the variety
the better is the flavour; the yellow varieties are also better
flavoured than the red of the same size and type. The number
of varieties is yearly increasing, but heavy-cropping, size, pro-
lificacy, and earliness have received more attention than flavour.
Little Gem and Conqueror are early and good varieties. Acme
is new and excellent; it is early and handsome. Vick's
Criterion is a choice kind. In yellows Carter's Greengage is
one of the best. To have tomatoes early is a great point ; to
that end sow in pots in a hot-bed in Šune or Julý, pot off
the seedlings singly, and get them strong for planting in
August. In exclusively open ground culture, sow in July or
August, according to climate, and protect with a few fern
sprays in frosty weather. Plant 3 ft. apart, and train to
a stake or trellis.
TURNIP.—This should be a farm crop, especially in cool dis-
tricts. The soil should be light, but good. Sowings may be
made as frequently as desired, except through January and
February, in hot districts; in cool ones sowings may be made
all the year round. Thin early, and keep the ground well
stirred between the drills, which should be from 18 in. to
2 ft. apart.
VEGETABLE MARROWS.—These are grown in the same
manner as pumpkins, and should be treated in much the


198
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
same
manner. They do not need so much stopping as
cucumbers, but as they ramble more freely the drills should
be further apart. (See also " Squash.")
WATERCRESS.—This wholesome salad may be grown wher-
ever there is a small rill of water which can be dammed at
certain levels, the beds being widened out to afford sufficient
space. All the culture needed is involved in keeping the beds
clear of weeds.
HERBS (perennial).-Sage, thyme, sweet marjoram, winter
savory, and mint are the principal herbs used in the kitchen.
Sage, thyme, and savory are readily propagated from cuttings
planted in the autumn or early in the spring. Marjoram
may be raised either from cuttings or by dividing the stools.
Mint beds are formed by planting portions of the under-
ground stems in well-enriched soil. Knotted marjoram can be
most conveniently raised from cuttings.
CHAPTER XVI.
THE FRUIT GARDEN,
EXCEPT where fruit is to be grown upon a large scale, it
will usually be convenient to follow the custom of planting
fruit trees in the vegetable garden. One acre of ground will
hold 100 trees 20 ft. apart in each direction, 75 trees 24 ft.
apart, 64 trees 26 ft. apart, 55 trees 28 ft. apart, or 48 trees
30 ft. apart. Either of these distances will permit of vege-
tables being grown in the intervals between the rows for
several years. The land must not be robbed; on the contrary,
its fertility should be gradually increased by the addition of
manures in excess of the requirements of the vegetables.
When the trees have grown large enough to occupy the
whole of the ground, the culture of vegetables should cease.
Land intended for fruit trees should be trenched throughout
to a depth of at least 3 ft., unless the subsoil be unfitted
for the purpose. In such a case bastard trenching, which
leaves each stratum in its original position, should be the plan
of working by hand. If ploughing be the method, the subsoil
should be simply broken up, the
surface stratum being first
ploughed as deeply as possible. The depth of such workings
will, of course, not be nearly so great as would be desirable in
the lowlands or warmer districts, but sufficiently deep for
fruit cultivation in the ranges.


200
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
which more than one tree would be desirable even for the use
of a single family. Commencing with the earliest, the farmer
will want for eating—Early Margaret, Gladstone, Irish Peach,
Red Astrachan, and Devonshire Quarrenden. In the second
early batch will come Ribston Pippin, Gravenstein, King of
the Pippins, Margil, Cox's Orange Pippin, Northern Spy. For
winter, Scarlet Nonpareil, Scarlet Pearmain, Golden Harvey,
Adams's Pearmain, or Dutch Mignonne, Sturmer Pippin,
Jonathan. For cooking—Lord Nelson, Emperor Alexander,
Duchess d'Oldenburgh, Colonial Fillbasket, London or Five-
crown Pippin, Dumelow's Seedling, Stone Pippin, Cleopatra,
French Crab, Reinette du Canada. The question of stocks
is important. Of late years blight-proof stocks have come
into general use, and we have no hesitation in recommend-
ing that they be used exclusively. It is not enough that
the roots be blight-proof; root-grafting is in this case a
delusion. The graft should be several inches above the
surface of the ground, and even then blight will occasionally
appear on the branches of varieties much subject to its
attacks, but in that position it can be readily dealt with.
In cool districts, where both soil and climate chance to be
suitable for growing apples on a market scale, the following
would be a well-proportioned selection of 500 trees, viz. :—20
Early Margaret, 20 Irish Peach, 20 Devonshire Quarrenden,
20 Duchess d’Oldenburgh, 20 Emperor Alexander, 25 Prince
Bismarck, 50 Jonathan, 50 Reinette du Canada, 25 London
Pippin, 25 Pomme de Neige, 50 Scarlet Nonpareil, 15 Winter
Quoining, 10 Royal Russet, 25 Rome Beauty, 25 Dumelow's
Seedling, 50 Stone Pippin, 50 Sturmer Pippin. In warmer
districts Ben Davis, the true New York Pippin, may replace
Winter Quoining; Shockley, Fallawater, Carolina Red June,
King of Tomkins County, and several more American varieties
will be found worthy of places in market orchards. Apples
may be dwarfed by being worked on the Paradise Stock, by
which means a large number of varieties may be grown on
a small area of land.
THE APRICOT.- Where the soil suits the apricot it succeeds
with very little trouble to the cultivator. It requires rather
a high situation in the garden and deep friable soil having no
stagnant moisture in the subsoil. The best early variety is
Oullin's Early Peach ; it resembles Moorpark, a rather later
and desirable variety. Mansfield Seedling, which is quite late,
is of the largest size, and an excellent fruit. Musch Musch is
a small early variety, very rich, and suitable for jam. Hems-


THE FRUIT GARDEN.
201
kirke, Royal George, Montgamet, and Campbellfield Seedling
are all useful varieties.
THE CHERRY.—The most common stock for cherries is the
Red Kentish, but neither that nor the Mahaleb are vigorous
enough for varieties of strong habit. There is no question but
that the use of weak-growing stocks is the cause of much of
the early decay so common amongst cherries. Seedlings from
vigorous growers should prove the best stocks, but, unfortu-
nately, few cherry stones contain fertile seeds. Cherries being
the first fruit in the spring are much esteemed by young and
old. Early Guigne, the very earliest variety, is also one of the
finest. Werder's Early Black, Belle d'Orleans, and Twyford
Bigarreau follow in earliness. Black Tartarian, Bedford
Prolific, Bigarreau St. Margaret's, Bigarreau Napoleon, and
Florence will furnish supplies up to the end of the season.
The Morello is a late variety not as much esteemed in this
country as in Britain.
THE CURRANT.-Of these there are red, white, and black
varieties. None of them succeed in warm districts; they are,
consequently, rarely seen off the ranges, where in favourable
situations they grow and fruit fairly. All the varieties grow
freely from cuttings of the previous year's wood. The red and
black varieties should be planted from 5 ft. to 6 ft. apart.
The white may be rather closer, their habit being less vigorous.
A favourable site for currants is the south side of a .wall or
high fence. The soil should be good, deep, and well enriched.
The surface should be mulched with rich manure each autumn,
that the winter rain may carry its fertilizing properties down
to the roots. Of red currants the best varieties are Bertyn's
No. 9 and La Versaillaise ; Red Champagne is a pinkish variety,
bearing long bunches. The old white Dutch is the best of
that colour. Black Naples and Kentish Hero are the best
blacks.
THE FIG.–This fruit is fairly at home in all parts except the
coolest. Although tigs are readily raised from cuttings, and
are not easily killed, they respond to good cultivation by
yielding fruit of larger size. They bear two crops a year; the
first begins to swell in the spring in the axils of the leaves of
last season's wood, and ripens in December. The second crop
ripens in the cool autumn weather. Amongst the best varieties
are De l’Achipel, Castle Kennedy, Brown Turkey, White
Marseilles.
THE FILBERT. With this will be treated its near relatives,
the cob and hazel nuts. Like currants, they require the cool,


202
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
humid climate of our ranges, and cannot be grown with profit
on our lowlands. The trees are usually raised from suckers,
and are kept in Britain to one stem, the heads being nicely
pruned annually. In this country they are usually permitted
to throw several shoots from the stool, and to grow with little
pruning. The finest filberts are Webb's white-skinned and
Webb's Daviana. Webb's Cob nut has also a good reputa-
tion. The Exhibition red-skinned filbert, and two or three
more of the same class, are also approved varieties.
THE GOOSEBERRY. By dint of preparing the soil deeply,
choosing low moist ground, and resorting to mulching and
watering, gooseberries are grown in many localities not
naturally adapted for them. The best are grown under the
same conditions of climate as suit currants, and this refers not
only to the amount of crop but to the quality. A cool climate
is essential to develop the finest properties of the fruit. There
are hundreds of varieties (so-called), but a few will suffice.
The Red Warrington has no superior for preserving, and is
highly esteemed for desert. Billy Dean, Crown Bob, Plough-
boy, and Roaring Lion are good reds of large size. In whites,
Whitesmith, Thumper, and White Lion; in yellows, Leveller,
Dublin, and Yellow Lion; in greens, Heart of Oak and Green
Prince.
THE GRAPE.—In this place we shall speak only of grapes
for table use. In cool districts walls or fences having a
northern or north-western aspect should be applied to the
purpose of growing grapes. In the warmer districts the vine
is at home on any site, preferring as a soil a rich, friable red
loam. In those districts, very fine grapes are grown in the
deep alluvial soils of creek flats. Examples of this
are numerous
both in Victoria and Riverina; in the Bendigo district most
of the grapes are grown near creeks; from the Edwards River,
near Deniliquin, have come some of the finest grapes grown
north of the Murray. The methods of training are numerous,
but against walls the branches are usually allowed to extend
and form spurs, which yield bunches of moderate size with
large berries. When large bunches are desired, they are
usually borne on long rods. In the open ground vines are
grown in various ways. They are either trained on wire
trellises, trained to single stakes, or grown as bushes without
any support, the branches being kept well stopped. In all
cases ample space should be allowed. That given, together
with deep and good soil, vines will attain longevity unsuspected
by those who have only seen them crowded together. In dry


THE FRUIT GARDEN.
203
seasons water may be given with advantage to table grapes.
Over-cropping should be strictly guarded against as being
ultimately dangerous for the vine, and bringing loss on the
grower. In dry seasons a mulching of manure, through which
water may run, may be given with advantage. The vine
suffers from early spring frosts. These damage the shoots and
leave them covered with the disease known as black spot.
The effects of frost are always most severely felt in low
situations where drainage is deficient. The oidium or white
mildew is often prevalent amongst vines. The preventive is
good cultivation from the outset; the remedy, flowers of
sulphur, sprinkled over every portion of the vine and on both
sides of the foliage. At least three applications should be
given, viz.—one when the first leaves are about 3 in.
wide, the second and third at intervals of three or four weeks.
For table use Golden and Royal Chasselas are the earliest that
are worth growing. The Frontignan follow-red, grizzly white,
and black. Black Hamburg is indispensable, nor can Muscat
of Alexandria and Muscat of Hamburg be omitted. (Eilliade,
or Black Valentia, is a hardy useful grape. White Nice, known
also in the colonies as White Sweetwater, is a good cropper.
White Syrian and White Morillon are adapted for the warmest
districts. Golden Champion, Canon Hall Muscat, Bowood
Muscat, and Waltham Cross are very fine whites. Mrs. Prince's
Black Muscat, Black Damascus, Gros Colman, Madresfield
Court, Frankenthal, and Basham's Mammoth are black table
grapes of high quality, most of them requiring a warm district.
The Muscat of Alexandria yields the raisins of commerce; the
White Corinth grape is the source of Sultana raisins; the
Black Corinth Zante grape the currants of commerce.
THE LOQUAT.—This is an evergreen shruh, producing fruit
ripening from September to November, according to the climate.
Plants are generally raised from seed of selected fruits, but some
growers have resorted to the practice of grafting, using scions
from trees bearing the finest fruit. Loquats are decidedly less
grown in Victoria than they were 20 years ago, and the fruit
is not nearly so fine.
THE MULBERRY.—The black mulberry is the only species
of this genus that is used as fruit. Trees are raised either by
layering branches, or by budding or grafting stocks of the
white mulberry, which strikes freely from cuttings. The finest
trees are those grown from layers, the white mulberry stock
being deficient in vigour. The mulberry needs very little
pruning, but, as the size of the fruit is much diminished by


204
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
want of moisture, water may be supplied with advantage in
dry seasons.
THE NECTARINE AND THE PEACH.-It is impossible to
separate these two, indeed they are nothing more than varieties.
Peaches have been raised from the seed of nectarines, and vice
versá. Early Silver Peach was raised in 1857, by the late
Thomas Rivers, from seed of the White Nectarine. Early
Beatrice also had the same origin. Early Alfred Peach was also
raised by the same famous grower from the seed of Hunt's
Tawny Nectarine. Nectarines are not such general favourites
as peaches, and consequently fewer are grown. For some cause
also they are more exacting in the matter of soil and climate,
although peaches have of late years also proved more difficult
to suit with soil than they formerly were. Like many other
plants they succeed best in virgin soil. The great points are
depth and quality. Very old trees may still be found in odd
corners of the Geelong district
, in deep black soils, flanking
watercourses. On the deep black sandy soils of Brighton
peaches also succeed for a time. Growers in that district prefer
almond stocks for peaches, but on soils of a stronger character
peach stocks are more satisfactory. As peaches come nearly true
from seed, many are now grown in that way by planting the
stones where the trees are to stand. Grosse Mignonne is the
parent of an infinite number of varieties differing but slightly
from that famous peach. The locally raised seedlings have the
advantage of being less subject to mildew than the parent,
Some good American varieties have been introduced of late
years. Of these Hale's Early is desirable, as being the first to
ripen, except Early Beatrice, which is objected to as rather too
small. Rivers's Early York, Early Louise, Early Silver, and
Alexandra are desirable early varieties. Kerr's Seedling, Royal
George (a descendant of Grosse Mignonne); Whatmough's Seed-
ling and other colonial varieties are adapted for midseason.
The Salway and Lady Palmerston are very late yellow varieties,
both attaining large size. In nectarines, Hunt's Large Tawny,
Stanwick, Elruge,
and Rivers's Victoria are a good selection.
THE ORANGE TRIBE.—The whole of these succeed fairly
well in warm districts, but when planted south of the Dividing
Range they should have a northern aspect, and be well pro-
tected from the south. The stock most in favour is the Seville,
it being credited with ability to withstand the “bark disease,”
an affection from which orange trees are liable to suffer, and
which occurs chiefly near the base of the stem on its south-
west side, thus indicating exposure to the afternoon sun as the


THE FRUIT GARDEN.
205
probable cause. Be this as it may, it is certain that trees
whose stems are sheltered by the overhanging branches are
less subject to the disease than others. The surface of the
ground under and around the trees should be protected by
mulching, which will also enrich the soil. Water should be
given in droughty seasons, and the amount of crop should be
judiciously regulated by thinning off the excess as soon as the
fruit has attained the size of peas. Orange trees need very
little pruning, and no digging around the trees; the ground
should be kept free from weeds by hoeing. The scale insect
is troublesome on trees of this class. Wood ashes dusted over
the trees after rain, or syringing, is the best and cheapest
remedy; lime may also be used in the same way. The
varieties of orange most generally grown are-St. Michael's, the
Cluster, the Navel—the finest and best, but not a heavy bearer
in general—the Parramatta Seedling. Of Mandarins, the
Emperor and Thorny. The Seville is used only for marmalade.
Lemons are prodigious bearers; the fruit needs thinning
severely; owing to over-cropping these trees are usually short-
lived. The Lisbon is the best variety.
THE PEAR.—Excepting where grown for sale, a few trees
will suffice on a farm, the fruit being less useful than apples.
The trees, if allowed plenty of room, and ample depth of soil,
will attain large size, and live to a great age. Doyenné
d'Eté is a small but very early variety; Doyenné Boussoch,
Poire de Berriays, Beurré de Capiaumont, Williams's Bon
Chrétien, Gansel's Bergamot, Marie Louise, Beurré Bosc, Jose-
phine de Malines, Winter Nelis, and Black Achan will supply
fruit from December to September. For cooking-Uvedale's
St. Germain and Catillac. In cold districts Jargonelle may
be added.
THE PERSIMMON.-This, which is the Japanese date plum,
has only within the last few years been grown as a garden
fruit in Australia. The fruit when ripe is gathered and kept
in a cool room until it is “bletted,” i.e., until the flesh, which
resembles somewhat that of the tomato, is reduced to a pulp.
About a dozen varieties have been introduced and are kept on
sale by nurserymen.
THE PLUM. This is perhaps the most readily grown of all
stone fruits. Pruning consists in shaping the tree well in the
first instance, and cutting in the side shoots to form spurs on
which the fruit is borne, often in too large quantity. It is,
however, very useful for preserving. The Cherry Plum is the
earliest, is excellent for cooking and for jam. Rivers's Prolific


206
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
is the next early—a violet purple variety ; Early Orleans,
Fotheringham, De Montfort, Kirke's, Coe's Golden Drop,
Washington, Diamond, Pond's_Seedling, Angelina Burdett,
Greengage Reine Claude de Bavay, Reine Victoria, Coe's
Late Red. These will keep up supplies from first to last.
The Crittenden Damson is the best of that class of fruit.
THE QUINCE.— Trees of this may be planted with almonds
and cherry plums in the outer rows, to form breakwinds to
protect the less robust species. Their culture occasions very
little trouble, and they are exceedingly hardy. The finest
kinds are the Portugal and Pear-shaped
THE RASPBERRY.—This is another fruit whose culture is
confined to cool districts, and will rarely be seen below them.
The raspberry requires a deep, cool soil, containing a fair pro-
portion of vegetable matter. It is propagated from suckers
left for the purpose during the previous summer. The canes
should be planted 5 ft. apart. Each winter the dead canes
are cut out and the number of new ones reduced in proportion
to the strength of the stool. A dressing of manure should be
given to serve also as a mulching. The sorts mostly grown
are Common Red, Falstaff, Northumberland Fillbasket, Red
Antwerp. There are also yellow varieties, viz., Brinckle's
Orange and Common Yellow.
THE STRAWBERRY.—The finest qualities of strawberry which
used to grow and bear freely in this country have for many
years gone out of culture, in consequence of their proving
unprolific. Like potatoes and peaches, strawberries thrive
best on virgin soils. There are, however, some few kinds
which respond to ordinary garden treatment, and with these
it will be expedient for occupiers of old farm gardens to
content themselves. The varieties are Christy's Edith, La
Marguerite, and Trollope's Victoria. They come into bearing
in the order named. Carolina Superba, Premier, President,
Cockscomb, and Myatt's Emily are good varieties, and may be
grown where the soil is suitable. The flavour of the two last
is superior.
THE WALNUT.—This tree has, apart from its fruitfulness,
a special value in its wood. Its culture for timber demands a
situation adjacent to a watercourse, in deep alluvial soil. For
fruit only the tree may be grown in any garden, but the
greater the depth of soil the better even in that case. Unless
the roots are well out of the reach of drought, the kernels will
shrivel instead of filling. Several varieties are grown by
nurserymen, but none are worked. If seedlings can be got


THE FRUIT GARDEN.
207
fairly true to name, they are preferable. The thin-shelled
and Noyeau à Bijou are of extra large size. The common
and Dwarf Prolific are the sorts most generally serviceable.
CHAPTER XVII.
SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
corne.
THE combination of husbandry with agriculture has been
strongly recommended by practical men and writers on rural
affairs from the most remote antiquity, and of all our domestic
animals none have met with greater favour from skilled
farmers than the sheep. Columella, who strongly advocated
keeping live stock on a farm, says on this subject—" After the
greater quadrupeds sheep cattle are of second account, which
may be of first account, if you have regard to the greatness of
the profit arising from them.” Master Fitzherbert, whose
Boke of Husbandry was written about 1523, makes therein the
following remarks:-"An hosbande can not well thryve by his
corne without he have other cattell, nor by his cattell without
For else he shall be a byer, a borrower, or a begger ;
and because that shepe in myne opynyon is the most pro-
fytablest cattell that any man can have, therfore I pourpose
to speke first of shepe.”
What was applicable in Spain and Italy in Columella's time,
and in England in Fitzherbert's time, is just as applicable in
Australia to-day; and the sooner the union of sheep hus-
bandry with tillage becomes a recognized principle in Aus-
tralian agriculture, the better it will be for the farmers and
the country. For land worn out by the wasteful process of
taking off it crop after crop of corn, without making any
return in the shape of manure, there is no recuperative process
so easy of application or so profitable as grazing sheep. They
possess the property, invaluable where labour is scarce, of
requiring few hands for their management, and they are the
best distributors of manure, thus dispensing with the cost
of distributing fertilizers by hand. It is this condition that
places sheep on the pinnacle of superiority above any other
class of live stock for the successful pursuit of farm husbandry.
Strange to say, there existed for years in the minds of Vic-
torian farmers a prejudice against keeping sheep on their


208
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
farms, and this prejudice is scarcely yet entirely dispelled,
though, during the last ten years, the number of sheep on small
holdings has increased enormously. Sheep-breeding on farms
in Victoria became first practised through the union of two or
more small properties, while in New South Wales the liberal
grazing rights granted to selectors caused many of them to
follow sheep husbandry alone, and neglect agriculture alto-
gether. Many of these small stockowners are well versed in
sheep management, and the sheep they exhibit at Deniliquin
and other Riverina shows are highly creditable, and would not
disgrace any of the large flocks in that part of Australia.
There is no reason why the owners of small flocks should not
in time compete on even terms with the best studs. Farmers
should be encouraged to persevere by the fact that all the best
sheep in Australia are to be found in the stud flocks, many of
which do not number 1,000 head, while in America the best
merinos are fed on the pastures of Vermont, where few of the
stud flocks number as many as 500 head. The farmer's flock
should be, to all intents and purposes, a stud flock, not
necessarily of as great value or as expensive to manage as one
of the famous Victorian stud flocks, but as carefully selected
to suit the conditions of life on the farm. Such a flock is
within the reach of every Australian farmer who will give the
requisite amount of care and attention to the business.
Some two or three years ago a long discussion took place in
the columns of the Australasian, on the effect of grazing sheep
on land for a long series of years. By some of the disputants
it was maintained that such a practice must result in the ulti-
mate impoverishment of the land, and many ingenious and
seemingly scientific arguments were advanced in support of
the theory. The experience of practical men and the teach-
ings of centuries went for nothing. Science showed, conclu-
sively, that grazing sheep for many years removed from the
soil, we do not know what, constituents; and, therefore, it
must slowly but surely deteriorate A long series of bad
seasons had, at this time, greatly injured the pastures in the
Western District (the oldest settled portion of Victoria), and
this led many stockowners to believe there was something in
the theory The fact was overlooked that, even in the worst.
seasons, the great western plains would graze twice as many
sheep as they did when first taken up as squatting stations.
The same result has followed stocking the land with sheep on
the great Riverina plains, which now more than double
the number of sheep they did thirty years ago, while the value


SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
209
of the fleeces they cut have nearly trebled. The Spanish have
a proverb—“Sheep have golden feet, and wherever the print
of their footstep appears the land is turned to gold,” and
the saying has been generally admitted to have a universal
application.
The majority of those who have taken up the occupation of
farming in Victoria unfortunately have had but little or no ex-
perience of sheep management, and the natural consequence has
often been that their first attempt to keep sheep did not result
in a success. Believing the merino to be purely a squatter's
sheep, they invariably selected what are known by the very
elastic term "crossbred” sheep, which may be considered as
a mingling of many varieties of very indifferent originals.
With such men it is important that the sheep should be got
at a low price, and it naturally follows that they will be bad.
In an article on “Sheep Husbandry for the Farm,” by “Bruni,
which appeared in the Australasian a few years back, the
writer thus describes one of these cross”-bred flocks :-“ As
to the sheep themselves it is difficult to describe them ; they
were of all sizes; some with long legs, flat sides, and hollow
loins; others dumpy, squat, little nondescripts, as to the breed
of which it was difficult to form even a guess. The rams were
kept in the flock all the year round, and, as a natural conse-
quence, the lambing was a very irregular one. The wool was
coarse, of the lowest quality, and evidently very tender.
I have been informed, by those in a position to know, that
such flocks as I have attempted to describe will leave a profit.
If such is the case, how much more satisfactory and profitable
would it be to keep a flock of good sheep, and carefully attend
to them ?”
The selection of badly bred and unsuitable stock is, unfor-
tunately, not the greatest mistake made by those who under-
take sheep-keeping on small areas of land. But too often
the first attempt at sheep husbandry leads to overstocking,
a very serious fault, and one that is not confined to the owners
of small properties. To a humane flockmaster there can be
no sight more distressing than to see his sheep slowly wasting
away in the paddocks for want of food, and the distress must
be heightened by the knowledge that it is his own act that
has condemned the poor creatures to a wretched and lingering
death. Sheep farming on such a system can yield neither
profit nor satisfaction. In the article already quoted, the
following remarks occur on the subject :-“ After an experience
of one year of overstocking, particularly if the season happens
15


210
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
to be a dry one, the farmer gets rid of his sheep at any price,
convinced that sheep husbandry and farming cannot be
carried on together with profit. With his bad example before
them the neighbours are often hindered from trying the ex-
periment of keeping sheep. Thus an industry that would be
à boon to the agriculturists throughout the country, and a
great increase of our national wealth, is neglected simply from
the want of a little knowledge on the part of those who would
be great gainers if the business was properly conducted."
The agriculturist has this advantage over the grazier, that
he can raise food for stock feeding, which the owners of grass
lands only cannot do. It may seem strange to Australian
sheep farmers to recommend the growing of crops for sheep
feeding, but there cannot be a doubt that growing artificial
food for stock feeding will pay well in Australia. It has
answered in almost every other country under the sun, and
has not been practised here simply from the fact that the
winters are so mild that it is not necessary to house and feed
stock. Indeed, the time of scarcity over the greater portion
of Australia is not the winter, but the middle and end of
summer, when the sun has dried up the pastures to tinder.
Where the soil and climate serve, growing hay for the purpose
of feeding stock will, before a few years have passed by,
become a recognized branch of sheep husbandry. Where
mangels can be grown they will be found invaluable for stock
feeding, and the wonder is that they have not been extensively
grown long ere this over the large portion of Australia that is
suited to their cultivation. The latest improvement in the
way of storing food for stock—the silo-promises to become
as great a boon to the Australian stockowner as it is to the
English and American farmers. In America it is thought so
much of that a practical writer on agriculture expressed the
opinion that the use of the silo will double the stock-carrying
capabilities of the country.
Modern inventions for saving
labour in agricultural operations reduce the cost of growing
and harvesting food for stock by so much that the work may
now be undertaken with every prospect of being carried to a
successful issue, even with our limited supply of agricultural
labour.
FATTENING SHEEP FOR MARKET.—When a farmer does not
intend to keep a permanent flock, but merely wishes to utilize
a surplus of feed on his farm, such as a rush of weeds and self-
sown crop in his paddocks, fattening a lot of store sheep for
market naturally suggests itself. For this purpose either ewes


SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
211
or wethers will serve; the latter certainly realize the higher
price in the market, but then they cost more as stores, and
take longer to put into prime condition than do ewes. There
is this advantage in buying wethers, they can be bought in
the prime of life and in full vigour, while ewes that are sold
as stores at a price that will pay for fattening are frequently
long past mark-of-mouth; and butchers do not, as a rule, take
kindly to old ewes. The grazier must be guided in the pur-
chase of his stock by the local conditions and the ruling prices,
which vary according to the season. For all descriptions of
sheep put on to rank green feed, a trough of salt and a rack
for a little dry food will be found very beneficial. They cost
little, and will serve to keep the sheep in healthy thriving
condition.
If the soil is heavy, and the growth of pasture very luxuri-
ant, it would be better to purchase longwool or crossbred sheep,
and in making the selection care should be taken to see that
all the animals are in good health and of well-shaped frames;
a badly formed animal never gives satisfaction, and often
sufficient food is wasted upon such sheep as would have fat-
tened double the number of well-shaped, good doing stock.
Crossbreds that are by merino rams from longwool ewes are
generally believed to fatten quicker, and run to heavier
weights, than crossbreds from merino ewes by longwool rams,
though the latter cross gives the more valuable fleeces. The
farmer who buys to fatten often takes but little heed of the
fleece; nevertheless, the wool has a considerable influence on
the buyers at the sale yards. In a wet climate crossbred
sheep will do much better than the merinos, but for fatten-
ing the longwool or crossbred wether will serve in any
climate, providing always that he gets plenty to eat without
having to exert himself much in getting it Large-framed
merinos will fatten readily on rich herbage, but there is always
the danger of their being troubled with foot-rot if kept long
on soft, rich feed. This is an objection to merinos, as the
market may not serve to dispose of the sheep directly they are
fit for the butcher. On lighter and drier soil, with a less
luxuriant growth of pasture, merinos will often yield a better
return than cross breds, but in both cases much depends upon
the choice of stores, and this the grazier can only learn by
experience. Store merinos are cheaper than crossbreds, but do
not realize such high prices when fat. When put in the
paddocks the sheep will be all the better for some one going
quietly among them every day. It keeps them quiet, and


212
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
they settle down to feeding much more readily than when left
entirely to themselves. Above all things, the farmer should
avoid buying sheep from a flock where they are run in large
paddocks and seldom lcoked after. It is not surprising that
an animal of such a lively disposition as the merino sheep
should, under such treatment, become a half-wild creature.
Sheep from such a flock, when put into the small enclosures of
the farm, take a long time to settle down; the slightest dis-
turbance sends them flying from one end of the paddock to
the other, and they thus destroy much more grass than they
eat. It is well to learn from what district the sheep come
before purchasing them. On cold, exposed country it would
not be wise to buy sheep from the hot plains of central
Australia. If merino wethers are chosen, it would be advisable
to get them from a flock that has travelled some distance.
The discipline of the road will have quieted them, and by
going among them constantly they will feed almost as steadily
as crossbreds. But whether longwool crossbreds or merinos,
ewes or wethers, they should be, as nearly as possible, of the
same age, even in size, and there should be no tail to the lot.
To secure these conditions the purchaser will have to pay a
higher price than for the ordinary run of stores, but it will be
money well laid out, as there will not then be a considerable
portion of the flock to be sold at almost store price when the
time comes for disposing of them. Fattening sheep on small
properties is assuming very important proportions, as anyone
may see for himself who attends the Flemington yards on a
Tuesday morning. The visitor will be struck by the many
small lots of fat sheep sent in by farmers, whose business is
much thought of by stock agents. Many of these lots may
well be described as very “mixed,” but they leave the grazier
a fair profit, and the quality of farmers' stock is reported to be
steadily in proving.
Sheep dealing is quite a distinct business from that of the
grazier, who buys store stock and fattens them for market.
No one should undertake sheep dealing but an expert, and to
such an one advice would be almost an impertinence. Occa-
sionally one who has not much experience in sheep dealing
may take advantage of a glutted market and purchase half or
three-quarters fat sheep at but little more than store price,
but even this requires considerable caution, or under appa-
rently the most favourable conditions a loss may result
instead of a gain. After a few years' experience in grazing
sheep, most men will acquire sufficient knowledge to become


SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
213
somewhat of dealers, and it is but natural that they should
put their knowledge to the best use. There is a piece of
advice given by an old-fashioned English farmer, which it
will be well for all graziers to bear in mind when about to
purchase store stock. It is found in the “Boke of Hus-
bandry," already quoted, and is to the following effect :-
“ Take hede where thou byest any leane cattell or fat, and of
whom and where it was bred. For if thou bye out of a better
grounde than thou hast thyselfe, that cattell will not lyke
with the.” There is, however, another point in favour of
grazing sheep on agricultural land, and that is the cleaning
and manuring of the soil, and in the greater portion of the
cultivated land of Australia this is the only way in which
such cleaning and manuring can be done. So useful are
sheep for this purpose that instances have been frequent
where farmers have asked as a favour to have a flock of
sheep put on their land merely to eat down the rush of weeds
and self-sown crop brought up by a fine fall of rain in
summer. When the rain has been general and plentiful, there
is usually but little margin between the price of store stock
and of fat, but if the farmer realizes only a sufficient sum to
pay expenses and interest on the cost of the sheep he has put
a good profit into his land. He may, however, look forward
to doing something more than merely paying expenses under
any circumstances.
BREEDING LAMBS FOR MARKET.—This is usually a profit-
able occupation, either in a permanent flock or when sheep are
put on the farm for the purpose of breeding a lamb and then
are disposed of. It has this great advantage: that it can be
undertaken at’a moderate outlay of capital. For the purpose
of raising a lamb or two old ewes are as good as young ones;
indeed they may be preferred, for, when well treated, they will
produce excellent lambs. They are very much quieter, and, to
crown all, they can be purchased for much less money than
young ewes. There are, however, old ewes and old ewes, and
the buyer must be careful to avoid sheep which, though not so
very old, are yet broken down in constitution by bad usage.
There is a much better choice annong old ewes than among
young ones; one may buy the cast ewes from a good flock, from
which no amount of money would tempt the owner to sell the
young ones. Old merino ewes appreciate a quiet life much
more than younger sheep. With kindly treatment, quietness,
and plenty of food they improve wonderfully on what they
were when on a large sheep-walk. It is judicious, however,


214
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
not to keep them for more than one season. In selecting the
ewes all that is required is to see that they are of good size
and of sound constitution; the quality of their wool is a matter
of comparative indifference. The choice of the ram requires
the exercise of more care and judgment. For lamb-breeding
no rams are so suitable as those of the Down breeds, and of
these the South Downs and Shropshire Downs are the best.
Lincoln, Border Leicester, Romney Marsh, and Cotswold rams
are all serviceable sheep for this purpose. The Romney Marsh
sheep are very useful for raising lambs in cold, exposed situa-
tions, as their progeny are very hardy, grow well, and are said
to fatten rapidly. They have this objection, however, to
crossing with merino ewes : as the lambs' heads are so large
many of the ewes die in lambing; but this objection dis-
appears if crossbred ewes are used. In rich soil districts
Lincolns or Border Leicesters will be found good sheep as
sires, while Cotswolds will prove serviceable almost anywhere.
In selecting the sire, size, shape, and a tendency to early
maturity are much more important points than the quality or
even the quantity of his wool. In purchasing a draft of
ewes for the purpose of raising lambs for market, large-framed
merino ewes will be found cheaper, and, in most districts of
Australia, more suitable to the purpose, than crossbred ewes.
Pure-bred longwool ewes are too dear to be available. Any of
the breeds named as suitable to couple with merino ewes will
answer quite as well when coupled with crossbred ewes,
always remembering that the Down breeds—when they can be
obtained—are better suited for raising lambs for market than
any other variety of our domestic sheep. In choosing a ram
for this purpose it is better to pay a good price, and get one
from a first-class stud that has an established reputation for
soundness of constitution and early maturity. A little extra
money laid out in the purchase of a pure-bred sire is money
well spent, even to breed
breed crossbred lambs. The farmer
should, of all things, avoid that fraud-a crossbred ram. He
has no type with which to stamp his progeny; his stock can-
not be depended upon; and he will prove in the future, as he
has ever done in the past, a fraud and a disappointment. A
robust young ram, in good condition and well fed, will serve
from 100 to 130 ewes; the smaller number will be found the
better if good healthy lambs are desired. Instances may be
furnished of a single ram serving 200, or even more, ewes in
one season; but experience has shown that the produce of such
over-worked animals are not distinguished for robustness of


SHEEP HUSBANDRY,
215
constitution. In all breeds of our domestic animals where a
fashionable sire—be it a stallion, bull, ram, or boar—is over-
worked, the produce are very apt to exhibit a marked deterio-
ration when they in turn are used as sires. It is to this
cause, quite as much as over-feeding, that many practical men
attribute the degeneracy and barrenness that so often distin-
guish fashionable families of our domestic animals. No animal
was ever put to a more crucial test than the game-cock, and
those who remember anything of that bygone sport will know
that, in breeding for the pit, it was not considered advisable to
put a male bird to a score of hens. In breeding lambs for the
market strength of constitution is just as much required in the
stock as in breeding for a permanent flock. A sturdy, well-
shaped lamb will thrive from the first, while a weakly one
will be a useless encumbrance, upon which good food will
be thrown away. Cattle-breeders have a saying which all
breeders of stock should bear in mind, and that is, “ Never
lose the calf fat.” In breeding lambs for market it is of the
greatest importance that the lamb should go on thriving from
the time he is born till he is handed over to the butcher. For
lamb-breeding merino ewes are more useful than longwools or
crossbreds, as they take the ram more readily, and can thus be
used for producing lambs at any required season.
THE VARIOUS BREEDS OF SHEEP.
There are many varieties of the domestic sheep scattered over
the face of the globe, each doubtless possessing some peculiar
characteristics that fit the type for the conditions of life in the
locality in which it is found, and it is worthy of notice that
there are almost as many distinct varieties of wild sheep
known to naturalists as there are types of the domestic sheep.
Of the latter we have only to do with the four great families
the Merino, the Longwool, the Down, and the Mountain
sheep.
THE MERINO.–From his ancient pedigree, his interesting
history, and his beautiful fleece, the noble merino naturally
occupies the place of honour at the head of the list. There is
no doubt that the merino is the fine-wool sheep noticed in the
very earliest records of history. These fine-wool sheep were,
when we first read of them, in the possession of the Phoeni-
cians, by whom they were taken to Greece, Italy, Carthage,
and Spain. In the last-named country they attained their
greatest fame, and there they were kept till the latter


216
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
1
half of the eighteenth century. Under the kings of
Spain the merino sheep were most jealously guarded,
the penalty for exporting them, without the permission
of the government, being death. From about 1768 till
1778 several presentations of pure merino sheep were
made to the kings of France, England, and Prussia, the
Emperor of Austria, the Elector of Saxony, the Government
of Holland, and from these sheep have sprung all the
European merino flocks. At the time of the disposal of the
Spanish merino flocks during the Peninsular war, a large
number of the finest of the Transhumante or travelling flocks
were purchased for America, and from these are descended the
stud merino flocks of Vermont.
The first importation of merinos into Australia was made
in 1797, when a small lot of pure merinos were brought from
the Cape by some officers of the English army, stationed at
Sydney. The sheep were descended from the merinos pre-
sented by the King of Spain to the Dutch Government. * Of
this little flock Captain Wm. Macarthur obtained a few, and
he alone of those who shared the sheep among them is said
to have kept his stock free from mongrel strain. In 1804 he
added a few sheep obtained from the pure flock bred by
George III., and since that time the flock has been bred
without the introduction of any outside blood. The Mac-
arthur flock was dispersed and lost, but an offshoot of the
pure strain was preserved and brought to Victoria by the
Hon. W. Campbell, in 1846. This flock, culled from the
parent one in New South Wales, known as the Camden flock,
did the country great service, and it is mainly due to the
strong infusion of Camden blood that Victorian wool took
such a high stand in the markets of the world at an early
period of the settlement of the colony. Shipments of pure
merino sheep were made in considerable quantities to Tas-
mania in 1825 and in 1832. Mr. Thomas Henty emigrated to
Tasmania, bringing with him his celebrated flock of merinos,
which was of such high quality that in England he was paid
the compliment of being debarred from competition at shows
of merinos. This flock was afterwards brought to Victoria.
Another celebrated imported flock was that of Mr. Furlonge,
at first taken to Tasmania and afterwards brought to Victoria,
where it formed the foundation of one of the most celebrated
stud flocks in the colony, namely, the Ercildoun flock. The
merino wool grown in Australia created a revolution in the
wool markets of the world. It was softer, brighter, and longer


SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
217
in staple than any fine wool grown elsewhere, and it still main-
tains its pre-eminence for softness and brightness, though it has
been equalled by the wools of other countries for length of
staple.
VICTORIAN MERINOS.--Owing to the influence of pasture
and climate, the Australian merinos have already assumed
several distinct types. Of these the most celebrated are the
stud flocks reared in the Western District of Victoria. These
sheep are of good size, well shaped, and of robust constitution,
but their glory is in their wool—the true golden fleece of
Australia. For softness, brightness, fineness, and length of
staple the wool of these sheep is unequalled in the world.
The whole of the sheep in the Western District are somewhat
of the same character, the quality of the sheep varying according
to the care and skill displayed in their breeding, and to the
character of the pasture. North of the Dividing Range, on the
level country through which the Murray runs, the merinos are
of a larger frame, and their wool is more robust in character.
In every respect the sheep in this country resemble those of
Riverina.
THE TASMANIAN MERINOS.— These sheep are smaller in size
than those of Victoria, very well shaped, short on the leg,
remarkably robust, dense in the fleece, of fair staple, and
remarkably well covered on the points and underneath.
During the last 20 years a great improvement has been made
in the length of staple, a few of the most famous studs
equalling in this respect the longest-woolled sheep of the main-
land. The Tasmanian merinos are celebrated for the quality
of their wool, but it is not generally so bright as that of the
Western District of Victoria. Their admirable qualities have
made them famous all over Australia, and few of the first-class
studs in the colonies but owe a considerable proportion of their
excellence to an introduction of Tasmanian blood. From far
into the tropics of Queensland to the South of New Zealand,
and from the eastern to the western coasts of Australia, they
are everywhere highly appreciated by flockmasters, Their
pedigrees are the most aristocratic of all the southern flocks,
and in their hardihood, the value of the fleece, and their high-
bred
appearance they are true descendants of the noble Spanish
merino.
RIVERINA MERINOS.—The vast plain of Central Australia is
now one of the most famous sheep-breeding countries of our
island continent, on which are reared immense flocks of really
magnificent sheep. When first taken up by graziers, sheep


218
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
farming did not prosper. Merinos increased greatly in size on
these hot plains, but their wool degenerated so greatly as to
become almost worthless. Most of the early settlers gave up
sheep-breeding in favour of cattle, but those who persevered
were well rewarded. The result of their skilful management
of the acclimatized animals is that the fine district called
Riverina can now produce as profitable a sheep as any in
Australia. They are considerably larger in frame than the
Victorian merinos, and their wool is of a more robust type, the
staple is long, and the fleeces weigh much more than is generally
the case in Victoria. As an instance of their size, a notice
appeared in the Argus a few years ago of some splendid car-
cases of merino mutton exhibited in Mr. T. K. Bennet's shop,
some of which weighed as high as 85 lbs., the lowest being
70 lbs. These were not picked sheep, but a fair run from a large
flock; indeed, the sheep noticed were nearly the last of the
flock. They were from Mr. S. Falkiner's station, Boonoke, on
the Edwards River. The country is now much more heavily
stocked than it used to be before it was enclosed, and, in
consequence of the over-stocking that is unfortunately but too
commonly practised, the size of the sheep is somewhat reduced
from what it was in the old shepherding days. Some illus-
trations have been given in the Australasian of heavy fleeces
cut by Riverina stud sheep, some of which went as high as 24 lbs.
unwashed. This weight was cut by a ram bred by Messrs.
Austin and Millear, at Wanganella, N.S.W. There is no
question as to the accuracy of this statement, as the sheep was
shorn and the fleece weighed in the presence of “Bruni,” the
Australasian representative.
SOUTH AUSTRALIAN MERINOS.—These sheep resemble those
of Riverina in many points ; they are large framed, heavily
fleeced, long in staple, and of a robust type of wool. A
famous stud for many years w
that of Mr. C. B. Fisher, of
Hill River, which was continued under the ownership of Mr.
E. W. Pitts, of the Levels. These sheep were too strong in
the wool for most breeders of merinos, but they had much to
recommend them. They were of very large frame, and cut a
great weight of wool. They were essentially a profitable
sheep. The best known South Australian studs of the
present day are those of Mount Crawford (the oldest in the
colony), Hill River, Canowie, and Bundaleer.
NEW SOUTH WALES MERINOS.-The merinos of New South
Wales (apart from Riverina) have not achieved the world-wide
fame gained by the Victorian and Tasmanian sheep; but there


SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
219
are, nevertheless, some very high-class flocks in the country.
The most celebrated of these are the Mudgee stud flocks, of
which the Havilah may be taken as the highest type. New
South Wales sheep-breeders have some fine stock in their
flocks, but they are not so skilful in preparing them for show
and market as are the flockmasters of Victoria and Tasmania.
It is a significant fact that the greater portion of the rams
sold at the annual sales every spring in Sydney are from
Tasmanian and Victorian studs.
QUEENSLAND MERINOS.— Though of more recent formation
than those of any other colony, except Western Australia, the
stud flocks of Queensland are already attracting notice. The
three most celebrated flocks in this colony are those of Messrs.
G. Clark and Co., of East Talgai, whose sheep are of pure
Tasmanian blood; Mr. C. B. Fisher, of Haddington Hill,
whose flock is an offshoot of that bred by him for years at
Hill River, South Australia ; and the Gunbower flock, Darling
Downs. Over a large extent of the enormous pastures of
Western Queensland the merino can hardly yet be described
as a thoroughly acclimatized animal; but they give promise
of producing sheep of good size, and yielding a most profitable
fleece.
LONGWOOLS.
LINCOLNS.—Of the many families of the sheep generally
described as longwools, the Lincoln well deserves to occupy
the first place in the estimation of flockowners. Originally
a large-framed, badly-shaped, and large-boned animal, slow in
coming to maturity, and with nothing to recommend him but
his large fleece of remarkably lustrous wool, the Lincoln has
been completely altered by the skill of English sheep-breeders,
who have made him a well-formed sheep, and with a tendency
to early maturity surpassed by none. These improvements
have not been effected without some alteration in the character
of the wool, which has suffered somewhat in lustre. Such
large sheep naturally require plenty of food, and cannot travel
far to get it. The Lincoln is not well calculated to thrive in
the parched plains of Central Australia or on thinly-grassed
hilly country. The rich pastures of Warrnam bool or Gipps-
land, or the clover and turnip fields of New Zealand, are more
to his taste. Under favourable conditions, Lincoln ewes can
be sent to market soon after they have got their first sheep's.
teeth, at weights varying from 75 lbs. to 85 lbs. Lincoln
sheep fattened at that age make excellent mutton, but kept
1


SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
221
farmers, and there was for a long time only one pure Cotswold
flock in Victoria.
ROMNEY MARSH SHEEP.—It is only during the last few
years that the Romney Marsh sheep have attracted any atten-
tion at the hands of Australian flockmasters, and it is extremely
probable they would never have been thought of but for a
serious outbreak of fluke that spread over a large part of
Victoria, infesting even some of the most healthy sheep country
in the colony. The spread of the disease brought the fiuke-
resisting qualities of this breed of sheep into prominence.
Many flocks of Romneys would doubtless have been established
but that the fluke disappeared almost as suddenly as it made
its appearance.
The lesson learnt on that occasion has not
been forgotten, and there are now several flocks of these sheep
found in very moist districts where other breeds of sheep have
signally failed. In New Zealand, Romney Marsh sheep are
greatly prized, and some of the best specimens of the breed
are to be found in that colony. They are much used for
breeding crossbreds to stock the sheep-walks on the bleak hill-
sides of Southland and Otago. Like the Lincoln, they too
have been “improved,” but at the loss of some of the hardi-
hood for which the old breed was so famous. They are as large
in carcass as the Lincoln, but their fleece is not so heavy, and
the wool is not worth so much per lb. as the Lincoln wool.
THE DOWN SHEEP.
SOUTH-DOWNS.-- There are many families of Down sheep
in England, each of which has a staunch body of admirers.
That they all possess excellent qualities no one acquainted
with them will deny. The original type of the Down sheep
is believed to be the South-Down, which is regarded as in-
digenous to Britain. Certain it is that sheep of this breed
were reared on the Sussex Downs before the Conquest. For
many centuries they were famous for their hardihood and for
the quality and flavour of their mutton. They were originally
small sized and badly shaped, but the skill of modern breeders
has altered all that, and now a more perfectly formed sheep
does not exist than the South-Down. Like all the Down sheep
the South-Downs cut a small fleece of wool of not a high value
per lb.; consequently the breeder of Down sheep must look to
carcass for his profit. It is only fair to add that, given fair
treatment, they will not disappoint him in this respect. The
modern South-Down cuts a much heavier fleece than was


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THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
usual with the breed of sheep 20 years ago, but it is still of
much less value than the fleece of the merino or longwool.
SHROPSHIRE DOWNS.—These sheep are believed to be a cross
of the South-Down with a native Shropshire breed. By
careful and skilful breeding they have been formed into a
splendid type of mutton sheep. They are larger than the
South-Down, almost as well shaped, and their mutton is of the
highest quality. They have been introduced into Southern
New Zealand, where they are more fancied than almost any
other breed of sheep for shipping in a frozen state to the
markets of the old country.
HAMPSHIRE Downs have been occasionally imported into
Australia, but no stud flock of this breed has been formed.
They are larger than either the South-Downs or the Shropshire
Downs, but coarse in appearance.
OXFORD Downs.—This breed was formed by crossing the
Hampshire Downs with the Cotswold sheep, and persevering
till a fairly uniform type was formed, in which the Down
characteristics are more pronounced than the Cotswold. A
few specimens have been brought to Australia, but they are
not in favour with sheep-breeders.
OTHER BREEDS.—The British mountain sheep comprise the
Black-faced, the Highland, the Welsh, the Irish sheep, and
the Hardwicks. As yet none of these breeds have been tried
in Australia, though, doubtless, they would thrive well in the
bleak mountain ranges of New Zealand, Tasmania, and the
Australian Alps.
BREEDING.
Though the horses, cattle, and sheep of Australia have
achieved a world-wide celebrity, yet by a curious coincidence
the principles of breeding have not been so carefully studied
by colonial stock-breeders as one might naturally expect. An
exception, however, must be made in favour of the breeders
of thoroughbred horses, who are greatly assisted in their
business by the existence of those invaluable works of refer-
ence, the Stud Book and the Racing Calendar. In breeding
studs of horses, cattle, and pigs, the owners usually arrange
to what sires the females in the stud shall be put; but in
breeding merino sheep, the most valuable of all our domestic
animals, it is not an uncommon thing for Victorian stud flock-
owners to delegate to experts the important work of selecting
and coupling the breeders. This custom, however, is unknown
in Tasmania, and but little practised in New South Wales and


SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
223
South Australia. Neither is it usual with Australian breeders
of longwools to employ experts to select their breeding sheep.
It is very strange that such a practice should come into usage
in a country like Australia, where the majority of flock-
masters have had such a long experience in the business, and
are generally acknowledged to be such excellent judges.
There is a general impression among stockowners that
before the time of Bakewell, Webb, Booth, Bates, and other
celebrated breeders, the management and breeding of our
domestic animals was conducted in a haphazard way, but this
is a great error. Before the improvements made by the
distinguished stock-breeders named, each district possessed
varieties of the domestic animals well suited to the conditions
of life in the locality, and having all the fixity of type of
a distinct breed. The modern stock are improved greatly in
shape, and mature much earlier; but it has of late been often
questioned if this improvement has not been secured by the
loss of the hardihood that made the old breeds so valuable.
In the minds of many thinking men, too much has been
sacrificed for early maturity, which has been mainly secured
by breeding from immature animals and forcing by means of
stimulating food.
That the main principles of stock-breeding were understood
and practised by the ancients the earliest records of history
give us ample proof. The importance of annually culling the
stock was pointed out by Columella, who says with regard to
the breeding flock—“But you must take care to review every
year this sort of cattle, as well as all herds and flocks what-
soever, and to pick them carefully; for both such as have
brought forth young and are old, and have left off breeding,
must be removed, and also such as have never been with
young, which take the place of those that are fruitful.”
BREEDING A PERMANENT FLOCK.
The object of an Australian sheep farmer, in breeding a
permanent flock, is to produce sheep of good size and well-
shaped carcass, bearing heavy fleeces of a useful, marketable
description of wool. In this respect the intending sheep
farmer cannot do better than make a careful study of the
flocks kept in the district, note the style of management
of each flock and which type thrives best. If the country
is composed of rich soil, and the climate moderately moist,
the pasture will be more suitable for longwools than


224
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
>
any other breed of sheep, and here he will have very little
trouble in establishing a flock, for excellent specimens of this
fine breed of sheep are sold at our annual sheep sales at very
moderate prices. Should the climate be bleak, and the country
of a marshy description, the best breed—indeed, the only
breed-calculated to live in such a locality and withstand the
attack of fluke is the Romney Marsh sheep. They have
been well tested in the Western Port district, and, where every
other breed of sheep has died out, the Romneys have lived
and thrived. Where the sheep have to travel a good deal for
their food, merinos, Cotswolds, or Down sheep will answer well.
In purchasing Lincolns or Border Leicesters it will be well to
commence with young ewes. Down sheep are more difficult
to get, and it will probably be necessary to send to New
Zealand or New South Wales for them. As they are not
plentiful, the price will probably be pretty high.
SELECTING EWES.-If merinos are chosen, it will be found
a good plan to purchase the cast breeding ewes from a good
flock. They will breed a lamb or two if taken care of, and
they will not be very high priced. There is this advantage
in buying such sheep, the farmer gets ewes that have been
considered good enough to be kept in the breeding flock on
a well-managed estate; while, if he buys young ewes, in
99 out of 100 instances they have been culled because
they are not fit to breed from. In the series of articles
on “Sheep Husbandry for the Farm,” by “Bruni,” which
appeared in the Australasian, and which have been already
quoted from, the following remarks occur "For one who
has not much experience in sheep-breeding, it is not at all
a bad plan to purchase a draft of cast ewes from a really
good flock and put them to the ram. Old ewes appear to
appreciate and benefit by a quiet life much more than
younger sheep. With kindly treatment, quietness, and plenty
of food, they improve wonderfully from what they were on
the station. They will give at least a couple of lambs, which
are always excellent, and may then be fattened for market.
Ewes are useful for breeding purposes for a much longer
time than it is the custom to keep them in Victorian flocks.
Ewes that have given as many as eight and ten lambs are
common in America, and their constitutions last quite as well
in Australia. I have known the plan I have mentioned tried.
by a Victorian farmer, and the result was eminently satisfactory.
The old ewes gave a much larger profit than did a lot of very
fine store wethers that were purchased to follow them. The


SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
225
advantage of this plan is that the farmer makes his first
venture in sheep keeping at a very small outlay of capital.
The lambs from such sheep are often quite as good as those
from much younger ewes, and there is always this consideration,
that old breeding ewes can be purchased from a flock from
which young ewes could not be procured at any price.” In
selecting the type of sheep care must be taken not to over-
estimate the capabilities of the country. Thinly grassed hills
will not produce such magnificent sheep as those reared on the
finest portions of the Riverina plains. Nor would such country
be profitably employed by stocking it with the best specimens
of Lincolns from the Warrnambool district. On the other hand,
it would be a grave error to put high-class merinos on black
soil flats, on which the pastures are rich and heavy. Any
farmer of average intelligence will avoid such extreme errors
as these by simply noting what is being done in the way of
sheep-breeding around him.
CHOOSING RAMS.-Above all, do not purchase an inferior
ram because he is cheap; £10 or £15 on the price of a sire
will often make all the difference between a sheep that will
give every satisfaction in his stock and one that will prove
an utter failure. It is a false economy to save a few pounds
and buy an inferior ram, In the ram you have one-half
of the parentage, and as he is usually of the purer breed
his influence on the stock is greater than that of the ewe. In
the fleece the first point to look at is quantity. Fineness of
fibre is very attractive, but the main object of the farmer
is to rear an animal that will give him a good profit; there-
fore, quantity of wool is a most essential point. The ram should
exhibit no sign of weakness in any part of his fleece. He
should stand firm and square on his legs, with a good chest,
well-arched ribs, and be short on the leg. If a merino, he
should be well covered on the points and underneath, with
ample forehead and cheek pieces, and his face should be
covered with soft, downy hair. No matter how good a ram
may be elsewhere, if he have a bald face, with hard glistening
hair on it, reject him; there is a flaw in his pedigree some-
where, and he will not give satisfaction as a sire. In forming
a breeding flock it is the best plan to have the sheep all of the
one type, with the wool as nearly even all over for quality,
density, and length of staple as can be obtained. A little
quality sacrificed to ensure evenness is no loss. In breeding
merinos the farmer would do well to buy his rams from a
well-known stud, whose qualities have stood the test of years
16


SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
227
CROSS-BREEDING.—If there is a will-o'-the-wisp calculated to
lead the sheep farmer into all sorts of difficulties and dis-
appointments in forming a permanent flock, it is the practice
called cross-breeding, or breeding from two distinct varieties of
sheep. Since Australia became a pastoral country there have
been any number of attempts to form a new type of sheep,
combining the size and shape of the longwool with the fleece
of the merino. Every such attempt has resulted in miserable
failure. Cross-breeding, to form a permanent flock, has been
condemned by all practical men who have written on the
subject. The two great varieties of the domestic sheep—the
woolly and the hairy sheep-are too strongly opposed in their
nature ever to thoroughly amalgamate. The result of the first
cross is a very profitable animal for the market, but the
produce of the first cross inter-bred exhibit a great falling off,
and the experiment carried further only shows greater
oscillations in the type. The only remedy, if the stock are
kept, is to breed persistently to one pure type. It is much
easier to establish a desired type of animal by employing one
pure breed, or kindred breeds (such as the various families of
longwools), than to adopt cross-breeding. For many years
English horse-breeders (the best horse-breeders in the world)
have attempted to form a distinct breed in the Clevelands;
but, notwithstanding their skill and years of experiment, the
Cleveland is still a crossbred animal, without any defined type,
and it is necessary to constantly have recourse to the thorough-
bred to keep up the stock. The same thing occurs in breeding
bull terriers, where it is necessary to recur, every now and
again, to one or other pure breed. By introducing the bull-
dog cross into the greyhounds it appears as if the experi-
menters introduced a defect in order to show that it could be
eliminated, after many generations of breeding back to the pure
strain. Even in breeding from a pure breed it is better to avoid
extremes, such as coupling a very long stapled sheep with a
very short one, a very open one with one that is remarkably
dense in the wool, or a large-framed heavy sheep with a light-
boned small one. All improvements are better effected by
gradual approaches to the desired type. Every step taken
will be more certain, and there will be less oscillation in the
produce. The old saying, “slow and sure,” applies to sheep-
breeding as well as to many other matters, though in this age
of feverish energy the motto is somewhat out of favour.


228
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
SHEEP FEEDING.
Until the last few years such a thing as providing a supply
of artificial food for a general flock was considered an utter
impossibility by Australian flockmasters. It was regarded as
one of the natural consequences of sheep farming in Australia
that in periods of severe drought a large proportion of the
sheep would die from starvation. The plan of feeding stud
sheep first led flockmasters to believe that something might be
done in the way of providing a store of food for the general
flocks in a time of scarcity. On one occasion, a large flock-
owner in the Western District of Victoria saved his flock by
buying up all the wheat straw within a distance of 20 miles.
Another went so far as to grow a large quantity of fodder and
keep it in reserve, and yet, though the plan of feeding sheep
during a drought is believed to be perfectly practicable, it is
still very rarely done. During the summer of 1881 a very
interesting experiment was made by a flockmaster in the
Western District of Victoria, in the way of feeding sheep
running at large that had never been accustomed to anything
of the sort. The season had been a fairly good one up to the
month of February, but the usual March rains failed, and,
though there was abundance of dry feed and water, the
lambing ewes that were in excellent condition commenced to
die without any apparent cause.
On being examined, the
stomachs of most of them were nearly empty, and the intes-
tines fairly choked up, the contents being hard and dry. The
general flock, which had access to plenty of salt, fared better,
and but few of them died till about three weeks later on.
The salt evidently acted as an aid and a stimulant to the
digestive organs, and helped these sheep greatly. Still, it
became evident that some remedial measures must be taken or
a large portion of the flock would be lost. We will give the
flockmaster's own description of the plan adopted by him, as
described in a letter to the Western Agriculturist :-“We
commenced with bran, and, as there was no time to loose, simply
pegged down boards on the ground on their edge, making long
troughs 14 in. wide, with batten railing 18 in. high, or 10 in.
from the top of the trough, to prevent the sheep from getting
into and destroying the feed by dirtying it. Filling the salt
troughs with bran also is a sure and speedy way of getting
them to take it. We shepherded the sheep round the troughs
for about an hour, and that was all that was required. There
was no waste after the first morning, the bran was always


SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
229
cleared out, and in a few days the sheep knew feeding time,
and came stringing down to the troughs from all parts of the
paddock. As there were about 2,000 ewes to feed, we had
about 500 ft. of troughing altogether, sheep feeding from each
side, and standing as close as they could pack, taking very
little over a foot of room each, so that nearly, if not half of
the flock, were accommodated at one time, and as soon as the
first lot fell out the others were waiting to take their places.
The laxative effects of the bran were soon apparent, the flock
began to improve, and in a short time they ceased to single
out and stick up. After a time we altered the feed to about
three parts good oaten hay chaff to one part bran, and the
sheep seemed to prefer it to bran alone. With this we con-
tinued to feed till about a week after the first good rain, when
further continuance was found unnecessary. We began to
feed on the 23rd March, and ceased on the 21st April, and I
believe saved 500 of our ewes. Had we commenced
say
three
weeks sooner we would have lost but few sheep, and would
have also had a better lambing. As it was, from first to last
we lost a total of 400 ewes. When feeding with bran alone
we allowed at the rate of lb. per sheep, and afterwards i lb.
chaff and 1 lb. bran mixed. It might be thought that the first
sheep at the troughs would eat more than their fair share, but
this was not the case, and the troughs were often not cleaned
out till late in the afternoon.” The cost to feed 4,000 sheep in
this manner for a month was estimated by the writer at £200,
but by growing the food this outlay could be greatly reduced.
During the long continuance of dry seasons in the Western
District this dying of sheep while in excellent condition, and
on ample but very dry pasture, has become very common
during the last seven or eight years, the deaths being caused
by the sheep being quite unable to digest the dry grass, which
was as little calculated to sustain life as so much paper.
The following remarks, which deal with the question of
sheep feeding on farms, appeared in the Australasian of
4th February, 1882:-" In the early days of farming in these
colonies an attempt was made here and there to carry out
English systems of farm husbandry. In Victoria in the
Maryborough district) turnips were grown for sheep, and were
fed off, as on English farms, by folding the flock between
hurdles, giving a fresh hitch daily. This plan, after a few years'
trial, was discontinued, the increased cost of labour and the
gradually lessening value of mutton together rendering it
unprofitable. But the climate of Victoria was also a factor in


230
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
this business ; grass was always to be had, winter and summer,
and that without cost; turnips and hurdles were therefore
voted useless encumbrances, and abandoned. A few years later
certain enterprising farmers (of whom some are now largely
engaged in pastoral pursuits) grew successional crops of
mangels, which they fed off with sheep between hurdles; the
sheep also having a run at grass for a few hours daily.
Under this system the land next year grew really splendid
crops of barley, or was sometimes again cropped with
mangels, or, as an alternative, with potatoes or an oaten hay
crop. In some seasons a heavy crop of rye-grass would be
cut for hay, and the land be left in that grass for a seed crop
the second year. One thing was determined by the adoption
of the system of feeding off crops between hurdles, and that
was, that the land was kept in good heart, was fit for any
crop in succession, and, the manure being distributed with
regularity, the following crop, whatever its character, was
more level and more nearly uniform than under the hap-
hazard system of treatment commonly practised. A near
approach to this system, viz., that of depasturing sheep
between nets, which are less cumbrous than hurdles, is still
in vogue amongst a few Scotch colonists; but even that plan
has now few adherents. Our readers will have observed that
we have persistently recommended the adoption of a plan of
subdividing pastures as the best means of making the most of
them under existing circumstances. We have shown that
pastures divided into sets of three or more paddocks, only
one of each set being stocked at one time, will maintain fully
double the number of sheep or cattle that the entire area of
the sets would depasture throughout the year. Then as to
sheep, there is no reason why farmers, holding 320 acres in
suitable districts, should not keep a fair flock. A farmer
with a family would be at no extra expense. The habit of
regularly attending to certain business is a good one, and the
daily shifting of hurdles or nets would constitute a useful
training for youth in farm husbandry.
By growing crops
especially for feeding off, and by employing the stock to
manure the land on which such crops are to be grown, much
may be done towards enhancing the general fertility of a
farm. A system of rotation may be adopted and successfully
carried out; each portion of the farm may be brought into
the rotation in turn, and, under such a system, pastures may
be positively improved instead of being worn out as they now
are on most farms in the course of a very few years. Native


232
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
ENSILAGE.—This mode of preserving fodder for stock has
not yet received that attention at the hands of Australian
husbandmen that its importance deserves, though there is
every reason to believe that when thoroughly known the
practice of preserving green food in a silo will become as
popular in Australia as it now is in Britain and America. As
stock-keeping becomes more practised by small proprietors
we may expect to see the silo advance in favour. The climate
of Australia, even in its driest localities, is not unfavourable
to the operation; it does not matter at what time of the year
the growth of green stuff is obtained, the crop can be preserved
with the greatest certainty. On one or two occasions pre-
serving green fodder in a silo has been tried in Australia.
Some two years ago, Mr. W. Lamb constructed a silo near
Sydney, which has proved remarkably successful, stock of all
descriptions taking readily to the ensilage, and, what is of equal
importance, doing well upon it. Last spring, Mr. H. Hoyt, of
Melbourne, constructed a silo on his farm, in which he stored
the crop from a small piece of river flat. The result exceeded
his most sanguine expectations. His dairy cows took readily
to the ensilage, and throve well upon it. He also established
the important fact that the milk of his Alderney cows was
not tainted in the slightest by the use of ensilage. In South
Australia, also, the silo has been tried with complete success.
SHEEP-PROOF FENCES.—Before bringing sheep on to the
farm, it will be absolutely necessary to carefully review the
condition of the fences. If they are not sheep-proof, the
presence of a flock of sheep on the farm is more likely to
become a curse than a blessing. Should the fences be out of
repair the sheep will trespass on the adjoining land, and thus
cause an ill-feeling between neighbours. "If, instead of straying
on to the neighbouring farms, they get out into the government
roads, they will likely become a sport for all the vagabond
dogs in the district. There will be a deal of trouble in bring-
ing them back to the farm, and some will, in all likelihood,
never be seen again. Merino sheep are easily kept within
fences, but if the farm is stocked with longwools the greatest
care must be exercised in putting the
fences in repair, for they
have a genius for breaking bounds. The trouble and irritation
they have caused by escaping out of apparently securely fenced
paddocks can be appreciated only by those who have had to
do with them. Next to a four-rail fence, with very deep rails,
the only secure fence that we have heard of for longwools is
the ordinary sheep wire netting. This is attached to a couple


SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
233
of wires stretched in the ordinary way on posts-one wire at
the head of the netting, the other near the ground. This style
of fencing is coming into use on Victorian estates, and the plan
is adopted of sinking the netting a few inches into the ground.
This fence answers two purposes: it keeps the sheep safely
within bounds, and it is an effectual bar to the incursions of
rabbits, which is a most important consideration. Where
cattle are kept it is a good plan to run a barbed wire a few
inches above the top of the netting.
RABBIT-PROOF FENCES.—In the description of the Five
Rivers estate, in New Zealand, by “Bruni," which appeared
in the Australasian of July, 1884, the property is described
as being enclosed with a ring fence of wire netting, which
effectually prevented the vermin from swarming over the
estate from the rabbit-infested hills in the immediate neigh-
bourhood. An excellent rabbit-proof fence has been con-
structed by some landed proprietors in Tasmania, which
would be worthy of adoption in districts within reach of good
splitting timber. It is a paling fence in which the palings are
set between two wires, a few inches from the ground, and two
others a few inches from the top of the paling. The wires are
strained in the ordinary way, the two lower wires running
through one hole in the post, and the two upper wires running
through another. Between each paling is a small iron clip,
which brings the wires close together and keeps the paling in
place. There is a great saving in such a fence, no rails or
nails being required, and the posts are put fully 6 ft.
further apart, and thus there is a saving in the item of posts.
A fence of a similar description has been used in Victoria, in
which the small loops between each paling are not necessary.
In this fence the wires at top and bottom are crossed between
each paling and then strained.
SHELTER.—The permanent divisions of the farm that cross
the line of the prevailing cold winds in winter and spring
should have hedges planted beside them, if there is any
prospect of their growing. They will be well worth the
trouble taken in their cultivation, as they will shelter the
stock from the piercing blasts of winter, and will also
shelter the grass. The best hedge to grow is the Cape box-
thorn, which is extremely hardy. If the soil is very poor, it
should be broken up to a considerable depth, and it would
be expedient to mix with it some soil or sand in the process of
working. The seed should be sown very thinly in rows, from
2 ft. to 3 ft. apart. They should be planted out next winter,


SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
235
soft grass, caused by warm autumn rains, will often cause a
scald, which is very apt to develop into footrot. Occasionally
this disease attacks a flock of merinos in a most sudden and
virulent manner, and before any remediable measures can be
taken the whole flock are on their knees. In paring the sheep's
feet great care is necessary to avoid cutting any of the large
blood vessels. A well-shaped knife with a sharp edge is neces-
sary to make a good job of it, and, unless the operator is an
expert, he had better work very slowly. The disease should
be laid fairly open, so that a liquid will gain easy access to the
whole of the parts affected, and then the flock should be run
through a trough of water in which arsenic has been dissolved
at the rate of half-an-ounce to the gallon. Often if the sheep
are run through a trough containing a solution of arsenic of
that strength, or a little weaker, when a scald first makes its
appearance, the disease is at once arrested. Lambs are liable to
severe scald, from which they frequently recover without any-
thing being done to them; but, if the scald is very severe, it is a
good plan to run them through a solution of one-quarter of an
ounce of arsenic to the gallon of water. Bluestone was much
used for footrot in the early days of the settlement of Victoria,
but it is not nearly so effective as arsenic used in the proportions
named.
THE RED WORM.—Lung worm or throat worm has of_late
been common over a considerable extent of Australia. It is
very common in many of the finest portions of Queensland.
It is sometimes very prevalent in the coast districts of Victoria,
and it is not unheard of in portions of New South Wales.
There are various remedies for this disease, but, so far as we
know, none of them very effective, and some very difficult of
application. One cure that promised well at first was to cause
the sheep to inhale the vapour of carbolic acid, but this
rendered it necessary for the sheep-farmer to fit up a close
chamber -a_thing that the owners of small flocks would not
care to do. It has been alleged, and not without some show of
reason, that though by this means the disease was cured, the
sheep were often killed owing to unskilful treatment. What
is wanted is something that the sheep will take themselves in
the field, and thus save any trouble and cost of administering.
On the Jimbour estate, Darling Downs, Queensland, the sheep
were given salt and chloride of potassium in the proportion of
ten of the former to one of the latter. The mixture was put
in small troughs on the pastures, and the sheep took to it
readily. In“ Bruni's” report on the estate it is stated that, after


236
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
being supplied with this remedy for a short time, none of the
sheep were troubled with red worm.
LICE AND TICKS.—These insects often interfere with the
comfort of the sheep so much that they suffer in health and
condition. To remove them the sheep are dipped after shearing,
and for this purpose there are several well-known patent
remedies, each of which is well patronized by flockmasters.
A really effective cold water dip that will not discolour or
injure the wool, and yet destroy the insect, is a difficult thing
to get. The following remedies have been tried by several
stockowners :- Take 70 lbs. sulphur to 300 gallons of water, 30
lbs. of lime. To dissolve the sulphur properly the best plan is to
make it into a paste before putting it into the boiling water,
as by so doing all lumps will be the easier dissolved. The dip
should be kept at blood heat. A second recipe is as follows :
Half-an-ounce of arsenic to the gallon of water: time in dip,
60 sec.; temperature not less than 90 deg. The latter plan
cannot be recommended. A solution of arsenic is a dangerous
thing to dip sheep in, and may lead to serious loss. The
patented remedies will probably be found much better than
these cheap dips.
Dogs v. SHEEP.
In some parts of Australia wild dogs do a good deal of mis-
chief among sheep, but the domestic dog has a wider range,
for there is scarcely a district in the whole of the colonies in
which sheep are not constantly worried by domestic dogs. So
serious is this evil that in some localities well fitted for the
business of the sheep-farmer the owners of the land dare not
put sheep on their farms, knowing well they would be
destroyed by the worthless curs of the neighbourhood. Often
the small farmers are the worst offenders in this respect, for
they, having no sheep themselves, keep a pack of useless dogs
that are allowed to run loose, and at night prowl about the
country either for food or sport, and no sport suits them so
well as a flock of ewes and lambs. The dogs from the small
villages are quite as bad. In these places there is usually some
loafer known as a “sporting man,” who keeps a few mongrel
greyhounds which he neglects to feed, and they naturally go
out at night, followed by all the curs of the village, to prey
upon the sheep in the neighbourhood. Detection in these
cases is very difficult, for the offenders sneak off after dark, and
are home again before daylight. For a long time past complaints
of sheep having been worried by dogs have been made by


238
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
stock he may make a good estimate, but of the yield of wool
he is generally quite at sea. The following information as to
the weight of wool cut by some of the best stud flocks in
Australia may serve to throw some light on the subject:—The
Hon. Phillip Russell, of Carngham, Victoria, published a return
of his whole clip for the year 1878. The flock consisted of
23,598 sheep (including 4,682 lambs), which yielded 2 lbs.
154 ozs. of hot-water washed wool per head, and which realized
6s. 5d. In the contest between the Havilah, New South
Wales, and some leading Victorian clips in 1866 the Ercildoune
clip averaged 7s. 5d. per sheep, and Mr. J. L. Currie's Larra
flock averaged 7s. 5d. per head, the greater portion in both
flocks being breeding ewes. In 1878 the Ercildoune flock
averaged 7s. 9fd. During the five years, 1873–7, the average
value of the wool cut by the Warwillah, New South Wales,
ranged from 5s. 1 d. to 6s. 04d. per head. On the Wanganella
estate, New South Wales, the weight of fleece from 11,718
breeding ewes in 1878 was 7 lbs. 12 ozs. of greasy wool perhead.
At the wool exhibition held by Messrs. Hastings Cuningham
and Co. in their wool warehouses, Melbourne, 1879, we find
the following values among the prize-takers :-Merino wool-
For 50 fleeces washed wool, Messrs. W. Gibson and Son, of Scone,
Tasmania, took first prize with an average weight of 5 lbs. 0.3 ozs.,
which, valued at 2s. 7d., gave 13s. per fleece. Sir Samuel
Wilson was second, with 50 fleeces, that gave an average weight
of 4 lbs. 103: oZs., valued at 2s. 3 d. per lb., giving an average
of 10s. 6d. per fleece. In greasy wools, Mr. Thomas F. Cumming,
of Stony Point, was first, with 50 fleeces that averaged 8 lbs.
143's ozs., valued at ls. 4 d., giving 12s. 2 d. per fleece. Messrs.
Peppin and Sons, of Wanganella, New South Wales, were
second, with an average weight of 10 lbs. 7ozs., valued at
1s. 1d., which gave Ils. 37d. per fleece. Mr. J. L. Currie,
junior, of Larra, was within jd. per fleece of the Wanganella
wool. In the longwools, Messrs. Rutledge Brothers, Werrong-
gurt, took first prize, with 50 fleeces in grease, that averaged
15 lbs. 03: ozs., valued at 7}d., and gave 9s. 4fd. per fleece. Sir
William Clarke, of Bolinda Vale, was next, with an average
of 10 lbs. 23. ozs., valued at 10d. per lb., or 8s. 5 d. per fleece.
At the same show Messrs. W. Gibson and Son exhibited 5
merino ewes' fleeces in the grease that averaged 9 lbs. 5ozs.,
and valued at 1s. 4}d., gave 12s. 9/d. per fleece. In 1878
Messrs. W. Gibson and Son, of Scone, Tasmania, cut from
6,000 sheep 4 lbs. of hot-water washed wool per head. This
wool is of very high quality, and is always brought out in first-


SHEEP HUSBANDRY.
239
rate condition. In 1877 the Parramore (Tasmania) stud flock
cut an average of 6 lbs. 13 ozs. of greasy wool, which sold for
1s. 2d. per lb. In South Australia the Canowie general flock,
consisting of 59,997 head, cut an average of 8 lbs. 15} ozs. of
greasy
wool per sheep, and 4 lbs. 5 ozs. per lamb, which sold for
is. O d. per Ib. for damaged fleece, Is. 2 d. for fleece, and 1s. 4d.
per lb. for lambs' wool. The greater portion of the grown
sheep in this flock were breeding ewes. In 1879 the Levels
flock yielded an average of 8 lbs. 3 ozs. of greasy wool per head,
one-third of the flock being lambs. This wool realized Is. per lb.
The farmer will find it an almost hopeless task to rival the
celebrated studs of Australia for fineness of wool, but he will
find a more robust type of sheep better suited to the con-
ditions of life on the farm, and quite as profitable as the more
attractive fine wool sheep.
Longwools yield a heavy fleece when kept on a suitable
pasture. Lincolns have gone as high as 30 lbs. of wool in the
grease in the fine pastures of the Western District. Border
Leicesters come next in weight of fleece, and then we may rank
the Romney Marsh sheep. There is, however, a great drop in
the price of long wool just now, the coarser descriptions ruling
very low. The Downs do not cut a heavy fleece, but in this
respect they have been greatly improved by modern breeders.
Mrs. Woodhouse, of Rockwood, New South Wales, has a small
flock of South Downs, bred from the finest flocks in England,
that yield up to 13 lbs. of greasy wool. The shearing of a
small flock can be easily managed. Learners should be en-
couraged by everyone, for in a pastoral country like Australia
every able-bodied young man should know how to shear. If
this plan was adopted we would hear less of the trouble
flockmasters have at times in getting their sheep shorn. The
old plan in Tasmania was to let a young fellow go on shearing
at weekly wages, and see that he learned a good style of hold-
ing the sheep and his shears. Afterwards he received payment
per 100 sheep, but was limited to the number he could shear
per day. By these means a good style was learned at the
outset, and never abandoned. A learner hurrying in shearing
a sheep will be sure to hack it in a most cruel manner.
That sheep-breeding will be practised by all classes of land-
owners in the colonies within a few years we are firmly
convinced, and the time is not far off when agriculturists will
feel surprised that sheep husbandry on the farm should have
ever required a strenuous advocacy to induce agriculturists to
adopt it.


240
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
CHAPTER XVIII.
HORSES.
The breeding of horse stock is extensively carried on in the
Australasian colonies, being a more or less important interest
upon nearly all farms and stations. As in the case of cattle,
stud animals of the highest character have been imported from
the United Kingdom, and the various breeds have been
established in the several colonies. Importations continue to
be inade upon a considerable scale, and horse-breeding is likely
to become more and more important as the colonies increase
in population and progress is continued in developing their
various resources.
THE CLYDESDALE HORSE.—Amongst the various breeds of
draught horses, the Clydesdale is the most popular in the
Australasian colonies, all the settled districts employing
Clydesdales more extensively than any other. Horses of this
breed are found to be suited to the climate and other con-
ditions of the country, and to serve a great variety of purposes,
both in cities and upon farms. They combine strength with
activity, and owe their popularity to their sterling merits as
draught stock.
THE ENGLISH BLACK HORSE.—This breed is now seldom
met with in its original form, but it has played an important.
part in producing, by crossing, several useful varieties of cart
horses. The large, muscular London cart horse is one of the
best results of improving this breed. The characteristics of the
breed are strength of bone and muscle, compactness of form,
slowness of action, and general suitableness for heavy work.
English “shire-bred” horses are in many cases the result of
improving the original black horse by Clydesdales and other
breeds.
THE SUFFOLK PUNCH.—This breed, so called from the
peculiar compactness or punchiness of the horses, is considered
to have sprung from the use of the Norman stallion along
with the Suffolk cart mare. They are strong, and of medium
size, suitable for heavy work, but more active than the larger
English horses. Several importations of the breed have been
made into the colonies, and the horses have been found very
useful, giving general satisfaction. They have not, however,
come so generally into use as the Clydesdales.
THE NORMANBY HORSE.- In the United States the Norman
or Percheron horse is as popular as the Clydesdale is in the
1


HORSES.
241
Australasian colonies, and, although many of the latter are used,
the former are more generally employed. Very few Norman
horses have been imported into the colonies, but the breed is
likely to increase in popularity as it becomes known. They
are medium-sized muscular horses, longer and lower than the
Clydesdales, with lighter bone, and legs less hairy. They are
active, serving well for the quick, light work of American
farming. The breed would probably be found nearly equally
useful in the colonies.
THE RACEHORSE.—Breeding racehorses has received a great
deal of attention in the colonies, and large numbers of thorough-
breds have been imported, establishing several pure studs.
Although breeding for the racecourse is not commonly at-
tended to upon farms and stations, practical agriculturists are
interested in the thoroughbred horse, on account of his useful-
ness in the production of carriage horses, hunters, and hackneys.
The English thoroughbred horse is of Eastern origin. "It
is now admitted,” says Youatt, “that the present English
thoroughbred horse is of foreign extraction, improved and
perfected by the influence of climate and diligent cultivation.
The beautiful tales of Eastern countries and
somewhat remote days may lead us to imagine that the
Arabian horse possesses marvellous powers; but it cannot
admit of a doubt that the English trained horse is more
beautiful and far swifter and stouter than the justly famed
coursers of the desert.
The racer is generally
distinguished by the beautiful Arabian head, tapering and
finely set-on neck, oblique lengthened shoulders, well-bent
hinder legs, ample muscular quarters, flat legs, rather short
from the knee downwards-although not always so deep as
they should be—and his long and elastic pastern.
THE HACKNEY.-In breeding the hackney, speed is not the
first consideration. Safety, good temper, easy paces, and en-
durance are all important. The size and strength of the hack
may vary according to the weight or taste of the rider, and
the breeding of the animal is of less importance than the
possession of useful qualities. Good hacks are frequently
found among the half and three-quarter-bred horses, such often
possessing symmetry, strength of limb, and quietness of temper,
with endurance and liveliness. "A horse with too great knee
action,” says Youatt,“will not always be speedy; he will rarely
be pleasant to ride, and he will not in the long run be safer
than others. The careless daisy cutter, however pleasant on
the turf, should indeed be avoided; but it is a rule not often
>
17


HORSES.
243
infusion of blood nearer to the racehorse. They are, accordingly,
crossed by hunters or thoroughbred horses, and thus another
variety of coach horses is produced, of lighter form and higher
breeding, and many of the superior Cleveland curricle and four-
in-hand horses are now nearly thoroughbred. The bay colour is
in most general estimation, but the grey is not unfrequently
used.” The Cleveland is also used with advantage in produc-
ing hackneys and hunters.
THE TROTTING HORSE.—The trotter, as distinguished from
the ordinary buggy or carriage horse, has been brought to the
greatest perfection in America. Upon the origin and develop-
ment of the American trotter Professor Brewer says:—“From
early colonial times horses have been more generally owned
by the masses of the people here than in any country of
Western Europe. They have had a more general use in agri-
culture and business, their ownership or possession has had
less social significance, and they have had less importance as
instruments of gambling. The colonists who settled north of
Delaware Bay, although of various nationalities, were largely
those whose religious prejudices and social education were
opposed to horse-racing. With the great majority of them it
was considered a sort of aristocratic sport, and at least led to
unthrifty ways, even if not open to the objection of positive
immorality. Consequently but few racers were imported into
this region in colonial times. The original horse stock of
the northern colonies came from several European sources.
England, Holland, France, and Spain certainly, and Sweden,
Denmark, Germany, Ireland, and Italy probably, contributed to
it. The blood from this variety of sources, variously mingled,
formed the mongrel stock of the country. This was further
modified by local conditions and local breeding, assuming dif-
ferent characters in different places; and the hardships of horse
life incident to a new country, with strange forage and a rough
climate, causing deterioration in size and form. Early writers
are unanimous on this point, but many add that what was lost
in size and beauty was gained in hardiness and other useful
qualities. After the war of independence there was an im-
provement in the live stock of the country. English thorough-
bred horses were imported both for sporting and to improve
the horse stock of the country, and horse-racing rapidly grew
in favour as wealth and leisure increased. The export trade
in horses to the West Indies increased, particularly from New
England. Pacers were most sought for this trade, but some-
times trotters were advertised for. As horse-racing increased


244
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
in the last years of the last century, the opposition to it
revived, and in the earlier years of the present century this
became ascendant, and stringent laws forbidding the sport
were passed in most of the Northern States. The prohibition
was sweeping and the penalty severe. Horse-racing was then
a contest between running horses, and, during this repression of
racing, trotting as a sport began, at first in a very unostenta-
tious, irregular, and innocent sort of a way. Probably no people
or class of people have ever bred good horses which they
prized and were proud of, who did not find pleasure in seeing
them compete in speed or show their fleetness in some way,
and during the repression of racing (which meant running)
trotting came in as a substitute, poor though it was at first.
It had a sort of encouragement from very many thrifty people
who were not sportsmen, and was in a measure considered as
a sort of democratic sport in which even plough-horses could
take part. Racing of any kind in those days was a strife be-
tween two or more things, as it still is in most countries; no
one thought that a single horse could run a race alone, but the
instinctive inclination to see a spirited horse in action could be
mildly gratified by letting him trot, even if single and alone,
and testing by the watch how quickly a given distance could
be covered. So 'timing' animals came to be practised. We
hear of it on the Harlem racecourse in 1806, four years after
the law forbidding horse-racing had been enacted, and again, a
little later, and it was near Boston, reputed that certain horses
could trot a mile in three minutes. This speed seemed so ex-
traordinary that in 1818 a bet of a thousand dollars was staked
(and lost that no horse could be found to trot a mile in three
minutes. Some authorities date the beginning of trotting as
a sport with this event. It is said that in betting the odds
against the successful performance of the feat were great,
which shows, strikingly, the enormous progress since made in
developing speed at this gait.”. The quickest trotting records
of 1884 are— Maud S., a mile in 2:9 min., and Jay-Eye-See
2:10 min.
CAVALRY HORSES.- Large numbers of horses are bred in
Australia for the Indian market, and the business is one
likely to be considerably extended. The following article,
published in the sporting columns of the Australasian,
deals with the present condition of the Indian trade-
“ The advent of Colonel Williams, of the Indian Remount
Service, has created some commotion among Australian
breeders. The appearance in Australia of the gallant colonel


HORSES.
247
and if it is disposed of satisfactorily, Colonel Williams's
inspection will have borne good fruit.”
BREEDING.-- The principles of breeding apply equally to
all animals. Good progeny is not to be expected from bad
stock, but the breeder must look to the sire and the dam for
the qualities which he wishes to attain in the offspring.
Breeding animals must be healthy and of good constitution,
and then the purer the breed the more likely they will be to
transmit their own qualities to their progeny. At least one of
the breeding pair should be of a pure breed, for it is only in
such circumstances that progress can be made in improving
the character of the stock, an animal of short pedigree being
always liable to transmit the inferior qualities of some ill-bred
ancestor. With a pure-bred animal of one sex and a cross-bred
animal of the other, progress can be made, but still better
results are obtained from two pure-bred parents. Even
with pure-breds, however, of the best quality, there will be
occasionally inferior offspring. Selection must, therefore, be
continued, rejecting the inferior and retaining the best for
breeding purposes.
THE STALLION.—As stallions are few in number in com-
parison with the number of mares, there is no excuse for using
any but pure-bred animals of healthy constitution and desirable
general character. A cross-bred mare will produce stock more
or less valuable according to the horse with which she is mated,
but a cross-bred stallion affects the breeding of the horse stock
in a whole district. The stallion should be well fed with
nutritious but not fattening food. He requires to be in good,
healthy, and active condition, but not fat. The stable should
be dry, well littered, well ventilated, and the horse should get
plenty of grooming and exercise, with not too much work in
the stud Fattening stallions, for the sake of winning prizes at
shows, endangers the life of the animal, and injuriously affects
both the number and quality of its foals.
THE MARE.—The mare should be as good as possible, and of
sound constitution. According to the breed and the growth of
the individual animal, the age at which fillies should go to
the horse for the first time varies from three to four years.
The period of gestation averages about 11 months, the early
spring being the horsing and foaling season. While in
foal, the mare should be well fed, and she may be worked
moderately till within a short period (three or four days) of
foaling, over-working and under-feeding being both injurious.
The mare should be carefully watched about the time of


HORSES.
249
well as green fodder, may be given to horses in moderate
proportion to other food, and a change of diet, if not too
violent, is beneficial. A supply of salt is necessary in horse
feed, and there is an advantage in steaming or boiling food,
thus rendering it more easily digested. When not at work
horses may be fed upon a larger proportion of either soft,
coarse, or more fattening food. Grooming is an important
part of horse management, the well-groomed horse being more
healthy, thriving better, and requiring less food than the one
upon which the curry-comb and brush are not regularly used.
A dry, well-ventilated stable should be provided for horses,
and good, liberal treatment throughout is the most economical.
In breaking-in working horses all harshness of treatment
should be avoided, and bad-tempered men should not be
employed in handling such valuable stock. Cruelty and
violent treatment spoil horses, and should therefore be
avoided upon economical grounds, as well as owing to humane
considerations.
CHAPTER XIX.
CATTLE.
CATTLE breeding is an important branch of agricultural in-
dustry, in which great progress has been made during the
present century. The art of breeding has been brought to
great perfection, and cattle are not only kept upon the greater
number of cultivated farms, but vast tracts of territory in new
countries such as Australasia and America have been stocked,
the stocking-up process still going on in various parts of the
world. Australasia possesses peculiar advantages for grazing
cattle, owing to its vast natural pastures, and the mildness
of its climate. In the United States, the winters, even as far
south as Texas, are too severe to admit of cattle being fattened
on open runs, as in Australia. Mr. T. K. Dow, reporting upon
the American cattle-breeding interest in the Australasian,
shows how many superior advantages are possessed by
Australia as a grazing country. The following may be taken
as an example of the American system of raising cattle for
market :-“As the Western Land and Cattle Company's ranch
is within the prairie belt, Mr. Hilton has to provide food for


CATTLE.
251
consists in the fact that animals which for several generations
have possessed certain qualities are more likely to transmit
their characteristics to their offspring than other animals with
shorter pedigrees. In the case of a pedigreed animal its
characteristics are to a great extent permanent and hereditary,
while those of the animal without pedigree may be only
accidental, and consequently not hereditary. Having secured
pedigree, also choose an animal with good constitution and
desirable form and quality. With this exercise of care in
choosing the breeding stock, attention must not be relaxed, for
there will always be calves which show qualities inferior to
others. Reject the worst and keep the best. This course has
to be followed, not only to improve the breed, but in order to
prevent retrograding: Breeding, “in-and-in ” strengthens the
power of the animals to reproduce their characteristics. If
defects or tendency to disease exist they will be quickly
developed, and hence the belief that “in-and-in” breeding is
injurious. With healthy stock, however, of great perfection of
form and quality, the system is advantageously adapted, with
selection, to maintain the desirable characteristics. To breed
successfully, hard and fast rules cannot be followed, but the
breeder must observe, read, think, and experiment.
VARIOUS BREEDS.—As the various breeds of cattle possess
widely different characteristics, the farmer or grazier is able to
choose the breed best suited for the purpose he has in view,
and to the natural conditions of the locality in which he is
situated. The special dairying breeds will commend them-
selves where milking qualities are required, and those with the
best flesh-producing capabilities where raising stock for the
butcher is intended ; while the suitableness of the cattle to the
local conditions of climate and pastures will also be taken into
account.
SHORTHORNS.—The shorthorn breed, owing to its various
points of merit, holds a premier place among cattle intended
for beef-producing purposes. Its suitableness to the various
parts of the Australasian colonies has been fully established, and
not only have numerous pure herds been established, but con-
siderable progress has been made in improving the character
of the general stock by crossing with the shorthorn breed.
The breeder of beef-producing cattle aims at obtaining an
animal with large frame, small bone, small head, short legs, and
the quality of coming early to maturity and converting the
food consumed into the largest proportion of flesh in relation
to the gross weight of the animal. The shorthorn possesses


252
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
{
these characteristics in a high degree, and, if less hardy than
some other breeds, gives a better return for liberal feeding and
general good treatment. The colours are red and white in vary.
ing proportions, but they are distinct and not blended.
HEREFORDS.—This breed of cattle comes next to the short-
horns in regard to general adoption in Australasia, and has its
fanciers who place it in the first rank in regard to merit. The
colour is red with white face, and more or less white on the
under parts of the body. The pure-bred animals are well
formed from a beef-producing point of view, come early to
maturity, fatten quickly, and are more hardy than shorthorns,
being, consequently, fancied for enduring extremes of heat and
cold. There are many pure herds in the colonies, and the
breed has done much towards improving the general character
of our farm and station stock.
DEVONS.—In England the Devon cattle hold a high place in
public esteem, being by many farmers and breeders considered
superior to the Herefords. The South Devon cattle are
smaller than shorthorns or Herefords, but-possessing wide
and well-formed frames, thickly fleshed-produce a heavy
weight of very fine beef. The colour is red, and the cattle
have a very handsome appearance. They are a hardy breed,
and the pure herds established on the Hunter River, in New
South Wales, have been highly successful, showing the cattle
to be well suited for the country.
POLLED ANGUS AND OTHER BREEDS.—The Polled Angus or
Aberdeen breed has attracted much attention of late years. It
is an improved breed produced from the Scotch Galloway
cattle. The Angus cattle are black, and without horns,
and possess many of the qualities looked for in the beef-
producing breeds. The Sussex breed has been rivalled by the
shorthorns, Devons, and Herefords, and the English long-
horns have also fallen behind in the race for public approval.
The dairying breeds of cattle are treated of towards the end
of this chapter.
TREATMENT OF THE BULL.—Two mistakes require to be
guarded against in feeding the bull, viz., starving and over-
feeding. The bull should not be fattened, and the practice of
getting up bulls into high condition for show is injurious.
Starving is also objectionable, for the bull, although not made
fat, should be kept in good, vigorous condition. Without
aiming at fattening, the careful breeder will give the bull a
good supply of nutritious food. Green or succulent food should
not be the basis of the bull's diet, but a mixture of pulped


CATTLE.
253
roots or green fodder is beneficial along with the dry food.
Meal of barley or beans, crushed barley or oats, mixed with
cut or pulped roots, will give vigour without fatness, and with
hay-chaff green fodder can be mixed advantageously, as with
all animals a mixture of food is beneficial. In England,
where oil-cake is a staple food for cattle, it is given sparingly
to the bull. As in the case of all male stud animals, care must
be taken to avoid impairing the fruitfulness of the bull by
overwork in the herd.
TREATMENT OF THE Cow.—Cows intended for breeding
purposes must not be fat, as this condition is generally un-
favourable to fruitfulness. It is not difficult to reduce the
condition of the cows as the season approaches, short pastures
and non-fattening food generally being available. As soon as
the cow becomes in calf, liberal feeding should be commenced,
and there is an advantage in keeping her thenceforward in
good condition. Milking is not injurious to the offspring if
not continued too long, but the breeder, who has the character
of the progeny mainly in view, will discontinue the process
about three months before the time of calving. Good treatment
generally, with freedom from excitement or violent exercise, is
necessary for the cow, especially during the later stages of her
period of gestation. A small
, well-sheltered paddock, or a roomy
loose box, will be useful for putting the cow into just before
calving, both for the benefit of the cow herself and the rest of
the herd. Abortion, if it should occur, will thus be prevented
from extending to other cows, as it frequently does when this
precaution is not taken. The cow should be watched at the
period of calving, so that assistance may be rendered if
necessary. The cow's period of gestation is 270 days, varying
in certain cases from 240 to 321 days, and the age at which
the heifer should be put to the bull is from 18 months to two
years, much, of course, depending upon the tendency to early
maturity possessed by the individual animal.
TREATMENT OF THE CALF.—When the calves are suckled
or fed by hand they should be allowed to remain with the
cows for a few days. During the first three or four days it is
beneficial both to the cow and the calf that they should be
together. Milk is the best food for young calves, and sucking
is the best way the calves can be fed with it. Hand-feeding,
however, for various reasons, is frequently practised, and in
carrying out this system the natural process should be imitated
as far as possible. During the greater part of the first week
the calf should be allowed to obtain its food by sucking, and


254
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
for the next three weeks it should get two meals a day of about
24 qrts. each of new milk direct from the cow, the quantity
being gradually increased up to 3 qrts. to 3} qrts. in the sixth
week. In order to economize the new milk, skim milk
may
be
gradually used after the first fortnight. At this period add
one-third of boiled skim milk to the new, the mixture being
of the temperature of milk when taken from the cow. A
week later, one-half of the food may be warm skim milk, and
soon afterwards a good mixture to adopt is wheat meal and
linseed meal, mixed in the proportion of two bushels of linseed
to one of wheat, and made into a gruel, which is mixed with
an equal quantity of skim milk. In the fourth week the calf
will also begin to take solid food, and, whether the food be
pasture or manger fodder, the change must be gradual. In
ħand-feeding with milk too great a quantity should not be
given, nor should the calves be allowed to drink too quickly,
the drinking being regulated either by means of a muzzle
or the hand in the pail. The leading principle to be kept in
view is to maintain a healthy growth from the beginning.
Any check or retrogression in the early life of the young
animal will have an effect upon its future condition.
TREATMENT OF YOUNG STOCK.—The calf having been kept
in a healthy growing condition, the aim should be to maintain
a good rate of progress until maturity is arrived at. A period
of under-feeding cannot be compensated for by subsequent
liberal treatment; the progress must be continued unchecked
if a large-framed, well-fleshed animal is to be produced. It is
the practice in some cases in the colonies to put the young
stock on poor, rough pastures, but this is a mistake. The young
cattle while growing should be kept on good grass, so as to be
maintained in as thriving a condition as possible. Hand-feeding
is not much practised in the colonies, but the system will
become more common as population increases, and holdings
become smaller. Pastures should be subdivided so as to
admit of changes being given to the stock. Water should
be plentiful and near at hand. In hand-feeding, dry cereal
food should be the basis of the diet, with a due proportion
of green fodder and roots.
FATTENING CATTLE.—In the Australasian colonies most of the
cattle are fattened upon the pastures; in America, maize is the
chief fattening food for cattle; and in England, oil-cake,roots, hay,
and other products are extensively used for fattening purposes.
A good supply of grass, with water close at hand, are the con-
ditions of successful fattening in the colonies. Subdivision of


CATTLE.
255
the pastures, and a supply of water in every paddock, are the
principal points to be attended to. Subdivision, in addition to
its other advantages, enables the grazier to save paddocks for
use at different seasons of the year. In the winter and early
spring, when the young grass is watery, a paddock of old
grass will be of great service, and enable stock to be fattened
when otherwise such could not be done. A supply of salt
within easy reach of the cattle is of great importance. When
grass becomes dry towards the end of summer, a supply of
green fodder and roots, which could be provided in many
cases, would be largely beneficial, and wheaten or oaten hay
could be utilized with advantage in the winter. In winter,
also, when the grass is weak and watery, straw is of consider-
able value. Straw and roots also go well together, and much
might be done in this direction in the way of fattening cattle
for market when prices are high. Wheat is a valuable fat-
tening food, although its price is frequently too high to make
it available for the purpose.
In Australia, however, and in
districts far removed from market, it could be used in this way
with advantage. It should be either sprouted, well crushed
or ground, and used along with chaff, as it is dangerous when
given to cattle whole. Linseed, oats, barley, and maize are
also fattening food. Of the roots, mangels and turnips are
the best for fattening cattle, although potatoes and carrots,
which are less valuable, are also used with advantage along with
other food. The Swede and yellow turnips are more nutritious
than the white. In the coast districts of Australia where root
crops can be grown, and in Tasmania and New Zealand, they
might be more extensively employed along with straw-chaff in
the fattening of cattle. It may be taken as established that,
for feeding cattle, food of all kinds is improved by being cooked
or steamed.
HOUSING CATTLE.Housing is seldom had recourse to in the
colonies; even in New Zealand, the coldest colony, the practice
being exceptional. It should be remembered, however, that in
many parts of the colonies shelter of some kind would be
advantageous. If the stock are exposed to cold, cutting winds,
and cold rains, they are not likely to thrive, as the food con-
sumed will be required to keep up their natural temperature.
Where grazing is carried on, therefore, shelter should be taken
into consideration. The planting of trees and hedges, and lay-
ing out the paddocks so as to render gullies and natural break-
winds available to the stock, can be made to do much in the way
of providing shelter, which is more or less needed at times, even


256
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
in the most genial climate. When cattle are kept in sheds,
either for fattening or the dairy, there should be plenty of
fresh air, cold wind and rain should be excluded, and the shed
should be kept clean and dry.
DAIRY CATTLE.
The success of dairy farming depends to a great extent upon
keeping the right kind of stock. There is no fact more clearly
proved, and firmly established by experience, than that well-
bred cattle are the most profitable; and there is no department
of the farm where this truth should be more strictly attended
to than in connection with the dairy. Just as the farmer who
aims at producing beef should keep nothing but well-bred
shorthorns, Herefords, Devons, or polled Angus; so the farmer
who wishes to produce milk, butter, or cheese, should select
the breeds of cattle best suited to that purpose. The leading
beef-producing cattle have, through being carefully bred for
generations with that object in view, developed a strong
tendency to convert vegetable food into beef, while in the
same way the dairying breeds have developed the power of
turning the food consumed into milk. By keeping the pure
dairying breeds, or improving the herd by crossing with the
pure types, the dairy farmer is enabled to obtain a profitable
yield from his cows, and no one has a right to expect this
branch of industry to pay who does not give due attention to
the character of his dairy stock.
CHANNEL ISLANDS CATTLE.
The best known breed of the celebrated dairy cattle of the
Channel Islands is called the Alderney in Australia and the
Jersey in America. They furnish the most striking example
of what can be accomplished by breeding for a special purpose.
For many generations the inhabitants of the Channel Islands
have been breeding their cattle with one object in view, namely,
the attainment of the most profitable dairying results. With
a dense population occupying a small territory, where farms
of four or five acres, for which high rents are paid, have to
support families, it is necessary to have stock that will give
the greatest amount of produce from a limited supply of food,
and this necessity, pressing upon the farmers from genera-
tion to generation, developed the world-renowned Jersey or
Alderney cow. So highly valued is the breed which has been


CATTLE.
257
developed that laws of the most stringent character are im-
posed to prevent the introduction of foreign blood. As the
making of butter is the chief resource of the Channel Islands
farmers, the richness of the milk, as well as its large quantity,
is a leading characteristic of the Alderney cow. The production
of the largest quantity of butter from a certain quantity of
food has been the aim of the Channel Islanders, and so suc-
cessful have they been that the Jersey or Alderney takes
highest rank as the butter cow of the world. In the United
States of America the introduction of the breed has been
highly successful, and the pure Jersey herds are rapidly in-
creasing in number. The profits obtained are not approached
by any other herds, and fancy prices are paid for pure cattle
of this breed. A want of attention to the breeding of their
stock is one of the principal defects of colonial dairy farmers,
and there is no question that largely-increased profits would
be made by a more general adoption of the celebrated Alder-
neys, which have been bred especially for dairying purposes.
For the use of families who keep cows on small pieces of land
near large cities the Alderney has much to recommend it, but
the adoption of the breed by the butter-makers of the colonies
is a more important matter. It is easy to obtain common
cattle, and some farmers persuade themselves that they are
good enough, thus contenting themselves with limited profits.
Beef-producers have found that it is unprofitable to keep any-
thing but well-bred, beef-producing cattle, and dairy farmers
should also act upon the same principle. The “butter-cow
should be kept by the farmer who wants to make butter-
producing pay. A cross of the Alderney with the Ayrshire,
shorthorn, or common cattle improves the dairying qualities
of the herd, and those who do not find it convenient to have
the pure breed would do well to obtain by crossing all the
good they can from the celebrated butter-producing cattle of
the Channel Islands.
From a beef-producing point of view the contour of the
Alderney is, of course, defective, but just as the model short-
horn conveys the idea of fitness for the butcher, the Alderney
suggests at every point the milking pail. The udder is large
and square, with well-developed milk veins; the trunk of the
body is capacious, showing adaptability for converting large
quantities of food into milk; and the rest of the cow is small.
Short legs with fine bone, small head with large kindly eyes,
thin short horns curved inwards, short jaw and wide muzzle,
together with a loose fine skin and attractive colour, make up
18


258
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
an animal that is beautiful, and the whole appearance of which
indicates the purpose it is intended to serve. The most of the
cattle are fawn-coloured, being light on the top and darker on
the sides, while the muzzle is also dark. There are, however,
several Alderneys or Jerseys which are of a silver-grey colour.
These silver-grey Alderneys are very fashionable, and command
high prices in England, but in general shape and for milking
qualities they are much the same as the fawn-coloured. The
breed has been introduced into Victoria and the other colonies,
and they are rapidly growing in favour among dairy farmers,
the cross with other breeds being especially well appreciated.
The Guernsey cow belongs to another branch of the Channel
Islands family. She is a larger and less shapely animal, but
possesses remarkable milking qualities.
AYRSHIRES.
The Ayrshire breed, which takes its name from the County
of Ayr, in Scotland, has attained a world-wide fame, owing to
its valuable dairying qualities. Some herds of Ayrshires have
been established in the colonies with imported stock, and, as
in the case of America, the breed has been found to give entire
satisfaction.
The Ayrshires are pretty cattle. Although they do not
possess the squareness and meat-producing qualities of the
shorthorn, they are more symmetrical than Alderneys, and
have a type of beauty of their own. Keeping in mind that
their claim to erinence rests upon their superiority as dairy
cattle, their form will be found to be as perfect for this
purpose as the form of the shorthorn is for the production
of beef. The udder and the means of feeding it are the
chief points in the dairy cow, and the Ayrshires strike the
eye as having these parts well developed. The udder is
very large, of squarish form, not pendant, but well held up,
with teats wide apart and pointing forwards. The hips are
wide and the ribs spring roundly from the back, giving
great room for the storage of food. With the exception of
the udder and the space devoted to the internal organs, the
parts are small.
With short legs and fine bone, a small
head and slender neck, added to the large development of
the body and udder, the Ayrshire cow seems admirably
suited for the conversion of food into milk. The eye is large,
bright, and kindly, the expression of the face pleasing, and in
nature the animals are remarkable for their docility. In colour


CATTLE.
261
DUTCH OR HOLSTEINS.—The Dutch or Holstein dairy cattle
are growing rapidly in favour among the dairymen of the
United States. They are large, well-shaped cows, with straight
back and deep loins, the prevailing colours being black and
white. The quantity of milk is large, and the quality rich,
being good for butter and cheese. Although the butter is
of very fine quality, the milk of the Dutch cow is still better
for making cheese. These cattle have hardy constitutions,
and they seem to thrive well both in warm and cold
countries.
FEEDING DAIRY STOCK.
All kinds of live stock repay good treatment better than
bad, and there is no department of the farm where the fact is
more certain than in connection with dairy cows. Half-starved
horses, growing cattle or pigs, are unprofitable, and over-stocking
and under-feeding are always to be condemned. It is the
same in regard to dairy stock. “The liberal hand maketh rich,"
and the man who tries to save money by under-feeding his
dairy cows will become poor.
FOOD FOR DAIRY Cows.—Grass is the best food for dairy
cattle. Not only are the cultivated pastures suitable for this
class of stock, but the natural grasses in most parts of the
colonies furnish food of the right kind. In most localities where
grasses can be cultivated, their cultivation should be attended to
mainly on account of the fact that they produce larger quantities
of food than the natural pastures. Subdivision of pastures is
one of the chief requisites, so that there may be a frequent
change and always an abundant supply of grass. With
abundance of grass and plenty of water, good dairy cows will
always give a satisfactory return. The cultivation of other
food is rendered necessary by the fact that a sufficient supply
of excellent grass is not available at all seasons of the year,
and the choice of food may be guided by remembering the
qualities of grass. The grass should be abundant, so that the
cows can quickly get enough and have plenty of time to rest
and ruminate. A supply of salt is specially important to
milking cows, and they should have it regularly and constantly.
In keeping up a supply of food, when the grass begins to fail,
the farmer will be guided by the kind of crops which grow
well in his locality. As the grass begins to dry in summer
green food will be required, and in the winter, when grass is
scarce and watery, hay and roots will serve the purpose of
keeping up the food supply. A sufficient area of land will


262
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
have to be devoted to producing the supply of autumn and
winter food. Rye, oats, barley, prairie-grass, or red clover
will furnish a good supply of early summer food and fodder;
maize, sorghum, or millet will take its place later in the season,
while lucerne will also be found a good summer fodder. A good
stack of hay provided for the winter will be serviceable with the
mangels or other root crops. Hay, especially if not steamed,
should be given with pulped mangels, beets, carrots, turnips,
cabbage, and other succulent food. Bran is always a
valuable addition to the food supply, giving generally a better
return of milk than any other food. The lucerne, maize, and
most other green food is better to be wilted in the field before
being put into the mangers, and all roots and dry food are
the better of being steamed. A mixture of food is generally
better than keeping the cattle long upon a single kind of
fodder.
STEAMING OR COOKING.— The advantages of steaming or
cooking should not be overlooked by the keeper of dairy
stock. Dry hay should be cut into chaff and steamed with
other food, and if wheat or oaten straw is treated in the same
way it can be used with advantage. In a similar manner the
wheat, oats, barley, pea or bean chaff, is converted into excellent
food for milking cows. In the Australasian colonies the dairy
cows can have the advantage of some pasture all the year
round, there being no severe winter months as in Britain and
America, during which the stock must be wholly fed within
doors. Having so little to do in order to keep up the supply
of suitable food all the year round, there is no excuse for
neglecting to provide for generously feeding the dairy stock.
SILOS.—The system of preserving green fodder in pits or
silos has recently received much attention in England and
America, where the severity of the winters render a large
supply of winter food for stock necessary. Upon the value of
ensilage, the food thus preserved, there are differences of opinion,
but experiments for the most part have been in its favour.
The Australasian writes as follows upon the subject :-“Silos
are constructed in various ways, according to the ideas of the
Neither wood nor masonry is absolutely required,
but there is an advantage in having the sides and ends smooth,
for then the ensilage fits closely against them, and, the air
being perfectly excluded, there is no loss of 6 in. of the outside
of the bulk through its becoming discoloured. A great many
notices have been given of this practice of preserving fodder
without making hay of it, and we will give you further in-
owners.


264
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
easily grown, but it should not be coarse, or the air will probably
not be completely excluded, and that is the main point. Most
growers now chaff the green fodder, because the silo can be
more evenly filled, and the air be thus more perfectly excluded.
Lucerne, and green oats, green wheat and vetches, are all
suitable crops for the purpose." It must, however, be stated
that some authorities hold the milk from ensilage-fed cows to
be inferior, and unsuitable for the purpose of preserving.
“Sweet ensilage,” produced by partly drying the fodder before
putting it into the silo, is advocated by the most recent
experimenters, and may be an improvement upon the other
kind.
CHAPTER XX.
SWINE.
THERE is no class of farm stock more profitable than pigs, but,
although offering many advantages to the farmer, the keeping
of swine does not receive its due share of attention in the
colonies. It cannot be that pig-keeping is a branch of industry
which, while suitable to an old-established country, is less
advantageous in new settlements, for in the United States of
America swine occupy a leading position in the farming system.
In the Central and Western States of America, as well as all
over the country, from north to south and from east to west,
the keeping of pigs constitutes a leading department of the
farmer's industry. Upon the hog business of Chicago and
America generally Mr. T. K. Dow writes as follows in the
Australasian:-“Large fortunes are made in different branches
of the hog trade, and you hear of men who got bu’sted in
trying to make a corner on lard.' I have already referred to
the way in which the hogs are fattened along with the cattle,
and how the pig utilizes the corn which is imperfectly digested
by the cattle. The pigs come to market from a distance rang-
ing up to more than 1,000 miles by rail, and, like cattle, they
are taken off and fed at feeding stations along the line. They
are, of course, sold by weight, and those which are not sent
away alive to other cities are put through immense packing
establishments and turned out in the form of 'barrelled mess
pork,' 'green hams loose,' 'green shoulders loose,' 'sweet
pickled hams,''long-cut hams boxed,' 'dry-salted shoulders


SWINE.
265
carcases.
loose,' short-ribbed middles,' short clear-middles,' 'long
clear middles,' “ Cumberland middles, steam-rendered lard,
'common grease,' and 'prime grease.' The trade of last
year, although not the largest, was upon an extensive scale.
There were received 5,817,000 live pigs and 36,778 dressed
Of this number 1,747,900 were sent away alive
and 40,000 dressed, leaving over 4,000,000 which were
packed in the city. The average weight of hogs received
during the year was 232 lbs. each. I visited one of the
packing establishments where 700 pigs a day were being
put through. This was one of the places where the Chicago
people are delighted to tell you the pigs go in hogs at one end
and come out pork at the other. Like the cattle in Mr. Swift's
establishment, the hogs here go through a well-arranged
routine, and a striking feature is the manner in which all
parts of the animal are made use of. When it is considered
how little attention Australian farmers pay to the pig business,
the magnitude of this branch of industry in America is astonish-
ing. In addition to the packing done in Chicago, there are
other cities engaged in the business, which brings the total for
the State of Illinois up to two-and-a-half millions annually,
while last year the State of Missouri packed 804,000 hogs,
Iowa 627,000, Ohio 618,000, while Wisconsin, Indiana, and
Kentucky packed about 800,000—giving a vast total for the
valley of the Mississippi alone. Prices in Chicago for packers
and shippers of heavy hogs range from 25s. 6d. to 35s. 10d.
per 100 lbs. live weight, the average being about 27s. For
light bacon hogs the range of prices is from 22s. 6d. to 32s. 6d.
These prices are not high, and point to the conclusion that
much more might be done with hogs in the colonies. Pigs are
raised in greatest numbers where maize is grown, but even
in California, without the assistance of this crop, large profits
are made out of the hog business ; and Australians might do
likewise.”
VARIOUS BREEDS.— The Berkshire, which is highly esteemed
in Britain and America, has been found the best for the
colonies. They are medium sized, inclining to large, shapely,
and attain great weight, black or blackish brown, or black and
white, thin skinned, fine haired, fatten quickly, and grow rapidly
to maturity. These may be considered the best general pur-
pose pigs, being good for either pork, hams, or bacon, and the
flesh containing a good proportion of lean and fat. The Chinese
breeds have their fanciers, and they are used a good deal for
crossing. The Essex, Sussex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cheshire, York-


268
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
pig-keeping profitable are generally those who give no proper
attention to the business, but no animal will more certainly
repay good treatment.
CHAPTER XXI.
POULTRY.
THAT the keeping of poultry is a profitable business seems
to be generally acknowledged, but there are very few who
think it of sufficient importance to demand special attention.
The weekly return from the poultry-yard in the spring and
summer, when a supply of eggs appears to be naturally pro-
duced, is looked upon as a welcome addition to the farmer's
income, but the importance of developing this source of profit
and keeping up the supply of eggs in winter, when prices are
high, is seldom recognized. Nothing, however, is better known
to the initiated than the fact that, with a knowledge of the
business and ordinary attention, the keeping of poultry can
be made to yield handsome returns. Many have been deterred
from going into this branch of industry owing to the prevalence
of disease among fowls. A fair start has been frequently
made, but when the number of birds has become sufficiently
large to bring in a payable return a destructive disease has
made its appearance, clearing off most of the stock.
be taken, however, as a certainty that in the majority of cases
disease is the result of bad management; so that skill and
care will not only render the poultry-yard profitable, but also
prevent any considerable loss from the visitation of diseases.
No business will pay if not properly attended to, and poultry
keeping is not an exception to the rule. A good breed of fowls
must be kept, and attention must be given to the details of
keeping them healthy, feeding judiciously, and breeding at the
proper season.
VARIETIES OF BREED.— There are good and bad breeds of
fowls, and among good breeds some are specially valuable
for producing eggs, while others excel as producers of birds
for the table. The breed should be chosen according to the
object which the poultry-keeper has in view.
LEGHORNS.—This breed is much fancied in the colonies, both
the white and the brown varieties being prolific layers. They
are small birds, and consequently not specially suited for the
It may


POULTRY.
271
centre of the farm are taken up by four large plots for the
main stock. In each of these plots, which are nearly half an
acre in extent, 50 fowls are kept, and every lot of fowls has
its separate house, although the four houses which have been
built at the centre of the farm are under one roof. The whole
of the land has been dug up by hand, and sown down with a
mixture of English grasses, and the greenness and freshness of
the pasture show that the run is fairly sufficient for the fowls.
FOWL-HOUSES.-Cleanliness in the fowl-house cannot be too
carefully attended to, as crowding the fowls on to a small
space and neglect of cleanliness in the fowl-houses are the
most fruitful sources of disease. At the establishment referred
to above, the pathways are covered with clean sand, and the
cleanliness of everything about the place is one of the most
striking features. In the dry, well-ventilated fowl-houses,
which are fitted up with breeding nests and roosting perches,
everything is perfectly clean, and the sand on the floor seems
to have been newly raked. The wooden sheds, the fences, the
small breeding-houses, and the trim grass-plots are all so neat
that there is no difficulty in believing that the greatest care
and attention are devoted to every part of the business in
hand.
FEEDING.–Feeding is, of course, a matter which requires a
great deal of attention, although much has been gained when
the fowls have been provided with a good run, sufficient shelter,
kept clean, and prevented from crowding too much together.
The following is the system adopted on the poultry farm
already referred to :-In winter the fowls are fed morning,
noon, and night, and in summer, morning and evening. The la
food is given in the shape of coarse meal. Oats, barley, and
peas are ground into coarse meal in a mill kept upon the farm,
and various mixtures of these materials are given at different
times in order to provide a change of food, a little pollard
being also used. The meal is mixed with milk or warm water,
and given to the fowls in a moistened state. In general,
enough green food is obtained from the grass, but in very dry
weather cabbage leaves or other vegetables are added. Boiled
carrots are also sometimes cut up and mixed with the food for
a change, and onions are also given at times in order to keep
the fowls in a healthy condition. Maize is scarcely ever used,
being considered too heating, and likely to cause disease.
Animal food also, which is good for encouraging laying, is not
given to the fowls, as it has been found to render them
unhealthy and liable to disease. By avoiding these latter


POULTRY.
275
day or two; then if she stays on the nest till you lift her off,
you can safely put all the eggs under her that she will cover.
When a hen will fly off the nest when you put the eggs under
her, do not trust her. These precautions are very important,
especially when we get egys that are high priced. We must
also see that when we set, it is not where other hens can gain
access to her, as they will get in and crowd the other hen and
break the eggs.
Where you do not have a place especially,
make a slab door and put in front of the box. I have my
nest
boxes so made that they have to get into them from the side;
this is to prevent them from roosting on the boxes. When
you have à hen sitting nicely, sprinkle some sulphur on her,
and also in the nest. Keep the lice out if
Keep the lice out if you want your chicks
to live. Some poultry fanciers recommend putting lard under
the fowl's wing; you might as well throw your eggs against a
rock, as when the pores of an egg get stopped with grease
rubbed off the hen they will not hatch. When a hen breaks
an egg on which she is sitting, wash her immediately with
blood-warm water. Use strong healthy hens for sitters. Some
recommend putting soil under a hen; this is to provide a little
moisture, which is good, but a better way is to sprinkle a little
warm water over the eggs each day, more especially after two
weeks' incubation. Take the hen off the nest carefully, and
give her some warm meal and drink; when she has satisfied
her appetite, let her dust herself if she wants to do so."
CHAPTER XXII.
BEES.
BEE-KEEPING has not received general attention in the colonies.
Considerable success has been attained where bees have been
kept, and they have been introduced in most parts of all the
colonies, but the industry has in very few cases been system-
atically attended to. In America much more has been done
in this direction than in Australia ; and in California, where
the climate most resembles our own, better results are obtained
than in any part of the United States, both large and small
apiaries being numerous. Colonial experience has been, that
beginners with bees are remarkably successful for a time; but,
frequently, when the hives become numerous, some disease


276
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
breaks out which sweeps off the stock. From this it is
evident that climatic conditions are highly favourable, but
that proper management is required to guard against disease.
Any kind of farm stock would take disease if entirely
neglected, and it is unreasonable to expect bees to be an ex-
ception to the rule. There have been sufficiently numerous
instances of successful bee-keeping in the colonies to prove
that the apiary will pay for good management, and that
a proper system alone is needed to render this department
of rural industry highly profitable.
BEES ON THE FARM.—It is not necessary to success that a
separate bee farm should be established after the manner of
the "bee ranches” of California ; but the apiary might be
made a profitable department of each homestead." Upon this
subject Mrs. L. Harrison writes as follows in an American
journal :-“We have often heard people say, 'I mean to have
some bees, and I meant to have them long before this. Yet
these persons live year after year without them, while their
fruit bloom is poorly fertilized, and the nectar secreted in the
flora of their fields and hedges is left to waste its sweetness.
Bees seem especially designed, in the economy of nature, to
gather up the remnants, that nothing be lost. This was forcibly
illustrated the past season, by the reports coming in from
different parts of the country of the large yield of honey
gathered from wheat stubble. When the wheat was cut,
before the straw was fully ripened, a sweet juice oozed out of
the straw where it was cut; in some instances the juice was
so plentiful that a clear drop of juice ran out of every stubble,
and some filled the upper joints and ran down the stubble.
It is a very rare season indeed that bees cannot secure enough
honey from some source to support themselves. We have
many times been despondent, thinking that we would get no
surplus, and have to feed our bees on their winter stores, when
all at once there would come a flood of nectar from some
unlooked-for source. A cool, wet spring and summer will
produce no honey, although the bloom may be abundant, and
yet it may be just the condition suitable to produce many
honey-yielding fall flowers. During the last autumn a large
amount of surplus honey was gathered from the different
varieties of smart weed (Polygumon). This honey was
beautifully white, and of a fine minty flavour. These plants
flourish on overlands and damp lands generally, although they
are found abundantly in this locality growing in corn fields,
and where early potatoes have been raised. Sweet corn is


278
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
found advisable after the queen commences the third year to
destroy her and replace her by a young one.
THE DRONES.—These are the males of the hive, whose only
use appears to be that of fertilizing the queen. They do not
engage in the work of gathering honey, but subsist upon pre-
pared pollen collected by the working bees. They are dis-
tinguished by being larger and more slow in their movements
than the workers. The drones only live three or four months,
for, when the swarming and honey gathering season is over,
they are driven out and starved by the working bees.
THE WORKING BEES.—The bulk of the hive consists of the
workers or infertile females. There are from 12,000 to 50,000
in an average hive, although as many as 100,000 have been
known to exist. The life of the working bee lasts for a period
of from 6 months to 84 months.
SWARMING.—Early in spring the queen bee becomes very
active in laying eggs, and the workers begin to prepare a
number of queen cells. These cells are sealed over, and about
a week before the first new queen is likely to be hatched out,
the criginal queen emigrates with the first swarm. The
working bees appear to be aware of the queen's intention,
for they will sometimes go off without her, returning for
her whenever she is missed. After the swarm flies off with
the queen it generally settles on some bush or tree in the
garden,
from which it can be easily and gently shaken into the
hive. If the swarm settles on or near the ground, the hive
may be placed above it, being supported on bricks or blocks of
wood from below. The hive should be perfectly clean, and it
may be made attractive by being rubbed inside with honey or
sugar. There is very little danger of being stung by the bees
during swarming, but nervous persons had better wear a veil-
dress in case of accident.
JOINING SWARMS.—Where a swarm is weak it is sometimes
advisable to join it to another. This operation requires some
management. It is best to take a new hive and let swarms enter
it together. The bees may also be sprinkled with syrup to give
both swarms the same odour, and drumming on the hive will
also assist in preventing a fight from taking place. It is better
also to take away one of the queens than to let the bees settle the
matter for themselves. The removed queen should be kept for
a day or two in case of accident to the remaining one.
TAKING THE HONEY.— With the slide-frame hive the opera-
tion of taking the honey is very simple. The frames can be
taken out at pleasure, the brood and brood-combs saved, and the


BEES.
279
season.
swarm generally left uninjured. The virgin honey can also be
perfectly separated, and the swarm is not entirely robbed at
one time. Indeed, as much comb can be left undisturbed as
may be thought desirable according to the character of the
With plain box hives the usual plan is to invert the
box, place another of the same size over it, close the entrance
hole of the hives, drum on the bottom box until the queen and
most of the bees have ascended into the upper one. Then remove
the upper hive to the stand, and take away the one containing
the honey. This is better than smothering the bees, but neither
so handy nor so profitable as the movable frame system.
Australian and New Zealand bee-keepers have proved the
frame hives to be the best, and they have come into general
use in America.
GENERAL.—An Ohio farmer writes as follows to a local
journal :-“The way I manage my bees is this : I use the
Langstroth hive, and what is known as the tiering-up
process. That is, when the bees have filled a box ready
to
сар, , I take it off, put on an empty one (with starter in it),
then replace the full one on top for the bees to finish up.
I
find that the bees will go to work in an empty box quicker
when they have a full one above and their brood below. I
use three boxes on my hives; they sit crosswise the brood
frames, and just cover the same when all on. One-pound
sections can be used the same way, by filling a case with
them, and tiering-up as fast as they are filled. I have some-
times nine boxes on a hive at a time, which hold from twelve
to fifteen pounds each. I raised from ten colonies the past
season, 1,215 pounds, or a fraction over 121 pounds per colony.
I have the Italian bee, and also the Blacks. My best Italian
colony gave me four swarms and 138 pounds of honey. My
best Black colony gave me 186 pounds and one swarm. Now,
do not regard ine as an advocate of the old Black bee, for I
am not.'
Italian bees have been found well suited to the
condition of the colonies, and Italianizing the black swarms is
generally practised by successful bee-keepers. This is done
by removing the common queen and replacing her by an
Italian queen. The new queen fills the cells with eggs, and
as the life of the worker is short the colony soon becomes
Italian.
FOUL BROOD.-Mr. F. Cheshire, a skilful manager of bees,
and a scientific student of their diseases, read an important
paper upon this subject before the International Conference of
Bee-keepers, held in connection with the Kensington Inter-


BEES.
281
1
Possessing myself of a skep which might be scented from afar,
I divided the combs by transferring into two of my stocks, and,
after allowing the disease to get ahead, quickly had them
perfectly sound again. Having found that 1-200 was refused
by the bees altogether; that 1-400 might be given constantly
to a sound stock without appearing to limit the queen in
breeding or touch her health ; that 1-500 despatched foul brood
quickly, even while honey was coming in, and that 1-750 appeared
enough when it was not, I have established these quantities
as the correct ones. I, then, in the interest of apiculture,
requested the British Bee-keepers’ Association to provide me
with a bad case so that the attention of bee-keepers might be
arrested. The colony has been supplied me by the kindness
of Mr. Mills, and has been open to visitors, marked by Mr.
Hooker, and officially attested. When it arrived on the night
of 21st June it contained seven frames, only enough bees to
cover two of them, and queen-cell, afterwards found to contain
foul-broody matter only, scarcely any living brood, and a
good deal of dead. A casual counting of one of the best
frames gave 371 dead larvæ on one side.
The odour was
pronounced. A case such as this would have been utterly
hopeless on any plan but the one I am now advocating. With
me queenlessness presents the worst of all difficulties. No
grubs, no physic, no cure. Unqueening a foul-broody stock is
giving up at once, it is decapitating to cure the headache. I
had stipulated that the hive should have a queen, so my
difficulty was greater than I had anticipated; and yet the hive
is here to-day strong, vigorous, and healthy, and has been so
for a week past. No cell has been uncapped, no diseased
grub removed by me; my treatment has been giving food and
getting that food converted into bees as rapidly as possible.
Bear with me in this over-lengthy paper while I explain my
procedure. Seeing early next morning, 22nd June, the utterly
disheartened condition of the poor bees, I went to a nucleus,
took out a very fine Italian mother just proved as purely
fertilized, and putting her under a dome cage on a card,
placed the card over the frames; the bees came up and seemed
to see in her a new hope; I lifted the card, she was welcomed,
and the hive was now queened. I waited three days till she
was regularly laying, giving them syrup phenolated by 1 in
500, and then took two frames from a stock containing the
very comb once used in experimental inoculation, to which I
previously referred. The combs were ugly, and I wanted to
be rid of them. They were full of brood. This step would


RULES AND RECIPES.
283
representing an average half or quarter of a cubic yard, weigh
it, and from that calculate the total weight.
ASPHALT PÅVEMENTS.—Tar pavements in Melbourne are
made as follows:-Bluestone metal is first prepared of three
sizes, viz., the ordinary 24 in. metal, strictly broken to gauge ;
coarse screenings, being that which has been screened out of
the first by a screen with bars half an inch apart; and fine
screenings, the refuse of the above after being passed through a
sieve which retains everything coarser than sand. Mix these
with gas tar (cold) on a platform, or in some place where the
waste tar will drain away. This is important. The propor-
tions are as follows:-2 in. metal, from seven to eight gallons
per cube yard, the quantity varying with the cleanness of the
metal. The cleaner the metal the less the quantity required.
The coarser screenings from 14 to 16 gallons per yard under
the same conditions, and the fine screenings 38 gallons. It is
better that the whole of the metal should be dry before the
tar is mixed with it; but the fine screenings must be so,
artificial drying being resorted to if necessary. It is better
not to lay the composition in unsettled weather; and to
secure as far as possible a dry foundation, the excavation
should not be got out far ahead of the men who are laying the
first at. The ground is first excavated full 24 in. below the
desired level, after which the space is filled (rather under
than up to the 21 in. level) with a coating of the metal. This
is then rolled until it has been consolidated about three-
quarters of an inch, after which it is covered with the coarse
screenings to the depth of an inch. The surface being again
rolled, a coat of the finer screenings is then spread to the
depth of half an inch, after which the surface is finally rolled
until it finishes half an inch above the permanent level, from
which it will gradually sink to the required height as it con-
solidates under the foot traffic. After this last coat has been
thoroughly rolled, the surface is coated with powdered blue-
stone, or with earthy loam, in sufficient quantities to keep the
feet from adhering; and as this coating, which is only lightly
rolled, is liable to be Llown away by high winds, or washed
away by heavy rains, it must be renewed from time to time as
necessary. The roller requires to be somewhat heavy. That
used by the Corporation of Melbourne is about 4 ft. in
diameter, about 18 in. wide, and weighs from 13 cwt. to 15
cwt.; and it is better to ram the edges with an iron rammer,
having a perfectly flat surface, in addition. A canvas bag
holding water, or a large swab, must be attached to the roller,


284
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
the object being to keep the surface of the roller wet whilst
the fine coat is being rolled, as otherwise it is apt to adhere to
the roller. It has been found in some of the adjacent colonies,
and even in parts of Victoria, that the same process as is
followed in Melbourne fails to secure the same result, even
when the same men are employed. It has been suggested
that this is owing to a deficient quantity of calcareous material
in the fine screenings, and it has been suggested that the
defect may be remedied by an admixture of earthy loam
thoroughly incorporated. The cost in Melbourne and its
suburbs is 2s. per superficial yard, in some of the localities
more favourably situated as regards stone the price being
slightly under.
COST OF A VINEYARD.-The following is the expenditure
incurred in planting 16 acres of vines on the banks of the
Murray River, the outlay being greater than in ordinary
cases Clearing 16 acres cost £40; ploughing the same, £16 ;
cuttings, £16; planting, £10; or a total for the first
year
of
£92. If we add to this the liberal sum of £5 per acre, or £80
for the land, and £13 15s. as interest for the year at 8 per cent.,
we have a total of £185 15s. The only additional cost in the
second year is £12 for pruning, and £5 10s. for ploughing or
keeping the land free of weeds. Adding these amounts to the
first year's cost, and allowing interest on the whole, we have
£219 and some odd shillings. In the third year an equal
amount has to be expended in ploughing and pruning, viz.,
£17 10s., and if props are used the cost of buying, pointing, and
setting these up will amount to about £8 per acre, or £128.
This amount, with interest added for the year, comes to a total
of £392 for 16 acres, or £24 10s. per acre. Thus, after making
a liberal allowance for the value of land, for all the work
necessary in cultivation, as well as for interest on capital, the
cost at the end of the third year does not reach £25 per acre.
It must also be remembered that about half a crop of grapes,
or about a ton to the acre, is generally obtained the third
year. Mr. Coneslant, of Tahbilk, makes a much lower estimate,
viz.—about £4 per acre, exclusive of stakes and cost of land up
to the end of the second year. His estimate for the whole cost
of working a vineyard in full bearing is £4 per acre annually,
including the vintage and wine-making.
DESTROYING WHITE ANTS.- A mixture of arsenic and sugar
is sometimes employed. The arsenic is ground in a mortar to
an impalpable powder; sugar is then mixed with it in the
mortar. In laying the poison care should be taken to place it


288
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
camphor, 14 ozs.; white soap, lb.; salt of tartar, 3 ozs. ; and
powdered lime, 1 oz. ; cut the soap in small thin slices, put
into a crucible with a small quantity of water, hold over a
gentle fire, and stir frequently with a wooden spatula.
When properly melted the powdered lime and salt of
tartar may be added, and thoroughly mixed. Now take it off
the fire and add the arsenic, gently stirring all the time.
Reduce the camphor into a powder in a mortar, with the
addition of a little spirits of wine. The camphor may now
be added, and well mixed with the composition whilst off the
fire. It may be placed again near the fire, to assist in incor-
porating the ingredients, but do not heat it too much, as the
camphor will escape rapidly. It may now be poured into
small earthenware pots and allowed to cool. This composi-
tion, if well made, will be about the thickness of ordinary
flour paste. When you use it, put as much as you imagine
you will require into a small shallow pot, adding an equal
proportion of water. Apply the lather with a bristle brush,
using first of all some solution of corrosive sublimate to the
rump, inside wings and legs, head, &c. Keep the composition
as close as possible, as it is a deadly poison.
TANNING KANGAROO SKINS.—Collect some wattle bark and
make a strong decoction, either by boiling or steeping. If
you have a tannery near you, it will be easier to buy a bushel
of crushed bark. Before you steep the skins, scrape off all
the fleshy parts. A large square watertight case is preferable
to a hogshead, for it is best not to double the skins up more
than can be helped. Look at the skins once a week, and not
only scrape them over again, but change the liquor. The
same liquor will do if you boil and skim it. It will take six
weeks to tan large skins. For 'possum skins a month will be
long enough.—Australasian Farmers' Guide.
HOME-MADE SOAP.—The following, being of general interest
to country readers, are quoted from a pamphlet on making
soap without boiling, by W. J. Menzies, Liverpool ::
“Potash Wool-Scouring Soap.- A pure potash wool-scouring
soap can best be produced in the following manner:- Take a
20-Ìb. can of pure caustic potash (Greenbank), cut open the lid,
and put the whole can into any iron or earthenware vessel,
with two gallons of water. The potash will soon dissolve
out, itself heating the water. The empty can then being
removed, allow the liquid potash (or lye) thus obtained to
cool until warm to the hand (say 90° F.)In a large iron pan
or boiler melt 80 lbs. of tallow, free from salt, until dissolved,


RULES AND RECIPES.
289
and of a heat feeling fairly hot to the hand (say 120° F.).
Into the melted tallow now pour the potash lye in a small
stream, with constant stirring with a flat wooden stirrer about
three inches broad, and continue to stir until the mixture is
smooth and appears well combined--a few minutes is all that
is necessary. This mixing operation may be done in the
melting-pan itself, or often, what is more convenient, an old
watertight barrel can be used. Now pour off the mixture
into any convenient square box for a mould, damping the
sides with whitewash, or, better still, lining it with a calico
cloth, to prevent the soap from sticking. Wrap up the box
well with sheepskins (to keep in the heat by the mixture
itself turning into soap), put in a warm place, and leave it for
four or five days. The box will then be found to contain
120 lbs. of hard potash soap, which if cut up into bars and
kept for a week or two will be further improved in quality.
If the soap has been mixed in a barrel, and required only for
sheepwashing or dipping, it can remain in the barrel instead
of being poured off. But it must be well wrapped up and
left standing in a warm place for a week or two.
“ Hard Soda Soap.-Put the contents of a 10-lb. can of Green-
bank double refined 98 per cent. caustic soda into an iron or
earthenware vessel, with 4 gallons (40 lbs.) of soft water. The
pure powdered 98 per cent. caustic soda dissolves instantly,
heating the water. Let it stand a few minutes until just
warm to the hand (say 80° F.). Melt about 75 lbs. of clean
grease or tallow, free from salt. Skim and let it settle out
any impurities. Weigh off and put in any convenient vessel
for mixing exactly 70 lbs. of the liquid tallow or grease,
allowing it to cool until fairly warm to the hand (say 120° F.);
a wooden tub, old barrel, or a copper will do for this purpose.
Now
pour the caustic soda lye in a small continuous stream
into the liquid tallow, at the same time stirring with a flat
wooden stirrer about 3 in. broad. Continue stirring for a few
minutes, until lye and liquid tallow are thoroughly mixed and
smooth in appearance. Take any convenient square-sided
box: line it with damp calico, to prevent the soap from stick-
ing, and pour in the mixture, wrapping it well up, and putting
into a warm place, to keep in the heat caused by the mixture
slowly combining and turning into soap. After three days.
turn out the block of hard soap from the box used for a.
mould, and which will weigh 120 lbs.; cut the soap up with
a wire or string into bars, and put them away for a month in
warm room. The soap is much improved by keeping,
a
20


RULES AND RECIPES.
291
very small quantity will suffice; a drachm is enough for 100
gallons of liquor. "Cider well made is fit for bottling at the
end of a year. In brewing household beer, 180 degrees of
Fahrenheit is the proper temperature for a mash. In the
absence of a thermometer, add to five gallons of boiling water
one gallon of cold, and in like proportion for larger quantities.
DODDER IN LUCERNE.—This plant is one of the worst vege-
table parasites we have. The stalk entwines itself about the
lucerne, sending out from the inner surface a number of little
vesicles, which attach themselves to the bark of the support-
ing plant. By degrees the longitudinal vessels of the stalk
shoot from their extremities, and insinuate themselves so
intimately with it that it is easier to break than to disengage
them. Raised from seed they soon die when they have no
other plant to which they can attach themselves. This plant
is common in Europe, and may be seen attached to hops,
brambles, flax, clovers, and grass, &c. When first discovered
in a paddock the owner ought at once to pare, and with the
assistance of straw to burn all he can; hoeing is of no use.
There is a chemical application which is also fatal to the
dodder, and that is sulphate of iron (green vitriol); by intro-
ducing a portion of this into a barrel of water, mounted on
wheels, the discoverer, M. Pousard, applied his liquid and
destroyed every particle of the parasite in an hour or two.
The lucerne, on the contrary, flourished with increased vigour.
The plant is in the neighbourhood of town in several lucerne
paddocks. There is every reason to believe that the seed was
introduced from Sydney - Australasian Farmer's Guide.
FEEDING AND SHOEING TROTTERS. -An American
paper
has
the following concerning Maud S., the fastest trotter in the
world :-“Many horsemen are anxious to know how the queen
of the turf is fed and shod, and we will tell them. She is
fed about twelve quarts of the best oats that the market
affords per day while in training. She is supplied at all times
with the best timothy hay, eating it when she chooses. She
has also a bucket of water always in her stall, so she can drink
whenever she wants water. When she is going to be given a
fast mile there is a reduction of hay and water a few hours
before. Of course she is always turned loose in a large box
stall, so she can move about at pleasure. In her best racing
form she weighs 960 lbs. She wears bar shoes on all her feet
--the hind shoes weighing each nine ounces, and the fore
shoes fourteen ounces—to which are attached two and a half
ounce toe-weights. She is driven with a plain bar bit, with an


292
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
overdraw check and bit. Jay-Eye-See is fed like Maud S.,
but he carries only six ounce shoes behind and eight ounce
shoes before, without toe-weights. He is driven with a plain
snaffle bit and side check, and does not wear bar shoes.”
PREPARING BEESWAX.—Separate the better part of the comb
from the brood portion as much as possible when you are
draining the honey. When drained, boil the comb in water,
stirring frequently to prevent its burning. When completely
melted, strain through bags (hair bags are best) into a tub of
cold water. Repeat this operation twice, or even thrice, and
through bags increasing in fineness. Finally, melt the wax by
itself, and pour into moulds of desired shape, first wetting them.
Cool in a warm room until the cakes solidify. This will
prevent their cracking in the middle. Another plan, and more
simple, is to place the combs in a conical earthenware vessel
filled with a mixture of one ounce of nitric acid to a quart of
water. Set this upon an open fire and stir until the wax be
completely melted, then remove it and allow it to cool gradually.
The product will be in three almost distinct layers—the upper
one will be pure wax, in the middle will be sufficiently good
wax to be added to the next melting, or for many household
purposes, and the lowest layer will be chiefly impurities.-
Australasian Farmer's Guide.
To DETECT PLEURO IN CATTLE.—Mr. Edward M. Curr, the
Chief Inspector of Stock for Victoria, gives the following
instructions concerning pleuro-pneumonia in cattle:-“1. Atten-
tion is first directed to an animal suffering from pleuro by its
standing apart from other cattle, its not feeding, and seldom
lying down until just before death. 2. The animal in the
later stages of the disease has the stomach drawn up, back
arched, legs in not quite their natural position, nose poked
out, and head held nearly on a line with the back, so as to
give the freest passage to the air inhaled. 3. On approaching,
the breathing of the beast is found to be short and quickened,
and inhalation is accompanied with a grunt or catch. If
made to run a short distance a few deep coughs are given.
4. Rumination ceases, though an occasional grinding of the
teeth may be mistaken for it. 5. The eyes have a glassy look,
are sunken, and in some cases run with water. 6. The
nostrils are dry, and the beads of moisture resembling dew
which are found in the muzzle when in health, disappear.
7. If the animal is sufficiently quiet to handle, it can be
examined by placing the ear to its side, behind the elbow, and
tapping the ribs with the tops of the fingers. If pleuro exists


294
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
very detrimental to its market value. If, therefore, the
owners of small clips desire to realize prices approximating
those paid for station brands they must raise the standard of
their wools; and it is our aim in the present article to point
out as briefly as possible those defects in growth, "get up,
and general character, which, if remedied in future, will be
the means of materially assisting in raising farmers' clips to
the standard they must attain if they are to continue to be a
source of profit to the grower.
PREPARE THE CLIP CAREFULLY.—It should be received as
a fundamental principle by wool-growers that the more skil-
fully a clip is prepared for market the greater will be the
profit. Many a fine clip is marred by careless handling at
shearing time; for, no matter how superior the quality of the
wool may be, if proper attention is not given to skirting, classing,
and packing, comparatively poor prices have to be accepted.
The grower, however, more frequently than not, considers his
wool has been sacrificed by the selling broker, and, instead of
setting to work to discover the cause of the low prices, he
tries another broker in the following year, with the like result.
A well-got-up clip, whether large or small, is readily disposed
of, but carelessly-prepared parcels are difficult of sale. The
one sells well, even in a falling market, while the other seldom
or ever realizes owner's expectations, and leads to dissatisfac-
tion and endless disputes. These are truisms familiar to all
conversant with the wool trade, and we trust that the time is
not far distant when our small growers will be as keenly alive
as are our large flockmasters to the fact that the labour
expended on preparing a clip for sale is well bestowed and
brings its own reward.
METHOD OF SELLING.–Production is advancing rapidly.
On the one hand immense areas of new country are being
taken up and stocked with sheep, and stations in the settled
districts, by a lavish outlay of capital, are made to feed
double the number of sheep they were able to carry a few
years ago; while, on the other hand, farmers and small land-
are adopting the safe course of combining stock-
raising with agriculture. Both large and small clips are thus
annually increasing in number, and, as our market at the same
time is gaining in importance and popularity, the catalogues,
as a natural consequence, become larger and larger each year,
thus making it impossible for a buyer to give as much time
to each individual lot as he was able to do formerly. A cata-
logue of from seven to eight and even nine hundred lots is
owners


296
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
distance from Melbourne, are able to personally inspect the
wool warehouses on a sale day. There is, however, nothing to
prevent their taking an imaginary walk through with us, and
we invite all seeking enlightenment to accompany us in our
tour of inspection. We choose a day in the height of the
season, say just before Christmas. A catalogue of 8,000 bales,
in 750 lots, is to be submitted for competition, and we learn
with interest that it includes clips from each of the Australian
colonies, Tasmania, and New Zealand. The passenger-lift
quickly lands us in the sample-rooms, which include the
whole of the upper floors. These immense rooms, which are
designed to display wool to the best advantage, are admirably
lighted from the sides and roof on the newest and most
approved principle. The walls, supports, &c., are painted a
light lavender tint, and the whole appearance is bright and
cheerful. All around us are the sample bales of the various
clips to be offered for sale, both large and small. They are
placed in rows with almost mathematical accuracy, with ample
passages between each row, which passages are now crowded
with buyers from the chief manufacturing centres of the
world, busily engaged in valuing. We observe that some give
their attention to the large clips, others devote most of their
time to the small parcels, while a few inspect and value each
separate lot. The first dozen lots or so are composed of small
clips ranging from 15 to 30 bales. They are farmers' wools
from the creeks and billabongs of southern Riverina, and, on
the whole, are well got up, the fleeces being fairly skirted,
carefully rolled, and well packed in neat pressed bales.
Judging from the number of fleeces which have been opened
out for examination, these lots appear to have received their
full share of attention, and there is no doubt but that they
will be keenly competed for. But for the burr, which is very
thick on the sides of some of the fleeces, these parcels would
suit any market, the wool being of good average quality and
well-grown. In addition to this it is even in character, and
each bale is in shipping order, signs which denote careful pre-
paration. Passing by several large clips from southern and
western Riverina, which are known for their boldness of type,
light condition, bright appearance, and thorough combing
character, our attention is drawn to a sinall lot of loosely-
packed shapeless bales, standing 2 ft. higher than the sur-
rounding rows. Their contents on examination prove to be
unclassed and unskirted, and many fleeces are filled with short
straws and pieces of foreign matter, always a cause of great


THE TREATMENT OF WOOL.
297
trouble and annoyance to the stapler. There is not much
fault to find with the quality of the wool, which is a merino
of a good, useful character, but owing to the careless manner
in which it has been treated its market value has been depre-
ciated fully 2 d. per lb. It is a farmer's clip from the
Campaspe. The sheep had evidently been shorn on the care-
lessly-swept floor of a barn or outhouse, and the fleeces baled
up without any attempt at classification. A little further on
we come to a small clip of 12 bales, described as crossbred.”
The bales are well filled by the process known as spade-
packing, and properly marked and numbered, and the wool
appears of a desirable quality. On closer inspection, however,
it is found to be very uneven in character. Mixed with fine
quarter-bred wool are strong three-quarter-bred Lincoln fleeces
worth 4d. per lb. under the fine wool. One or more of these
coarse fleeces are seen on the top of each bale, consequently
the buyer takes it for granted that they run right through the
clip, and in valuing allows a margin for the cost of classing,
repacking, new bales, &c. Probably only 50 objectionable
fleeces will be found in the whole 12 bales, and thus, through
the carelessness or the want of knowledge displayed by the
grower at shearing time, the whole clip is condemned to be
sold under its real value. Following this lot are two or three
medium-sized clips from Tasmania. They are very attractive
in appearance, their superior character being noticeable at a
distance. On handling the wool we find it of excellent
quality, silky, soft, elastic, free, well and evenly grown, and of
good length of staple—in fact, a typical Tasmanian merino of
the best class. Some of the fleeces, however, are badly skirted,
and in many others the locks or fribs” are attached to the
outer side of the fleece. This is the effect of hasty prepara-
tion or lack of proper supervision, and although the wool will
sell itself, it will be at a less price per pound than if sent to
market in proper order. An extra shake of the fleece at the
table before rolling, and a little deeper skirting here and there,
would have saved the owner a loss of fully {d. per lb. all
round. The next lot that attracts our attention is a clip of
15 bales marked “Lincoln." It is a coast-grown wool from
the shores of Port Phillip or Westernport Bay. The fleeces
are of a large size, the fibre being long, coarse, and lustrous.
Although a description of wool not in demand just now, it
would probably realize as much as any other lot in the
catalogue of the same class but for the cotted fleeces which
are mixed through it. By a course of natural felting while


298
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
on the sheeps' backs, caused by much wet or disease, the fibres
of these fleeces have become so firmly matted that it is scarcely
possible for the manufacturer to unravel them. Wool of this
sort is therefore very objectionable, and should always be kept
apart and packed separately. In the present case the grower
will have to take 1d. per pound less all round for omitting to
throw aside as a separate quality a few inferior fleeces. We
could go on multiplying cases; for, alas, too many of our
farmers utterly disregard the ordinary rules of a woolshed.
We find merino and long wool, fine crossbred and Lincoln,
clear fleeces and burry fleeces, white and black, and even
lambs' and grown wool, in the same packages. These are the
lots that delay buyers, and are so frequently passed over by
a large section of the trade. Neither the British nor the
foreign manufacturer nor the speculator for the London market
care to purchase unclassed or irregular wools, as they cannot
afford the delay the proper assortment of such lots prior to
shipment would necessitate, and ship them in their original
state they will not. The local millowner also gives preference
to even parcels, for the mixed lots as often as not contain
wools that are entirely unsuited to his requirements, and he
does not care for the trouble of reselling. The purchasing
power, thus confined in a great measure to the dealer and
woolscourer, reduces competition, and although the two last-
named divisions form a very powerful section of the trade, it
must be admitted that when competition is restricted prices
suffer accordingly. How differently the practical squatter or
large grower treats his wool is patent to the most inex-
perienced visitor. By the aid of skilful skirters and competent
wool-classers, his clip has a uniformity and finish about it
which inspires confidence at first sight. The fleeces, from
which all the inferior portions have been removed, are even
and true to quality, the staple in each one being of the same
length, strength, and trueness. A lot such as this can be
valued with ease and certainty, a buyer taking far less time
to estimate the worth of a well-got-up clip of 500 bales than
he is compelled to devote to a mixed parcel of 15 bales, if he
is desirous of arriving at its true value.
VARIETIES OF Wool. It is chiefly to the great variety of
the wools submitted in Melbourne that our market owes its
superiority, and this is another reason why a visit to the
sample-rooms of some of our large wool-selling establishments
would be of service to the grower, as, by familiarizing himself
with the different classes of wool produced in different locali-


300
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
has been in the past, it promises to be far outstripped in the
future, and with this probability before us it behoves our
flockmasters to raise the whole of their wools to such a high
standard of excellence that they shall be superior to the
production of all other countries, and thus take precedence in
the markets of the world. At the present time our best
wools hold that enviable position, and with intelligent
management, care, and industry there is nothing to prevent
the bulk of our production being improved by judicious
selection up to the same standard, so favourable beyond all
others are the climates and pastures of Australia to the
growth of fine wools. As far as the colony of Victoria is
concerned, this consummation so devoutly to be wished rests
to a very large extent in the hands of our farmers, who will
very soon hold one-half the sheep in the province. It there-
fore becomes a matter of vital importance that they should
give the same attention to the breeding of sheep and the
preparation of their wool as the squatters they are gradually
succeeding are accustomed to give, otherwise the quantity of
faulty wools will increase to such an extent that the bulk of
the Port Phillip export, instead of ranking, as it now does,
from “good to superior,” will fall to “ordinary and inferior,"
and in a short time be excelled by the produce of other
countries. Already the best River Plate wools are running
our average clips very close in the Continental markets, and
as they are grown under highly favourable conditions, we
shall shortly find them superseding Australian wherever a
medium-priced wool is required. As far as we can see, our
best protection against the rapidly-increasing flocks of the
Argentine and Uruguay republics, which now number upwards
of 100,000,000 sheep, is in growing wool of good quality only.
The system that has been so successfully followed by the
large flockmasters, namely, that of breeding only from stock
that possess some distinct points of excellence, and by
rigorously culling out all inferior and poorly-woolled animals,
must be adopted by farmers and small growers; and as all
must allow it costs no more to feed a well-bred sheep than a
mongrel, it is to be presumed that, when the different classes
of wool and their respective values are more generally under-
stood, the sort of fleece the best interests of the colony require
should be grown will then be produced. At the present time,
however, many farmers attend more to the mutton-producing
properties in a sheep than to the quality of the fleece, which
is too often looked upon as a secondary consideration only.


THE TREATMENT OF WOOL.
301
QUALITIES OF Wool.-As the great desideratum is that our
sheep shall grow wool and not hair, it is necessary that their
distinctive characteristics should be described. To the un-
practised eye they are much alike in appearance, the gradation
from one to the other being very slight, for we find that the
fleeces of some mongrel-bred sheep contain fibres as harsh and
coarse as hair, while some animals whose covering is called
hair produce fibres possessing many of the properties of wool.
Youatt, a distinguished authority on sheep, says :-"Wool is
decidedly crisped and serrated; hair is sometimes curled, but
to an inferior degree, and the irregularities of its edge, in
some few cases, assume the form of slight serrations. Wool
will felt; hair will only entangle and harle to a limited
extent.”. All familiar with wool know how tenaciously the
fibres hold together, and also how much more easily a staple
can be drawn from a fleece by the root end than by the tip.
This is owing to the projecting serrations or saw-like edge of
the hair, the direction being from root to point. Microscopical
observations have proved these indentations to be much more
numerous in fine than in coarse wools; the micrometer giving
in Saxony wool 2,720, in Australian merino 2,400, in South
Down 2,080, and in Leicester 1,860 serrations in the space of
an inch. These serrations, combined with the crisped or
curling form of the fibres, explain the felting principles of
wool, and as both of these properties are much greater in the
fine than in the coarse varieties, it at once becomes apparent
why our merinos and high-graded crossbreds are so much
more useful and valuable than the long wools. Among the
other properties of wool are fineness, softness, trueness, sound-
ness, and elasticity. On the fineness of the hair depends the
quality of the fabric to be manufactured, for although modern
machinery will spin a fine thread from a comparatively coarse
wool, it is impossible to make a fine close cloth with a dense
pile on its surface unless the wool be fine. On softness
depends the durability and substance of the material, and at
the present time this quality is more important than fineness,
as it would be impossible to produce the goods now so fashion-
able for ladies' wear if the fibres of the wool used in the
manufacture were harsh or hard. In trueness exists evenness
and freedom from waste, for if the fibre is irregular in bulk
an even cloth cannot be produced, and, if very tender, the
fabric would fall to pieces in the process of manufacture.
Soundness is a most important quality, especially in all deep-
grown or combing wools, for unless the fibre be strong it will


302
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
break under the action of the comb, and is thus unfit for one
of the largest branches of the woollen trade, namely, that of
the worsted manufactory; while to elasticity is due the
extreme softness and beauty of modern fabrics, the facility
with which the staple can be worked, and its usefulness in
general. In long wools the chief characteristics are length,
strength, and lustre or transparency. There are other minor
properties, but those we have enumerated will suffice to show
what qualities must be present in a fleece of wool before it
ranks as superior. Fineness, softness, and crispness are indis-
pensable in clothing wools, whilst in combing descriptions
strength, trueness, and elasticity are the great essentials.
These are the properties which regulate the value of wool, and
from which the degrees of quality are derived.
SHEARING.–From this brief description of wool and some
of the peculiarities of its conformation, we will proceed to
show how the defects in preparation complained of can
be obviated. Commencing with shearing, the farmer will
choose a dry day, and will be careful that the shed in
which operations are to be conducted is clear of all fodder,
&c., and the floor swept perfectly clean, as nothing is
more unsightly in a fleece than pieces of straw or other
foreign matter picked up on the shearing floor. As practical
men only are employed, it is unnecessary to describe the
operation in full. The farmer, however, should see that each
sheep is evenly shorn, so that second cuts are unnecessary, for
the little tufts of wool which an unskilful shearer clips off
after the fleece has been removed are lost amongst the locks
amongst which they fall. Besides, the closer and more evenly
a sheep is shorn the greater will be the next year's crop.
When the fleece is off it should be carefully gathered up and
-placed intact on the skirting-table, which can be erected in
any convenient place near the shearing-board.
SKIRTING AND ROLLING.-On the skirting-table the fleece
must be opened out, and the inferior portions, such as pieces,
necks (if seedy), breechlocks, &c., removed and placed in
separate receptacles. It will be well to skirt sufficiently deep
to remove all these lower sorts, unless the clip, as a whole, is
exceptionally burry or much stained, in which case a lighter
trimming will answer the purpose, the object in skirting being
to improve the fleece without robbing it. The fleece, after
being gently shaken to detach any locks or dirt that may be
adhering to it, is now ready for rolling. This operation is
performed by first turning back the neck as far as the shoulder,


THE TREATMENT OF WOOL.
303
and then turning in the sides and narrowing the fleece into a
strip of about 18 in. wide, the outside of the wool being turned
inwards. This strip should then be rolled firmly and evenly,
beginning at the breech end, thus leaving the best part of the
Aleece exposed to view. The old custom of twisting the wool
at the neck into a rope, and winding it round the fleece for the
purpose of securing it, is very objectionable and is rapidly going
out of use. In fact, no tying of any kind is really necessary,
as the fleece, if carefully handled, will retain the cylindrical
shape imparted to it by the rolling process as long as required.
If string is used at all, let it be the white twine used by grocers,
and not the usual sewing kind, small strands of which fre-
quently get mixed with the wool.
CLASSING.–The fleece, which is now ready for packing,
should be carefully placed with the class to which it belongs,
preparatory to being packed. To decide as to the correct classi-
fication requires the skill of the practical wool-classer, but as
much subdivision is unnecessary in small clips, any intelligent
farmer, after a little experience, will be quite equal to the task
of classing sufficiently even to satisfy buyers. If the flock
does not number more than 1,000, and is of one breed, two
sorts will suffice; if above that number, three qualities may
be profitably made. Should the sheep be inixed, more classes
will be necessary.
In a small merino flock all the fine-haired,
sound, and well-grown fleeces will form the first quality, and
the short, badly-grown, and tender fleeces the second. The
soundness of the fibre can be tested by stretching a small staple
between the fingers. If strong enough for the first quality, it
will bear a considerable strain before breaking, but if tender it
will easily part at the weak joint. Length is not so important
as it once was. However, all fleeces having a staple under
1} in. should be thrown with the tender wool. These two
qualities could be designated combing and clothing. A second
combing could be made of all fleeces a trifle coarser and less
showy than the firsts, provided the fibre was sound and well
grown, and the flock large enough to enable three sorts to be
made with advantage. In case there was no short or tender
wool in the flock, the second combing could take the place of
the clothing division. All fleeces showing any cross-breeding
must form a separate sort, also all black or grey wool. The sexes
and ages, such as hoggets, ewes, and wethers, make very good
divisions, and wool classed in this way commends itself to many
buyers. Although apparently a simpler method than the pre-
ceding one, it is not so in reality, as all poor, heavy, and tender


304
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
fleeces must be kept out and packed separately. This rejected
wool should be branded simply fleece. Colour is a property
which, although of minor importance, should not be lost sight.
of in classing. The fleece generally becomes stained with the
colour of the soil on which the sheep have been running, and
as these shades are at times very pronounced, the appearance
of the wool is much affected thereby. A farmer whose flock
consists of sheep bred in different localities should therefore
keep the fleeces of one colour together if possible. The colour
of a fleece does not affect its value unless the tint promises to
be permanent, when the wool is injured for all purposes where
pure whiteness is necessary. The brown, dingy, and red hues.
imparted by fern, charcoal, and the shifting sands of the
northern plains are the most injurious. Long or crossbred
wools should be classed according to fineness. The highest.
grade will be the quarter-bred, the next the half-bred, then
the three-quarter bred, and last the seven-eighth bred, and
strong Lincoln or Cotswold. Cotted fleeces, which are more or
less frequent in this class of wool, must form a separate quality,
and on no account must they be allowed to be packed with the
rest of the clip. Pieces, bellies, and locks must be packed
separately, and in no instance must these inferior sorts be
rolled up in the fleece.
BALING AND MARKING.—The process of baling up or pressing
should follow without unnecessary delay: The bale being
prepared, each class of wool should be packed separately, and
the quality of the contents legibiy marked on the side of each
bale. Avoid packing two sorts, such as fleece and pieces, or
bellies and locks, in one bale, it being much more profitable to
make two small bales of distinct qualities than one bale of
“mixed” wool. If the quantity is too small for a fadge, bags.
will serve equally well. Much discontent arises through
growers departing from this rule, which in nine cases out of
ten is done for the sake of economy. The shape and size of the
package is also of importance. The dimensions of a well-
pressed bale are 4 ft. long by 2 ft. 6 in. square. Packages of
this shape are easily handled, and are convenient for stowing:
in the warehouses and on board ship. Few farmers, however,
possess the necessary mechanical means for pressing, conse-
quently their packages are wanting in neatness and symmetry
-many, in fact, being so loosely packed as to necessitate
re-pressing before shipment. Nevertheless, by packing
moderately, and by pressing the wool well into the corners, a
spade-packed bale need not be in any way unsightly, and the.


THE TREATMENT OF WOOL.
305
contents will
open
out
very
well if care is taken not to tear
the fleece in the operation. No packages, however small, should
be allowed to leave the farm without being properly marked
with the brand, quality, and number. The brand adopted
should be one not likely to be duplicated, and should be
retained from year to year. Where initial letters are used the
name of the farm should follow beneath, or they should be
placed within a triangle, circle, block, &c. Numbers should
run in consecutive order. Hitherto the high prices asked for
wool-presses have prevented their use becoming general with
farmers and small flockmasters, many of whom are compelled
to send their clips to market in loose packages much against
their inclination. A light press, combining strength, sim-
plicity, and cheapness, has long been required, and we are
inclined to think that the machines now being constructed
will in a great measure supply this want. The improved
screw and lever press is sold at £30. It is made of the best
materials, is very simple and strong, and is not liable to get
out of order. It is fitted with an improved screw with a sliding
crosshead, by which the bars are allowed to remain on a level
with the top of the press. The weight of the machine com-
plete is 20 cwt. Other presses, costing £30, are worked with
ratchet lever and rope, are very simple in construction, will
pack in small compass, and are said to press equal to any screw
press. They weigh about 11 cwt. Either of these machines
will turn out from 10 to 20 bales a day with a man and a boy,
and as they can be taken to pieces and erected with ease, they
could be transported from place to place without trouble. A
single press could thus be made to serve the requirements of
a comparatively large district.
THE BROKER.—Before finally closing this chapter, we would
add a word of advice in respect to selling. Do not hamper
your
broker with excessive reserves. He knows the value of
wool and the state of the market, present and prospective,
better than you, and, moreover, it is to his interest to realize
as high a price as possible for the produce committed to his
care. High limits lead to buying in, and bought-in lots are
not favourably received by buyers when again offered. The
result is, that in the majority of cases a repetition of the first
offer cannot be obtained, and thus the reserve, instead of being
a protection, becomes a source of loss. If these instructions
are followed, we are satisfied that great pecuniary gain to the
grower will result, and buyers will have no cause to find fault
with farmers' clips in future.
21


LAND ACTS OF AUSTRALASIA.
307
destroy “vermin," and “will within three years have de-
stroyed such vermin to the satisfaction of the board.” The
word " vermin” is defined to include “kangaroos, wallabies,
and other marsupials,” dingoes and dogs run wild, and rabbits
-the latter being last, but not least.
COMPENSATION FOR IMPROVEMENTS.—Upon the expiration
of the lease the lessee or his representatives will be paid by
any incoming tenant for his improvements in the form of
fences, wells, reservoirs, dams, to the amount of 2s. 6d. per
acre. Thus, with a run or pastoral allotment of 40,000 acres,
improvements can be effected up to £5,000, with a prospect of
the money being repaid.
SELECTION PROHIBITED.-Selection or alienation is for-
bidden in the pastoral district The land is secured for the
fourteen years to the holder of the allotment. No one person
is to hold more than one lease.
AGRICULTURAL AND GRAZING LANDS.
Agricultural and grazing lands,comprising 8,712,000 acres,are
dealt with in Part III. of the Act, sections 27 to 60 inclusive.
Under this portion of the Act selection takes place. A plan of
the lands set apart for the purpose is to be prepared, and on this
plan the boundary lines of "grazing areas not exceeding 1,000
acres in size are to be shown. These lands are to be leased
for fourteen years, dating from the commencement of the Act.
That is to say, the leases, no matter whether issued imme-
diately or at any future period, will one and all expire on 29th
December, 1898.
PERSONS ELIGIBLE TO SELECT.--Any person of the age of 18
years, not being a selector under any previous Land Act, is
entitled to take up one grazing area. The selector under a
previous Land Act may take up a grazing area also, but the
acreage of his prior selection is deducted from the 1,000 acres.
Thus, a man who has selected 300 acres would be limited to a
grazing area of 700 acres.
AGRICULTURAL ALLOTMENTS.- Immediately upon the issue
of the lease of the grazing area, the occupier may select 320
acres of his block on the ordinary selection terms. This
portion is called in the Act an “agricultural allotment.” But
if the lessee has previously taken up land, his prior selection
is deducted from the maximum 320 acres. Thus, if the man
has already taken up 200 acres he can now select 120 acres
If the man has selected 320 acres under previous Acts,
more.


308
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
he can avail himself of clause 52, which provides that all
classes of licensees and lessees "may at any time obtain a
Crown grant of 20 acres of their allotments for vineyard or
orchard purposes.
RENTAL.—The annual rent for a grazing area is not less than
2d. or more than 4d. per acre, or from £8 6s. 8d. to £16 13s. 4d.
for the use of the 1,000-acre holding. The valuation will be
made by officers appointed by the Board of Land and Works.
MANNER OF APPLICATION.—The old system of“ pegging out”
disappears. An applicant for a lease applies to the district
land officer for any particular allotment. Every application is
received and entered in its order in a book. The existing
regulation is to be maintained, that when there are two or
more applications for the same allotment reference is made to
a board, which decides between the applicants. The Governor-
in-Council has power to alter the bounds, as shown on the
plans, for the convenience of applicants, or for any other
purpose.
OTHER CONDITIONS.—If the holder of a grazing area is con-
tent not to select, then residence is not required from him.
The covenants include the “vermin clause" of the pastoral
leases, and also a condition to fence within three years, or
sooner, if the provisions of the Fences Statute 1874 are brought
into play. And the lessee is not to ring or destroy timber,
except for fencing or building purposes, unless with the consent
of the board. Otherwise the conditions are of the ordinary
class. They are to permit “ the planting of trees or artificial
grasses, and the growth of produce for the use of any lessee.”
COMPENSATION FOR IMPROVEMENTS.—At the expiry of the
lease any incoming tenant will be called upon to pay the lessee
the value “of all fences, wells, reservoirs, tanks, and dams
calculated to increase the capability of carrying sheep and
cattle,” to the amount of 10s. per acre.
TERMS FOR AGRICULTURAL ALLOTMENTS.—If the lessee
selects, as he must do, if he is to cultivate for market purposes,
pays
ls.
per annum for six years for each acre he has selected.
At the end of that term he can pay up the balance of 14s. per
acre, and can obtain his Crown grant, or he can continue to
pay off 1s. per acre per annum. The conditions of the licence
are, as now, that he shall reside on the allotment (or within five
miles of it), and shall put on improvements in the course of the
six years to the value of £1 per acre.
NON-RESIDENCE LICENCES. -Non-residence licences may be
issued. The holders must pay 2s. per acre per annum, or
he


LAND ACTS OF AUSTRALASIA.
311
bidder of the highest premium will obtain the block. The
leases are subject to various stringent conditions. The first
is the annual assessment, which is as follows:-
First five years
Second five years
Last ten years
sheep, 2d. ; cattle, 1s.
sheep, 4d. ; cattle, 2s.
sheep, 6d. ; cattle, 3s.
...
The first five years is what may be called the “ double block
period. The lessee will have the use of the two blocks at the
low assessment, but this will be the vermin-destroying period
also. This assessment will be charged upon the sheep or cattle
actually depasturing on the run, but in any case a minimum
rent is to be paid of 2s. 6d. per square mile. The second im-
portant condition is as to vermin. The lessees bind themselves
to clear their blocks, both A and B, of vermin in the course of
three years. To ensure enforcement of this provision districts
are to be proclaimed, and a council is to be elected for each,
and these councils will have power to strike a rate and to enter
upon the run of any lessee who has failed in his duty, and to
destroy the vermin at his expense. A provision of this
character is required, because otherwise one careless occupant
might furnish a breeding-ground for an entire district. It is
possible that even with the long and secure tenure promised
all the blocks may not be taken up, and in that case the
Government is to be regarded as an occupier, that is to say,
the Government will be liable for the expense incurred in
clearing the vacant country. This provision is necessary,
because the main object of the measure is to provide for an
occupation which will allow of a simultaneous slaughter of the
rabbits and the dogs,, and the end would be defeated if unoc-
cupied tracts were left exempt from the operation of the bill.
As the measure stands every inch of the Mallee will have an
owner, who will be compelled to perform his duty, the State
undertaking to find a tenant or to act itself.
Leases for which no premium is offered can be taken up
afterwards by any applicant. The premium will be a cash
payment. No selection is allowed within the territory, and
no alienation of any kind, but at the end of 20 years the
property reverts to the State, the lessees covenanting to pre-
serve their fences, dams, &c., intact to the end of the period.
They will receive compensation for permanent improvements,
such as houses, wells, reservoirs, &c., for the construction of
which they have obtained the written consent of the Board


314
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
boards is to localize the administration of the land law, so far
as it affects the right of claimants and the fulfilment of con-
ditions annexed to the purchase or occupation of public lands.
But the decision of the board is in almost all cases liable to be
reviewed by the Minister sitting as the Land Court. A re-
hearing may also be ordered by him in any case where he
thinks justice has not been done.
ALIENATION BY CONDITIONAL PURCHASE, CONDITIONAL LEASE-
HOLDS, AUCTION AND OTHER SALES–PART III.-In addition to
the various classes of Crown lands exempt from sale under the
present law,such as township, gold-field, population, and mining
reserves, and lands improved to the value of at least £l per
acre (within minimum and maximum limits respectively of 40
and 640 acres) the bill exempts from sale--1. All lands within
the leasehold areas formed by division of the existing runs into
leasehold and reserved areas. 2. Lands under conditional lease
or right of such lease (the value of which will be explained
further on). 3. Lands within the Western Division, unless
they are comprised within certain special areas, which the
Governor is empowered to proclaim in any part of that division
which does not happen to be covered by a pastoral or home-
stead lease. The various modes by which Crown land may be
acquired are :—Conditional purchase, with the obligation of
residence and fencing; non-residential conditional purchase ;
purchase out of a conditional leasehold by a conditional lessee;
purchase within gold-fields in small areas by certain persons
in occupation under the Mining Act; purchase at auction
without conditions other than payment; purchase in special
cases of water frontages, and land reclaimed from the sea, and
of sites of unnecessary roads, and small or inaccessible portions
of Crown lands.
CLAUSES RELATING TO CONDITIONAL PURCHASE.—23. No
person under the age of 16 years shall be a conditional pur-
chaser of Crown lands, but any person of or above that age (if
under no legal disability except that of age) may, subject to the
limitation as to age hereinafter contained relating to con-
ditional purchase without residence, beaconditional purchaser of
such lands. 24. In the Eastern Division no application for a con-
ditional purchase shall be received for less than forty or more
than six hundred and forty acres, and in the Central Division no
such application shall be received for less than forty or more
than twothousand five hundred and sixty acres: Provided always
that it shall be lawful for the Governor by proclamation in the
Gazette to reserve and set apart from time to time in the


LAND ACTS OF AUSTRALASIA.
315
Eastern and Central and Western Divisions, not being within
pastoral or homestead leases, any areas of Crown Land (to be
called Special Areas) within which it shall not be lawful to
conditionally purchase more than one hundred and sixty acres,
and in such areas and at such prices (not being less than thirty
shillings per acre), deposits, and instalments as shall be notified
in such proclamation. 25. When the land to be applied for as
a conditional purchase is unmeasured land the intending
applicant shall before lodging his application mark some corner
of such land in the prescribed manner, and shall in his appli-
cation describe such land in such manner as to permit of its
identification by the description. And if the land applied for
has not a frontage, it must be situated at a distance of at least
sixty chains from a frontage. When such land is measured
land the applicant shall so describe it. And whenever the land
so applied for contains improvements the applicant shall state
that fact in his application, and shall describe the nature and
position of such improvements. 26. Every application for an
original conditional purchase shall be tendered by the applicant
in person, and every application for an additional conditional
purchase may be tendered by the applicant in person or by
any duly authorized agent to the Land Agent on some land
office day, and with the application there shall be lodged with
the Land Agent a deposit at the rate of two shillings per acre
of the area applied for, together with a declaration made by the
applicant in the prescribed form. And if any person shall
make a false statement in such declaration as to any of the
matters contained therein, he shall forfeit all moneys paid by
him in respect of the land applied for, and all right and title to
such land. And any conveyance, transfer, mortgage, or dis-
position of such land made by such person shall be null and
void, if taken with notice or knowledge of such false statement.
27. The applicant who shall have duly complied with all pre-
scribed requirements shall be entitled to a receipt from the
Land Agent for the deposit paid by him ; but if more than one
application and deposit for the same land, or any part thereof,
be tendered to the Land Agent at the same time, he shall, unless
all the applications but one be forthwith withdrawn, proceed
to determine by lot, in the prescribed manner, which application
shall be received. 28. The Land Agent shall enter the
particulars of all such applications, deposits, and declara-
tions in a register to be kept by him in the prescribed
manner, and shall thereupon transmit such applications to
the Local Land Board, together with all documents relating


316
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
as
in
thereto, to be dealt with as hereinafter provided. A list of
all such applications so transmitted to the Local Land Board
shall be kept by such Land Agent in the prescribed manner,
and be exhibited by him for public inspection in some
conspicuous part of his office.
And all applications so
transmitted shall be dealt with by the said board sitting
open court, on a day of which at least fourteen
days' notice shall be given in the prescribed manner. 29.
Upon receipt of every such application the Local Land
Board, if the land applied for appears to such board to be
open to conditional purchase, and has not been surveyed, shall
direct the district surveyor to cause a survey of such land to
be made. And if, upon the report of such surveyor, it shall
appear that the land is available, then the board shall confirm
the application unless a caveat be lodged as hereinafter pro-
vided; but if it shall disallow the application the applicant
may appeal from such disallowance to the Minister in the
prescribed manner. If
upon report or otherwise, before
survey, the board shall be of opinion that the land applied
for is not open to conditional purchase, it may disallow the
application in like manner, subject to appeal as aforesaid.
When an application subject to appeal as aforesaid is made for
a measured portion open to conditional purpose, the board shall
either, with or without a report, confirm or disallow such ap-
plication, and the board on every such confirmation shall issue
a certificate thereof in the prescribed form to the applicant.
CONDITIONS OF RESIDENCE IMPROVEMENT AND PAYMENT.–
The condition of residence is, that the purchaser shall within
three months from the date of confirmation of his application
go into residence, and continue to reside on the land for five
years—residence being a continuous bona-fide living on the
land as the resident's usual and exclusive home. The con-
dition of fencing is that the purchaser shall, within two years
from the date of confirmed application or such extended time
as the Land Board may grant, fence the land with a substantial
fence of the kind prescribed by the regulations, and keep it so
fenced for five years, but frontages and certain natural
boundaries need not be fenced. In connection with this
condition of fencing, it is necessary to explain that, by sub-
sequent provisions, the burthen of constructing and maintain-
ing boundary fences will be shared in equal moieties by the
conditional purchaser and any other person who becomes the
purchaser or lessee for a term having at least five years to run
of adjoining land, but in respect of maintenance of fences


LAND ACTS OF AUSTRALASIA.
317
every adjoining holder will be liable for his moiety, no matter
what may be his term of lease. The limit of liability for
construction and maintenance is in every case co-extensive with
the extent of the common boundary line.
35. Every conditional purchaser at the end of the third
year after the date of confirmation of his application, or
within three months thereafter, shall pay to the Land Agent
an instalment on his purchase at the rate of one shilling per
acre, and thereafter shall pay in like manner a like instalment
annually during a period until the balance of seventeen
shillings per acre, together with interest at the rate of four
per centum per annum thereon, shall have been paid. After
the last payment of such instalments and interest the con-
ditions of payment required by this Act shall be deemed to
have been duly fulfilled: Provided, however, that it shall be
lawful for the conditional purchaser to pay off the whole or
any portion of such instalments at any time after the expira-
tion of five years from the date of confirmation as aforesaid
if the certificate mentioned in the next following section shall
have been granted to him: Provided always that any holder
of a conditional purchase made before the commencement of
this Act may by writing addressed to the Local Land Board
apply to convert his holding, so far as regards the balance
unpaid of his purchase-money, into a holding under the con-
ditions of payment prescribed by this section.
36. If at the expiration of the prescribed term of residence
the Local Land Board shall be satisfied after due inquiry that
all conditions applicable to a conditional purchase except that
of payment of the balance of instalments have been duly
complied with, such board shall issue a certificate to that effect.
And a like certificate may be granted by such board upon
application of the holder of any additional conditional pur-
chase when such board shall be satisfied after like inquiry
that all conditions applicable thereto except that of pay-
ment of balance of instalments have been duly complied
with; such certificate shall be transferable, subject to the
prescribed conditions, and shall be primâ facie evidence of the
title of the holder thereof to the land therein described, subject
to the fulfilment of the prescribed conditions of payment.
No such certificate shall be issued by the board before the
expiration of thirty days from the date of publication in the
Gazette of notice of its intention to issue the same, within
which period any person may lodge in the prescribed form
and manner a caveat against such issue, and every such caveat


318
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
-
shall be disposed of by the board before issuing such certifi-
cate in manner hereinbefore provided for dealing
with caveats ;
Provided that the board may after the prescribed notice in
the Gazette, and in the prescribed manner, issue to the person
entitled thereto a fresh certificate upon satisfactory proof
being adduced that the original certificate issued has been lost
or destroyed.
37. Subject to the issue of such certificate, and upon pay-
ment of the balance of instalments, stamp duty, and deed fee,
a grant in fee simple of the land shall be issued upon appli-
cation.
The penalty of making default in payment of any instalment
by the purchaser for three months after it falls due will be
forfeiture, not only of the land purchased, but of all payments
made in respect of it. A similar result follows if the conditions
either of fencing or residence have not been duly fulfilled.
The forfeiting authority is the Land Court, acting upon a
report by the Land Board. The representatives of the con-
ditional purchaser are bound by the same conditions as the
original purchaser, but exceptions in remissions of residence
are made in favour of persons deriving title on the death or
lunacy of such purchaser.
If the purchased land contains improvements not sufficient
to exempt it from sale, the purchaser will have to pay their
appraised value to the owner, who, however, is entitled to
remove them, when removal will not permanently deteriorate
the value of the land.
If the conditional purchaser has not purchased up to the
limit permitted in the division, i.e., 640 acres in the Eastern
and 2,560 acres in the Central, he can (by one or
additional purchases of land adjoining his original or any prior
purchase) make up his full quantity. He will not be allowed
to purchase less than 40 acres, and the combined purchases
may be treated for all purposes of residence and fencing as one
holding. The condition of payment is the same as on original
purchase. Within special areas in all the divisions, additional
conditional purchase will also be allowed, subject to the pre-
scribed maximum of 160 acres.
Small areas in gold-fields, to the extent of an acre of suburban
and a quarter-acre of town lands, may be purchased at prices
to be fixed by the board, not being less than the respective
minimum prices, by the owners of improvements in authorized
residence under the Mining Act. Lands so purchased are
always open to prospectors for gold, and may be resumed, if
more


LAND ACTS OF AUSTRALASIA.
319
con-
found auriferous, on payment of compensation by the Govern-
ment.
Non-residential purchases of Crown lands are introduced in
this bill. All lands open to conditional purchase may
be
pur-
chased by persons of full age in areas of not less than 40 nor
more than 328 acres. The deposit on application will be 4s.
per acre, and every subsequent instalinent 2s. per acre, payable
in the same manner as on other conditional purchases; but no
second purchase will be permitted, and no person who has been
or is the holder of a conditional purchase may purchase under
the non-residential provisions. The purchaser must within 12
months after survey of the land fence his boundary lines, and
within five years after such survey must satisfy the Land Board
that he has expended not less than 20s. per acre in permanent
improvements other than fencing. Thereupon he will be
entitled to his certificate, but before its issue he is disabled
from dealing with the land by transfer, or as a security. The
non-residential purchaser is permitted to make up his maximum
by additional purchases, and the land and payments made in
respect of it are liable to forfeiture for breach of the con-
ditions in the same way as ordinary conditional purchases.
CONDITIONAL LEASEHOLDS.—The area allowed as a
ditional lease to an applicant for a conditional purchase (to
which such lease is intended to be an accompanying privilege,
or perhaps a substitute for the old grass right or pre-emptive
lease abolished by this bill) will not in any case exceed thrice
the area of the conditional purchase by virtue of which it is
applied for; and that limitation is subject to this further one,
that in the Eastern Division the aggregate area of conditional
purchase and conditional lease must not exceed 2,560 acres;
but a less area may be allotted (not less than 40 acres) if the
whole area be not available. Applications for such leases are
reported on after survey, and are subject to confirmation or
disallowance by the Land Board in the same way as conditional
purchases. The annual rent will be such “fair rental” (not
less than 2d. per acre) as the Land Board, subject to the Land
Court's approval, shall determine. The conditional lessee
must fence his lease, but one fence may include the conditional
purchase and conditional lease, within the period prescribed for
ordinary conditional purchases, i.e., two years from date of
confirmation of application, or any extension of such term
granted by the Land Board, and the condition of residence (five
years from date last mentioned) may be completed either on
the purchased or on the leased land, upon giving due notice to


320
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
the Land Board. Within five years and a half after such date,
and upon fulfilment of all his conditions, the conditional pur-
chaser is allowed to purchase, free from any further condition
of residence, the whole or any portion (not less than 40 acres)
of his leasehold land ; but the land so purchased must be
adjacent to his conditionally-purchased land. This right of
purchase is declared to be a preferent right, and if not exercised
or exhausted at all within the prescribed period, the condi-
tional purchaser may get an extended term of conditional
lease over the unpurchased portion of his former lease, without
any preferent right of purchase annexed. After the extended
lease has run out, the land becomes ordinary Crown land.
MEASUREMENT OF CONDITIONAL PURCHASES.—The measure-
ment of conditionally-purchased land is specially provided for
by the bill. If the land applied for happens to be a measured
portion, the applicant must either take it as measured, or with
the consent of the Land Board he may apply for a part of the
measured portion, but in that case will have to pay the cost of
subdivision. Unmeasured land having a frontage must, when
not more than 180 acres are applied for, have a depth of at
least 60 chains, areas exceeding 180 acres must have a depth
of not less than twice the frontage, and the lines other than
the frontage must be directed to the cardinal points. Un-
measured land having no frontage must be taken up in the
form either of a square or of a rectangular figure, of which the
altitude must not be more than twice the base lines. Addi-
tional conditional purchases must, when the area applied for
and the original purchase do not altogether exceed 180 acres,
have a depth of not less than 60 chains; over that area the
figure must be as nearly as practicable twice as deep as the
frontage. All these requirements, however, are subject to
modification if the Land Board or Minister think fit to allow it.
SALES AT AUCTION, without conditions, except payment of
purchase-money (of which the upset prices are, for town land,
£8; for suburban land, £2 10s. ; and for other land, 25s. per
acre), are provided for, but the aggregate area so to be sold
must not exceed in any one year 200,000 acres for the whole
colony. The upset prices may, however, be raised, and im-
provements must be paid for. The maximum areas which can
be purchased at auction are :-Half an acre of town land, 20.
acres of suburban land, 640 acres of country land. Twenty-
five per cent. of the purchase-money must be paid forthwith,
and the remainder within three months of the sale, but that
time may be extended by the Governor on payment of a fine


LAND ACTS OF AUSTRALASIA.
323
granted on prescribed conditions as to the clearing of scrub.
The rent is to be paid in the prescribed manner, and at the
prescribed times, but the Land Court, on the recommendation
of the Land Board, may forego the rent for any term not
exceeding five years.
Holders of pastoral or homestead leases may convert such
portions of their holdings as contain scrub into 15 year scrub
leases on application to the Minister in the prescribed manner.
If the Land Board recommends the conversion, the Governor
is authorized to resume the land affected, and to lease it to the
applicant as a scrub lease. There are consequential provisions
for abatement of rent to the lessee, and for the cost of survey
by the applicant; and it is provided that the scrub lease must
be exclusively for lands within the pastoral or homestead lease.
SPECIAL LEASES for various industrial and other purposes
are provided for terms not exceeding 15 years, and for areas
not exceeding 320 acres, at rentals to be determined, but in no
case to be less than £10 per annum. Leases also for wharves,
jetties, piers, and floating docks are permitted for the like term,
subject to prescribed conditions ; likewise for tramway and
irrigation purposes.
On all 'land hereafter leased, notwithstanding the pro-
visions of the Mining Act of 1874, the Governor is empowered
to impose a royalty of not less than 6d. per ton of coal raised
therefrom.
Following these leasing provisions there are provisions for
ringbarking trees on leased lands on permission obtained from
the Land Board, also some general provisions affecting lessees,
of which the most important is that for appeal from the
minimum rentals already stated.
APPEALS from FIXED MINIMUM RENTALS on PASTORAL and
HOMESTEAD LEASES and on OCCUPATION LICENCES are per-
mitted to be made to the Land Board in any case where the
appellant considers that, by reason of the inferior grazing
capabilities of the land in question, the prescribed minimum
rental is excessive. The Land Board, after inquiry, may
recommend a reduction of the minimum rental to the Land
Court, which thereupon may determine the fair rental. Any
such reduction, however, will only operate for the unexpired
portion of the then current term of five years, and the reduced
rent may afterwards be restored to the prescribed minimum
or be sent to appraisement.
The mode of and purposes for which the Crown lands may
be dedicated and dedications revoked in certain cases are fully


324
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
set out in the fifth part of the bill, but, being chiefly depart-
mental, are not further epitomized.
TRANSFERS.— These provisions are mainly of a legal character.
The mode of transferring conditional purchases, pastoral and
homestead leases, is left to the regulations, but it is enacted
that there shall be no transfer of lands conditionally purchased
until all the conditions applicable thereto (except payment of
balance of purchase-money or instalments) shall have been duly
fulfilled. And, similarly, the homestead lessee may not transfer
until he has fulfilled his residence condition.
LAND ACT OF SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
The Crown lands of South Australia are dealt with in the
Crown Lands Consolidation Act of 1877, as amended by the
Acts of 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881, and 1882. The second part of
the Act, which deals with the alienation of lands, consists of
three parts.
SALE OF LAND UPON CREDIT.—The conditions upon which
Crown lands are sold under this section of the Act are—that
the land shall be properly surveyed and shown upon the public
maps. No one section is to contain more than 500 acres, unless
ach section was surveyed previously to the passing of the Act.
After six weeks' notice surveyed land may be sold upon credit.
The upset prices are-country land, £1 per acre ; reclaimed
land, £l per acre, with costs of reclamation added. The con-
ditions of sale are as follow :-The land to be offered at
auction at the upset price, and the competitors to be persons
qualified to purchase on credit, and who declare their intention
of residing on the land. The highest bidder to be the pur-
chaser, and he must pay 10 per cent. of the purchase-money,
with 10 per cent. on the cost of reclamation or improvement,
When no further bid shall be made under these con-
ditions, the remaining allotments of the same hundred is to be
put up for sale to persons who may not declare their intention
to reside, but who must make a declaration to the effect that
they intend to cultivate the land for their own use. Any land
remaining unsold may be afterwards purchased on credit at
the upset price. The purchaser must pay 10 per cent. of pur-
chase-money at time of sale, 10 per cent. at the end of 3 years,
and 5 per cent. each succeeding year. Upon non-payment of
purchase-money as specified, interest at the rate of 5 per cent.
shall be charged. Persons who have resided upon their allot-
if any.


LAND ACTS OF AUSTRALASIA.
325
ments and made improvements to the value of 10s. per acre
may, at the end of 10 years, by paying the balance of purchase-
money, obtain a grant in fee simple. No person is entitled to
hold under agreement for purchase on credit more than 640
acres of reclaimed land, or more than 1,000 acres of other land.
Land held under agreement can only be transferred by the
approval of the Commissioner. The Commissioner also has
power to relax the condition of cultivation. Married women
and persons under 18 years of age are not allowed to select
land under the above conditions.
SALES BY AUCTION AND BY PRIVATE CONTRACT.—Lands
which have been offered at auction may be sold by private
contract, but at not less than the upset price. Land may be
sold at public auction after being gazetted for four weeks, the
upset price for country lands being £1 per acre, in the case of
either cash or credit sale. Purchasers at auction must pay
20 per cent. deposit, and the balance within one month.
LEASES WITH RIGHT OF PURCHASE.—Land offered for sale
and not sold for five years may be leased in allotments of not
more than 1,280 acres for 10 years, at a rental of not less than
6d. per acre, with a right of purchase at the end of the term,
the purchase-money being £l per acre. Lands described in
the 10th section of the Act of 1877, which have remained
unsold for one month after being offered at auction, may be
leased in blocks of two square miles for 21 years, at not less
than 10s. per square mile, with a right of purchase at £1 per
acre at any time during the last half of the term of the lease.
Such leases, with right of purchase, must be put up at auction,
PASTORAL LEASES.—Pastoral leases for not longer than
21 years may be granted of any Crown lands not included in
any hundred, and at the end of the term the land with all
improvements reverts to the Crown. The Governor has
power, by giving twelve months' notice, to reserve part of the
lands, should they be required for sale or any other purpose.
The annual rent is at the rate of 2d. per head of sheep and
1s. per head of cattle depastured upon the land, with a
minimum of 2s. 6d. per square mile. Compensation will be
given for wells, tanks, or permanent reservoirs of water. In
the case of portions of runs being resumed before the expira-
tion of the first half of the lease full value will be paid for
all substantial improvements, and if during the last quarter
of the term, one-fourth of the value. Lessees are required to
stock within five years at the rate of not less than ten sheep
or three cattle per square mile.


326
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
LAND ACT OF QUEENSLAND.
The occupation and alienation of Crown lands in Queensland
are regulated under the Crown Lands Act of 1884, which,
except when otherwise expressly provided, takes effect on the
first day of March, 1885. Provision is made for the consti-
tution of a Land Board, consisting of two persons appointed
by the Governor-in-Council. The board shall from time to
time hold sittings at Brisbane, or elsewhere, to be called Land
Board Courts, and shall hear and determine all such questions
connected with the administration of the Act as may be re-
ferred to them by the Governor-in-Council
. An appeal from the
decision of the board is permitted to a Judge of the Supreme
Court and two assessors. The pastoral runs existing under
previous Acts are to be divided into two parts, one portion
being resumed for the purposes of this Act, and the other may
be leased to the pastoral tenant. The portion of the runs
resumed will vary, according to circumstances, from a quarter
to a half of the whole. The leases shall, in the case of runs
held under the Settled Districts Pastoral Act of 1876, or the
Amended Act of 1882, be for the term of 10 years, and in other
cases for the term of 15 years, from the first day of January or
the first day of July nearest to the date of the notification of
the division of the run. The rent is to be computed according
to the number of square miles of land comprised in the lease,
inaccessible ranges or other unavailable land not being included
in the computation. The rent payable for the first five years
in the case of runs held under the Acts of 1876 and 1882 is at
the rate of 40s., and in the case of other runs at a rate to be
determined by the board, not exceeding 90s., or less than 10s.,
per square mile. The rent payable for the second and third
terms of five years is to be determined by the board. The
resumed portion of a run may be occupied for grazing purposes
by the holder of the unresumed portion until it is required for
selection under the Act, on payment of a rental not exceeding
the rate per square mile of the rest of the run. Reductions
of rent will be made from time to time in proportion to the
area selected.
AGRICULTURAL AND GRAZING FARMS.—The Governor-in-
Council, on the recommendation of the board, may by proclam-
ation define and set apart any country lands as agricultural
areas, and declare such lands to be open for selection. Before
land is declared open for selection it is to be surveyed and


332
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
sidered suitable for grazing. The upset price of agricultural
land is £l per acre, and of pastoral lands a sum equal to 12
years' rental, the minimum being 5s. per acre.
Persons over
18 years of age have the right of selecting for purchase an
allotment not exceeding 320 acres. When the land has been
selected it is surveyed at the applicant's expense. In the case
of two applications being made for the same allotment, the
land is to be put up at auction. The conditions of sale are-
that the selector shall reside from within one year of taking
up the land until the purchase-money is paid. The purchaser
can pay cash or obtain credit. In paying cash a deposit of
one-fifth has to be made at sale, and the balance within a
month. In purchasing on credit, a sum equal to one-third of
the purchase-money is added to the sum payable, and the pur-
chase is completed in yearly instalments. The annual instal-
ments are equal to one-thirteenth of the sum owing at the time
of purchase. Survey fees, in ordinary cases, are at the rate of
from £2 10s. for 25 acres up to £30 for 2,560 acres, 320 acres
costing £13, and in densely wooded country from £3 2s. up to
£37 10s., the fee for 320 acres being £16 5s. Provision is also
made for occupying five-acre allotments upon gold-fields under
annual licences.
When lands are applied for as pastoral runs the Commis-
sioner decides as to whether the land shall be put up at auction
and as to the rental to be charged. The rent must be not less
than 4d. per sheep, or 2s. per head of cattle, and not more
than 9d. per sheep, or 4s. per head of cattle. After notifying
particulars in the Gazette, and the applicant fail to complete
his contract, the lease shall be offered at auction, the highest
bidder to occupy for not more than 14 years. In the case of
land being resumed, the lessee receives compensation for im-
provements.
LAND AOTS OF NEW ZEALAND.
Previous to the abolition of the provincial form of Govern-
ment each province possessed its own land regulations, and
these still remain in force with certain changes, introduced by
subsequent Land Acts. In the South or Middle Island of the
colony the land titles of the Maories have been extinguished,
but in the North Island this has only been partially ac-
complished. The Maories are allowed to sell their lands to
private individuals.


334
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
payment system. Upset price, £l for bush land and £2 for open
land.
WEST COAST DISTRICT.-Sale by auction and deferred-pay-
ment system. Upset price, £1 for bush land and £2 for open
land.
HAWKE'S BAY DISTRICT.—Land may be acquired upon the
same terms as in the Auckland district.
WELLINGTON DISTRICT.—Rural lands are open for sale after
survey. They are, after survey, offered at an upset price of
£l per acre, or a higher price in special cases. Agricultural
allotments of not more than 640 acres are offered at auction,
and, if not sold, can be afterwards taken up at the upset price.
NELSON DISTRICT.—Rural lands are sold at auction, the
upset price being from 10s. to 40s., according to quality. Lands
offered and not sold may be afterwards taken up at the upset
prices. Areas of 320 acres may be leased. The land is surveyed
and valued at from 10s. to £2 per acre, and the lessee pays
10
per cent. of the sum per annum for 10 years, at the end of
which time he receives the Crown grant.
MARLBOROUGH DISTRICT.—The lands are classified as agri-
cultural and pastoral. The upset price of land is from 10s. to
20s. per acre, and the sale is by auction, there being no land
available under the deferred-payment system.
CANTERBURY DISTRICT.-Rural land is of the uniform value
of £2 per acre, and is open for selection before survey. In the
case of more than one application being made for one allotment,
the cases are decided by lot. There are no sales by auction,
except in special cases. All the available pastoral lands are
occupied under leases, or can be purchased at £2 per acre.
OTAGO DISTRICT.--Blocks of land called “hundreds
proclaimed open for settlement. Purchasers of land have the
right of grazing stock upon the unsold portions of the hundred.
Lands in hundreds are open to application at 20s. per acre, but,
in the event of more than one application being received for
an allotment, its value is decided at auction. The purchase-
money may be either cash or under the deferred-payment
system. Rural lands of special value are also sold at public
auction. Rural lands held under lease are not open for sale.
SOUTHLAND DISTRICT.—Rural lands are classed as agricul-
tural and pastoral. The agricultural land is set apart for
settlement under the deferred-payment system. Agricultural
land is valued at from 25s. to 40s. per acre after survey, and
20s. per acre before survey. The price, however, is liable to
be raised at auction if there is more than one applicant for
are


LAND ACTS OF AUSTRALASIA.
335
the allotments. The pastoral lands are open to free selection
before survey at £l per acre should there be no competition.
WESTLAND DISTRICT.—Country lands are classified as first-
class rural and second-class rural. Lands not considered to be
auriferous are proclaimed from time to time as open for settle-
ment. The allotments are sold at auction, the deferred-
-payment
system not being in operation. The homestead system, however,
is adopted in this dictrict, under which land may be acquired
in small allotments upon easy terms.
CHAPTER XXVI.
FENCING ACT OF VICTORIA.
No. CCCCLXXIX.
An Act to amend the Law relating to Dividing Fences.
[25th November, 1873.]
1. This Act shall be called and may be cited as “The Fences
Statute 1874," and shall come into operation on the first day
of January One thousand eight hundred and seventy-four,
and shall be divided into Parts as follows :-
PART I.-Introduction.
PART II.-- Construction of Dividing Fences.
PART III.—Maintenance and Repairs of Fences.
PART IV.–Proceedings for the recovery of Contributions.
PART V.-General Provisions.
PART I.-INTRODUCTION.
2. “The Fences Statute 1865" with the exception of section
four thereof shall be and the same is hereby repealed, but
where any requisition under section three of the said Statute
or any reference to arbitration under the said Statute has
been made, or where any lands have been enclosed as men-
tioned in section four of such Statute, proceedings may be
taken upon such requisition and reference to arbitration and
in consequence of such enclosure of lands as if the said


338
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
three feet six inches in height the wires to be tightly
strained with not more than eight inches between the
wires and seven inches between the bottom wire and
the bank and the standards or binding wires to be not
more than eleven feet apart.
(XI.) A natural stream ditch or watercourse not less than
seven feet broad at the top and four feet broad at the
bottom and not less than three feet six inches deep with
a stream of water running in it and with a bank with
a slope of not more than one in three or any fence or
combination of the abovementioned fences on either side
thereof being not more than eighteen inches from the
edge of the ditch and the top not being less than two
feet above the level of the ground.
PART II.- CONSTRUCTION OF DIVIDING FENCES.
5. The occupiers of adjoining lands not divided by a sufficient
fence shall be liable to join in or contribute to the construction
of a dividing fence between such lands in equal proportions.
6. When a river creek or natural watercourse forms the
boundary of contiguous lands, but is not capable of resisting
the trespass of cattle, it shall be competent for the occupants
of such contiguous lands to agree upon such a line of fence on
either side of such river creek or natural watercourse as shall
secure such fence from the action of floods and in the event of
their not agreeing upon a line of fence it shall be competent
for either party to call in the nearest police magistrate or any
other magistrate they may agree to select who shall determine
the line of fence to be erected and decide whether any and
what compensation in the shape of an annual payment shall
be paid to either of the parties occupying such contiguous
lands in consideration of loss of occupation of land, and the
police magistrate or other magistrate so called in shall be
entitled to receive from such occupiers in equal proportions
the actual cost of his travelling expenses (if any) incurred by
him in visiting and inspecting the ground : But the occupation
of lands on either side of such line of fence shall not be deemed
adverse possession and shall not affect the title to or possession
of any such lands save for the purposes of this Act.


342
THE AUSTRALASIAN FARMER.
14. Any two or more justices, within one month after the
service of any notice on the council of any municipality within
the last preceding section on the complaint of and good and
sufficient cause shown by such municipality, may order the
person serving such notice not to proceed with the construction
of the fence referred to in such notice.
PART III.-MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS OF FENCES.
15. When any dividing fence made or to be made shall be
out of repair or become insufficient the occupiers of land on
either side thereof shall be liable to the cost of repairing such
fence in equal proportions.
16. The occupier of any land separated from any adjoining
land by a dividing fence may serve a notice upon the occupier
of such adjoining land requiring him to assist in repairing
such fence and if such occupier shall refuse or neglect for the
space of one week after the service of such notice to assist in
repairing such fence it shall be lawful for such first mentioned
occupier to repair such fence and to demand and recover of
and from such other occupier half the cost of repairing the
Provided that if any dividing fence or any portion
thereof shall be destroyed by accident the occupier of land
on either side may immediately repair the same without any
notice and shall be entitled to recover half the expense of so
doing from the occupier of the adjoining land :
Provided
always that in case such dividing fence shall have been
destroyed by fire or by the falling of any tree or trees the
occupier through whose neglect (if any) such fire shall have
originated or have caused injury to the fence or such tree or
trees shall have fallen shall be the party bound to repair the
entire of the fence so damaged as aforesaid.
same:
PART IV.-PROCEEDINGS FOR THE RECOVERY OF
CONTRIBUTIONS.
17. All moneys recoverable under this Act in respect of the
construction or repairing of any fence by any person serving
any notice to fence or repair or any ex parte order or award
may be recovered from any person liable to contribute to the
cost of constructing or repairing such fence who is served


FENCING ACT OF VICTORIA.
343
with notice to fence or repair or such ex parte order or award,
or any person who may come in and defend under the pro-
visions of this Act any proceedings consequent on such notice
or the service of such order or award :
And all such moneys
recoverable by any person served with such notice may be
recovered from the person serving the same or any person
liable to contribute to the construction or repair of such fence
as tenant of whom the person serving such notice may hold
the lands bounded by such fence.
18. All proceedings for orders and for the recovery of sums
of
money shall be in a summary manner before any two or
more justices.
19. Every complaint by this Act directed to be heard before
justices shall be heard in a summary way at some court of
petty sessions sitting near to the locality of the fence to which
the same shall relate, and the costs of every such complaint
shall be in the discretion of the justices hearing the same, but
notwithstanding when any such justices shall appoint an
arbitrator such justices may if they think fit refer the costs
of the reference to the award of such arbitrator.
PART V.-GENERAL PROVISIONS.
20. Nothing in this Act contained shall be deemed or taken
to affect any covenant contract or agreement made or hereafter
to be made relative to fencing between landlord and tenant
or between occupiers of adjoining land.
21. This Act shall not apply to any unalienated Crown
lands; nor shall the Crown the Governor the Board of Land
and Works nor any public officer appointed by the Governor
or by the Governor in Council for the administration manage-
ment or control of the Crown Lands or Public Works or who
may by virtue of his office however styled have any such
management or control be liable under the authority of this
Act to make any contribution towards the construction or
repairing of any dividing fence between the land of any
occupier and any Crown land.
22. Every person engaged in constructing or repairing a
fence under this Act, his agents and servants may with or
without horses cattle carts or carriages at all reasonable times
during such construction or repairing enter upon the con-
tiguous land and do thereon such acts matters and things as


INDEX.
:::
152
A loamy soil
A marly soil
A sandy soil
Acts of Parliament
Advantages of subdivision
Albumen
Alluvial soil
Alumina
Aphis blight on blue gums
Arrowroot
Artesian wells
Ash
Ashes as fertilizers
Asphalt pavements
At the wool sales
Ayrshire cattle
PAGE
2
2
2
306
8
4
2
2
285
125
55
4
49, 155
283
295
258
2, 5
:::
PAGE
Breeding swine
266
Brittany cattle
260
Broom corn ...
125
Buildings
12
Burning off
18
Burning straw
Butter-making
141
Calcareous soils
Calves
253
Canals
56
Capons
273
Carbon
3, 4
Carbonic acid
Carrots
106
Cattle
249
Grazing in America and Aus-
tralia
249
Principles of breeding
250
Various breeds
251
Shorthorns
251
Herefords...
252
Devons
252
Polled Angus and other breeds 252
Treatment of the bull
252
Treatment of the cow
253
Treatment of the calf
253
Treatment of the young stock 254
Fattening...
254
Housing
255
Dairy cattle
256
Channel Islands cattle
256
Ayrshires...
258
Dairy shorthorns
259
Crossbreds
260
Other breeds
260
Brittanies...
260
Welsh and Irish breeds
260
Dutch or Holsteins
261
Feeding dairy stock
261
Steaming or cooking
262
Silos
262
Cavalry horses
244
Cellulose
Baling wool...
304
Barley
82
Varieties
83
Sowing
Choice and preparation of soil 83
Harvesting
83
Beans
100
Bees
275
Bees on the farm
276
Situation ...
277
Hives
277
277
Drones
278
Workers
278
Swarming
278
Joining hives
278
Taking honey
278
General
279
Foul brood
279
Mr. F. Cheshire's discovery... 279
Beeswax
292
Beets and mangels
104
Berkshire swine
265
Blood manure
45
Boundary fences
8
Breeding cattle
250
Breeding horses
247
The queen
...
:::::::


348
INDEX.
PAGE
PAGE
Irrigation - continued.
Irrigating pastures
Quantity of water ...
::
61
61
44
44
44
45
45
45
46, 47
48
49
247
47
Lacepede Island guano
42
Land, settling upon
6
Land Acts of Australasia
306
Land Act of Victoria
306
The Mallee Pastoral Leases
Act
310
Land Act of New South
Wales
312
Land Act of South Australia 324
Land Act of Queensland 326
Land Act of Western Aus-
tralia
329
Land Act of Tasmania
331
Land Act of New Zealand 332
Fences Act of Victoria
335
Leghorn fowls
268
Length of a ton of wire
290
Lever and handle ploughs
22
Lime
2, 5, 46
Liquid manure
39
Live and dressed weight of
cattle
285
Loamy soil
2
Log fences
Lucerne
158, 168
Manuring—continued.
Wood ashes
Nightsoil ...
Poudrette...
Blood-fish-seaweed
Refuse animal matter
Soot
Lime-marl-shell sand
Green crop manuring
Hints on manuring
Mares
Marl
Materials for fencing...
Measuring a hay stack
Method of selling wool
Milk and milking
Miscellaneous crops
Hops
Tobacco
Flax
Chicory
Broom corn
Arrowroot
The sunflower
The castor bean
:::::::
282
294
140
106
107
113
121
123
125
125
126
127
::::
44
4
240
15
81
81
81
82
Magnesia
2, 5
Maize
84, 165, 167
Soil and climate
85
Choice of seed
85
Preparation of soil
85
Sowing or planting
After-treatment
86
Harvesting
86
Shelling or threshing
86
Maize as a green crop
87
Making cider
290
Mangels
5
Mangels and beets
104
Manuring
35, 152, 159
Application of manures
35
General and specific manures
36
Theories of manuring
36
Farm-yard manure
37
The manure heap
38
The compost heap
38
Liquid manures
39
Bone-dust
40
Superphosphate of lime
41
Guano
42
Common salt
42
Sulphate of ammonia
43
Nitrate of soda
43
Potash
43
Nightsoil
Nitrogen
Normanby horses
Notch-ringing
Oats
Seed
Soil and climate
Sowing
After-treatment
Harvesting
The caterpillar
Objects of irrigation ...
Oil
Organic parts of plants
Osage orange
Outhouses
Oxide of iron
Oxygen
52
4
3
163
13
2, 4, 5
3, 4
...
...
:::
...
Pastures, cultivated ...
A mixture for sowing
Varieties of grass
Peas
Phosphoric acid
Phylloxera
Pickling seed
Piggeries and styes
Pigs
Planting vines
Plants, composition of
Ploughing
91
94
94
5, 99
2, 5
138
65
266
264
132
3
21, 30, 31
:::::
...


INDEX.
349
PAGE
PAGE
...
Ploughs
21, 22, 23
Post-and-rail fencing...
10
Potash manure
43
Potatoes
102
Poudrette
44
Poultry
268
Various breeds
268
Leghorns ...
268
Hamburgs
269
Spanish
269
Dorkings
269
Cochins
269
Brahmas
269
Other breeds
269
Hatching and rearing
270
The poultry run
270
Fowl-houses
271
Feeding
271
The laying season
272
Table birds
272
Capons
273
Practice of green manuring 48
159, 176
Preparing beeswax
291
Preparing stumps for burning... 18
Preparing the wool clip
294
Preserving butter
147
Principles of breeding
250
Professor Laws on nitrogen 50
Providing for water
6
Pumping
57
Pure clay
1
Pure sand
1
Rules and recipes--continued.
Live and dressed weight of
cattle
285
Making cider
290
Making hop beer
285
Measuring a hay stack
282
Preparing beeswax...
292
Tanning kangaroo skins 288
To detect pleuro in cattle 292
Weight of cattle by measure-
ment
286
Rust in wheat
61, 77
Rye
83
Preparation of the soil
84
Sowing and after-treatment... 84
Harvesting
84
As a green crop
84
:::::::
...
Prairie grass
:::::::
...
...
...
...
Salt as manure
42
Sand
1
Sandy loam
2
Sandy soil
2
Saving shade trees
15
Scarifying
25
Season for tree-ringing
15
Seaweed
45
Selection of seed
64, 156
Settling upon land
6
Shallow ploughing
30
Shearing sheep
302
Sheep husbandry
207
Value of sheep to the farmer 207
Importance of a good flock 209
Overstocking
209
Fattening for market
210
Suit breed to pastures
211
Sheep-dealing
212
Breeding lambs for market 213
Various breeds of sheep 215
The merino
215
Victorian merinos
217
The Tasmanian merinos
217
Riverina merinos
217
South Australian merinos
218
New South Wales merinos 218
Queensland merinos
219
Longwools
219
Leicesters and Border Leices-
ters
220
Cotswolds
220
Romney Marsh sheep
221
The Down Sheep
221
South Downs
221
Hampshire Downs
222
Oxford Downs
222
Other breeds
222
Breeding ...
222
Root crops
:::
...
104
Racehorses
241
Raisins
130
Rape
165
Reaping
60, 71
Refuse animal matter
45
Refuse vegetable matter
46
Rolling
26
101, 154, 164
Potatoes
102
Mangels and beets...
104
Turnips
Carrots
106
Rotation of crops
32
Rules and recipes
282
Aphis blight on blue gums 285
Asphalt pavements
283
Cost of a vineyard ...
284
Curing bird skins
287
Destroying white ants
284
Dodder in lucerne
291
Drying fruit
286
Feeding and shoeing trotters 291
Home-made soap
288
Length of a ton of wire
290
...
...
...


350
INDEX.
PAGE
:::
Sheep husbandry-continued.
Breeding a permanent flock... 223
Selecting ewes
224
Choosing rams
225
In-breeding.
226
Cross-breeding
227
Sheep-feeding
228
Ensilage
232
Sheep-proof fences...
232
Rabbit-proof fences
233
Shelter
233
Sheep diseases
234
Fluke
234
Footrot
234
The redworm
235
Lice and ticks
236
Dogs v. sheep
236
The yield of wool
237
Shell sand
47
Shorthorn cattle
251, 259
Silica
2, 4
Silos
262
Skim-milk cheese
150
Skirting fleeces
302
Soap, home-made
288
Soda
2, 5
Soils
Soot
45
Sorghum
165, 167
Specific manures
Stacking grain
73
Stacking sacks
77
Stallions
247
Starch
4
Steaming or cooking fodder 262
Stone walls ...
11
Stooking
72
Storing grain
76
Stripping
69, 70, 71
Strong clay soil
1
Styes and piggeries
266
Subdivision, advantages of
8
Subdivision fences
8
Subsoil, The
2
Subsoiling
24, 25
Substitutes for tile pipes
30
Sugar
Sulphate of ammonia
43
Sulphuric acid
2, 5
Summer fodder
152
Superphosphate of lime
41
Surface drainage
27
Swine
264
American hog business 264
Various breeds
265
Breeding
266
Styes and piggeries
Feeding and fattening
267
PAGE
Tares or vetches
101
Thatching
74
The application of manures 35
The castor bean
127
The composition of plants
3
The dairy
139
The cheese and butter factory
system
146
The garden of the farm
178
The mineral constituents of
plants
The subsoil
2
The sunflower
126
The vintage...
137
Theories of manuring
36
Three-furrow ploughs
22
Threshing,
75
Tile-pipe drains
30
Tillage
20
Tobacco
113
Treatment of milk
140
Tree-ringing
14
Trellising vines
137
Turnips
104
Table birds
272
Treatment of breeding cattle 252
Treatment of cream
143
Treatment of dairy cattle
252
Treatment of stock
153
Trotting horses
243
:::
36
...
Varieties of wool
Vegetables
Artichoke
Beans
Beet
Borecole or curled kale
Broccoli
Brussels sprouts
Cabbage
Cauliflower
Capsicum ...
Carrot
Celery
Cress
Cucumber
Egg plant
Garlic
Gourd
Herbs
Horseradish
Kohl-rabi...
Leek
Lettuce
Melon
Mustard
Onion
Parsley
298
185
186
186
187
187
187
187
188
188
188
189
189
190
190
191
191
191
198
191
191
191
192
192
193
193
194
..
:::
266


INDEX.
351
PAGE
PAGE
:::::::
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
Vegetables-continued.
Parsnip
194
Pea
194
Potato
195
Pumpkin
195
Radish
195
Rhubarb
195
Salsify and scorzonera
196
Seakale
196
Shallot
196
Spinach
196
Squash
197
Tomato
197
Turnip
197
Vegetable marrows
197
Watercress
198
Vegetable soil
2
Vetches
101
Vines
127, 202
Choice of soil
128
Varieties of wine grapes
128
Varieties of table grapes
130
Raisins and currants
130
Preparing the ground
131
Width of planting ..
132
Season for planting
132
System of planting
133
Preparation of cuttings 134
Planting rooted vines
135
Treatment of young
vines 135
Pruning and training
136
The use of stakes
136
Trellising ...
137
The vintage
137
General notes
138
Phylloxera
138
Volcanic soil
...
Wheat-continued.
Selection of seed
Preparation of seed
Pickling seed
Broadcast sowing
Drilling
Quantity of seed
Time of sowing
Water furrows and drainage
Rolling
After harrowing
Feeding off
Time of harvesting
Reaping
Stripping
Cost of stripping
Objections to the stripper
Stripping and cleaning
Reaping and stripping
Stooking
Carting in
Stacking ...
Stack stands
Stack building
Thatching and covering
Threshing
Dressing grain for market
Winnowing in the field
Storing grain
Stacking sacks
Ru in wheat
Hints to wheat growers
Wine grapes
Winnowing in the field
Wire fences
Wool, treatment of
Farmers' wool
Prepare the clip carefully
Method of selling
At the wool sales
Varieties of wool
Attention to breeding
Qualities of wool
Shearing
Skirting and rolling
Classing
Baling and marking
The broker
Working a tree-grubber
64
64
65
66
66
66
67
67
67
68
68
68
69
69
69
70
71
71
72
73
73
73
74
74
75
76
76
76
77
77
79
128
76
10
293
293
294
294
295
298
299
301
302
302
303
304
305
19
...
Water, providing for
6
Weight of cattle by measurement 286
Weight of wire
290
Weirs and flood-gates
56
Wells
54
Welsh cattle
260
Wheat
5, 62
Choice of soil
62
Preparation of soil
62
Manure for wheat
63
Variety of seed
63
:::::
:::::::::
George Robertson and Company, Printers, Melbourne.





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