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(Payable all the world over)
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Foo Chow.
Galle.
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Colesberg.
Durban.
Graaf-Reinet.
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Hope Town.
Mafeteng (British Basutoland).
Mansourah.
ASIA.
AFRICA.
Hong Kong.
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Philippine Islands.
Shanghai.
Singapore.
Umritsur.
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Mauritius.
Mossel Bay.
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Port Elizabeth.
Potchefstroom.
Pretoria.
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uckland. Port Lyttelton. '_$
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eelong. m'““"°)'
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&c. &c. &c.
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All particulars respecting above on application to
S. W. SILVER 8:. CO.
SUN COURT,
6'7 CORNHILL, LONDON, E.C.





AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND,
INCLUDING THE FIJI ISLANDS.
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.
THE FIELD.—' Messrs. SILVER, in bringing before the public this edition
of their handbook, seem to have done all in their power to render it
worthy of its former favourable reception. . . . Australia. and Iw
Zealand atfozding, as they do, such good fields for certain classes of
. . . . h
emigrants, we are always glad to notice any publication that in a trut -
ful manner brings their special qualifications before the public.‘
ILLUSTRATED Lonnou N1a:ws.—' The only satisfactory work is S. W. SILVER
& C0.’s ( ublished at the ofiice of The Cqlonirs). Its latest edition is
P
considerably augmented and improved, with the addition of some in-
’ f N Z. l (1. The
teresting new chapters on the botany and zoology 0 ew ea an
contents are so compactly arranged that it is quite pleasant to look for
any item of knowledge, which is sure to be given in the most concise
form of statement.’
GRAPHIc.~—‘ For a pocket guide-book brimful of facts about lands where
labour almost commands its own price, we commend S. W. S1LvER& C0.'S
“Australia. and New Zealand." ‘
LABOURERS’ UNION CHRONICLE.—‘ What Mun-ay’s handbooks are for
gentlemen in all places of aristocratic travel, these handbooks of Messrs
SILVER 8: C0. will be to all classes seeking homes in our Colonies.‘
‘The com ilers have evidently been care-
SYDNEY MORNING HERALD.— p
ful to make this book suitable to all classes and interests, and to
arrange its matter so as to anticipate all possible inquiries. The
rinci al attraction of the book undoubtedly is that it 1S a. valuable
P P
ll tion of su gestive facts, unalloyed by any local prejudices. The
co ec g
historical and geological portions of the chapter devoted to this Colony
- 1
are extremely interesting and instructive.
BRISBANE COU'RIER.—' The information given with regard to each Colony
is very well digested and copious. Respecting our own Colony, we tnd
8. clear and impartial rémmzé of its capabilities as a field, not only for
' tion but for investment The book is not a mere eInigrant’s guide,
emigra , .
but comprises a quantity of information, excellently collated, which will
be found useful even to Colonists of long standing, and is in fact the
‘ ' ' ' t d. I
most handy gazetteer of the Colonies with which we are acquain e n
the endeavour “ to exercise a double impartiality, to balance the advan-
es and disadvantages of emigration compared with life in the Old
tag
Country, and, at the same time, to do equal justice as between the
Australian and New Zealand Colonies,” it appears to us the publisher
have signally succeeded.’


2 Opinions of the Press.

HOBART TOWN MERCURY.—‘ The compiler has devoted impartial attention
to each Colony, and points out the advantages they possess as fields of
emigration.’
NATAL WITNESS.-—‘ The book ought to be in the hands of everyone who
cares to have a concise yet complete history of these wonderful Colonies
at his linger-ends.’
A'1‘HEN1EUM.—‘ All the facts are given soberly and dryly, without any
attempt at enthusiastic description or the graces of style. This, we are
convinced, must be to the advantage of the intending emigrant, who has
been too often misled by highly coloured and attractive descriptions.’
ELGIN COURAN’1‘.—‘He who needs a colonial book of reference cannot
find a better.’
STANDARD.—‘ This work supplies emigrants with accurate information of
the very kind they most want, in aclear, concise, and very portable form.
It points out very satisfactorily the recommendations of each colony,
with its special opportunities for the exercise of the right kind of quali-
fication. To enable all emigrants to fix upon the country where they are
likely to do best, we cannot conceive a more useful guide.’
Counr JoURNAn.—"l‘he volume is alike useful to the merchant, tourist,
invalid, and emigrant.’
PALL MALL Gaznrrn.-i We do not know when we have seen such a mass
of various information as this book furnishes in its way, and it is not
only very full but a very methodical compilation.’
Lsnooa NEWS.—‘ We observe several improvements and some additions
in this edition. The marginal references are very serviceable.’
IBOX.—-‘ For the emigrant, the man who contemplates founding a home in
a new world, till now nothing trust worthy and at a moderate price has
been compiled, the more pretentious works being not only bulky and
expensive, but too general, while the smaller have been issued by
interested parties, painting in rose-coloured hues some particular spot
where money or labour was to be attracted. The book contains no
verbiage, all being closed by a full index of twenty-four pages to facilitate
reference.‘
Aoarcurxrunsr. GAZE'I"l‘E.—‘ Agriculture occupies a conspicuous place in
the book, and to read of its progress in the Colonies is almost like read-
ing a romance.’
MINING J 0UB§ZAL.—-‘ It really contains all that an emigrant, whether a
capitalist or a working man, is likely to require. The several chapters are
so subdivided that the re: der, whatever may be his trade or profession, may
readily refer to the subject in which he is more particularly interested.’





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S. W. SILVER & ,GO.’S
I—I.A.l\T]DIBOCDIC
FOR
AUSTRALIA 62 NEW ZEALAND
(INCLUDING ALSO THE FIJI ISLANDS)
WITH
NEW IbAI.A.P OF THE OOLOLTIES.
FIFTH EDITION
SAZ’
LONDON
S. W. SILVER AND CO.
67 COBNHILL
1888.


PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
LONDON


PREFACE
T0
THE FIFTH EDITION.
-:09’?
THE Publishers, in presenting the Fifth Edition of
this work, take the opportunity of stating that it
has been their desire to make it reliable as to its
information in every respect, and that no effort has
been spared to accomplish this.
They have now brought up the statistics of the
Colonies to the latest dates any returns could
furnish.
Loxnort: March 1886





PREFACE.
..__.°.__.
Wnmv we first published this Handbook for Australia
and New Zealand, we stated that it had been our desire
to meet a. well-known want, and to supply intending
emigrants with accurate information in a concise and
portable form. The great temptation of those numerous
and able writers who have criticised colonial institutions
has been to prefer a. literary to a scientific treatment of
the subject. Even when writing with the utmost good
faith, they have involuntarily coloured their narratives
with the personal impressions created by a somewhat
limited experience. Our endeavour has been to exercise
in the most scrupulous manner a double impartiality-
to balance the advantages and disadvantages of emigra~
tion compared with life in the old country, and at the
same time to do equal justice as between the Australian
and New Zealand Colonies themselves.
The fact is, and it cannot be too plainly stated, that
no colony is an El Dorado for those who lack the enter-
prise or the moral qualities which ensure success all over
the world. But each Colony has special recommenda-
tions, and ofl'ers special opportunities for the full exercise
of some kind of energy. In order to correct an erroneous
tendency, we have considered the requirements of the
skilled artisan, as well as those of the agricultural la-
bourer; and we have collected full information for the


V1 PREFACE.
benefit of the capitalist, as well as the toiler. Hitherto
it has been the custom to pay too little attention to the
attractions which the Colonies offer to wealthy or mode-
rately wealthy purchasers of labour, through the con-
centration of public interest on what was considered the
more pressing economic question as to the prospects of
the vendor. d
We are anxious to point out to our readers that emi-
gration to the Colonies should not merely be regarded
as a pis aller, as a severe and painful remedy for straight-
ened circumstances or a wrecked fortune. Emigration
has happily a nobler side. It is a natural solution of
most of the economic difiiculties of old, highly organised,
and crowded societies. Our Colonies are a field for the
best activities of civilised man. They give ample
rewards to lawful ambition, and in them it is not hard
to find scope for every political and social aspiration.
In classical antiquity it was esteemed a religious act
to carry the civil and domestic institutions of the father-
land into a virgin soil, there to expand, and perpetuate
the vitality of the parent stem. We ourselves can feel
in the same spirit that our Colonies, and especially the
provinces with which our Handbook deals, are not only
to be viewed as markets for trade, but also as new
centres of public life.
The welcome which this Handbook has received
from the public has been most encouraging. We have
evidence that it has served, and will, we trust, serve
for the future, as an exact and sober guide for those
who have a relish for thorough work, while as a
natural consequence they prefer dry but trustworthy
statements to loose assertions and misleading fancies.
The primary object of this Handbook is to assist those
whose needs are practical and commercial. But we
hope also that it will help to make men conscious of


rmcncn. vii
the value and dignity of the Colonial possessions of
the Imperial Crown, and of the magnificent future
which is promised to our Colonies in every part of
the globe. This future will be their inheritance as
long as they are recruited from the hardy British stock,
and display a fortunate union of free institutions with
wise and orderly principles of internal legislation.
This volume contains all necessary particulars as to
the natural capabilities, the industries, the population,
and the political circumstances of each Colony. The
facts have been obtained from authentic sources; among
others, from the agents-general of the different Colonies
in London. They have, in this new edition, been care-
fully corrected up to date, although allowance must
still be made for some irregularity in the arrival, and
for certain differences in the form, of the statistical
statements preparediby the various Administrations in
Australia and New Zealand. In order to render this
second edition of the Handbook as complete as possible,
the part relating to Natural History and the sections
which treat of the botany of Australia and New Zealand
have been virtually re-written. We have felt that the
study of the fauna and flora of Australasia isas welcome
to men of science and lovers of nature in the mother
country as to practical men and pioneers of commerce.
Already some of the noblest Australasian trees and
shrubs have been acclimatised in Europe ; and we hope
that in this, as in other instances, public opinion at home
will be more interested than ever in the growth and
splendid prospects of Her Majesty’s dominions at the
Antipodes.
Believing the change to be useful, we have inserted
a coloured map of Australia and New Zealand, specially
prepared for this edition of the Handbook, in lieu of the
Season-Chart which appeared in the former edition. We


viii runner.
have also added a chapter on the Fiji Islands, which are
included in the range of our new map. Although the
cession of this fine group to the Imperial Crown has
not yet been formally completed, it is morally certain
that the Home Government have resolved to face and
overcome all minor obstacles in their patriotic desire to
consult the unanimous wishes of the Australian Colonies
themselves, and to perform an Imperial duty. The re-
sult, we may reasonably expect, will be a lasting benefit
to humanity and to commerce. After years of delay and
vacillating policy, it is satisfactory to think that matters
are en train for a complete and pacific annexation of the
Fijian Group.
We have had considerable assistance in the compila_
tion of this work from Dr. Walter Buller, F.L.S., Mr.
G. F. Angas, F.L.S., Mr. Jas. Bonwiek, F.R.G.S., and
other gentlemen who have kindly placed their services
at our disposal.
The pleasure which the rapid success of the Handbook
has given us is heightened by the reflection that the
great work of Colonisation is at once a relief to over-
populated societies and a source of fresh power to new
communities.
Tue Punusnnns.
Lozmox: September 1874.


CONTENTS.
[A copious Index will befound at the md.]
Pr»-face . . - . . . . . . . v,vi
NEW SOUTH WALE9.
Discovery - Histoi-y— Geography—— Climate — Geology— Natural
Hist/cry of Australia—Australian Bor.any—Govemment—P0pula-
tion —Ed ucation —Religion —Past0ral — Agriculture —Mining —
Trude—Manufactures—Land laws—Immigi-ation-Rates of wages
—Prices of provisions—I:lints to intending emigrants . 1 to 100
VICTORIA.
Discovery-— History— Geography— Climate— Geology-— Govern-
ment-—Population—— Education—Religion—Pastoni.l—Agricult.u1-e
— Miiiing— Trade —Manufactures ——Land laws —-Immigration —
Rates of wages—Prices of provisions—Hints to intending emi-
grants . . . . . . . . . 101 to 192
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
Discovery — History— Geography —— Climate —- Ge0logy— Govern-
ment—Population-Education—Religion—Agriculture—Pastoral
—Mining—'l‘rade—Manufa/ctures—Nort-hern Territory of South
Austra.lia—-Land laws—Immigra.tion—Hints to intending emi-
grants . . . . . . . . . 193 to 234
QUEENSLAND.
Discove1'y— History— Geography -— Climate — Geology— Govern
inent—Population—Ediic-a tion-—Religion—Pa=toral—~Agricull ure
—Mining—Trade ———Manut'actu res -—Land laws —Immigra.tion —
Hints to intending emigrants . . . . . 235 to 293


X CONTENTS.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
Disc0very—- History— Geography— Climate —— Geology— Govern-
ment—P0pulation—E<lucation——Religion——Agriculture—Pastoral
—Mining—~Trade —l\Ianufactures —Land laws —Immigration—
Hints to intending emigrants . . . . . 294 to 311
TASMANIA.
Discover-y—-History—Geography—Climate—Local Natural History
and Botany——Geology—Governrnent—Popu1ation—Abo1'igines—
Education—Religion—Agriculture Pastoral—Mining—Trade—
1\'Ianufactures—L-and laws—Immigra.ti0n—Hints to intending
emigrants . . . . . . . . . 312 to 342

NEW ZEALAND.
Discovery—History—Geography—Climate—Distances of towns-
Geology--—Natural History—Botany—Government—Population—-
The Ma.oris—Education—Religion—Agriculture—Pastoral——-
Mining -— Trade -— Manufactures — Land la.ws—-Immigration —
Hints to intending emigrants . . . . . 343 to 415
THE FIJI ISLANDS.
Discover-y—History-—Governrnent—Geography—Geology—Natural
History—Botany—Climat%Native population—T1-axle, &c.
416 to 424
Illdfil, lll (lfilfiil I I I I I | Q s U) 449
4


HANDBOOK
TO
AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
-—ooo-i
NEW SOUTH WALES.
As the oldest of the Australian Colonies—the parent of
Victoria and Queensland, the ruler of Tasmania in its
younger days, the civiliser and coloniser of New Zealand,
—New South Wales is entitled to the post of honour in
any description of those southern lands.
While the investor desires facts as to its monetary
condition, the labourer as to the prospects of work, the
miner concerning geology, the thoughtful emigrant
about climate and productive resources, the general
reader upon its rise and progress, an account of the
Colony must include references, however limited the
capacity of the volume, to every subject of interest.
Statistical information, as well as scientific intelligence,
are as necessary to the complete comprehension of the
state of things there, as the details of ordinary colonial
life and the administration of Crown Lands.
The story of the settlement of New South Wales must
naturally precede a statement of its present position.
Discovery and History.
On the 18th of April, 1770, Captain Cook was ofl'
Cape Howe, the south-eastern extremity of New Holland.
This was new land to Europeans.
He sailed along the rock-girt coast in a northerly
direction, noted its promontories and bays, and remained
awhile on the flowery banks of Botany Bay. There he
B
J
5
IEI SOUTH
IILES.
i_____.
Parent
colony.
Cook’:
discovery.


2 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEW Slllllll
VMLES.
~-
Botany
Bay recom-
mended as
n penal
settlement.
Discovery
of Illa-
W RITE
district.
came in sight of a party of natives, who boldly con-
fronted the clothed strangers, and imperatively ordered
them off the hunting-ground of the tribe.
Hurriedl-_y passing the headlands of a neighbouring
passage, to which the appellation of Port Jackson was
given, after the observing look-out, Cook continued to
place upon his chart the features of the interesting shore,
and attach thereto names which were destined to bear an
importance the navigator then never suspected.
Though the commander, with his two scientific com-
panions, Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander, pursued
their voyage onward, rounded the Sandy Spit, careened
in Endeavour Bay, and planted the British flag near
Cape York, Botany Bay was not forgotten. It was so
picturesque in its rocks and plants, souhealthful in its
atmosphere, and so beautiful in its very loneliness, as to
command remembrance.
When, therefore, at the Revolution of the American
Colonies, whither home convicts had been previously
despatched, the Ministry were at a loss what to do with
accumulating criminals, the Botany Bay visitors spoke
of the suitability of New Holland, this land so exiled
from the civilised world, as a fitting place for exiles.
The suggestion was adopted. The New South VVa]es
of Captain Cook was declared a colony of Great
Britain, and the bay of aromatic shrubs and curious
floral forms was appointed to be the gaol of transported
criminals.
- The settlement was made in 1788.
For many years after occupation, though surveys of
the coast-line were made, little effort was made to extend
a knowledge of the country inland. The oflicers of
the Government were naval men, and showed no appre-
ciation of the work of discovery ashore. The tours of
Governors were progresses through their little dominion
of petty stations, and rarely ventured out of the forest
tracks.
It is true that a chase after some runaway cattle led
the wanderinglierdsmen to that rocky amphitheatre, from
whose almost perpendicular heights they looked down
upon that very haunt of beauty-Illawarra.
There was little enterprise to be expected of such an
order of inhabitants as were camped beside Port Jack-


mscovnnr AND nisronr. 3
son. But when the rich flats beside the Hawkesbury
were made known, land was granted there for would-be
farmers among the emancipated of the party. Broken
Bay as well as Illawarra attracted similar attention.
When the policy of the local government favoured
a greater distribution of prisoner population, the cause
of exploration was advanced, for several stations were
established on the coast, as at Newcastle and Port Mac-
quarie, and inland, as at Goulburn.
But it was the energy of private flockmasters that
opened up the western country. Messrs. Wentworth,
Blaxland, and Lawson, seeking new pastures for their
increasing flocks, attempted to penetrate the scrubs that
barred the passage over the Blue Mountains. What
might be beyond those blue-tinted ranges had excited
the curiosity and hopes of these fathers of the flocks of
Australia. After some unavailing endeavours, success
rewarded their energy in 1813. The heights were scaled,
and the rich pastures of the Bathurst plains were gained.
The zeal of private settlers awoke the attention of the
authorities, and Surveyor-General Evans was sent to
complete the discoveries of the young squatters. He
got as far as the Lachlan River in 1815. But others that
same year had revealed the lovely Vale of Clwyd, the
romantic walls of the Grose, 1,700 ft. in height, with
grassy slopes and plains, and soil most tempting to farmers.
Two years after, the next Surveyor, Mr. Oxley, followed
along the banks of the Lachlan until the stream was
lost in an impenetrable marsh. That he concluded to
be the edge of a vast inland sea. Repulsed in an
attempt to go to the southward, for the ground was
parched by a. drought, he boldly declared that New Hol-
land south of the Lachlan was an impracticable desert,
and utterly uninhabitable.
Mr. Oxley had a further confirmation of his inland
sea theory when he subsequently traced the Macquarie
River to a marsh. He was more fortunate in lighting
upon the fine Liverpool Plains, with the Peel and Hast-
ings Rivers.
His most important journey was in 1823. Going
north of the Hastings he travelled in the beautiful
and hilly New England, and first trod upon what is now
Queensland. Falling in with some shipwrecked cedar
IEW SDUTH
IALES.
Discovery
of the
western
plains.
The Lach-
lan in 1815
by Mr.
Oxley.
Supposi-
tion of an
inland sea.
Queensland
in 1823.
a 2


4 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALANIL
IHI SWTH
IRES-
Discovery
of Brisbane
River and
Darling
Downs.
The Mur-
rumbidgee
and
Murray.
The
Darling,
1828.
Captain
Sturt on
the
Murray.
cutters near the coast, he gathered some information
from them, and passed on farther northward. This led
to his discovery of the noble Brisbane River, of Moreton
Bay, afterwards farther explored by Major Lockyer.
The year after, Mr. Allan Cunningham, the botanist,
undertook a tour in a line parallel to that of the Sur-
veyor-General, and obtained the first glance at the
Darling Downs of Queensland.
In 1819, a colonial lad, Hamilton Hume, commenced
his important career as an explorer. He was skilful in
bush-craft, and endowed with much power of endurance.
The Murrumbidgee River was first made known to
Settlers by him.
Proposing a more extended journey southward, Mr.
Hume secured Captain Hovell as a comp .nion in 1824.
After crossing the Murrumbidgee they came to a longer
stream, which they called the Hume, though afterwards
found to be identical with Captain Sturt’s Murray River.
Rounding the spurs of the Alps, which are thrust far
westward from the central pile, the travellers marched
still to the south, until they gained the shores of a bay.
This was asserted by Hovell to be Western Port, and
by Hume to be Port Phillip Bay. The colonial young
man proved to be correct.
A man of education and science now undertook the
work of discovery. This was Captain Sturt, attached
to a regiment at Sydney, who secured permission, in
1828, to fit out a party, and who got Mr. Hamilton
Hume for a guide.
Taking advantage of some successive seasons of
drought, he determined to trace the Macquarie through
the marshes seen by Oxley. A channel was easily found,
and the Macquarie was followed down till its waters
mingled with the Darling.
At the close of the next year, Captain Stnrt induced
his Sydney friend, Mr. McLeay, to go with him to the
south-west, that they might know the course of the
Murrumbidgee. Along this stream they rowed for hun-
dreds of miles, until they were floated into a larger river
called the Murray.
They now drifted down the Murray, which turned
from a western to a southern course. A large river,
coming down from the north into the Murray, was sus-


DISCOVERY AND HISTORY. 5
pected to be the Darling, discovered before. Consider-
able danger was encountered by the little crew, as the
boat made its way between high banks of limestone,
lined with suspicious savages.
As the craft was carried into a large shallow lake,
the loyal soldier named the water after the Princess
Alexandrina Victoria, afterwards the beloved Victoria
of the English throne. The rowers were guided on by
the roar of the Southern Ocean. But a sandbar caused
so rough a sea at the mouth that the Murray could not
be safely followed out by the party, who had to return
by the route they came.
This great discovery solved the mystery as to the
drainage of the western country of New South Wales.
Major Mitchell, Surveyor-General of the Colony, be-
came the honourable rival of Captain Sturt as an ex-
plorer.
A prisoner in the Sydney gaol had spoken of a large
river to the north-west, which he had seen when a re-
treating bushranger. The story induced the Major to
go in search of it, in 1831. He was brought to the
Darling, discovered by Sturt in 1828. Other rivers, as
the Gwydir and Peel, were traced to the Darling. Two
years subsequently he had the misfortune to lose his
botanical companion, Mr. Cunningham. Straying from
the party, while looking for plants, he was waylaid and
murdered by the alarmed Bogan aborigines.
In 1835, the Major tracked the course of the Lachlan
through the marshes where his predecessor had left it.
The inland sea was not found there any more than at
the Macquarie. The desert of Mr. Oxley also disap-
peared, for the new Surveyor-General found a fine
country by the Murray, and a much finer one still far-
ther south, which he called Australia, Felix.
While further news of that journey may be learned in
the accounts of Victoria, particulars of another success-
ful journey, in 1845-6, are given in the narrative of
Queensland.
New South Wales exploration was rewarded, in 1838,
by the discovery of the fertile Clarence district. The
south-east of the Colony was made known by Count
Strzelecki, who crossed over the Australian Alps in
1840, after passing through the rich Monaro plains.
III SW1’ I
IILES.

Lake called
after Prin-
cess Vic-
toria.
Major
Mitchell in
1831 at the
Darling,
Gwydir,&e.
Murder of
Mr. Cun-
ningham
No inland
sea.
Mitchell
across the
Murray.
Stizeleckl
and the
Australian
Alps, 1840.


6 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW SOUTH
WALES.
»~
ilrsroxr.
First fleet
arrived at
Botany
Bay J an-
uary 18,
1788.
1,044
landed.
Removed to
Port Jack-
son.
Sydney
founded.
Rose Hill
or Parts-
matte.
Famine for
years.
The HISTORY of the Colony is one of strong contrasts.
Like as in Rome, the early settlers gave rise to a race
more noble and energetic than themselves. The famine,
misery, and crime of the primitive period have been
followed by remarkable prosperity and social advance-
ment. The future is most hopeful at the present stage
of colonial history.
The suggestion of Captain Cook, as has been stated,
originated the Botany Bay Expedition of 1787.
The first fleet for New Holland sailed from England
in May, 1787, and arrived at Botany Bay, January 18th,
1788. There were landed 200 marines and 40 soldiers,
in charge of 696 prisoners, 192 of whom were females.
Including the wives and children of the military, and
81 free emigrants, chiefly mechanics to instruct the
prisoners, there were 348 free people. The total number
was 1,044.
Captain Phillip was nominated as the Governor.
Disapproving of the Bay as being no safe harbour, he
brought the party round a. few miles farther into the
magnificent Port Jackson.
On the southern shore an encampment was made,
which received the name of Sydney, after his lordship,
the Secretary for the Colonies. The earliest dwellings
were tents, or huts made of wattle branches and clay.
Before the end of the year, a party was sent to the
fertile Norfolk Island, so long a penal settlement, and
now in the occupation of the interesting and Christian
Pitcairn Islanders. A location was formed also at Rose
Hill, at the head of Port Jackson, subsequently known
as Parramatta, of orange grove notoriety.
The nomenclature of localities was peculiar. Sydney
was once commonly known as the Timks, since tanks
were fixed in the little stream that supplied the town.
Famine sorely tried the Colony for a number of years.
The loss of a store-ship, the neglect of home authorities
during the death-struggle with Napoleon, and the failure
of colonial crops through mismanagement, caused a
serious deficiency of food. The Norfolk Islanders lived
some time on mutton birds. The second fleet arrived
with stores in 1791, and brought 1,695 male prisoners
and 68 female. Governor Hunter, the father of the
Colony, first introduced free immigrants.


mscovsnr sun nisrosr. 7
Conflicts with the natives occasionally cost some loss
of life, though very rarely on the side of the whites.
While a part of the tribes sunk under the vices they
acquired from the Europeans, others sullenly held aloof
in remoter districts.
The want of suitable discipline increased the social
disorders of the early times. The otlicers, by their
monopoly of the spirit traflic, were fostering the evil
habits of those over whom they ruled. Rum became
the currency of the period, and led not less to neglect
of productive labour than to the commission of crime.
The first chaplain, the Rev. Mr. Johnson, was ill fitted
to cope with the moral difiiculties surrounding him,
though amiable in manners, and Christian in life.
After waiting seven years for a place better than the
shade of gum trees, where he could celebrate Sunday
services, he was constrained to raise a. building himself.
His successor, the Rev. Samuel Marsden, was more
adapted to the rough circumstances of the place, and
displayed a vigour in the cause of religion which brought
him many enemies, but which laid the foundation for a
happier state of things in New South Wales. Invested
with magisterial authority, and led by his energetic
mind into business relations, his spiritual influence was
lessened, though his contest with Governor Macquarie
was of service.
The Rebellion of 1804 originated with some who had
been transported for their part in the Irish affairs of
1798. The colonial engagement of Vinegar Hill, near
Parramatta, put a speedy end to the rising. But the
officer, Mr. Johnston, who crushed the first rebellion,
was himself the originator of the second, three or four
years after.
Governor Bligh, not the most prudent and mild-
tempered of men, had opposed the rum-trading mo-
nopoly of military and civil ofiicers in the colony. The
New South Wales Corps identified themselves with the
merchant class against the country settlers, and with-
stood the Governor in some reforms he attempted to
enforce in a tyrannical manner. Major J ohnstonmarched
up the troops, and deposed His Excellency, though after-
wards permitting himto retire to avessel in the harbour.
The Lieutenant-Governors tacitly sided with the
IEI SOUTH
IlLtS.
The
natives.
The rum
currency.
The first
church.
The Rev
Samuel
Marsden.
Irish
Rebellion
of 180-1.
Captain
Bl" h
'8
deposed in
1808.


8 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND-
IEW S0lITll
MLES.
Eman-
eipists.
Treatment
of priso-
nets.
Eman-
cipists
versus free
immi-
grants.
rebels, and the Government was carried on irregularly till
the appointment of General Lachlan Macquarie, in 1810.
Another cause of social disturbance arose, — the
question of the civil tatus of the Evnancipists, or those
becoming free by the fulfilment of the terms of their
legal sentence.
Originally, a large amount of the charges upon which
the men were transported might be called political.
Many suffered exile then for offences only punished now
by a brief term of imprisonment. Not a few, besides
those involved in the Irish rising of ’ 98, were supposed
victims of political faction. Sympathisers with the
French revolution then certainly risked an acquaintance
with a transport ship bound for Botany Bay.
At the first, all the prisoners were employed on public
works. With good behaviour, some got their degree of
liberty, called Conditional Pardon, before others. To
such persons, grants of plots of land were made, so that
the means of independent existence might be afforded,
though the public store was still open to them for
some supplies, in cases of necessity.
The mechanic found abundant occupation in the city,
or in oflicial establishments, while another class culti~
vated their little fields amidst considerable hardships.
Thus, there gradually arose from the prisoner popula-
tion a free people. The descendants of some of the
early convicts are now found among the wealthiest and
most influential of citizens.
Although an effort was made from the very first to
mix a certain number of free emigrants with every ship-
ment of prisoners, yet it was many years before any
assisted system of emigration was permitted. But fa-
cilities being alforded to capitalists, especially in extensive
grants of land, cabin passengers, and not steerage ones,
were the earliest Australian immigrants.
When the prisoners were despatched in larger num-
bers, the Government, to save increased demands on the
public stores, granted blocks of land to those who would
undertake to employ convicts, merely providing them
with rations and clothes, as if slaves on a plantation.
Between the Emancipists, as free by servitude, and
the new-comers, as free immigrants, no cordial feeling
existed. Some contended that a man who had fairly


DISCOVERY AN D HISTORY. 9
discharged his obligations to society in the fulfilment of
his time, ought to have equal rights with others; but
there were those who claimed superiority on the ground
of having paid their passage to the colony.
Governor Macquarie espoused the cause of the Eman-
cipists, and earned the title of the Priaone'r’s Friend.
Although some excesses followed this policy, the interests
of the colony were consulted in it. Ultimately, all free
persons were admitted to an equal footing, and the old
feud of the Emancipists was lost in the perfect com-
miugling of classes.
Sir Thomas Brisbane's views were contrary to those
of General Macquarie. The immigration scheme re-
ceived the favour of the Sydney Council, and great
exertions were employed to leaven society with free men
and women from home. The Colony rapidly improved.
So many were the new purchasers for stock, especially
after the establishment of the Australian Agricultural
Company on a vast grant of land, that a perfect sheep
and cattle mania commenced.
Governor Darling’s reign was signalised for the rage
of party. Prosecutions for libel against the Government
brought the press under harsher restraints, and another
administrator, Sir George Gipps, came into collision
with the squatters. Both the printer and the squatter
triumphed over Government House.
' Among the earlier Governors, Sir Richard Bourke
deserves honourable mention for his zeal to promote the
interests of New South \Vales; and, above all, for the
removal of political and religious disabilities.
The equalisation of denominations in 1836, and the
cessation of transportation to New South Wales after
1840, brought a new era to the Colony. Free emigra-
tion was promoted, education was fostered, a more liberal
policy of home rule was established, agriculture ad-
vanced, the wool product greatly increased, commerce
grew enormously, social manners improved, and the
Colony was as happy as it was prosperous.
An attempt made to re-institute the system of trans-
portation was repulsed with an energy and a success
that indicated the moral forces of the Colony. The
citizens protested against even the admission of Emanci-
IEI SOIITI
IILES.
Governor
Macquane.
GOVfl‘l10f
Brisbane.
Australian
Agricultu-
ral Com-
Pm)’-
Governors
Darling
and Gipps.
Governor
Bourke.
Progress of
the Colony.


10 mmnnoox TO ausrnanm am: NEW zmnmn.
IEW SDUTII
WALES.
No more
convicts to
F st

.a em
Australia.
Constitu-
tion of
1855.
N. S. W.
loses Port
Phillip and
Moreton
Bay.
Governors.
Gan»
oaarxv
pists from Britain, resolving to be in truth the settle-
ment of the Free.
The Gold Discovery of 1851 developed more wealth,
as it originated a new industry. It removed the last
plea for the English Ministry to send prisoners _t0
Eastern Australia, and brought to a triumphant con-
clusion the labours of the Anti-transportation League.
If New South Wales did not realise all the advantages
she expected from the auriferous display of 1851, she
enjoys the distinction of having pointed out a gold-
field, and taught Victoria, Queensland, and New Zealand
the art of extracting the precious metal from the soil.
The New Constitution of 1855 gave a responsible
government to the people, and governors were no
longer autocrats.
The laws subsequently passed by the Sydney Legis-
lature have been for the good of the many. Those for
the unlocking of the public lands have drawn, and will
continue to draw, many thousands of immigrants to the
country. And though New South Wales lost Port
Phillip district in the erection of the Colony of Victoria
in 1850, and Moreton Bay district when it became
Queensland in 1859, yet the very circumscribing of area
has added to internatstrength.
Governor Captain Phillip arrived in 1788; Captain
Hunter, 1795; Captain King, 1800; Captain Bligh, 1806;
General Lachlan Macqnarie, 1810 ; Sir Thomas Brisbane,
1821 ; Sir Charles Darling, 1825 ; Sir Richard Bourke,
1831; Sir George Gipps, 1838 ; Sir Charles Fitzroy, 1846;
Sir William T. Denison, 1855; Sir John Young, 1861 ;
Earl of Belmore, 1868 ; Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, 1872.
Geography and Climate.
The Dividing Range of New South Wales is properly
so called, as it divides the colony into two parts. The
eastern is a narrow belt of land by the South Pacific
Ocean. The western is the large expanse of plains on
both sides of the Darling River.
The East Coast portion has numerous independent
streams. The western portion, receiving the drainage
of the western side of the dividing range, has three
large rivers——the Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Darling,
whose waters reach the Murray, in the south-west.


GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. ll
The Intermediate, or Highland, portion is nearly
parallel with the coast, but extends to the sea at its
southern extremity.
The Eastern division, with an irregular coast-line of
750 miles, was the first settled, and has still the largest
population. lt is 500 miles long from north to south,
and from 10 to 80 miles in width. The Highland country
contains the wheat-fields and the gold-fields, and reaches
from Victoria to Queensland.
The Western Interior has a mean length of 400 miles
from north to south, and a mean breadth of 400. It is
available for pasturage, but having few farms except on
its eastern and southern waters. A considerable part of
it, especially on the South Australian and Queensland
sides, is still untenanted by the white man.‘ But the
soil of the Western Interior only needs irrigation to
become a garden.
The Colony is separated from Queensland on the
north by the Dumaresq and McIntyre rivers, and the
latitudinal line of 29° S. The river Murray, and a line
drawn from its source to Cape Howe, out it off from
Victoria to the south. The sea is the eastern boundary,
while the meridian of long. 141° E. is the border on the
South Australian line.
The area, five times that of England and Wales, is
323,437 square miles, or 206,999,680 acres; of which,
in 1878, only 15,035,086 acres had been sold by the
Government, and 153,606,400 leased to squatters. A
fourth of the colony is yet unoccupied, even by stock.
The extreme length from north-east to south-west is
850 miles.
New South Wales once claimed the whole eastern
half of the continent of New Holland or Australia.
Victoria, under the name of Port Phillip District, was
made independent by the Sydney Government in 1850.
The northern district of Moreton Bay was separated
from the parent colony in 1859, and was called Queens-
land. These two separations reduced its area to one-
third of its former amount. Riverina, toward the
Murray, once moved for separation. '
III SWTI
IALES.
Highland
district.
Coast-line.
Eastern
division.
Western
Interior
400 x 400.
Boun-
darien.
Area.
Length
850.
N. S. W.
one-third
former size


12 nmnnoox TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEI SOUTII
WALES.
Dividing
Range and
heights.
Other
ranges.
Mt. Sea
view
6,000 ft.
Heights of
peaks.
Rivers.
M mmtains.
The Dividing Range is in seven branches. Of these,
New England has Ben Lomond, 5,000 ft ; Liverpool
Range, Oxley’s Peak, 4,500 ft.; the Blue Mountain tier,
Beemarang, 4,100, the Cullarin, 3,000 ft., the Gourock,
4,300, the Monaro, 4,010; and the Muniong Alps have
Mount Kosciusko, 7,308 ft., and other peaks nearly as
high.
The Murrumbidgee Range runs westerly from the
Australian Alps, with Mount Murray, 6,987 ft. The
Tumut is another spur. The Murray Range of the south-
east has the Mount Dargal, 5,490 ft.
The Northern Coast Range, joining the dividing one,
reaches 6,000 ft. at Mount Sea-view. The South Coast
Range is near the Monaro and Muniong. The Illawarra
hills are towards Wollongong.
A number of isolated peaks are scattered about the
plains of the interior, and a few low ranges skirt the
Darling, or extend into South Australia.
Among the mountains some fine plains are found, on
whose fertile soil squatters and farmers have established
themselves. But the great plains lie in the low and
level country westward, in which a great distance some-
times may be traversed without discovering permanent
water, though the grass is generally abundant.
The principal elevations, besides those already named,
are Ram’s Head, 6,838 feet; Mnrragural, 6,987; Jagun-
jal, 6,763; Lindsay, 5,700; Gipps, 5,000 ; Crackemback,
4,697; Canobolas, 4,610; Qxley Peak,4,200; Jiondulian,
4,300 ; Apsley, 3,800 ; York, 3,440 ; and Hanging Rock,
3,400.
B/I/vers and Lakes.
The drainage westward of the Dividing Range includes
five-sixths of the area of New South Wales, though all
the water finds its way ultimately into the one channel
of the Murray River.
The Darling alone drains one half the Colony, yet has
but a feeble current in summer. If traced through the
Barwan, &c., to New England, the course will be nearly
2,000 miles. Its junction with the Murray is at the
south-west, near South Australia and Victoria.


esoemrnr sun cumns. 13
The Murrumbidgee, 1,500 miles long, is a noble river,
south of the Darling, and unites earlier than that stream
with the Murray. The Lachlan, having gold-fields on
it eastern end, Joins the Murrumbidgee. The Murray,
after being the southern boundary, passes through Lake
Victoria, in South Australia, to the Southern Ocean.
The Gwydir, Namoi, Macquarie, Bogan, and Castle-
ragh, are eastern afiluents of the Darling. The Yass,
Tumut, Adelong, and Tarcutta, belong to the Murrum-
bidgee.
The rivers flowing to the Ocean from the ranges are
but short in their course. The principal are the Shoal-
haven, Hawkesbury, Hunter, Hastings, Macleay, Man-
ning, Clarence, and Richmond.
The lakes are very few and shallow. The George and
Bathurst are to the east, Benanee and Victoria are very
near the Murray, and Cawndilla is by the Darling.
Bays and Capes.
The Port Jackson of Sydney is in about lat. 34° S.
To the South of it are Botany Bay, Port Hacking,
Wollongong Harbour, Illawarra, Shoalhaven, Jervis
Bay, Batema.n’s Bay, Moruya. Bay, and Twofold Bay,
which is near Victoria.
Going northward from Sydney one passes succes-
sively Broken Bay, Port Hunter, Port Stephens, Port
Macquarie, Trial Bay, and the Clarence Harbour.
Cape Howe is the southernmost point. Point Perpen-
dicular and Cape St. George are the heads of Jervis
Bay. Sugar-loaf Point is north of Port Stephens,
Smoky Cape is near Trial Bay, Cape Byron is north of
Richmond River, and Point Danger is the northernmost
land by Queensland.
Port Jackson is one of the safest, deepest, and most
beautiful harbours in the world. Newcastle-coal Port is
protected by a breakwater. Few other places on the
coast are available for shipping.
Counties and Districts.
The first settled portion, by the east coast, was
divided into twenty counties. Since then about one
hundred and twenty-one have been added. Individually,
the old counties contain a little over a million of acres;
IEI SBIITI
IILES.
.__-_-¢—
Bays.
Capes.
Port
Jackson
Old coun-
ties.


14 nmnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEH SOUTH
WALES.
Pastoral
disuista
Riverina
country.
Sydney
each being about 40 miles in width, and 50 to 70 in
length. There are 91 Land Districts, 46 Boroughs.
Those near the coast are St. Vincent, Camden, Cum-
berland, Northumberland, Gloucester, and Macquarie.
Durham, Bligh, and Brisbane are inland. Cook, Rox-
burgh, Westmoreland, Wellington, Bathurst, Hunter,
and Phillip, are western. Georgiana, King, Argyle,
and Murray, are south-western.
Sydney is in Cumberland, Newcastle in Northumber-
land, Orange in Westmoreland, Goulburn in Argyle,Yass
in Murray, and Bathurst town in Bathurst county.
The other part of the Colony is generally known by
the thirteen Pastoral Districts. Albert is beyond the
Darling, and Monaro is the south-eastern Alpine country.
The locality of others is indicated by their names. Their
areas are thus described :—
Pastoral districts Square miles
Albert, North-West . - - . 60,000
Warrego, North . , . . 10,000
Clarence, North-East . - . 5,000
Macleay, East . . . . 3,180
New England, N. Tableland . . . 13,100
Bligh, by Macquarie R. . - . 7,800
Liverpool Plains . . . . 16,910
Gwydir, N. of Liverpool . . . 11,075
Wellington, W. of Macquarie , 16,695
Lachlan . . . . 22,800
Murrumbidgee . . . 2 6, 89 7
Darling, South-West. . . . -50,000
Monaro, South-East . . . . 8,335
The Colony is also divided into seventy-one Police
Districts. Riverina is the name given to the squatting
country between the Murray and Lachlan Rivers. Its
produce is sent down to Melbourne, which port is more
convenient to it than Sydney.
Towns.
Sydney, the capital, on Port Jackson, is in lat. 34° S,
and nearly 151° E long. Including the suburbs, it now
contains about 240,000 inhabitants. It has 130 miles of
streets, and its corporation expends 330,000l. a. year.
Besides two noble cathedrals, it has an extensive uni-
versity, a grand post olfice, and some other splendid
public buildings. There are six parks, and the largest
of colonial botanic gardens.


. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. lo
The harbour of Port Jackson, so universally admired,
though containing but nine square miles, has a coast-line
of fifty-four miles about its numerous bays. The town
is four miles from the Heads.
Parramatta, at the head of the Sydney waters, is
charmingly situated amidst orange groves.
Windsor, Penrith, Camden, Richmond, Liverpool, and
Campbell town are thriving places near Sydney.
To the north of Sydney are Newcastle, 75 miles;
Lambton, 80: Hartley, 82 ; Wallsend, 85; Raymond
Terrace, 92; Maitland, 95; Morpeth, 98; Paterson, 105;
Clarence, 114; Singleton, 123; Stroud, 1241; Mussell-
brook, 152 ; Cassilis, 220; Dubbo, 230; Tamworth,
250 ; Port Macquarie, 256 ; Kempsey, 280 ; Uralla, 300 ;
Armidale, 313; Narrabri, 320; Grafton, 350; Inverell,
3-30; Glen Innes, 375 ; Warialda, 380; Vegetable
Creek, 403 ; Tenterfield, 4-30. To north-west, Mudgee,
168; Wellington, 200; Fort Bourke on the Darling,
570; Wilcannia, T00.
To the south of Sydney are Picton, 53; Wollongong,
64; Mittagong, 70; Kiama, 89; Minmi, 90; Gunning,
165 ; Queanbeyan, 190; Young, 245; Adelong, 250;
Cooma, 257; Moruya, 265; Eden, 270; Kiandra, 310.
To the west are Lithgow, 96; Bathurst, 122; Sofala,
150; Carcoar, 160; Turon, 177; Gulgong, 190; Cowra,
200; Araluen, 206; Grenfell, 230. To the south-west
are Berrima, 83; Marulan, 112; Gonlburn, 130; Yass,
180; Braidwood, 185 ; Forbes, 240; Gundagai, 245;
Tumut, 280; Billabong, 290; Parkes, 295; Bombala,
312; Wag Wa.gga, 317; Ha , 4-60; Denili uin, 480;
Moama, 55(1)‘-; Wentworth, 838; and Menindie on the
Darling, 850. Silverton is by South Australia.
N o part of the world can exhibit such a Bill of Health
as the hilly settlements of New South Wales, where the
mortality has been 9 compared with the English 22 per
thousand. The ports of Eden, Wollongong, Macquarie
and Grafton are very healthy. Some places in the Alps
are from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above sea level. Diggings’
townships are now centres of agriculture. The growth
of farms westward originates new townships. Wollon-
gong and Kiama are in the lovely Illawarra district.
Nesvcastle is the great coal port.
Deniliquin, the capital of Riverina, is sixty miles north
III SOU‘l'll
IMES

Towns.


l6 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEVI SOUTH
VIILES.

CLIMATE.
Climate
healthy.
Hot wind.
M any very
aged
people.
Fewer sun-
strokes
than in
America.
of the Murray crossing at Maoma, and 120 south of Hay,
on the Murrumbidgee, 480 miles south-west of Sydney.
The climate of New South Wales varies greatly accord-
ing to locality, less from variation in latitude than from
altitude. The low coast settlements, especially upon
river flats, have a far difl'erent climate from that of dry
and elevated regions in the interior.
The general healthiness of the Colony is thoroughly
recognised. Extending from lat. 37° to 29°, it could
not be expected to have much exhausting heat or con-
tinued cold. It would be easy for a man to select within
its borders almost any climate he may think necessary
for his health.
The mildness of the winter, especially at Port Mac-
quarie, has made New South Wales a retreat for invalids
from Tasmania, and even from Melbourne. In the
summer the heat, though thermometrically high, is more
endurable than that of places where the heavy rains are
in the hot season.
The greatest plague of the warm season is the hot
-wind. But this is chiefly to be dreaded on account of
the dust raised by its fiery breath. Otherwise it is
by no means deleterious to the health, there being no
dreaded miasma with it. The mosquitoes on the coast,
and sandflies of the interior, are to be borne with patiently
in a land unvisited by cholera, yellow fever, and hydro-
phobia, and where delicious fruits are very plentiful.
The best answer to the charge of supposed want of
salubrity is the number of healthy aged people. In few
parts of the world may many persons of very advanced
years be seen enjoying life so well. There are few pri-
vations to endure, and decidedly diminished infirmities.
Among the Blue Mountains, as it is reported, people
never die till they are killed. We hear of a. man, nearly
100 years old, who had evidently owed no longevity to
his sobriety, and who spoke of a neighbour, 108 years
of age, being without an unsound tooth in his head.
The sky is usually clear of clouds in summer. Sun-
strokes, however, are not relatively so fatal there as in
Canada and the United Slates.
The intemperate character of the people, especially in
early days, has been far more destructive of life than the


eaoemmn AND cnmua. 17
climate. The custom of indulgence in strong drink is
now yielding to moral pressure, and, consequently, the
charges brought against the climate are fewer. Some
have lived there till above 110 years.
Diseases most common to the Colony, as dysentery and
nervous attacks, are often trying to young children and
females. Heart and brain affections trouble the stronger
sex more than the weaker one.
In 1883 the deaths were 7,116 male, 5,133 female.
Those from diphtheria, 109 male, 120 female; typhoid,
201, 196; dysentery, 58, 42; diarrhaaa, 34-1, 329;
ague, 6, 1; rheumatism, 35, 24; syphilis, 17, 11; alco-
holism, 64, 30; gout, 2, 1; dropsy, 84, 59; cancer,
124, 91 ; scrofnla, 14, 10; phthisis, 540,401; apoplexy,
135, 100; paralysis, 104, 51; convulsions, 390, 300;
brain disease, 118, 58; heart, 384, 199; bronchitis, 304,
276; pneumonia, 378, 239; congestion of lungs, 68,
53; asthma, 39, 19; enteritis, 156, 137; stomach, 14,
15; liver, 79, 53; skin, 10, 7; child-birth, 103; old
age, 566, 302 ; atrophy, 416, 416; accidents, 594-, 169;
murder, 4, 5; suicides, 51, 3; execution, 1. The
female deaths, 5,133, are less than their ratio of popu-
lation.
A statement made for the whole Colony gave the
causes for death in the year as follows: zymotic diseases,
23 per cent.; constitutional, 12%; local, 37;}; develop-
mental, 171%,; violence, including accidents, 7% in 1878.
The rain register varies considerably in the Colony.
It is affected not only by elevation and presentation to
prevailing winds, but by other and more subtle influences.
Along the coast-line the greatest humidity is found.
In 1871 the following results were obtained: Twofold
Bay, 53} inches in 131 days; Cape St. George, 62 in
150; Wollongong, 48 in 75; Sydney Harbour, 46% in
83; Sydney Town, 52 in 141; Newcastle, 62-12> in 116;
Port Macquarie, 57% in 120.
Iu 1872, a dry year, the difference was remarkable:
being for Twofold Bay, 24% in 107 days; Cape St-
George, 37 in 138; Wollongong, 28,1; in 48; Sydney,
37 in 161 ; Newcastle, 375'} in 128; Port Macquarie, 47}
in 138. Heavy snow fell near Sydney in 1872.
Away from the sea the variation is considerable, and
IEI SOUTH
VIILES.
Drink and
climate.
Diseases in
the Colony,
Rainlall.
Heavy
snow full.


18 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW SEIUTH
WALES.
Rain in
various
districts.
often apparently unaccountable. The subjoined table
gives the nearest distance to the ocean for dry 1884 :_—-






Miles fromsea Elevation Inches rain l Days of fall
Sydney . 5 150 ft. 44 159
Maitland . . 18 98 ,, 32 79
Grafton . 22 40 ,, 27 82
Windsor . 30 58 ,, 24 164
Goulburn. . 54 2129 ,, 16 75
Tenterfield . 80 -- 27 68
Armidale. . 83 3278 ,, 24 74
Murrurundi . 94- 1545 ., 26 62
Bathurst . 96 2200 ,, 19 67
Mudgee . 120 — 20 63
Orange . . 124 2891 ,, 24 86
Wagga-Wagga . 1 60 —- 1 6 7 4
Albury . . 175 572 ,, 21 90
Dnbbo . 182 -— 22 75
Narrabri . 196 — 19 49
Deniliqnin 287 410 ,, 11 48
Westville . 128 — 2 7
Fort Bourke . 393 — 9 24
Wentworth . 476 — 8 8 L


On the Bogan River, during five years, there fell no
rain for thirty-seven months. Five inches only of rain
fell at one place near the Darling during five years.
Great falls of rain have been experienced at Sydney.
On April 29, 1841, there fell 20 inches of rain, and on
April 8, 1860, 12% inches. In 1841 Sydney received no
less than 76 inches, and in 1860, 82. The lowest amount,
36 inches, was in 1865. In April 1874 there fell 7
inches of rain one night in Sydney. When Sydney had
so much rain, Port Macquarie had but little. A pretty
uniform extent of rainfall has been noticed during cycles
of 19 years; that is, from 1840 to 1859; 1841 to 1860;
1845 to 1864. Evaporation exceeds the rainfall greatly.
A mean of several years gives this result :-—
Grafton . . . . 88'2 inches in 88 days
Bourke . . . . 27'9 ,_. 46 ,,
Tenterfield . . . 30'8 ,, 85 ,,
Wollongong . . . 38'3 ,, 62 ,,
Eden . . . . . 45 ,, 132 ,,
Mndgee . . . 28 ,, 68 ,,
Kiandra - - . . 6l'2 ,, 110 ,,
Albury . . . 28'9 ,, 80 ,,
Macquarie . . . . 63‘3 .. 139 ,.»


esoemrnr um onnwm. 19
Wagga-Wagga . . . 26 inches in 73 days
00011111 - 0 s - 1-8'4 n 94 n
Deniliquin . . . . 26"! n 64 1,
Goulburn . - - . 26’3 1| 96 »
Maitland . . . . 347 ,, 109 .,
Newcastle . - . . 49'9 ,, 113 ,,
Parramatta . . . 39‘3 » 111 H
Sydney . - . . 509 ,, 161 II
Windsor . . . . 34‘3 1- 140 1,
The ozone is
greater in the night than in
the day.
At Sydney, in 1872, the highest was 5'54; mean 4'8.
It is highest in the east wind, and lowest with the dry
western breezes, when colds and influenza prevail.
The temperature is often more a question of physical
condition of the country than mere latitude. Winds
modify it considerably, elevation lowers it, while rocks
and soil affect it. A sandy region is opposed to one of
heavy clay ; and a sandstone, limestone, granite, basalt,
or slate surface will make one place hotter or cooler than
another. An increased evaporation is a modification of
temperature. The north-west monsoon is dry and hot
wind.
The mean temperature of Sydney is 62‘5°; Grafton,
68°; Armidale, 56'9°; Cowga, 70'9°; Bathurst, 57'2°;
Newcastle, 63'9° ; Maitland, 62'5°; Port Macqnarie,
63'7° ; Liverpool, 59'9°; Deniliquin, 59'9°; Albury,
59'8° ; Parramatta, 62'2° ; Mount Victoria, 54'2°; Kian-
dra, 451°; Goulburn, 55'6°; S. Head, 61'7°; Eden,
60'3° ; Wagga-Wagga, 60'2° ; Lake George, 56°.
The difference between the maximum and minimum
heat in the shade is considerable in some localities, as
may be seen from the appended table :—
Towns Max. shade Min. shade
Bourke . . 105° 36°
Bathurst . . 100° 20°
Deniliquin . 115° 40°
Eden . . 106° 39°
Goulburn . . 103° 22°
Maitland . . 103° 36°
Port Macquarie . 95° 36°
Wagga-Wagga . 104° 29°
Wentworth . 117° 30°
Wollongong . 87° 37°
With the lowest mean temperature in 1854:, there Wm:
NEW SOUTH
WALES.

Rain.
Ozone
Heat.
Max. and
min. tem-
perature.
c 2


20 mmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW SUUTI-I
WALES.
Winds.
Barometer
rises in
N. S. W.
when it
falls in
Europe.
Needle and
variation.
South M ag-
netic Pole.
the least rainfall; and with the highest, in 1867, the rain
was the most abundant.
The winds off the coast are usually eastern, or sea
breezes, in the day, and light western, or land breezes, in
the night. North of Port Macquarie the region of the
South East Trades is gained. The westerly breezes
prevail in the winter, and in the interior the principal
winds are from the north and west. In a so-called
southerly burster, or storm, in hot weather, the clouds
roll up in a peculiar manner seaward, and vast collec-
tions of dust fill the atmosphere before the rain falls,
and the temperature cools. The easterly and southerly
winds bring rain. The winds are generally N.E. in
January, December, October, November; S. in February;
E. by N. in March; W.N.W. in July and August; W.
in September, June, May, April. N .E. is deflected S.E.
Mr. H. C. Russell, Sydney astronomer, says :—-‘ When
the barometer falls gradually with N.E. wind, it will
veer to N.N.W. and W., where it will blow for one or
more days; as the barometer rises, it will veer to S., and
die at S.E. or E., with high barometer; to begin another
circle from N.E. If in fine N.E. weather the barometer
falls fast in the forenoon, a southerly wind (burster)
may be expected before night.’
The extreme variation at Sydney during 18 years’ ob-
servation of the barometer, was from 28°'901 to 30°'678.
A great depression W. to E. went 500 miles a day.
A high barometer in New South Wales shows a
southerly wind coming, while in England it indicates a
northerly one. But the rule is only apparently reversed,
as in both cases the wind is from the nearest pole. It
is lowest in Australia with the N.W., or true tropical
wind, and highest with the true Polar, or S.E. wind.
A low barometer points to westerly breezes in summer
and winter; a high one in winter, to southerly breezes.
The colony is not so often visited by storms as Eng.
land, and thunder and lightning are less frequently
known. The dip of tho needle at Sydney is 61°, while
35° at Port Essington, and 67° at Melbourne. The varia-
tion is about 10° E. The South Magnetic Pole is in
lat. 75° S., long. 154° E. The great magnetic storm on
September 25, 18LL1, was simultaneously felt at Sydney,
Swan River, China, and Canada. Variation decreases.


GEOLOGY. 21
Geology.
The Geology of New South Wales, to do it justice,
requires far more space than can be given to it in the
present work.
The first five-and-twenty years of the Settlement
passed with but a small idea of the geology of New
South Wales. The people were spread abroad upon the
Sydney sandstone, which produced better flowers than
corn, whilst their finest farms were on the alluvial flats of
the Hawkesbury.
It is true that coals were known to them as being at
Newcastle, while veins of porphyry and basalt were
disclosed in their sandstone quarries; yet it was not
until the fastnesses of the Blue Mountains were forced
by the intrepid Wentworth and his companions that the
Colony gained an enlarged experience of geology. The
slates were then seen thrown into romantic forms by
the elevating power of plutonic rocks, cutting off the
sterile flooring of sandstone, and revealing vales of
fertility and nooks of beauty.
The flocks and herds exchanged the sparse pastures
of the east for the richer grasses of the west; and the
hills of Bathurst, with their geological equivalents
further westward and southward, gave new homes to
immigrants. _
Descending from those fair plateaux on the other side,
the crowded-up squatters wandered at large upon vast
plains that, though less favoured by rain, gave food for
their increasing sheep and cattle. But it was many
years before those extensive tertiary deposits to the
westward of the Dividing Range were known, and that
flocks browsed beside the Darling, Murrumbidgee and
Murray of the wastes-.
Wool was the first product of lands whose phosphates
were afterwards made available for grain and fruit.
Then the rock, which had so long resounded only with
the tramp of wild cattle, was struck by the pick of
miners for its repository of metals.
The sandstone quarry and coal-seam were wrought for
fifty years before the granite and metamorphic slates
disclosed their golden crystals; and longer still, by
IEW SOUTH
IALES.
Colonial
geology
gradually
unfolded.
Sydney
sandstone.
West coun-
try.
Tertiary
plains.


22 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW znamsn.
IEVI S0llTll
VMLES.
Gold before
tin.
Silurian
rocks.
Devonian.
Palzeozoic
hills.
Secondary
formations.
Tertiary
deposits.
twenty years, before the primary rocks were blasted for
their treasures of tin. Stream tin is pliocene.
Three ages were successively revealed. The original
settlers trod upon the secondary beds. Then the high-
lands of a higher antiquity were brought into requisi-
tion. Last of all, the far more extended area of the
tertiary clays and sandstones were recognized by the
wandering herdsmen.
The oldest rocks are of Silurian order; consisting of
sandstone, limestone, &c., in some cases highly meta-
morphosed. Wenlock strata are represented in the
Australian Alps. The meridional strike of the ancient
sedimentary beds is very curious. The bushman finds
a guide in the north and south reefs running for miles
parallel to each other. Devonian is 10,000 feet thick.
These Silurian rocks form the floor of the diggings.
The Devonian formations, observed near Yass and at
the Hanging Rock, exhibit the Products-a in great force.
The purple slates of Twofold Bay belong to this period.
The Blue Mountains, the Liverpool ranges, and the
Alps, as well as the Grey and Barrier ranges on the
South Australian border, are Palaeozoic. Here and
there, amidst the great expanse of tertiary beds to the
west, similar rocks obtrude themselves.
The secondary formations are not altogether absent,
though but recently recognised. The trias is unmis-
takable at the Clarence, where it once occupied a much
larger area, and the upper carboniferous rocks near
Parramatta are unquestionably mesozoic or secondary.
Tertiary exhibits are common enough to the westward,
though so rare to the eastward. Certainly, three-fourths
of the surface of the Colony is covered with them. This
is clear from an inspection of the country of the Darling,
Murrumbidgee, Lachlan, and Murray Rivers, though
their head-waters are generally in a primary district.
But throughout the western plains a number of isolated
hills and ranges, much transmuted by basaltic veins,
porphyry, quartz, &c., rise as landmarks. The fiat-
topped, sandstone rocks of the elevations of the interior
are of a secondary age, though their base may be palme-
zoic, and they afiord evidences of great denudation.
So immense is the deposit of sands, gravels, marls,
and clays on the western side of the Dividing Range, that


esonoer. 23
there is the assurance of a climatic condition very differ-
ent from that now prevailing in New South Wales, with
its dry and thirsty plains. A well on the Billebong was
sunk 160 feet through clays, quartz, gravels, pipe-clay,
white and coloured sands, with coloured marls. From
Wagga-Wagga westward, the Pliocene is prevalent, as
it is on the Bogan, Darling and Murray, as well as at the
junction of the Lachlan and Murrumbidgee.
There is not observed that difierence between tho
strata of the tertiaries detected in other places, but they
pass almost insensibly one from another, as of one con-
tinuous epoch. It is a remarkable fact that no tertiary
marine plants have been seen in the east, though common
in the western part. But there are plant deposits near
Yass, and leaves’ beds by Peel and Richmond Rivers.
Lignite, too, is seen some 40 miles north of Cape Howe.
The Pleistocene is noticed in the drift-boulders which
rest on gravels. Cave deposits are of this age. The red
earth in Welling?/m caves is rich in fossils of animals
related to those now common in the bush. Alluvial
gold-workings are not so absolutely Pliocene in New
South Wales as they appear to be in Victoria.
The granites are regarded as of subsequent age to
those of the primary rocks. The Rev. W. B. Clarke, the
most eminent of colonial geologists, not only declares
that he has known of no primary granites, but ventures
to doubt if any one else has.
These rocks predominate in the Alps to the south, and
in New England to the north. Near Cape Howe fine
flesh-coloured varieties may be seen. On the west side
of the Dividing Range, they are distinctly newer than the
slates. Some specimens, as at Genoa River, are so horn-
blendic as to be taken for greenstone. As sienites they
crown the head of Kosciusko, 7,300 feet high, though said
to be obviously of an intrusive character. Occasionally
binary granite may be detected piercing through granite
mountains. The porphyritic granite constitutes the
Crackemback ranges. The lofty top of Jingery shows
a meridional axis of granite.
At Birri-Birri the rock, being so ribboned with gneiss-
like laminae, would lead one to infer that the granite
there once flowed as lava. On the Upper Murrumbidgee
the granite often entangles fragments of mica-slate. The
IEI SOUTH
IIILES.
Tertiary
beds-
Pleistocene.
Alluvial
gold not all
liocene.
Granite.
Kosciusko
sienite
7,300 it.


24 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND-
IEW SUUTII
WALES.
Metals in
granite.
Gold rocks.
Origin of
gold veins.
Igneous
rocks.
Basalt.
plasticity of the granite in some places would hardly
seem due to simple fusion. The epidote throws some
light on the character of the irruption. Fine double
pyramids of quartz may be gathered at Pambula. There
are hornblendic granite hills near the Billabong.
The granite is one stronghold of gold and other metals.
The tin of New England is derived from it. The iron
pyrites of granite is rich in gold, which is found also in
the siliceous matter of sedimentary beds, where cemented
by iron derived from decomposed pyrites.
The auriferous veins in granites, slates, &c., have,
naturally enough, excited the liveliest interest in all
colonial geologists. The lower Silurian is richer in
gold than the upper rocks of the same. While some
miners fancied electricity or volcanic agency had pro-
duced the yellow treasure in the rock, Mr. Clarke thus
records his experience in New South Wales :—
After saying he had ‘ seen examples where quartz
reefs have followed the curves of the slates in all their
minor as well as larger deviations from verticality to
horizontality, arching at the summit, not only synolinally
but spherically,’ he declares, ‘I can come to no other
conclusion than that such lodes, with their mineral con-
tents, could by no possibility have received their existence
by sudden infilling or injection at a subsequent date.’
He further adds, ‘ There is nothing whatever to justify
the belief that dry heat or direct igneous forces have, as
some persons have surmised, been the chief or solitary
agent in the production of the gold-bearing reefs.’
Igneous rocks are prominent, not only in the great
ranges, but are conspicuous in the coal rocks throughout
the Colony, and have exercised their transmuting influ-
ence upon tertiary formation. The east coast is sinking.
Porphyries and basalts are found of various epochs.
Lavas and tufas are of more modern history. Pumice
fragments are gathered at Wollongong and Jervis Bay,
as in other parts of the east coast of Australia. Found
water-worn, and on raised beaches, their advent on the
shore is not very recent.
The basalt at Kiama has the pillar steps of the Giant’s
Causeway and the massive columns of Stalfa. Bosses
of it have risen above granite on the eastern edge of the
Dividing Range, and intrusive veins are conspicuous in


enoroor. 25
Alpine Monaro and the Upper Murrumbidgee, as well as
throughout the coal measures. The Tumbarumba range,
basalt, 20 miles long, and 350 feet deep, proceeded from
craters in the range between the Murray and Tumut
rivers, where there are belts of basalt. Columns mount
upward 5,000 ft. above the sea.
Greenstone is not so abundant as in Tasmania. In
dykes it cuts through the granite of Naas Valley, and
altered sandstone to quartzite at Mount Tennant. When
coming in contact with granite, sometimes ferruginous
cannon-balls or grape-shot are formed from the decom-
position of the rock.
Trachyte or trachytic diorite forms the end of Mitts»-
gong range, and crowns the head of Mount Lindesay.
Elvan dykes at Illawarra, Murrurundi, &c., have con-
verted the coal into coke. Phonolite columns are seen
by the Gwydir, as well as in the volcanic islands of
Norfolk and Phillip. Porphyry, like a tesselated pave-
ment, comes forth in the harbour of Port Jackson, and
re-issues from beneath a bed of sandstone at the Bay of
Bondi. All about the various gold-fields the igneous
element is in strong development. Moyle’s hill is igneous
with quartz. Volcanoes were active in pliocene days.
Volcanic ashes appear near Mount Lindesay, Maitland,
and many other localities. Mud craters were described
in 1852, as existing at Keewang Creek; and trappean
alluvial mud constitutes the soil of some of the best
plains. No active volcano is known in the Colony, and
the number of cones and true craters is very inferior to
that in Victoria. The peaks of Cordeaux, Edwards, and
Grenville belong to the rim of a broken-down volcano.
The burning Mount Wingen, however, is in coal.
The carboniferous rocks are the most interesting of
all. Mr. Keene, Inspector of Coal Mines, writes, ‘ We
may, without boasting, claim to rank with the most ex-
tensive coal-fields in the world.’ Nearly all the area of
the settled district is carboniferous sandstone. The
mineral is in greatest production along the Hunter
River, though it is imagined to run beneath the tertiary
floor of the western region. It is upper palseozoic.
A lengthened discussion took place as to the age of
the coal of New South Wales. Prof. M‘Coy, though
not visiting the localivy, contended for the oolitic cha-
IEI SOUTI
WALES.
Greenstone.
Trschyte,
phono ire,
and per
Plow-
Volcanic
ashes.
Craters
fewer than
in Victoria
Coal.


26 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW SUIJTII
WILES.
Coal rocks
of three
ages.
Gold in
coal.
Coal strata.
Kerosene.
Bog butter.
racter of the mineral ; while Mr. Clarke, with better
knowledge of the rock, afiirmed it to be paleeozoic or true
coal. The opinion of the last-named gentleman is now
generally acknowledged as correct. The fossils found
in the beds are decidedly paleeozoic, though some forms
bear a mesozoic likeness. Greta is lower coal.
Above the ordinary workable coal measures, Mr.
Clarke has discovered a series of horizontal sandstones,
shales, and conglomerates, to which he has given the
name of Hawkesbury rocks. They are very well de-
veloped on the summits of the Blue Mountains, being
estimated nearly a thousand feet thick. On the top of
these, again, the Wianamatta beds of black shales may
here and there be noticed, even to the depth of eight
hundred feet. No mesozoic fauna has been found in
these upper carboniferous rocks, which are placed in
the same age as the coal measures of Victoria. But no
Glossopteris has been perceived in the Hawkesbury or in
the Wianamatta beds. Wianamatta is near Parramatta.
It is singular that, while much iron exists in the upper
carboniferous formation, gold is not absent from it.
The Newcastle coal-field of the Hunter is but the
western side of the great geological basin, the chief part
of which is now beneath the ocean, and doubtless reap-
pears in New Zealand. The carboniferous rocks in
Gloucester county rest upon slate. In one pit the fol-
lowing strata were successively penetrated: conglomerate
23 feet, coal 3, grit 44, coal 5, claystone 43, coal
5, sandstone 50, coal 3. Near Port Stephens a seam
was 30 feet thick. In the Upper coal of Newcastle there
are 17 seams in 433 feet. Coal rocks contain gold.
The oil is an abundant product of the coal formation.
The shales yield a large supply. They belong to both
the upper and the lower measures, though to the former
in the east. Wollondilly has rich brown oil cannel ; but
the cannel coal of Mount York, in the Blue Mountains,
is more easily worked. The kerosene rocks of Illawarra
resemble the Boghead of Scotland.
This carbonaceous substance is sometimes filled with
sandy particles. The stone is distinguished by leaving
a brown mark when scraped with a knife. The seams
at Hartley are 5 feet thick. At Bournda, near Pam-
bula, the inflammable mud is of lacustrine origin. Forty


GEOLOGY. 27
miles further north a bog butter is obtained. In a cer-
tain quantity, the clay forms 15 parts, water 48, car-
bon 8§, tar-oil 8, gas 19. The tar-oil is butter-like.
Sydney rock is being pierced for coal with success.
The fossils of the Colony are not difierent from those
found in the neighbouring settlements.
The Silurian forms are similar to those of Europe and
America. Trilobites are not uncommon. There are
24.-O species of fossils associated with the Trilobite at
Burragood. The Queanbeyan sandstones are full of
spirifers and other Silurian life.
The coal measures contain Heterocercal fish, Fenestella,
Phyllotheca, Stigmaria, Sigillaria, Calamites, Lepicl0-
dendrons, Productaa, Eurosthenes, Corals, Zoophytes, &c.
The Ichth olites are similar to the palaeozoic forms of
Europe. gecondary fossils are now known.
Remarkable fossils have been disinterred from the
floors of caves, especially the caves of Wellington, Mo-
long, Macleay, and of the Upper Murrumbidgee. In
these breccia and limestone caverns there is the evidence
of two submersions. At Molong the fossil bones were
lying in calcareous concretions, and at Wellington in
the red earth of the floor. Fish and leaf beds exist.
Among the remains were the seal, the kangaroo, the
wombat, &c. The kangaroo was fully one-third larger
than any kind now existing, and the ancient animal
could have leaped 30 feet at a. bound.
The herbivorous Diprotodon must have been very widely
spread throughout Eastern Australia, being discovered
as a fossil at Molong, Wellington, the Turon, Liverpool
Plains, &c. A large specimen was brought up from a
well dug 100 feet through the Darling sandstone. This
marsupial, with kangaroo teeth, was about 16 feet in
length. Its hind legs were like those of the wombat.
In the anterior limbs, two fingers are adapted to grasping
objects. It was doubtless of similar habits to the ancient
mylodon, walking up to a tree, clasping it to bring it
down to the ground, when it could feed upon the tendcr
branches.
The Notatherinm, or south-beast, had elephant-like
teeth, with a skull not unlike that of the South American
megatherium. The zygomatic arch was a great distance
from the temporal bone. The brain was of small dimen-
IEW SBUTII
WALES.
Fossils.
Cavefossils.
Fossil
kangaroo.
Dipioto-
don.
Nota-
theri um .


28 mmnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmnn.
NEW SOUTH
WRLES.
M arsupial
l ion
Unchanged
flora and
fauna.
Nearly all
marsupials.
Non-incu-
hating
birds.
sions. Fossil bones have been gathered from the auri-
ferous drift of the Turon gold-field.
A formidable carnivorous Dasyurus, found in the
caves, must have been a destructive foe to the monster
kangaroo. The Thylaeoles carnifex, or butcher-pouched
lion, also devoured the herbivorous marsupials of olden
times. Crocodiles seem to have been widely distributed
in those later tertiary epochs, some of them being 20 feet
in length. There were emu-like birds——now extinct.
As truly observed by Dr. Owen, the conditions of life
have changed but little since the diprotodon fed upon
the plains of New South Wales. The present flora and
fauna of the country are, however, not very different
from those prevailing during the Eocene age of Europe.
Natural History of Australia.
The fauna of Australia is entirely distinct from that
of any other part of the globe. It constitutes, as it were,
a separate zoological province, characterised by the low
organisation of its animal forms. Its main distin-
guishing feature is, that a very large proportion of the
mammals—nearly the whole of them, in fact—-belong to the
ancient marsupial type ; that is to say, they are furnished
with a natural pouch or pocket in which to carry their
young; and, where the pouch is not obvious, the mar-
supial bones are recognised, thus showing the same
morphological character. The ornithology also is cha-
racterised by the presence of certain strictly endemic
genera of a very low order-—~the Leipoa, Talegalla, and
ll’[egap0dius—birds which do not incubate their own
eggs, but simply deposit them in earth-mounds, and
leave them to be hatched by the heat generated through
the fermentation of decaying vegetable matter.
This feature in the ornithology, taken also in con-
nection with the low organisation of the Australian
botany, as indicated by the almost entire absence of fruit-
beariug trees, is quite consistent with the exceptional
character of the mammals. It is generally believed that
the marsnpial or pouched tribes represent the oldest
forms of quadrupeds. Fossil remains, which have been
found in France and England, clearly indicate the
presence of marsupials at a very early zoological period,


AUSTRALIAN NATURAL msronr. 29
when mammalian life was, as we suppose, in its infancy.
At the present day, with the exception of a few Ame-
rican species allied to the Australian dasyures; and a
few other small marsupials which still linger in New
Guinea, and some of the islands of the Pacific, the only
portion of our earth tenant/ed by these ancient forms is
this island-continent of Australia. The researches of
Mr. Gerard Kretft, the Director of the Sydney Museum,
have established the further interesting fact that the
early predecessors of these animals in Australia were
also marsupials, but of enormous stature, equalling, if
not exceeding in size the rhinoceros and the hippo-
potamus. The living species, however, a.re of more
moderate growth, and the largest do not much exceed
200lbs.inweight. They have been divided into three main
sections, viz. the carnivorous, or flesh-eating; the her-
bivorous, or grass-eating; and the mixed feeders; and
according to the latest published list, they embrace 110
different species. These include the kangaroos proper,
the largest of which is a formidable animal, and affords
good hunting; the Wombats, which are nocturnal in
their habits ; the ‘ koala,’ or ‘ native bear;’ the opossums,
and the phalangers, or ‘flying opossums;’ the bandi-
coots, and the carnivorous dasyures.
There are eight species of large kangaroo (Macropus),
inhabiting various parts of the country, some being con-
fined to the plains of the interior, and others to the
rocky districts near the coast. The great red kan-
garoo of South Australia often attains a weight of
200 lbs. or upwards. There are seventeen species of Hal-
maturus, kangaroos of smaller size, varying in weight
from 10 to 15 lbs. The mountain districts are in-
habited by rock-wallabies, or rock-kangaroos; there are
six well-determined species, and the largest of these
attains a weight of 30 lbs. Next in order is a group
of small silky-haired kangaroos (On;/chogalea), com-
prising three species, all of them confined to the plains
of the interior. They are about the size of a common
hare, weighing from 8 to 10 lbs., and are covered with
a light grey fur of peculiar softness. Of the so-called
‘hare-kangaroos’ (Lagorchestes), the fleetest jumpers of
the whole tribe, there are five species, three of which
are restricted to Western Australia. Then, again, there
IEVI Slllllll
I|l.ES|
Huge fossil
marsupials.
Kangaroos


30 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW znsmnn.
IEVI SOUTH
MILES.
‘ Rabbit-
rat.’
Pig-footed
bandicoot.
Op ossums.
Wombat.
‘ Native
bear.’
Tiger-wolf.
‘ Native
devil.’
' Native
cat.’
are five closely-allied species of jerboa-kangaroos (Bet-
tongia), a peculiar little group, which appears to connect
the kangaroos with the opossums. The rat-kangaroos
(Hypsiprymnus) and the bandicoots (Perameles) em-
brace about a dozen more species. These are all of
small size, and are very generally distributed over the
country. The ‘rabbit-rat ’ of the colonists (Peragalea
lagotis) belongs to this group. It lives in pairs, and
burrows underground, like the common rabbit, differing
altogether in its habits from the rest of the family.
Another very aberrant form is the pig-footed bandicoot
(Ghaeropus castanotis), which has only two functional
toes to the fore-feet, while it possesses a dentition re-
sembling that of the carnivorous section, the Dasyures.
Six species of opossum inhabit Australia; they are all
arboreal, and feed on the young shoots of the gum-
trees. Of the Phalangers, or ‘ flying opossums,’ there
are numerous kinds, varying in size from a length of
three feet to three inches. The wombat (Phascolomys)
is the largest of the marsupials, next to the kangaroo.
It is a stout-built powerful animal, terrestrial and noc-
turnal in its habits, living in deep burrows in the earth.
There are four species known. The ‘ koala,’ or ‘ native
bear,’ of the colonists (Phascolamctoa fuscus), dwells in the
gum-trees, on the leaves of which it feeds. The brush-
tailed ant-eater (Myrmecobius) is a beautiful little
banded creature, living in the desert scrubs. There are
three genera of carnivorous marsupials, the two first of
which, the ‘tiger-wolf’ (Thylacinus), and the ‘native
devil ’ (Sarcophilus) are most ferocious animals, and in-
habit Tasmania. The Dasyures, vulgarly called ‘ native
cats,’ are much smaller, prettily spotted with white on
a brown or black ground, and are numerous in all
parts of Australia. It is a singular fact that all, or
nearly so, of the pouched animals of Australia are
nocturnal in their habits, with the exception of the
kangaroos. By far the most remarkable and anomalous
of all the Australian mammals is the duck-billed Pla-
typus, or ‘ water-mole.’ It is about twenty inches long,
is covered all over with soft brown fur, has strong claws
and web-feet, and is provided with a pair of broad
mandibles like the bill of a duck. It inhabits rivers
and ponds, and breeds in deep burrows on their banks.


AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY. 31
This strange creature seems to present a link between
the quadruped, the bird, and the reptile, and belongs
to the lowest form of existing mammals—a class named
by naturalists M0'n.obremata—in which also another ex-
traordinary Australian animal is included, the Echidna,
or porcupine ant-eater, of which two species have been
discovered. Amongst the placental or non-pouehed
animals are several forms of rodents, of which the sin-
gular ‘ beaver-rats ’ (Hydromys) are the most con-
spicuous. There are also nine species of long-eared
rats (Hapalotis), which build nests in trees and bushes ;
and fifteen of the short-eared kinds (Mus).
In addition to the animals already enumerated, Aus-
tralia possesses some twenty-five species of bats, belong-
ing to eight distinct genera, amongst which is a very
large frugivorous bat, of the genus Pleropus, known as
the ‘ flying fox ’ of the colonists. The ‘ dingo,’ or wild
dog, is to be met with in all parts of the Australian con-
tinent, although it is gradually disappearing through-
out the more settled districts. It is about the size of
an ordinary foxhound, and has a wolf-like aspect. It
is of a reddish-chestnut colour, the tail being invariably
tipped with white. It never barks, but utters a dismal,
melancholy howl. It is nocturnal, and has long been
the terror of the sheep-fold, especially in the earlier
days of sheep-farming. Although it is asserted that
the fossil remains of the ‘dingo ’ have been found as-
sociated with those of the great extinct marsupials of
past pleiocene times, it is still very doubtful whether
this animal should be regarded as strictly indigenous
to Australia. It is more probable that the original stock
has made its way, at some remote period, in connection
with man, across the narrow seas that separate Aus-
tralia from the Asiatic islands. _
Several species of seals, including the ‘ sea-lion’
(P. jubata), and the ‘sea-leopard’ (Stenmynchus lep-
tonyav), are found, though rarely, on the less frequented
portions of the coast; and the bays of Queensland are
inhabited by a singular marine animal (H alicore dugong),
known as the ‘dugong,’ or ‘sea-cow’ of the settlers.
Belonging to the family of the whales and porpoises, it
presents also some of the characters of the seal in its
general aspect. It is much sought after for its oil, and
feeds upon marine grasses.
IEH SOUTH
WALES.
Porcupine
ant-eater.
Beaver-
rats.
Nest-build-
iug rats.
Bats.
Wild dog.
Dugong.


32 1-mnnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmnsnn.
HEW SOUTH
WILES.
Birds.
M imatinn
of species.
Parrots.
N o wood-
peckers.
Eagles.
Swallows.
Bee-eater.
King-
fishers.
‘ Laughing
jackass. ’
Wood-
swallows.
In their variety of form, beauty of plumage, and
peculiarity of habits the birds of Australia stand un-
rivalled. The number of species already known, as
enumerated by Mr. Gould, amounts to nearly 700,
the vast majority of which are peculiar to the country.
As in Europe, many species are migratory at certain
seasons of the year; whilst others disappear suddenly,
are not met with for a lengthened period, and then
again reappear in vast numbers. Enormous flocks of
parrots and pigeons, of species previously unknown to
the locality, will, during certain years arrive in places
all at once, remaining for a few weeks, and then depart-
ing as mysteriously as they came. No country in the
world is so rich in birds of the parrot tribe, of which
there are not less than sixty species, most of them re-
markable for the extraordinary splendour of their
plumage. The honey-eating genera are also very largely
represented, and some of the forms attain to a size
quite unknown in any other country. The total absence
of woodpeckers is remarkable. Amongst birds of prey
Australia can boast five species of eagle, and numerous
falcons and hawks. The wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila,
a/udaw) measures seven feet across the wings ; and the
white-bellied sea-eagle (Polioaétus leucogastcr) is also a
noble bird. Of owls there are about ten species, their
number being attributable to the abundance of small
nocturnal quadrupeds. Goatsuckers are in great variety ;
and two species of swift, and five of swallows and
martius, are summer visitants. The Australian bee-
eater (Merops ornatus) is a beautiful bird, only making
its appearance in the South during the summer months.
Kingfishers number thirteen species, amongst which the
great brown kingfisher (Dacelo gigas) is remarkable
for its size and the peculiarity of its note. This
amusing and well-known bird is familiar to the colonists
under the sobriquet of ‘ the lau.ghing jackass.’ Quietly
perched on some dead bough, its extraordinary gurgling
‘laugh,’ commencing in a low key and gradually rising
to a high and loud tone, may be heard at sunrise and
sunset in all parts of the ‘bush.’ The A1-tamus, or
wood-swallow, has the singular habit of clustering like
bees on the branch of a dead tree.
Another familiar bird, almost as popular with the


AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY. 33
settlers as the ‘laughing jackass ' is the ‘musical mag-
pie,’ or piping crow. It derives its name from its pied
black and white plumage; and the fact of its being so
easily taught to whistle popular airs, together with its
imitative powers, has rendered it a general favourite.
It has been asserted ‘that the Australian birds have
no song,’ but nothing can be more untrue, for many of
them have very sweet notes, singing both by day and
night. In the dense forests of the Illawarra mountains,
and also in the impenetrable fastnesses of Gippsland,
there dwells a most remarkable songster, possessing also
the power of mocking the notes and cries of all the
other denizens of the woods. It is the ‘lyre-bird,’ or
mountain-pheasant (Menum. superba). It is about the
size of a small fowl, of a brown colour, the male being
adorned with a very large and curious tail, resembling
in form that of an ancient lyre. A droll little bird,
known as the ‘pheasant’s mother,’ is usually seen in
company with the lyre-bird. The ‘coach-whip’ bird
inhabits the thick ‘ brushes,’ and has a loud full note, end-
ing sharply like the crack of a whip. The robins of
Australia, of which there are a great variety of species,
are gorgeously-coloured birds, with breasts of the most
brilliant scarlet, yellow, or rose-colour. The wrens are
equally numerous, and vie with the robins in the ex-
quisite beauty of their turquoise-blue and velvety-black
plumage. Many of the finch family are also interesting
for their very handsome plumage, and from the fact that
they are easily tamed, and thrive well in captivity. No
less than fifty-eight species of honey-suckers are known,
varying in size from that of a thrush to that of a wren;
several kinds have singular fleshy appendages below the
ears, of which the ‘ wattle-bird ’ is an example.
The ‘bower-birds ’ possess the singular habit of
forming bower-like structures of twigs upon the
ground, which they decorate with gaily-coloured
feathers, bones, and shells. Some of these bowers or
runs are two or three feet long, arching over the top,
and are the resort of many individuals of both sexes,
that run in and out and around the bower in a sportive
and playful manner. One of these bower-building
species, about the size of a thrush, is called the satin-
bird, on account of its rich glassy black plumage, which
D
IEI Slllllll
IILES.
Singing
birds.
Ly re-bi rds.
‘ Pheasant‘:
mother.’
Robins.
Wrens.
Honey-
suckers.
Bower-
birds.


34 rmsnnoox ro susrnnrs AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEW S0llT|l
WALES.
Regent-
birds.

Rifle-birds.
Cuckoos.
Cockatoos.
Parrots.
Pigeons.
Ravens.
exactly resembles satin. Another bird inhabiting the
Queensland forests, and somewhat allied to the bower-
bird, is the regent-bird (Sericulus melinus), which has a
plumage of golden-yellow and shining black. Closely
allied to the birds of paradise, and approaching themin
beauty of form and plumage, are the rifle-birds (Ptiloris),
of which three species have been met with, one in the
cedar-brushes of New South Wales, and the other two in
Northern Queensland. Ten species of cuckoo are re-
corded, varying in size from the enormous Scythrops, or
channel-bill, to the little Chrysococcyw, or golden cuckoo,
all of which are parasitic, laying their eggs in the nests
of other birds, as does the cuckoo of European notoriety.
We have already alluded to the vast preponderance of the
parrot tribe over most other groups of birds throughout
the Australian continent. The largest are the great
black cockatoos, withtheir red and yellow tails. These
are very shy, and fly at a. great elevation, going in flocks
of twenty or thirty together. Next come the white
cockatoos, so well known in Europe, and so abundant
everywhere. The rose-cockatoo, and Leadbeater’s cocka-
too, with a large scarlet and yellow crest are both very
handsome birds. Of the parrots a great number of
species belong to the genus Pla.t_z/cercus, or ‘ broadtails,’
to the gcrgeousness of whose plumage but a passing
mention can here be bestowed. The king parrot and
the red-winged Aprosmictus are as brilliant in colour as
the most pronounced shades of scarlet and green can
make them; and some of the little honey eating lori-
keets are gems of beauty. The pigeons and doves
number about twenty species. The large fruit-eating
pigeon (Uarpophaga magm_.'ficia), of the north-eastern
part of Queensland, is green and yellow, with a purple
breast. The ‘top-knot pigeon ’ of the brushes of New
South Wales is a handsome bird, with a brown crest.
The ‘wonga-wonga ’ is a large plump-looking pigeon,
much esteemed as an article of food. The ‘ bronze-wings ’
(Phaps) have patches of metallic lustre on their wix gs,
and some of the species are brilliantly coloured. The
little ground-dove (Geopelia) is a. pet for the aviary.
The Australian raven (Corvus Australis) is a large
ominous-looking bird, about the size of its European
ally. Its hoarse, melancholy cry is one of the most


AUSTRALIAN NATURAL nisronr. 35
dismal and distressing sounds it is possible to conceive;
and as these birds resort to the neighbourhood of
sheep and cattle stations to feed upon the ofi'al, they
seem to add to the mournful solitude of the shepherd's
hut. Three species of birds, peculiar to Australia, and
belonging to as many genera, but all included in the
family Megapodidw, are remarkable for their low organi-
sation (being almost reptilian in character), and for the
fact that they do not hatch their eggs like other birds,
but construct vast mounds of sand or decomposed
vegetable matter, in which their eggs are deposited and
hatched by the heat generated within the heap. The
largest of these birds is the ' brush-turkey ’ (Talegalla
lathami), which is bigger than an ordinary fowl. The
next in size is the Leipoa occellata, or ‘ scrub-pheasant ;'
and the smallest the Megapodius tumulus, which is con-
fined to tropical Australia.
Of struthious birds there are two species of Emeu,
which inhabit the vast plains of the interior; and in
Northern Queensland a fine species of Cassowary has
lately been discovered called Casuari-us Australia. The
Australian crane (‘native companion’ of the colonists)
is a stately bird, when erect measuring nearly four feet
in height. It is of a slate colour, with a red skin about
the eyes. The Mycteria, or Jabiru crane, is nearly as
large, and has glossy metallic-green and white plumage,
and bright red legs. Three species of Ibis occur, some-
times appearing in vast flocks on the plains of the in-
terior.
Spoonbills, egrets, herons, plovers, snipes, and curlews
are numerous; as are also quail, which afford good
amusement to the sportsman. The Australian bustard
(Otis Australia) is a noble bird, exceeding in size the
bustard of Europe, the male weighing as much as six-
teen pounds. It frequents extensive grassy plains, but
is now becoming scarce. It is esteemed the greatest
delicacy of all the indigenous so-called game birds.
The black swan, so well known since its acclimatisa-
tion in Great Britain, is to be seen in vast flocks on the
lakes and backwaters of the Murray river. The Cape
Barren goose is a bulky bird, of a grey colour, with a
small yellow beak, also acclimatised in our English or-
namental waters. The musk-duck (Anus lobata) is a
IEW Slllllll
IILES.
ii.
Mound-
builders.
Emeu.
Cassowary.
Cranes.
Ibis.
Bustard.
Black
swan.
Musk-
duck.
n 2


36 HANDBOOK TO AUS'lRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND. '
IIEW SOUTH
WALES.
Ducks and
geese.
Pelican.
Gulls.
Darter.
Penguins.
Reptiles.
Crocodile.
Lizards.
' Prickly
devil.’
Sc l
lizard!-
Snakes
singular bird, that passes most of its time in diving,
and can remain under water for a considerable period;
it has a strong musky odour. There are a great many
species of ducks and geese peculiar to Australia, of
which the sheldrake, the shoveller, the pink-eyed duck,
the tree-duck, and the semi-palmated goose are the most
important. The Australian pelican (Pelecanua conspiczl
laius) is a large and imposing bird; it inhabits both the
estuaries of the sea and the fresh-water lagoons. Cor-
morants and terns are abundant, and of many species.
Of gulls there is only one species of true Lame, and two
of the genus Bruchigavia. The New Holland darter
(Plotus) is a singular bird, with a very long neck; when
swimming, with only its head and neck out of water, it
presents the appearance of a snake. There are three
species of penguin inhabiting the southern coasts of
Australia and Tasmania.
In those rivers of Australia which are situated within
the tropics there exists a. species of crocodile (Orocodilus
bifurcatus) which is a formidable and dangerous creature,
attaining a length of from twelve to eighteen feet.
Lizards are very numerous, and present an infinite
variety of genera and species. The largest kind is the
‘monitor ’ (Hydmsauvms 'uan'us), vulgarly called a ‘guana ’
by the settlers. Its length is from four to six feet, and
it is handsomely variegated with black and dark yellow.
It bites severely when captured ; but, as is the case with
all reptilians possessing feet, no serious effects result
from the injury. The frilled lizard is about two feet
long, and looks very fierce when it extends its frill. The
Moloah horridus, or ‘prickly devil,’ is perhaps the most
extraordinary reptile of the lizard tribe. It is about
eight inches in length, and is found in rocky places
under stones in South and Western Australia. It is
covered all over with a terrible array of sharp spines
and prickly bosses, which impart to it a hideous aspect.
The ‘ scaly ' or ‘stump-tailed ’ lizards are from twelve
to fifteen inches long, very sluggish in their habits, and
are covered all over with large flat scales.
' In so warm a climate as Australia it is not surprising
that snakes should be numerous; and although out of
sixty-three species already known and described a great
proportion appear to be harmless, or at least not fatal


AUSTRALIAN NATURAL HISTORY.
in their bite, still there are several of a very venomous
and deadly nature. Great differences of opinion exist
as to the proportion of poisonous snakes in Australia.
Dr. Bennett says ‘ that four-fifths of the serpents as yet
sent from various parts of Australia are poisonous, and
many are virulent;’ whilst Mr. Krefit, of the Sydney
Museum (who has made the Australian reptilia his
especial study), affirms that there are only five species
whose bite is fatal to man.
The diamond snake (Morelia spilotis), one of the Boa
tribe, attains the length of twelve feet and upwards,
and is quite harmless. It is beautifully dotted upon the
back with yellow spots on a black ground. The carpet
snake, another species of Boa, closely allied to M.
spilotis is pretty generally distributed. The black
snake (Pseudechis pmphyriacus) is common everywhere,
and is principally met with in marshy places, or near to
water. It measures from five to eight feet in length, and
is of a glossy black colour above, and a beautiful car-
nelian-red beneath. It is highly venomous, many in-
stances being on record where both Europeans and
natives have succumbed to its bite. The brown snake
(Diemenia superciliosa.) is equally venomous. There is a
tree-snake common in New South Wales (Dipsas fusca),
about three feet long, very slender and graceful, and per.
fectly harmless. The brown-banded snake (Hopl0cepha.-
lus cwrtus) is of an olive-green colour above and yellow
beneath, and is very venomous. A remarkably hand-
some snake is the Vermicella annulata, banded with alter-
nate rings of black and white; it also is venomous.
Perhaps the most repulsive-looking of all the Australian
serpents is the death-adder (Acanthophia antarctica); its
bite occasionally proves fatal. It is a short thick crea-
ture, varying in length from two to three feet, and is
speckled with brown and dirty yellow ; its head is
broad and fiat, and the tail is armed with a sort of prong;
it coils itself up in sandy places, and its torpid disposi-
tion renders it still more dangerous, as, from the assimi-
lation of its colour to the soil, a stranger is liable to
tread upon it unawares.
Fifteen species of sea-snakes (Hydrophidw) inhabit
the Australian coasts; they are all venomous. They
swim rapidly about in the sea, and may be distinguished
by their flattened tails.
IEVI SUUTII
WALES.
Poisonous
species.
Diamond
snake.
Black
snake.
Tree-snake.
Ringed-
snake.
Death-
adder.
Sea-snakes.


38 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW SUUTII
WALES.
Water-
tortoise.
Turtles.
Frogs.
Fishes.
Edible
sorts.
Beautiful
species.
Sharks.
Cestraciou.
Saw-fish.
Sword-fish.
A small fresh-water tortoise (Emys longicollis) is found
in the rivers of Australia; and on the coasts the ‘log-
gerhead,' the ‘ hawksbill,’ and the ‘ green turtle ’ are to
be met with. The latter is captured at Moreton Bay
for supplying the Sydney market with the materials for
turtle-soup. It is also preserved in tins and sent to
England, where it ought to find a ready sale, as it can
be obtained at one-quarter the price of the West Indian
article.
Frogs of various kinds are common in the swamps
and marshes, some of them being handsomely variegated
with different colours. The pretty green tree-frog is
frequent in the low shrubs and in the gardens of New
South Wales. Upwards of forty species of frogs are
recorded.
_ Fishes, many of which are excellent eating, abound
in endless variety on all parts of the Australian coasts;
and when fisheries are carried on in a more systematic
manner, the dwellers in the seaport cities and towns
need never be without a choice and varied supply of
fish. Amongst the best known kinds which are brought
into the market are the schnapper, red-bream, at-
head, John-dory, whiting, mackerel, mullet, gar-fish,
and groper. Many of the smaller fishes, especially those
that frequent the reefs and rocky shores, are of the
most beautiful and brilliant colours and elegant forms.
Amongst these may be mentioned the parrot-fish, the
Ghwtoolon, and the blue and golden Glyphisodon. Sharks
of enormous size infest all portions of the Australian
Seaboard. In Port Jackson examples of the Camaharias
Zeucas have been killed measuring from twelve to four-
teen feet in length, and with a girth of seven feet. The
tiger-shark (flgualus barbatus) and several other species
are abundant; as also is the Gestmcion, or ‘ shell-grind.
ing shark,’ remarkable for being the only living species
representative of a once numerous tribe of fossil sharks
whose jaws were armed with strong bony plates for the
purpose of grinding down the shell-fish which formed
their food. The hammer-headed shark, the saw-fish, the
stinging ray, and the torpedo are all to be met with.
Two species of sword-fish, both of large size, inhabit
the Australian seas. Instances have frequently oc-
curred where vessels navigating the coast have been


AUSTRALIAN NATURAL msroar. . 39
penetrated by the powerful ‘swords’ of these huge
fish, which, breaking ofi', have left several inches of
the end firmly embedded in the timbers. The ‘ fishing-
frog,’ or ‘angler,’ is a quaint-looking fish that creeps
along the mud at the bottom of the water by means
of its fins, which resemble feet; from its upper jaw
projects a thin filament, at the end of which is an
appendage like a small scarlet flower. Nearly buried
in the mud, the ‘ fishing-frog ’ lies in wait for its prey,
wagging its scarlet tuft, and thus attracting the curiosity
of the smaller fishes, which quickly fall victims to their
imprudence in the capacious jaws of the enemy.
The River Murray, and the larger streams emptying
themselves into the sea on the Eastern coast, are in-
habited by several kinds of fresh-water fish, amongst
which the ‘ cod-perch’ or ‘ Murray cod ’ is the most
important. It is taken by means of lines, baited with
tree-frogs. It is excellent eating, and when full-grown
weighs from thirty to forty pounds.
Cray-fish are found of large size, both of marine and
fresh-water species. Prawns and shrimps, and an in-
finite variety of crabs and other crustaceans, dwell
amongst the rocks on the sea.-shore. The Neptunus, or
swimming crab, is an elegant species, the upper shell
or ‘carapace’ being produced into a point at the ex-
tremities.
Oysters of various kinds are abundant. The ‘rock
oyster,’ for which the coast of New South Wales is
famous, has a remarkably rich and delicate flavour.
Many of the Australian shells are very beautiful, and
much valued by collectors; amongst them may be
noticed those of the Votute family, of which there are
alarge number of showy species. A great many curious
forms of mollusks are peculiar to the Australian seas,
but space forbids more than a passing allusion to them.
The land-shells (snails) of North-eastern Australia are
interesting, and present many fine, large, and elegantly
painted species.
Leeches swarm in most shallow lagoons and ponds;
and on the tropical coasts the ‘ trepang,’ or ‘ béche-de-
mer ’ (Holothuria), occurs plentifully.
Insect life, as in other warm climates, is prolific to
an extraordinary degree. Flies, both in and out of
IEI SOUTH
IILES.
‘ Fishing-
frog.’
Fresh-
water fish.
M urray
cod.
Crusta-
ceans.
Oysters.
Shells.
Volutes.
Land-
snails.
Leeches.
Trepang
I nsecb.
Flies.


40 1-mmmoox ro snsrrurm AND NEW zmmsn.
NEW SOUTH
WALES.
Mosquitoes.
B990-
Wasps.
White ants.
Butterflies.
Moths.
Beetle-9.
‘ Animated
straws.’
Pb asmidae.
doors, are extremely annoying during the summer
months; as are mosquitoes in certain localities, espe-
cially in} the vicinity of mangrove swamps. Fleas and
sand-flies are pests in the bush in sandy places. The
common honey-bee has long been acclimatised in Aus-
tralia; and, owing to the genial climate, and the great
quantity of honey-bearing flowers which are indigenous
to the soil, it has become very abundant. ‘ Bee-farming ’
is a favourite calling in New South Wales. That noisy
insect, the Tettigonia, or ‘tree locust ’ of the colonist,
enlivens almost every gum-tree during summer with its
shrill and almost deafening music.
There are a great many species of wasps and hornets;
and ants, some an inch in length, are to be met with
everywhere, and inflict a. severe bite. White ants, as
in most hot countries, are extremely destructive, and
do much damage to wooden floors. Excepting on the
Eastern and Northern coasts, the butterflies are neither
numerous nor remarkable for their size or beauty.
Papilio erectheus, a large handsome butterfly, is to be
seen in the gardens around Sydney, as well as P. amzctus,
P. sarpedon, and others, and a magnificent species ot
Charazues. The woods of the Clarence and the Rich-
mond, in the north part of New South Wales, can boast
of one of the most superb butterflies known, the Ormk
thoptem Richmomlia, which is five inches across the
wings, of a velvet black, with a broad band of metallic
golden green. Many of the moths, especially those of
the genera Uassus, Hepialus, &c., attain a large size,
but are not remarkable for their colours.
Coleoptera are more numerous than the lepidoptera;
many of the beetles are very curious, and the great
family of the Buprestidaa are remarkable for their bright
colours and singular markings. The diamond beetle
rivals its Brazilian namesake in the splendour of its
jewelled wing-cases.
Those extraordinary insects called ‘walking-sticks,’
or ‘ animated straws,’ are found climbing amongst the
boughs of the gum-trees. The ‘ praying mantis ’ is also
frequently met with. The largest of all the insect tribe
peculiar to Australia are the Phasmidce, a group of
Orthoptera. ' Some of them are over a foot in length,
their large glassy wings when spread out displaying


AUSTRALIAN BOTANY. 41
tints of various hues. They dwell in the gum-trees, on
the young shoots of which they feed.
Spiders, of the tarantula type, attain a large size;
and one kind (Mg/gale) constructs a tube-like nest in
the ground, which retreat is furnished with a sort of
trap-door, which the creature lifts up or down at plea-
sure. Some of the smaller sorts of spiders display the
most beautiful colours, being spotted and striped with
green, rose-colour, scarlet, purple, yellow, and blue;
whilst others are armed .with spiny protuberances.
Scorpions and centipedes inhabit damp and unfre.
quented places under stones and decaying logs. Some
of them are very large, and the poison from their bite
is so virulent as to cause serious inflammation and
drowsiness.
Australian Botany.
One of the most striking features in the aspect of the
vegetable kingdom in Australia is the almost universal
prevalence of evergreen trees and shrubs. From this
cause there is no perceptible difference in the aspect of
the landscape either in summer or winter; excepting
that, during the autumn, the grass dries up and becomes
of a yellow colour, presenting the appearance of hay,
and contrasting strongly with the deep green foliage of
the trees.
By far the largest proportion of the vegetation
throughout the entire continent of Australia is com-
posed of trees belonging to the great family of the
Eucalyptidoe, or ‘gum-trees,’ as they are familiarly
styled. These are all evergreen, and vary greatly in
size and mode of growth. Large tracts of fertile
gently undulating grassy country present all the ap-
pearance of a park, being scattered here and there with
noble gum-trees, either singly or in clusters, many of
them attaining an altitude of upwards of 200 feet, and
a girth of from twelve to twenty feet. The banks
of the rivers, and the water-courses generally, are
everywhere bordered with the gigantic ‘blue-gums,’
which mark the course of the stream from a long
distance as it meanders through open plains or low
desert scrub. Dense forests, composed {or the most
part of such lofty species of Eucalyptus as the ‘ stringy-
IEI SOUTH
IILES.
Spiders.
Scorpions.
Centipedes.
Ever-
greens.
Gum-trees.
Blue-gum.


42 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND¢
IEYI SOUTH
WALES.
Iron-bark.
Sp inifex.
Tropical
verdure,
Cabbage-
palm.
Gigantic
nettle-tree.
She-oak.
Acacias.
bark,’ ‘iron-bark,’ &c., clothe the mountainranges
generally; while the extensive arid and sandy tracts
known as the ‘ mallee-scrub ’ are covered by low thickets
of a dwarf kind belonging to the same family. In the
interior, alternating with grassy plains, there occur
patches of desert land, where rain seldom falls, which
are overgrown with a low shrubby plant called Spimfem,
presenting a mass of sharp prickles, and rendering
travelling on horseback both difficult and dangerous.
The character of the vegetation of the interior hills and
undulating country generally partakes of the ever
monotonous gum-tree aspect, even in those portions of
Australia that extend far into the tropics. It is, how.
ever, in the valleys of the dividing ranges that slope
down to the Pacific, throughout nearly the whole extent
of the East coast from Illawarra to Cape York, as well
as on the alluvial flats that border the rivers of Queens-
land‘ and the Northern territory, that we find a rich
luxuriant vegetation, teeming with palms and ferns,
and all the glorious verdure of a tropical forest. As
far South as the Illawarra district in New South Wales,
the eastern slopes of the mountains and the ravines and
valleys that trend towards the sea are clothed with
forests of infinite beauty, teeming with vegetation in its
wildest luxuriance. Here the cabbage-palm (Cory-
]77I(l Austra-lis) towers to a height of seventy feet.
The gigantic fig rears its tortuous branches high into
the air, clothed with rich draperies of curious and
spreading parasites; and the graceful tree-ferns flourish
in the warm atmosphere of these sheltered dells. In
these forests the gigantic nettle-tree grows to an
altitude of forty or fifty feet, and has large flat leaves,
the sting from which is so virulent as to produce great
suffering.
In some localities, especially in the South and West,
nothing is seen but extensive tracts of the Uasuari/na
or ‘ she-oak ’ tree; remarkable for having long droop-
ing filaments instead of leaves, through which, on a
stormy day, the wind makes most mournful music.
In other places we meet with groves‘ of that handsome
species of acacia the ‘golden wattle,’ which, when
covered with its masses of yellow blossom during
spring, fills the air with perfume of indescribable fra-


susrnsnmn nomnr. 43
granee. Indeed, owing to the profusion of aromatic
shrubs and odoriferons flowers, the ‘bush’ in Australia
is fragrant throughout the whole year.
A great variety of beautiful acacias occur in all parts
of Australia, having for the most part sweet-scented
blossoms. The drooping acacia, or ‘ myall ’ of the abori-
gines, has a dark-coloured wood, which emits a strong
odour of violets, which it retains for many years. The
red cedar, which flourishes in the brushes of New
South Wales and Queensland, affords excellent timber
for house-fittings and cabinet-work. The white cedar,
or ‘Australian lilac,’ emits from its pendulous clusters
of lilac-coloured blossoms a most delightful scent
during the evening and for a few hours after sundown.
The ‘flame-tree’ (Brachychiton acemfulium), when
covered with its large racemes of red flowers, renders
the lllawarra mountains conspicuous for miles at sea,
by reason of their glowing crimson patches. The fire-
tree (Nuytsia. floribunda), of King George’s Sound, is
clothed in December with rich spikes of orange-
coloured blossoms, presenting a very gay appearance.
In Queensland the ‘silky oak’ (Grevillea robusta) pos-
sesses a downy foliage almost hidden by its flowers,
which resemble branched combs of crooked golden wire;
and the Steuocmpus Ozmninghami, a proteaceous tree,
fifty feet high, displays, when in bloom, one gorgeous
mass of bright crimson stamens tipped with orange.
On the North and North-west coasts of Australia the
explorers in those regions have met with a most remark-
able tree, called ‘the bottle tree,’ or ‘ gouty stem tree.’
It is allied to the ‘ baobab ’ of Western Africa, and is
named Delabeclaia gregori. The huge shapeless trunks
of these trees, resembling enormous yams, are filled
with a mucilaginous substance, not unlike gum traga-
canth. The fruit is a small gourd, which is acidulous,
and is eaten by the natives. A species of India-rubber
tree is abundant in the forests of the East coast. The
Banksice are a singular-looking group of trees, peculiar
to Australia. They have the appearance of small stunted
oaks, bearing cylindrical clusters of blossom, which turn
into enormous seed-cones, and impart a remarkable
character to the branches.
Amongst the noble pines that adorn the Queensland
IIEW SOUTH
WALES.
M _\'alL
Cedars.
Flame-tree
F ire-tree.
Silky oak.
Bottle-tree
India-
rubber.
Bauksiaa.
Pines.


44 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
III SUUTH
WALES.
‘ Bunya-
bunya.’
Wooden
pear.
Mistletoe.
Christmas-
bush.
Fruits.
Grass-tree.
Timber
trees.
Tree-ferns.
forests the most important is the ‘ bunya-bunya ’ (Amu-
caria, Bidwelli). It towers to a height of more than
100 feet, and has wide-spreading branches densely
covered by lanciform foliage. It produces an enormous
cone, larger than a man’s head, the seeds of which form
a valuable article of food to the blacks, who travel
hundreds of miles to obtain them, and hold an annual
festival on the occasion.
One of the anomalies of the vegetable kingdom is a
shrub (Xylomelum pyrzforme) the seed-vessel bearing a
singular resemblance to a wooden pear; another is a
species of cypress, the fruit of which is like a small cherry,
having the stone outside. A species of mistletoe (Loranthus)
is parasitic on the gum-tree, producing berries similar
to those in England. It is devoted to the same festive
purposes of decoration, as is also the ‘ Christmas-bush ’
(O'emtopeta.Zum gmnmifemm), a pretty evergreen shrub,
yielding masses of pink blossom. In the category of
barely edible native fruits may be noticed the ‘ quandong,’
or ‘ native peach,’ having a large round wrinkled stone
covered with a bright scarlet pulpy skin ;the ‘ monterey,’
which resembles a minute apple, and grows on a creeping
plant on the sand-hills of the sea-shore; the native
‘ currant,’ the ‘ geebung,’ the wild grape, and the indi-
genous fig.
The grass-tree (Xa/n.tho'r'rh0ea) and the Kingia of West-
ern Australia are peculiar features of the landscape in
poor soil, and amongst barren and rocky scenery; from
a rugged trunk or stem, varying in height from two to
ten or twelve feet, there springs out, on all sides, a
graceful tuft of thin grass-like leaves, whilst from the
centre issues a long blossom-spike, not unlike a bulrush.
Many of the larger kinds of gum—trees shed their bark
annually, hich, at certain seasons, imparts to their
trunks a. naked and ragged appearance. Of valuable
timber trees there are a great many kinds. A large
proportion of these belong to the Eucalypti, and pro-
duce hard and heavy woods. The tulip-wood of the
Clarence River is very ornamental ; and the cedar, silky
oak, white beech, yellow wood, ‘ jarrah,’ and many more,
are of importance for building and cabinet-making pur-
oses.
P Groves of tree-ferns occur in Gippsland and in the


AUSTRALIAN normr. 40
sheltered glens of the Blue Mountains of New South
Wales.
The estuaries of rivers and salt-water creeks are
almost invariably bordered with broad belts of mangrove-
trees; and many of the bays and islands within the
tropic are fringed with the Panda/nus, or screw-pine.
Many of the flowers adorning the sand-scrubs are
remarkable for their beauty; and, as a rule, a poor soil
produces the greatest number of indigeneous flowers.
n the spring the ground is, in many places, covered
with a variety of terrestrial orchids. The most striking
flowers are the ‘ warratah ’ (Telopea speciosissima), which
seldom grows higher than six feet, and has a slender
stem surmounted by a large crimson blossom, not unlike
a peony; the rock-lily, Doryanthes ezcelsa, which has a
flower-stalk 30 feet high, bearing at its summit a crown
of dark red flowers; the Murray lily (Crinum), with
its tufts of sweet-scented white blossoms ; and a magni-
ficent epiphyte, parasitic on rocks, which is found in the
neighbourhood of Port Jackson. The flower-laden stalks
of this charming orchid exceed a foot in length; the
blossoms are pale cream-colour, and the perfume divine.
Mushrooms are abundant where the soil has been
manured by sheep or cattle; and a luminous fungus is
common in some parts of the country.
Government.
The early Governors of New South Wales were in
the position of autocrats, having a sort of irresponsible
power. Ruling principally over convicts and paid
oificials, with their acts unsubmitted to the criticism
of the press, they were only amenable to the British
Ministry, who were too occupied with the French war
to attend to so distant a colony.
All cases were tried before the Judge Advocate, who
was not required to be a lawyer, with a military jury of
six oificers. This court met in secret. In 1812, two
Courts were appointed. One consisted of the Judge
Advocate and two assessors appointed by the Governor;
the Supreme Court was conducted by the Judge and
two magistrates selected by the Governor.
Three classes of the community were opposed to one
another—the ofiicials, the free settlers, and the emanci-
IEW SOUTH
WILES.
M angroves.
Pandanus.
Flowers.
‘ War-
ratah.'
Rock-lily.
Murray
lily.
Large
orchid.
M ush-
rooms.
Luminous
fungus.
Despotio
rule.


46 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW SOUTH
WILES.
Early
society.

\Vitnesses
flogged.
Want of
freedom.
Trial by
"jury, 1824.
No liberty
of the
Press.
Dawn of
freedom.
pists. The last were those freed by the termination of
their sentence. They were jealous of the intrusion of
free comers, who were equally disliked by the ruling
oflicers. A collision brought on the rebellion in 1808,
when Governor Bligh was deposed.
Magistrates were not then gentle in their ofiice. Men
were flogged to extort confession of suspected crimes,
and witnesses were flogged when testimony was sup-
posed to be withheld. Women even were subjected to
the lash. Masters were able to get their servants pub-
licly flogged by an order from amagistrate. We read of
a poor fellow receiving twenty-five lashcs each morning
for eight successive days, when unable or unwilling to
speak of some lost property. As lately as 1823, a witness
had 100 lashes to quicken his memory of an event.
Government interfered with prices of goods, with
rates of labour, with export of produce, with rate of
exchanges, with system _of payments, and with the
movements of travellers. Settlers required permission
to leave a port, after previously advertising their inten-
tion to go. No marriage was valid without an oflicial
permit. Trade for many years was directly or indirectly
controlled by the authorities. The sale of strong drink
was a monopoly of the oificials.
After a long struggle, free settlers obtained the boon
of trial by jury in 1824 ; though the concession was for
several years withheld from those free by servitude only.
The independence of the judges was a great blessing to all.
The Press was under surveillance of the strictest
kind. When, with the expansion of affairs and the
introduction of many respectable colonists, the news-
papers ventured upon some modest criticisms of the
powers that were, the Act of 1827 arrested their liberty.
By this law every newspaper must have a licence,
and present two satisfactory guarantees for a large
amount. A stamp duty of fourpence a copy was levied.
The Governor also claimed the right to suspend the
licence upon any imprudence or negligence in the con-
duct of the press.
A gradual improvement appeared. Governor Bourke
removed the galling disabilities of religion. Governor
Gipps, in 1838, allowed the public to hear the discussions
of the Legislative Nominee Council. In 1842 Sydney


Govamunmr. 47
received its corporation. In 1843, the Home Govern-
ment granted the Colony the first instalment of a popular
government, in making the Council to begartly elective.
Petitions at lengt'l[:ihprocured for the 0lO!gd r%spp1I11-
sible overnmeut. is concession was gran y e
Engligh Parliament in 1855.
By proclamation, the Legislative Council, or Upper
House, was to consist of 21 members, appointed by the
Governor for life. But the Legislative Assembly, or
House of Commons, was to be elected for five years,
8.X1:(‘1Ell30tC0I1SlS%1 of 7?ep)er1c>1ip,tnow ltlgeflor thtree years.
ec ors, w o vo a o , mus wen -one ears
of age, three years redident in the Colony, ind fol: six
months previous to an election living in an electoral
district, or possessed of a freehold of £10 a year.
The Colony has prospered under a responsible Minis-
tr . The laws are res ected, and e uitabl administered.
Miinicipal institutionps are spreading thzough the land.
The immigrant discovers an order-loving community, and
a righteous judgment. The extension of freedom has
roduced neither licence nor misvovernment in a land so
lbng held in leading strings. Ilnder a popular system
of rule, education has greatly extended, property has
become more secure, trade has expanded, wrong-doing
lhias been dmore effectually checked, and social happiness
as game every way.
The revenue of the Colony is steadily advancing. In
1821 it was 36,231l.; in 1831, 121,066l.; in 1851,
406,056l.; in 1854, 1,004,467l. ; in 1864, 1,693,792l.;
and in 1872 it rose to 2,8l2,379l. In 1877-8 it was
4,991,919l.; but in 1878-9, 4,524,841l.; in 1884, to
September 30, 1885, 7,588,804l.
Among the sources of revenue in 1884-5 were—
.-E
Customs . . . . 1,7-56,246
Excise . . . . 119,510
Licenses . . . . 121.210
Post Oflice and Telegraphs . 467 257
Fees . . . . 136.049
Railways . . . . 2,432,077
Land Revenue . . . 1,959,588
Stamps . . . . 252,753
The Mint . . . . . 8,238
The expenditure for 1884 was 8,71 5,1891.
IEI Sfllllll
IILES.
Progress of
freedom.
Parliament.
Electors.
Results of
liberty.
Revenue.


48 nmnnoox TO AUSTRALIA AND new ZEALAND.
IEI SOUTII
IALES.
Expen-
diture.
Public
debt.
P"-
oreigners ;
many Irish.
The Taxation in 1884 was rated at about 2l. 8s. per
head, an amount almost unappreciable in a prosperous
community. The Debt was 261. 14s. 2d. per head.
The expenditure had, during nearly twenty years, been
in excess of the receipts. This had arisen from the great
progression of the Colony demanding public works.
Loans have been contracted to enter upon productive
undertakings, like railways, but not to pay for losses or
wasteful extravagance. The honourable position of the
Loan Fund, now 25,000,000l., on the Exchange is a safe
testimony to the stable condition of the affairs of New
South Wales. The interest of the debt is but a slight
burden, while the obligations are being gradually liqui-
dated. At the end of 1877 there was a surplus of
revenue to the amount of 2,331,610l. An increased
expenditure, with a diminution of income, greatly owing
to a reduction of the land sales, tend to equalize the
funds. The Land Revenue was 2,325,730Z. in 1877-8,
but 1,715,l02l. in 1878-9. Though the land capital is
decreasing, a larger population gives further sources of
income. The railways are Government property, and
are very remunerative. The coal raised in 1879 was
worth about a million pounds. The land is able to
maintain more stock. The commerce of the Colony is
extending, and acquired wealth augments by capital.
The extension of education, with the rapid growth of
population, will promote the public weal by the discovery
of new resources, and the intelligent use of advantages.
Population.
New South Wales is not of such a mixture of races as
Queensland, though the Sydney Government returns are
not so explicit upon vital statistics as in that neighbour-
ing colony. There is a much smaller percentage of
foreigners in the old colony than elsewhere in Australia,
but a greater proportion of Irish.
From about 1,000, at the foundation of Sydney in
1788, the population rose to 8,923 in 1810, 4,000 of whom
were in bondage. In 1821 the proportion of bond to
free was 14,000 to 16,000, growing still less in propor-
tion every year afterwards.


POPULATION. 49
The colonial records are interesting in their exhibition
of relative changes in the population. Thus we find :-—






Populstion Births Marriages Deaths
1325 33,675 442 239 392
1330 46,302 633 339 570
1334 66,212 1,357 705 1.164
1340 129,463 4,233 1,631 2,382
1347 205,009 3,910 1,361 2,694
1350 265,503 10,037 2,325 8,379
111351 197,163 7,675 1.915 2,600
1855 277,579 10,344 2,765 4.022
1860 343,546 14,233 2,945 6,562
1365 411.333 17,233 3.573 6.596
1370 502,361 19,643 3,343 6-5-‘>8
1372 539.190 20,250 3.925 1 7.463
1334 921,263 33.946 7,432 14,220


But taking the year 1878 as tl1e terminus of aseries,
we are led to the following curious table of pr0port10u;—-

1846
1851
1861
1878
1826
1831
1841
56
28
22
25
24
28
n
1|
n
n
n
1|
115
77
109
102
111
132
Births Marriages Deaths
lin 65 1111124 111169
II
H
1!
91
II
,, 83
,, 51
I) 11 75
,1 67
64
l
The population has still an excess of males. In 1871
the proportion of sexes was about the same as in 1861,
being 55 per cent. males to 45 females. In that decade,
from 1861 to 1871, there was an excess of 108,972 births
over deaths. At the beginning of 1885 there were
511,257 males, and 410,011 females.
In the employments, many more are engaged in pas-
toral pursuits, as compared to agricultural, than would
be found in Victoria or New Zealaud. There were
* The reduction this year was owing to the separation of Port
Phillip from the parent colony.
E
IEI SOUTI
WILES.
Biflzhs,
M :1 1~1-iages
and
Deaths.
10 per cent.
more males.
Employ-
mems.


50 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEVI SUUTII
\'ll|.ES.
Total
population.
Settled-
down
society.
Social
condition.
Chinese
labour.
Polynesian
labour not
imported.
Aborigines.
17,835 on squatting stations, and 43,805 on farms, 1871.
The farming number has since advanced.
The population of the Colony at the end of December
1884 amounted to 921,268.
New South Wales has been the hive from which many
swarmed to the newer coloni.es of South Australia, Vic-
toria, New Zealand, and Queensland, all of which are
largely indebted to the old colony for something more
than people. They have drawn from it capital for infant
and struggling enterprises, and sympathy in seasons of
trial and depression.
The population is a settled-down one in New South
Wales. Occupations are more regular and constant.
Prices of living are perhaps as low as in any part of the
civilized world. Bushmen and miners experience fewer
privations, and realise more comforts than elsewhere.
Every provision is made for sickness and poverty.
There are 60 hospitals, 7 benevolent asylums, and 14
orphan and industrial schools. There are refuges, sailors’
homes, working men’s clubs,Freemason and Odd Fellows’
lodges, besides many Good Templar associations. The
Australian Mutual Provident Society, with assets above a
million, has been a great advantage to many. Building
societies are extensively patronised in the townships.
Altogether it has been truly said that the working man
there enjoys life, while making prudent provision for a
rainy day.
The Chinese visitoi-s—all males—-are not 10,000 alto-
gether. Before the gold era they were employed chiefly
as cooks on stations. As domestic servants they have
been liked for their attention, fidelity, good humour, and
common sense. Since the outbreak of the diggings,
when not engaged at mining operations, they have
turned to market gardening. For quantity and quality
of vegetables upon a plot of land the Chincse farmer is
far ahead of the European one. For provident economy,
sobriety, and good behaviour, he is an example worth y
of imitation. His uncleanliness is objectionable.
Polynesian labour was introduced into Twofold Bay
and other places many years ago; but the experiment,
fortunately, was not attended with success.
The ABORIGINES of the Colony can no more be called
savages, although dwelling apart from the strangers who


EDUCATION mu RELIGION. 51
have taken their hunting grounds. Their numbers are
rapidly decreasing, less by absolute mortality than by
the singular un ertility of the females. The old are
dying out, and few children take their place in the tribe.
Excepting some young men who attach themselves to
stations as stockriders, the blacks have no desire to
work, being content with the food the bush provides them
in their independence. Never occupied as tillers of the
ground, with no inclination to tend a flock of their own,
they wander perpetually without a prospect of settlement.
All attempts to get them to adopt our forms of civili-
zation have signally failed, although zeal and money
have not been wanting in the agency. They are 7,-500.
Once, numerous and warlike, they opposed an active
resistance to the inroads of the whites ; now, few and
feeble, they are content in their isolation, if sullen in
their resignation. They have lost their spirit and their
hope, and sink lower and lower in licentiousness and
drunkenness. In a few years the bush will no more be
troddeu by these ancient Australian inhabitants.
Education and Religion.
Although a number of children belonging to the
military and emigrant families went in the first fleet
of 1787, no provision was made for their instruction on
board, and none for their teaching on shore.
A poor woman, actuated as it would appear by genuine
motives of benevolence, gathered some of these little ones
in her rude dwelling, and tried to teach them something
better than what they learnt from the general society of
Port Jackson. The clergyman was moved at the ex-
hibition of such devotion, and pitied the state of the
young in these unfortunate circumstances. He addressed
a letter to the Society for the Promotion of the Gospel in
Foreign Parts, about the year 1792—having allowed
nearly five years to pass without writing to the com-
it
H11 ee.
The secretary responded to the appeal. A grant of
101. a year was made to the teacher of Sydney. Other
grants of 10l. each were made for two other women and
one man who had taken up the work of teaching.
As soon as the wattle-bough and clay church was
finished, a school was held there. In 1807 an evening
IEI SUUTH
IMLES.
Aborigines
dying out.
Declined
our civili-
zalion.
The first
teacher and
gmnt in
aid.
First
schoolroom.
I: 2


52 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW SOUTH
WALES.
Female
orphan
school.
Male
orphan
school.
First
puhlic day
school.
Aid to
education.
(Th urch and
school
ro1'pO1‘a-
Lion.
class was established for youth employed in the day. It
was from such humble efforts that public instruction
arose in New South Wales.
Governor King, rough sailor as he was, undertook to
do something for a much neglected and suffering class.
In 1801 he collected the destitute female orphans of
Sydney and Rose Hill, gave them a home, and placed
them under a female teacher.
It was not until 1819 that the boys were similarly re-
membered, and then General Macquarie organised
another orphan school for them.
The worthy old Governor caused a fine building to be
constructed the year after, which he called after his
sovereign, ‘ The Georgian Public School for the Poor.’
He sought to imitate George 111., who had said to
Joseph Lancaster, ‘ It is my wish that every poor child in
my dominions should be taught to read the Scriptures.’
The first educational statistics were collected in 1819,
when it was ascertained that there were 1,000 children
at the public schools, and half that number at private
schools.
A London Society found the first funds for a colonial
school. Private benevolence subsidized the payments
by parents for the education of little ones. Occasional
grants in aid came from the colonial treasury, although
many years elapsed before annual government assistance
was rendered.
The celebrated Church and School Corporation Act
was passed in 1825. It was intended to provide clergy
and teachers throughout New South Wales. The al-
lowance was a liberal one. In addition to distinct
monetary aid from the council, a corporate body had
made over to its control, for church and school purposes,
not less than one-seven th of the public lands of the
settled part of the colony.
Such a noble bequest, although deemed little worth
then, would have proved equal, if not superior, in mu-
nificence to anything known in history. Had the Act
been sustained, and the means wisely utilized, for thirty
years, education and religion would have had an extra-
ordinary endowment in Australia.
But the terms of the Act were held to be sectar‘an.
The whole of these magnificent areas were to be held in


EDUCATION AND RELIG ION.
trust for the Church of England only. The Presbyte-
rians, although belonging to one of the two established
churches of Britain, were debarred from the enjoyment
of this colonial fund. Roman Catholics and English
Dissenters could only take advantage of the boon by
sending their sons and daughters to the Church of Eng-
land schools.
So great an outcry was raised at this supposed favour-
itism, that the Church and School Corporation Act was
repealed three or four years after. But the authorities,
while regarding the rights of conscience, neglected the
claims of young students. Instead of amending the
Act, and still sanctioning the devotion of one-seventh
of the public lands to such public uses, though under a
more liberal charter, they quietly resumed the acres,
and doled out a moderate sum of money instead.
The oflicial gifts to schools were rather arbitrarily be-
stowed. Yet a small grant was made to a Roman
Catholic school; and a few hundreds were appropriated
to the funds of the British and Foreign School Society,
which professed to give unsectarian instruction in the
colonies as at home, and which was then under the pa-
tronage of His Majesty.
It is right to observe that, in proportion as New
South Wales emerged from tutelage, and became en-
trusted with progressive powers of self-government, so
did government extend its pecuniary aid to education,
and widen the liberal basis according to which the
grants were made.
The growing middle classes of the Colony were not
left to the fluctuating and limited accommodation of the
private schools. Bishop Broughton, a warm friend to
youth, opened the King’s School in 1832. The Presby-
terians at the same time laid the foundation of their
Australian College, mainly through the zealous exertions
of the Rev. Dr. Lang. The Sydney Proprietary College
began in 1836, having Dr. Braim as head master.
The mode by which the Legislature administered the
annual donations for education was through the De-
nominational School Board, consisting of members of
different denominations. Local Committees, by raising
a certain part of the expenses, were entitled to draw
another portion from the Board. The recognized heads
of dc-nominations were in communication with the Board.
NEW SOUTH
WALES.
The Grant
for Church
of England
schools
only.
The Act
I'€px.fll€(l-
Better
gr.-nits with
growth of
freedom.
Higher
class
schools.
Denomina-
tional
School
Board


54 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAl\‘D-
NEW Slllllll
WALES.
National
School
Board-
The two
Boards
united.
Secular in-
struction
only paid
for by the
State.
Freedom of
religious,
instruc-
Lion.
Schools and
scholars.
In 1848, however, a party, long dissatisfied with a
system which they considered tended to maintain sect-
arian bigotry and dissension, succeeded in establishing
the Board of National Education.
This was an imitation of Lord Stanley's Irish School
plan, and seemed as adapted to the mixed communions
of Australia as to those in the Emerald Isle. It was
generally looked upon as the favourite in ofiicial circles,
and its grants were liberal. The expenses of these two
really antagonistic bodies brought about an amalgama-
tion in 1867, when one Board of Education had super-
vision of all schools.
With a view to form, in process of time, one common
system of Public Instruction, special regard is paid to
schools coming directly under the management of the
Board. Still, not to appear to interfere with conscien-
tious opinions, assistance was continued to schools
established and controlled by specific denominations.
But while the Denominational Schools receive aid
from the State, they are obliged to submit to one condi-
tion——that of opening their classes to pupils outside of
their own communion, without attempting to enforce
doctrinal teaching opposed to the wishes of parents. To
remove the possibility of a mistake, it was ruled that the
Government paid for secular instruction only, which must
be communicated two hours in the morning and two in
the afternoon. Out of those hours any dogmatic belief
might be inculcated agreeable to the tenets of the indi-
vidual body governing the school. In 1883 the State
declined any further aid to Denominational Schools.
Since 1867, Public Instruction has made decided pro-
gress in New South Wales. Itinerant teachers provide
for children in thinly-populated districts. Though the
youth of the indigent may be admitted without pay in
public schools, yet the classes are not thrown open to all
without charge, as in Queensland and Victoria.
The fees came to 56,7661. for the year 1884, while the
rest came from the colonial funds. For 1884 the State
Grant was 817,0S3l. The private schools for 1884 were
611 in number, with 1,601 teachers, and 33,607 scholars.
In January 1885, there were 1,918 State schools; viz.
1,651 public, 250 provisional, 117 halfltime. In private
schools were 32,607; in State, 168,194 pupils.


snucuxos sun 11143101011. 55
The Sydney University was established in 1851. The
charter was framed after that of the London University.
Six professors, judiciously selected, are upon the stafi'.
The building is one of the noblest in the capital, and
the institution is one of which the citizens are justly
proud. Four Denominational Colleges are affiliated with
the University. The revenue is about 34,5001. in all.
The State also supports, for the purposes of education,
Free Libraries, Schools of Art, and Mechanics’ Institutes.
The fine Sydney Museum was greatly indebted to the
naturalist, Mr. Krefft. The Sydney Botanic Gardens,
spread out beside the charming Port Jackson, are not
less a school than a. pleasure retreat.
RELIGION has its colonial history as well as education.
When the expedition was about to sail in 1787 it was
noticed that no appointment had been made of a chaplain.
As the eloquent Dr. Nixon, first Bishop of Tasmania,
expressed it, ‘ There were constables, military guards,
and a Governor on board ; everything to coerce the
wretched exiles, every secular means, perhaps, for his
improvement, but no one thought was bestowed upon
the exile’s soul.’
Bishop Porteus and the excellent Mr. Wilberforce
exerted themselves to remedy the neglect, and succeeded
in procuring the services of the Rev. Mr. Johnson.
If not an energetic man, he was certainly a good one.
He submitted too tamely to ofiicial indifference to reli-
gion, and failed to urge with zeal the attendance of the
prisoners upon his ministrations. When, after seven
years’ waiting, he was still told by the authorities that
the men could not be spared from public works to attend
to church building, the chaplain had the resolution to
set about the erection himself.
After procuring the loan of a few prisoners, a privilege
to which he was oflicially entitled, he went with them,
axe in hand, to cut down cabbage palm stems for posts,
and wattle boughs to entwine amidst the framework.
Clay was then dabbed upon the boughs at the sides, and
sheets of bark were laid on the rafters for a roof. The
expenditure from his own purse only amounted to £410.
For very shame, the Government could not but order
IEI SOUTH
WALES.
Svdney
University.
Free
Libraries
and
M useum.
Botanic
Gardens.
Rsuc1ox.
Religion
forgotten
in 1787.
Fiifl
Chaplain.
First
Colonial
Church
built by
the Chap-
lain.


56 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW SOUTH
MLES.
Church
burnt.
Rev. S.
Marsdvn
came, 1794.
First stone
Church.
First
Bishop
1836.
(‘hurch of
En gland
statistics.
Presbyteri-
anism.
Rev. Dr.
Lang ob-
jects to
toleration.
the prisoner population to attend church, though the
chaplain vainly sought for the presence of the ofiicers.
It was not long before the convicts tired of this com-
pulsory attendance, and set fire to the church to free
them from the irksome task. The act aroused the
Governor. A strong building, just put up for a public
store, was turned into a place of worship, and the un-
willing congregation were reassembled.
Disappointed and worried, the pastor retired from his
work, and was succeeded, in 1794, by a man of very
different stamp—the Rev. Samuel Marsden.
To him Paramatta was indebted for its stone church,
in 1803,.the first solid structure of the kind in Australia.
To him the Colony was indebted for the remedy of some
social evils, and for the authoritative establishment of
Christian worship. To him, also, the Maories of New
Zealand were indebted for their first missionary teachers.
Archdeacon Broughton, appointed through the recom-
mendation of the Duke of Wellington, who honoured
his character and energy, became the first bishop of
Sydney, and Metropolitan of Australia, in 1836. Before
that date the diocese of Calcutta included New Holland
and New Zealand.
The Church of England in New South Wales had in
1884 six bishops: namely, at Sydney, Newcastle, Goul-
burn, Bathurst, Hay, Grafton and Armidale.
There were 245 clergymeu, 507 places of worship, and
an average attendance of 62,517 worshippers. In the
492 Sunday schools were 3,408 teachers, and 27,715
scholars.
The Presbyterian emigrants at the Hawkesbury were
the first to erect a church by voluntary efiort in Ans-
tralia. The building raised in 1806 had to be used for
a school, since the worthy people were unable to induce
a clergyman to come out to them from Scotland.
The Rev. Dr. Lang reached Sydney in 1823. He
celebrated in 1873, with the honourable homage of his
brethren in the ministry, his jubilee of service.
Surprised and indignant to find himself umecognized
by the Colonial Government, when he was an authorised
clergyman of an Established Church at home, the fiery
Scot told the governor, who spoke of t0le'ra,ti0'nv, that his
countrymen were under no necessity of receiving tolera-


EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 57
tion, since their forefathers had won civil and religious
liberty for them by their valour. He succeeded, after
some years, in securing a chaplain’s salary, and so paved
the way for the admission of other denominations to the
Treasury.
The charter of religions freedom arrived in 1836.
Then all Australians were placed on one common stand
before the State. All ministers who were willing to
accept a salary from the Colonial Government were
welcome to the pay, provided the denomination they
represented had only its proper share of the grant.
This was fairly determined according to census returns.
The Church of England, the Presbyterians, the Wes-
leyans and the Roman Catholics claimed their several
State grants.
The status of the Presbyterian Church in January
1884 was as follows :—There were 109 clergymen, 186
places of worship, with an attendance of 17,478. In
their 164 schools were 1,100 teachers, and 6,554 pupils.
The Wesleyans held religious services in the Colony
before the Presbyterians.
In 1815 permission was granted by the English Go-
vernment for the emigration of the Rev. Samuel Leigh,
a Wesleyan minister, though only upon the understand-
ing that he went asa schoolmaster. The position of the
body changed considerably when it drew its share of the
public funds.
In January 1884 the Wesleyans had 112 ministers,
308 places of worship, and an average Sunday attend-
ance of 27,700. Their 266 Sabbath schools contained
14,768 children, under 2,157 teachers.
The Primitive Methodists, allied to the Wesleyans,
are spreading in the Colony, though much more slowly
than in the neighbouring provinces. Their 17 ministers
preached in 63 chapels to 6,500 people. In 46 Sunday
schools they had 455 teachers and 4,630 scholars. The
United Methodists had but recently secured a foothold
there, having three ministers.
The Independents, or Congregationalists, had their
first leader in the Rev. W. Jarrett, though the Rev. Dr.
Ross more effectually organised the body in 1840. They
have always declined Government aid in religious affairs.
With 43 ministers, they had 6,909 hearers in 50
IEI Slll.lTl
IILES.
State nid to
all denomi-
nations.
Presbyteri-
an Chul ch
statisl lcs.
First
Wes‘ cyan
Minister.
Wesleyan
statistics.
Primitive
Methodists.
United
Methodists.
Indepen-
dents.


58 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
HEW SOUTH
WALES.
__MM__
Baptists.
Quakers.
Protests nts
and Roman
Catholics.
N. S. VV.
keeps up its
reputation-
Australia
and
squatting.
chapels. In their 53 Sunday schools they had 582
teachers, and 4,632 children.
The‘ earliest Baptist preacher was the Rev. John
Saunders. The body grew to have 18 ministers, 21
chapels, and 2,265 Sunday attendants. For 21 Sunday
schools they had 135 teachers and 950 scholars.
The Society of Friends were gathered into one fold
in 1833, through the visit to Sydney of the esteemed
Quaker missionaries, Messrs. James Backhouse and
George Washington Walker.
Other Protestant bodies are feeble in numbers. Ac-
cording to the returns at the end of 1881 there were
516,512 Protestants, 207,606 Roman Catholics, 3,266
Jews, and 9,345 Pagan Chinese.
The Roman Catholic Church in 1884 had 5 bishops,
201 clergymcn, 346 places of worship, 60,576 Sunday
attendants at services, 370 Sunday schools, with 1,435
teachers, and 17,799 scholars. "
In public charities, and in voluntary exertions to raise
the fallen, reform the drunkard, and relieve the sorrowful,
Sydney has secured, and still maintains, a noble reputa-
tion. The newly arrived immigrant will discover no
want of benevolent friends if he need them.
Pastoral.
New South Wales has always held an honourable
position for the production of wool. From this country,
as from a pastoral centre, have been procured the first
flocks of all the Australian colonies and New Zealand.
It has recently been proved that there is no disposition
to let the younger settlements rob the parent one of its
squatting pre-eminence.
When the colony included Victoria and Queensland,
it could have no rival in the world in this industry. The
separated provinces have become rivals. Victoria has
the best native grasses of the colonies, and Queensland
has twice the area now allotted to its parent ; but year
by year the pastures are improving under better manage-
ment, and the Old State can still hold its own.
Australia is essentially the squatting region of the
world. The United States, the British Dominion of
Canada, and even the boasted llanos and pampas of South
America, cannot compete with the Kangaroo land for
the raising of sheep and the production of fine wools.


rasronsn. 59
It was after he had seen the flocks about Sydney that
Peron, the historian of the French expedition visiting
the south seventy years ago, penned these remarkable
words :—
‘The genial temperature of the climate, the absence
of beasts of prey of all descriptions, and the peculiar
nature and agreeable perfume of all native herbage,
have proved so favourable to these precious animals, that
the finest races both of Spain and England succeed
equally well. Already, we are told the wool of these Ant-
arctic animals surpasses the rich fleeces of Asturia ; and‘
the London manufacturers, who pay a higher price for
it, prefer it considerably. For the general picture of the
English colonies in Australia, I shall insist in a particu-
lar manner on this object, which appears likely to open
to Great Britain a new branch of commerce, as easy as
it is profitable.’
The Frenchman—who died soon after of a broken heart,
as it is said, at being compelled by Napoleon to traduce
the name of Flinders and claim the honour of discovery——
was right in his prophecy concerning the influence of
Australian pastoral undertakings upon the trade of
Britain. The capacity of the old Colony for the exten-
sion of this interest has not yet been limited. There is
still room for new comers, and food for many millions
more of the bleating tribe.
One thing is very certain: the climatic conditions of
New South Wales are so varied, that it can produce any
wool that may be required. This subject has been well
described by the oflicial report of the Sydney Exhibition
of 1870 :—
‘ The Mudgee district and other highly favoured locali-
ties produce wool which is probably not surpassed by
any country in the world. The northern counties,
probably best known as the New England district, pro-
duce fine, well-grown, sound fleeces, which English
manufacturers cannot dispense with. The western and
southern counties, which have acquired the designations
of the Bathurst and Goulburn districts, can produce in
perfection, under proper management, that large and
important class known in the trade as middle wools;
while further south, anyone who has a fancy to compete
with English growers in coarse wool can do so to his
heart's content.’
IEI SHUT
“MES.
Peron’s
opinion 70
years ago.

Still room
for squat-
ting.
Wools of
N. S. W.


60 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND- .
IEW SMITH
WALES.
Caution to
wool
growers.

First colo-
nial stock.
Horses,
Cattle and
shccp in
1885.
Breed of
sheep.
Macarthur,
founder of
A ustrali an
squatting.
Wool
export.
Pastoral
h istory.
A word of judicious caution, particularly to be heeded
by tho intending pastoral emigrant, is added to the
statement of the Colony’s ability to grow every descrip-
tion of wool of value. It is this :—‘ The great evil to be
avoided is the attempt to grow such qualities as are not
suited to individual localities.’
The history of this great industry is an important one.
The original stock landed at Sydney, in 1788, con-
sisted of 1 stallion, 3 mares, 3 colts, 2 bulls, 3 cows, and
29 sheep.
On March 31, 1885, there were, within the much re-
duced area of the modern New.South Wales, not less
than 330,603 horses, 1,336,329 cattle, and 30,379,871
sheep.
The first lot of animals were of the Cape of Good
Hope and Bengal breeds. The improvement in the pas-
toral fortunes of the Colony is undoubtedly due to Mr.
John Macarthur, once Captain of the New South Wales
Corps. As early as 1797 his attention was drawn to
the subject, and he imported a better quality of sheep,
the Merino, to cross with the hairy-woolled animal then
on the colonial pastures.
In 1804, when he returned to England, he placed
before manufacturers the Sydney wool, and interested
them in the rising product. Examined before the
Privy Council, he succeeded in enlisting the interest of
Government in his pastoral schemes. When returning
to New South Wales, he carried with him specimens of
the best sheep he could procure, including some Merinos
belonging to the sheep farm of George III.
Others, stimulated by his success and ardour, went
into the pursuit. The result was that in the genial
climate of New South Wales the sheep increased
amazingly, and the wool became the great source of
colonial wealth. But Dr. Lang is justified in saying of
Mr. Macarthur, ‘The obligations under which he has
consequently laid the Colony in all time coming, through
his unremitted perseverance and unexampled success,
are great beyond calculation.’
The export of wool was only 71,299 lbs. in 1819; but
111,833,017 lbs., nearly two thousand times as much, in
1878. In 1878, 55,765,233 bales passed over intoVictoria.
The sheep had grown to 25,000 by 1810; and were
four times that number in 1820.


- PASTORAL. 61
A wonderful impetus was given to the pastoral in-
terest after the establishment of the Australian Agricul-
tural Company, in 1825. The grant of a million of
acres to a few London capitalists was an extraordinary
event. The company prepared to make the most of
their gift by extensive exportation of goods, the trans-
mission of many emigrants, and the raising of large
flocks and herds.
The introduction of so wealthy and eager a customer
forced up prices of colonial stock to an unheard-of
extent. Five guineas a. head were freely given for
sheep, and cattle sold at equally absurd prices. A perfect
mania followed. Dreams of wealth disturbed the placid
colonial mind. Visions of future greatness by the ex-
port of wool begot a ruinous system of speculation, and
purchasers found others eager to advance upon their
rates at sales.
The usual result ensued. The tide turned, and
many were ruined, while prices descended to their old
position.
Another pastoral rage seized the Colony after the set-
tlement of Port Philip, when the five guineas per head
were commonly and readily given. But again, about
1843, the crash came with intense earnestness. The
Colony was in a most depressed state. It was a grim
joke of the times that a retired London tradesman
might easily have bought up all the settlers. Stations
in New South Wales were hard to dispose of at the
rate of two or three shillings a head. Mr. Benjamin
Boyd bought several sheep-stations at eighteen pence 3.
head.
Fluctuations in the» wool market have since caused
fortunes or failures, and seasons have been more or less
propitious to the fiockmaster; but no subsequent great
depression has taken place. For the future, unless
absurd miscalculations or mismanagement may occasion
losses, no one authority ventures to predict any decay
of the pastoral interest in New South Wales.
At first, sheep were kept on the grants of land made
so freely by the Crown in the primitive days. But the
increase of stock called for the extension of pastures.
Outside there was land occupied by no one, claimed by
no one. The original sheepmaster, therefore, carried
IEI SOIITII
IILES.
ii-
Sheep five
guineas s
head.
Rash sheep
specula-
Lions-
Sheep at
18d. a head
Early
pastures.


62 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEW SOUTH
WALES.
Rude
squatters.
Chsnge of
I1‘ eanmg.
Crown
lands.
First leases,
1826.
Squntting
annual
leases, 1831.
Lawless
occupation
of Crown
lauds.
forth a part of his flock, and ran them on the untenanied
wastes.
N 0 objection was presented by Government, as no
blame could be attached to men utilising otherwise use-
less territory, and so adding to the national resources.
But an evil grew up with the good times. Persons
who owned no land whatever presumed to buy sheep
and cattle, and depasture them upon the public lands.
Some were accused of obtaining their stock by robbing
the flocks and herds of others, and altering the brands.
The ignominious appellation of squatters was applied
to such wandering shepherds. The term has since got
applied to the regular pastoral pursuit, and has lost its
former offensive meaning.
‘Tickets of occupation ’ were given in early times to
persons whose character and position would be aguaran-
tee for their respectability of behaviour, and a respect
for the laws of property. The holders of these could
graze their animals upon the Crown lands.
A stringent regulation of 1826 demanded a pound
rent for each hundred acres so occupied, and yet gave
no security of tenure. Then the freeholder or lease-
holder was enjoined to make use only of unalienated
land near his own homestead, for which he paid half-a-
cruwn per hundred acres, and was subjected to a month’s
notice to quit if required by Government.
In 1831, the first proper squatting regulations, as we
should term them, were issued. By these, blocks, one
square mile each, were put up to auction at an upset of
a pound, on annual leases only. Should such land be
afterwards sold, one month’s notice was all accorded to
the lessee.
The effect was that the law was unblushingly evaded.
The unauthorised squatters grew bolder with success.
As Dr. Braim observed, ‘ If Government found it difii-
cult to prevent unauthorised occupation within, the case
was a hundrerlfold worse beyond the boundaries, where
no civil or military force existed, but where every man
did that which was right in his own eyes.’
Crown Lands Commissioners were appointed about
fifty years ago to withstand the encroachments of these
rovers of the wastes.
Governor Bourke was the foremost to regret any


PASTORAL 63
enforcement of the law upon outsiders. He acknow-
ledged the necessity of expansion, from the enormous
development of the pastoral occupation. He told the
Home Ministry that something must be done to meet
the circumstances of the case, or, said he, ‘ the colonists
must otherwise restrain the increase, or endeavour to
raise artificial food for their stock.’
He added, ‘ Whilst nature presents all around an un-
limited supply of the most wholesome nutriment, either
course would seem a perverse rejection of the hounty of
Providence.’ In concluding this despatch, in 1835, he asks,
‘ How may this Government turn to the best advantage
a state of things it cannot wholly interdict P '
The rush to the pastures of Port Phillip that very year
brought matters to a crisis. The Sydney authorities
acted according to law in issuing a proclamation forbid-
ding the trespass,and warnin g peopleolf the sweet grasses
of the wild southern land. It was as efiieacious as the
subsequent warning given against the tearing up of
Crown lands in the search for gold.
Sir George Gipps, in 1840, saw the diificulty, and
wrote, ‘As well might it be attempted to confine the
Arabs of the Desert within a circle traced upon their
sands, as to confine the graziers or wool growers of New
South Wales within any bounds that can possibly be
assigned to them.’
Some relief came in 1836, when licenses were issued
by the Commissioners, and upon terms which drew most
stockholders to pay a moderate sum, and so secure pro-
tection.
Collisions with the natives beyond the boundaries of
the settled district called for the organisation of a police
force. To cover this extra outlay, Government com-
pelled the licensee to pay an annual assessment of one
halfpenny for a sheep, three times as much for a beast,
and six times for a horse. But there was still no certainty
of tenure for a pastoral tenant.
Successive enactments, described under the head of
‘ Land Laws,’ led to more liberal treatment of flock-
masters, and the consequent increase of the flocks and
herds of the Colony.
In New South Wales, however, as in Victoria, the
inroad of immigrants, and general advance of things,
III Sflllll
VMLES.
Govemor
Bourke fol‘
more
liberal
leases.
Licenses
in 1836.
Annual
assessment
of stock.
No certain
tenure.
Secure
leases
granted.
The farmer
versus the
squatter.


64 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
HEW SOUTH
WALES.

Good tim
still for
squam.-rs.
Improved
breeding.
Fnxon
sheep. .
Pastoral
leases
1 50,000,000
sores.
compelled another alteration in the laws. The squatter,
who had for many years been the petted one of the State,
saw with dismay the progress of agricultural settle-
ments, and the demand for farms upon the pastures of
the wastes.
Although, in a. certain sense, the best times of the
squatter appear to have come to an end with the march
of the ‘ Land Selectors ’ on his run, no reasonable person
doubts that very good times remain, and will long con-
tinue, for the pastoral tenant.
Improved breeding has occupied attention lately, de-
terioration having been especially noticed in the cattle
and horses. The disorder and derangement which
followed the gold discovery in 1851 had a prejudicial
eifect upon stations. Stock was not so well looked after
as before, and careful separation of flocks and wools was
less conspicuous.
Horses, especially, became not so valuable for quality,
and the export to India for cavalry, once so important
a trade, fell off rapidly. The revival of thoughtful
attention to breeding is now causing fresh enquiry to
be made after shipments.
Cattle, in like manner, have been studied to advan-
tage, and large sums given for improved breeds. Pru-
dence has also been exercised as to the ground on which
beasts have been found to thrive best, and where sheep
may not do so well. Shorthorns have the preference,
though there are many Herefords and Durhams.
About 1840 a mania arose for Leicesters and other
coarse-woolled sheep, which most seriously affected the
wool returns of the Colony, and forced an abandonment
of the plan. The introduction of Saxon sheep has been
a fortunate one for New South Wales, where the animal
is found to do exceedingly well, and yield a wool that
produces a. good price in the London market.
The land now leased for pastoral purposes there amounts
to nearly one hundred and fifty millions of acres. The
increase of sheep during 1873 was very large. The
Wagga Wagga District increased in the year from
761,692 to 1,031,293; and Dubbo District added one-
filth to its flocks. Sheep, in 1885, were 30,000,000.
Sheep-farming, notwithstanding some vicissitudes,
has been a profitable pursuit. A succession of dry


PASTORAL. 65
seasons will occasion a fearful loss to the squatter, while
floods are destructive to flocks on the lowlands. The
animal is less subject to disease in the Colony than in
England, though catarrh has at intervals appeared as
an epidemic. Foot rot and scab are the chief troubles.
The Scab Act is vigorously enforced. Boundary
riders are employed by Government near the Murray
river to guard against the migration of diseased sheep
from Victoria. A quarantine is established at the sea-
ports, where newly-arrived animals are dipped and
dressed before landing. The Colony has, along with its
neighbours, prohibited for two years the import of stock
from Europe, because of the prevalence of disease
among flocks and herds north of the equator.
1n the 1884 returns of the Colony, ofthe 173,986,303
lbs. of wool, 53,594,068 lbs. were overland, and
120,392,235" lbs. seaward; the value was 8,953,100l.
The tallow export of 1884 was 132,041 cwt., valued at
96,0761. The export of hides and leather realised
197,707l. The wool of 1873 averaged 4 lbs. 11 oz.
greasy, and 3 lbs. 1 oz. washed.
In addition to this source of wealth, the exports over-
land in 1884 to the neighbouring colonies of Victoria
and South Australia were 3,309 horses, 38,745 cattle,
and 1,919,350 sheep.
Meat-preserving has become a great industry. When,
thirty years ago, in consequence of the low price of
wool, the squatters were suffering, one Mr. O'Brien,
of Yass, suggested the boiling down of animals for their
tallow. This process at once raised the price of sheep
from about half a crown to eight shillings a head. In
1871 there were 306,799 sheep boiled down for their
tallow in the Colony.
The first meat preserved in New South Wales con-
sisted of only 20 packages. This was in 1862. In the
year 1884 the export was 115,364 packages, of the value
0f191,196Z. Salted meat has been sent to the South
Sea Islands, the Mauritius, and some of the colonies, for
several _years past. Ramornie meat-preserving esta-
blishment was started in 1866.
The freezing process, very recently perfected, will be-
friend the squatter and the European poor.
The Auditor-General of New South Wales a short time
F ,
HEW SOUTH
VMLES.
Scab.
Pastoral
produce.
Overland
export.
Meat-
preserving.
First boil-
ing by Mr.
O“Brien.


66 mnnsoox TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmrmn.
III SIJUTII
VIILES.
The
Auditm- _
General of
N. S. W.
on the
Pastoral
returns.
Sheep and
wool sta-
tistics.
Squatters’
returns.
ago read a paper before the Royal Society in’ Sydney, in
which he made these remarks upon the pastoral in-
terest :—-
‘ The tables of the Registrar-General, which exhibit
the export of Wool——the produce of the Colony—furnish
the following information: They show us that in the
year 1862 our flocks produced 20,988,393 lbs. of wool,
of the estimated value of 1,801,l86l., which gives an
average of over 3 lbs. 6 oz. per sheep, and an estimated
value of nearly one shilling and nine pence per pound.
In 1866 the production had increased to 36,980,685 lbs.
of wool, with an estimated value of 2,830,348l., or a
little over one shilling and six pence per pound; thus
exhibiting an increase in the production to the extent of
76 per cent. Whilst in the last five years of the series,
that is, in the year 1871, the exports reached the highest
figures ever sent away, namely, 65,611,953 lbs. of wool,
and the estimated value of 4,74!8,160l., or a little over
one shilling and five pence per lb. Not far short of
five millions sterling, and equal to an increase of pro-
duction‘ of 212 per cent. in ten years, and nearly 80 per
cent. in the last five years. The clip of 1871 gave an
average yield of four pounds per sheep, that is, ten
ounces over the clip of 1862, owing, probably, in great
measure to the larger proportion of wool going home in
grease. We have no means of ascertaining the actual
return proceeds of the clip of last year (1872) ; indeed
it cannot yet have been all realised. I shall not be
accused of overstating the case, however, if I put down
the surplus return to the Colony, over and above the
value before stated, at a. million and a half sterling, thus
bringing up the value of the clip to six millions and a
quarter sterling.’
He proceeds further to describe pastoral profits from
other sources, and concludes thus :—-
‘ If we add this to the amount previously estimated,
we shall arrive at an aggregate sum exceeding eight
millions and a half sterling, as the total estimated value
of our pastoral exports for the year 1871 ; viz. :
Wool, seaward . . . . 4,74zf,l60
Tallow, &c. . . . . 468,606
W001, Live Stock, Tallow, &c., overland . 3,381,867
Grand Total . . 8,598,633


AGRICULTURE. 67
It has been shown that much of the settled district-
the twenty original counties—is devoted to pastoral
pursuits. But in the 98 counties outside of that portion
the so-called pastoral districts are situated. All the
laud for pasturage used in 1884 was 220,560 sq. m., at
330,076l. rent.
Though a small portion of freehold land is devoted to
depastnring animals, the far larger proportion is leased
by the Government. A statement of the conditions
under which a person may thus become a tenant of the
Crown will hereafter be seen under the head of Land
Laws.
Agriculture.
As the oldest colony, New South Wales might be
presumed to be the most advanced in agriculture. It
will be found, however, that more scientific farming
exists in Victoria, while South Australia and New
Zealand produce, relatively, a greater amount.
The early convict settlers were very poor farmers.
The soil was neglected, and the work badly performed.
Complaints were made of the intemperate habits of these
-primitive cultivators, and the consequent misery of their
huts. The yield was small, and the waste was deplorable.
Though the first farms were in small grants of land,
they were of suflicient acreage to support a family, had
proper care and diligence been exercised. Plots far less
in extent, and of even worse soil, have raised many
families to opulence elsewhere. Without doubt the im-
provement in colonial agriculture came with improved
morals, and the advent of free immigrants.
Within sixteen years of the settlement in 1788, a small
party of Scotch emigrants located themselves on the
Hawkesbury river, and set a good example in tillage and
behaviour to their neighbours. The publication of Mr.
Wentworth’s work on New South Wales in 1823, in-
duced a good number of British farmers to go out to the
better land.
Although, as elsewhere in the colonies, a great preju-
dice exists against what is called the home system of
cultivation, yet the old methods, even in the oldest colony,
are gradually giving way before the progress of judicious
and scientific processes. Agricultural societies, and ex-
IEII SOUTH
WALES.
Most
pastoral
land rented
fr
om
Go vern-
meat.
N. S. W.
not the
most
advanced.
Early
farmers.
Scotch
farmers.
Mr. Went-
worth’s
work on
the colony.
Improved
cultivation
I 2


68 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEW SOUTH
WALES.
852,017
acres in
crop.
N . S. W.
still im-
ports flour.
Variety of
soils.
Range of
products.
hibitions of produce, have done much to develop a better
state of things. Even now there is a fine prospect for
an immigrant if thoroughly acquainted with modern
ideas, and sufliciently provided with capital for working
a farm.
New South Wales has not perhaps the same propor-
tion of fertile land to be found in England, New Zea-
laud, or Victoria, owing to want of rain westward.
It may be said that three-fourths of the area, at least,
is only fit for pasturage, and that much of the remainder
will only yield a good return under effective manage-
ment. As it is, there were but 852,017 acres under
crop in 1885 out of 206,200,000, or about one acre to
every 240 acres.
The small population-—not yet reaching a million-
would require but limited fields to feed them. And yet
the Colony, even in 1884, had to import not less than
469,785 bushels of wheat, besides 49,518 tons of flour.
The geology of the country, near the seat of the ori-
ginal settlement, is unfavourable to farming. For many
miles north, south, and west of Sydney, the rock is
sandstone, wanting in rich phosphates, and retaining
little moisture. The banks of rivers, as the Hawkes-
bury, the Hunter, &c., have splendid soil, and return a
fine harvest. The presence of basaltic and other igneous
rocks is a safe indication of good ground. In the flats
of the Pacific streams, especially toward the mouth, the
farmer is well rewarded for his eflbrts.
Agriculture pays better since the country has been
.0pened up by railways, and so many ports have been
visited by steamers. Improved implements, the increase
of machines, the employment of guano and of artificial
manures, together with a larger investment of capital
under thoughtful management, all tend to make New
South Wales a more promising field of agricultural en-
terprise.
The climate is such that the products of both tem-
perate and tropical regions may be raised there. On the
lowlands by the coast, sugar and rice can be grown;
while, in the highlands, cereals and English fruits are
easily procured.
The British style of farming can be successfully carried
on upon the plateaux north, south, and west of Sydney.
There, with a cooler temperature and an abundance of


-- I AGRICULTURE. 69
good soil, a healthy and prosperous homestead may be
established.
The Colony has suifered in reputation as to its agri-
cultural capabilities in consequence of the earlier settle-
ments having been placed upon the poorer lands. The
old grants, and the sales, until very recently, were con-
fined to the sandstone region of the settled district. All
the rest of the province was closed against the farmer
by the squatter.
Now, however, that the liberal policy has been in-
augurated, men may obtain farms on the rich lands at a
distance, and especially among the hills. It follows that
New South Wales is declared able to grow almost every
vegetable product with ease and success. But it is not
enough to know how to obtain such a promising field of
culture. Means must be afforded to bring the produce
to market.
Fortunately for the grower, the gold mines have burst
forth in localities more desirable for cultivation, and
have brought the consumer and producer most happily
together. The digger has a cheaper table, and the
farmer is better paid for his toil.
The railway, after all, is the distributor of trade. The
Colonial Parliament, conscious of this advantage, has
vigorously aided the cultivator by a judicious railway
scheme, most perseveringly carried forward. When the
charming retreats in the Alps, the Blue Mountains, and
the Liverpool ranges are brought into connection with
the rest of the Colony by lines, new comers will not
complain of the want of remunerative farms and en-
joyable homes.
Within the twenty counties of the so-called ‘ Settled
District,’ not one-third is purchased land, the rest
being still held by the Crown, and leased out to the
pastoral tenants.
Of the remaining counties outside of that limit, but
one-twelfth is alienated. In the whole Colony, ten per
cent. of the land is sold and seventy-five per cent. is
leased to squatters; therefore nearly one-seventh of the
area is wholly unoccupied.
In 1871 there were 12,740 freeholders and 8,005
leaseholders in the settled district, and 6,496 of the first
and 1,933 of the last in the pastoral country. In the
Colony, 1885, were 43,079 holdings, of 35,035,503 acres.
NEH SOUTII
IRLES.
T1" .
diggmgs
brought a.
good
market.
Railways
help the
farmer.
Only 10 per
cent. of the
land sold.
Freeholders
and lease-
holders.


70 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IIEW SOUTH
MLES.
Progress of
Cultiva-
tion.
Crops and
acreage in
1871.
The improvement in the number of the latter was owing
to recent land laws placing selectors and farmers in the
midst of squatters.
The most productive districts were Shoalhaven, with
48,950 acres under crop; Hume, with 40,340 ; and
Kiama, with 36,630 in 1885.
The growth of agriculture may be observed in the
following table of acres under cultivation :——
1825 . . 45,514 1854 . 131,857
1833 . . 60,520 1866 . 260,798
184-0 . . 126,116 1865 . . 378,254
1850 . . 198,056 1885 . 852,016
The great falling-ofi' after 1851 arose from the rush of
men from fields to diggings. Seasons, also, affect the
cropping; as 1871 had fewer tilled acres than 1870.
For a long time the cultivation was almost confined to
maize, wheat, and a small amount of potatoes. Garden
produce and fruit were raised near towns, and tobacco
was grown by the settlers for sheep dressing. _
The acreage under crop in 1871 is thus classified.

,,
' Pastoral
I§i:s'i.t1ii1:(ts Districts Tot“
Wheat . . . . . 99,633 54,366 154,030
Maize . . - . 79,319 40,136 119,056
Barley . . . . 2,485 976 3,461
Oats . . . . . 8,773 5,021 13,794
Rye . . . . 1,196 I 146 1,342
Green Fodder : maize . . 907 365 1,174
,, sorghum . . 290 117 417
,, barley - . 1,022 200 1,222
,, oats . . 685 216 901
,, rye . 161 112 273
,, millet . . 29 11 1 40
,. grass . . - 24,388 3,384 27,772
Ha.y:grass . . . . i 10,117 1,369 11,486
,, wheat . . . .' 6,790 2,012 8,802
,, barley . . . . I 468 241 709
,, oats . . . . 24,282 6,525 80,807
Potatoes . . . . 11,453 3,316 14,769
Vineyards . - - . 2,627 1,525 4,152
Tobacco . . . . . 5-13 24 567
Sorghum grain . . . 20 12 32
,, green food . . 300 117 417
Sugar cane productive . . 722 1,272 1,994
,, unproductive , 1,067 1,332 2,399 ‘


AGRICUL'l‘URE. 71
While demand provoked supply, the increase of
growers and an advanced range of product called forth
tresh customers. New South Wales is no longer willing
to depend upon Tasmania for potatoes and South Aus-
tralia for wheat. Luxuries have developed the cultivation
of things previously neglected. There can be no doubt,
therefore, that with the stretch of acreage there will be
the expansion of articles of growth, and a larger per-
centage of production on the area.
The most wheat was grown in Bathurst county and in
the Murrumbidgee district; maize, in Macquarie county
and Clarence district; hay from grass, in Durham county
and Monaro district; hay from wheat, in Roxburgh
county and Murrumbidgee district; hay from oats, in
Cumberland county and Murrumbidgee district ; tobacco,
in Durham; potatoes, in Camden and St. Vincent
counties and New England and Monaro districts ;
sorghum, in Cumberland and Monaro ; arrowroot, in
Northumberland; vines, in Northumberland and Cum-
berland counties and the Murrumbidgee district; sugar-
cane, in Macquarie county and the Clarence and Macleay
district. These remarks a l to the cro of 1871



PP Y P ~
The yield for the year ending March 1885 was :—-
Produce Acres
Wheat, bushels . 4,203,394 276.249
Maize ,, . 2.989.585 115,600
Barley ,, . 143,869 7,035
om ,, . 425,920 19,472
Rye ,, , 16,739 1,110
Millet ,, . 1,843 118
Potatoes, tons . . 31-334 12,417
Tobacco, lbs. . . 1,110,353 1,046
Sorghum, tons . . 9 41
Sugar cane, cwts. . 2,106,457 6,997
Arrowroot, lbs. . 1,027 12
Wine, galls. . . 441,612 2,404
Brandy, ,, . . 1,432 — '




IEI SMITH
Ill.E$.
iii-
Localities
of greatest
produce.
Amount of
yield, 18:55.
Maize is undoubtedly the reliable crop of the Colony. Maile-
The dry climate is favourable to it. It is strange that,
while it has become in America so common an article
of food for man, it should be used only for horses, cows,


72 1-numnoox T0 AUSTRALIA sun new ZEALAND.
XEW SUIITII
UNLES-
Wheat.
Diseases in
wheat.
120 bushels
maize and
60 wheat
to acre.
English
grass.
Grass cloth.
Tobacco.
and pigs in Australia. Better varieties might be pro-
cured for the table.
Wheat, as has been mentioned, can be grown well in
the highlands of New South Wales, beyond the area of
the light -sand soils, but where strong clays and rich
volcanic ground are to be had. The red sorts are
generally lighter bearing than the Golden Drop, White
Prolific, White Velvet, Winslow, &c. The rust is a
plague there as well as in Europe, though best with-
stood by the bearded wheat. The red rust seems to
be dependent upon certain atmospheric conditions. It
does not come from the root, but attacks stem and leaf
first. The black rust may be greatly avoided by pick-
ling and good working. Colonial authorities are of
opinion that the red rust is not caused by exhaustion
of the soil, as was once believed; nor is it propagated,
like smut, from diseased seed.
That terrible foe to wheat, known as the take-all in
South Australia, has spread beyond the Adelaide plains.
It is not dependent on either soil or weather, and
attacks the native grasses not less than the European
cereals.
It appears first in patches, radiating from a centre.
All sorts of causes are assigned for it; as, too much
salt, the want of drainage or manure, insects, &c.
Sulphur and wood ashes are useful upon the appearance
of this enemy to the farmer.
Maize is a more productive crop than wheat. It is
commonly used to prepare new ground "for other
vegetable‘ products. As much as 120 bushels to the
acre have been gathered as a first crop on the, rich flats
of the Clarence. Sixty bushels of wheat have been
known in favourite uplands. i
English grasses, though not wholly neglected, cannot
be expected to thrive as in the moist climate of New
Zealand.- But some things quite suitable ‘to the Colony
are only commencing to be grown. Flax does ad-
mirably there. The caper plant would pay for cultiva-
tion ; especially where the children of the farmer could
gather the fruit. The grass-cloth plant (Boshmeria
nivea) has been raised with great advantage.
Tobacco, though so long attended to for sheep-wash,
is beginning to be cultivated for manufacturing pur-


AGRICULTURE. 73
poses. The plant, so easily injured by wet and frost,
seems peculiarly adapted to the climate of New South
Wales.
Until lately, scientific farming was scarcely known
in the Colony. Tobacco requires some care to produce
the best qualities. The account of average of it during
1871 will show, probably, the favoured localities. Dur.
ham had 375 acres; Gloucester, 122; Macquarie, 33;
Northumberland, 13. In the pastoral districts there
were but 12 acres devoted to tobacco in the Murrum.
bidgee; 9 in the Clarence; and 1 in the Monaro.
But while the cultivator does his part better than of
old, the manufacturer has not equally progressed with
his work.
The complaint urged against the article was that it
had a strong and even unpleasant flavour. This was
mainly to be attributed to want of care on behalf of the
manufacturer. There has been of late so decided an
improvement that colonial-made tobacco has sold well,
and been much admired, though only by the employ-
ment of the brand Hava/rmah for the home produce.
Arrowroot has been mainly grown in Northumber-
land. It is just such an article as could be easily raised
by the small farmer; whose family in that warm
climate would have thus a pleasant and nutritive food.
The potatoe region of New South Wales is indicated
by the acre return. Argyle had 1,279, and Orange
1,267; while New England district boasted of 506, and
Monaro of 510, in 1885.
Barley is cultivated most in Upper Hunter, and a
little is gathered on the highlands of the Murrumbidgee.
It is generally an uncertain crop in Australia, and does
best in New Zealand. Oats were grown in Carcoar to
the extent of 2,277 acres in 1885, though the Colony is
largely indebted to its cooler neighbours for this useful
grain.
The grape does admirably in New South Wales. In
some of the north-eastern portions, and still more so in
the southern Murray river country, on the western
slopes of the mountain ranges, the wine is esteemed
delicious in flavour, and equal to that of many of the
valued European brands. In vineyards, in 1871, Nor-
thumberland had 7 74 acres; Durham, 399; Cumberland,
IEI SOUTH
IILES.
Tobacco
not well
made.
Arrowroot.
Potatoes.
Barley an
uncertain
crop.
Oats.
Grapes.


74 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW SOUTH
IILES.
ii
Wine;
Beer versus
wine.
Oranges
and other
fruits.
Sugar,
654; and Gloucester, 134. The Murrumbidgee district
had no less than 1,114 acres; the Lachlan, 108; and
the Clarence, 66. In 1884 the Hunter had 766 acres.
As to the paying character of vigneron work, a com-
petent authority states that 400 gallons an acre may be
calculated upon. This, at the low price of two shillings
a gallon, would produce 4,0001. on a vineyard of 100
acres. While 144,888 gallons were made in 1863,
413,321 gallons were produced in 1872, and 451,450 in
1873. In 1877, 708,432 were made.
The displacement of rum by wine would be a gain to
health and morals. Beer can only be made during three
months of the year, and the barley does not thrive in
the climate; so that it is probable New South Wales
will ultimately become a wine-consuming community.
Oranges are very plentiful, and are largely exported
to the neighbouring colonies. The orangeries of Par-
ramatta, Young, and Tumut yield a handsome return to
the grower, even when 2,000 feet above the sea. The
first chaplain of the Colony, the Rev. Mr. Johnson,
established this useful industry at Rose Hill. Bananas,
loquats, pineapples, and ground-nuts are also raised for
exportation. The uplands produce all the English fruits
in profusion. Oraugeries, 1885, had 6,911 acres.
Sugar is the coming industry of New South Wales,
though not likelyto be so important a one as in Queens-
land and the Northern Territory, whose warmer and
moister climate is so much more favourable to the cul-
ture of the cane, realising, too, a larger yield to the
acre. The frost, from the vicinity of hills, is the chief
foe to this colony's cane.
In 1863, only two acres of New South Wales were
devoted to sugar, and the produce was 280 lbs. Four
years after, the amount was 116 acres. In 1878, the
productive acres were 2,949; the unproductive, 4,489.
There were 9,748 tons of sugar from the mills in 1885.
As the yield is less than in Queensland, it will be some
time yet before the Sydney table is supplied from home
manufacture.
The profit is undoubted, if Mr. Angus Mackay's cal-
culations be correct, as he put down £12 10s. for the
expenses per ton, or not above one-third of the return.
The growth can be managed by a man of very small


msmc. 75
capital, though the manufacture requires a considerable
Outlay for machinery.
The principal localities for the cane are the rich flats
toward the mouth of the Tweed, Richmond, Clarence,
Bellinger, N ambucca, Macleay, Hastings, Manning, and
McLean rivers, lying between 28$ and 32}°. Sorghum
and imphee, however, can be grown inland, and on
higher ground, while the produce of sugar therefrom is
pronounced of remunerative character, though the plant
is grown chiefly as green fodder at present.
In 1871 there were in Cumberland 117 acres of sor-
ghum; in Camden, 95 ; in the Monaro district, 47 ; and
in the Murrumbidgee, 22. But while there were 407
acres of sugar land in Grafton, and none in Macquarie
county, there were 38 in McLeay, and 7,341 in the
Clarence district, but 17,517 in Richmond, 1885.
Silk is likely to become an export soon. The climate
is suitable for the worm, and the varieties of mulberry
thrive exceedingly well. The picking of the leaves, and
attention to the insects, need take little time, and in-
volve no heavy labour. The grain, or eggs, are of a
healthy character, giving promise of a more successful
treatment than in France and Italy.
Sericulture in New South Wales has another advan-
tage over that of Europe, in the cheapness of colonial
land as compared with the soil of Lombardy, &c. The
labour of women and children can be utilised in this
pursuit, without that sacrifice of home attending factory
work. The Japanese worms yield white, yellow and
green cocoons.
Mining.
The mountainous part of New South Wales is one of
the richest mineral regions in the world. Gold, silver,
tin, copper, lead, iron, and coal abound there.
The gold takes precedence of all: yet coal and iron
will, in the future, make the colony, perhaps, the leading
one in manufactures. Though the bright metal was
found at the Fish river in 1823, in the Alps by Count
Strzelecki in 1840, near the Macquarie by the Rev. W. B.
Clarke in 184:1, at Berrima by Mr. Smith in 1849, and
in other places at various times, yet the first gold field
was announced in 1851.
IEI SOUTH
MLES.
Sugar
districts.
Sorghum
andimphee.
Silk.
Sericnlture
prospects.
Gold in
1829, &c.


76 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND-
NEII S0l1T|'|
IMLES.
Hargraves
finds the
first gold
field in
1851.
Licenses for
Miners.
Progress of
Mr. Edward Hammond Hargraves returned that year
from the Californian diggings, and publicly proclaimed
the existence of alluvial gold at Summerhill Creek, to-
ward Bathurst, in April, 1851. The government geolo-
gist, Mr. Stutchbury, reported upon the gold of Ophir
in May. On the 22nd of May the governor forbade
any unauthorized digging for the precious metal, though
subsequently Selling licenses for the work.
The Rev. W. B. Clarke, who had written a geological
article for the Sydney paper in 1847, in which he said
that auriferous sands would be found in the streams
flowing from the Blue Mountains, gave every encourage-
ment to the prospecting miner of 1851. This Christian
philosopher then declared: ‘ The Colony must prepare
herself for an important growth in her influences on the
destinies of the world.’
The wild excitement following the discovery, and the
rapid development of other mining centres of attraction,
are well known facts. Gold fields burst forth almost
simultaneously at many different points along the
mountain chains of New South Wales and Victoria.
Diggers paid thirty shillings a month for their li-
cense. The first proclamation gave them leave to pay
this in cash or gold ; if the latter, it must be at the rate
of forty-eight shillings per ounce when obtained by
amalgamation, or sixty-four if procured by simple wash-
ing. The first commissioner, Mr. Hardy, gave twenty
feet frontage to a river when the party consisted of from
three to six persons. ,
Mr. Hargraves received a handsome sum from the
governments of Sydney and Melbourne. His credit lay
in the publicity of his announcement, and the accident
of a "Californian gold fever. When Mr. Clarke was
asked why he had kept his discovery so long quiet, he
replied, ‘Iv considered that to say much about it would
be very much like offering a reward for escaped robbers
and murderers.’ Although, however, considerable so-
cial disturbance occurred for a time, it may be seriously
questioned whether, on the whole, the gold fields have
not been the means of advancing the moral and reli-
gious progress of the Colony as much as its material
welfare.
The process of digging was very rude at the begin-


mzmze. . 77
ning. The Californian ‘ Tom ’ came to the help of the
spade and cradle. The puddling machine followed, al-
though the hydraulic pressure is the most eflicient of
washers. In the same way, the simple burning and
cracking of quartz stones has given place to the
stampers driven by steam, with other efiicient contri-
vances of modern science.
In 1878 the Colony boasted of 35 puddling machines,
4 hydraulic hoses, and 90 crushing machines. Of late
years, the ield of gold in New South Wales had been
gradually declining. Up to the end of 1884 the Sydney
Mint had coined 26,04-4,614l. The eighty gold-fields
extend over an area of 14,000 square miles, and were in
1884 worked by 6,750 miners (1,002 Chinese).
The yield has suffered a considerable decline since
1862, owing, perhaps, less to a falling ofl' of mines than
to the attraction of other leads in Victoria, Queensland,
and New Zealand. The value of the escort receipt in
1862 was 2,212,534l. The year after it was 1,629,047l.
It gradually decreased till 1870, when it was only
763,655l. But the next year it rose to 1,143,78ll., and
the yield has since been even higher. The highest yield
was in 1852, being 962,873 oz., or double that of 1868.
For 1872 it was 396,000 oz. ; 18841 but 107,198 oz.
The total yield to end of 1884 was 35,72 4,1791.
The export of gold has rated above the escort returns,
as the largest proportion of Queensland produce reached
the port of Sydney. Thus the export for the year 1863
amounted to 2,361,949l. ; and for 1870 as much as
1,585,736l. These amounts include the gold yield of
the Colony, together with that received from other places
to be converted into bars and coin at the mint. In 1878
the export of gold coin in 400 boxes was valued at
1,653,911l. Of that, two-thirds went to England, one-
ninth to Victoria, one-eighth to Hong Kong, and one-
thirtieth to New Zealand.
The quartz mining has become of increased import-
ance. In July, 1852, a native found at Louisa Creek
some quartz specimens, producing 106 lbs. of gold. In
1884 there were 3,084 acres taken up for quartz mining.
Some remarkable yields have been recorded. One
Field, ashepherd, discovered a rich reef, which has yielded
in five years 723,&t2l. A quartz claim gave a hundred-
IEI SUUTII
WALES.
Mining
machinery.
80 gold-
fields.
G91‘?
mining
improving.
Total
export
35,72-4,1791.
Gold com.
Quartz
mining.


78 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW SOUTH
WALES.
Gold
localities
described.
Extent of
digp,-er’s
claim.
Leases of
auriferous
laud.
Leases and
rentals.
weight of gold from twice the weight of stone. In
January of 1873 it was reported that 6% cwt. contained
2 cwt. of gold. The yield in 1883 averaged 3 dwts. 17 grs.
per ton of wash-dirt, and 14: dwts. 16 grs. of quartz.
The New South Wales gold-fields were divided into
8 gold districts--Bathurst, Turon, Mudgee, Lachlan,
Southern, Tumut, Peel, and New England.
The chief localities of the western mines are Sofala,
Bathurst, Tambaroora, Mudgee, Gulgong, Greenfell,
Carcoar, Trunkey, Orange, Turon, Lachlan, and Wel-
lington. Cargo and Barrington are very rich.
Those of the southern are Goulburn, Braidwood, Ade-
long, Tumut, Wagga-Wagga, Araluen, Burrangong,
Tumburumba, Kiandra, and Gundagai.
In the northern are Rocky River, Armidale, Tamworth,
Glen Morrison, Gulph, and Nundle. In 1878, the West
gave nearly half the gold returns.
The fields of Timborra, Ironbark, Peel, and Boorook
are in the north; Kiandra, Delegete, Shoalhaven, Jug-
iong, Emu Creek, and J embaicumbene are in the south ;
Lachlan, Turon, Ophir, Meroo, Cudgegong, Tuena,
Mitchell’s, and Apple-tree Flat are in the west. Deep-
leads have been lately found near the Billabong and
Lachlan, and reefs at Backcreek and Yalwall.
The gold regulations of the Colony require that a miner
pay 10.9. for a license from January 1st to December 31st,
while a business license costs twice as much.
The ground allowed is 30 feet frontage to a river ; or
for other alluvial working, 60 feet by 66 each man of a
party of four. An ordinary quartz claim is 50 feet
along the reef, and 100 yards in width each side.
Leases are granted for 15 years on abandoned alluvial
gravel of from one acre to 25 acres, at 1l, an acre; or
from 200 or 1,000 yards of a river bed at 1Z. per 100
yards. Sluicing claims are 10 acres each.
In the leases of quartz reefs, for less than 15 acres, the
allowed width is 100 yards, and the length from 96 to 323
yards. For 15 and 20 acres the width is 150 yards, and
the length 4841 and 64-5 yards. For 20 to 50 acres the
grant is between 600 and 1,260 yards in length, and
200 yards breadth. The smallest claim must have 4
men, and the largest, of 50 acres, 100 men. The annual
rent runs from 41. for 2 acres to 1001. for 50 acres. The


nmnzo. 7 9
escort fee is 8d. per ounce. The Act (1885) limits the
lease on a quartz lode to 600 yards by 200.
Copper promises favourably. The area of copper
country is 7,000 sq. miles, and total exports 4,531,665].
The produce for 1884 has been valued at 416,179l.
Bathurst and Monaro are the chief localities of its pro-
duction. The Cobar mine, Darling District, was the best
paying one, though Mullom, Hall and Peelwood do ell.
At Quedong, of the Alps, the metal is found at the
junction of the slate and fossiliferous limestone. Good
ore was got from Lockyersleigh, near Goulburn, from
Pudmin Creek of the Lachlan, from the Macquarie,
the Louisa, and the McLoughlin, Mount Canobolas, Cur-
rawong, and the junction of the Queanbeyan and Mur-
rumbidgee. A specimen brought from Bathurst contained
eighteen ores and other minerals mixed together.
New South Wales is not, perhaps, so rich in copper as
South Australia and Queensland, though much superior
to Victoria. The copper of Orange District extends
over twenty miles square, and Monaro wealth cannot
be ascertained from the inaccessibility of the country.
Currawong mine, by Lake George, is now let on tribute.
A mass of 1l0lbs. was got at Molong. At Mount Hall,
near Hay, 40 tons of ore ran from 45 to 70 per cent.
I Silver lead is obtained at Wolgarlo, on the Yass river,
at Moruya, at Boorook, at Scone, but mostly in the
Barrier Ranges near South Australia. Antimony raised
in 1884 realised 6,4-58l.; silver, 1884, 19,780l.
_ Iron, though often of high percentage, and found near
both coal and limestone, is worked with difliculty, owing
to rate of wages and cost of carriage. The railway to
the Fitzroy mine of Nattai river will make it more avail-
able. The raised iron in 1884 was valued at 24,5711.
The Lithgow Valley works are west of Sydney, in the
Blue Mountains.
This useful metal abounds near Combing, Warran-
bungle, Port Macquarie, Monaro, Berrima, Modbury,
Shoalhaven, Murray County, Araluen, Wallerawang, &c.
Tin, during the past and present years, has been pro-
duced in New England, near the Queensland border. Of
that rich tin ground New South Wales possesses two-
thirds of the area. Tenterfield and Inverell are the
centres of this wonderful region; though the metal has
been found near Albury, in the Tumut river, &c.
IEI SOUTH
IILES.
Copper-
mines.
Silver lead
Iron very
promising.
Tin very
rich.


80 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW Slllllll
MLES.
Mineral
wealth.
Coal mines.
Extent of
coal-field.
Coal at
Newcastle.
In 1877 there was taken up in tin leases about 43,615
acres. The ore fetched in Sydney from 60l. to 80l. per
ton; though some sold in November, 1872, as high as
1381., and the export to 1885 was 6,519,177l. Yet
Mr. Surveyor Wilkinson wrote, on December 6th, 1872,
that ‘ in Mr. Holme’s claim, eleven cwts. of stream
tin in one day have been obtained by twelve men.’
One mine got fifty tons in six months at Cope’s Creek.
A mass of tin crystals, weighing 20 lbs., was brought out
of a layer of white cement. Tributaries of the Upper
Murray show 70 per cent. of pure tin. Diamonds of
great beauty are now being discovered in tin streams.
The tin area is put at five million acres.
The enthusiastic Mr. Clarke exclaims, ‘ I am impressed
with the opinion that for centuries to come the industry
now commenced will continue to occupy a prominent
position among the producers of colonial wealth, just as
the mines of Tenasserim, Merghui, and Malacca have
not decreased in value since the commencement of their
working.’ Diamonds and other precious stones are
found at Oberon, Bingera, and in several of the tin bear-
ing streams of the colony. Tin raised, 1884, 521,587l.
But coal is, after all, the most valuable of the natural
wealth of New South Wales.
As previously mentioned, under the head of Geology,
the area of working fields is large, and the mineral
may hereafter be found to run under the great plains to
the eastward.
Mr. Keene, the coal inspector, wrote thus of the
extent of the formation :—‘ I have examined seams more
than 700 miles to the north of Newcastle, belonging to
the same deposits as we are now working in the Hunter,
covered or overlaid by the same fossils, fauna and flora;
and we may, without boasting, claim to rank with the
most extensive coal- fields in the world.’
Mr. Mackenzie, the active coal-fields examiner, esti-
mates the area at about ten million of acres, and speaks of
onese/rm alone, if extending over that area, supplying Great
Britain's demands, at the existing rate, for 750 years.
The Newcastle coal produces better gas but poorer coke
than English coal.
Towards the end of thelast century the coal was observed
to crop out by the sea, on the site of the present New-


mums. 81
castle. A convict establishment was early formed at the
Coal River. A small export to Cape Colony in 1801
realised 61. a ton. The first sale at Newcastle was of
forty-four tons to an American vessel, for nails and old
iron. Up to 1817 the cliff only was worked, and that by
a perpendicular shaft. In 1820 twenty tons a day were
raised by twenty-seven men. The Government sold the
surplus stock, levying a duty of 2s. a ton for home con-
sumption, and 5s. when for exportation.
When the fortunate Australian Agricultural Company
of British Shareholders got their enormous grant, it was
ascertained to contain the largest extent of the coal-field.
The monopoly of the Newcastle-coal fields was then
transferred tothe Company, though now thrown open to
the public. At the beginning of 1873 the land taken up in
coal leases from Government reached to 34,720 acres.
1n the last twenty years the export has increased above
two thousand per cent. The coal raised in 1884 was
valued at 1,303,0771., and export 931,04-51.
Though the neighbourhood of Newcastle, at the mouth
of the Hunter, is the principal source of this mineral,
profitable workings exist at Berrima-, Maitland, Hartley,
atrick’s Plains, Clarence river, Lithgow in the vale of
Clwydd, and Wollongong of Illawarra.
From Wollongong, forty miles south of Sydney, over
395,741 tons were produced during 1884, while the
Newcastle yielded 1,970,048. The total amount raised
that year in the Colony was 2,749,108 tons, valued at
1,303,0771. In 1884, 1,690,763 tons were exported to the
other colonies, to China, India, Valparaiso, Siam, Cali-
fornia, &c. The price from 1862 to 1866 averaged 10s.,
and, subsequently, 7s. Coal is now found at Heathcote,
28 miles south-west from Sydney. In 1884 there were
48 mines of coal and 2 of shale at full work.
Kerosene, at Petrolia Vale, Hartley, to the westward,
is an important manufacture. The shale yields seventy-
five gallons to the ton; 50 tons a day are distilled. In
1872 the Shale Oil Company produced 8,000 tons, valued
at 24,0001. Wollongong also furnishes a large quantity
of the oil. In 1884, total shale produce, 72,1761.
Coal leases must not extend beyond 640 acres, nor for
more than twenty years. Though the annual rent is
but 5s. an acre, the lessee has to expend 51. an acre upon
G
IEI SOUTH
IILES.
Coal leases.
Other coal-
fields.
Coal raised
and
exported.
Kerosene
Rent and
ai-on of coal
leases.


82 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW SIIIITII
VIILES.
0t her
mineral
leases.
Coal area.
Timon.
Shipping.
Free Trade.
Imports.
Trade with
countries.
the land during the first three years. Upon the renewal
of the lease the rent is to be determined by appraisement,
though never less than 50s. an acre. The limit of area
in leases of other minerals than coal (gold excepted
also) is eighty acres. In 1885, 46,-598 acres were leased.
' The coal area of the Colony, though ofiicially rated at
10,000,000 acres, may prove to be several times greater.
The Government has an Examiner of Coal Mines, and
an Inspector of Collieries.
Trade and Manufactures.
' In 1823 the first regular line of scbooners began to run
between Sydney and Hobart Town. Throughout 1884
there entered into the ports of New South Wales 2,935
vessels, having a tonnage of 2,284,517 tons; the outward
was 2,376,441. That Colony owned nearly two-thirds
of the shipping of Australia. Sydney owners have many
colonial steamers. Until very recently, the carrying
trade of Queensland and New Zealand was in the hands
of New South Wales. There is a growing trade between
Sydney and the South Sea Islands, as well as with
Honolulu and California. To make Sydney the em-
porium of southern trade, the colony has now adopted
a free trade policy, in opposition to the practice of its
neighbours. The geographical position of this safe and
commodious port is much in its favour.
The export and import trade is a large one. In 1831,
this came to 15l. 18s. 411. per head ; in 1841, to 251.46. 2d.;
in 1851, to 171. Os. 10d. ; in 1861, to 331. 9s.10l. ; and in
1871, to 40l. 3.9. 4d. In 1878 the two were 401. 18s. 2d.
The imports for 1884 were 22,826,985l., and the ex-
ports 18,251,506l. The following table shows the trade
of the Colony with some other States :— .

Country 1 Imports from | Exports to
£ £
Great Britain . . . 11,423,047 7,683,880
Victoria . . ' . 1,331 908 3,118.389
Queensland . . - . 159,749 99,156
New Zealand . . . 881,530 506,714
South Australia . . 360,965 1,287,441
Other colonies . . 1,587.509 971,108
' . 2,218,662 1,35-5,640
Foreign States .


rmnu AND usnuncruans. 83
In 1876 the imports from British colonies were
6,957,463l. ; and from Great Britain 5,763,533l. From
Victoria they were 2,386,777l.; South Australia,
1,l65,706l.; Queensland, 1,98:r,589l. Of the exports,
6,637,018l. went to the British colonies, and 5,918,187l.
to Great Britain; to Victoria, 4,043,666l.; to South
Australia, 670,138l. ; to Queensland, 1,121,820l.
Among the imports for 1884 were: Apparel, 838,591l.;
beer, 322,965l.; candles, 169,865l.; coffee, 34,624l.;
music, 179,294l.; cutlery, 53,5091. ; drugs, 277,570l.;
earthenware, 163,526l.; flour, 5l9,652l.; furniture,
220,810l.; grain of all kinds, 4A=9,7l2l.; stationery,
391,813l.; hardware, 716,892l.; green vegetables,
64,055l.; matches, 37,83ll.; hops, 50,735l.; iron,
957,232l. ; jewellery, 178,623l.; boots and shoes,
581,820l.; drapery, 3,217,159l.; machinery, 579,2l0l.;
sewing machines, 64,2-591.; watches, 129,0l9l. ; oilmen’s
stores, not oil, 25,559l.; opium for the Chinese, 54,963l.;
potatoes, 241,422l.; saddlery, 76,123Z.; rice, 126,158l.;
spirits, 606,188l.; books, 218,640l.; sugar, 887,401l.;
tea, 543,554l. ; tobacco, 167,795l. ; toys, &c. 195,035l.;
fruits, 281,681l.; wines, 125,24:9l.; tin ore and ingots,
517,131l.
Much of the import of the Colony is exported in the
way of colonial trade. The wool from Queensland
amounted to 433,650l., and was forwarded to London
via Sydney. In a similar manner an import of copper
in the year 1877, from Queensland and South Australia,
came to 114,389l. The import of gold from other
colonies was 1,098,592l. The total imports for 1877
were 13,672,776l.
In the list of ordinary exports, produced in the Colony
in 1884, the following are the leading items: bark,
14,899l.; butter and cheese, 36,649l.; coal, 931,045l.;
copper, 601,885l.; gold, 934~,406l.; maize, 51,359l.;
leather, 130,771l.; fruits, 117,8-571.; meat, 217,007l.;
skins, 299,4lll.; sugar, 70,268l.; tallow, 204.-,262l.;
timber, 107,703l.; wool, 9,382,499l.; wine, 29,929l.;
tin, 768,276l.; spirits, 88,7841. As the flocks have so
increased, and the refrigerating process has proved a
success, the future meat export will become very large.
The overland trade with Victoria and South Aus-
tralia is considerable. In 1884 the overland imports
IEI SOUTH
IMLES.
Imports.
Seawm-<1
exports.
Overland
trade.
e 2


84 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND-
NEW SIJIJTII
WALES.
Imports
and
exports
per head.
amounted to 1,852,622l., and the exports to 4~,504,986l.
In 1871, the live stock alone realised 9l4,670l., and
wool, 2,4<L3,380l. Ten years before, the overland im-
ports were but 200,000l., and the exports 900,000l.
The import trade through 1878 averaged 211. 15s. 8d.
per head, or more than double that of Great Britain.
The export was 191. 2s. 6d., or nearly three times the
amount. The 1872 exports were 10,447,0/191.
The tarifl' which came into operation, Act 1874-, dis-
penses with ad valorem duties. The duty on spirits and
wines has been raised.
s. d.
Bags and sacks . . . per dozen 1 0
Beer, ale, porter, spruce, or other
beers, in wood or jar . . per gallon 0 6
Ditto ditto, in bottle . . ,, 0 9
Bottled fruits (quarts) . . per dozen 2 U
Ditto (pints and smaller pack-
ages) . . . . ,. 1 0
Candles . . . . per lb. 0 1
Cement . . . . per barrel 2 0
Cheese, dried fruits, pepper,
spices, bacon, and hams . per lb. 0 2
Cigars . . . . ,, 6 0
Cotfee, chicory, cocoa, and choco-
late . . . . ,, 0 3
Comfits, confectionery, succades . ,, 0 IQ
Cordage and rope . . per ton 40 0
Doors, sashes, and shutters . each I 0
Dried, preserved, and salt fish . per lb. O 1
Galvanised iron, in bars, bundles,
or sheets, or corrugated . per ton 40 0
Galvanised manufactures . per cwt. 3 0
Gunny bags . . . per doz. 0 6
Hops . . . . per lb. 0 3
Iron wire . . . per ton 20 0
Malt . . . . per bushel 0 6
Methylated spirits . . per gallon 2 0
Nails . . . . per ton 40 0
Oils of all kinds (except animal,
sperm, black, and cocoa-
nuts) . . . . per gallon 0 6
Opium, or preparation . . per lb. 20 0
Paints . . . . per ton 40 0
Paper, writing and fancy . per lb. 0 1
Ditto, brown and wrapping . per cwt. 3 4
Powder, blasting . , per lb. 0 1
Ditto, sporting . - . ,, 0 3
Rice . . . . per ton 60 0


TRADE AND MANUFACTURE 85
0. d.
Sago, ginger, jams, jellies, nuts,
preserves, biscuits, blue, mus-
tard, starch, and corn flour . per lb. 0 1
Salt and saltpetre . . per ton 20 0
Sarsnparilla, containing not more
than 25 er cent.of roof spirit liquid gallon 4 0
Sashes and shutters, doors . each l 0
Shot . . . . per cwt, 5 0
Rope . - . per ton 40 0
Snuff . . per lb. 3 0
Soda crystals . . per ton 20 0
Spirits, and exri") . . per gallon 12 0
Ditto, methylated . . ., 2 0
- Sugar, raw . . . per cwt. 6 0
Ditto, refined . . . ,, 6 8
Ditto, molasses and treacle . ,, 3 4
Tea . . . . per lb. 0 3
Timber, dressed, per 100 feet
superficial . . . 2 0
Ditto, rough and undressed, ditto l 0
Tobacco, manufactured . . per lb. 3 0
Ditto, nnmanufactured . . ,, I 0
Ditto, ditto, for sheepwash . ,, 0 3
Turpentine . . . per gallon 1 0
Varnish . . . . ,, 2 0
Vinegar . . . ,, 0 6
Wines, sparklinz . ,. 10 0
Ditto, other kinds . . ,, 5 0
Woolpacks . . . each 0 3
The Bank facilities for the expansion of trade have
furthered the progress of the Colony. On December 31,
1884, the assets of fourteen Sydney banks were
36,835,195l. The last declared dividends were at the
satisfactory rate of 8, 10, 123,, 15, and even, in one case,
25 per cent. The bank eposits in January, 1885,
amounted to 26,259,4l9l., and those of the Savings Bank
deposits reached to 1,887,349l. in addition to Post Ofiice
deposits. The Sydney banks’ reserved profits were
5,043,378Z., and liabilities 28,851,238l.
A wonderful change has appeared since the first
Sydney bank arose in 1817. The Government had full
control of trade affairs of old. In 1812 it was declared
that a difference of 20 per cent. must be allowed between
sterling and currency. In 1824 returns by Government
were ordered to be made in dollars. Promissory notes
of tradesmen for very small sums formed for many years
the leading currency of the Colony.
IEI SOUTH
IALES.
Banking


86 nammoox TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmun.
NEW SOUTH
NMES.
Post-office.
Telegraph.
Railways.
M anufuc-
tures pro-
gressing.
The Posr-orsics is admirably administered. At the
commencement of 1885, there were 1,085 oflices con-
nected with a postal route of 26,430 miles. A letter is
carried for a penny within ten miles of Sydney, and for
twopence beyond that limit in the Colony. The postage
to all other Australian colonies is threepenoe. The
letters in 1884 were 42,257,000, and the newspapers
25,063,500. The post packets, &c. were 3,022,100.
The English mail, via California, started from Sydney.
Money orders are as at home.
The Telegraph wires in 1884 reached 18,681 miles,
costing 60l,459l. The messages were 2,334,052. The
charge for ten words is but one shilling.
The Railway system has received much attention from
the Sydney Government. There will be soon nearly
two thousand miles opened to traffic.
The systems are southern, western, northern. The
southern to Albany is 385 miles; south-west to Hay,
450; west to Bourke, 503, from Sydney. That to
Tenterfield is 380 north of Newcastle, soon to be joined
to Sydney. The north-west line is to Narrabri, near
Queensland. The zigzag is over the Blue Mountains.
Sydney is joined to Melbourne, and will soon be to
Adelaide.
The working expenses for 1884 were 1,301,259l., and
the total earnings were 2,086,237l., paying 4% per cent.
With the cane-growing Fiji as a British colony, the
trade of Sydney port must be very greatly extended, and
and more as the Pacific isles become Europeanised.
MANUFACTURES were long nnheeded in the Colony.
Not satisfied with the export of raw produce, and anxious
to train their young folks to home industries, the colo-
nists are now actively proceeding with manufactures of
various kinds.
In 1885 there were 3,327 works, employing 37,473
persons: 207 with agriculture; 332 with pastoral pro-
ducts; 341 food; 925 building and plastic; 239 metal.
There were 95 sugar mills; 35 boiling down; 31 soap
and candle works ; 8 woollen factories.
Woollen mills are in active operation. In 1833 cloth
to the extent of 230,000 yards was produced. Ship-
building is being carried on all along the coast. Iron
foundry work is wonderfully progressing. Steam en-


LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 87
gines and machines of almost all descriptions are being
made in Sydney. They can now turn and bore up to
14 ft., and plane up to 25 ft. They turn out brass
castings of 10 tons, and iron ones of 30. Smelting
works are driving a great trade. There are also large
galvanised-iron factories. Paper half-stufl" is made near
Liverpool from the native lily, rush, native flax, cats-
tail grass, water grass, arrowroot plant, sida or native
hemp, banana, native cotton, etc.
With the possession of so unlimited an extent of coal,
and that easy of approach, a glorious manufacturing
future may be calculated upon for the Colony, affording
employment to large numbers of mechanics, getting
good wages in a very cheap country.
Land Laws and Immigration.
In the olden times, as the prisoners served their time,
land was granted to them in plots of 30 or 50 acres.
For such a grant, a quit rent of sixpence an acre was
demanded. In 1810, when the gifts of land became
larger, being made to ofiicers and other free persons,
the quit rent was 2s. for every 100 acres. In 1823, it
was 2d. an acre; and in 1824, five per cent. upon the
annual value was demanded. The ditficulty of collecting
the quit rent was ended by the Government yielding up
the claim altogether.
Free grants were made also to those who would un-
dertake to employ a certain number of convicts, and who
brought a certain amount of capital into the Colony.
Mr. Blaxford was to‘d by the Secretary of State that for
taking out £8,000 he would receive 8,000 acres, and the
use of a considerable extent of convict labour. Grants
were usually limited to 2,500 acres. In 1825, the Aus-
tralian Agricultural Company of English capitalists se-
cured a grant of one million of acres, near Port Stephen,
Peel river, and the Liverpool plains.
In 1831 the system of grants was discontinued. Land
was to be sold at 5s. an acre. The upset price was raised
to 12s. in 1838, and to 20s. in 1842. The auction system
began in 1838. By the Act of 1842, one-half the pro-
ceeds of land sales was to be devoted to immigration,
and the other moiety to public works. In 1861 a great
IEI SOUTH
IILES.

Coal advan-
tages for
manufac-
t ures.
LAND
Laws.
Grants and
quit rents.
Grants to
capitalists.
A million
acres given
to a Com-
pany.
Pric-2 of
laud.


88 mnnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW zsunnn.
NEW SOUTH
WALES.
Laud sales.
Land
selectors.
Sold and
unsold
land.
Land law
of 1861.
Mineral
land.
change took place, and land, thenceforth, could be ob-
tained on a system of deferred payments.
Sales have greatly varied in amount. In 1832, 20,860
acres realised 12,509l. In 1838, when Melbourne land
was first put up, 316,160 acres were sold ; but in 1843,
only 5,227 acres. In 1864, 164,890 were disposed of;
in 1871, 88,637 ; in 1878, 1,210,692 ; in 1884, 294,179.
In 1862, 4,493 selectors took up 357,280 acres on a
conditional purchase system; and in 1878, 12,602 selected
1,588,247. In six years, 79,719 persons secured thus
easily 10,000,000 acres. In 1873 the freehold occupiers
were 24,227. The conditional purchases were 191,538
by 1885, and 23,474,377 acres were selected.
At the end of 1884 it was ascertained that, within the
limits of the old 20 counties, 7,476,868 acres had been
disposed of, while 18,445,782 were still unalienated. In
121 counties outside of that settled district, the unsold
were 156,228,660 to 13,730,840 of the alienated. At the
end of 1878, 16,122,426 acres had been sold.
According to the liberal land law of 1861, though
town and suburban lots were to be sold by public auction,
country sections were to be had on the plan of condi-
tional sale, by paying down one-fourth cash, and having
time for the balance at an interest of 5 per cont.
The Act says :—‘ Any person may, upon any land oflice
day, tender to the land agent for the district, a written
application for the conditional purchase of any such lands,
not less than 40 acres nor more than 320, at the price of
20s. per acre, and may pay to such land agent a deposit
of 25 per centum of the purchase money thereof.’
Lots are drawn in the event of more than one tender-
ing for the same section at the same time. The land
must be at a specified distance from a town or diggings.
In five years’ time, upon payment of the balance,
without interest, the person obtains aCrown grant should
he or his representative have resided continuously on the
farm, with 10s. an acre for improvements. Should gold
be found before the full purchase have been effected, the
agreement is annulled, though compensation is awarded.
Mineral land, if not auriferous, can be similarly taken
up for five years, but at 21. an acre. The grant is not
given unless at least 21. an acre should have been ex-
pended in improvements.


mm: mws AND nnuoiumon. 89
By the ‘ Crown Lands Occupation Act,’ the squatting
country is divided into first class settled districts, second
class settled districts, and unsettled districts; leases are
granted according to the character of land.
Runs in the first class districts can only be rented on
annual leases, as the land may be required for agricul-
tural settlement, or conditional sales. The annual rental
is £2 per square mile, or three farthings an acre. The
holders of land in fee simple may obtain at the tithe rent,
leases of adjoining land to the extent of three times the
amount of their own purchased area. Leases are sub-
mitted to public competition.
On the second class settled laud, and on the unsettled,
runs cannot exceed 25 square miles, unless of poor
quality, when the area may be up to 100 square miles.
The highest tenderer obtains the lease for five years.
The rent is determined by appraisement in open court
at a time previously proclaimed.
After auction, the purchaser of the lease pays down
one-fourth of the premium, if any, leaving the balance for
three months. The rent is paid a year in advance.
The lease is forfeited if within six months the run be
not occupied by 200 cattle, or 1,000 sheep.
The Land Act, 1884-, permits selections on conditional
purchase in blocks of from 40 to 64:0 acres inithe Eastern
division, and 40 to 2,560 in the Central, on an annual
payment of one shilling an acre till the full purchase is
thus made. Residence and certain improvements to be
made are conditions to be observed. Conditional lease-
holds are at not less a rental than twopence an acre. ‘
Pastoial leases are for a term of 15 years in the
Westem division of the Colony, 5 in the Eastern, 10 in
the Central. The first and second begin at a penny an
acre, but the last at half as much more. Land resumed,
or called in, by Government, can be run over till re-
quired, at two pounds rental for every square mile.
The same rate is charged on annual pastoral leases. A
lease for 15 years can be had for a homestead in the
Westem division up to 10,240 acres.
IMMIGRATION has, apparently, excited less attention
in the old colony than in some of the new ones. It
may, however, be observed that while Queensland and
Victoria were provinces of New South Wales, con-
IEI Sllllll
IILES.
Pastoral
laud.
Leases and
rents of
runs.
Farms
selected on
runs.
IMMIGRA-
nos.


90 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEVI Sflllfll
Il|.ES-
Scotch
mechanics
in 1806.
Freedom to
emigrants
allowed in
1821.
Bounty
emigrants,
1840.
Decline of
immigra-
tiou.
Advan-
tages of the
colony.
siderable immigration took place at Melbourne and
Brisbane.
Governor Phillip, as early as 1790, urged the British
Ministry to send out emigrants to New South Wales.
In 1792, arrangements were made for the reception of
a band of" Quakers, who were expected as free colonists,
but who were prevented from taking their voyage.
Governor King interested himself upon the question,
and got out a party of Scotch mechanics. It was to
the honour of these men, that the first church built
by voluntary efibrt in Australia was raised by them.
Anxious for religious services for their families, they
erected a substantial edifice in 1806, on the banks of the
Hawkesbury. Drink in early days troubled the Scots
and other immigrants.
The publication of Mr. Wentworth’s work on the
colony, in 1823, drew a number of enterprising colonists
to Sydney. It was not until 1821 that unrestricted
emigration to New South Wales was permitted by
Government.
When by the cessation of transportation, in 1840, the
labour market was aifected, the colonial authorities
commenced the system of bounty emigrants. In the
bad year of 1843 only eleven immigrants arrived.
Although, by the gold discovery in 1851, a large rush
of people set in toward Melbourne, the older harbour of
Port Jackson has not been neglected. From 1862 to
1866, while 14,000 immigrants came at the public ex-
pense, as many arrived paying their own passage.
Complaint was made that three times as many came at
the public charge from Ireland, as from England and
Scotland altogether.
Subsequently, the incoming languished. In 1872,
only 326 bounty immigrants and 516 free ones reached
the colony. An attempt is now being made to attract
British settlers thither. For the sake of the individuals
themselves, and for the good of the grand old colony, it
is to be hoped that the efl'ort will be successful. One
thing is certain, that, if wages be a little lower than in
some other colonies, the immigrants in New South
Wales will find in cheaper food and clothing more than
an equivalent; while they will enjoy more advantages
of civilisation than can be found inmost other settlements.


LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 91
According to the newly-sanctioned Immigration Regu-
lations, no one country is to be favoured beyond another,
though the shipment must not contain more than one-
tenth Germans.
A deposit of 21. is required from all between 12 and
50 years, and ll. from 3 to 12. The reduction of the
emigration vote practically limits the supply to those
nominated by persons in the Colony. All who pay their
own passage out are welcomed.
Colonial residents may introduce persons to New
South Wales, subject to the approval of the Agent-
General in London. The one-third deposit so made in
Sydney is returned when the parties written for fail to
embark. The emigration aid was lately reduced.
Unmarried women must not be over 30 years, nor
form more than one-fifth of the whole emigrating. They
are at liberty to remain at free quarters in Sydney for
three weeks after arrival. Servants are much wanted.
Further particulars may be learned at the Immigration
Oflices, 7, Westminster Chambers, Victoria Street,
Westminster.
Mr. C. Robinson's pamphlet, once issued by the
Sydney Government for intending emigrants, thus closes
its weal for labour and capital :—-
‘ e have land enough and to spare for many gene-
rations; it will yield nearly everything that has any
value in the markets of the world. Healthy labour is
all we ask for; capital, too, where it is available, and
that will smooth the lot of labour,—but healthy labour
is the one great requisite, and whoever can ofi'er us that
is welcome. To all who are struggling to get on at
home, and yet can hardly keep their heads above water,
and in their old age must depend upon their children or
the parish, we say, gather together what little substance
you have, bid farewell to your native land, come out to this
and of Plenty; and under its bright sky, let that same
labour of yours, which at home cannot save you from
the fear of being a burden to your country, win for you
a fair day’s wage for a fair day’s work ; and, as an
Englishman still, you need love your fatherland none
the less, but help to preserve her Empire and augment
her greatness through all future ages.’
Mr. (now Sir Henry) Parkes, the Premier, in his speech
IEI SOIITI
IILES.
New immi-
tion
K" _
regulations.
Immigra-
tion ofiices
of N. S. W.
Appeal to
intending
emigrants.


92 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEI SUIITI
IILES.
A colonial
st.atesman's~
opinion.
Wages.
on February 15, 1873, observed :—‘ The people of New
South Wales have no cause to envy the progress of any
one of the Colonies. We feel conscious that we have
within our own bounds all the elements of national
greatness ; and while we wish them God-speed in their
respective courses of progress, we feel at liberty to tell
them that we shall endeavour yet to assert our position
as leader of them all. We feel that our resources justify
the hopes we entertain ; that the resources of our
intellect, our settled population, our accumulated wealth,
and our public spirit, will enable us to accomplish all to
which we aspire.’
The C'olom'zatirm. Circular, issued by the Colonial
Office in 1884, is the authority for the subjoined list of
wages. These have fluctuated but little for some years,
and strikingly contrast with the low rates before the
gold discovery. A large and sudden influx of immi-
grants may disturb the labour market for some time,
awaiting dispersion.
It states :-—‘ Female domestic servants, thoroughly
acquainted with their duties, as well as farm labourers
and shepherds, readily obtain employment. There is
no demand for governesses, tutors, or clerks. Indus-
trious and energetic men going to the Colony with a
small capital, and understanding farming and the
management of stock, may look for a bright future.’ It
then adds :-—
‘ The following are the current prices paid for labour
in some of the principal trades of the Colony, which of
course vary somewhat in different districts :-—
a. d. a. d.
Waggon builders . . I 0 to 1 3 per hour
Carriage ., . . 1 0 ,, 1 2 ,, t
Carriage painters . . 0 10 ,, 1 2 ,,
Sawyers, in mill . . 0 9 ,, 1 3 ,,
Compositors . - . 1 0 ,, 1 1 per 1,000
Stonemasons . . . ll 0 ,, 12 0 per day
Stonemasons’ labourers . 7 0 ., 8 0 ,,
Plasterers . . . 11 0 ,, 14 0 ,,
Plasterers’ labourers . 7 0 ,, 9 0 ,,
Bricklayers . . . l2 0 ,, 13 0 ,,
Bricklayers’ labourers . 8 0 ,, 10 0 ,,
Carpenters . . . 10 0 ,, 12 0 ,,
Joiners . . . . 10 0 ,, 12 0 ,,
Painters . . . 10 0 ,, l2 0 ,,
Shipwrights . . 9 0 ,, 12 0 ,,


mun LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 93
Labourers . . . .
Saddlers . . . .
Tailors (paid by the piece)
can average about . .
Shoemakers do. do. .
Shoemakemjobbing .
Shipsmiths . .
Bookwork . .
Dressers .
Furnace men
Iron turners
Engine fitters
Coppersmiths
General fitters
Blacksmiths .
Blacksmiths’ strikers.
Iron moulders . .
Boiler makers . .
Pat-tern makers . .
Boiler makers’ assistants
General labourers in iron
works . . . .
Engine drivers . . .
Brass moulders . . .
Brass finishers . . .
-
I
I
Machine men, in fitting shop 0
l
Coal miners . . .
Saw mill hands . . .
7
40
50
35
50
1
Q;-,...n-IQ:--\--r-p-as-<>°
i-‘CO
1
0
0
d. s.
0 to 9
0 ,, 50
0 ,, 70
0 ,, an
0 ,, 60
0 ,, 1
1
8}" 1
10 ,, 1
0 ,, 1
l,,l
1 ,, 1
0 ,, 1
0 ,, 1
9 ,, 0
0 ,, 1
0 ,, 1
0 ,, 1
9l,. 0
8}" 0
9}" 1
2 ,, 1
0 ,, 1
10 ,, 1
0 ,, 15
9 ,, 1
d.
0 per day
0 per week
QOIGWO
“_ 5O¢QO@Q
I’
II
II
per honr
per 1,000
per hour
»- >-
O|F€IliFO\I!€
bk-'llb— lib-
,0% n
4 n
3 I,
4 ,.
2 II
0 per day
0 per hour
‘ The above trades eonnected with the iron and engineering de-
partments, work eight hours a day, with one or two breaks.
‘The following quotations are inclusive of rations or
board in town or country :——
Married couples for stations
Farm labourers . . .
Bullock dti\'el'5 .
Horse-team drivers
Boundary riders .
Stockmen
Shepherds
Road makers
Grooms . .
Gardeners (country)
Gardeners (in town)
Blacksmiths (country)
Bakers . . .
Butchers . . .
gr
Cooks ( irate houses)
Cooks( otels) . .
£
52
40
40
40
40
40
35
0
40
40
52
75
1
l
30
45
._-..-
oo¢o¢oom¢ocooo¢9
to
n
n
sl
n
1|
H
D
1!
01
n
H
n
O
£
80
52
52
65
52
75
45
0
60
52
65
80
3
3
65
75
cooOo¢oomoccocooP
'8” '6-0 *0
01‘ annum
II
II
n
n
n
$7
er day
er annum
I!
er week
n
I.‘ annum
IEI SOUTH
IILES.


94
HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEW SOUTH £ s. £ 0.
WALES. Laundresses . . . 32 0 to 45 0 per aunum
“ii House and parlour maids . 26 0 ,, 35 0 ,,
General female servants . 26 O ,, 45 0 ,,
Nursemaids . . . . 26 0 ,, 35 0 ,,
Grooms and coachmen (in
town) . . . . 45 0 ,, 65 0 ,,
Useful boys on stations . 16 O ,, 30 0 ,,
Current Rate of Wages, without Board or Lodging :-
s. ti. s. (Z.
Wheelwrights (country) . 70 0 per week
Railway labourers . . 7 0 per day
Gangers . . . . 8 6 ,,
Brickmakers . . . 22 6 ,, 25 0 per 1,000
Potters . . . . 50 0 per week
Pipemakers . . . . 50 0 ,,
Tinsmiths . . . . 50 0 ,, 70 0 ,,
Galvanized-iron workers . 50 0 ,, 60 0 ,,
(The two trades last mentioned work ten hours to the day.)
Lumpers and Wharf Labourers—-
Day work for handling s. d. s. d.
general cargo . . 1 O per hour
Do. coal . . 1 3 ,,
Night work . . . 1 6 ,,
Plumbers . . . . 10 0 to 13 0 per day
Gas-fitters . . . . 9 0 ,, 11 0 ,,
(These two trades work eight hours to the day.)
Coopers . . . . 12 0 per day
Do. on piece as follows :--
Wine casks . . 46 0 per tun
Oil casks . . . 20 0 ,,
Tierces . . . 3 (old) 3 6 (new) each
Hogsheads . . 8 0 each
Ten-gallon kegs . 2 9 ,,
Five- ,, ,, . . 2 3 ,,
Two- ,, ,, . . 1 6 ,,
Tallow casks . . 13 6 to 15 0 per tun’
House rent in Sydney, 4 rooms, 10s. to 16s. per week.
Board and lodging from 18s.
Hixrs. Hints to Emigrants upon New South Wales.
A few general remarks are required to supplement
the information about the Colony.
Some persons may ask if they ought to emigrate to
Australia.


HINTS T0 EMIGRANTS UPON NEW SOUTH WALES. 95
A general invitation has never been given by sturdy
colonists to those of the old country. They have not
sought for the halt, lame, and blind of Europe. Those
who are unprepared to sacrifice present ease for future
good, who shrink from enduring any difliculties, or who
have no respect for honest toil, had better remain where
they arc.
There are, too, certain employments, belonging to the
highest developments of luxurious refinement, which
would have a very limited operation abroad. At the
same time, there is room for more than the labourer, the
mechanic, and the capitalist. No community could
have acquired such wealth as may be witnessed in
Sydney, without an expansion of desires and a demand
for something beyond mere necessaries.
Emigrants should not be too sanguine. They go with
a belief that they will do better, or they will not go at
all. But they need not imagine success without eflbrt,
nor wealth without labour. Cares are not confined to
one hemisphere, neither are disappointments the doom
of one state alone. Without calculating upon reverses,
there may be the preparation for them ; without looking
for trials, the possibility of them may be contemplated
with calmness, and mot with resolution. No prosperous
settler has been without his dark days, though the
triumph over obstacles has been his dearest reward.
Grave misapprehensions still exist respecting the
Colonies. It is too commonly forgotten that they are
in various stages of progression. They may be all
equally prosperous, and yet be nearly as different from
each other as the backwoods of America from the salons
of New York.
They who seek a wild bush life, far away from the
habits of civilised society, had better not enter the gates
of Port Jackson. They would there be confronted by
civilisation in its wonted aspects, seldom to desert them
in their bush wanderings.
It is entirely a mistake to imagine that the cry of
‘ quite colonial’ will serve as an apology for some neglect
of polished manners. The roughness once so common in
colonial life is rapidly yielding to refinement of manners.
A young man finds it as necessary to regard deportment
and character in Australia as in Europe.
IEI Sllllfll
IILES.
All are not
invited.
No success
without
toil and
care.
Difference
in colonim
Good
manners
respected


96 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND-
IEW SOIJTI
WALES.
Civilised
agencies
abound.
Classes
wanted.
\Vhere to
enquire.
Female im-
migrants.
The farmer has now a church and school near his
family, and the squatter may have the refinements of
society. The petty townships of the interior are sup-
plied with current literature; while Sydney, with
museums, public libraries, parks, theatres, and places of
worship for all denominations, will bear comparison with
most towns in England.
The immigrant will discover that he has but come to
another Britain over the Dine, and that trades and pro-
fessions similar to those at home are in full exercie there.
Such conditions of a mature settlement are not to be
expected in less advanced colonies.
New South Wales, consequently, is prepared to receive
all classes. The merchant needs a. clerk; the builder a
workman; the shopkeeper an assistant; the congrega-
tion a pastor.
The larger towns ask for skilled artisans, and the in-
land townships are open for ordinary tradesmen. The
agricultural acres are far from being filled up, and all
the wild wastes are not yet occupied with runs.
There is an opening there for stout limbs and brave
hearts, even though the young man land with but a
pound in his pocket.
Enquirers about emigration need only address them-
selves to the Agent-General, Sir Saul Samuel, at 3,
Westminster Chambers, Victoria Street, Westminster,
and they will be further satisfied. They will learn how
to reach the port, upon the payment of one-third the
passage money, if they have but hands for labour. And,
on arrival there, the Government will afford facilities to
procure them employment.
An old colony has some social advantages.
Although the sexes are pretty well matched in New
South Wales, there are perhaps more marriages there in
proportion to population than in colonies with a wider
difference in the census returns of the sexes, but where
there is less disposition to settle down to domestic life.
This is evidenced singularly in mining life. In some
other new countries, where the digger has a greater
range for his employment, where the comforts of civili-
sation are more difficult to procure, and whore the habits
of society are less favourable to quiet home life, the


HINTS TO EMIGRANT8 UPON NEW SOUTH WALES.
prospects of marriage are not equal to those existing in
this colony.
In New South Wales, on the contrary, the gold mines
are more concentrated, are situated in civilisedparts of the
country, and are so abundantly supplied with cheap pro-
visions and creature comforts, that a digger has stronger
inducements to marry and raise a homestead there.
This constant changing of single women into the ranks
of the married makes room for new hands at service, in
the house, or shop. It may appear paradoxical to say,
though it is none the less true, that there is often a readier
opening for young female immigrants in the old settled
Colony, than in places where, from their scarcity, women
may be thought to be more required.
A few words, however, should be directed to young
men occupying a comfortable position at home, but for
whom the Colony is not without interest.
Many of these are leading a wasted life for want of
something useful and profitable to engage their time.
Emigration to the Colonies would substitute healthful
and honourable action for the miserable lot of depend-
ence upon friends. Here, too, the more respectable
avenues to wealth, or even bread-earning, are choked up
with ever-rushing competitors.
The parent may naturally pause before starting a
young man with capital abroad, when there has been no
previous opportunity to exhibit an adaptation for busi-
ness, or when habits of economy and industry have not
been conspicuous under the father’s roof. Some persons
would have spared themselves mortification and loss, had
they given a little less cash at the first, and reserved more
for the time when their sons had proved their armour.
No such caution is needed about those whose steadier
habits, and appreciated application to business in the
old country, indicate their suitability to be intrusted
with capital in the new.
Commerce there has openings for commercial young
men, who will first enter a. house as an employé before
venturing their husbanded resources. Manufactures in
the larger towns present other invitations. Aland of
ooal, so well situated for trade, has unquestionable at-
tractions for those sldlled in certain manufactures, and
provided with some capital.
H
IEI SOUTH
IILES.
More
comforts in
nliniu g.
Marriages
in the
Colony.
Advice to
young men
emigrating.
Opening in
trade and
manufac-
tures.


98 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAl\‘D-
NEW Sfllllll
IILES.
Hints to
' tc (ll
in n ng
farmers.
Land for
years at
small
interest.
Colonial
fanning.
Sugar-
mu inrr
F’ ' .-.
advantages.
Farming is another opening. The young man who
contemplates this course, and has some practical ac-
quaintance with its details, while moderately furnished
with means, should, if possible, be provided before-
hand with a wife, and one resolved to share with him
in the cares and privations usually attendant upon a
start in life so far from friends.
The land laws are so liberal, and so convenient, that
ground maybe readily got hold of, and even secured upon
circumstances that will not press hard upon his capital.
He can purchase a good block of land on payment of
five shillings an acre down. The balance can remain
for years and years, at a moderate rate of interest, and
yet the holder be never in any fear of losing his posses-
sions, unless in the failure of paying the trifling inte-
rest. He has all the security of a freehold, without the
heavy outlay at the first, when demands are so urgent
for the purchase of implements, the fencing of land, and
the cropping of his little field.
Whenever prepared, by successful harvests, to spare
the cash, he is at liberty to pay the balance for his acre-
age, and secure his title-deeds from the Government.
New South Wales has been slighted somewhat, because
wheat growing there has been less successful than in
some‘ other colonies. This is no more rational than to
find fault with Kent for not growing more oats, and
Perthshire for not producing hops.
In that Colony, if wheat be less, maize is so largely
produced as to provide all the other colonies with that
useful grain. The farmer must adopt that system of
culture best fitted to his own locality.
The style called colonial fawning is more common in
New South Wales than elsewhere, owing to local circum-
stances requiring at least a qualification of the English
modes.
Sugar cultivation has commenced under favourable
prospects in the hot river lands near the sea. While a
moderate capital will suflice for the growth of the cane,
a larger investment is required for the manufacture of
sugar. The pursuit altogether is one particularly recom-
mended to persons with some agricultural ideas, even if
unacquainted with cane culture. Local experience can
be acquired with little difliculty.


msrs ro smoamrs uros saw sourn wamzs. 99
The Pastoral occupation courts attention. Though a
man fail to secure a run on such favourable terms in good
localities as he might in the remoter parts of New South
Wales, he has to weigh the advantages of proximity to
a market, as an offset to higher rates, or less secure
tenure.
There are, however, tracts of land in the more remote
west to be obtained on most moderate terms, and for
fixed periods. True it is, there are the drawbacks of
occasional drought, which may leave the run well-nigh
waterless, and the grasses somewhat thinned. Recently
many stations were formed in the dry Darling country.
But the thoughtful man prepares for such a contin-
gency. He constructs reservoirs in gullies and shaded
nooks, which may get filled in occasional showers. He
is ready to reduce his stock should the dark day come.
He has also prepared for temporary reverses by a reserve
at the bank.
Thus forewarned and forearmed, he calmly waits the
return of better times. Even in those supposed desert
retreats the grasses retain their vitality, and no danger
is apprehended so long as surface water remains.
But it is well known that a few years of successive good
seasons are suflicient to place a man in comparative
afiluence, especially at the wool rates that have lately
prevailed. The mischief and trouble may be said to
arise from wild expenditure, and the purchase of heavy
numbers upon the chances of an uncertain future. They
who buy judiciously, husband resources, and keep some-
thing in reserve, need fear nothing in embarking upon
such a squatting speculation. Stations already formed
are to be purchased, though great caution and some
colonial experience are required before closing abargain.
Mining, perilous as its ventures are commonly re-
ported to be, is not without attractions to the young
man with a few hundreds at command.
It would be absurd indeed for him to become a dab-
bler in mining shares, an idle schemer, or an improvident
dreamer. It would be folly, also, to become a partner
in an undertaking, however grandly its prospects have
been displayed before him, unless he have some prac-
tical knowledge of mining, and reasonable ground for
faith in the promoters of the enterprise.
IEI SOIITII
WALES.
Runs vary
with
locality.
Back runs
and how to
use them.
Mining in-
vestments
n 2


100 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEW S0l|'l'|l
WALES.
-__—-i-
Openings
for the
middle-
aged.
Families
to the
colonies.
But, by working awhile on a gold field, and reserving
his means, he may eventually see an occasion for invest-
ment with approximate safety, and be able to direct and
control, to some extent at least, the company with
which he connects himself.
To men of more advanced age and real experience
the Colony cannot fail to be of interest.
The openings in the various interests of New South
Wales are ready at hand not more to young men than
to those of maturer years. If the former have more
dash and energy for diflicult and hazardous pursuits, the
latter have a tempered courage, a more sustained
vigour, and a calculating discretion, admirably fitting
them for engagements when competition has to be en-
countered, and enlarged experience of life is demanded.
To such persons, especially, the rising manufactures
present an opportunity for investment.
It is an idle remark that where money is made so easily
capital has no need to go. So far from this being the
fact, capital seems even more in demand according to the
progressiveness of the community.
The man with a family emigrating to New South
Wales will certainly take them to a cheap and pleasant
home.
The father may not have occasion to labour for him-
self, but be going for the sake of his children. Some of
these may not be robust enough for the blustering blasts
of an English winter. The girls may be contemplating
a future of pinched respectability, withoutmuch hope for
remunerative employment should necessity call for their
toil. The lads may feel elbowed out by the crowd at
home, or be panting for new scenes in which to labour.
As land in a colony may be reasonably supposed to
rise in value with the increase of population and wealth,
a prudent man will purchase a few acres for an invest-
ment. If a parent so invest, his children, in a.fter years,
may derive a great benefit from the first outlay.
To all those various classes of emigrants, New South
Wales, along with other Australian Colonies, submits its
claims and prospects.


mscovsnr AND msronv. 101
VICTORIA.
Discovery and History.
Victoria was discovered by Captain Cook, April 18,
1770, before New South Wales proper was seen, as
Point Hicks,the first land observed, is a little westward
of Cape Howe.
As Van Diemen's Land was thought part of the
continent, vessels to Sydney went to the south of that
island; thus it was that Port Phillip remained so long
unknown. A young sailor, afterwards known as Captain
Flinders, went with Dr. Bass on a boat voyage of dis-
covery in 1798. In this craft, eight feet long, they
entered Western Port.
In a larger vessel they passed through Bass’s Strait,
and opened another route to Sydney. Lieutenant Grant
took this course in the ‘Lady Nelson,’ and discovered
Portland Bay and Cape Otway. On February 15,
1802, Lieutenant John Murray, having been sent by
Governor King, in the ‘Lady Nelson,’ to survey the
southern coast, discovered the bay of Port Phillip, which
he called King Bay; but which, at that Governor’s
request, was named after the first ruler of Sydney,
Captain Phillip.
A few weeks afterwards, Captain Baudin, the French
explorer, entered the bay. He it was who subsequently
appropriated to himself the honour of discovering the
southern coast of the two colonies—South Australia and
Victoria-and named it Napoleon Land.
Flinders visited Port Phillip on April 26. It was
in consequence of the reports of Messrs. Murray and
Flinders that the British Government sent out a party
of convicts, under Captain Collins, in 1803, to colonise
the shores of that bay, witha view to prevent the French
making a settlement there.
Opinions were turned against the South after Collins
deserted it in the beginning of 1804. But the islands
YIGTDRII.
Cook’s dis-
covery.
Western
Port, 1798
Port
Phillip,
Aug. 1802.
French
claim of
discovery.
Settlement
1803.


102 nsnnsoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND new ZEALAND.
VICTORIA.
Sealers in
Bass’s
strait-
Hume and
Hovell,
1824.

They cross
the country
to the sea.
Maj or
Mitchell,
1855, dis-
covers the
western
plains.
Mt. Mace-
(lon and
Mt. Alex-
under.
Land
named
Australia
Felix.
184
Gipgs Land.
in Bass’s Strait became partially inhabited by runaway
seamen and sealers, who occasionally explored the shore
of Port Phillip country.
In 182-L, however, Mr. Hamilton Hume and Captain
Hovell resolved upon a run down to the southern coast
from Sydney, although Mr. Surveyor Oxley, in 1817,
had pronounced the region below the Lachlan river to
be a perfect desert.
The two gentlemen crossed the Murray, which they
called the Hume, rounded the Alpine spurs, passed
Mount Macedon, and reached the sea. But while Hume
contended it was Port Phillip they saw, his companion
was positive that the Geelong of the natives was on
Western Port. The erroneous opinions of the latter
prevailing with the Sydney authorities, a penal settle-
ment was formed at VVestern Port in 1826.
In 1835, Major Surveyor-General Mitchell undertook
an exploring journey southward from Sydney.
Crossing the Murray at a lower point than the other
two travellers had done, he discovered the Loddon and
the Wimmera rivers on his way to the noble Grampian
hills. Pursuing a south-western course, he gained the
Glenelg. Turning then eastward, the point of a shoe
in the sands led him to the whaling establishment of
the Henty family. Both parties were equally surprised
at the meeting near Portland Bay.
Leaving the coast, the Surveyor-General gained the
lovely country of the Dividing Range. Seeing the Port
Phillip Bay from the summit of a mountain, he called
the hill Macedon ; and another fine pile of rocks to the
North, Mount Alexander, so well known in 1851 from
the gold discoveries around it. The return route to
the Murray was by way of the Goulburn.
It is not to be wondered at that Major Mitchell, who
had never beheld so much beautiful scenery and fertile
soil in his life, should have given the land the appella-
tion of AUSTRALIA FELIX ; and rightly and prophetically
did he exclaim, ‘ We had at length discovered a country
ready for the immediate reception of civilised man, and
fit to become one of the great nations of the earth!’
Gipps Land was made known by Count Strzelecld
and Mr. Angus McMillan in 18410.


mscovnnr AND msromr. 103
The H1s'l'onY of the colony for thirty years was one
of attempted settlement and contemptuous neglect.
On October 2, 1803, the first colonists arrived in
Port Phillip, and camped some eight miles from the
heads on a sterile peninsula of sandy limestone.
Captain Collins, who was to be Lieutenant-Governor
of the place, under the authority of the Sydney rulers,
came with the transport ‘ Ocean,’ with the protection of
H.M.S. ‘ Calcutta.’ It was a most ill-sorted party for
a settlement, there being 307 ma.le prisoners, 50 marines,
17 women, and seven children. One of these children
lived afierwards to be called the ‘ Founder of Melbourne.’
News had arrived about the splendid country of the
Derwent; and this, with the disgust of Captain Collins
at his sandy home, led to the abandonment of Port
Phillip, after three months’ trial, for the southern port
of Van Diemen’s Land. The ‘Lady Nelson,’ that had
first entered the bay, assisted in the removal of the party
Erom it.
The lieutenant of the ‘ Calcutta ’ had little prophetic
skill when he declared, ‘The kangaroo seems to reign
undisturbed lord of the soil—a dominion which, by the
evacuation of Port Phillip, he is likely to retain for
a es.’
gA runaway convict, William Buckley, lived with the
blacks, the only white man in Port Phillip, till 1835,
when Batma-n’s party discovered him..
The second attempt at settlement in 1826 was equally
unsuccessful.
Western Port, then located by some prisoners and
their otlicers, is one of the few portions of Victoria
neglected now. Its swamps and sands were no recom-
mendation in 1826 to the lonely exiles, who had no
more enterprise to journey a few miles in search of
better land than had their predecessors in 1803. Had
the latter but crossed the bay, or gone to the head
thereof, they would have found one of the most charm-
ing and fertile spots the world can show.
A few months wearied the disheartened settlers, and
for the second, and, as believed, the last time, the shores
of Port Phillip were forsaken.
But Hume and others still protested that the land
was good. John Batman, a Paramatta lad, knew fi'om
VIGTORII.
Hrs-romr.
First settle-
t
men ion a
bad site.
307 prison-
ers.
Removal to
Van Die-
men’s
Land.
Prophecy.
Buckley 32
years with
the blacks.
Settlement
at Western
Pm, 1826.
Second
abandon
ment.


104 mnnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
'll0T0|lll-
John Bat-
Illfill was
1-lume’s
friend.
A request
to settle the
country.
The
Hentys at
Portland
Bay.
Batman
and Gelli-
brand.
J. P. Fawk-
I181‘-
Batman's
company
formed.
Visit in
May 1835.
Treaty
with the
natives.
his friend and playmate, Hume, something of the coun-
try. Going afterwards to Van Diemen’s Land, he
urged an enterprising lawyer, Mr. Gellibrand, to join
him in a speculation.
The two wrote to the Governor in January, 1827,
asking permission to settle with flocks and herds upon
the Port Phillip side. This request was refused.
In 1833 Mr. Hume published an account of his jonr-
ney in 1824. The year after, the Messrs. Henty of
Launceston, having information from sealers, crossed
over, without consulting the authorities at Sydney, and
formed afishery and squatting station at Portland Bay.
Two other Van Diemen’s Land colonists sought to do
the same. One, of course, was Mr. John Batman, who
laboured to get up a company to land flocks and herds
on the shores of the abandoned Port Phillip. As the
Governor of New South Wales would not sanction a
settlement, Messrs. Batman and Gellibrand urged the
Lieutenant-Governor at Hobart Town to patronise their
scheme, and to apply home for Port Phillip to be
placed under his own jurisdiction instead of that of the
Sydney Governor.
The second dreamer of the other side was Mr. John
Pascoe Fawkner, of Launceston. Belonging to another
set of acquaintances, he did not seek the alliance of of-
ficials and wealthy free settlers, but got three or four
tradesmen to join in his scheme.
An Association was formed in Hobart Town, and Mr.
John Batman sent to report upon the locality.
After nineteen days’ passage from Launceston-now
a day’s run for a steamer—he entered Port Phillip on
Friday, May 29, 1835. His story sent the settlers of
Van Diemen’s Land wild about the new country.
He thus spoke of it :-—‘ Beautiful land-—kangaroo
grass about ten inches high, and as green as a field of
wheat-—beautiful plains—~I never saw anything equal to
lthe land in my life—-I was never so astonished in my
ife.’
His friend, the lawyer, held with himself that the
natives, and not the Sydney Governor, had the right to
grant anyone permission to settle at Port Phillip. A
deed of conveyance had been prepared, and Batman got
the signatures of chiefs to it. However ridiculous this


DISCOVERY AND HISTORY. I05
may appear, as a parody of Penn’s treaty with the
Indians, there was the recognition of a principle which
it would have been wise and Christian-like to have
followed elsewhere.
Batman returned exultant to Launceston, telling
Fawkner and others of his good fortune, and hurrying
forward sheep to the pleasant pastures.
He faithfully discharged his duty to the aborigines,
giving them, according to the terms of his treaty, 100
blankets, 100 tomahawks, 50 looking-glasses, 5 tons
of flour, &c. They, on their part, were supposed to
allow the company the right of pasturage.
Mr. Fawkner's party sent a schooner over to the Yana
Yarra with stores, which reached the river on the 29th
of August. Fawkner himself arrived on October 11,
1835. He opened the first public-house for the enter-
tainment of the numerous arrivals from New South
Wales and Van Diemen’s Land. The Yarra location of
Batman and Fawkner grew to be the town of Melbourne.
The Sydney ruler resented the invasion of his deserted
territory, and ordered ofl' all intruders. He exerted
himself, especially, to thwart the designs of the Associa-
tion, and succeeded in inducing the Home Ministry to
disallow their claim. He was, however, obliged to per-
mit the occupation of the country, and took it under his
supposed protection by sending down a constable thither
from Sydney.
The unruly settlers had met together, organised a
temporary government, and appointed Mr. Simpson,
once a Van Diemen’s Land magistrate, as their arbi-
trator for the time being.
At length, in October, 1836, Captain Lonsdale arrived
as Commandant on the Yarra. The growth of the pro-
vince became so considerable, that Port Phillip was ac-
knowledged as a district of New South Wales, and Mr.
Tatrobe, on October 1, 1839, was appointed Superin-
tendent. '
Before this, however, Governor Bourke visited the
place which had excited such interest among Australian
squatters. He came in April, 1837, and had Melbourne
proclaimed on May 19. The first land sales of the
settlement took place on June 1, when half-acre lots
were purchased for from 201. to 801. each.
IIBTIIIII.
Articles of
purchase.
Fawkner's
. al .
amv Ill
October.
Rise of
Melbourne.
Parties
wamed olf.
First
govern-
ment.
Comman-
dant arri-
ved, 1836.
Mr. La-
trobe Super-
intendent,
1839.
First land
sale in
Melbourne.


106 nmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA mu new ZEALAND.
IIIZTOBII.
Speculatio
ll
and losses.
Recovery
and success.
Port Phillip
became
Victoria
1850.
Gold dis-
covered in
Victoria
1851.
Effects of
the gold
fever.
Order
restored.
The publication of Major Mitchel1’s story of ‘Austra-
lia Felix’ provoked a rush of emigrants from Great
Britain. Sheep and cattle, land and provisions, mounted
to fabulous prices. Unwonted prosperity gave rise to
absurd speculations, and these involved many in ruin.
But though sober times came in 18452, and five guinea
sheep sold for two shillings a head, no one spoke of
abandoning the country for the third time.
Steady industry and patience brought about a recovery.
The colony was prosperous in the best sense in 1850.
The flocks were numerous, the land was becoming settled
in a prudent manner, Melbourne trade improved soundly,
schools and churches were well attended, and a more
peaceful and happy community could not be found in all
Australia.
On July 1, 1850, Port Phillip was separated from
New South Wales, and proclaimed an independent
colony by the name of Victoria, with Mr. Latrobe as its
first Governor.
But the next year, 1851, was the period of a grand
transformation scene.
Gold had just been discovered in New South Wales.
The news awakened a sea-rch for the precious metal in
Port Phillip, where rumours of its existence had been
long heard. Ballarat-, Mount Alexander, and Bendigo
answered to the call, and showers of nuggets proclaimed
that the pastoral districts of Port Phillip had become the
land of gold.
Fortunate as many were who in those early golden
days drew treasure from the rocking of a cradle, all who
witnessed the remarkable circumstances attending that
social as well as commercial revolution may be, also,
esteemed fortunate. Society was uprooted for awhile,
and the millennium of labour was believed to have come.
The wildest excitement, the most prodigal expenditure,
the most boisterous revelry, with rudest assertions of
independence, alarmed the sober citizen.
But the tumult sank into peace, and order arose from
chaos. Law-loving Britons observed the outward pro.
prieties, Government recovered from its panic, and affairs
settled down into a routine, extraordinary as the times
Oontinued.
The predictions of the gloomy or timid were not


osoonsrur mo CLIMATE. 107
verified. Society, though reeling awhile from the shock,
became steadily progressive. The flocks and herds, well-
nigh deserted for a time, were an increasing source of
wealth. Trade, deranged for a little, bounded forward
with giant strides. The churches and schools had to be
multiplied for a growing throng of honest worshippers
and patient scholars.
Political progress followed the march of gold. Miners
resented their slavish condition. Citizens loudly com-
plained of the rule of an almost nominal Government.
The press persistently demanded political enfranchise-
ment for all classes. Public meetings vehemently de-
nounced the waste, indecision, and tyranny of misrule.
Petitions for complete emancipation were forwarded
home. The local authorities at last yielded to the
pressure, and joined in the request for more freedom.
Liberty of action came with the new constitution, in
1855, when the reign of responsible Government com-
menced.
Since then the progress of the colony, with those
checks consequent upon excessive speculation, has been
remarkable. Perhaps no country in the world ever ex-
hibited such evidences of internal prosperity upon a
sound and satisfactory basis.
Though the influx of immigration has long ceased,
and even the production of gold has become less in
amount, Victoria has developed in everything that can
make a nation truly great. In its handsome capital, its
country roads and farms, its magnificent stations, its
well-managed mines, its growing trade, its well-to-do
people, its efficient public instruction, its liberally-sup-
ported churches, it has taken a position first in the Aus-
tralias, and is not relatively inferior to the most favoured
of countries.
Geography and Climate.
Victoria lies between the Murray river and the sea,
having New South Wales to the North and East, but
South Australia to the West. Naturally, the colony is
divided into five parts. The Southern is between the
Dividing Range and the sea. The North Central is
between the Dividing Range and the Murray river. The
Ilfilllllll.
Social
progress.
Demand
for political
freedom.
New con sti-
tution 1855.
Satisfac-
tory state
ol L110
colony.
First in the
Australias.
Genom-
rmr.
Five
natural di-
visions.


108 nmnsoox so sns'm.u.n\ AND NEW ZEALAND.
IIGTURII.
Distribu-
tion of
people.
A 1-ea _86,83 1
sq. miles.
fllauntains
North-Western is between the Grampians and the
Murray, near the South Australian border. The North-
Eastern is between the Australian Alps and the Murray.
The South-Eastern, or Gipps Land, is between the Alps
and the sea.
The mass of the population is in the centre of the
Southern, and the South of the North-Central. The
West of the Southern, the North-Eastern, the North-
Western, the South-Eastern, are all thinly peopled.
The area is 86,831 square miles, or 55,571,860 acres,
being about the size of Great Britain. Victoria is not
above the thirtieth part of the continent of Australia.
Its extreme length from east to west is 420 miles. The
western breadth is 260 miles; it comes to a point at the
south-east extremity. The coast line is reckoned 600
miles. It is the southernmost colony of Australia,‘ and
is but 200 miles from Tasmania.
Mmmtains. ~
The Australian Alps extend south-westerly from eastern
New South Wales, and are met by the Dividing Range,
which extends along the centre of the colony, from west
to east. Both these connected series of hills have their
spurs on either side. While the two ranges are in some
parts but of moderate width, they are in others from
50 to 100 miles broad.
Among the ranges joined to the main Alps are the
Bogong, Gibbo, Buffalo, on the North, and Hoddle,
Strzelecki, Cobboras, and Dandenong on the South.
Forest Hill, the source of the Murray, is 5,000 feet high;
Wellington, 5,360; Tamboritha, 5,380; Kent, 5,130;
Bogong, 6,508; Gibbo, 5,760 ; Feathertop, 6,303;
Hotham, 6,100. Smyth and Selwyn are higher. Wilson’s
Promontory is not connected with the Alpine chain.
In the Dividing Range are the Goulburn, Plenty,
Kilmore, Macedon, Alexander, Jim Crow, McIvor, and
Pyrenees chains.
The principal hills among these are Macedon, 3,400
feet; Buninyong, 2,450; Warrenheip, 2,440; Alexander,
2,435; Bullarook, 2,400; Ida, 2,000; Franklin, 2,100;
Buninyong, Ararat, Cole, Ben Nevis, Tarrengower,
Barker, Spring Hill.
Beyond the western end of the Dividing Chain are


csoemrur AND cnmnn. 109
the Grampians, 50 miles from North to South. Zero is
the northern point, Sturgeon the southern, and William
the eastern. Mount William is 5,500 feet high. West
of the Grampians, and toward the border, are the
Sierra, Victoria, and Dundas ranges.
Eliza, Martha, and Arthur's Seat are on the east side
of Port Phillip Bay.
Hundreds of volcanic cones and craters are found to
the west of Melbourne, and about the Dividing Range.
Among these may be named, Buninyong, Warrenheip,
Napier, Tower Hill, Shadwell, Rouse, Franklin, Elephant,
Ecles, Mercer, Porndon, Anaki, Aitken, Gisborne, Noorat,
Greenock, Glasgow, Smeaton, and Blowhard.
Rivers.
The Murray, rising in the Alps, runs along the north
boundary into South Australia, and so on to the sea. The
part within the colony’s limit has a course of about 1,400
miles. The chief Victoria branches are the Mitta-Mitta,
Indigo, Ovens, Goulburn, Campaspe, and Loddon. The
north-western Avoca and Wimmera lose themselves in
salt lakes and sands.
The Coliban and Exe are aflluents of the Campaspe;
the Howqua and Broken, of the Goulburn; the Fryer,
Jim Crow, and Korong, of the Loddon. The Bendigo
creek is lost in the sands. The Wimmera, Avoca, Loddon,
Campaspe, and Coliban rise on the north side of the
Dividing Range.
The southern streams are more numerous, though
shorter. Those from the Dividing Range are the
Hopkins, Fiery Creek, Leigh, Werribee, and Salt Water.
The Grampians give rise to the Wannon and Glenelg;
the mouth of the latter is at the western boundary.
From the Otway ranges are the Gellibrand and Curdie,
with the Barwon of Geelong.
From the Alps are the Melbourne Yarra-Yarra, and
the Gipps Land rivers of Latrobe, Macalister, Mitchell,
Thompson, Avon, and Snowy. The Albert is the small
stream of Port Albert. The Bass falls into Western
Port, and the Tarwin into Anderson’s Inlet by Cape
Patterson.
Lakes.
These are either salt or fresh. Some of these were
VIOTORIL
i,
Rivera.
Lain.


110 mmnnoox 1'0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IIBTURIL

Buyl.
(klpea.
Ialands.
Diviazona
formerly craters, and others are sea lakes. Salt lakes
occur northwestward near the Murray, and on the
Southern plains.
The Gipps Land lakes, having a connection with the
sea, are Wellington, 70 square miles, Victoria, 90,
Reeve, 40, Tyers and King. Lake Omeo is in North
Gipps Land.
South of Geelong is the sea lake Connewarre. West-
ward are salt Corangamite, '75 square miles, fresh
Colac, 10, fresh Burrumbeet, 8, salt Boloke, and fresh
Learmouth, Wendouree, Terang, and Purrumbeet.
Timboon is brackish. Albacuyta, Hindmarsh, Tyrrel],
and Boga are northwestward.
Bays.
Discovery is the most western. Portland is near it.
Port Fairy is more eastern, and Lady Bay is east of
Port Fairy. Port Phillip is 40 miles long, and nearly
as broad.
Western Port is east of Port Phillip. Sealers’ Cove
and Corner Inlet are by Wils0n’s Promontory; Port
Albert is the south-western harbour of Gipps Land.
Capes.
Nelson and Bridgwater are western capes. Otway is
60 miles south-west of Port Phillip. Lonsdale and
Nepean are the heads of Port Phillip, and Schanck is
south-east of them. Grant, Wollomai, Patterson, and
Liptrap are more eastern. _
Wilson’s Promontory is the southernmost point of
Australia. Cape Howe is at the junction of Victoria
and New South Wales.
Islands.
French and Philip are in Western Port. Others are
but rocks.
Divisions.
The colony has been divided into districts and
counties.
The parts least settled are in the four districts of
Gipps Land, Wimmera, Loddon, and the Murray. The
Wimmera, comprehending one-fourth of Victoria, is the
distant and level north-west. The Loddon is the fertile


- GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. lll
north central, and the Murray is the rocky north-eastern
district. Gipps Land, as has been stated, is to the
south-east.
At first only three counties were formed, viz., Bourke,
containing Melbourne ; Grant, around Geelong; and
Normanby, about Portland.
Several other counties followed ; Mornington, Evelyn,
and Anglesey are to the east ; Polwarth and Heytesbury,
south-west ; Grenville, Hampden, Ripon, Villiers, Dun-
das, and Follett, near the western border.
Dalhousie, Talbot, and Rodney were cut out of the
Loddon squatting district afterwards. Then Benambra-,
Bogong, Delatite, Moira, and Wonnangatta were formed
from part of the Murray district; Bendigo, Gladstone,
and Gunbower from the Loddon district; Borung, Kara-
Kara, Karkarooc, Millewa, Lowan, Tachera, and Weeah
from the Wimmera; and Buln-Buln, Croajingolong,
Dar-go, Tambo, and Tangil, from Gipps Land: in all 37.
The Colony is also divided into the six electoral pro-
vinces of Central, Southern, South-Western, Western,
North-Western, and Eastern. There were 55 electoral
districts. Part of Victoria is divided into 119 shires,
and the other portion into the road districts.
Towns. _
Melbourne, the capital, is near the mouth of the
Yarra-Yarra, and three miles from the shore of Port
Phillip Bay. Its latitude is 37° 50’, and its longitude
144° 58’ E. These numbers are usually reduced to 38°
and 1-L5°. The population of Melbourne and its suburbs
is now above three hundred thousand.
Geelong, the second port, is 45 miles from Melbourne,
on the south-western side of Port Phillip. The three
western ports are Warrnambool, Belfast, and Portland.
The first is 170 miles S.W. of Melbourne; the second,
190, the third, 255. Port Albert, Gipps Land, 173 S.E.
Williamstown and Sandridge are the ports of Mel-
bourne On Port Phillip Bay are Snapper Point, 35
miles from Melbourne, and Queensclifl, 65, the two
watering-places for Melbourne and Geelong people.
The principal suburbs of Melbourne are Fitzroy, Col-
lingwood, Carlton, Richmond, Sandridge, Emerald Hill,
St. Kilda, Prahran, Hawthorne, Kew, Footscray, Bruns-
IIGTORII.
Towns.


112 munnoox TO AUSTRALIA AND new zmmnn.
UIGTOBII.
Diggings’
townships.

Farmln g
townships.
wick, and Essendon. Brighton and Heidelberg are each
eight miles distant. Lilydale, 24: N.E.; Sorrento, 4~0 S.
Of the Diggings’ Townships, some are north of the
Dividing range, and others south.
Those on the south side of the summit line are Gor-
dons, 54» miles west of Melbourne; Blackwood, 60;
Egerton, 60; Steiglitz, 70; Buninyong, 90; Ballarat,
97 ; Sebastopol, near Ballarat; Browns’, 100; Symthes-
dale, 108; Scarsdale, 110; Linton, 115; Raglan, 122;
Beaufort, 124:; Ararat, 150; and St. Arnaud, 146.
On the north side, E. of the range, are Tarradale, 68 ;
Heathcote of Mclvor, 70; Castlemaine, 78; Daylesford,
80; Maldon of Tarrengower, 85; Hepburn, 85; Na-
gambie, 85; Sandhurst of Bendigo, 100; Eagle Hawk,
102 ; Maryborough, 104; Dunolly, 106; Amherst, 110;
Creswick, 11-0 ; Huntly, 112; Moliagul, 115; Rushforth,
120; Avoca, 120; Clunes, 120; Lexton of Burn Bank,
125; Tarnagulla, 125 ; Inglewood, 128; Kingower, 130;
Berlin, 130; Korong, 150; Stawell of Pleasant Creek, 180.
The Alpine Diggings are east and north-east of Mel-
bourne. The eastern are on the Gipps Land frontier;
as, Matlock, 116; Jericho and Woods’ Point, 120 ; Wal-
halla, 130; El Dorado, 170. Beaconsfield is east.
The north-eastern mining townships are Jamieson,
125; Wangaratta, 165; Chiltern, 180; Beechworth, 185;
Indigo, 190 ; Yackandandah, 200 ; Buckland, 230 ;
Omeo, 250; Alexandra, 90 ; Bright, 225.
The Gipps Land townships are Rosedale, 130; Sale,
1-10; Bairnsdale, 180. Welshpool is on Corner Inlet.
On the Murray river are Swan Hill or Castle Dod.
dington, 240 north-west; Echnca, 170 north, and Belvoir,
opposite Albury, 210 north-east; Wodonga, 187 N .E.
Of the Farming Settlements south of the Dividing
Range, those near Geelong are Batesford, Fyansford,
Ceres of Barrabool hills, Duueed, Winchelsea, and
Inverleigh.
Farming towns south-east of Melbourne are Dande.
nong, 20; Cranbourne, 28; Berwick, 30. Corinella is
by WesternPort. Cowes, 55; Brandy Cr.,65; Mafira, 140.
North of Melbourne, toward the main range, are
Keilor, Campbelfield, and Broadmeadows, 10-12 miles;
Yan-Yean, 20 ; Wallan-Wallan, 30 ; Gisborne, 411-;
Woodend, 50.


csoomrnv AND CLIMATE. 113
South-west of Melbourne are Lethbridge, 60; Shelford,
70; Meredith, 70; Colac, 90; Cressy, 90; Camper-
down, 120; Terang, 135; Hexham, 160; Penshurst,
170; Koroit of Tower Hill, 185 ; Yambuck, 210 ;
Narrawong, 240; Heywood, 250; Cobden, 130.
Westward of Melbourne are the Farming Melton, 25;
Bacchus Marsh, 32; Ballan, 50; Rokewood, 85 ; War-
renheip, near Ballarat; Miners’ Rest, 104; Skipton,
116; Carngham, 120; Mortlake of Mount Shadwell,
140; Wicklifi'e, 170; Dunkeld, 180; Branxholme, 215;
Hamilton of the Grange, 220; Coleraine, 230; Harrow,
250; Sandford, 250; Digby, 255; Merino, 250; Caster-
ton, 270; Apsleg, 317. Seaside Lorne is bg C. Otway.
On the nort side of the Range, an north of
Melbourne, are Kilmore, 40; Lancefield, 42; Pyalong,
52 ; Kyneton, 57 ; Malmsbury, 63 ; Harcourt, 80 ;
Newstead, 84; Murchison, 94; Rochester, 139.
To the north-west, on the north side of the range,
are Yandoit, 90 ; Kingston, 96 ; Carisbrook, 101 ;
Smeaton, 109 ; Lear-mouth, 110; Burrumbeet, 110 ;
Glenorchy, 190; Horsham, 220; Redbank, 137.
North-eastward, at the foot of the Alps, are Seymour
on the Goulburn, 65; Avenel, 75; Yea, 75; Benalla,
132; Mansfield, 145; Rutherglen, 176; Shepparton, 118.
The population of Melbourne and suburbs in 1879
was 280,000 ; Geelong, 25,000; Ballarat, 50,000; Sand-
hurst, 30,000; Castlemaine, 9,000; Creswick, 5,000;
Williamstown, 9,000; Portland, 4,500; Maryborough,
14,000; Belfast, 3,500; Warrnambool, 8,000; Beech-
worth, 7,000; Daylesford, 4,000; Kyneton, 10,000.
The CLIMATE of Victoria, while milder than New
South Wales and South Australia, is warmer and drier
than New Zealand and Tasmania.
Though so small a colony, there may be said to be in
it four distinct climates—the north and south sides of
the Dividing range, the Alpine country to the east, and
Gipps Land to the south-east.
The north, and particularly the north-west, may be
regarded as hot and dry. The south and south-west are
moister. The Alpine region has severe snow storms in
the winter, while no snow falls elsewhere. Gipps Land,
enclosed between the sea and lofty ranges, enjoys one of
the most delightful and healthy climates in the world.
I
Vlfllllllll.
Population
of towns.
CI.1.\u\'rr.


114 HANDBOOK ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW znxmnn.
Vlfilllllll.
Hot winds.
Winds.
Mean heat
of Mel-
bourne 58°.
Rain.
Victoria has the annoyance of the hot wind blowing
from the centre of the continent. Professor Neumayer,
however, speaks of an average of 14 days a year of
this visitation in Melbourne and the Diggings over the
ranges, 6 at Geelong, 11 at Portland, and but 3 at Port
Albert of Gipps Land. Though so disagreeable, especially
with its accompaniment, the dust, there is no miasmatic
or deleterious substance conveyed by it. The Sirocco
of Italy is much more oppressive, being laden with
moisture.
Fortunately, Melbourne ha.s most winds from the sea,
or southward, in summer, and from the north in winter.
According to Mr. R. Brough Smyth, the Melbourne
winds were north 70 days, north-east 35, east 15, south-
east 30, south 75, south-west 45, west 35, north-west
30; leaving 30 calm days in the year. The windy
weather of summer makes that season more endurable.
The temperature of Melbourne may be compared to
that of Naples. The thermometer, except in the Austra-
lian Alps, is very rarely seen at 30°. But in a violent
hot wind it has been known 115° in the shade, and 130°
in the sun. Mr. Howitt saw it 139° at noon in the sun.
It stood the same at Geelong on Christmas that year,
and was 110° in the shade at Melbourne early in 1874.
The mean for Melbourne is 58°. The range of 1879
in the shade was from 31° to 103°, with a mean of 57°.
Sandhurst is hotter than Melbourne, and Ballarat is
cooler. Melbourne temperature was down to 27° in 1869.
In February, 1877, it was from 45° to 100°. _
The rain on the Murray side of the colony often comes
with a north-west wind, though south-west is the wet
wind of the coast side. The former may be a downward
returning sea-current of air.
The Dividing range, as before mentioned, influences
the climate, especially in the tables of rain gauges. The
superior elevation of townships there enables them to
obtain more rain than their inland position may be other-
wise supposed to warrant. The high land to the north-east
—the Ovens district—secures for it a rainfall not to be
found on the neighbouring plains. Thus, Beechworth,
of the Ovens region, had 35 inches of rain when even
Portland, by the sea, had but 27.
The dry Wimmera District, to the north-west, has


onoemrnr AND CLIMATE. 115
rarely above fourteen inches a year, while the evapora-
tion is enormous. The sandy nature of the soil in that
part is also unfavourable. Cape Otway has nearly three
times as much rain as in the north.
The geology of Victoria, as a whole, is far more
favourable to the climate than that of New South Wales,
Queensland, or South Australia. The prevalence of
slate and basalt rocks over sandstone is a decided relief,
especially to the eyes, while evaporation is retarded.
The Melbourne rainfall is not, perhaps, more variable
than in other places, though indicating a good range.
It has been as high as 48, and as low as 14-. In 1845,
the amount was 24 inches; 1849, 44 ; 1850, 27; 1859,
21'7; 1875, 33; 1878, 25 in 116 days.
For ten consecutive years the amounts were thus :—-
1862 . . . 22 inches in 175 days.
1863 - - . 36'-1 ,, 171 ,,
1864 . . . 274 ,, 153 ,,
1865 . , , 15'9 ,, 139 ,,
1866 . . . 224 ,, 107 ,,
1867 - . . 25'8 ,, 133 ,,
1868 - - - 1327 ,, 120 ,,
1869 - - . 24'6 ,, 129 ,,
1870 . . . 337 ,, 129 ,,
1871 , , . 30']? ,, 125 ,,
1872 . - . 32'6 ,, 136 ,,
Melbourne averages 25 inches, being higher than
London, Adelaide, and Hobart Town, but lower than
Sydney and Brisbane. Ballarat, in 1877, had 28'5;
Sandhurst, 17; Ararat, 17; and Portland, 25 inches.
In the dry year of 1862, when Melbourne had but 22
inches of rain, though near the Bay of Port Phillip, other
places suffered even more. Those of the west received
most of all, and the hilly portions more than the lower.
Thus, Portland had 31 inches; Beechworth, 27; Bimin-
yong and Camperdown, 26; Ballarat, 23%; Ararat, 22;
Sandhurst, 18; and Heathcote, 17.
The temperature of that year, however, was not so
very high. The mean for the hottest month, January,
stood thus: Melbourne, 68°; Cape Otway, 60§°; Bal-
larat, 66° ; Portland, 68° ; Ararat, 70° ; Heathcote, 70§°;
and Sandhurst, 742°. In 1878, the highest temperature
of Melbourne in shade was 103°, and lowest 31°.
The Ozone, which has very considerable effect upon
VICTOR‘!-
Rainfall.
Melbourne
25 inches.
Ozone.
1 2


116 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
VIGTURII.
Efi‘ect of
ozone.
Ea rth-
quakes.
Gsonoor.
health, has been attentively observed by the able and in-
defatigable astronomer of Melbourne, Mr. R. L. J. Ellery.
He describes the ozonised air as accelerating the re-
spiration, exciting the nervous system, and promoting
the coagulability of the blood. Its odour is like chlorine,
and it may be oxygen in an altered condition. The ebb
of ozone in Melbourne, producing a lower tone of the
system, comes with the easterly wind. When the wind
suddenly chops round from north to south, or south-
west, the largest amount appears, sometimes originating
influenza.
While Melbourne ozone averaged 3'12 in the day, it
was 3'83 at night. Beechworth had the high rates of
4'19 and 5'95. More ozone is seen in autumn and winter
than in spring and summer.
Earthquakes are very rarely felt in Victoria, where
the shocks are quite slight. Mr. Ellery records the
observation of 1,428 meteors in 668 hours.
It must be admitted that Victoria, on the whole, has
the most pleasant and healthful climate on the Australian
continent.
Geology of Victoria.
Major Mitchell was the first to tell the story of Port
Phillip geology. In 1835 he traversed the Tertiary beds
covering the Silurian rocks southward of the Murray.
He crossed and recrossed that dividing range which has
subsequently revealed so vast a golden treasure. He
trod those wonderfully fertile downs and plains to the
westward, which were so indebted to volcanic agency for
their grassy luxuriance. He ascended basaltic peaks,
and explored craters of ash and scoria. The sturdy
granite piles became objects of his admiration and study.
The first to observe the geology of the country, the
first to make known its peculiarities, he was the first to
arouse interest at home in that newly discovered realm,
and much of the first immigration from Europe was
to be ascribed not less to the romantic descriptions of
geological features, than to the glowing picture by the
urveyor General of flowing streams, flowery meads,
and delicious airs.
The country has not lost its geological interest since
that day. While its meadows retain their earliest repu-


eaonoer or VICTORIA. 117
tation, and its climate is held in as deserved regard, the
hills and vales, the cinder cones and lava plains, the
granite peaks and slate ledges, the sandstone ruggedness
and limestone clothed with verdure, all command admi.
ration from the traveller, and combine to make a happier
home for colonists.
Tameness of scenery seldom continues long with the
Victorian rambler. He is never out of the sight of hills,
unless he journies into the north-western wastes. Even
on the basaltic plains he has the great range beside him,
and manya point of old eruption rises before him. But
over the whole eastern division, Alps on Alps appear.
The interest of the geology is that it is not only ro-
mantic and beautiful, but useful and valuable. But
one-fourth the size of the smallest of the other colonies
on the Australian continent, Victoria possesses re-
markable variety of rocks, and can count upon an
auriferous extent of country above the proportion seen
elsewhere.
Beyond any of the other colonies, it has enjoyed the
privileges of that denudation which swept off so much
of the heartless calcareous sandstone that formerly
covered nearly the whole continent with its barren garb.
Had not enormous and continued floods swept away the
immense thickness of this dreary and inhospitable for-
mation, with that of the carboniferous sandstone, Major
Mitchell would never have conferred upon Port Phillip
the appellation of ‘ Australia Felix.’
Enough of that disheartening tertiary pall remains to
the far west, to make the settler appreciate his deliver-
ance from its presence where cornfields wave, where
vineyards smile, and where golden crystals shine.
The miner is thankful for the geological transmuta-
tions which threaded the rocks with quartz veins, and
filled them with the sparkling treasure. He, too, appre-
ciates the aqueous action which broke down cliffs to
scatter the débris along the lines of ancient streams.
The base of the country is Silurian. Mr. Smyth saw
a Cumbrian floor in Gipps Land and by the Glenelg;
some think it lower metamorphic Silurian. The
Silurian area is very extensive, and has been com-
uted by Mr. Selwyn, Government geologist, to be not
li-‘ass than 30,000 feet, or nearly six miles, in thickness.
VIOTUIIII.
Scenery
attractive.
Rocks use-
ful.
Great de-
nudutiou
produced
fertility.
and
exposed
metals.
Base is
Silurian.


118 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALANIL
IIIOTURII.
ii
The Gram-
pians and
Alps.
Denuda-
tion.
Silurian
rocks me-
ridional.
Lower Si-
lurian the
auriferous
one.
Area of_
palaaozolc
formation.
That gentleman describes the mass as ‘consisting of a
great crumpled, contorted, and broken synclinal trough of
lower pals-aozoic and older strata, overlaid unconformably
by an equally extensive, broken, and undulating anti-
clinal arch of upper palaeozic, and, perhaps, mesozoic
rocks.’
The Dividing range, running through the centre of
the country from east to west, may be described simply
as Silurian and granite. The Grampians, cutting off
the advances of the former to the west by its bold pro-
gress from south to north, show a similar geology. The
towering, massive, conflicting, and tangled Australian
Alps to the eastward tell the same tale of age.
Stretching over the site of Melbourne, and all the
lower-lying country from the Grampians to the Alps,
was once an enormous arch of superincumbent rocks,
300 miles in length, whose removal has now left rearing
before us the stupendous Silurian walls of those two
great ranges of mountains.
The strike of these older rocks is at right angles to
axis of the long Dividing range. These meridional
lines, nearly north and south, are seen in parallels, more
or less obtrusive above the surface, over a vast extent of
country. Their consistent course is a sure compass to
the bushman, and the streams north and south of the
Main range are thus sent in northward directions to the
Murray, or in southward to the sea.
The lower palseozio series of sandstones, mudstones,
and, more rarely, limestones, are seen at intervals 400
miles from east to west, and northward from the ocean
to the Murray. Much metamorphism has taken place
among them. It is usually the bedrock of the gold-
fields of Sandhurst and Castlernaine.
The area of this lower auriferous formation has been
placed at 30,000 square miles, or nearly one-third of the
colony. 1t is, of course, presumed to stretch beneath
other beds.
It is fortunate for the interests of the colony that so
much of this series is laid bare, it being the mineral-
bearing one. The upper palaeozoic contains very little
gold, and may be considered as being non-metalliferous.
It consists of sandstone, grit, shale, schist, mudstone,
some limestone, quartzite, and conglomerate or breccia.


01:01.00? or VICTORIA. 119
Though not searched for gold, the upper Silurian
rocks are available for excellent building material,
especially the sandstone of the Mount Sturgeon. They
are in great force at the western Grampians, and at
Ben Cruachan and Mount Wellington of Gipps Land.
They appear in the conglomerates and shales of Mount
Tambo, the head of the Mitta Mitta. The sandstones
of the Grampians, with the conglomerates of Macedon
and the Avon river, are said to be allied to the old red
sandstone period of England.
Here and there intermediate patches are recognised; ns
at Bacchus Marsh, Heathcote, and Mansfield. The Yering
caves of the Yarra are of the limestone of Upper Silurian,
and afford a good soil for vines. Some of the Silurian
rocks have decomposed into clays, or firebrick material.
Above this Silurian development repose the Devonian
sandstones of the Coliban, the sandstones of the Dargo
road, the sandstone of Mount William and Mount Zero,
in the west, the shale of Broken river, and the quartz
grit of Mount Tamboritta, Gipps Land. The slates of
the Devil’s river, the conglomerate of Heathcote, and the
fossiliferous limestone of Buchan, in Gipps Land, are all
placed by Mr. Brough Smyth and others among the
Devonian or Permian. Mr. Daintree says the Permian
rocks rest on the upturned edges of the Silurian slates
and sandstones.
The area of this has been supposed 7,600 square miles.
The Secondary formations, once believed absent in
Australia, have certainly been very largely denuded, or
are buried beneath the enormous beds of the Tertiary
sandstones.
The two great centres of them are the Cape Otway
country and the region east of Western Port. The
mountain limestone south of Omeo, the carboniferous
strata of Hoddle’s range, and patches west of Geelong,
with the Wannon district toward the Glenelg, are all
Mesozoic.
The great bay between Cape Otway and Wilson's
Promontory has disconnected the two principal secondary
localities. The floods of basalt northward and westward
of Melbourne, down to the western border, rest upon
mesozoic deposits, if they had not been previously re-
moved by floods of water.
VIGTDBII.
Upper
Silurian
has little
gold.
Devonian
rocks.
Secondary
formations.


120 nmnsoox TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
VIGTURII.
Rocks not
good for
fiariners.
Coal
limited in
area.
Hopes of
coal
No Oolite.
Granite.
The Cape Otway district, about 1,800 square miles, is
almost entirely uninhabited, except towards Geelong.
The Western Port carboniferous area, 1.500 square
miles, is also comparatively unoccupied. The W'annon
and Glenelg portion, 350 square miles, is chiefly pastoral.
The lVelshpool of Gipps Land, 320 square miles, has
very few people. In most instances, the prevalence of
sands renders these places undesirable.
The Coal crops out along the eastern sea beach of the
Cape Otway country, as well as at Cape Paterson and
other points of Western Port. The want of harbours
on the coast is a serious difliculty. Better seams have
been found inland by sinking, though unavailable from
the deficiency of approach. Kilcunda mine is hopeful.
First known at Western Port in 1826, an effort was
made to work the mineral in 1849, and at subsequent
periods. But the Government geologist, Mr. Selwyn,
discouraged attempts. At his suggestion, a search was
made at Brighton, a few miles from Melbourne, and on
the Barrabool hills of Geelong, but without success.
No one doubts the existence of good coal, though Mr.
Selwyn questions the extent of the field, and the thick-
ness of the seams, owing to the mineral being Mesozoic,
and not true coal. Professor McCoy, of Melbourne, has
counselled the miners to go farther down, and so reach
better deposits. It may yet be found with the older
sandstones of the Grampians, and of North Gipps Land.
In age, the formation may be like the Wiannamatta
beds of New South Wales, the uppermost of the coal
series there. In East Gipps Land, however, the finding
of palaaozoic plants encourages the belief that the real
coal will be got there. In the coal measures of Cape
Otway, ferns fifty feet long have been unearthed; these
are similar to some now growing in New Zealand.
There is no trace of the Cretaceous or upper Oolitic
series.
Granite, of all varieties, and under all circumstances,
is recognised in the colony.
Great masses of it are seen at the north-eastern angle
by the Upper Murray, south and west of the Ovens,
between the Ovens and the Upper Goulburn, on the
Mount Alexander and Tarrengower chains, at the head
waters of the Coliban, the Upper Glenelg, the Dandenong


GEOLOGY or VICTORIA. 121
mountains, and in the south-eastern corner toward Cape
Howe.
Wilson's Promontory, formerly thought to be con.
nected with the granite of the Alps, is cut ofi' from it by
a great interval of slate and carboniferous rocks.
Victorian granite is binary, ternary, or quaternary.
It approaches the slate in character on one side, and the
igneous rocks on the other. Some sorts have a red fer-
ruginous quartz and hornblende, and form good material
for building. Mount Macedon is rich in many sorts of
granite. Cape Wollomai is of red felspar and green
mica. In other places the felspar is white, and the mica.
is yellow.
It occurs most often as an intrusive rock, and is of
different ages. The Silurian and carboniferous forma-
tions are much invaded by it. Isolated hills of granite
are met with in all quarters.
Porphyries are common enough in the Alps and in the
Dividing range. The greenstones, preferred by the
natives for their stone tomahawks, are sometimes diorite
or of triclinic felspar. They constitute the mass of a
range east of Lancefield. It is in a decomposed diorite
of Wood’s Point, in the Alps, that rich auriferous quartz
veins have been worked to so much profit.
The Tertiary beds, according to Mr. Selwyn, cover one-
third of the surface of the colony.
The great calcareous sandstone formation, extending
from King George’s Sound along West Australia and
South Australia, enters Victoria across the Glenelg on
the west, and Murray river on the north-west. It has
all the characteristics described in the geology of those
other colonies as Desert sandstone. The great amount of
loose sand found upon its surface makes some parts
practically a desert.
The depth is several hundreds of feet. It disappears
south of the Dividing range, excepting on the southern
and eastern shores of Port Phillip and Western Port.
It reappears in the lake district of Gipps Laud, as a
fringe along the sea-shore.
The Wimmera country to the north-west, very suit-
able to feed sheep upon its salt bush and thirsty plains,
is of the geology of the Brighton sands, which extend
to the eastern suburbs of Melbourne. The same series
VIBTURII.
Varieties
Green-
stone.
Tertiary.
Much like
desert sand-
stone.
Poor land.


122 nmnnoox 1'0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmnn.
VICTORIA.
M
Old Plio-
cene is
a u riferous.
Newer
Pliocene
period.
Miocene
not aurifcr-
ous.
Volcanic
rocks.
No active
crater.
Basalt.
is seen on the indented heads of Port Phillip, and across
Western Port.
This great deposit is Pliocene tertiary. Its composi-
tion is of varied character, though principally arenaceous
limestone, or calcareous sandstone, the former being pre-
ferred by the settler.
The tertiary covering of the gold, or rather the
material in which the digger searches for alluvial gold,
is the older pliocene. It may be quartz gravel, ferrugi-
nous gravel, clay, sandstone, conglomerate, hard cement,
or pipe clay.
The newer pliocene, besides being of the constituents
of the above, may be marl, lignite, the Loddon sand-
stone, or the freshwater sandstone of Geelong. Coloured
clays at Warrnambool exhibit some post-pliocene, like
the sandstone of Point Nepean. In the pliocene period
the Western Port was joined with Port Phillip Bay. A
depression of 15 feet would again unite those waters.
There is the evidence of three successive risings at Port
Phillip Heads. Mr. Ellery speaks of the Bay rising in
one part at the rate of 4 inches in a year.
The Miocene is developed in the Moorabool Valley,
west of Geelong, with its tropical fauna, and in the Cape
Otway region for six miles along the coast. St. Kilda.
miocene rests on the Silurian rock. The Portland sand.
stone, the shell limestone of the Barwon, and the rough
limestone of the Gipps Land lakes are of the miocene.
According to Mr. Selwyn, the miocene deposits are
nearly wholly destitute of gold ; others doubt this.
Mr Smyth’s oligocene is Mr. Selwyn’s eocene. Near
Melbourne are, some remains of pliocene sand dunes.
The volcanic characteristics of Victoria are remark-
able. Though Australia has not an active volcano. like
the Tongariro of New Zealand, it has in some of the
extinct craters of Victoria the latest illustrations of
igneous action. The Blacks have traditions of eruptions
in the times of their grandfathers.
As basalt, the flow has become the great western
plains, and the plains north and west of Melbourne.
The discharge is conspicuous throughout the Dividing
range more than in the Alps. It is rarely observed in
the northern half of the colony, though forming so pro-
minent a feature in the southern half. /


onotour or vrcronm. i 123
Basalt was an active intruder in the palaaozoic and
coal periods, and in subsequent times. Much of it is
dolerite, or bluestmw, the esteemed building stone of the
colony. There is a black basalt, a greenish black, and
a slaty basalt. Greenstone or diorite is uncommon.
According to Mr. Smyth, the Melbourne basalt is from
two irruptions, a quartz gravel bed existing between
them ; that of Emerald Hill is much decomposed; while
Ballarat received four successive floods, beneath which
the deep leads of gold are discovered In several places
rivers, as the Yarra and the Leigh, divide the basaltic
country from the slate one.
The basalt falls in rivers are often romantic features,
especially in the Wannon, the Campaspie, the Loddon,
the Hopkins, the Werribee, &c. These falls of prismatic
basalt are much admired.
The tracliyte and some of the basalt have issued from
fissures, and welled up from beneath. But in the ma-
jority of cases the basalt can be traced to some point of
eruption, which may have been submarine or subaérial.
Volcanic caves and craters are very abundant on the
south and south-west of the colony, though not unfra-
quent along the whole extent of the Dividing range.
They are very rarely seen near the Alps or the Gram-
pians. In the form of mammeloid hills, they are very
numerous to the west and north-west of Melbourne.
The volcanoes of Victoria have discharged basalt,
lava, scoria, cinders, mud, and ashes. There are no
craters known in Gipps Land, and little or no lava and
ashes in eastern Victoria. On the Murray side of the
Alps these vents are very rare. But along the Dividing
range, and especially in the neighbourhood of Ballarat,
extinct volcanoes may be counted by the score in a view
from one eminence.
Rising from the basaltic floor of the plains, some large
extinct cones are to be distinguished. Dozens of them
are passed on the way from Melbonrneto the west border.
Some of them are nearly closed at the summit, and
others form a rim of miles in extent. The craters are
sometimes filled with water, and are from a few feet to
hundreds of feet in depth.
Among the prominent extinct volcanoes may be men-
tioned Napier, 1,4430 feet high, with a crater 4-50 feet
IIIITURII.
Good build-
ing stone.
Successive
flows of
basalt.
Volcanic
Wefit.
Products of
craters.
Extinct
volcanoes.
Height
cones.


124 HANDBOOK ro AUSTRALIA AND saw ZEALAND.
VIBTQRII.
Tower Hill
crater 7
miles
round.
Lakes once
craters.
Volcanic
ash.
Stony rises.
Basaltie
caverns.
Fossils.
Like those
of Europe.
diameter; Elephant, 680 feet above the plain; Porndon,
the cinder-cone, 500; Shadwell, 670. Some craters, as
Buninyong, Franklin, Warrenheip, &c., are about 2,000
feet above the sea.
Mount Noorat crater is 230 feet deep; Basin Banks
lake, 300 feet; Franklin, 250; Hamilton, 100; Leura,
300; Keilambete, 200; and Purrumbete, 150. Some
have a diameter of several hundreds of feet. Tower
Hill crater boundary is six or seven miles round.
A number of the western lakes were formerly craters;
such as Wangoon, Elingamite, Terang, Keilambete,
Purrumbete, &c. Many of the craters, judging by the
ash of their banks, were in full activity during the
Miocene period; though not a few were sending forth
flame and smoke during the post-Pliocene days.
The ash or tufa deposits are most; extensive in the
south-west. The wombat burrows in them for even a
hundred feet. At the Warrions, beneath Mount Leura,
around Tower Hill, and near the various crater-form
lakes, a depth of from 50 to 150 feet of ash may be
sometimes known. When consolidated, as near Warr-
nambool, a building stone is produced. On the
Lawrence rocks, off Portland, the volcanic conglome-
rate is covered with the guano of sea birds.
The Stony Rises and Barriers to the south-west, and
east of Lake Colac, are singular monuments of basalt
or lava, forming ridges often many yards in height, a
labyrinth of stonework. Caverns of considerable extent
are common in the rock of this district, being made by
confined gases while the igneous element was in a state
of semi-fusion. Grass has been found under a. bed of
ashes near Warrnambool. '
The Fossils of Victoria, though unequal in interest to
those of Great Britain,—the geological epitome of the
world,—illustrate a past not much dissimilar to what
has been revealed by the ancient life of Europe.
The Palaeozoic forms have been mentioned in the
Geology of New South Wales. Above sixty genera
have been distinguished in the Silurian formation of
Victoria. Graptolites are not uncommon, with the
Orthoceras, Stenopora, Lingula, &c. The Graptolites
and Trilobites are like those of Europe, and the Encrin-
ites as in Canada. Mr. Selwyn noticed forms so new as
to require new genera to describe them.


enonoer or VICTORIA. 125
The labyrinthodon reptile of the colony was the
Bothriceps Australia; whose teeth, one eighth of an
inch long, conical and sharp, were numerously set in a
head curiously sculptured like that of the crocodile.
In a cave near Mount Macedon have been dug out
the bones of the devil and tiger, now living only in Tas-
mania. Along with the devil were found the remains of
the dingo, yet the wild, aboriginal dog of Australia. The
cave is now 1,000 feet above the sea level. A gigantic
sort of kangaroo was extracted from the earth floor of a
cave near Cape Schanck. A dingo was recovered from
under a bed of volcanic ash at Warrnambool.
The Thylacoleo carnifex, the butcher pouched lion,
was first discovered near the shores of a western lake,
according to the prediction of Dr. Owen, that a marsu-
pial lion was probably living in the age of monster her-
bivorous marsupials.
A Polyzoa bed extends for six miles, with a thickness
of thirty feet, on the eastern coast of Cape Otway. The
Glossopteris abounds in the Cape Patterson coal, the
Lepidodendron in the coal of the Avon river of Gipps
Land, and the Zamia at Cape Otway. The Geelong
limestone has the Pecten, Echinus, and Belemnite. A
gigantic kangaroo was found in the pliocene limestone
of Port Phillip Bay. The present vegetation of the
colony resembles that of the Eocene period in Britain.
The miocene plant beds of Bacchus Marsh have no
Myrtaca-:~a, so common now. _
The Diprotodon was formerly an inhabitant of the
country. Its remains are seen in pliocene deposits of
Lake Colac and other places. Its teeth were well
adapted to the mastication of gum leaves. It was a
slow-moving beast, the size of a hippopotamus. The
marsupial character was first made clear by the
bending of the angle of the jaw. With the face of a
kangaroo, it had the teeth of a tapir.
Some bone deposits have been discovered near lake
Corangamite, and fruits by Smythes creek.
Opinions differ as to the period of gold’s first appear-
ance in the auriferous quartz veins. Some, as two
leading geologists of Melbourne, contended for the ter-
tiary age of its production. Mr. Brough Smyth would
have it several periods. The Rev. W. B. Clarke, of
IIBTllRIl-
Ij1b)'rin-—_
thodon.
Tiger and
devil once
in Victoria.
Dingo a
native dog.
Marsnpial
lion
Coal plants.
Gigantic
kangaroo.
Existing
pxlants like
ritish
Eocene.
The Dipro-
todon de-
scribed.
253°‘


126 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
VIGTUHII.
GOVERN-
MENT.
Colony
founded
against will
of the state.
Port Phil-
lip Associa-
tion.
Arbitrator
elected,
June 1,
1836.
Comman-
dant, Oct. 1,
1836.
Sydney, claims a higher antiquity for the precious metal.
The Rev. Julian T. Woods traces its origin to diorite,
and believes it passed by slow infiltration from secondary
rocks to the quartz. It has been recognized in the calc-
spar of reefs.
Further notice of gold, witha reference to other mine-
ral products of the colony, will be found in the chapter
of ‘ Mining in Victoria.’
Government.
The settlement of Victoria was an irregular one. Dif-
ferent from every other dependency of Great Britain,
this was established not only without the aid or sanction
of the State, but positively in defiance of its commands.
In 1826 Messrs. Batman and Gellibrand asked the per-
mission of the Governor of New South Wales to form a
settlement on the Port Phillip shore. They were refused
that liberty. In 1833, however, the Henty family quietly
passed over from Van Diemen’s Land to Portland Bay,
where sheep were depastured, and a whaling station
was formed.
When John Batman’s Port Phillip Association carried
their flocks over to the sites of Melbourne and Geelong,
the people were warned ofi' as trespassers. But as gather-
ing numbers arrived from the other colonies, and as occa-
sions of dispute necessarily took place, a form of govern-
ment was decided on. A meeting of the inhabitants in
Batman’s house, on Batman’s Hill, elected Mr. Simpson
on June 1, 1836, to act as arbitrator. Mr. Steward, J .P.,
of Goulburn, presided at that meeting.
The report of Mr. Steward induced the Sydney autho-
rities to make the best of aifairs at Port Phillip, accept-
ing the situation, and taking the intruders as citizens.
On October 1, 1836, Captain Lonsdale came in H.M.S.
‘ Rattlesnake,’ Captain Hobson, commander, to be Com-
mandant of the infant colony. The same title was given
to other oflicers, in the olden times, acting under the
governor; as, at Newcastle, Port Macquarie, Moreton
Bay, Launceston, Norfolk Island, Port Arthur, Mac-
quarie Harbour, &c.
The commandant of Port Phillip, finding many people
camping with Messrs. Batman and Fawkner, fixed upon


eovnnnmnnr. 1 27
the Yarra-Yarra Settlement as his head-quarters. There
he placed his little staff of constables, and custom-house
ofiicer and surveyors.
Governor Bourke, after a visit to Port Phillip, and pro-
claiming the town of Melbourne on May 19, 1837, was
so satisfied of the progress there, that he despatched
Mr. Latrobe as Superintendent of the province of Port
Phillip. That gentleman took possession of his ofiice
October 1, 1839. The business of government was not
extensive, since the supply of stationery sent down from
Sydney, in 1838 for the clerks, amounted to a quire of
foolscap, a bundle of quills, a box of wafers, and a
hundred yards of red tape.
After the wonderful immigration from Europe in 1839
and 1840, the colonists began to speak of governing
themselves, especially as the large customs’ revenue at
the port of Melbourne was expended, it was said, in
Sydney, and not for the benefit of the southern pro-
vince. Hence arose the demand for ‘ Separation ’ from
New South Wales.
When permitted to send a few members to the partly
nominee Council held in Sydney, one of their representa-
tives, the well-known Rev. Dr. Lang, warmly contended
for separation. As the Port Phillipians were unsuccess-
ful, and saw no prospect of home rule, they declared
their small share of government a farce, and derisively
elected Earl Grey as their representative.
The struggle terminated in the victory of Port Phillip,
which, upon July 1, 1850, was proclaimed the indepen-
dent colony of Victoria, and the superintendent became
Governor Latrobe.
Still the Government was a close one. Only two-thirds
of the members of the Council were elective, the rest being
nominated by the ruling powers. Melbourne, neverthe-
less, had a municipality in 1842.
The limited nature of the franchise, and the general
unprogressive character of the Government, excited great
dissatisfaction after the gold discovery. The diggers,
especially, were indignant at the rough manner in which
they were hunted for their monthly licenses. The feel-
ing culminated in the Ballarat Rebellion of December,
18544.
Although the rising was suppressed by soldiery, the
VIBTURII.
Superinten-
dent La-
truhe, Oct.
1, 1839.
Separation
cry.
Earl Grey
elected
member for
Pt. Phillip.
Port Phil-
lip. in~ le-
pendent
1850.
Demand
for am -re
freedom.
Ballarat
rebellion.


128 mmnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IIIGTBRII.
Responsible
govern-
ment, 1855.
Victorian
constitu-
tion the
more de-
mocratic.
Legislative
Council.
Legislative
Assembly.
colonists were aroused, and a determined eflbrt was put
forth, with the vigorous aid of the Press, to obtain re-
sponsible government.
The Melbourne Parliament, like the other legislative
bodies of Australia, being required by the Home Govern-
ment to suggest a. suitable form of rule adapted to the
circumstances of the colony, forwarded an expression of
public opinion. The result was that all the Australian
settlements were emancipated from nomination, and al.
lowed by the Queen in Council to be governed under a
responsible ministry. _
The new constitution was proclaimed November 23,
1855.
In this it was apparent that the Melbourne men got
more freedom than the Sydney ones, because they had
demanded more. Unlike the Upper House of the old
colony, the Legislative Council of Victoria, as well as the
Legislative Assembly, became wholly elective by the
people. In the New South Wales constitution, it was
stated of the colony that it ‘is dependent on the United
Kingdom.’ That submissive phrase does not occur in
the Victoria preamble. The president of the Council
was to be appointed by his Excellency in Sydney, but
elected by the members themselves in Melbourne.
There was so much new blood from Britain in the
newer colony, and so much more energetic resolve to have
British rights, that a greater advance was demanded,
and a more liberal government was obtained. Among
other changes was that of abrogating the property quali-
fication clause for members in the Assembly.
As those who voted for the Legislative Council mem-
bers were required to be freeholders or tenants of 1001. a
year, there were about six times the number of electors
for the upper house as for the lower one. The Council
was for ten years, six persons going out every two years.
The candidate for oftice, unlike that for the Assembly,
must possess a. freehold worth 5,0001. The Legislative
Council consisted of thirty persons, chosen in the six
provinces of the Central, North-eastern, North-western,
Eastern, Westem, and Southern ; now 42 members.
The present Legislative Assembly has eighty-six
members, selected from fifty-five electoral districts, for
three years. Victoria, in proportion to its population,


GOVERNMENT. 129
has five times as many members as are returned to the
English Parliament. With a registration fee of a shil-
ling, any man, not previously convicted of felony, and
being British-born or a naturalised subject, may become
an elector for the Assembly. All elections are decided
by ballot. There were in 1884, 105483 electors on the
rolls for the Legislative Council, and 196,611 for the
Legislative Assembly.
The Victorian government is, therefore, decidedly de-
mocratic. The principle is that of ‘for the people,
by the people.’ And it is generally admitted that,
with occasional hasty policy, the country has been
well and vigorously governed. The laws are intelli-
gently respected. The educated and property-accumu-
lating working classes of Victoria have exhibited a
conservative impulse, not to be expected from an ig-
norant and a poverty-stricken populace as in parts of
Europe.
The revenue of the country has fluctuated considerably.
During the early years it was of moderate amount,
averaging about 41. per head. In 1852, the year of the
rush of diggers, the revenue suddenly rose to 121. per
head; and the following year, to 161. per head.
Calmer times came. In 1855 the revenue was but
2,728,6561., or 81. per head. From that time, as popu-
lation increased, and excessive im ortations gradually
ceased, the revenue descended to £21., 61., and 51. er
head. The 51. average of 1864 realised 2,955,3Zi)81.
The taxes for 1884 were 21. 9s. per head.
The year ending on June 30, 1885, gave a revenue
of 6,290,6521. ; or about 61. 5s. 5d. per head. The ter-
ritorial revenue from the Crown lands amounted to
1,04i6,4141. in 1877, being 26,4051. over that for 1876.
The revenue for the year ending December 31st, 1873,
was 3,9O2,O2411., and expenditure, 3, 6559,5331. The expen-
diture is diiferent from that at home. There is not
the paying of a third of the income as interest upon
debts incurred by war; though interest is willingly
paid upon loans contracted for useful and reproductive
public works. But there is an extraordinary as well as
ordinary expenditure. As this presents an important
difference in the system of government between Europe
and the Colonies, the following explanation, from the
K
VICTQRII.
Qualifica-
tion for an
elector.
Electors.
Working
classes
truly con-
servative.
Revenue
Personal
taxes
21. 9:. 0d.
Revenue
61. 5:. 5d.
per head.
Expendi-
ture difi'ers
from the
English
one.
Ordinary
and extra-
ordinary
govern-
ment ex-
penditure.


130 munnoox TO msrmma AND saw ZEALAND.
VIGTBRII.

Loans.
Public debt
for public
works.
M uni cipal
system.
report of the Commissioners inquiring into the state of
the Civil Service in Victoria, will be of interest.
‘ It is a necessary incident of the imperfect stage of
political development that pertains to a very new coun-
try, that the Government is obliged to undertake many
functions from which at a more advanced period of
the country’s growth it is relieved. In addition to the
ordinary duties of government, the Government of this
country is compelled to conduct the business of a great
land0wner—to survey, to lease, and to sell its property,
its town lots, its country lands, its pastures, and its
wines; to construct and maintain roads and bridges,
and other works of public utility ; to form railways and
electric telegraphs; assist municipalities, road boards,
mining boards, and charitable institutions; to establish
and supervise lighthouses, lunatic asylums, pounds, and
cemeteries, and to do many other acts which in older
countries, possessing similar institutions, are effected
either through private enterprise or through local
exertion.’
Thus, that Commission took the expenditure of 1859
as consisting of 1,188,801Z. ordinary (or that common
in other countries), and 2,394,797l. extraordinary, or
twice as much as the ordinary.
The expenditure has, of course, kept pace with the
revenue, and sometimes exceeded it. That in 1884-5,
however, came to 6,194,523l. Customs gave 1,919,538l.;
railways and waterworks, 2,353,99/ll. revenue.
The loans before the new constitution were only
two millions, borrowed for the Melbourne and Geelong
waterworks. Heavy amounts were subsequently ob-
tained to carry on the various railway works. In the
year 1884 the debt in full was 28,325,112l., for which
there are substantial assets. Though the public works
are remunerative, they would have become much more
so, but for the fact that many of them were constructed
at a time when labour was at almost a fabulous rate in
Victoria. The railways cost to 1885, 24,588,04~1l.
The stability of affairs in Victoria is evidenced by the
ability of Government to borrow at par at four per cent.
Local government in the colony owes much to the
able Sir Andrew Clarke, of the Engineers, formerly
the Surveyor-General of Victoria, who may be justly


POPULATION. 1 31
called the second founder of the municipal system
there. The municipal income, 1884, was 7515,9671.
At the end of 1871 there were sixty-four corporate
towns and boroughs, containing within their municipal
limits about one-half the population. A borough must
not have an area of more than nine square miles.
Outside of these boroughs in 1885 were 119 Shires,
with their councils, now including Road districts, which
enclose the other moiety of the population. A road
district is not more than 40 square miles, and a shire
one hundred. Shires were formed in 1863.
These are empowered to levy rates, and administer
the local afiairs relative to roads and other improvements.
They are the outward exponents of a very progressive
state of things. No colony in the empire can boast of
such good means of communication as now exist in
Victoria, through such local agencies.
Population.
Under the head of ‘ Agriculture,’ the increase of the
population of the colony may be noted from 1838. Mr.
Henry Heylin Hayter, Government Statist, of Victoria,
has prepared valuable statistical tables of the colony
from time to time.
In June, 1836, there were 224 persons, of whom 186
were males. The year after, the number rose to 1,264,
including 280 females. In the first thirty years of its
existence, Victoria grew to a population of 636,982. On
December 31, 1878, the number was estimated 879,386.
While New South Wales took eighty years to reach
half a million, Victoria gained that amount in twenty.
two years. At the end of 1872 there were 770,727 people;
70,428 were on the gold fields; 374.000 were in towns.
The census of April, 1871, gave 712,263 white persons,
382,367 males, and 329,896 females. There were also
1,330 aborigines, 784 males and 546 females; with
17,935 Chinese, only 36 of whom were females.
The female population in June, 1836, was 2665 to
100 males; in 1841, 41"87; in 1846, 6288; in 1851,
67'40; in 1854, 51'90; in 1857, 5539; in 1861, 64-41 ;
and in 1872, 83'5. On December 31, 1884, there were
510,659 males and 450,617 females, or 961,276.
The most settled places had in 1871 the highest per-
VICTORIA.
Shires and
road
districts.
Excellent
roads.
Porou-
1-ion.
Progress
from 1836.
Males and
females.
Chinese
population.
Proportion
of females.
K 2


132 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IIGTDRII.
More
females
than m ales
in places.

Births.
Marriages.
Deaths.
Colony
becoming
more
healthy.
centage of females; as Bourke County, 97'07, and
Grant County, 92'80. The Murray District had but
63'58, and Dargo County, 3632. Caulfieldshire, near
Melbourne, had 110 females to 100 males.
The population is variously distributed, even in the
counties; for, while Millewa had but '03 to the square
mile, Bourke had 13647, or 4,500 times as many.
The births have changed their average since 1865,
when they were 42‘04 in the thousand of population,
coming gradually down to 3689 for 1871; but of 10,950
births on the Gold Fields, 250 were illegitimate, or 1 in
43; of 6,225 in the rural parts, 81, or 1 in 77; of 1,917
on the coast, 3-5, or 1 in 54; but of 6,948 in Melbourne,
321, or 1 in 21. In two northern capitals of Europe the
proportion has been 1 in 2. Victoria, in this respect,
ranks as more moral than Great Britain. In 1872, of
27,361 births, 1 in 33 only was illegitimate. In propor-
tion to the whole population, such would be 1 in 948.
The births in 1884 were 28,850, or 30'49 to 1,000.
The marriage ratio has undergone a chan go in ten
years. In 1860 it stood at 9‘07; in 1865, 7'.9; in 1868,
6'99; and in 1872, 6'30, being 4,791 in number. In
1884, 7218 were married, being 7'63 in 1,000.
In 1871 the unmarried males were 278,103, and
females, 204,838. The married males were 111,182,
and females, 111,315. The widowers were 9,818, and
the widows, 13,683.
Under 14 years of age the sexes were nearly equal,
being 147,569 males, and 145,496 females. Above 80
years there were 149 married men, and 41 married
women; 180 were widowers, and 237 were widows.
Under age there were 96 husbands and 1,254 wives.
Of those married that year, 3,735 were bachelors to
spinsters, 371 of bachelors to widows, 353 of widowers
to spinsters, and 234 of widowers to widows.
The deaths in 1884 were 13,505, Or 14} per 1,000.
The proportion to 1,000 of population was, in 1860,
2236. Since then it has fluctuated between 19‘37, and
the low rate for 1871, 13'43. The Colony, never un-
healthy, had bcen for the six years previously gradually
becoming less subject to disease.
Improvements in the style of living, the character of
buildings, the supply of water in towns, the drainage,


POPULATION. 133
and, above all, the moral habits of the people, have made
this difference in mortality.
The climatic influences have certainly been favourable
to health and longevity. It has been often remarked
that old folks get a new lease of their lives by removal
to Victoria. Although, without doubt, that colony, ex.
hihits more than any other the supposed American cha-
racteristics of indefatigable energy, there is by no means
the same reckless indifference to the laws of health as
upon the Western Continent.
The sallow faces, the ague and fever-worn frames, the
sickly women, the frail children, the nervous men, the
premature old age, meeting the eye of travellers in both
Eastern and Western America, are not apparent in the
streets of Melbourne, Geelong, and Ballarat.
On the contrary, rosy faces, rotund forms, bright eyes,
and hearty laughter are more common there than in the
cities of Europe. Circumstances are easier, the climate
engenders hopefulness, and there is a striking absence
of morbid care in business.
Malformations are far less frequent there than even
in Great Britain. Thus, deaf mutes, who are as 1 in
1,738 in England, and 1 in 206 in some parts of Switzer-
land, are but as 1 in 9,000 in Victoria.
Diseases incident to the place may be supposed dy-
sentery, diarrhoea, and brain affections. But the medical
reader will judge from the subjoined report of causes of
death in 1884.
The classification is this: Miasmatic diseases, 1,147
males, and 1,136 females; enthetic, 32 males, and 18
females; dietetic, 138 males, and 78 females; parasitic,
35 males, and 50 females; diathetic, 283 males, 302
females; tubercular, 959 males, and 701 females; ner-
vous, 830 males, and 684 females; circulatory organs,
577 males, and 324 females; urinary, 233 males, and 118
females ; respiratory, 1,145 males, and 741 females ; gene-
rative, 1 male, and 24 females; digestive, 634 males,
and 524 females; locomotive system, 12 males, and 10
females; integumentary, 17 males, and 16 females; de-
velopmental, 254 males, and 206 females ; nutrition, 488
males, 365 females; accident, 522 males, and 163
females; homicide, 11 males, and 14 females; suicide,
7-5 males, and 17 females; execution, 3. From old age
there died 364 males, and 204 females.
VIQTURIR.
People
more
healthy
than in
America.
Few mal-
formations-
Diseases.
Statistics
of fatal
diseases.


134 nmnsoox zro AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
VICTORII.
Diseases of
males and
females.
Death of
children.
N o small-
)0X or h -
I Y
drophobia.
Proportion
of diseases.
Variation
f di
o seases
in different
years.
Chinese
suffer more
than Euro-
peans.
Among the particular afiections the following may be
selected, as showing differences with the sexes: sun-
stroke, 5 males, 2 females; bite of snake, 3 males;
liver, 182 and 144; pneumonia, 488 and 271 ; heart, 488
and 296; brain, 200 and 129; cancer, 221 and 225;
apoplexy, 190 and 176; paralysis, 118 and 80; phthisis,
780 and 559; gout, 10 and 7; scrofula, 15 and 10;
delirium tremens, 11 and 4; diphtheria, 77 and 85;
dysentery, 42 and 36; diarrhoea, 341 and 302; ague,
1 and 2; rheumatism, 29 and 31; asthma, 36 and 13.
During ten years, from 1855 to 1865, it was found that
while one-third of the deaths were in children not one
year old, one-third of the zymotic diseases occurred with
those of that age, and two-thirds of the developmental.
One-eighth of all diseases arose from dysentery and
diarrhoea in those ten years; in 1871, owing to im-
proved conditions, they formed but one-fourteenth of
the cases.
Diphtheria was not known till 1858, when there was
one death in 1,000 from it. Colonial fever is a sort of
typhoid. Typhns and remittent fevers are very un-
common. Small-pox and hydrophobia are unknown.
There is less dropsy, but a singular increase of cancer
lately; for, in 1854, only three deaths came from cancer.
Nervous diseases formed in the ten years one-tenth
of the cases; respirative, one-twelfth; digestive, one-
sixtcenth; atrophy and debility in children, one-twelfth ;
circulation, one twenty-fifth; and developmental, as
teething, old age, &c., one-thirtieth. Fatal cases of
child birth were as one in two hundred and forty births.
In some years diseases have been more fatal than in
others. Thus, with dysentery, 944 died in 1860, and
220 in 1868; cancer, 58 in I860, and 184 in 1869;
brain, 407 in 1863, 166 in 1868; measles, 7 in 1864,
and 630 in 1867; diphtheria, 871 in 1861, and 215 in
1865; asthma, 12 in 1864, and 30 in 1869 ; liver, 87 in
1861, and 200 in 1869; phthisis, 779 in 1867, 1,124 in
1878.
The Chinese are more subject to disease than Euro-
peans in Victoria. Fevers and dropsy are more fatal,
but phthisis and dysentery are dangerous. There are,
relatively, fewer accidents among them, but more suicides.
The Chinese have favoured Victoria beyond any other


mmczmou AND RELIGION. 135
colony. Though now not above 8,000, they were once
4-5,000. By an Act of the Legislature, each Mongolian
arrival paid 101. if coming by sea, and ‘Ll. if overland ;
this was in addition to ll. per quarter for settlement.
They are chiefly employed in mining and market-garden-
ing. There are some wealthy and highly respectable
Chinese merchants in the colony, two of whom are
directors of banks.
The Aborigines of the colony are rapidly passing away.
Lords of the soil in 1835, John Batman sought the
right of pasturage from them by a promise of annual
tribute. The British Government never acknowledged
this treaty, nor noticed the presence of the natives when
taking the country.
Protectors were subsequently appointed, to protect
the blacks from the lawless whites, and the whites from
savage blacks. They were unnecessary when the Euro-
peans grew the many, and the aborigines the few. Wars
were not so destructive as the drink and disease, brought
by the strangers to the tribes. As many as several
thousand were gathered together at a grand corrobory
in 1844. By the returns of 1871, there were but 1,300
in the colony. Another estimate recently made them
but 800. In the county of Dalhousie, with 12,000 in-
habitants, there were but three men and no women of the
natives; though in Karkarooc, with 221 Europeans, there
were 83 male and 45 female aborigines.
A few young men are employed cattle-driving; but,
with every encouragement, none settle on farms or
engage in trade. Several efforts to Christianise them
have eventually proved failures. The Moravian mission
in Gipps Land has, for the present, gratifying rewards of
labour. Meanwhile, the race is descending almost child-
less to the grave. In 1882, there were only 780.
Education and Religion.
Unquestionably, Victoria has the proud distinction of
being the first colony in the empire for devotion to
education. In none other are schools so well supported
by the State, and in so high a condition of efliciency.
Whatever may be said concerning this most democratic
of English Governments, no one can deny its zeal and
IGTORII.
The
Chinese.
Victorian
Aborigines
Christian
missions.
Enum-
T105.


I36 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND-
VICTURIA.
First sys-
tem, the
Denomina-
tioual.
Complaint
against the
system.
National
School .
Board.
liberality towards public institutions, and such in.
stitutions as tend to educate and refine the working-
classes.
The progress in this respect since the inauguration of
responsible rule, in 1855, is a gratifying tribute to the
generosity and intelligence of the British Parliament
granting that political favour, and is the best evi-
dence that their confidence in the colonists was not
misplaced.
The chaos produced by the gold fever has yielded there
to order and social development.
Like Queensland, also once a province of New South
Wales, Victoria, as Port Phillip District, was endowed
with schools under the Denominational system of the
parent colony.
These schools were prominently connected with those
denominations which then shared in the pro mta. State aid
to religion, namely, the Church of England, the Presby-
terian, the Wesleyan, and the Roman Catholic. A
Denominational School Board, in which these various
bodies had representatives, administered the funds.
Assistance was granted to buildings, as well as the pay-
ment of teachers’ salaries.
In 1848, when the colony was pursuing the even
tenor of its way, the Board had 27 schools, with 2,396
pupils.
The same dissatisfaction with the system was ex-
pressed at Melbourne as at Sydney. It was alleged that
Government, while supporting education, was in reality
upholding denominationalism; and, in another form, con-
tributing to the funds of antagonistic religionists, as most
school-rooms were places of worship.
The National School Board, therefore, was brought
into existence in 1851. The avowed intention was to
receive children of all sects, give them a good secular in-
struction, and afford facilities in class-rooms, after school
hours, for ministers to give dogmatic lessons to those
belonging to their respective communions. It was found,
however, that scarcely any of the clergy embraced the
offer; and so the so-called National Schools became
really secular ones.
As a specific grant was made to the National Board, it
could be both aggressive and progressive in the establish-


EDUCATION arm RELIGION. 137
ment of schools. The rivalry of the two Boards is thus
shown :—-

1 |
D°“"s'c",1§§,f,l°““‘ De”°,‘}},‘;,‘,‘}§*°““1 |lNationn1Bchoo1s National Pupils
1851 74 3,016 6 261
1853 125 5,788 27 908
1857 439 17,656 93 4,475
1861 484 24,224 181 9,713

The country complained of the waste of public money,
agd an amalgamation of the two Boards took place in
1 62.
The new Board of Education, appointed by the Go-
vernor, consists of five members, no two of whom are of
the same denomination.
A discretionary power was exercised in the closing of
small and inefiicient schools. While money aid was
granted to all schools, especial favour was shown to such
as were placed under the Board as vested schools. A
number of denominational school-rooms were thus, for
private or public reasons, made over to the State.
If, then, in a certain neighbourhood, there existed an
excess of schools, the vested ones had the prior right to
public support.
A marked success has attended the change of régime.
The percentage of regular attendants at school in pro-
portion to the population has since been raised nearly
half as much again. The improvement of the teaching
has kept pace with numerical progress. . The schools in
Victoria are provided with an eflicient staff of instruc-
tors, an ample supply of the best apparatus, and no lack
of encouragement from the State.
When the two Boards were amalgamated, the Church
of England schools had 12,920 pupils; the Presbyterians,
6,090; the Wesleyaus, 5,582; and the Roman Catholics,
9,716. Other denominations had schools, though gene-
rally casting in their influence with the National Schools,
these having 10,512 children.
Since then the rested schools have increased 137 per
cent., while the non-vested have decreased 15 per cent.
Aid to buildings is only given to the vested.
710101111.
Both
Boards
united-
Vested
schools
favoured.
Efiicient
education.
Increase
of schools.


138 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA sun new zmrsnn.
VICTORIA-
Secular
instruction
and free
religious
teaching.
All instruc-
tion now
free.
Rural and
half-time
schools.
Pupils.
Average
attendance.
One in 4
taught.
Colleges,
1884.
But the utmost liberality exists in the conduct of the
schools. All of them must submit to two rules,—admit
children of any denomination, and devote four hours in
each day to secular instruction only. After those hours,
children of the particular religious sect may remain for
dogmatic teaching, while others retire.
The practical effect is to make all schools, whatever
their name, secular ones ; there seldom being any lessons
beyond the two hours of the forenoon, and two in the
afternoon, unless it be that the elder scholars have addi-
tional instruction after the departure of the rest.
The latest change is an important one. At present the
doors of all State-supported schools were thrown open to
all comers without fee or charge.
Church bodies declining to rent their buildings to
Government receive less aid to their schools. As public
schools are completed, aid is withdrawn from others.
School buildings are available for religious services after
school hours. Boards of Advice are elected by ratepayers.
R/ural schools were added in 1869, and Half-time schools
the year after. The former were sanctioned in sparsely
populated districts, where an average of 15 pupils could
be secured. The latter provided for another difliculty.
In 1873 there were over 60 rural schools.
The Public schools on January 1,1884, were 1,777.
The number of children educated was 188,949, being
about one in less than five of the population.
The average attendance is very high, amounting to
135 days in the year—that of England being 120, Ire-
land 80, and the United States 106. Two out of three
of the population between 5 and 15 are at school ; while
others are there who are below the first or beyond the
last age. Corporal punishment for females is not allowed.
In addition to the 188,949 in the Public schools,
there were, at the beginning of 1884, 35,773 in Private
schools, and 3,023 in Industrial ones, and the Reforma-
tories. The total, 232,440, would give an average of
1 in 4 of the population, equal, perhaps, to what can be
seen in any other community.
Of the higher class schools in Melbourne are the
Scotch College, with 305 pupils in 1884; Church of
England Grammar School, 170; Wesley College, 132;
St. Patrick’s College, 120.


EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 139
In the Industrial schools for neglected children, board
and lodging are found. The reformatory schools are
for those children convicted of crime, or placed there
for wholesome restraint. A large one for boys is on
board of a vessel in Port Phillip Bay.
The Board of Education expended during 1884 the
sum of 593,927. A Minister of Education is president.
The expenditure is now at the rate of nearly half a
million a. year; or, relatively, about twenty times as much
as that granted by the British Parliament for schools.
The cost per child varied with the character of the
school, and consisted of local and Government contri-
butions. In non-vested schools the average annual cost
was 14s. 1§d. local, 23s. 4§d. Government, or ll. 17s. 6d.
per head. The‘ rates for vested schools were 17s. 13111.
local, 268. lfnl. Government aid, or 21. 3s. 3d. per
head.
The local contributions for schools in 1871 were 9,9401;
and toward building expenses, 12,4431.
The teachers formerly derived their income from a
fixed State salary, their proportion of the pupils’ fees,
and the bonus known as result money. Since the esta-
blishment of free education, the fees have been compen-
sated for by increased salary.
They are a well-appointed class of persons, under a
strict system of inspection, and are fairly remunerated
and respected.
Early in 1879 there were 1,824 male instructors, and
2,082 female. Of 446 unclassed female teachers, 414
only occupied the position of work mistresses, requiring
examination in needlework. These numbers relate to
1872, as classification is now complete.
In the first-class honours were 7 masters and 3 mis-
tresses; and in the second-class honours, 68 and 20.
In the first division of competency there were 319
masters and 91 mistresses; in the second division, 381
and 208. The salaries have been recently fixed on a
numerical basis.
A teacher with less than 20 pupils has 8OZ. salary;
with less than 100, 1301. An additional 101. comes with
each 25 extra up to 350 pupils; after which an increase
of 50 is required for the additional 101. The Result
money, to be added, must not exceed one half the salary.
VICTORIA.
Industrial
schools and
reforma-
tories.
Minister of
Education.
Annual
school
charge to
the State of
600.0001.
Teachers’
pay.
Examina-
tion of
teachers,
and pay
with
honouri-


14.0 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND nnw zmmnn.
VIBTOBII.
Normal
schools.
Drawing
and
singing.
Pupil
teachers.
Aid to
students.
Denomina-
tional
Colleges.
The Uni-
versity.
Professors.
Public
museum.
Several instances have occurred in which the income of
the teacher of a common school has exceed 5001.
Several Normal Training Schools supply free educa-
tion, board, and lodging to male and female teachers.
Teachers are engaged by the local committees of schools,
subject to the Board’s approval.
Many drawing-masters and singing-masters are em-
ployed by the Board in the State schools. Of the
417 pupil-teachers, 34 were in 1872 in the highest or
first class; 62 in the second; 97 in the third; and 224
in the fourth. In 1884, 1,800 male teachers, 2,400 female.
As an incentive to study, the Government offer the
successful pupils in common schools presentations to
certain collegiate establishments, and to the Uni-
versity. There are technological institutions.
A large sum of money was apportioned some years ago
by the State for the aid of higher schools in the leading
denominations. The Scotch College of Melbourne ranks
first for numbers. The Grammar School is attached to
the Church of England. Wesley College is under Wes-
leyan control. St. Patrick’s College is the Roman
Catholic institution. All received State assistance toward
their building fund, though not annual grants.
The University is an institution worthy of a colony
so anxious for knowledge. Its formation in 1853 was
the crowning of the educational edifice by the State.
In addition to erecting the buildings required, the
Government grants 9,0001. a year towards the current
expenses, while fees produce about 11,0001.
The professors have been men of high repute even in
Europe. Some of them, notably Professor McCoy, the
comparative anatomist and geologist, have identified
themselves with other efforts to raise their fellow
colonists. For the year ending December, 1883, 128
matriculated ; some ladies passed with honours.
An admirable museum, open to the public, is attached
to the University. It is perhaps not only the first in
the British colonies, but equal to any one in the empire
out of London. There is a Working Men’s College.
The examinations are so well conducted, that the Uni-
versity degrees for arts, medicine, law, and music have
a deserved reputation. Among the ad eundem gradu-
ates have been several of the Governors of the Colony.


EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 141
Various religious bodies have placed their colleges for
young ministers in aiililiation with the University.
The Victorian Legislature has aided 1n other ways the
educational wants of the people. 110 mechanics’ insti-
tutes and free libraries have been fostered. The public
library of Melbourne has 150,000 volumes,
The mechanics are also benefited by classes for tech-
nical instruction. In no part of the English dominions,
perhaps has so much solicitude been shown by the State
for the interests of general education and for the eleva-
tion of the tastes of the working community, by lectures
in science and art, with access to technological and
other museums.
The Press of Victoria, as of Australia and New Zealand
generally, has exerted a highly educational influence.
Excepting the United States, there is no other part of
the world where the people are such newspaper readers.
The first Australian journal was issued March 5,
1803. It was known as the ‘ Sydney Gazette and New
South Wales Advertiser.’ The publication, under Go-
vernment, was conducted by George Howe, the father
of the Australian Press. The first number gave as
recent news an account of a Woolwich fire on May 20,
1802.
The ‘ Sydney Morning Herald ’ commenced in 1831 ;
and the ‘ Empire ' in 1850.
The ‘ Derwent Star and Van Diemen’s Land Intelli-
gencer ’ started and ended in 1810. The ‘ Van Diemen’s
Land Gazette and General Advertiser ' of 1814 lingered
but a few months. _ Andrew Bent was assisted by Go-
vernment to establish the ‘Hobart Town Gazette and
Southern Reporter ’ in 1816. This was but of two pages
of foolscap till 1825. In 1826 it became, under inde-
pendent control, the ‘Gazette and Van Diemen’s Land
Advertiselrih hgr.tl‘1fiwe, sotn) og;hert_Sydi’ie_y lréiggter,
origina e e rs aunces n ve iser in .
The earliest Port Phillip paper was a manuscript one,
by Mr. John Pascoe Fawkner, of Melbourne, on January
1, 1838. After a few copies by hand, some type was
procured and the ‘Melbourne Advertiser ’ came out in
four pages, two columns each, twelve inches long. But
the paper was stopped because the conductor could not
find two legal sureties for good behaviour.
IIGTORIL
M
Afliliated
colleges.
Free State
libraries.
Technical
education.
Techno-
logical
museums.
Press
in fl uence.
First
Australian
Paper,
1803.
History of
the Press.
Sydney '
papers.
Tasmanian
P3P9|'5-
Port
Pnillip
Press.
First papa
manu-
script.


142 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND mew ZEALAND.
YIGTORII.
'Melhoume
Argus.’
Remcrox.
First
Sunday
service,
1837.
Early
ministers.
First
Churches.
Land for
places of
worship.
The first legalised paper was the ‘ Port Phillip
Gazette,’ under Messrs. Arden and Strode. It appeared
October 27, 1838. The next year Mr. Fawkner brought
out the ‘ Advertiser,’ though it was soon changed to the
‘ Patriot.’
But those early newspapers were little like the present
‘Melbourne Argus’ and ‘ Australasian,’ which may be
compared most satisfactorily with the best of the pro-
vincial papers of England. The ‘ Times ’ of July, 1873,
said of the colonists ‘They have a right to be proud
of their newspapers.’
RELIGION has not been lost sight of in the general
progression of Victoria.
All sections of the Christian Church are represented
there. Enjoying equal protection under the law, though
receiving neither pay nor favour from the Government,
they illustrate very little of that jealousy toward each
other to be observed in communities with less religions
freedom.
The first Sunday service in Melbourne was held by a
Wesleyan minister, the Rev. Mr. Orton, beneath the
She-Oaks of Batman’s Hill, in April, 1837.
A building in 1838 served for all denominations. The
first minister was the Rev. J. Wate1'field, an Inde-
pendent. The Church of England had the first pastor
in the Rev. John C. Grylls, who came from Sydney in
1838. A Wesleyan mission to the blacks was esta-
blished in 1839. The Presbyterian clergyman, Mr.
Forbes, arrived in 1839. The Rev. P. B. Geog-hegan,
afterwards Bishop of Adelaide, was the first Roman
Catholic priest,—reaching Melbourne in 1839.
The early places of worship were raised with much
difficulty in the primitive days of Victoria. The foun-
dation stone of the first church of the Protestant Episco-
palians was laid in October, 1839. The Presbyterians
were content with a brick school-room, costing 4001.
The chapel of the Independents was the first one built.
The Wesleyans had a. small brick-room in 1839.
The Sydney Government, then ruling over the colony,
granted land in every township to any religious deno-
mination that would accept it. Not only, therefore, did
the Roman Catholic and the leading Protestant bodies
secure half-acre allotments, or more, but individual


EDUCATION mo RELIGION. 143
ministers claimed and secured land for other communi-
ties they were supposed to represent.
At that period of colonial history, if a congregation
raised 3001. towards a place of worship, the State con-
tributed an equal sum. In like manner, if they guaran-
teed a certain amount for their ministers, the Treasury
supplemented it. Though some persons then objected
to State aid in the shape of cash, they were willing to
accept grants of laud for religious purposes.
The Government disclaimed any interference with
religious bodies, while rendering them monetary aid.
But while orthodox Protestants, Roman Catholics, and
Unitarians drew upon the Treasury, Jews were denied
the privilege, though an attempt was made to expunge
the word ‘ Christian ’ from the statute.
The position of affairs was thus represented by that
judicious historian of the colony, Mr. Westgarth, some
seventeen years ago :—
‘ But as some will not receive the aid, and as Jews and
others are excluded, an inequality thus arises which has
long been the object of animadversion; while to many
minds there is an incongruity in the whole case of this
aid which seems entirely unchristian.’
By the conditions of the 53rd clause of the Constitu-
tion Act, conveying the charter of colonial liberty in
1855, it was expressly declared that 50,0001. a year must
be set aside by the Melbourne Parliament in grants to-
wards religion.
The incongruity of the State supporting contradictory
and rival views excited ridicule and displeasure among
the colonists, although no one denomination was strong
enough to claim the whole sum for itself.
It was said that, as the numbers of ministers were
constantly growing, the amount tendered to each out of
the 50,0001. would be eventually so small as not to be
worth acceptance. Without waiting for that period, the
Legislature has abolished State aid to religion altogether.
The removal of the grant has called forth the generous
rivalry of denominations, and deprived the niggardly of
any ground to restrain their gifts.
A comparison of these periods may be of interest. The
years 1851, 1857, and 1871 are thus selected as marking
three diiferent colonial epochs.
VIOTORII.
State
support
system.
No State
inter-
ference.
No aid to
Jews’ Syn-
agogues.
50,0001.
grant to
religion.
N 0 more
State ai(L
Effect oi’
this.


144 mnnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmun.
VIBTIJRII.
State of
denomina-
tions in
1851, '57
and ’71.
Increase of
each in 20
years.
Increase
from 1857
to 1872.
Other small
sects.
In 1851 the Church of England claimed 37,433 ; the
Presbyterians, 11,608 ; the Wesleyans, 4,988; other
Protestants, 4,313; or a Protestant total of 58,342.
The Roman Catholics numbered 18,014; the Jews,
304; and Pagans, exclusive of aborigines, 201.
In 1857 the Church of England had 159,808; the
Presbyterians, 65,935; the Wesleyans, 20,395; the In-
dependents, 10,858 ; the Baptists, 6,484 ; the Lutherans,
6,574 ; the Unitarians, 1,480 ; other unnamed Protestants
made a total of 289,269. The Roman Catholics were
77,351, and the Jews 2,208.
In 1871 the census gave the Church of England
257,835; Presbyterians, 112,983; Methodists, 94,220;
Independents, 18,191 ; Baptists, 16,311 ; Lutherans,
10,559 ; Unitarians, 1,016 ; other Protestants, 12,423 ; a
total of 517,535 Protestants. The Roman Catholics
were 170,620, and the Jews 3,571.
From 1851 to 1872 the Protestants increased in Vic-
toria 887 per cent. ; the Roman Catholics, 947; and the
Jews, 1,174 per cent. The Church of England had in-
creased 672 per cent.; the Presbyterians 973; and the
Methodists, 1,888.
Between 1857 and 1872 the Protestants advanced 178
per cent.; and the Roman Catholics, 220. The Church
of England grew 157; the Presbyteri-ans, 171; the
Wesleyans, 460; the Independents, 166; the Baptists,
251; the Lutherans, 160; and the Jews, 160 per cent.
Among the sects in Victoria, by census of 1871, may
be mentioned 3,540 ‘ Chrislians,’ 1,432 Calvinists proper,
93 Moravians, 97 Mormons, 332 Greek Christians, 333
Society of Friends, 285 Israelites, with 278 Catholic and
Apostolic church. At the census, 2,737 declared them-
selves of no denomination; 2,150 of no religion; while
9,965 objected to state their views at all. The Spiritualists
of Melbourne engaged the large Masonic Hall for their
Sunday services. The Pagan Chinese were 17,650 in
1871. .
The church accommodation of the various bodies, in
respect of numbers, was thus stated for 1871 and 1883 :--
Church
room in
1871 and
1883.
lB71 1883
Wesleyans . . . 92,900 88,500
Presbyterians . . 64,000 80,000
Church of England . . 69,676 86,601
Roman Catholic . . 57,760 107.366


EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 145
Independents . . 158550 16,8540 "cTmm'
Primitive Methodists . 12,756 14,013
Baptists . . . 12,830 16,875
Bible Christians . 0 7,990 13,806
Disciples . . . 5,055 5,971
United Methodists 0 n 5,500 10,597
Lutherans . . . 3,200 5,138
Welsh Calvinists . . 1,600 950
Christian Israelites . . 1,600 200
Free Presbyterians . . 1,565 8,500
Free Church of England . 1,190 300
Moravians . . . 230 315
Unitarians . . . 200 200
Catholic Apostolic . . '-d0 450
Society of Friends . . 180 200
The 1,965 Sunday schools, with 142,290 pupils and Sunday
15,815 teachers, are well distributed in the colony. The 86110018-
following table in order relates to the majority of these.
Sunday Schools Scholars
Wesleyans . . . 425 27,974
Church of England . . 3-10 24,755
Presbyterians . . . 340 27,618
Roman Catholics . . 313 25,163
Independents . . . 80 7,370
Baptists . . . 70 6,150
Primitive Methodists . . 100 6,189
Bible Christians 0 0 71 4.032
Disciples . . . 28 1,560
Lutherans . . . 20 815
The church sittings for 1862 were 169,647; for 1867, Church
271,753 ; for _1872, 346,861. While the population in '“r”;‘;’t‘:_°
the ten years mcreased half as much more, the accommo. fhan pop“
dation in places of worship had more than doubled. lstion.
In 1851, before the gold time, the Protestants were Religion
before the
58,342, and the Roman Catholics 18,084. Of the former
37,433 belonged to the Church of England, 11,608 to g°“‘ ““"‘
the Presbyterians, and 4,988 to the Wesleyans. There
were then 304 Jews. A great change in the relation of
the denominations has since taken place.
The moral progress of the colony has been singularly Moral
marked during the last few years. Temperance views P‘°g‘°“'
have become more popular, and crime has been much
diminished. In 1862 the committals for trials were
1,144; in 1864, 1,081 ; in 1867, 957 ; in 1869, 842; and
in 1872, 688, or one half of what it would have been had
the first rate been maintained.
L


146 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
VIOTOBII.
Crime.
Hospitals
and bene-
volent in-
stitutions.
No poor
law.
Pssrormn.
The
squatting
colony.
Squatters
pros-
perous.
Large
capital
required.
Of 593 commitments in 1883, there were 350 then
convicted. Prison discipline is conducted there upon the
best known systems of Europe. Great care is taken of
the youthful criminal population in four well-conducted
reformatories. There are five female refuges.
There are 36 hospitals, having about 2,139 beds. The
five benevolent asylums have 1,199 beds, and the Immi-
grants’ Home has 497. There is also a hospital for sick
children. The Deaf and Dumb Institution has 74 beds;
the Blind, 1041; and the Ear and Eye Infirmary, 22. The
five lunatic asylums have 2,966 beds. The seven orphan
schools have 927. This was in 1884:.
In addition to all benevolent societies, supported by
voluntary contributions, friendly societies of every kind
are in vigorous existence. No poor law is yet required
for Victoria; and, with the rate of recent increase in
-sober habits, there will soon be fewer applicants for
benevolent asylums, and fewer admissions into hospitals,
lunatic asylums, and gaols.
Pastoral.
Victoria was formerly, above all the other colonies of
the Empire, the Squatting one.
It was the only colony, perhaps, ever established for
pastoral purposes only. It began not in town life, as all
others had done, and not even in farm life, but in sheep
and cattle feeding. It rose to be the first of pastoral
regions, and continued until after the gold discovery to
be the land of squatterdom.
The grass is so succulent and abundant, and the
climate so adapted to animals, that no equal area of wild
countryin the world, perhaps, can feed the same amount
of stock.
Although the country is no longer, politically, the
sovereignty of the squatter, and although by recent land-
laws he does not enjoy his former privileges, still his
position is an enviable one. lf he pays more rent, and
has less security of tenure, he gets better prices, and has
higher civilised advantages than formerly.
But Victorian squatting is no occupation for the man
of small capital. Many of the present Lords of the
Waste began with a flock of 500. It would be im-
practicable for one now to commence there in so humble


PASTORAL. 147
a manner. To obtain a decent station a large sum of
money is required. A moderate-sized station sold one
year for 250,000l.
The princely residences of the wealthier squatters on
their magnificent estates bear witness to the fortunes
once made, and still maintained, by the pastoral in-
terest in Victoria. As, since the recent land-laws,
leases became more difiicult, the land was purchased by
the lessees, and scores of thousands of acres may now be
seen enclosed around the noble mansion of a sheepmaster.
And yet few occupations have been subject to such
rapid reverses of fortune. A large proportion of the
original settlers were ruined, and their stations sold for
five per cent. upon the purchase-money. Droughts and
floods have desolated flocks and herds. Fluctuations in
wool prices have been disheartening to the growers. Life
in the bush was not a rosy one of old.
But that which the pastoral tenants of the Crown
thought to be the most trying calamity—the gold dis-
covery—in drawing ofi’ their labour, scattering their
flocks and herds, and absorbing their lands, proved to
be the great promoter of their prosperity.
The system is now changed in the conduct of the
pastoral as of the agricultural interest. More capital is
required to attain to success. More thoughtful manage-
ment is called for. Land by being fenced in promotes
better health for the stock, increases the percentage of
births, and develops weight and character of wool. The
wool shed is now quite difi'erent from the sort of aborigi-
nal building which once served the purpose.
The high price paid for breeding animals was de-
manded by the new circumstances, and has proved a
profitable investment. The machinery on stations was
in 1878 valued at 77,4341. This included agricultu-
ral implements, wool hydraulic presses, sheep-washing
machines, steam engines, &c.
Difliculties have been diminished by the march of civi-
lisation. Station supplies are more easily obtained, and
sales are more readily made, through improved means
of communication. Animals are less troubled with dis-
ease, and less plagued by wild dogs or dingoes.
Sheep were first landed at Gellibrand’s Point, now
Williamstown, and at Point Henry, near Geelong. The
UIBTORII.
Vicissi-
tudes of
squatter!
Advantage
f fe d
o .nce -
in land.
Improved
stock.
Imple-
menta-
First flocks
1. 2


14.8 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAN1).
IIOTUBII.
First over-
lander.
Llamas and
alpacas
Acclimati-
sation
Society.
Saltbush
fattening.
H eaviest
fleeces.
Stock
statistics.
Port Phillip Association, under John Batman, landed
500 sheep from the ‘ Norval,’ on October 26, 1835. Mr.
Batman sold a small flock in 1838 to Captain Lonsdale
at five guineas a head.
The first Overlander with stock from the Sydney side
was Mr. John Gardiner, in 1835. To stop the ravages
of the wild dog, the settlers in 1836 offered a reward of
51. for every animal caught or killed.
A colonial wit addressed the Melbourne paper of 1839
after the usual style of advertisement respecting stal-
lions. He remarks of one, ‘ It can be traced to Alborak,
the steed of the prophet Mahomet; which, being inter-
preted, meaneth, a little faster than lightning.’
Greater care is now perhaps taken in the selection
and breeding of all kinds of stock in Victoria than in
the other colonies. Llamas and alpacas have been in-
troduced into Australia. The Acclimatisation Society of
Melbourne has been of great service to the pastoral
interest. The lambing for 1873 was 82 per cent.
The saltbnsh of the dry Wimmera country fattens
stock. A particular sort of sheep adapted to the place is
raised there, and its staple of wool is the best to be grown
in Wimmera. The same system of adaptation of breed
to place is now being pursued in other parts, with de-
cided benefit. In the Alpine country coarse wool can
be produced in heavy fleeces. The proportion of wool
to the animal is greater in Victoria than in the other Aus-
tralian settlements, owing to superior pasture and climate.
The increase of animals since the foundation of the
statistics :—

1845
1860
1855
1860
1865
1870
1871
9,239
21,219
33,430
76,536
121,051
167,220
209.025
293,846
231,662
378,806
534,113
722,332
621,337
721,096
776,727
1,287,945
1,792,527
6,032,783
4,577,872
5,780,396
8,835,380
10,761,887
10,4-77,976
10,637,412
3,986
9,260
20,666
61,259
75.869
130,946
130.109
234,347
Colony in 1835 is presented with the accompanying
Year Horses Cattle Sheep Pigs
1836 75 155 41,332
1340 2,372 50,331 732,233
1884


150 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
VIGTORII.
Labour on
stations.
Horses
boiled
down.
Meat-pre-
serving.
AGRICUL-
runs.
Squatters
versus
farmers.
purchased land. The machinery and improvements in
1878 were valued at 1,850,7l2l. on stations only.
The number of hands employed on the stations proper
would appear very small, according to the enormous
annual value of the export of their produce. In March
1881 there were so engaged, on the 800 stations, 7,481
males and 3,127 females; 10,608 in all.
Horses are so very cheap in the Colony, that many are
boiled down merely for tallow. In 1871 there were
185,000 sheep boiled down, and 78,000 were converted
into preserved meat. The consumption in the Colony
was estimated at 180,000 in the year.
The meat-preserving establishments are now less able
to purchase Victorian sheep and cattle at prices that will
enable them to gain a profit. By the Leoni process
whole carcases can be preserved. The ice process is
continued. The export of preserved meats in 1871 came
to 355,161l. The trade began iu 1866. In December
1878 there were 19 establishments for boiling down.
Agriculture.
For a number of years two causes restricted the
produce of the fields, the prevalence of squatting pur-
suits, and the small supply of surveyed lands for sale.
The plendid character of the pasturage of Port Phillip
made it the favourite squatting region of Australia. The
occupation of the country on leases from the Crown, for
such purpose, necessarily hindered the purchase of land
by would-be farmers.
So long as the main interest of the Colony was served
by the sheepmaster and herdsman, little or no outcry
against this monopoly arose. The townsfolk, it is true,
depended for their flour and vegetables on the exports
of neighbouring settlements; but, as the means for this
purchase came from the country wool trade, little com-
plaint was heard.
When, however, through the gold discovery, an al-
tered social condition appeared, the evils of the old
system were obvious, and their removal was loudly de-
manded.
A great influx of population brought more mouths to
be fed by this imported food. It was declared to be
absurd and monstrous that a country so admirably pro-


AGRICULTURE. 151
vided with good soil, should be so dependent upon
neighbours for bread. Many persons, too, unwilling to
work at the mines, or unable to find thereon remunera-
tivp employment, sought unavailingly for labour on the
S01 .
While, it was said, 700 persons, as squatters, mono-
polised the lands of the Colony, there was no chance for
an immigrant farmer. An alteration of the law was
necessary before broad acres could be offered for sale by
the Government.
So many difiiculties were placed in the way by inter-
ested parties, that it was only after long and energetic
agitation that the Unlocking of the Lands occurred. Even
then, at first, the contemplating purchaser of a small
homestead found little but poor plots offered for com-
petition.
The remedy came. Land was cut up in more suitable
blocks, and in more suitable farming areas. Men eagerly
bought up allotments for fields, and cheap food was the
happy result.
The disproportion between cultivation and population
gradually ceased. Instead of there being, as in 1854,
six persons for each acre under the plough, there were
about as many acres as people in 1867; and since that
date the tide has turned, as the acres under crop are
more than the inhabitants.
In the first rush after farms, a large amount of culti-
vators were without pievious experience, and farmed
ignorantly and wastefully. A great interest having been
created, education and training for it were then held as
necessary, a11d found to be essential to success. Skill
in farming has been wonderfully on the increase ever
B11108.
For a long time capital seemed strange to the field.
But when the agriculturist established himself in the
Colony, the capitalist came to his aid. Loans, once
yielded reluctantly at an interest of twenty per cent.,
were afterwards freely offered to the farmer at a great
reduction upon that rate. Improvements were conse-
quently entered upon with more vigour and ability, and
a higher style of cultivation became practicable.
Upon this came the demand for better appliances.
Machinery was required to compensate for the rate of
VIOTIJHII
Demand
for land.
Cheap food
by cheap
land.
Good and
bud
farmers.
Farmers
helped by
the
capitalists.
Progress of
agriculture.


152 nmnnoox 1'0 AUSTRALIA AND mzw znsmnn.
VIGTUBII.
Artificial
manures
and agri-
cultural im-
plemenu.
Effect of
agricultu-
ral exten-
siou.
Uld state of
farming.
wages, and to hurry oif the crop at harvest, not less than
to put the soil into more productive condition.
The manure question arose as farming grew to be more
of a science. In addition to care of home-made manures,
guano was largely imported from Peru, or obtained from
bird deposits nearer Australia.
Last of all came the manufacturer on the spot, to
furnish the cultivator with artificial manures, and make
for him that character of agricultural implements which
the practical experience of the colonist found most suitable.
Instead of dependence upon other places for bread
and vegetables, Victoria is now enabled not only to
supply its own requirements, but have a surplus on hand
for store or sale.
The social and moral advantages of this growth of the
agricultural interest of the colony are not to be disre-
garded. Not only is the population provided with
another and most pleasing source of employment, the
community enriched by the diminution of wheat import,
and the State relieved from anxiety, but the creation of
so many settled homes throughout the interior has con-
verted wastes into gardens, has distributed the means of
civilisation, has refined the bushman, has made schools
and churches accessible to the many, and has developed
all that enhances the good order, intelligence, virtue, and
happiness of a people.
A report upon the progress of agriculture, therefore,
in this colony must be interesting to all.
The sphere of farming operations has greatly extended.
The dreadful state of the roads was a decided impedi-
ment to agriculture in olden times there, even had there
been a demand for it, and a sufficient supply of land. In
addition to a little cultivation near Melbourne, and on
the Barrabool hills of Geelong, there was only one im-
portant centre of farming. This was Bacchus Marsh,
thirty miles from Melbourne.
Two private land speculators, able, during a brief
period of colonial history, to get what was called a Special
survey of some thousands of acres, advanced cultivation
by the subsequent re-sale of convenient blocks. One
of these surveys was at Belfast, on the coast, and the
other at Brighton, a few miles from Melbourne.
Another, who was equally successful, bought 20,000


AGRICULTURE. 153
acres for 20,0001. But he retained the whole for
pastoral purposes, though most convenient to the capital.
The annexed table gives the total acreages in crop,
and the acreage of wheat, with the population of succes-



BIVB years :
Year Population Acres in crop Acres in wheat
1838 3,511 140 80
1839 5,822 430 1,300
1840 10,291 3,210 1,940
1841 20,146 4,881 1,702
1842 23,799 8,124 2,432
1843 24,103 12,073 4,674
1844 26,734 16,529 6,945
1845 31,280 25,134 11,481
1846 38,334 31,578 15,802
1847 42,936 36,290 18,680
1848 51,390 40,279 19,435
1849 66,220 45,975 28,568
1850 76,162 52,341 28,567
1851 97,489 57,472 29,623
1852 168,321 36,771 16,823
1853 222,436 34,816 7,553
1854 312,307 54,905 12,827
1855 364,324 115,135 42.686
1856 397,560 179,983 80,154
1857 463,135 237,729 87,230
1858 504,519 298,960 78,234
1859 530,262 358,728 107,093
1860 537,847 419,380 161,252
1861 541,800 439,895 196,922
1862 554,358 465,430 162,009
1863 571,559 507,798 149,392
1864 601,343 479,463 125,040
1865 621,095 530,196 178,628
1866 636,982 592,915 208,588
1867 651,571 631,207 216,989
1868 674,614 712,865 259,804
1869 699,790 827,534 288,514
1870 726,599 909,015 284,167
1871 731,528 937,220 334,608
1872 770,000 963.091 326.564
1885 950,000 2,325,118 1,096,354





Even whenithe land was thrown out freely to the public,
it was soon discovered that much of it, though available
to the squatter, was comparatively useless to the farmer.
It was not a question of roads and distances, but of soil.
11610111!-
Little land
open for
farms.
Population
and culti-
vation of
wheat.


154 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IIUTURII.
Geology
an d
farming.
Farms on
the plains
Land north
of the main
range.
Hilly land
fanns.
Roads and
railways.
Everywhere the farmer, equally with the miner, is
dependent for his success on the geology of the country.
There are great areas, north and west of Melbourne,
on whose basaltic plains a thin deposit aifords grass, but
no depth for the plough. Where the plains of basalt or
limestone have been invaded by the sands, the soil is of
little use to any.
The Dividing range from east to west divides
Victoria into two climates, for the north side gets far less
rain than the southern. It was said of old that that
northern half was quite unfit for the farmer. Of late
years, however, extensive areas have been cut up into
farms. In spite of deficient water, and generally light
soil, large crops have been gathered in.
But this is the eastern portion of the country beyond
the Dividing range. The western side, especially towards
the Murray and the South Australian border, has even
less rain and poorer soil. In many places, instead of
luxuriant forests or grassy plains, there are hungry-
looking Stringy bark trees, or a heartless scrub, on a
sandy soil.
Among the ranges everywhere, especially where the
decomposition of basalts, volcanic ashes, and lavas, has
furnished the localities with rich chocolate earth, farms
are rising. But in the more inaccessible and lofty Alps,
and the isolated Grampians, cultivation could not be
expected.
Wherever there are foci of population, whetherurban
or mining, there cultivation will be found, whatever be
the soil. Good prices compensate for soil, while the
centres of population furnish manure.
Those districts which are favoured by the farmer, be-
cause of the attractions of ground and climate, are now
being brought more easily, year by year, into communi-
cation with the large bodies of settlers. Improved roads
and ever-developing railways reduce their distance from
s. market.
A fair impression of the character of Victorian farm-
ing may be obtained by an inspection of the following
table of percentages of cultivation. For climatic reasons,
or for those required by the colonial circumstances,
certain crops have a preference, and there is a great
variation, occasionally, apparent in the returns.


AGRICULTURE. 1 55
The percentage of barley acres is very low, neces-
sarily, compared with oats. Explanation of the great
fall in the wheat of 1865, below that of 1863, is found in
the ravages of rust, which indisposed farmers to culti-
vate so largely as before. The average yield for 1864
was only 9 bushels per acre. Proportion of crops thus :—-

Year Wheat Oats Barley Potatoes Hay Green forage
1863 34'8 23'2 1'5 5'3 21'9 6'2
1864 29'4 30'0 1'5 5'4 19' 7'0
1865 26'1 30'1 1'6 6'5 17'8 8'3
1866 33'7 19'4 1'3 6'0 18‘5 10‘5
1867 85'2 21'8 1'7 5'5 15 6 10'8
1868 34'4 19'9 2'5 5'7 17'2 11'0
1869 36'4 16'1 2'7 5'1 15'8 12'3
1870 34'9 17‘5 3'4 5'0 17'0 12'4
1871 31'26 16'6 2'6 4'3 18'0 16'9
8'3 I 1'4 2'2 ' i
I‘ 1879 ,
42'9 I
l 10'7 24'9 _l

These are the productions of a temperate climate, and
mark Victoria as an agricultural country with many of
the peculiarities of England. Provision is not made, as
in the latter country, for the extensive growth of roots,
since animals are not stall-fed there, and sheep subsist
wholly on natural grasses.
Bearing out remarks upon the improvement of Vic-
toria agriculture, statistics atiirm the marked increase of
larger farms. In the period referred to above, farms of
500 acres and upward increased from 66,664 to 376,419
acres. Those of from 350 to 500 were three times the’
number in 1872 than they were in 1862.
The yield per acre for that decade was from 9 to 22}
bushels for wheat; 15 to 30, oats; 15 to 30, barley; 2
tons to 3:}, potatoes; and 1 ton to 1% for hay. 1867 was
a remarkably good year for produce, returning 22}
bushels for wheat; 30, oats; and 30, barley.
While the holders in that decade have increased from
16,416 to 33,720, and the cultivated acres from 465,430
to 937,220, or more than double, the population has ad-
vanced but one-fourth that rate. This shows that the
colony is becoming increasingly an agricultural one.
The policy of Victoria of late years seems to have been
to have the land self-contained. While, therefore, there
VIGTURII.
Rust in
wheat.

Statistics
of crops.
Little root
growing.
Large
farms
increasing.
Yield per
acre.
Cultivation
increasing
more than
population.


156 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND new zrmmnn.
IIGTUBII.
Fallow
I and.
Variety of
cropping.
Prices.
Occupied
d
an
enclosed
acres.
Averages
of 1885.
Acres
tilled.
has been a great impetus to manufactures, so employing
a larger number in the towns, the growth of the agri-
cultural or country interest has kept pace to supply food
for those engaged in industries.
Aliheral land policy, and the settled habits of the
population, aided in the development of internal resources.
Some would consider it a mark of improvement that
the percentage of fallow land has increased in the decade.
The production has not progressed equally in those
ten years. Tobacco is less, and hay is only a little
more; but potatoes are half as many more; oats rather
more than potatoes; vines and orchards have doubled;
and green forage has advanced fivefold. While the
acreage of vineyards has doubled, the yield is sevenfold.
The rates for produce, March 1884, averaged 3s. 8d. for
wheat; 2s. 8d. for oats; 3s. 6d. for barley ; 67s. for
hay; 75s. for potatoes.
Land is too valuable in Victoria to remain long waste.
In March 1878, out of 14,806,926 occupied acres, there
were 13,888,383 enclosed. By 1884 one-half the acre-
age of the colony had been sold by the State.
The holdings in 1879 were 47,050, averaging 338
acres each, or 34 in crop. In 1856 the holdings were
4,326. In 1877 enough wheat was grown for consump-
tion, on 44 times the average of 1855. The average
price of lands sold to 1884 was 24s. an acre.
The crop of March 1885 showed an average of 9'52
bushels of wheat; 2340 of oats; 17 of barley; 4'15 tons
of potatoes; and 1'9 tons of hay. But 1885 gave a
yield of only 763,823 gallons of wine. The hop crop on
1,739 acres was 14,053 cwt.
The wheat crop for 1884-5 was 10,433,146 bushels, a.
loss of 5,137,099 upon l883—4. The season 1884-5
sulfered from drought. The wheat in 1885 averaged
only 9'52 bushels ; oats, 23'40, and potatoes, 4'15 tons.
In 1885 there were 1,096,354 acres in wheat ; 187,710 in
oats; 62,273 in barley; 3854 in maize; 939 rye; 455
beet; 35,350 pease; 38,769 potatoes; 209 turnips; 1,413
mangold; 341,157 hay; 9,806 gardens; 1,682 tobacco;
9,086 vines; 183,239 fallow; 327,065 sown grasses. The
area in tillage was 2,325,118.
The yield in different parts varied in 1878. The Moira
land had but 3'89 of wheat, when Tambo averaged 19'12.


AGRICULTURE. 157
Gunbower oats stood at 11'47, and Tambo grew 29'4-4.
Tatchera also had but 5'82 of barley, and Wounangatta
had 50. In potatoes, Rodney had only 0'44 ton to
Dargo’s 4'23. Croajingolong failed in wheat and barley,
not roots. County Villiers, to the westward and sea-
ward, reckoned 22'27 of wheat; 25'O6 of oats; 39'-52
of barley; 3'57 of potatoes; and 1'76 of hay. In the
last season, Dargo had nearly 6 times the potatoes of
Lowan, and Follett had 4 times the yield per acre of
wheat in Tatchera.
The question of rain has more than soil to do with
this variation, as over the Dividing range showers are
less expected. The potatoe lands lie principally west-
ward and seaward. In the neighbourhood of Belfast
and Warrnambool, where the soil is good and deep, and
the rains are plentiful and reliable, the yield is large.
The crop one year sold there at 15s. per ton only.
Most wheat is grown in Hampden, Villiers, Ripon,
Grant, and Bourke counties; most hay, of course, near
the centres of population. Vines, requiring dryness and
warmth, succeed better over the Dividing range,—Bo-
gong, Bendigo, and Talbot equalling the acreage of the
old-established vineyards of Bourke, Grant, and Evelyn.
Artificial grasses are not to be looked for much beyond
the seaboard counties.
The returns for 1885 establish the fact of Victoria
occupying a high place among the Australian Colonies
for agricultural produce ; though New Zealand, from its
more dripping climate, and its consequent ability to raise
artificial grasses with ease, as well as average heavier
crops of wheat and potatoes, may have better prospects.
An average of eleven years gave 14'39 bushels for
wheat; 19'39 for oats; 20'12 for barley; 3'16 tons for
potatoes; and 1'28 for hay. There were, in 1878,
218,848 lbs. of hops, 15,829 cwt. of tobacco, 14,000
mulberry trees, 1,333 tons of chicory, and 4-57,535
gallons of wine made. On farms, 68,178 males and
29,198 females were employed.
Excepting in a few localities, the vines are not so pay-
ing a crop as in New South Wales and South Australia.
The quality is not equal to the quantity, though at ls.
a quart, or 2d. a tumbler, retail, a cheap drink is pro-
vided. The vines of Rntherglen produced 64,700 gallons
VICTORIA.
Yield
varies in
the
counties.
Rain and
P0t8t0€8-
Best lo-
calities for
products.
Victoria
and New
Zealand-
farming
future.
Farm
statistics.
Vines and
win.


158 HANDBOOK ro AUSTRALIA AND new zn.u..n~m.
VIETIIBII.
Sericulture
progress.
Farm
improve-
ments.
Im ple-
ments.
Stock-
keeping on
farms.
Dairy
farms.
Breeding
on farms
profitable.
in 1878. The Germans are the best vignerons in the
Colonies. They planted the grape on the Murray Hills
in 1850. The vine thrives on the slopes of volcanic
tufa, and the sides of craters. In 1878 there were
seven million vines. Hops grow well in Gipps Laud.
Sericulture promises well. The climate is well suited
to the mulberry, and the worms are healthier than those
in Europe. The Japanese grain is extensively raised.
The lectures of Mrs. Bladen Neill have popularised silk-
growing in the colony. A plantation of 30,000 mul-
berry trees is in Melbourne Botanic Gardens. A ladies’
association had 1,000 acres for planting out over Castle-
maine. The colonial eggs, or grain, have sold at high
prices in Italy.
The amount of machinery on Victorian farms attests
the progress of agriculture. The return for 1884- gives
the value of it at 2,572,895l. The worth of improve-
ments was stated at 15,318,489l. Farm produce in
1885 was estimated at 7,372,143l.
On the farms were 302 steam engines, 39,878 carts,
34,808 ploughs, 8,333 waggons, 39,878 chaifcutters, 830
thrashing machines, 3,803 scarifiers, 8,213 reaping ma-
chines, 1,093 mowing machines, 1,932 winnowers, 986
stri pers, in 1878; but 490 steam engines in 1885.
gtiock-keeping on farms in Victoria distinguishes the
agricultural pursuit there from that in the neighbouring
colonies, and from Victoria itself in the olden times.
In the infancy of agriculture a few struggling men
scratched the ground for a wheat or hay crop. Then
better tillage had a more extended range of cropping.
More capital and more education, not less than ex-
perience, led to the adoption not only of machinery, but
of the raising of stock.
Dairy farms, of course, grew with the expansion of
towns. But the higher class of farmers trod upon the
heels of the squatters.
Though they could not expect, on their limited acreage
and on expensive purchased land, to compete in meat
and wool with the lords of vast acres or the holders of
Crown leases, yet they found the advantage of attention
to breeding for the pastoral runs themselves.
Many Victorian farmers realise large sums for finer
Varieties of sheep, horses, and cattle, raised by the extra
care and intelligence devoted to the subject.


AGRICULTURE. 159
In 1878 the agricultural returns exhibited the extra.-
ordinary fact that the old-fashioned station system was
gradually yielding before the development of modern
ideas. Thus it appeared that the amount of stock not
upon Crown land stations in Victoria came to 185,671
horses, 256,780 milch cows, 742,489 other cattle, 179,209
pigs, and 5,611,964 sheep. There were more in 1885.
Queensland and South Australia with their large
territories will continue to be station colonies; but
Victoria and New South Wales are rapidly progressing
fromlthe sftagp of the fnerellly lpastoral to that of the
ming ing 0 t e pastora wit t e agricultural.
The Australian farmer’s great trial is in the recur.
rence of long periods of excessive drought. Though
provided with a better rainfall than most other parts
of the continent, Victoria is sometimes exposed to the
plague of dryness. Count Strzelecki, the Polish travel-
ler, sa1d_that ‘ irrigation then becomes the first measure
with which the agricultural improvements of Australia
must begin.’ In 1885 many dry farms were irrigated.
This is so appreciated by the Melbourne Government
that great efforts are being made to store up large sup-
plies of water, which, though previously intended for
gold washing, shall be also available for the use of the
farmer.
The Chinese, those industrious and thoughtful workers,
have done much for the progress of agriculture in this
respect. In Victoria they have hired barren wastes and
sterile sands, and, by means of a system of irrigation,
have raised far better crops than the English farmers
near them on the best of soil. Such an example has
been wisely followed by the Europeans.
Victoria has an advantage over its neighbours in a
lesser proportion of sandy soil, and in the excess of that
with a good absorbing power. Australian soils generally
contain less vegetable fibre than those in Europe, and
suffer in their incapacity to absorb as much moisture
from the air, or to retain the moisture of the ground.
Among the favoured districts of _Victorian farming
may be mentioned the Barrabool Hills of Geelong, the
Yarra, Melton, Bacchus Marsh, Kilmore, Colac, Gisborne,
Kyneton, Seymour, _Belfast, Warrnambool, Carisbrook,
Hamilton, the basaltic country round Ballarat, and near
the volcanic craters of theWest, besides near the Murray.
_fi
Vl0TORll.
Stock not
on Crown
lands.
Pastoral
and agri-
cultural
joined.
Drought
and irriga-
tion.
Water (
reservoirs. '
Chinese
farming
and
irrigation.
Character
of soiL
Best
farming
localities.


l60 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IIGTORII.
Advantages
of Gipps
Land
Mnuso.
Mineral
wealth un-
expected.
State before
the gold.
N.S.W.,_
more mine-
rals, but
less gold.
History of
the gold
discovery.
Gipps Land, though so near Melbourne, is cut ofl' by
ranges and swamps, or its rich soil would have been the
home of the farmer rather than of the squatter. N ow
opened up by a railway, a new and healthy agricultural
centre will be thrown open to the public.
In spite of hot winds, which never hinder the farmer's
daily toil, Victoria. is, perhaps, in its soil and climate,
one of the most profitable and enjoyable of places for
the operations of agriculture.
Mining.
Until 1851 the colonists of Victoria had no idea. of
their country becoming one renowned for its mineral
wealth. South Australia for nearly ten years had en-
joyed a reputation for its copper, as New South Wales
had for its coal during a much longer period. But Vic-
toria had given no signs of copper, and but a delusive
expectation of coal.
As to gold, although particles had been seen in several
places, all the colonies of Australia and New Zealand
were alike without a dream of rivalling California.
Up to 1851 Victoria could only be said to have one
interest—the pastoral. The country was steadily, though
very slowly, advancing. There were few fortunes made,
unless by the great squatters; but there was a quiet
enjoyment of worldly comforts, and the indulgence of
but moderate ambition. The place was respectable and
well to do, though far less known and talked about in
the world than either South Australia or Tasmania.
New Zealand had‘ even then attracted a greater public
attention.
But, at the close of 1851, Victoria, then only one year
old, took the foremost rank of all the colonies for mineral
wealth and prospects.
Notwithstanding many efibrts since to develop other
treasures of the earth-——silver, copper, tin, and coal-
gold continues to be the one main mineral product there.
The colony is inferior to New South Wales in the variety
of its mineral resources, although the export of gold in
Victoria is more important.
The history of the gold discovery may be glanced at.
As Count Strzelecki explored the Alpsin 1840, he


unrme. 161
found gold in Gipps Land, but kept the secret, as the
Rev. W. B. Clarke and others had done in New South
Wales. The metal was seen by the river Plentyin 1841 ;
and considerable quantities were brought down a. few
years after by a shepherd from the Pyrefiees. It was
found at Clunes--since so celebrated with the Port
Phillip Gold Company—by Mr. Campbell, a squatter, in
May 1850; but he, also, kept the secret.
When Mr. Hargraves published the discovery in New
South Wales, May 1851, a. search was made in Victoria.
Mr. Michael wrote of his getting gold at Anderson’s
Creek July 5; Mr. Esmonds took gold from Clunes in
July; and Mr. Hiscocks published his Ballarat discovery
on August 16, though the rush to Ballarat did not take
place till December. Mount Alexander diggings at-
tracted miners in September. The Bendigo diggings
were in full work at the beginning of 1852. The Ovens
field followed soon after.
At first the gold was got from the roots of trees, and
the sods of grass, as wellas the sands of rivers. Search
was then made in flats near streams, and the metal was
recovered from gravel, sand, o'r pipe-clay resting on
the bed slate rock. Deeper holes were sunk in higher
ground, and at greater distances from present streams.
Then it was ascertained that the largest deposits lay
in leads, or courses of ancient rivers, subsequently filled
up with alluvial matter. If a hole did not drop upon
the lead, the miners drove for it beneath within the area
of their claim.
In some places, as at Daylesford, subsequent erosion
had carried ofi' masses of the auriferous ground, and left
rises here and there, which were tuunelled from either
side for their hidden treasure. _
The next great discovery was that the leads ‘migl;t‘ be
found beneath the great beds of lava or basalt, so com-
mon around Ballarat. These were pierced to great
depths, through even four layers of distinct rock, and
drives were made at great cost and trouble to reach the
gutter. When the wash dirt of the gutter was found to
be from six to twelve feet in thickness, a. rich result
rewarded labour.
Deep leads are prominently-the feature of Victorian
mining, few of any consequence being beyond the
VICTORIA.
Known in
1840.
First golfi-
fields, 18.51.
Find first
on the
surlace.
Deep leads.
Tunnelli n g.
Ballnrat,
deep leads.
11


162 mmnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmnn.
IIBTDRII.
Woods
Point
veins in
diorite.
Quartz
mining.
improved
methods.
California
a school
for Aus-
tralia.
Gold alloys.
border. But they are not now confined to Ballarat dis-
trict. The working of a mine has involved a company
in the expenditure of many thousands of pounds, and
several years‘ labour, before a return was obtained.
The White Hills of Sandhurst are a curious gold forma-
tion, consisting of huge quartz boulders and great
deposits of white pipe clay; the latter has been thought
to be decomposed in siiu. Cement, especially at Pleasant
Creek, becomes a profitable working for gold.
The Woods Point mines of the Alps were more singu-
lar. They rose in horizontal veins through a decomposed
diorite or greenstone, which igneous rock intruded into
the Upper Silurian. Successful search has also been made
in ancient ledges of valleys, and gold obtained from places
removed from old channels, though, probably, filled by
inundatious.
Quartz mining, not attempted in the early days, is now
the great industry of Victoria; especially at Sandhurst,
'Ballarat and Ararat.
At first a few specimens were knocked ofi‘ projecting
reefs in sight. Then the rude hammering was followed
by blasting the rock, roasting the stone, crushing by
hand, and disengaging the amalgam in a frying-pan.
Elaborate machinery, steam stampers, amalgamating
pans, and other scientific appliances followed.
Then deep beds of alluvial were penetrated to come
upon a vein whose dip had been observed in a certain
direction from a neighbouring rock. The original quartz
miners retreated when the vein in the mine grew too
small for profitable working. Their successors drove
down deeper, recovered the vein, and often found it
richer at depths where scientific authorities had aflirmed
the golden crystals could not exist.
The experience of Californian diggers has been of
great service to the Victorians. The success of the
former encouraged the latter to continue driving deeper
in their quartz claims. Several of these in Victoria are
now more than two thousand feet below the surface, and
yield as handsomely as ever.
Much difiiculty was experienced with the Mundio in
workings. These blocks of iron pyrites were known to
be rich in gold, but have only recently yielded to treat-
ment at a profit. Arsenical pyrites at Hustler’s Reef,
Sandhurst, has produced at the rate of 170 ounces in


mama. 163
the crushing of 70 tons. Maldon pyrites turned out 46
ounces a ton. Ustulation, or slow burning, separates
the alloy.
Combinations of the gold with bismuth, manganese,
etc., have been successfully treated. In the Ovens it is
seen with copper, silver, etc.; and the metal was but
16 carats, when specimens from Ballarat were at 23%
carats. The new Stetefeldt process of Nevada, Western
America, will revolutionise some Victorian mines. Gold
has been seen inside quartz crystals.
Quartz veins are sometimes of great width, even to
150 feet. They are either barren or fertile. South
Australia has much quartz of a barren nature, while
Victoria has been favoured with that fertile in gold. A
reef, twenty-two feet wide, at Laureston, has yielded
1 ounce 10 dwt. to the ton.
Gold is chiefly got from the quartz veins coursing in
nearly a north and south direction through Silurian
rocks, especially when in contiguity with those of igneous
character. The dip of the vein is often almost vertical.
But the mineral is got also from granite, as well as slates
and sandstones. It has been seen in a diamond.
Mr. Selwyn, the Victorian Government geologist,
warned the miner against wasting his time in searching
for gold in the miocene deposits, but directed him to look
only in the pliocene. He was of opinion that the quartz
veins had been but recently charged with gold. Mr.
Brough Smyth, of the Melbourne Board of Mines, finds
gold in the Silurian, mesozoic, miocene, and pliocene
formations. The Rev. T. Julian Woods, of South Aus-
tralia, traces its origin to dioritic rocks.
Nuggefing is a pleasant and profitable occupation;
especially when, as it has frequently happened, the
lumps are found a few feet only rom the surface in the
earth. Colonial geologists have determined that these
agreeable finds grow in the soil.
Experiments have shown the high probability that
nuggets grow by deposition from meteoric waters in
drifts, according to the electro-plating process. Mr.
Selwyn refers to these drifts being thermal and highly
saline at the time of volcanic eruptions, and so favour-
able to the fall of gold, when in a chlorite solution,
upon any organic substancezthat may be in the way.
x .
IIGTORII.
Stetefeldt
pi-ocean.
Barren and
fertile
quartz.
Source of
gold.
Ase of
gold.
Nugget»-
making.


164 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmnn.
IIDTORIR.
Large
nuggets.
Gold ex-
port,
l92,000,0001.
Quantity
decreased.
Gold
licenses.
Mr. Daintree saw gold in pyrites displacing the organic
material of a tree in drift beds. Mr. Newberry got
some on other pyrites. Mr. Sonstadt found gold in sea
water in 1872, confirming Mr. Selwyn’s theory. Mr. Skey
one year showed that sulphuretted hydrogen attacks
gold at ordinary temperature, forming a sulphide, which
is soluble in alkaline sulphides.
As nuggets are so uncommon in Gipps Land and
the Ovens, where igneous action is so slight, and so
numerous where the basalts have played an important
part, the theory has been generally admitted.
Some wonderful nuggets have been found in Victoria.
There was one in 1853, obtained from Canadian Gully,
Ballarat, weighing 134lbs. The Ballarat Lady Hotham
nugget, of 1854, weighed 98lbs. The Blanche Barkly,
145lbs., came from Kingower in 1857. The following
year Ballarat gave forth the Welcorne; it lay at the side
of a neglected hole, 180 feet deep, and weighed 2,195
ounces, or 183lbs. The Welcome Stranger, from Moliagul,
was 2,280 ounces, and was dug up two inches from the
surface; its worth was 9,5341.
Several large nuggets came lately from the Berlin
Gold Fields. The Viscount Canterbury, 1,105 ounces, was
of the singular purity of 23,1; carats; its depth was 15
feet. The Precious, of 1871, weighed 1,621 ounces, and
was got from a hole of 12 feet. The Kum Tow of the
Chinese came from a 12-feet claim.
The total export of Victorian gold, at four pounds an
ounce, has been estimated! at 19‘.2,000,000l.; though a
considerable amount found its way to Adelaide, Sydney,
and other ports by private hands.
The yield has fallen ofi of late years, as will be seen
by the following table of ounces reported in the year :-
1851 - . 245,146 1362 | . 1,658,207
1852 . , 2,218,782 1866 , , 1,433,681
1853 . . 2,676,345 1870 . . 1,222,798
1354 , . 2,150,730 1871 Q , 1,345,477
1855 I - 2,751,535 1872 Q . 1,331,377
1856 . . 2,985,991 1873 . . 1,249,407
1860 ¢ - 2,156,660 1884 O . 778,618
The first gold licenses were issued Sept. 1, 1851. Each
miner had to pay thirty shillings a month. It was the
rough hunt for defaulters by the police, and the manner


umise. 165
in which they were punished, that provoked the ill-f'eel- IIGTORII.
ing at the diggings, which cuhninated in the so-called Eng‘
Ballarat Rebellion of December, 1854. Re1,e11ion_
After lives had been lost, and a wild commotion pro-
duced, the monthly payment was relinquished, and a
gold duty of half-crown an ounce was imposed in 1855 ; Gold duty.
2s. in 1862; 1s. 6d. in 1863; ls. in 1866; 6d. in 1867.
This duty was taken olf the digger at the close of 1867.
Victoria is now divided into seven mining districts: Miningdis-
viz., Ballarat, Beechworth, Sandhurst, Maryborough, "im-
Castlemaine, Ararat, and Gipps Land. Wardens, mining Gold eve,-
surveyors, and registrars are placed over subdivisions of OH?-third <4
these. One-third of the colony is auriferous. v‘°‘°"“"
A mining board of ten persons, elected by the holders Mining
of miners’ rights, takes oversight of a mining district, l><>=ml§-
making bye-laws and administrating mining regulations,
though acting in subordination to the Government.
The wardens preside at the several Courts of Mines, Legglifi-
instituted for the trial of vexed questions as to claims 8150“-
aud shares. Litigation has decreased at the diggings.
In 1862 there were 422 suits before the Courts of Mines,
but in 1871 only 137. _
The gold was at first exported as it was found. But Mint.
much is now taken to the Melbourne Mint, which re-
ceived gold to the value of 2,267,431l. in 1878, issuing
that year 2,171,000 sovereigns.
Each person engaged in gold digging is required to Mlm’-"'
hold a 'm'i'n,e'r’s right, or license, costing five shillings a rights‘
year. This entitles him to land for home and garden.
The number of European miners at work in 1884 was Number of
28,430; of these, 15,442 were at alluvial workings, and dlggem
12,988 on quartz reefs. There were, also, 5,359 Chinese C.hl"°“°
diggers, though only 160 were quartz miners. On d'gge“'
Mar. 31, 1885, of 27,632 miners, 5,258 were Chinese. At
the end of 1873, 50,595 were miners; in 1854, 80,455.
Quartz mining is more profitable than alluvial, though Quartz
requiring more capital. The rate for the former aver- ml"l"~‘~' _
aged, for 1871, 1641. 10s. 4d per man. More than half :3: prom”
the alluvial diggers are Chinese. The yield from the
quartz, in 1878, was 500,637 oz.; and from the alluvial
workings, 268,232 oz.; a total of 768,869 oz.
Ballarat was the leading district for the alluvial, and Ballamt "1-
Sandhurst for the quartz. Ballarat is now rich in quartz.
quartz.


HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
VICTORIA.
Yield from
stone and
tailings.
Mining
companies.
Extent of
claims.
Machinery
used.
Value of
land and
plant.
Yield per
ton.
The quartz reefs in 1884 were 3,781, and the area of
working 315 square miles. The yield on the crushing
of 908,526 tons, in 1870, averaged 9 dwts. 21 grs. ; while
that on fewer tons in 1884 came to ll dwts. 11 grs.
per ton. The yield from quartz tailings, or refuse, was
1 dwt. 11 grs. ; and from pyrites and blanketings, 2 oz.
2 dwts. 7 grs. In February, 1874, in Sandhurst, 4,885 oz.
came from 511 tons of stone in a mine.
The companies on the gold-fields were 170, with a
capital of 2,260,000l. In 1885, the machinery, &c. on
the various mines was valued at 1,541,409l. The value
of claims and land under lease is at least 4~,000,000l.
In 1873, the dividends from quartz companies were
841,859Z., and from alluvial, 1l8,965l. The returns are
about 35s. aman weekly. One company (Gordon Gully)
shared 148,437l. dividends in six months, after paying
17 per cent. tribute to the proprietors.
The revenue from the gold-fields to the Government
was but 20,0001. for 1884. This did not include fees
and fines. The sum of 15,0921. was received for leases,
at fixed rental. The claims occupied 200,000 acres,
and there were, of these, leased 32,083 acres. Thus
not one-half per cent. of the recognised auriferous area
of the colony was then occupied by miners.
The great increase of machinery is manifest in ex-
pensive quartz crushers. Alluvial fields require less costly
machinery. Even as far back as 1856 there were 3,540
puddling machines and 370 whims. In 1879, the total
machinery rose to 25,717, of which 17,541 belonged to
alluvial, and 8,176 to quartz.
At the close of 1878 there were 240 steam engines
employed on alluvial mining ground, of which 106 were
at Ballarat. There were 796 on quartz reefs, of which
240 were in the Sandhurst district, 130 Castlemaine,
and 174 Ballarat. There wore 831 horse puddling
machines, 171 steam puddling machines, and 14,606
sluices, Toms, and sluice boxes. The mining plant was
valued at 1,903,494l., and the land was estimated at
5,207,895l. In 1867, the plant was worth 2,079,195l.
The 1878 yield per ton from quartz crushing was
6 dwts. 17 grs. in the Balla.rat district; 10 dwts. 22 grs.
in the Beechworth ; 6 dwts. 2 grs. Castlemaine ; 17 dwts.
10 grs. Maryborough; 9 dwts. 20 grs. Sandhurst; 14


mums. 1 67
I
dwts. 8 grs. Ararat; and 24 dwts. in Gipps Land.
Washdirt in 1872 averaged 1 dwt. 18 grs., and cement
4 dwts. 15 grs. The proved reefs in 1878 were 3,402,
and there were 1,290 square miles worked upon. The
depth of Magdala mine is over 2,400 ft.
On December 31, 1884, there were the following
persons employed on the alluvial and quartz mines :—


r Alluvial Quartz Total
l Ballarat. . . . 3,579 2,917 6,496 |
l Beechworth . . 2,573 1,147 3,720
Sandhurst . . 695 4,070 4,765
Maryborough . . 3,168 1,378 4,546
, Castlemaine . . 2.-558 1,693 4,251
| Ararat . . 1,647 520 2,167
i Gipps Land . . 1,003 684 1,687
15,223 12,409 27,632
Other metals besides gold are of little consequence,
and can scarcely be called of present commercial value.
Victoria has no rich copper mines like South Australia
and Queensland, lead like Western Australia, or coal
like New South Wales.
Silver at one time seemed very promising at St.
Arnaud, near the western edge of the Dividing range.
After 11,348 tons of ore were raised, valued at 5,04=7l.,
a pause followed. The richest lodes were beneath the
water level, and were impracticable to the operators.
The easily reduced chlorides were above, but the sul-
phides were beneath.
The Stetefeldt system of roasting will make St. Arnaud
more valuable. The oxidisation of the compound con-
verts the sulphides into the chlorides. Mr. Stetefeldt
of Nevada emplo ed hot air to facilitate the action of salt
upon the ore. This saves money in working, and makes
otherwise valueless ores to be of commercial worth.
Argentiferous galena is found on the Snowy river, and
at Berlin diggings. Argentiferous sulphide of lead oc-
curs at Buchan, Gipps Land. A claim in Ararat is very
rich in its silver compound with the gold. At St.
Arnaud the chloro-bromide of silver veins have casings
of black carbonaceous matter, slightly ferruginous. But
VIBTORII.
Men em_-
ployed in
quartz and
alluvial
ground.
Not rich
' th
In 0 er
metals.
Silver
mine.
New way
of making
the one
valuable.
Silver
localities.


168 mmnnoox 'ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmrmn.
VZGTORII.
Lead
mines.
Antimony
promising.
Copper not
hopeful.
Bismuth,
cobalt, &c.
No iron ore
worked.
Iron ores.
Meteoric
iron.
Tin stream-
ing.
only 167 acres of Crown land are leased for silver work-
ings, 1,991 copper, 240 antimony, 320 iron.
Lead is seen in various places. To 1879 there were
raised six hundred tons of ore, valued at 4,8921. The
Murindal mine of Gipps Land is being worked.
Antimony is more promising. The chief mines are
at Heathcote, Woods Point, and Castlemaine. In 1871
only 8691. worth were exported; but the total value of
that raised altogether has reached to l37,401l. Heath-
cote exported 4,268 tons of ore in the first half year of
1873; 2,627 tons were raised in 1878.
No copper was raised in 1873, though during 1878
there were 1,426 tons of ore. Much expectation was
excited about a mine on the Thompson river of Gipps
Land. Castlemaine, St. Arnaud, Crooked river, and Mal-
don have yielded specimens. But Victoria, unlike South
Australia, is very barely furnished with those crystalline
limestones which are so productive of copper.
Bismuth is collected at Tarrengower, Clunes, and
Omeo. Manganese is brought from Cluues and the
Loddon. Cobalt, in paying quantities, is expected from
Gipps Land and the Goulburn. Plumbago is known at
Creswick, and zinc at St. Arnaud.
Iron has never been wrought, as in New South Wales,
though pretty rich ore exists; as hematite, near Mel-
bourne ; arseniate, at Maldon; micaceous specular, at
Lake Tyers; phosphate, at Sarsfield of Gipps Land ;
titaniferons, at Beechworth, Dandenong, and along the
Yarra; and magnetic, at the Sandhurst diggings. From
sixty to seventy per cent. has been estimated to be pure
iron in some of these samples. In 1884, 168 miners.
The meteoric iron block that fell near Cranbourne
weighed 30 cwt.
Tin has really become an important object oi‘ search.
Altogether, the export has been 370,000l. Up to 1884
2,380 tons were raised. The Yarra, the Coliban, the
Latrobe, but particularly the streams feeding the Upper
Murray, have yielded it in their sands, though not at all
to the extent of" the country between New South Wales
and Queensland. The black oxide is the form assumed
in the ore. At Beechworth fifty-four per cent. pure metal
has been smelted. Tin is also found at Walhalla, Dayles-
ford, Colac, Cape Otway, Chiltern, and the Tarwin.


mums. 1 69
Coal has often raised the hopes of the Victorians.
The known carboniferous area is 41,000 square miles.
Hardly any seam of fair quantity has been got at. A
new company, organised to work Western Port coal, is
very hopeful of success. But Mr. Mackenzie, Coal
Examiner from New South Wales, gave little hope of
pecuniary profit, though he suggested a search inland.
But since that the Kilcunda is said to have coal in
payable quantities, and has sent hundreds of tons to
Melbourne. A seam of 30 inches is at Stawell.
There were in 1884.. but 16 leases of ground for work-
ing over 9,022 acres, and several licenses for searching
over other acres. Lal-lal lignite is sold at Ballarat.
Precious stones have been for many years found in
the granite country around Beechworth, Lilydale, and
Daylesford. Chalcedony, cornelians, zircons, amethysts,
agates, opals, and sapphires have been among them.
The real ruby, the blue sapphire, the oriental topaz, the
oriental amethyst, and the diamond are more valuable
finds in the colony. A fine blue sapphire was got from
the gizzard of a wild duck shot near Melbourne. But
all are not so sanguine as the Rev. Dr. Bleasdale, who
recently declared, ‘No one country on the broad earth
has yielded such an assemblage of varieties of rare and
precious gems as Victoria.’
This declaration, from so important a local authority,
has quickened the sight of miners at the Ovens, especially
those engaged at stream tin. But few have been seen.
In 1884 there were 108 leases for other minerals than
gold, including 17,251 acres. Of these, ~19 for tin were
over 4,720 acres; 16 antimony; 2 galena; 9 copper;
1 lignite; 2 iron; 2 flagging; 3 marble.
The Mnvmo Laws of Victoria have had several im-
portant changes.
‘ Miners’ rights ’ can be consolidated when a company
agrees to work a claim registered, on payment of a cer-
tain sum, multiplied by the number of miners’ rights
which this is to represent. The consolidated miners’
rights for 1871 were 128, representing 1,789 single
rights of 5.9. each per annurn. The right was ll. in 1855.
Business Licenses are requisite to carry on business at
the gold-fields, providing that the Crown land so occu-
IIGTOBII.
Coal ares
4,000 sq.
miles.
New coal-
mining
company.
Coal leases
Precious
stones.
Diamonds
found.
Tin and
other
leases.
Mining
laws.
Miners’
rights.
Business
licenses


170 nmnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmnn.
VIOTORII.
G old leases.
Reef leases.
Rental.
Leases for
work ing
I-oal, iron,
&c.
Licenses
and fees.
Water-
right
licenses.
TRADE.
Everything
but meat
once im-
ported.
Commerce
after gold.
Shipping
returns.
pied does not exceed a quarter of an acre. The annual
payment is 51. In 1853 it was 501. ; in 1855, 101.
Up to the end of 1878, the Government granted
10,648 leases for 193,902 acres of auriferous land.
These are from 1 acre to 30 acres in extent. For a
quartz reef the land must be at least 100 yards along
the vein, though not more than 600, with a width of not
less than 50, nor more than 200 yards.
The applicant for a lease deposits 51., if from 10 to 30
acres, and 21., if below 10 acres, besides paying survey
fees. Then the annual rent of the laud is but 11.
Leases may be had for lands oontainin g other minerals
than gold, for terms up to 30 years. Coal leases are for
areas between 50 and 640 acres ; for iron, between 2 and
100 acres ; for other minerals (except gold), from a
quarter of an acre to 50 acres. The rental varies from
301. to 2s. an acre per annum. A royalty upon these
minerals is also demanded.
Annual Mineral I/icenses are granted, enabling the pro-
prietor to search for other minerals than gold. The coal
area must not exceed 640 acres; iron, 100; other minerals,
50. License fees are from 11. to 101. for the year.
There are Water-right Iriaenses for cutting of races, at
the rate of not more than 4 acres for every mile of race.
The term for races, reservoirs, and dams cannot exceed
15 years. Act 1883 protects miners from accidents.
Trade and Manufactures.
Victoria has within the last few years taken a first-
class position both for commerce and local manufactories.
In the old pastoral times wool formed almost the only
export ; and the imports comprehended nearly every-
thing but meat, as sufficient flour was not raised for con-
sumption, and manufactures were scarcely known. The
gold discovery developed trade. The growth of popula-
tion opened the workshops.
Melbourne did not engage much in commerce until
after the gold times began. Of later date, a check was
apparently given to the merchant by the imposition of
those protective duties which necessarily limited relations
with other countries.
The shipping returns afibrd a. knowledge of trade.
The outward, corresponding nearly with the inward, is
given in the following table .-——-


TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 171

Years I Ships Tonnage
1337 140 13,424
1340 232 36,334
1350 503 87.087
1354 2.607 793,337
1860 1,341 599,137
1865 1.323 599.351
1869 2,334 730,961
1884 1,939 1,532,425

The two vessels that may be called the forerunners of
Victoria shipping were the ‘ Gem,’ which carried Mr.
Batman from Launceston, in May 1835, and the ‘ Enter-
prise,’ despatched by Mr. Fawkner some time after. As
will appear in the foregoing table, the vessels frequent-
ing the harbour of Port Phillip were of very small ton-
nage at first, being principally colonial schooners. Those
of 1837 averaged 95 tons each, while the ships of 1872
showed a mean of 310 tons.
The early merchants managed to get good rates at the
settlement of the Colony. For awhile, the freight from
Launceston to the Yarra-Yarra, now a twenty-four hours’
run by steam, was 5s. a head for sheep. One merchant,
however, paid heavily for want of geographical know-
ledge, as he sent a cargo to Westem Port, in the place
of Port Phillip. A thousand sheep were thus reduced
to seventy-five before reaching their station.
The earliest merchant was John Batman, who had
originated the settlement of the colony. His rival, John
Pascoe Fawkner, had the first lighters on the Yarra.
The first bank was established by Captain Swanston, of
Hobart Town, in 1837, while a savings’ bank began in
1838. A wooden custom-house was erected at Wil-
liamstown, then called Gellibrand’s Point.
The first ship for London was the ‘ Thomas Laurie,’
with 400 bales of wool. The first ship from London to
Melbourne was the ‘ Bryan,’ 500 tons, in 1839. The
old wharf was in a wretched state. An order, in 1839,
directed that no vessel was to lie at it longer than six
days. The early custom-house was described as ‘ a dirty.
looking shed.’ And yet such was the promise of future
commercial greatness, that a Launceston paper, the
VIGTQIIIL
First colo-
nial craft.
Average
tonnage.
Ancient
freight-a
First
banks.
Early
trading
times.


172 HANDBOOK ro ansrnsrm AND saw zmmnn.
VICTORIA.
Prophecy
in 1839
came true
in 1853.

Old style of
business.
Trade in
1839.
Colonist
110 years
old.
No place
for brick-
makers.
Tithes for
rent.
Mr. West-
nrth on
Eeelong.
‘ Cornwall Chronicle,’ uttered this prophecy in June
1839 :—
‘ It is by no means improbable that Port Phillip, at
some future day, will rise to be the queen of the Aus-
tralian Colonies,and that Van Diemen’s Land will dwindle
into a mere place of pleasurable resort for the wealthy
inhabitants of New Holland.’
The primitive mercantile transactions were managed
extensively by a system of orders and promissory notes,
as cash was not ready at hand. The discounting of
these was a. profitable trade, if not quite a prudent one.
As the original merchants were almost wholly from Van
Diemen’s Land, between which colony and New South
Wales a little jealousy existed, the Sydney ‘ Colonist’
of June, 1837, had this reference to times and places :—
‘The settlers (of Port Phillip) complain of not being
able to get remittance in specie from the sister colony,
to pay for the purchase of allotments, and Government
will not take cheques or bills ; but it is a very old com-
plaint with which our Van Demonian brethren have
long been chargeable.’
Trade has made some progress in Melbourne since the
year 1839, when there were four tailors, four black-
smiths, four butchers, three saddlers, three bakers, and
twelve shoemakers, but not a watchmaker or a tinman.
A Scotchman came in at the close of the year as the
first tobacconist. The original baker of Australia died
that year in Sydney. He came in the first fleet, 1788,
and was 110 years of age at his decease.
The Government of Sydney drove away the early
brickmakers to Adelaide, by the severity of the land en-
actments. While a squatter held possession of many
thousands of acres on a rental of 101., the poor brick-
maker of Melbourne was condemned to pay 101. a year
for being on Crown land, 51. For erecting a hut thereon,
and 21. 10s. for using the clay. Even the limeburners
paid a tithe of bags of lime as rent to the Government.
Geelong very nearly eclipsed Melbourne as the trading
capital of Port Phillip. The prices of land allotments
there, at the first sale, realised considerably more than
those of Melbourne lots. Mr. Westgarth was quite
justified in writing—‘ The site of Geelong, the qualities
of its harbour, and of the rich, beautiful and open


mun AND mnurscrunns. 173
country :hat extends for many miles behind it, appear
to me to have offered recommendations for the site of
the capital decidedly superior to those of Melbourne.’
By the time the bar, which obstructed the harbour,
could be removed, Melbourne had secured the trade of
the colony.
The gold-fields gave the great start to both exports
and imports. In the article of candles alone, largely
required in mines, a wonderful change appears from
1850 to 1855. The import of the first year for candles
was 1,611l., and for the last 466,775l. Oats, at the
same time, sprang from 2,572l. to 594,248l.; potatoes
from 2,1791. to 316,810l.; and jewellery from 6561. to
102,620l.
In‘ 1850 the beer import was 38,115l., and in 1858
614,692l. Spirits, in like manner, rose from 51,3341.
to 1,045,053l. Wine advanced from 13,7951. to 3723,5291.
The imports were fifteen times as much in 1853 as in
1851. _ ,
Through reckless importations there, and exportations
from Britain, moderated afterwards, enormous losses were
experienced by both European and colonial merchants in
the mad trading gold era.
The imports have necessarily fluctuated much more
than exports, being dependent upon the state of stocks
in the Home market, as well as from the supposed de-
mand for goods in the colonies. The subjoined Import
table tells the story of frequent wild speculation :—-
l
Year Imports Per head
£ £ J. d.
1837 115,379 91 0 0
1840 435,367 42 O 0
1844 151,062 5 13 0
1847 437,696 10 4 0
1850 744,925 9 15 0
1853 15,842,637 71 5 0
1854 17,659,051 56 11 0
1855 12,007,939 32 19 0
1860 15,093,730 28 1 0
1865 13,257,537 21 7 0
1871 12,341,995 16 17 0
1884 19,201,633 20 6 0


VIGTURII.
Wonderful
h .
c anges in
imports.
Imports
rise 1,500
per cent. in
two years.
Great
trading
losses.
Speculative
imports.


174 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
VIBTURII.
Items of
import.
Export
statistics.
Difference
between
new colony
and old
country.
Among the items of import for 1884, the following
are selected :—Apparel, 3l5,0031. ; beer, 217,9241. ;
boots and shoes, 100,7561. ; coals, 1112,6971. ; coffee,
4.-l,9571.; cotton piece, 946,3051.; drapery, 362,3191.;
oats, 52,0821. ; rice, 69,5761. ; machinery, 87,2951. ;
hops, 20/1861.; iron, 7741,9001; cattle, 2237,7021. ; sheep,
900,0611. ; watches, 79,9731. ; kerosene, 72,5231. ; opium,
52,294.~1.; paper, 253,4201.; sewing machines, 87,5-331.;
silks, 270,0401.; brandy, l69,517l. ; gin, 28,7831; rum,
26,8521. ; whisky, 1641,4661. ; stationery, 95,9151. ; sugar,
1,284.-,5011. ; tea, 667,8001. ; tobacco and cigars, 217,6091.;
wine, 102,0421. ; woollen piece, 789,349l.; books, 248,2l61.;
music, 110,0131.
The exports for the years corresponding with the list
table are marked by a steady increase. Before the
excessive incoming of goods from Britain compelled the
Melbourne merchants to embark in a large intercolonial
trade, the re-exports were few. Since 1851 the increase
of exports has been indebted not only to the great gold
product, but to the re-shipment of exports :—





Year Exports Per head
£ £ .1. d.
1837 12.178 9 12 0
1840 128,860 12 10 0
1844 256,847 9 12 0
1847 668,511 15 11 0
1850 1,041,796 13 13 0
1853 11,061,544 49 14 0
1854 11,775,204 37 14 0
1855 13,493,338 37 0 0
1860 12,962,704 24 2 0
1865 13,150,748 21 3 0
1871 14,557,820 19 18 0
1884 16,050,465 17 0 0


The less amount of exports during the last few years, in
proportion to the population, is no evidence of the decline
of the colony Victoria is now so rapidly advancing in
civilisation as to approach the condition of an old country.
New colonies must always exhibit, if equally pros-
perous with older ones, a greater relative amount of
exports. They are dependent upon the export of the
raw material produced. An old country declines to


rnsnn AND MANUFACTURES. 175
export that, preferring to manufacture it; as the raw
produce is required by the population itself, many of
whom are engaged in the superior arts of civilised life.
Victoria, though exporting less per head, is utilising
its products more in its extensive manufactures. The
capital is increasing at an enormous rate, and may be
seen employed in local improvements. Like Russia and
the United States, Victoria has been developing inter-
nally by trade, and so limiting its importations.
The trans-shipment of imported goods to other coun-
tries from Melbourne amounted to 876,52”. in 1884.
Among the leading articles of export in 1884: were:
gold, 760,875l.; wool, 6,342,877l.; tallow, 256,686l.;
biscuits, 40,370l.; boots and shoes, 57,4671. ; Victorian
cheese,3 43,1621. ; potatoes, 148,929; flour, 299,4411l. ; hay,
194 39 Z.
The imports in 1884 from New South Wales were
ébséifiiig’ ‘ §‘%‘§'§’17*fz "”’i5‘*"*"’t‘ §‘5§"61§?“’““‘?i
. an . - asmama, - , . an
57311901.; South A,ustral,ia, 5.335901. and 686,896l.;
7S6t;lates,‘16g77,Zg8£.Ls%.pd 62,717l.; United Kingdom,
1 The Tariff quesition’ has caused much discussion in the
colony itself, as well as among its neighbours.
The Murray, dividing Victoria from New South Wales,
is a long shore line to guard against smuggling. For
3 years Victoria was to pay a lump sum of 54,0001. a
year to the Sydney Government in lieu of duties on the
rivrprlp _Arran_tg_emen£tshhave seen mad; for charlgps. f
e unposi 1011 o eavy ues on e impor a ion 0
certain articles has grievously affected the neighbouring
colonies, by closing the port of Melbourne against their
wine, timber, &c. The whole question of colonial tarifis
has been referred to the Home Government, whose
sanction has been given to the colonies collectively to
regulate their duties as they think best. The establish-
ment of one uniform tariif throughout Australia will be
the co1np1enc1em_erlit_ ail‘ a real Confederation, and stop
many 111 erco oma ]e ousies. .
As to the protective policy of the Victorians, generally
regarded as a retrograde movement this is not the place
to express an opinion. While oppbsed to the free trade
of Europe, the colonists adopted it as beneficial to
themselves. They seek not only to raise a revenue by
IIIITURII.

Trans-
shipment .
Export
items.
Trrule.
Tariff
question.
Duties to
New South
Wales.
Intercolo-
nial duties.
Protective
policy
arguments


HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
VIBTURII.
,i___
Protective
law of 1871.
List of
duties,
1884.
the Customs, but to protect their own infant and strug-
gling manufactures. '1‘he Customs for 1875 brought in
1,528,234l., and 1,936,358l. in 1884.
The Customs tariff has shown an increase of duties
since August 2, 1871, when a more extended system of
protection was established. In 1862, 8 articles paid
duty; in 1884, 250.
A selection from the list of 1884 is here given :—
1-’e'rlb.—Shot and blasting powder, 1cZ.; arrowroot,
confectonery, preserved fruits, honey, jams, corn flour,
preserved meat and fish, bacon, biscuits, butter, cheese,
glue, hams, mustard, soap, starch, nuts, candles, 2d.;
glycerine, tea, coffee, cocoa, chocolate, chicory, sporting
powder, acetic acid, 3d.; fancy soap, dynamite, 4¢l.;
hops, carbolic acid, 6d. ; unmanufactured tobacco, 1s.;
manufactured, 3s.; snuff, 3s. ; cigars, 6s.; opium, 20s
Per ounce Trog/.—Silver plate, 2s. ; gold plate, 8s.
Per 100 lbs.-— Grain, pulse, ground grain, 2.9.; pearl
barley, 5s.; oatmeal, 6s. ; rice, 6s.
Per cwt.—-Lead, pipe and sheet, 2s. 6d.; nails, 3s.;
sugar and molasses, 3s.; salted and dried provisions,
58.; horseshoe nails, 12s.; paper bags, 108. 6d.
Per t0n.—P0tatoes, 10s.; onions, salt, 20s. ; soda
crystals, ground paints, cast-iron pipes, 40s.; mixed
paints, 80s.
Per gallon.-—Vinegar, cod-liver oil, mineral oils, 6d. ;
beer, 9d.; methylated spirits, 1s.; varnish, 2s.; wine,
6s. ; sparkling wine, 8s. ; spirits, 10s. ; perfumed spirits,
20.9.
Per cubic f00t.—Glass bottles, 611.; earthenware,
ls. 4d. ; chinaware, 2s.; glassware, ls. to 2s. 6d.
Per d0zen.—Fl0ur bags, 1s.; pickle, pints, 1s. 9d.;
pickle, quarts, 2s. 911.; woolpacks, 7s. ; playing cards,
3s.; boots and shoes, according to sort, 4s. to 33s.;
hats, 8s. to 48s.
Per 1,000.—Firebricks, 20.9.
Per gr0ss.—Wooden pipes, 12s.
Per bushel.—Green fruit, 9d. ; malt, 3s.
Each.-—Doors, 5s.; sashes (pair) 2s.; umbrellas, 6d.
to 30d.
Ten per cent. ad valorem. — Perfumery, isinglass,
combs, mineral waters, gold and silver leaf.


TRADES AND MANUFACTURES. 177
Twenty per cent.—Brownware, carts, fireworks, gloves,
blankets, carpets, fioorcloth, millinery, sauces, stone-
ware, coir, tarpaulin, tents, electroplating, oilmen’s
stores, jewellery, silks, manufactured stationery, manu.
factured metal, rugs, ribbons, clocks and watches,
wrought marble, agricultural instruments.
Twenty-five per cent.--Musical instruments, harness,
tobacco pipes, boilers, steam engines, axles, carriages,
saddlery, apparel, trimmed bonnets, furniture, machin-
ery (except for colonial manufactures), leatherware,
brushware, wickerware, woodenware, boats, oars, air-
bricks, upholstery, lamps, gasaliers, patent medicine,
furs, mats, basketware, brassware, stoves, tinware,
copper wire, wire netting, iron bolts and nuts, iron gal-
vanized, iron castings.
Articles exempted from duty are the undescribed
materials for making up of apparel, boots, hats, saddlery,
and umbrellas; also packages, ships’ fittings, passengers’
baggage, and works of art, cutlery, printed books,
sewing machines, watch-making material, ink, cotton
and linen piece goods, iron sheet, zinc, tin, coal, palm
oil, haberdashery, printing paper, tools, alum, india-
rubber goods, window glass, sago, sulphur, dyes, hatters’
material, rock salt, preserved milk, seeds, cork, &c.
The amount of duty collected on 25 per cent. articles
during 1884 was 219,526l.; on 20 per cent., 181,293l.;
on 15 (woollens in the piece), 72,568Z.; on 10, 5,2111. ;
on 7%, 29,9241. Excise brought 120,260l., though
202,318l. in 1881. Out of 2,148,257Z. of Customs
revenue, 1,936,3-591. was from import duties. This was
the highest reached by the prosperous colony.
Banks are flourishing institutions in the colony. The
ll. note is issued as in Scotland. Mr. Westgarth, the
commercial historian of Australia, made the following
comparison between the two countries several years
a o:—
g‘ In Scotland, as is well known,’ he says, ‘the note
issues have all but superseded the use of gold coin, and
yet the circulation is only 1,1,-l. per head of population,
while that of New South Wales is 2§l. per head, and of
Victoria, 3§l. per head. The comparison is still more
striking, from the circumstance that in these colonies
there is no exclusive preference, as in Scotland, for notes
H
VIGTUIIII.
Duties.

Banks.


178 nannnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND new ZEALAND.
VIOTURIJL
Melbourne
Mint.
Bank
di videuds.
Mortgages.
Savings’
banks.
Building
societies.
Post-oflices.
Postal
Ill-E5.
over metallic money, the latter being also in large cir-
culation.’
The establishment of the mint in Melbourne may be
justly expected to facilitate banking operations.
The eleven banks—Union, Australasia, City of
Melbourne, New South Wales, Victoria, London
Chartered, Melbourne; English, Scottish, and Australian
Chartered; Federal, Colonial, National, and Commercial
—had, on March 31st, 1885, assets to the amount of
37,455,7001., with liabilities of 31,561,2l21. Their last
dividends ranged from 6 per cent. to 17 per cent.,
averaging 12 per cent. on a capital of 8,827,2531., the
reserved profits at the time being 3,673,8891. The
average dividend for the previous ten years was 10
per cent. The bank deposits, 1885, were 29,616,025l.
The mortgages at the end of 1883 were 9,023 upon
land, stock, wool, &c., to the amount of 6,021,l201.
The eleven savings’ banks of the colony showed a
balance of 1,831,5891., averaging 221. 8s. 901. for each de-
positor. The 215 post-ofiice savings’ banks had a balance
of 1,629,845l., averaging 151. 14s. to a depositor, in 1884.
The 62 building societies had assets 2,970,101l., to
liabilities 2,594,7861. The members were 21,404; the
sums advanced, 703,9321.; the workingexpenses, 32,2991.
Income, 1878, 1,097,475l. Assets, 1884, 3,335,1851.
The Post Ofiice services are duly appreciated by the
trading community of Victoria. The Melbourne Post
Ofiice building, for size, architectural beauty, and business
convenience, is said to have no rival in the British do-
minions outside of London.
Though a private post-ofiice existed in 1837, the first
Government institution arose in September 1839, when
a post-master was sent down from Sydney. The revenue
for the year before was 1501. A letter overland from
Melbourne to Sydney, taking three weeks in the journey,
was carried for 15c1. ; the rate subsequently became 2d.
A weekly mail was established in 1839.
There are now 1,350 post-ofiices in the colony, about
one-third of which are money order oifices. While a
penny rate exists in towns, that through the country is
201. Book packets are charged 2d. for 4 ounces. News-
papers require a penny stamp to be sent out of the
colony. The P. and O. steamers start from Melbourne.


mans AND mnumoruans. 179
The telegraph rate, within the limits of the colony, is
ls. for ten words, and 1d. a word extra. Fora message
to Sydney or to Adelaide the cost is 2s. for ten words,
but to Queensland 3s., and to Tasmania 6s.
The telegraphic line from Melbourneto Williamstown,
begun in 1853, was the first laid down in the" southern
hemisphere. The Government had 3,000 miles of wire
in 1865, and 8,500 in 1885, besides telephone wires.
Victoria, from having a larger proportionate area of
good soil, sufiered long from bad roads. At the early
part of 1852, the bush road without metal commenced at
the outside of Melbourne itself. Bad roads from Mel-
bourne caused the Bendigo diggers to pay sometimes
1501. a ton for carriage alone.
Railways, boroughs, and road boards have changed
that condition of affairs, and have given to Victoria the
merit of having a system of communication superior,
perhaps, to that of any country out of Europe. Stage
coaches run also to almost all parts of the colony.
The Victorian railways were not constructed on the
American but the English system, as to solidity and
convenience. The cost of the first lines was enormous,
owing to the price of labour. The later-formed iron
roads have been made at a cost of only 5,0001. a mile;
though 270 miles laid down before 1870 cost 10,164,0001.
or nearl 40,0001. a mile; some since, but 4,0001.
In 1885 there were 1,750 miles opened. The revenue
for 1884-85 was 2,181,9321., and expenses 1,277,4'241.
The cost per train mile was 3s. 8—;}d. The railway loans
came to 21,822,0561. by June, 1885, at an interest of
930,4741.
The northern system of lines in 1885 was 565 miles;
the western, to the Glenelg, 580 ; the north-eastern, to
the Murray, 380; the eastern, to Gipps Land, 212 ;
suburban, 17. Contracts were out for 150 more.
There were then 305 locomotive engines, 701 carriages,
4,511 waggons. The tonnage of goods and live stock
in‘ the year 1884-85 was 2,272,361. The passengers
conveyed were 34,814,000.
The guage of lines is 5 feet 3 inches. The average
cost per mile was 11,2181. That for the northern lines
was 13,216; western, 10,4191. ; north-eastern, 7,8581._;
eastern, 13,9121.
VIGTURII.
Tele graph
rates.
First tele-
graph,
1853.
History of
roads.
Railways
on En lish
E
system.
x 2


180 munnoox ro msrnnm AND NEW znsnsun.
IIETORII.
River
steamers.
MANUFAC-
runes.
Need of
manufac-
tures.
Protection
sought.
Effect of
change.
Ratio of
labour.
Bonus for
manufac-
hires.
Steamers run from Port Phillip Bay to the coast
ports. The Murray has quite a fleet of steamers. From
Albury to the western limit of the colony, the river is
navigable for over a thousand miles, though the tratfic
is carried through South Australia down that stream
for 750 miles farther. The Darling and Murrumbidgee
trade is also very great.
llisuursorusss have become the speciality of the Golden
Colony.
For a long time it was urged that the people should
content themselves with the production of the raw ma-
terial, and buy cheap goods from other nations. They
exported their wool and slcins, receiving cloth and leather
in exchange.
When the population increased, and the gold-fields
ceased to employ growing numbers to advantage, labour
was directed into other channels. Farms were made,
and then workshops were opened. The very extension
of agriculture developed manufactures.
A few years ago the cry of Protection was raised.
Though shown that higher prices would be the result,
the colonists said they were willing for a while to bear
that evil, if they could sustain or originate trades for
their rising families. There was not employment enough
for lads on mines or stations, and the towns had but few
factories. However political economists blame the Vic.
torians for a short-sighted policy, they will admit the
value of the motives governing them.
The result, for the time being, has been favourable.
Lads have engaged in profitable toil, as well as girls and
women. The Melbourne Immigration Agent has re-
cently ofiicially stated that ‘Colonial made goods, of
almost all descriptions, are fast taking the place of im-
ported.’ _ _ _
In 1841 the manufacturing and labouring class m the
colony formed 4'53 per cent. only of the population,
while the country, chiefly pastoral, rated at 4283. In
1851, the former had advanced to 1221 per cent. In
1857, the first stood at 11'33, in addition to the large
amount gone to the gold-fields.
The Government commenced by a system of bonuses
to those who should establish woollen, spinning, and other
works. Later on, 5,0001. was ofi'ered to the first pro-


rnnm AND nzmumcrunss. 181
ducer of 500 tons of colonial-made sugar from beetroot.
Then partially protective duties were followed by the
more strictly protection policy of 1869. Encourage-
ment was officially given for the manufacture of glass,
paper, pianos, starch, brushes, soap, stearine candles,
cigars, dyes, &c.
On March 31, 1884, there were 7 piano, 7 philosophical
instrument, 2 truss, 5 essential oil, 63 agricultural in-
strument, 7 machine tool, 69 engine, 162 carriage, 3
varnish, 107 boot, 87 clothing, 8 biscuit, 21 hat, 30
cheese, 3 maizena, 9 sauce, 13 tobacco, 1 spectacles, 14
bone manure, 3 earth closets, 10 brush, 5 glue, 2 paper,
5 glass, and 2 rice factories; also 7 statuary, 11 turnery,
25 lime, 78 cabinet, 14 dye, 7 salt, 13 rope, 16 confec-
tionery, 2 macaroni, 13O ginger-beer, &c., 3 vinegar,
29 soap and candle, 195 chaff and crushing, 6 modelling,
29 cooperage, 9 asphalte, 21 gas, 40 marble, 2 electro-
plate, 5 antimony, 67 iron and tin, and 1 lead works.
There were 7 manufacturing stationers, 3 organ-building,
5 die-sinking, 4 gun-making, 13 hip-building, 26 meat-
curing, 7 distilling, 19 malting, 26 boiling-down, 14
wool-washing, 142 tanning, 109 saw-milling, 31 jewel-
lery manufacturing, 1 type-foundry, 61 metal foundry,
and 7 wire-working establishments; besides 4 graving
docks, 1 patent slips, 70 breweries, 140 flour mills, 198
brickfields and potteries, 131 quarries, 15 chemical
works, and 7 woollen mills. In 2,777 manufactories,
works, &c., 39,225 men and 7,632 women were em-
ployed. The buildings and plant were valued at
9,4l4,527l. The agricultural machines alone were
valued at 2,572,895l. In 1883, 249 patents were applied
for.’ A few years ago the works were 1,106. The Water
Works, storing 13,292,483,937 gallons, cost 3,877,485Z.
Land Laws and Immigration.
Land laws and immigration are two subjects necessarily
connected with each other. In most places it is the
liberality of the land laws which attracts the population.
In Victoria, the land hunger was not experienced until
after a large population had been attracted by the gold,
and a demand arose for cheaper food. The early im-
migration was almost entirely a pastoral one. When
the first European stream arrived, in consequence of
VIBTORIL
~{
Lam)
Laws.
Land
hunger.


182 mnnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW znsmxn.
IIGTURII.
Land sales
suspended
for some
years.
Unlock the
lands.
Orders in
council.
Settled,
Intermedi-
te d
a , an
Unsettled
districts.
Leases in
each.
People got
the rule of
public
ands.
the glowing descriptions of Australia Felix, by Major
Mitchell, the cry for lands was met by the sales of the
Government.
During 1838, 1839, 1840, and 1841, about 226,000
acres were thrown into the Melbourne and Geelong
markets. But during double the number of years, be-
tween 1843 and 1851, only about half that amount was
exposed for sale. The country was taken up by the
Crown lessee squatters, even to the suburbs of Mel-
bourne and Geelong.
‘ Unlock the Lands! ’ became the political watchword
after the diggings commenced. A few hundred men
monopolised with their flocks and herds almost the whole
of the colony, and barred the entrance of the agriculturist.
The attempt of Sir George Gipps and his Sydney
Executive Council, to place some restrictions upon the
extension of the pastoral interest, seemed set aside by
the triumph of squatterdom, in tho celebrated Orders in
Cozmcil of 1847.
These decrees of the English Ministry gave a certain
fixed tenure to pastoral tenants of the Crown, and
yielded to them vast tracts of country at a mere nominal
rental. All lands were divided into Settled, Intermediate,
and Unsettled districts. While leases for fourteen years
were issued for land in the last division, they were but
annual in the first.
The Settled part was pronounced within twenty-four
miles of Melbourne, fifteen of Geelong, and ten of Port-
land and Alberton. The Intermediate comprehended
the counties of Bourke, Grant, and Normanby. The
Unsettled came beyond that boundary, and therein the
payment was fifty shillings a year for every thousand
sheep grazing, and a secure hold for fourteen years.
The influence of wool lords in the Colonial Parliament
was all paramount. But, in answer to complaints from
others, the Home authorities gave a more liberal inter-
pretation to the reading of the Orders in Council in
1853. With the granting of a free constitution in 1855,
Victoria, like the other colonies, obtained the right of
controlling the administration of the public lands.
Pressed, however, by the voice of the people and the
reiterated demands of the press, the colonial rulers had‘
before this partially released their hold upon the soil.


mun LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. I83
In the four years, from 1852 to 1856, over a million and
a quarter acres were sold.
The demand exceeded the supply. The upset of ll.
an acre was considerably overreached by competi-
tion at auction. Relief came with the Land Act of
1862, when the fourteen years’ leases expired. The price
then realised was only a trifle over the ll. upset,
owing to the enormous amount of land thrown open,
there being that year sold 844,969 acres.
Another lull followed. Vigorous complaints were
raised against the inefliciency of the land regulations,
and the need of more liberality on the part of the
Government, to induce men to settle on the public lands.
This led to some distinguished changes by the
Land Law of 1869. The sales, which had fallen, in
1867, down to 129,333 acres, grew, in 1869, to 794,543,
which realised 827,534.-l., fell to 323,081 acres in 1877.
After all, only one-fifth of the public lands had been
sold by the beginning of 1879. Of the total acreage
of the Colony, 56,446,720 (88,198 square miles),
11,458,634 had been alienated, and 44,988,086 acres
were still in the hands of the Government, to be leased
out to squatters and others. Up to 1878, 4,787,784
acres were leased to farmers, with a right of purchase.
In 1878 the holdings were 45,4-48; the purchased free-
holds were 8,524,000 acres, and by rental, 1,495,142;
or, not pastoral, 14,806,926.
The leading provisions of the Land Law of 1869 will
now be mentioned. Amendments made later on are
herein noted.
The squatters were less favourably situated, while
exposed to more active competition. They could make
no claim to improvements, allowed by the law of 1862,
unless presented before 1-871; and no compensation
would be allowed by reason of the new Act being after-
wards repealed or altered. Any portion of their runs
might at any time be taken from them, to be proclaimed
a Common. No occupier of a run was permitted to
enter upon competition with the agriculturist, as he
could once do, since the sales of produce raised upon
such leased land exposed him to a heavy penalty.
Existing occupiers of runs were to have henceforth
yearly licenses, at rents to be determined according to
WGTDRII.
Land Act
of 1862.
Land Act
of 1869
more
liberal.
Four-
fifths of
land unsold.
New squat-
ting regu-
lationa.
Rent not
fixed.


184 mmnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
Vlllllllill.
’~
New
licenses.
Timber and
stone
licenses.
Rates of
payment.
\Vood-
splitters-
Govern-
ment land
fees.
Rights to a
00111111011-
Land sales.
820 acre
leases 2.9. an
acre.
the quality of the land. For every sheep they paid
8d. a year, and for every beast 48. A readjustment
might be made five years after.
New runs, or forfeited ones, are submitted to public
auction for the higher premium upon the rent fixed by
the local board. Though nominally a license for four-
teen years, the whole or part of a run may be at any
time taken by the Government if required for common
use, lease, or sale for agriculturists, or for any other
public purpose.
Licenses for public lands may be obtained to take away
timber, stone, seaweed, earth, guano, etc. Three acres
of land, for some such purposes, can be had for twenty-
one years, at a rent of not less than 5l.
Those who cut the common Eucalyptus timber pay 21.
to 5l. a year for a license, according to the distance from
a town. Log waggons pay from 10l. to 161. licenses.
Saw mills are charged, on Crown lands, 101. a year. No
trees must be out which are less than a certain girth.
For the felling of pines, blackwood, and other more
valuable timber, the rate for licenses is increased. Wood-
splitters pay 41. a year for a license by the law of
1872.
The fee for the removal of guano, brick clay, or stone
is l0l. a year; but for limestone 251. The usual fee for
the erection of a slaughter house is from l0l. to 501. ; for
shipbuilding, a tramway, factory, or paper mills, 101. to
501. For other buildings on Crown lands the usual pay-
ment is from 101. to 501. -
Land may be proclaimed as a Common, for the grazing
rights of neighbouring farmers. It is placed under the
management of a borough, shire council, mining board, or
road board in the vicinity.
Land sales take place every quarter, or oftener. Pur-
chasers pay one-fourth cash, and the balance in a month.
Under certain circumstances, after repeated failures at
public sales, land may be reduced in upset below the
pound an acre.
Land leases are now obtained on most advantageous
terms.
An applicant for an area, not exceeding 320 acres,
must deposit half a year's rent when making the appli-
cation. If successful, he receives a license for occupation


LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 185
extending over six years, and subject to the annual
charge of ls. an acre.
He must, however, fulfil the following conditions :—
Be resident thereon, enclose the whole farm, and culti-
vate one-tenth of the land during the term of six years.
Un-less the substantial improvements are of the value
of 11. per acre, he fails to receive the full advantage of
his possession.
At the end of the sixth year, and after satisfactory
fulfilment of the required conditions, two courses are
open to the tenant. Should he elect to purchase his
farm, and so receive the Crown grant for the land, he
has but to pay the balance of 14.9. an acre.
He may however, prefer to extend that balance pay-
ment over a longer time. A lease for fourteen years is
granted him, at the continued rental of 1s. an acre.
The purchase-money, therefore, is but 11. an acre, and
can be paid in the form of 20 annual rentals of ls. each,
when the full purchase is complete, and the landis freehold.
Those who held leases of agricultural land under the
Land Act of 1865 were generously placed under the
liberal Act of 1869.
In 1878, not less than 4,787,784 acres were leased at
the 2s. an acre rent. More were rented otherwise.
Of the 56,446,720 acres in Victoria, 11,458,634 were
alienated in 1878, and 19,531,083 leased by Govern-
ment to 768 squatters. There were but 4,326 land-
holders in 1856, and 47,050 in 1879. Only 34,816 acres
were cropped in 1854, but 1,609,278 in 1879. Of recent
selected land, 576,063 acres were in Borung.
By a recent Act, the selected area may be 640 acres,
and improvements to the value of 10s. an acre must be
made on every acre above 320.
The prices of country land for the year ending De-
cember 31, 1878, averaged 11. 4s. 501. an acre.
The Land Act of 1883 grants leases for 20 years of
Mallée scrub land, at an annual assessment of twopence
a head of sheep and twelvepence for cattle during
the first five years, double the amount the next five, and
treble for the remainder of the term.
The Act of 1884 leases pastoral lands, with a grazing
capacity of from 1,000 to 4,000 sheep, or 150 to 500
cattle, for 14 years, at 18. a year for every sheep,
IIBTURII.
Conditions
of license.
Right in
six years.
Extended
lease.
The rental
is a pur-
chase.
Transfer of
lease.
Acres
leased out.
Land-
holders.
Land occu-
pied and
enclosed.
Selected
area may
now be 640
acres.
Price of
land.
Land Act.
1883.
Land Act,
1884.


186 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND unw ZEALAND.
VIGTURII.
Immens-
TION.
First emi-
grant ship.
Bounty and
female im
migrants.
Passage
warrants
by pre-
payment.
Free and
assisted
passengers.
5s. for cattle. All kangaroos, wild dogs, and noxious
growths must he destroyed. The lessee may select
320 acres for a freehold at 11. an acre.
A grazing area, up to 1,000 acres, may be leased for
14 years, but must be fenced within three years. The
ground can be resumed by Government on due notice.
At the expiration of a lease, the iucomer must com-
pensate the previous holder for his improvements.
An agricultural allotment, up to 320 acres, may he
had as an occupation Zicence for six years, at a rental of
1s. an acre. At the end of five years a purchase may
be effected, or the payments for a further lease of 14
years can go towards the purchase of the freehold. If
not residing on the land, double rental will be required.
Swamp lands, not to be sold, may be leased for 21
years.
IMMIGRATION has been rather free than assisted in
Victoria. People have flocked hither without aid from
the Colonial Government. The first ship out from
London, the ‘ Bryan,’ 500 tons, advertised as ‘ affording
settlers for this flourishing colony an opportunity of
proceeding there at once.’
Until 1851, when forming a part of New South
Wales, it came in for a share of bounty immigrants.
After the Separation, a vigorous attempt was made to
introduce more females, as the male immigration,
especially at the gold-fields rush, was far in excess of
the female.
Subsequently, instead of the old system of transmis-
sion of emigrants from Great Britain, colonists were
granted facilities for getting out their friends, or others,
by ‘passage warrants.’
The colonial prepayment for a male friend was 41. if
under 15 years ; 81. between 15 and 40 ; and 91. above 40
years. The prepayment for a female assisted immigrant
was, for those three periods, 31., 41., and 51. Persons
so named in warrants obtain a free passage to the colony.
The balance of the passage-money is paid by the State.
For the seven years after the Separation, in 1851, while
376,000 paid their own passage, 76,000 were assisted
out. Between 1838 and 1860 the assisted immigrants
were 47,951 males, and 66,908 females. In the bad year
of 1843 only 13 were so introduced, though in 1841 not


warms. 187
less than 8,000 were assisted thither. The largest num-
ber, 16,318, were sent out in 1854. In 1878 only 3661.
was paid on State immigration. While 72,202 entered,
58,061 left the colony in 1884.
In other colonies wages may not be so generally high,
and the provisions so cheap, but more facilities are
given to those desiring to emigrate from Europe.
Prices, however, are decidedly lower than in others
of the Australian colonies. Manufactured and imported
goods are cheaper. Clothing is very slightly above the
English standard, while boots are stronger and cheaper.
For a time certain articles were enhanced in value, owing
to the protective policy of the colony; but competition
among local makers, with improved appliances, and the
possession of the raw material, have much reduced
charges upon manufactures.
Wages fluctuate but little. According to returns of
March 31, 1879, stockmen upon stations received rations
and an average salary of 471. 5s. ; shepherds had rations
and 341. ls. ; married couples, rations and 611. 2s. ;
female servants, 271. 16s. ; and ordinary labourers, their
rations and an average of 17s. 801. a week. Ploughmen,
mowers, reapers, sheepwashers, and sheepshearers re-
ceived a much larger pay.
Wages.
The Victorian Year Book for 1883-84 gives the
following rates :——
Farm labourers, per week and board . . . 15.9. to 20s.
Ploughmen ,, ,, 20s. to 25s.
Reapers, per acre and board . 10s. to 15s.
Mowers, ,, ,, . 3s. 6d. to 6s.
Shepherds, per annum and board . 361. to 521.
Stockkeepers, ,, ,, . . 601. to 761.
Hutkeepers, ,, ,, . . . 261. to 401.
Station men, per week and board . . . . 15s. to 20s.
Sheepwashers, ,, ,, . . . 15s. to 25s.
Sheepshearers, per 100 sheep and board . . 12s. to 15s.
Masons, per day without board . . . 10s. to 12s.
Plasterers, per day without board . . 10.9. to 128.
Bricklayers, ,, ,, . 10.9. to 12s.
Carpenters, ,, ,, . . . . 10s. to 12.9.
Blacksmiths, ,, ,, . . . . 10s. to 14s.
Married couples without family, per ann. and board 601. to 1001.
Married couples with family, per annum and board 401. to 501.
Men cooks (farms) ,, ,, 501. to 601.
VICTORIA.
Not so
many faci-
lities
granted.
Prices
moderate,
Wages.


188 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND new ZEALAND.

VIGTURII.
HIN'l'B.
Victoria
compared
with other
colonies.
What pur-
suits are
and are not
successful.
Grooms, coachmen, per week and board . 20s. to 300.
Gardeners, ,, ,, . 2"-9. to 30s.
Female cooks, per aunum and board . . 401. to 75l.
Laundresses, ,, ,, . . 351. to 52l.
General servants ,, H . . 26l. to 38!.
Housemaids, ,, ,, . . 25!. to 40l.
Nursemaids, ,, ,, . . 201. to 40l.
General labourers, per day without board . 6s. to 7s.
Seaman, per month and board . . . 41. 10.9. to 6l.
Miners, per week without board . . . 2!. to 31.
Melbourne Prices, 1883-84.
Wheat, per bushel .
Oats, ,, . . . . 20. 9d. to 38. 8d.
Hay, per ton . . 3!. to 6l. 10s.
Flour, per ton, best . . . 9!. to lll. 10s.
Bread, 41b. loaf . . . 5§zi. to 7d.
Milch cows . . . 5l. to l0l.
Beef, per lb. . . . 3d. to 8d.
Mutton, per lb. . . . 2d. to 5d.
Pork, ,, . . . . . 6d. to 10d.
Butter, 11 . . . 8d. to 22d.
Geese, per couple . . . 6s. to 10s.
Fowls, ,, . . . 3s. to 6s.
Rabbits, ,, . . . 9d. to 15d.
Bacon, per lb. . . . 7d. to 12d.
Potatoes, per ton . . . . 2!. 10s. to 6l.
Caulifiowers, per dozen . 9d. to 6.2.
Ale, per dozen . . , 5s. 6d. to 12s.
Brandy, per gallon . . 22s. 6d. to 35:.
Whisky, n . . . , 18$. T10 288.
Colonial wine, per gallon . . . . 12s. to 30s.
Hints to the intending Emigrant to
4s. 2:1. to 5s. 4d
Victoria.
While every colony has its own distinctive advantages,
and appeals with confidence and success to a particular
class of persons, Victoria has won the favour of some by
that very progressiveness which repels others from its
shores. It grows every day less colonial in the general
acceptation of that term, and correspondingly assumes
the aspect of a European nation.
Compared with Queensland and New Zealand, it is
quite English in its style. Even compared with New
South Wales, it is a-head in respect to intellectual
exponents, commercial activity, and old-world life.
Pursuits, therefore, most favourably carried on in the
land of unoccupied acres and ill-populated cities, are
less adapted to the present circumstances of Victoria.
O


mnrs 1:0 rim nzrnnnmo EMIGRANT ro VICTORIA. 189
But those demanding amore settled condition of society,
a larger assemblage of people, and a greater accumula-
tion of money, must needs have a better chance in the
faster-going and wealthier colony.
It is these considerations that must influence the
thoughtful emigrant.
Of course, Queensland can have no competition in
sugar-growing and squatting; New Zealand, for feeding
stock on artificial grasses; and Tasmania, for a cool and
quiet home. But Victoria claims to satisfy all comers
but sugar-growers and cheap-renting wool-growers. It
is, however, for the intending settler to see if his own
views can be better met there.
The land is limited and occupied. Where there are
no towns, there may be farms; and where no farms,
there will be stations. There is no back country to
offer on easy terms to stockmen. Runs exchange hands
at ever-increasing rates, and station life is rapidly losing
all its old semi-barbaric character.
But while the pastoral immigrant has to treat privately
for flocks and herds, the agriculturist can go still to
the Crown Lands Ofiice for a farm. The country is yet
open to him, and millions of acres of splendid soil are
available for selection on very easy terms. To Victoria
is due the merit of first unlocking the lands for the
benefit of farmers.
No doubt is entertained as to the remunerative return
for capital invested in Victorian stations, in spite of
the enormous sums paid for them. Wool of a heavier
quantity and superior quality can be produced there,
while carcase meat fetches a higher price.
The question of reward for the toil of cultivation
is a debated one in England as well as in the Colonies.
Pictures of Eden by a Dickens, and of a Cockatoo farmer
by a Trollope, though overdrawn, have much reliability
about them. The selection of an isolated homestead,
far away from civilised advantages, and even from a
good market, may be dear, while apparently cheap. The
crowding of farms, again, even though judiciously situ-
ated for the sale of produce, may subject their holders
to a competition that leaves but small margin of profit.
Victoria farming has neither the isolation of the one
case nor the crowding of the other. It is of much con-
IIGTDRIL

Victorianot
f ll
0]‘ 8.
classes.
No pastoral
room.
Room for
farmers.
Stations
pay well-
Care when
to choose a
farm-
Style of
Victorian
farming.


190 nmnnoon T0 AUSTRALIA AND new zsusnn.
Il0T0llll.
Experience
necessary
there.
Farmers for
protection.
Fnrm la-
bourers
wanted.
_Stock-rais-
mg pays.
sequence to a man with a family that he have a church
and school within hail for his children, and a ready
access to a newspaper for himself. All this can be got
there, as well as a fair road and a fair market.
The style of farming is between the rough-and-ready
system adopted in South Australia or New South Wales,
and the scientific mode of the Lothians. The land is so
good that it will pay for attention, and ruling prices will
pay for careful culture. As may be seen under the head
of Agriculture, Victoria is a-head of the other colonies in
the use of manures and the employment of machinery.
1t is, therefore, the more necessary for a man to know
something about farming, before venturing to compete
with the shrewd and energetic grower there.
Great facilities exist for getting on to the land. But
the selector need look to something more than the soil.
The gradual extension of railways, and the admirable
arrangements of Road Boards, are highly favourable
to settlements. But, while looking out for a market, a
judicious man will look to his crops.
Victoria, being more advanced than other colonies,
can have a use for productions not getting a sale beyond
its borders. High farming and the culture of luxuries
for the table, as well as raw material for the manu-
factory, will, consequently, pay better. Farmers there,
while having no customs’ favour for all their produce,
were ever active supporters of the so-called protective
policy. They regarded it from their own standpoint as a
means for developing local trade, and so utilising articles
which they might then raise to advantage, in addition
to the prospect of having an increase of consumers by
the erection of workshops in towns.
The remarkable development of farming lately has
brought all spare labour into active exercise. There are
many men who work at their trades in towns for the
greater part of the year, but go through the country to
help at harvest and sheep-shearing. The colony could
easily absorb a large importation of farming hands, and
this at the highest colonial rates.
The best farmers find it profitable to raise stock of
the best breeds, and have their market among squatters,
with whom they could not expect to compete in wool-
growing or meat-producing. The man with sufiicient


mxrs TO THE INTENDING EMIGRANT TO VICTORIA. 191
capital and experience to start a farm for such an object
as this has a promising future in Australia. Stock-
holders have discovered the necessity of improved breeds,
and will pay handsomely for them.
As a mining country, although almost exclusively
confined to gold, Victoria pursues the most scientific
and effective methods for the extraction of metal. It is
no longer a poor man’s diggings country. Intelligence
and capital are essential to success. But large companies
require sldlled workmen, as engineers, etc., and the pro-
fessional aid of mining surveyors. Investors, if able to
form a judgment upon mines, and prudent in personal
examination of the manner of conducting such enter-
prises, may have therein a remunerative return for their
capital.
Melbourne, Geelong, Ballarat, and other large centres
of population have favourable opportunities for com-
mercial operations. With far less speculation than pre-
viously known, there is a. slower advance, but a more
reliable hope of success in the future.
Some towns present a type of civilisation which would
astonish a new comer from Europe, and give him more
confidence in his own mercantile venture there. Not
only are the streets macadamised and lighted with gas,
but the banks, halls of commerce, and stores attest the
stability, as well as the growth, of trade. Ballarat, Castle-
maine, and Sandhurst, dating their origin from the gold
discovery, have social, educational, and religious advan-
tages superior to those known in English towns six
times their size. Melbourne is, at least, as much
favoured in this respect as Birmingham, Manchester,
Liverpool, or Glasgow, while healthier than they. An
idea of the wealth of the colony may be gained from the
fact of Melbourne land being sold in 1885 at the rate
of 1,700l. per foot frontage.
Manufactures form the most tempting bait for im-
migrants.
The colony can find employment for a greater number
of trades than could be expected from places not so ad-
vanced in manufactures. It can also calculate upon an
extension of this circle of trade, as new industries are
being successfully established. These, in their turn give
employment to other classes of labour. While manufac-
VIBTDRIL
Not poor
man's dig-
gings now,
Mining
there re-
quires skill
aud capital.
Commer-
cial ros-
I‘
pects.
Town
civilisation.
Future for
man ui'ac-
tures.


192 HANDBOOK mo wsrmms sun new zmnssn.
VIETGRIL
it
‘Mr. Trol-
ope on
Victoria.
tures thus afford good prospects for labour, they promise
the most certain return for capital. With a graving
dock 475 feet long, costing 342,000l., the colony shows
its faith in the future commerce of the country. The
new Melbourne Company for the colonisation of New
Guinea shows the enterprise of the people.
Victoria has secured a vantage ground in these in-
dustries, which it is likely to maintain even without a
development of its coal-fields. Mr. Trollope was struck
with the appearances of prosperity there. ‘ It is to be
seen,’ he says, ‘in the daily lives of the colonists, in the
clothes which they wear, in the food which they eat, in
the wages which they receive, in the education of their
children, and in the general comfort of the people.’


DISCOVERY. 193
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
Discovery.
THOUGH the Dutch navigators discovered Tasmania and
Westem Australia, Englishmen made known the shores
of South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and
Queensland.
On January 28, 1802, Capt. Flinders, in the Investigator,
sailing eastward from King George’s Sound, came to
the western boundary of the South Australian Colony.
He gave names to Fowler Bay, Port Lincoln, St. Vin-
cent’s Gulf, Spencer’s Gulf, and Yorke Peninsula.
Kangaroo Island was so called from the number of
mild-eyed marsupials there, that were supposed by the
seamen to mistake them for seals, while the seals, as
simply, seemed to fancy our countrymen to be kangaroos.
This unsuspicious gentleness was soon rudely disturbed.
After Flinders had surveyed seven-eighths of the new
coast, he encountered a strange vessel in those strange
waters. This was the French exploring expedition of
Admiral Baudin, going north-westward from a long so-
journ in Van Diemen’s Land. The meeting gave rise to
the name of Encounter Bay.
Although the French only discovered the shore between
long. 139° and 140i°, they took advantage of Flinders
being kept for six years a prisoner of war in the Isle of
France, and, by Imperial command, laid claim to the dis-
covery of all that the English captain had seen before
them. The country was announced as Napoleon Land,
and the two gulfs were known as Bonaparte and J osc-
phine. The historian and naturalist of the voyage,
M. Peron, keenly felt the disgrace of thus seeking to rob
the honest sailor of his right. Flinders had no sooner
published his work than the story was fully appreciated,
and the Imperial claim disallowed.
Though a party of sailors soon established themselves
on Kangaroo Island, yet no attempt at settlement was
made upon the mainland.
O
SOUTH
AUSTRALIA
Flinders,
8

1 02, dis-
covered
South
Australia.
Met the
French.
French
claimed thv.
country
theirs b_v
discovery.
Napoleon
Laud.


194 muvnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW znsmsn.
SUUTII
IUSTRILII.
Sturt on
the
Murray,
1830.

Barker,
1831,
inland
explorer.
Eyre at
Lake Tor-
rens, 1840.
Eyre over-
land to
King
G oorge’B
Sulllltl,
1840-41.
Sturt in the
desert,
1845.
Good Yand
near the_
desert.
Burke and
Wills at
Cooper's
Creek,
1861.
In 1830, Capt. Sturt, who had previously discovered
the Darling River of New South Wales, undertook a trip
to the south-west of Sydney. He crossed the track
of Messrs. Hume and Howell, rowed down the Murrum-
bidgee to the Murray, and followed the course of the latter
stream to the sea. In this way he entered upon a part
of South Australia, and saw the hills overshadowing
the plain of Adelaide.
In 1831 Capt. Barker was sent to explore this hill-
country, and gave his name to one of the finest moun-
tains. Unable to cross the surf-bound mouth of the
Murray, he swam over to the other side ; and there was
speared by the natives, whose women had been stolen by
the bad whites on Kangaroo Island.
In 1839 and 1840 Mr. Eyre, afterwards Governor
Eyre of New Zealand and Jamaica, undertook impor-
tant explorations. He visited Lake Torrens, and made
the wonderful journey overland from Port Lincoln to
King George’s Sound, a distance of 1,200 miles.
His only white companion was murdered ; and, accom-
panied only by Wylie, a black, he continued his perilous
way. On two several occasions his horses had to travel
an entire week without water, and were unable to carry
more than a few pounds weight of stores. He left Ade-
laide in June 1840, and reached the Sound in July 1841.
Among subsequent explorations, that of Capt. Sturt’s
in 1845 deserves to be mentioned. After following up
the Murray to the Darling, he struck off into the north-
western interior. In the Great Stony Desert he suffered
considerably from the heat and drought, though he came
to a fine sheet of water at Cooper’s Creek.
When Mr. A. C. Gregory was on his expedition, after
Leichhardt, in 1858, he came to Sturt’s Desert, and saw
the country subject to inundation. Mr. McKinlay suf-
fered much from the flies near the well-grassed flats by
the beds of dry lakes. He found the desert bounded by
a beautiful country, frequented by pelicans and pigeons,
while crowds of natives lived on the margins of lakes.
Floods detained him long in the neighbourhood of the
Desert.
It was within South Australian territory, at Cooper’s
Creek, that Burke and Wills perished from exhaustion,
after crossing the continent in 1861. Mr. Gregory, ac-


msronr. 195
companied by Dr. Mueller, botanist, explored part of the
northern territory in 1856, by the Roper and the Victoria.
Mr. John McDouall Stuart, a companion of Capt.
Sturt in 1845, made three trials to cross the continent
from Adelaide, and did not succeed till 1862. One time
he was arrested by an attack of the natives, and at
another he was turned by a dense scrub.
Country to the north and west of Adelaide was ex-
plored by Major Warburton, Colonel Freeling, and
Messrs. Babbage, Hack, Goyder, Howitt, Delisser, and
Giles. Fair pastoral localities were thus revealed. The
country about Lake Torrens was proved to be a depressed
basin. Mr. Gosse explored in 1872. Colonel Warburton
crossed to Western Australia from the centre of the
Continent in 1873-4. Rich soil was found in 1878 on
the Queensland side of Northern Territory.
History.
So satisfactory was the story of the climate and soil of
the new land, especially after Capt. Sturt’s row upon
the Murray, that an attempt at getting up a Colonisation
Association was made as early as 1831. A charter was
granted by Parliament to a company, in August, 1834.
While the Governor was to be appointed by the Crown,
a Commissioner was to represent the London Association
in South Australia.
The leaders of this Wakefield system of colonisation
were Messrs. Torrens and Angas. Free emigrants were
to be sent out with money raised by selling colonial land
in England. The Commissioners in London were em-
powered to borrow 200,000l. on the security of future
taxes. What the East India Company had been in Asia,
this Association was to be in Australia. The grant of
land was from long. 132° to 141°, to be divided as the
Commissioners desired. If 20,000 persons were not
settled there in ten years the Crown could resume the
estate; but should there be 50,000, a local government
must be formed.
As an earnest of good faith, the Commissioners were
required to make a deposit of 20,0001.
When the gentlemen were not ready with the cash,
Messrs. Torrens, Angas, and Gouger undertook to ad-
Vance it, upon some concessigns being made to a trading
o
S0" I'll
IIISTBILII.
Northern
Territory.
Stuart’s
three trials
to cross the
Continent.
Other
explorers.

Hrsronr.
Charter to
company,
1834.
Wakefield
system.
Grant from
132° to
141°.
Commis-
sioners of
South
Australian
Associa-
tion.


196 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND-
SOUTH
IUSTRALII.
South
Australian
Company.
Colony set-
tlui 1836.

Adelaide
land sold
March,
1837-
Failure of
the Asso-
ciation.
Crown
Colony,
1 841 .
Prosperity.
Burra
Burra.
Safe and
harry
colony.
Gsocnm
rur.
M istaken
name.
company they were to organise. This South Australian
Company bought a large amount of land from the Com-
missioners at 12s. an acre, to sell again at 20s. in 80-acre
sections.
The Association raised their capital, appointed Mr.
Fisher their Resident Commissioner, and sent ofi’ sur-
veyors and emigrants. Capt. Hindmarsh was appointed
the Governor. Arriving December 28, 1836, he pro-
claimed the Colony.
Kangaroo Island was the first attraction, but was
found barren and riverless. The whole party then moved
to St. Vincent’s Gulf, and formed Adelaide, the first
lands there being sold in March, 1837.
The early history of this private Colony was one of
wild speculation and unbounded faith. Governor Gawler,
who came in 1838,foresaw such greatness that his public
works were constructed on a gigantic scale. The settlers
neglected farming for the more profitable labour of land
jobbing. Flour rose to 1001. a ton, Government bills on
England were dishonoured, and State and colonists were
wrecked in credit.
The English Parliament came to the rescue. The
Commissioners, who had borrowed 2()0,000l., resigned
their charter in 184.1, and South Australia became a
Crown Colony. The advance was to be repaid from
local taxation. Governor Grey, who succeeded Mr.
Gawler, was wise in administration, the settlers were
prudent in enterprise, and a few years after the Colony
was the most prosperous in Australia.
The Burra Burra and other copper mines showed the
vast mineral wealth of the province; the plains were
easily cultivated; and the pastures, in spite of a dry
climate, produced excellent wool.
Although the blaze of golden glory in Victoria drew
off much of the population in 1851 and 1852, yet the
steady habits of the people of Adelaide, their admirable
patriotism, and their successful energy, have raised South
Australia to be one of the most comfortable homes in
the world.
Geography and Climate.
South Australia is a misnomer for the land governed
from Adelaide. No part is so southern as the coast of


esoemrur. 197
its neighbour, Victoria ; whilst its Northern Territory ad-
vances far into the tropics. It was so named, however,
before Port Phillip was settled, and when it was expected
by the London Commissioners of the Company that the
boundary of the private colony would be extended towards
Cape Howe.
The original area was 300,000 square miles, extending
southward from lat. 26° S. to the sea, and from the
boundary of Victoria, long. 141° E., to long. 132° E. The
strip of land between 132° and 129°, ‘No Man's Land,’
by Western Australia, was added in 1861. The area
then became 380,070 square miles.
In 1863, following the year when South Australian
enterprise opened up North Australia from the interior,
by the discoveries of Mr. Stuart, the vast region north
of lat. 26° to the tropical seas was placed under the
Adelaide Government. Since the addition of the
northern territory, South Australia has become one of
the most extensive of the Colonies, having an area of
903,690 square miles; being nine times the size of New
Zealand or Victoria.
Though a large part of this space is scarcely yet fitted
for occupation, being dry sand or scrub, yet Mr. Dutton,
the Agent General, was right in observing, that ‘this
scrub bids fair to turn out the most valuable of any part
of the Colony, all the rich mines having been discovered
in precisely that sort of ground described as rocky and
scrubby.’
Mountains.
The country is decidedly flat as compared with the
eastern Colonies. One chain extends from Cape Jervis
northward to the Lake Torrens country. It is variously
called, Lofty Range, near Adelaide ; and beyond that, the
Barossa, the Belvidere by Kapunda, the Bryan by the
Burra Burra, and Flinders northward.
Of the peaks of that chain, Terrible is 1,300 feet;
Barker, 1,700 ; Gawler, 1,800 ; Crawford, 1,900 ; Torrens,
1,900 ; Horrocks, 2,000 ; Kaiserstuhl, 2,000 ; Lofty,
2,300; and Bryan, Remarkable, Razorback, Brown, and
Arden, each about 3,000 feet.
Mount Hopeless is near Lake Torrens, and N ewland by
Encounter Bay; the Stanley and Grey Barrier ranges
SOUTH
IUSTBILII.
Area and
boundaries.
No Man‘:
Land.
Northern
Territory
added.
Area now
903,690
square
miles.
Rich mines
in the
worst
country.
Mounhiru


198 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA um NEW zmmun.
SOUTH
IUSTRILII.

Rivera.
Luka-
Bays.
are on the side of New South Wales. The Gawler
chain is in Port Lincoln Peninsula. The volcanic
craters of Gambier, Schanck, Muirhead, &c., are near
the Victoria boundary to the south-east.
Among the hills on the overland route to Port Dar-
win are the Denison, Macdonnel, Murchison, and Ash-
bnrton ranges; with Mounts Barkly and Leichhardt, near
Stuart's Mt. Centre. Musgrave is N. of Fowler's Bay.
Rivera.
The Murray is about the only stream always flowing
into the sea, though abar is at its mouth. The Adelaide
Torrens is usually lost in a reedy swamp. Others are
lost in sands, though a few fall into the salt lakes.
North of Adelaide are the Gawler, Light, Burra, and
Broughton. South of it are the Yankalilla of Rapid
Bay, the Sturt, Bremer, Angus, Onkapariuga, Hind-
marsh, and Inman. The Wakefield is at the head ot
Gulf St. Vincent.
The Torrens basin receives the Frome, Neales,
Blanchewater, Strzelecki Creek, and Cooper’s Creek. A
number of streams crossed by Stuart in the Interior
have not been explored.
In the Northern Territory, the Macarthur and Roper
fall into the Gulf of Carpentaria; the Victoria and
Fitzmaurice into the Arafoura Sea, about lat. 15° S.;
and the Alligator and Adelaide in Van Diemen’s Gulf,
in lat. 12° S. Liverpool river is east of Alligator.
Lakes.
The so-called northern lake district is between lat. 28°
and 32°. Torrens, Eyre, Gairdner, Hope, and Blanche
are the largest. Blanche is 120 miles by 12 ; Eyre, 150
long; and Gairdner is much longer, and 350 ft. above sea.
The Murray, near its mouth, flows through lake Vic-
toria, 30 miles in length; Albert and the narrow Coorong,
80 long, are connected with the Victoria. There are
salt lakes toward Mount Gambier-—as Eliza, Hawdon,
George, and Bonnay—-beside the freshwater crater lakes
of Leake, Edward, and Gambier.
Bays.
The Australian Bight is south-western, and Encounter
Bay south-eastern. The Fowler and Streaky Bays are
Westward. Yorke Peninsula divides the Gulf St. Vin-


GEOGRAPHY. 199
cent of Adelaide from the Spencer's Gulf by Port Lin-
coln. Rapid Bay is in St. Vincent’s Gulf.
South-east of Encounter Bay are Lacepede, Guichen,
and Rivoli Bays. Port Elliot is west of the mouth of
the Murray river; Victor Harbour is 6 miles west of
Port Elliot. Port Macdonnel is near Mount Gambier.
Backstairs Passage is between Kangaroo Isle and
Encounter Bay. Cape Jervis is at the mouth of Gulf
St. Vincent. Capes Jalfa and Lannes are south-east.
In the Northern Territory, Adam Bay is at the mouth
of the Adelaide River. Van Diemen’s Gulf receives
the Alligator, and has an outlet by Clarence Straits.
The most northern bays are Melville, Arnhem, Mount-
morris, Rallies, and Port Essington. Cape Arnhem is
N.W. of the Gulf, and Cape Van Diemen is the north-
westernmost point. Port Darwin is in lat. 12° S.
Isla/nda.
Kangaroo, 100 miles long, is south of Gulf St. Vin-
cent. Nuyt’s Archipelago are in the Australian Bight.
Flinders and Investigator's Groups are east of Nuyt’s,
and west of the Boston isles of Port Lincpln. Melville
and Bathurst, of Northern Territory, are north of Port
Darwin. Groote-Eyland and Wellesley are, however, in
the Gulf of Carpentaria.
Divisions.
The old counties are Light, Stanley, Frome, and
Burra, in the north; Adelaide and Hindmarsh in the
middle of the settled parts; and Russell, Grey, and
Robe to the south-east. Flinders in Port Lincoln Penin-
sula. There are 36 counties, and 4 squatting districts,
containing 340,000 square miles. The 36 counties
contain 58,940 square miles.
But the country is better divided into 113 districts,
each of which is governed by a Chairman and an elected
Council. These vary in area from 3 or 44 acres up to
230 acres. They are called after rivers, hills, and town-
ships. Tatiara and Mount Gambier are by Victoria.
Towns.
The 23 municipalities are Adelaide, Brighton, Clare,
Gawler, Glenelg, Goolwa, Kapunda, Kadina, Kensington
SDIITI
IUSTHILIL

Island;
Divisionl.
Tnwnl.


200 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND nnw zmmnn.
SOUTH
IUSTBALII.
The capital.
Towns, &c.,
north.
Do. east.
Do. south.
Do. south-
east. '
Do. west.
CLIMATE.
Heat 65°
average.
and Norwood, Moonta, Port Adelaide, Strathalbyn, Un-
ley, Albert-on, P. Pirie, Osmond, Hindmarsh, Augusta, &c.
Adelaide, the capital, with a population of 35,000,
stands on the Torrens River in lat. 35° S. ; long. 138%" E.
Norwood, Kensington, Unley, Hindmarsh, and Brighton
are near it. Port Adelaide is 8 miles from the city.
The distances of places north of Adelaide are as fol-
lows :—Salisbury, 12 miles; Gawler, 26; Barossa, 35_;
Tanunda, 42 ; Mount Crawford, 43; Kapunda, 49; An-
gaston, 51; Port Wakefield, 60 ; Blyth, 120; Clare, 89;
Wallaroo (N.W.), 91 ; Kadina, 95 ; Moonta (N.W.), 99 ;
Redruth and Kooringa of Burra-Burra, 100; North-west
Bend, 114; Broughton,150; Ulooloo, 130 (N.E.); James’
Town, 140 ; Port Pirie, 154 ; Augusta, 240 ; Saltia, 250;
Mount Freeling, 500; Mount Margaret and Peake, 700.
To the east are Hahndorf, 17 ; Balhannah, 18 ; Mount
Barker, 21 ; Echunga, 21; Woodside, 22; Gnmmeracha,
24; Nairne, 25; Macclesfield, 27; Torrens, 32; Strath-
albyn, 35 ; Wellington, 69; Narraooorte, 220.
To the south are Morphett Vale, 15; Noalunga, 20;
Aldinga, 27; Willunga, 30 ; Yankalilla, 46 ; Port Elliot,
52; Inman Valley, 60 ; Goolwa, 60; Encounter Bay
Town, 65; Victor Harbour, 65.
To the south-east are Kingscote, 120; Kingston, 169;
Penola, 254; Border Town, 282; Gambier Town, 287;
Allendale, 300; Port Macdonnell, 304 ; Mount Burr, 329.
The population is small in that quarter.
To the west are Moonta, 99; Port Lincoln, 210 ;
Streaky Bay, 406; Fowler Bay, 570; and Venus Bay, 360.
Palmerston, of Port Darwin, lat. 12° S., 1,970 N. of
Adelaide. South Port is 25 miles from it. Strangwa-y’s
Springs, Charlotte Springs, Barrow’s Creek, Daly
Waters, Yam Creek, are in the overland route.
Climate.
The CLIMATE of South Australia has been put forward,
in some cases, as an objection to immigration. The heat
and drought are certainly unpleasant to bear; few can
realise the exhaustion of long-continued high tempera.-
ture except by actual endurance.
The thermometrical heat of the Adelaide Plains in
summer has run up to 110° or 115° in the shade. Capt.
Sturt, when in the northern desert, observed the glass


202 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
SOUTH
IUSTRRLIL
Lowest 13
inches.
Sandy soil.
Hail.
Barometer
action.
Variety of
climate.
1841. From 1864 to 1868, the deposition averaged only
18116. The average for 39 years was 21'295.
Among the lowest gauges were the following :—1854,
15346 inches; 1859, 14842; 1865, 14713; and 1869,
the bad corn year, 13'585. The next year, however,
gave ten inches more. The highest known rate was in
1875, when there fell 31'455. The Adelaide rain for
1872 was 22% inches; for 1876, 14; 1878, 21.
The general arenaceous soil of the Colony increases
the trial of the farmer in so dry a climate. It is said
that the fall of as much as a quarter of an inch in one
day is scarcely appreciable in the summer, owing to the
excessive evaporation. The rains are needed to be heavy
in order to be serviceable.
Hail storms though few are sometimes violent. In
October 1854, great flat pieces of ice fell in a shower.
The barometrical action in Adelaide has been thus
described by the weather authority, Sir George S. King-
ston:—
‘As regards the use of the barometer in forming a
judgment on the weather to be expected, I have to
observe that the barometer invariably begins to fall with
a north-east wind, continuing to fall as the wind in-
creases in violence, and draws round by the north, north-
west, and westerly, at or about which it reaches its
lowest figure. The barometer immediately begins to
rise rapidly with the least southing in the wind. I have
frequently seen the barometer at its lowest point (as
observed by me), 29'3, blowing hard, accompanied by
cloudy weather, when no rain has fallen. On the other
hand, I have known some of the steadiest and most
copious rains to occur with the barometer at 30'2 and
the wind light or nearly calm.’
The climatic difference in diflerent parts of South
Australia is noticeable, considering the little change of
level. Of course, the south-eastern provinces, so exposed
to the wet winds, have the large proportion of rain;
especially at Mount Gambier, 900 feet above the sea,
and at the southernmost pa-rt of the Colony.
In the wet year of 1861, the following results were
obtained :--
Rainfall in
the Colony.
1 Port Augusta . . 7'l66 inches in 66 dayl.
2 Langhorue’s Creek . 10275 ,, 112 ,,


CLIMATE. 203
8 Koorings , . 17-172 inches in 107 days.
4 Kapunda , . 20'200 ,, 118 ,,
5 Strathalbyn . . 22-420 ,, 128 ,,
6 Adelaide . . 24035 ,, 157 ,,
7 Bungaree . . 26702 ,, 85 ,,
8 O’Hall0ran Hill. . 30160 ,, 140 ,,
9 Mount Barker . . 32-001 ,, 142 ,,
10 Guichen Bay . . 33-176 ,, 140 ,,
11 Pencla . . . 38'6l3 ,, 154 ,,
12 Mount Lofty . . 45'690 ,, ,,
13 Mount Gambier. . 55‘686 ,, 176 ,,
Mount Barker, from its elevation, 1,700 feet, might
have been expected moister; but its inland position is
against its humidity. Kooringa, the Burra Burra,
though of considerable height, is 60 miles from the sea.
Penola, though lower in latitude, is, also, far inland.
Port Augusta has the smallest of all, as the dry Lincoln
Peninsula lies to the west of it. Further north, the rain-
fall is even less, being for some years scarcely per-
ceptihle.
It is singular, however, that in the central parts of the
Continent, in the line of the telegraph between Adelaide
and Port Darwin, water is found in creeks and ponds.
The overland explorer, Mr. Stuart, was only two nights
without getting surface water. At Palmerston, Nor-
thern Territory, 38 inches of rain fell the first 3 months;
10 fell one week. The cool season there is the dry one.
The temperature, as may be supposed, varies with the
locality. Thus, in the year taken previously, 1861, the
number of days on which the thermometer rose above
90° was as follows :--Adelaide, 45; Strathalbyn, 28 ;
Kapunda and Mount Gambier, 15 ; Penola, 12 ; Mount
Lofty and Mount Barker, 7; Guichen Bay, 5.
The winds from the north-east, called the hot winds,
when raising dust as well as temperature, are trouble-
some enough. A continuation of them will generally be
arrested by a southerly Burster. Black Thursday, Feb-
ruary 6, 1851, was the most fearful day ever experienced
over the whole of the south and south-eastern portions of
Australia, for bush fires, heat, dust, and darkness.
A waterspout, in 1851, drove out 1,500 miners and
their families from their burrowing residences in the
sides of the Burra Burra Creek.
The magnetic variation of Adelaide is 7° E. ; of Sturt’s
S0lITh
lllSTRlLll.

Reason for
difference.
Water in
centre of
Australia.
Different
tempera-
ture.
Hot winds.
Black
Thursday.
Water-
spout.
Mag-
netism.


20-1 HANDBOOK 1'0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW znsmuv.
SOIITII
.U$TML|l.
~u
GEOLOGY.
Flat coun-
try.
Tertiary
formation
very ex-
tcnsive.
Depressed
basin.
Once an
archi-
pelago.
Ocean
where the
Colony
now
appears.
Warmer
then.
Land still
rising.
Part
Pliocene,‘
Rita...
Desert, 15° E. ; and of Port Essing-ton, in the India Sea,
2§° E. The line of no variation runs through the Great
Australian Bight of South Australia. '
Geology.
The Geology of the Colony can only be briefly regarded
here.
Within lat. 26° S., the greater part of the surface may
be called flat and uninteresting. The main ranges of
Primary rocks stand out like islands in the tertiary lime-
stone. The Silurian strata are 30,000 feet thick.
The great tertiary formation extends from east to
west, and from north to south, except where interrupted
by the ranges of primary rocks. It is carried onward
along the southern shores of Australia westward to King
George’s Sound, and eastward to Cape Howe. It pene-
trates the continent nearly to the centre, reappearing on
the northern coast. The so-called northern lake district,
with the country about Sturt’s Desert, is a rather de-
pressed basin, compared with the rest of Australia.
At the time of this calcareous deposit being formed,
Australia was a mere archipelago, like the South Pacific
now. Possibly, then, a large continent stood where now
the South Sea is situated, and which sank as Australia
arose. A deep and tranquil ocean existed where South
Australia now appears. Glaciers ran where Adelaide is.
Judging by the fossils, many being of a tropical nature,
the water was much warmer than any in the same lati-
tude now, and must have had connection with the equa-
torial sea. The Pecten, Nautilus, Echinus, Spataugus,
Terebratula, Coral, and Shark abounded therein.
As the bottom rose, the islands of granite, sandstone,
slate, &c., became lines of mountain in the country of
limestone. The elevation is still going on. Rivoli Bay
had to be re-surveyed in consequence of the changes
during the past seventy years. Reefs 7 miles in length
have now an extent of 14 miles. The Bight has risen
12 feet since 1825 ; and Augusta 7 feet in forty years.
The formation must have been once very far south of
its present sea boundary, and it has suffered much by the
inroad of the two great gulfs. Part of the Murray basin
would seem to be of an upper Miocene age, and that by


eso1.oer. 205
Mount Gambier of a Pliocene. The crag has much re-
semblance to that of the English chalk. Fossil Wingless
birds and monster marsupials are seen therein.
Bands of flint are found in certain localities. Biscuit-
like pieces of limestone are gathered in the south-eastern
province. The curious lake country, including the
Coorong, shows its coralline origin. Lakes Victoria and
Albert were once bays. The Murray has cut through
cliffs 200 feet in depth to make its course.
The fossiliferous limestone runs imperceptibly into the
non-fossiliferous. In the Mount Gambier natural well,
90 feet deep and 100 wide, may be noticed a dozen
zones on the side. Among these are bands of flints,
of Bryozoaa, of Terebratulaa, and of bivalves. The water
is of singular transparency, and flows in subterranean
rivers to the sea. Clifi's of Gambier have the look of coral
atolls, says the South Australian Geological authority,
the Rev. J. E. Woods, who talks of 1,000 miles of fossils.
Hundreds of miles north of Adelaide is the Torrens
basin, now observed to have a number of large salt lakes.
The formation is similar to that of the Adelaide limestone
plains, with much saline marl and sand. It is a deep
trough, 350 feet above the sea level, into which the
drainage of Central Australia finds its way. Though
but a dry region, stock do well there some years.
The Primary rocks appear through the recent tertiary
floor in the long backbone of the Colony, north from
Cape Jervis. They run far into the interior of Australia.
Other isolated ranges rise through the limestone on Port
Lincoln Peninsula. There is no Secondary rock.
Primary sandstone, slate, and limestone, more or less
metamorphosed, are seen along these mountains, and are
strongly developed in the Grey and Barrier ranges, the
Davenport range, the Flinders range, and the Cooper
Creek country. The granite, and its compounds, may
be noticed intruding through the primary strata, or pro-
truding from the limestone floor. Splendid red varieties
are obtained from Kaiserstuhl, Barossa, and Port Lincoln.
Hack’s Mount Centre is granitic.
In the south of Yorke Peninsula the rock is red, and
often combined with much quartz. Splendid felspar
crystals are procured from Mount Crawford. Granite
crops out to the west of Augusta, and in the neighbour-
SOIITII
IIISTBILII.
Coralline
origin.
Mount
Gambier
flint: and
wells.
The Tor-
rens Basil
tertiary.
Primary
rocks.
Granite.


206 nsnnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND new zmmnn.
S0llTll
I STBILII.
ll
Interior.

Volcanic
rocks.
Trap on the
border.
Craters.
Devil’s
Punch-
bowl.
Mount
Gambier.
Crater
lakes.
Monster
mammals.
Metals and
limestone.
Gold
localities.
hood of Coflin Bay, Streaky Bay, and Fowler Bay, as
well as in the Nuyt’s Archipelago.
In the interior, Mr. Stuart came upon noble granite
mountains along with the primary rocks. A portion of
the country appeared carboniferous ; and much of it was
of basalt, bursting through the tertiary deposits.
The volcanic element is almost confined to the Mount
Gambier district. Basalt, however, is present at Mount
Bryan, Mount Arden, and even north of Blanchewater.
It comes through the limestone on the Gawler river, and
crops out at Kapunda. Greenstone dykes are on the
side of Mount Remarkable. Rich volcanic soil is north.
But in the lake country of the south-east both basalt
and greenstone are more common. Porphyry, however,
is the intrusive rock from the Victorian boundary west-
ward to the Murray. A line of trap runs along the
south-eastern border of Victoria.
Volcanic cones are common in the south-eastern Gam-
bier country, where four craters may be distinguished.
Lake Leake and other inland waters near are but the
craters of extinct volcanoes. Mount Schank, or Devil’s
Punchbowl, is without water, though 200 feet deep.
Mount Gambier, with its ash wall 900 feet high, has a
circumference of eight miles, and contains three lakes.
The Blue Lake, once called the Devil’s Inkstand, is 200
feet from the surface, and is 260 feet deep. The ash has
burst through the limestone; it is 150 feet thick by the
lake, 50 feet at a quarter of a mile, and 6 feet at a mile.
A wall of cinder supports one of the broken sides of the
mountain. The S. coast was suddenly upheaved.
Fossil monster mammals, as the Diprotodon, &c., have
been taken from the Pliocene drift. The skull of an
enormous wombat was seen at Ulaloo.
The metalliferous wealth of the Colony is owing to
the presence of so much crystalline limestone, so usually
associated with copper development. The similarity of
rocks in the Northern Territory gives promise of deposits
of minerals there.
Gold has been traced in various localities, from 100
miles south of Port Darwin to the centre of the continent,
though favourable circumstances for the working are
hardly to be expected at present. Mines are being de-
veloped within thi.rty miles of Adelaide, but little gold.


eovnnnnanr. 207
Favoured with so much copper, lead, and silver, South
Australia must be resigned to purchase coal from New
South Wales. Kerosene has been got from a bituminous
mineral beside the Cooroug, and coal in Kangaroo Island.
The geology is very favourable to agriculture around
Adelaide, and for fifty miles eastward and southward,
more still to north-west. But in most other places the
limestone is too much covered with sand, or a heartless
white marl, to give encouragement to the farmer.
There are many localities most desirable from the for-
mation, but where the want of rain makes a difliculty.
Government.
South Australia, being the only Australian Colony
that never received convicts from England, has had less
of British interference or control than the rest.
For some years a private company's settlement, it
passed through few changes when becoming a Crown
Colony. Though a responsible government did not exist
there, nor anywhere else on the continent, till October
1856, the Governors and Council never assumed despotic
rights, and the country was conducted liberally and
wisely. The Northern territory may desire self-rule.
By the new Constitution, and according to the ex-
pressed wishes of the previous Parliament, which was
partly nominee and partly elective, two Houses were
recognised. ~The Legislative Council was to consist of
eighteen members, who served for 12 years. Those who
had the suffrage to vote for them were required to pos-
sess a freehold of 501., or to pay a house-rental of 25l.
The Lower House, or House of Assembly, was to have
thirty-six members, each nominated for three years.
Voters were only required to be of age, and to have re-
sided for six months previously in an electoral district.
There are now forty-six members in the Assembly chosen
in the twenty-two electoral districts. The voting is by
ballot.
The Executive Council consists of the Governor and
his ministers. The Legislative Council has twenty-four
members; the Assembly fifty-two.
The Colonial Revenue for the year 1878-79 was
1,592,634.~l., ofwhich 511,455l. came from the Customs.
The railways brought 27-t,765l. at a cost of 198,58ll.
'1'he taxes are only 42s. per head. The estimated revenue
S0"Tll
IUSTMLII.
Coal.
Geology
and agri-
culture.
GOVERN-
MENT.
Never a
convict
colony.
Always
well ruled.
Legislative
Council.
House of
Assembly.
Revenue


208 mmnnoox zro AUSTRALIA AND new ZEALAND.
SOUTH
IUSTRILII.
Expendi-
Lure.
Debt.
Economy.
POPULA-
TION
N ration-
ality.
Sexes.
Town _
population.
Births.
Marrlagel.
for the year to July 188-5, was 2,429,277l. The actual
revenue was 2,157,931?-.
In 1840 the revenue was 30,1991. ; in 1850, 238,982l. ;
in 1853, 539,754l. ; in 1860, 438,827l. ; in 1865,
1,089,128l. ; in 1870, 657,576l. ; in 1877-8, 1,455,105l.
The expenditure for 1884-5 was 1,766,863l. This was
outside 663,649l. for interest and redemption of loan.
This loan, for public works, reached seventeen millons.
Civil list cost was 20,0001. ; police, 103,784l. ; educa-
tion, 126,367I.; charitable institutions, 88,968l.; judicial
and legal, 50,05ll.; postal, 202,617l.; military defences,
39,473l.; public works, 311,189l. ; railways, 411,850l.
The estimated expenditure for 1885-6 was reduced.
Though not so well favoured as some of its eastern
neighbours, South Australia has had a. wise and econo-
mical administration. The public loans are not to pay
debts, but develop railways and other productive works,
as well as to introduce immigrants for labour and profit.
Metals, wool, and grain have to be brought vast distances
to port, and recent prices have been low.
Population.
In 1838 there were 6,000 people; in 1840, 14,630;
in 1850, 63,700; in 1860, 126,830; in 1870, 183,797;
in 1873, 195,000. In 1862 it was estimated that 38 per
cent. of the people were native-born : English, 35; Irish,
10; German, 7; Scotch, 6. The proportion of the
native-born and Irish has since much increased.
The sexes are more equal now than they were. In
1844, 9,526 were males and 7,840 females; in 1851,
35,302 and 28,398; in 1861, 65,048 and 61,782; in
Dec. 1872, 98,481 and 93,742. At the end of 1885
the population was 325,000. There were but few in
Northern territory.
Adelaide, at the end of 1878, had 40,000 inhabitants ;
the Burra, 4,000; Kapunda, 2,500; Port Adelaide,
3,200; Gawler, 2,000; and Glenelg, 2,500.
The Births, in 1840, were 360 in a population of
14,630; in 1850, 2,174 of 63,700; in 1860, 5,568 of
124,112; in 1871, 7,082 of 185,626, and 1873, 7,109 of
198,257. In 1884, 11,847 or 37'69 to 1,000.
The Marriages in these years were as follows :—1840,
186; 1850, 233; 1860, 1,031; 1884, 2,555. These are


mrumrxon. 209
respectively as one in 79, in 273, in 120, and in 116. In
1873 there were married under 20 years of age 52 males
and 462 females ; in 1884, marriages were 9'40 to 1,000.
The Deaths were, in 1840, 320 ; in 1850, 986; in 1860,
2,336 ; and in 1871, 2,378. The several proportions
were one in 45, in 63, in 53, and in 78. The deaths for
1873 were 2,631, or but 13% in 1,000; in 18841, 4,789
averaged 15} to 1,000.
The ages of decease have varied relatively in different
years, thus :—
1862 1364 1877
Under 2 years . . 1,028 1,214 1,212
,, 5 ,, . 172 425 305
,, 10 ,, O - 74 130 46
,, 30 ,, - - 211 297 391
,, 50 ,, . . 185 287 516
Above 50 ,, . . 241 202 629
Diflerent statements as to the causes of disease have
been published. Of 2,336 cases in 1860, it was stated
that 677 were from zymotic disease, 178 from tuber-
cular, 302 from nervous, 259 from digestive organs,
20 from urinary, 159 from debility, 166 from atrophy,
and 97 from constitutional.
The ofiicial record for 1884 describes the diseases
thus: miasmatic, 927; dietetic, 60; diathetic,14~-5 ; tuber-
cular, 370; nervous, 4.-50; parasitic, 32; circulatory, 259;
respiratory, 648; digestive, 398; urinary, 92; develop-
mental, 399 ; nutritive, 380; accident, 239; murder, 5;
suicide, 31.
Another analysis gives: zymotic, 966; constitutional,
602; local, 2,035; developmental, 399; violence, 239.
The foreign element of population, excepting German,
is very small in South Australia. When the Victorian
Government exacted 10l. upon each Chinaman arriving
in port, the cunning Mongolians landed free in South
Australia, and walked overland to the diggings in
Victoria.
The Aborigines have been better cared for in this
Colony than elsewhere, as humane regulations concerning
them were adopted from the earliest settlement. Food and
clothing were distributed, though little needed. Schools
were established for the young that could be got there.
Missions have been formed among them, and native
settlements for civilisation have been well supported.
P
SOUTI
IIISTRILII.
L
Deaths.
Ages at
death.
Diseases.
Germans.
Chinese.
Aborigines
kindly
treated.


210 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
SUUTII
lUSTBIlLll-
Die
childless.
EDUCA-
-nos.
Religious
teaching.
Teachers.
Pupils at-
tend well.
Expense.
RELIGION.
Early set-
tlers for
freedom of
worship.
But, though gentle and good-tempered, the tribes pre-
ferred their own customs and liberty. The schools were
forsaken, the teaching was disregarded, the civilisation
was abandoned. When gathered together, they seem to
lose vigour, and die childless. The aboriginal reserves
for missions include 500,000 acres in the Northern
Territory, the Lake district, &c.
In 1862, there were 2,642 males, 2,404 females; in
1877, 2,203 males, 1,750 females. Of the whole, only
217 worked for the whites.
Education and Religion.
The difficulties as to dogmatic religious instruction
have been fewer there than elsewhere. There being no
denomination specially favoured by the State, the Pro-
testant bodies were agreed upon the simple system of the
use of the Bible in the class-room, and the Roman Catho-
lics could use their Douay Bible; but such reading must
be before secular school-work. No catechism is allowed
in school.
Teachers, to exercise their duties in the Colony, must
have a license from Government, certifying as to character
and professional efiiciency. By recent returns, it is seen
that 340 schools have 699 licensed teachers, with 34,491
children on the roll, and 72 per cent. average attendance.
The high ratio of attendance marks the anxiety of parents,
even in an agricultural country, for the instruction of
their families. A Normal School is now established.
The fees amount to three-fourths the sum paid by
Government. The education vote for 1878 was 94,8191.
An excellent upper class school has been established
by the Church of England in Adelaide. There is a
university.
Many wish to copy Victoria, in making education free,
compulsory, and secular. The increased expenditure for
a struggling colony is the chief difficulty. At the request
of ten parents the Bible may be read aloud by the teacher
of a school.
Religion is represented by a number of active religious
communities. A very considerable portion of the first
settlers were good men, determined that the worship of
God should not be neglected in their new home under the
gum tree.


EDUCATION AND summon. 211
They resolved, however, that there should be perfect
equality of religious denominations ; and that, to pre-
serve that freedom, the State should make no grants in
aid of public worship. At length, however, through the
combination of some Episcopalians, Roman Catholics,
Presbyterians, and Wesleyaus, a trial of State aid was
made in 1847. Salaries were given to ministers of any
denomination, when the people subscribed an equal sum.
This was pronounced sounsatisfactory by the great
majority of colonists, that the law was abrogated in 1851.
Since that time, Government assistance has not been so-
licited; nor, according to general opinion, has it been
much required.
The example set by South Australia has been followed
by all the other colonies of Australia and New Zealand.
In no part of the world are the sects so developed as
in South Australia. The Methodist family have dis-
played the most energy. Their sittings for worship are
nearly double those of the Church of England, Presby-
terian, and Roman Catholics put together. The Inde-
pendents, first in the field there, have had an influence
beyond their numbers. The Presbyterian sections have
recently united, though a portion hold aloof, as free. The
‘ Christians’ include Disciples, Brethren, &c., who sup-
pose themselves unsectarian. The Lutherans came out
as a persecuted body of Pietists from Germany.
The following will give a view of the strength of those
various denominations in January 1878 :-
Denomination Places of Worship Sittings
Wesleyan Methodists . 263 36,775
Primitive Methodists . 127 15,600
Bible Christian Methodists . 118 14,950
New Connexion Methodists . 2 630
Church of England . . . 119 24,702
Roman Catholic . . 63 11,980
Independents . . 53 9,700
Christians, &c. . . . 29 7,450
Baptists . . . 64 9,150
Lutherans . . . 39 5,724
Presbyterian Church . . 30 6,390
Free Presbyterians . . 8 890
Unitarians . . . 2 390
Society of Friends . . 1 200
Moravians . . . . 1 200
Jews . . . . . 1 200
New Jerusalem Church . . 1 130
SOUTH
AUSTRILII.

State aid
tried.
No state
aid since
1851.
The Metho-
dist. colony.
Places of
worship.
P2


212 nannsoox ro AUSTRALIA AND nnw znamnn.
souru
nusmnu.
S d
siiiiwii
Statistics
1883.

Aomcui.-
TUBE.
The leading
farming
colony.
Town
versus
country.
Farming a
respectable
pursuit.
Not s sugar
colony ex-
ti '
cep ng in
the North.
Their were 530 Sunday schools, with 5,200 teachers
and 39,000 scholars, in January 1878.
In 1883, the Wesleyan Methodists had 45,676 church
sittings; Church of England, 30.636; Roman Catholics,
22,000; Bible Christians, 17,095 ; Primitive Methodists,
16,500; Lutherans, 10,000; Baptists, 9,488; Congre-
gationalists, 9,445; Presbyterians, 8,900; Christian
Brethren, 7,450; Church of Christ, 3,600; Christian
Church, 1,670; Free Presbyterians, 880; Free Metho-
dists, 500; New Connexion, 540; Church of Scot-
land, 350; Unitarians, 300; Moravians, 200; Friends,
200; Jews, 200; New Jerusalem, 120.
Agriculture.
South Australia, notwithstanding supposed inferiority
of climate and soil, has more cultivated land than other
Australian settlements. Such is the enterprise of its
farmers that, in spite of low yields and low prices, they
still struggle onward to the front, and thus illustrate in a
remarkable degree those genuine British characteristics
of pluck, patience, and plodding perseverance.
When the bad times of 1841 set in, there was a flight
from the town to the fields; for the year before there
were one-third more in the towns than in the country.
Three or four years after, there were twice as many on
farms as in city streets, and the acreage under crop was
five times that of 1840.
One consequence of this exodus from Adelaide was,
that agriculture became associated with respectability in
South Australia, to an extent not known in any other
colony. The original settlers were, to a larger degree
than usual, men of capital and education. When these
betook themselves to the plough, though from necessity,
the practice of husbandry was deemed more honourable
than in colonies where convict labour was employed.
This reputation for high principle, sobriety, education,
and sterling virtues, the South Australian farmers strive
still to maintain.
Though the climate is so warm, the deficiency of
moisture prevents the culture of sugar and many other
tropical productions. In that respect Queensland en-
joys the advantage. Yet the Northern Territory has both
soil and climate admirably fitted for spices and the cane.


AGRICULTURE. 213
Its proximity to dense populations in the Asiatic islands
will facilitate the gain of cheap coloured labour, and
enable it most successfully to compete with the Mauritius
market. Chinese labour is now being introduced.
But South Australia proper is more limited in the
extent of vegetable productions.
When the Hobart Town farmers sold, in the Adelaide
market, their flour at 1001. a ton, and hay and potatoes
at equally fabulous rates, they concluded that they
should continue to feed the inhabitants—at least so long
as any were mad enough to stay in a place where no
corn would grow.
But when they heard, in 184-4:, that those parched
Adelaide plains had 18,980 acres in wheat, 4,264 in
barley, 1,045 in oats, besides hundreds of acres of self-
sown, they knew that the Adelaide market would be
closed against them. But no one then calculated upon
a time when Adelaide should become the great wheat
provider for Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane.
Mr. Ridley’s reaping machine was of wonderful ser-
vice to the early growers on these plains. The rapidity
of the ripening process caused much corn to be shed on
the ground before the sickle could come in. -This
machine, which runs easily along the even surface,
combed out the grain, and thrashed it; while the
draught produced did the work of winnowing. With
two men and three horses 15 acres are reaped; or 20
acres with two teams a day.
Governor Grey sent a specimen of this machine to
Prince Albert in 1845, who warmly congratulated the
patriotic and ingenious miller. Of cou.rse the straw was
left standing; though this, when burnt ofl‘, gave the
fields of that day about the only manure they could get.
Another circumstance facilitated the advance of wheat-
farming. This was the division into 80-acre sections.
The area was not too much for a. man with small means
to compass, and not too small for a good farm. There
was very little timber to clear, so that the plough could
be sent, if re uired, from one end to the other without
hindrance. Wheat thrives well in dry, open north-west.
Wheat-growing was easily performed, and the product
as easily got rid of. It was soon ascertained that, while
barley and oats did but poorly in the thirsty land, the
SOUTH
IUSTRMII.
The wheat
Importers
became
exporters.
RidIey's
reaping
machine.
80-acre
sections.
Wheat
land.


aesrcurruns. 215
In 1872, while wheat was 5s. 6d. a bushel, barley
was 4s., and oats 3s. 9d. ; potatoes were 5l. a ton,
and hay was 2l. 17s. 9d. Meanwhile fresh butter sold at
9d. a pound, and cheese 6d. Prices have been higher since.
Green forage depends upon a dripping season. VVhile,
in 1885, 8,649 acres were devoted to lucern, 1,430 were
of‘ wheat and other grain, cut down for green feed. Of
23,217 acres in artificial grasses, many were in the county
of Grey—so much more favoured with rain than the
north and west. At Gambier 6,930 were sown in grass.
Hay, which is principally made of weedy wheat, is a
pretty safe crop. In 1885 it was grown on 308,429 acres ;
though, in 1862, on 78,747 acres; the yield varied from
20 to 30 cwt. an acre. Potatoes occupied 5,666 acres,
producing 23,192 tons. These grow best at Mt. Barker
and Mt. Gambier; the latter had 3,186 acres.
The acres in crops for the year ending March 1885
amounted to 2,785,490. In 1864, however, there were
320,160, 65 per cent. of which were in wheat. In 1856
the acreage in crop was 203,423; in 1850, 64,728; in
1843, 28,690; in 1840, only 2,503.
The orchards have always been of importance in the
colony. In the season, fruit is of such abundance as to
be almost unsaleable. Peaches, nectarines, figs, and
plums are in profusion. Apples are not to be surpassed
in quality of flavour, though the keeping varieties
flourish better in Tasmania. In the hilly districts
raspberries, strawberries, currants, and gooseberries
are raised. In 1884-5 the orchards comprehended
5,825 acres; vineyards, 4,590; gardens, 4,942.
But the grape is pre-eminently the fruit of South
Australia, whose dry climate resembles the best parts of
the Rhine and Rhone. The 4,452 acres of vines in
1871-2 produced 852,205 gallons of wine, besides 33,826
cwt. ofi grapes sold for the table. Ten years before, the
acreage of vineyards was 3,918, and the wine produce
was 472,797 gallons. A million gallons were made in
1872. The oidium plague is not unknown there.
The German immigrants have the merit of introducing
the successful culture of the grape. The wine has the
best of reputation among the Australian manufacture,
though hitherto protective duties have hindered its sale
in the more populated colonies. The exportation, there-
SOUTH
MISTRALIA.
Other
prices.
Green food.
Hay
Increase of
acreage.
Orchards.
Grapes.
Winn


216 ummaoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
SOUTH
IUSTBRLII.
M
Oli ve.
W ant of
labour.
Flax and
silk.
Farming
localities.
Mount
Gambler
oasis.
fore, has not been considerable, as the under-mentioned
table shows :-—
Yield Expo?!/ed
1866 . . . 839.979 . , . 12.984
was . . . 863,584 . . . 24.316
1870 . . . 895,796 . . . 50.085
was . . . 473,535 . . . 55,ss9
The olive, which succeeds so admirably in that climate.
is not a commercial success. The fruit falls under foot,
because it will not pay to gather it. Growers have offered
it for nothing, in the hope of inducing capitalists to es-
tablish oil manufactures. This is not the only instance
of the want of labour delaying the productive industry
of the Colony. Attempts long failed, for the like rea-
sons, to convert the grape into dried fruit.
Flax is found to succeed in the Adelaide district; 100
tons were produced one year at Willunga. The mulberry,
though doing fairly, may need more water than the cli-
mate can afford. The Lombardy practice of irrigation
cannot easily be applied to the foliage for the silkworms,
on the plains of South Australia. Hops succeed favour-
ably at Mount Gambier and Mount Barker.
Kangaroo Island, the first settled part of the Colony,
and once believed the Paradise of the South, had, in
1885, only 3,674 acres in wheat. Dalhousie County had
the largest crop—205,419 acres; Stanley had 178,320;
Frome, 181,015; Daly, 197,858; Ferguson, 180,071.
The country around Willunga, Strathalbyn, and other
places on the west side of St. Vincent’s Gulf, is highly
productive. The hilly district, running northward from
Adelaide, including Mount Barker, Barossa, Tanunda,
&c., is beautiful and fertile. The country round Port
Pirie is much favoured by farmers.
The two great peuinsulas, Port Lincoln and Yorke,
are less heeded for cultivation. Beside the narrow belt
of land on the east side of St. 'Vincent’s Gulf, the
other farming region is the lovely and romantic country
of Mount Gambier, a few miles from the Victorian
boundary.
Never, perhaps, was there beheld such an oasis of
beauty and fertility, as exists for a few square miles
around the old crater of Gambier.


PASTORAL. 21 7
Pastoral.
If the climate be regarded as an obstacle in the path
of the farmer, it is equally so to the squatter, though
both manage to make a good living in the country. But
recent discoveries prove that farther north, once thought
a desert, rich black soil gives splendid grasses in the
driest seasons ; a little rain sufiices for the pasture.
Within the settled district much purchased land is
devoted to grazing. In 1885 there were 400,000,000
unoccupied and unleased acres out of 578,000,000.
The four so-called pastoral districts are, the Northern,
Western, North-eastern and Eastern. Other parts are
divided into farming counties. The area is enormous;
but while some part of the country is of bare hills, scrubs,
salt lakes, poor marly plains, and sandy wastes, in the
other localities cattle are raised in great quantities, and
sheep fatten with much facility.
But stations have had to be abandoned for a season or
two together in consequence of drought. Country full of
grass one year may be next year a true desert. Water-
holes failing, nothing but retreat is left to the squatter.
Of course, footrot and lung-disease are very far less
troublesome there than in other colonies; and the wool
suffers somewhat in quantity by the extra heat. Horses
and cattle do very well if water be at hand. Locusts
were a plague to the pastures in 1879.
Wild dogs are not so great an evil as in Victoria;
though the lambing season is not usually so good. Shep-
herds have their difficulties in times of severe drought,
and men have sometimes died from thirst in journeying
from one station to another. For all that, the life in
the bush there is eagerly sought after by new comers,
and generally well appreciated for its healthiness.
The original stock came from the Cape of Good Hope
and Van Diemen’s Laud. Great judgment and enter-
prise have been shown in the improvement of breeds.
The Overlanders, who brought sheep, cattle, and horses
across from New South Wales in the early times, were
highly esteemed in Adelaide for their courage. Port
Phillip was established simultaneously with South Aus-
tralia, and was its rival buyer for stock.
The dangers of overlanding were want of supplies,
SUUTII
IIISTRILII

Pastoral
districts.
Effect of
drought.
Bush life.
Stock
origin.
Over-
lenders


218 mnnsoox ro AUSTRALIA AND new znamnn.
SOUTH
IUSTMLIIL
M
Trials of
stockmen.
Bad times.
Squatters.
Increase
of stock.
Increase of
exports.
\Vool.
want of water, exposure to weather, and attack from
natives. The primitive stock drivers were men of tre-
mendous energy, and great powers of endurance. Messrs.
Bonney and Hawdon brought animals from the Mur-
rumbidgee in April 1838, and Capt. Sturt drove over
400 head of cattle that year, suffering fearfully from
thirst on the route. One of the most dashing overlanders,
in 1838, was Mr. Eyre, afterwards Lieutenant-Governor
of New Zealaud, and then Governor of Jamaica.
The prices of sheep and cattle helped to impoverish the
new settlers. Sheep bought for 51. a head were ulti-
mately sold for a shilling or two. But in spite of all
disadvantages of climate, country, and cost, the flocks
and herds increased, and squatters shared in the rising
prosperity. In 1885, 150,000,000 acres were leased.
In 1884,1,528 Crown lessees held 214,916 squaremiles;
while 257, having annual licenses, occupied 11,214. The
rents of the first came to 49,6781. a year, and of the last,
to 10,1781. In 1862 the stockholders were 392, employ-
ing 3,099 hands. The drought is sometimes serious.
The increase of the stock is thus told :—
Horses Cattle Sheep
1840 959 16,052 166,770
1846 2,000 60,000 700,000
1850 6,488 100,000 1,000,000
1856 22,260 272,746 1,962,460
1860 49,399 278,265 2,824,811
1862 56,251 258,342 3,431,000
1864 62,899 204,892 4,106,230
1868 75,409 123,213 4,987,024
1871 78,125 143,463 4,412,055
1872 82,215 151,662 4,900,687
1885 168,420 389,726 6,696,406
As will be apparent from the above, sheep-farming 1S
thought more profitable than cattle-raising. Most stock
is raised in agricultural areas on purchased land. In
pastoral districts proper, in 1884, were only 12,255 horses,
79,039 cattle, and 1,650,012 sheep.
While 4,885 lbs. of preserved meats were exported
in 1870, 49,000 went 011' in the year 1884. The tallow
export, which was 24,711 cwt. in 1868, fell to 21,120
in 1884. Hides yielded 13,4721. in 1872, and but 7531.
in_ 1862, though, with skins, 96,3191. in 1884.
Wool is now the staple export of the Colony. The
contrast is very remarkable between 7701., the value in


220 nmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmnmn.
SUUTII
IUSTRILII.
Copper
mines.
Bismuth
and silver
mines.
Gold.
Metal
region.
Mineral
export.
Mineral
leases.
Gold
regulations.
Coal lenses
valuable ore were raised, affording l36,000Z. in dividends.
All copper export, 1872, was 806.,364rZ.; 1878, 291,929l.
The principal copper mines at the present time are
Bremer, 25 miles from Adelaide; Kanmantoo, 25 ; Reedy
Creek, 32; Kapunda, 50; Moonta, Yelta, Poona, Doora,
'Wallaroo, 85; Burra Burra or Kooringa, 100; Burraw.
ing, 150; Prince Alfred, 160 ; Blinman, 262 ; Burr, 300;
and Yudanamutana, 325; Sliding Rock, 365.
Those at work for bismuth are Daly and Stanley, 328
miles. Cobalt is found at Catarpe, 100. The silver
working mines are Glen Osmond, 41 miles; Ben Lomond,
10; Almanda, 12; Wheal Coglin, 48; and Talisker, by
Cape Jervis, 541 miles from Adelaide.
Not content with this monopoly of copper, the South
Australians have earnestly sought after gold. Menge,
the German, told them nearly thirty years ago that by
sinking through iron they would come upon the precious
metal. The gold mine of Victoria, near Adelaide, was
worked for some years before Ballarat was known, but
the vein did not pay, or the miners knew not how to
work it.
After the gold discovery, much money was spent to
find a field in South Australia. There are rich quartz
reefs in the Northern Territory at Palmerston, Howley
Creek, Yam Creek, Pine Creek, &c. Gold workings
also exist southward at the Barossa, Mount Pleasant,
Gummeracha, Ulooloo, Echunga, Onkaparinga, &c.
The metalliferous region extends all along the main
range northward from Cape Jervis to Blanchewater, 500
miles. The mineral export for 1884 was but 4185,8161.
Mineral Leases, by the Act of 1862, are confined to
320 acres, and for a period of fourteen years, with right
of renewal. The rent was to be 10s. an acre. By the
Regulations of 1871, miners and others engaged in
mining pursuits could obtain half an acre of land at a
rental of 10s. a year, for the term of seven years.
Gold-mining regulations, founded upon those adopted
by Victoria, afl'ord great advantages to the speculative
hunter for the precious metal. In the Murray Flats a
lease for 10,000 acres may be had at a peppercorn rent,
on condition that 2,0001. a year be spent in actual mining
for gold. For smaller claims the rental is 2s. 6d. an acre.
Leases for 10,000 acres may be obtained by those


rams. 22 1
seeking for coal or petroleum. The prospect is not
promising, as the carboniferous system is very feebly
represented. The mineral has been found on Kangaroo
Island. A bonus of 10,0001. is ofiered for the finding
of a coal field. By Act 1878, 80 acres of mineral land
may be licensed for search at ll. for a year, and 640 on
lease at ls. an acre and ll. fee. Licenses may be re-
newed. Gold is not included.
Trade and Manufactures.
South Australia has neither the trade of New South
Wales, nor the manufactures of Victoria. Its enormous
yield of bread-stuffs, and its valuable production of
copper have, however, employed a large shipping interest.
In 1843 the tonnage entering the port was 7,532; in
1849, 80,623 ; 1853, 131,994; 18-59, 111,436; 1863,
127,667 ; 1869, 169,991; 1882, 175,867; 1884, 909,335.
The port of Augusta, at the head of Spencer’s Gulf,
receives the metal of the northern mines, as that of
Wallaroo does the copper of the Yorke Peninsula claims.
The ports at the mouth of the Murray, as well as near
Mount Gambier, have greatly advanced the shipping
trade. Pirie is a Gulf rain port.
The enterprise of Adeglaide merchants first utilised the
adventurous cruise of Captain Cadell down the Murray, in
1853. Though, unfortunately, a. bar prevents steamers
passing the mouth of that river, an inner port of the
Goolwa passage was brought into communication with
the open sea at Port Elliot and Victor Harbour.
This gave South Australia the hope of commanding
the trade of the Murray. Steamers brought down the
produce from both banks along 2,000 miles, and even
down the Darling many hundreds of miles. The produce
was then brought onward by coasters to Adelaide. Though
Victoria, by the railway to Echuca on the Murray,
arrests much of this trafiic, a large amount of carrying
trade is still conducted by the Adelaide merchants. The
exports viii Murray in 1884 were 185, 2151.
In order to get a day or two in advance of Mel-
bourne with the monthly mail, as well as to avoid the
loss of seven days, this poor but energetic government
was induced to expend 15,0001. a year in sending a
SUUTI
MISTBILII
M4
Tssnn.
Tonnage.
Ports.
Murray
trade.
Mail
enterprise.


222 nmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
SUIJTII
lUSTRM.lll.
Telegraph
to Port
Darwin.
Northern
Territory
tr ade.
Few re-
exports.
Imports
fluctuate
according
to times.
s
steamer specially to King George's Sound for the letters
to Adelaide. The Mail ship now calls at Adelaide.
The establishment of the telegraph line across the
continent to Port Darwin, is another evidence that this
Colony, though inferior in resources to others, is deter-
mined to make the most of those it possesses, and
develop internal trade. The cost was 1146,0001.
Already the Northern Territory is giving an extension
of colonial traflic. If ever a railway be made across the
continent from Adelaide to Port Darwin, commerce will
be greatly advanced, rich mineral country and good
pasturage being known in the interior. The growth of
tropical products is proceeding satisfactorily though
slowly in North Australia.
The imports and exports are the exponents of trade.
Not being near a State needing supplies, the re-export
trade is an inferior one, and so differing from that of
Sydney or Melbourne. This reduces the item of im-
ports. The exports, however, are somewhat swelled by
the Murray traflic bringing down the produce of New
South Wales and Victoria.
In a period of exultation, from real or fancied pros-
perity, the imports are larger than usual, and bear an
excess of proportion to the exports. In seasons of de-
pression there is less desire for luxuries, and a sterner
resolution to limit purchases of all kinds.
In the fictitious period of wealth, 1839 and 1840, the
imports were respectively 3443,6491. and 303,357l., while
the exports were but 16,0391. and 32,079l. The year
1853, after the gold discovery, imported 2,336,290l.,
while the year before received but 798,811Z. The im-
ports then exceeded those of 1871 afterwards.
On the contrary, in the bad year‘ of 1843, the imports
fell to l09,137Z., and the year after to 118,915l. Yet
the exports rose in the first year to 66,160l., and
afterwards to 80,858l. Upon awakening from the gold
dream, in 1855, the imports were only 1,370,938l., or
one million pounds less than two years before. '
The fluctuations in exports and imports mark the
vicissitudes of colonial trade. The year of iusolvencies
followed the year of speculation and undue prosperity
Other extracts from oflicial statistics will indicate the
march of trade :-


TRADE AND MANUFACTUBES. 223
Year Imports Exports S. A. Produce
1838 158,682 6,442 5,040
1840 303,357 32,079 15,650
1845 184,819 148,459 131,800
1848 384,326 504,068 465,878
1850 845,572 570,817 645,040
1852 798.811 1,787,741 736,899
1856 1,366,529 1,665,740 1,398,867
1860 1,639,591 1.783.716 1,576,326
1865 2,927,596 3,129,846 2,754,657
1870 2,029,793 2,419,488 2,123,297
1871 2,158,022 3,582,397 3.289 861
1872 2,801,571 3,738,623 3 524,395
1884 5,749,353 6,623,704 5,292,222
The imports were chiefly, as in other colonies, manu-
factured articles, directly or indirectly, from Great
Britain. Those for 1884 amounted to 5,749,353l.,
paying 540,023l. duty. From Britain the value was
2,983,296l.; from New South Wales, 997,785l.; Vic-
toria, 714,272l.; Mauritius, 239,093l.; Foreign States,
456,747l. Of the imports for 1884, nearly seven-
eighths were for home consumption.
The chief exports of 1884 were the following :-—Wo0l,
2,616,626l.; wheat, 1,694,005l.; flour, 794,812l.; copper,
469,230l.; tallow, 28,403l.; preserved meats, 1,5941. ;
wines, l9,495l.; preserves, 35,338l.; butter, 10,871l.;
fruit, 22,7221. ; hides and skins, 99,0301. ; bark, 45,0491.
Of 85,111 tons of flour, 25,409 went to New South
Wales; 23,515 to Queensland; 13,348 to the Cape; 8,142
to Natal. Of wheat, 7,269,699 bushels went to England,
and 233,122 to New South Wales.
The imports for the year ending Dec. 31, 1884, were
5,749,353l., and the exports, 6,623,704l. The exports
for 1884 were but 5,292,222l. colonial produce.
The coasting and Murray river trade employs a number
of steamers. The railways are progressing northward,
and paying their way satisfactorily. The railway from
the capital to Port Adelaide is 7% miles long; to the
Burra Burra, 100; to Kapunda, 50. A tramway goes
from Goolwa to Victor Harbour, and from Victor
Harbour to Strathalbyn. Over 1,050 miles of rail were
opened at the end of 1884, and more were in progress.
A railway may be constructed across the continent to
Port Darwin. It is proposed to give a company alter-
nate sections along the line, and to require the completion
SOUTH
AUSTRALIA.
I rts
aIli]<i):.
port.s
statistics.
I mports—
where from.
Exports
for 1884
Flour
export.
1884.
returns.
Railways.


224 rmmnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmnmn.
SOUTH
IUSTRALIL
Telegraph
charges.
Banks.
I\IAuuvAo-
TURES.
Bonus
system.
The Tarifil
Duties.
J
of the work in fourteen years. Largs Bay is to be an
outer harbour for sea-going steamers.
The telegraphic stations within the old part of the
colony were 188 at the beginning of last year, with 5,291
miles length of lines. The great line across the conti-
nent to Port Darwin was opened to Adelaide, Oct. 22,
1872. The charge for ten words from Adelaide to Port
Darwin was 14s. There were 541 Post Oflices in 1885.
The Banks do a good business. The liabilities of nine
Adelaide banks in 1884 were 5,553,159l. The assets of
the banks were then 11,546,828Z. The savings bank had
a balance of 1,571,283l. to 53,164 depositors.
Manufactu/res have advanced much during the last few
years. In January 1885 there were 85 steam flour
mills, 58 agricultural, 7 engine, 8 gas, and 4 dye works;
32 coach and 22 boot factories; 20 tanneries, 36 saw-
mills, 28 foundries, 5 patent slips, 28 breweries, 9 fruit
driers, 2 distilleries, 11 wine making.
The Government, to encourage local manufactures,
had ofl'ered a bonus of 1,0001. for the dressing of flax,
2,0001. native fibre, 2,0001. paper works, 2,000l. iron
works, 2,0001. a woollen mill, 1,0001. sugar works, 1,000l.
kerosene works, 5001. sericulture, 2501. glass bottle mak-
ing, 100l. olive-oil factory, 4,000 best reaping machine.
The Tamfi‘ of South Australia, not yet protective, like
that of Victoria, is advancing that way.
Ale and beer are charged 9d. per gallon, or for 12 pint
bottles ; spirits, 12s. ; methylated spirits, 2s. ; limejuice,
free; vinegar, 9d.; wines not above 35 per cent. proof,
5s. to 10s. per gallon, or 12 pints; oils, not medicinal or
perfumed, 3d. and 6d. ga1.; salad, dozen pints, 1s.
Bacon, cheese, macaroni, dried fruits, mustard, hams,
spices, pepper, confectionery, jams and syrups, pay a
duty of 2d. per lb. ; tea, 3d. ; unmanufactured tobacco,
1s. ; manufactured tobacco, 2s.; sheepwash tobacco, 301.;
cigars and snuff, 5s. ; chicory and coffee, 4d. ; arrowroot,
candles, pearl-barley, preserved meats, and sago, 1d.
Rice is rated at 3s. per cwt.; rope, 3s.; all sugars
and molasses, 3s. ; paper bags, 3s. 4d. ; nails and paints,
2s. ; and potatoes, 611. Soap, salt and soda are 20s. per
ton ; opium, 10s. per lb. ; hops, cocoa, and raw cofi'ee, 3d.
per lb. ; malt, Gd. per bushel ; pickled and bottled fruits,
ls. per doz. pints; oils, not whale, 3d. to 6d. per gallon;


L
NORTHERN rsnmronr or scum AUSTRALIA. 225
palings, 6d. per 100; boards, ls. 6d. per 100 sup. feet
deals, 2s. 6d. per load; laths, ls. per 1,000; rails free.
An ad valorem duty of 10 per cent. is laid upon drapery,
furniture, fire-irons, grates, arms, turnery, carriages,
baskets, furs, slops, oilcloth, rugs, mats, boots, blankets,
cutlery, carpets, woodware, brushware, earthenware,
glassware, tinware, drugs, perfumery, fancy goods,
jewellery, musical instruments, plate, saddlery, bricks,
slates, carpets, stationery, clocks, toys. An ad valo-
rem of 5 per cent. includes implements, and all cloths
and tweeds in the piece.
The free list includes blasting powder, books, bottles,
flour, manures, iron bar, printing paper, plants and trees,
ores, passengers’ baggage, wool, &c.
The Northern Territory.
Since the Northern Territory, extending to within
a dozen degrees of the equator, has become a portion
of South Australia, the unsuitableness of the name of
the colony has become the more apparent.
This was added to the colony in 1863, being north
of lat. 26°, from 129° to 138° E. long.
The revelation of that further la/nd through the enter-
prise of Adelaide colonists, sustaining the intrepid efi'orts
of Mr. Stuart to cross the continent, deserved that re-
cognition from the Crown. To which Colony could it
be better attached than the one that had opened it up,
and to which it was connected on its southern border ?
Queensland and Western Australia had already vast
areas. The area is 523,620 square miles.
The crew of Hans Carstens, a servant of the Dutch
East India Company, named the great northern pro-
montory, after their ship, Arnhem La/nd, in 1623. The
explorer himself was killed by the wild men of New
Guinea before the expedition reached Australia. Report
was brought back to the company that the new country
was barren and useless.
Tasman, the discoverer of Van Diemen’s Land, sailed
along those shores in 164:4. The gulf was named after
Carpenter, the Governor- General of the Dutch East India
Company, in 1628. Captain King, however, deserves
honour for his careful survey of the north coast, from
1818 to 1823. He gave names to the rivers Alligator
Q
SUUTH
MISTRILII.
Ad valorem
duties.
Free list.
Tm;
Nonrn mm’
Timm-
TORY.
Added,
1863.
Right of
Adelaide
$0 it.
Part dis-
covered
1623.
Tasman,
1644.
9am
King and
Stokes-


226 mmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmnmn.
SOUTH
MISTRILIL
Leichhardt,
l B45-
Burke and
Wills
crossed
first ;
Stuart
after.
Tropical
produce.
Sugar
lands.
and Liverpool, to Port Essington, Bowen Straits, Cape
Melville, &c. The ‘ Beagle ’ expedition, under Captain
Wickham and Captain Stokes, greatly extended our
knowledge of that part of Australia. They discovered
the Victoria, Adelaide, and Albert rivers, though the
sailors were pronounced less eifective in bush travelling
than in boat exploration.
To Dr. Ludwig Leiohhardt, the distinguished dis-
coverer of the interior of Queensland, is the merit due of
making known the Northern Territory from an inland
point of view.
After traversing Eastern Australia for two thousand
miles, he entered this new province toward the close of
1845. With no supplies left but those furnished by his
gun, this judicious observer, and truly courageous man,
overcame all difliculties in his march from Moreton Bay,
and found a resting-place at the military post of Port
Essington.
Mr. J. McDoual Stuart continued the work. His first
and second attempts to cross the continent for Adelaide,
in its broadest part, were defeated. In the meanwhile
Burke and Wills, by a forced march from Melbourne,
gained for Victoria the barren victory of first crossing
Australia. The third trial in 1862 took Mr. Stuart suc-
cessfully to Port Darwin, 4:50 miles from Timor.
A brief description of the country and its resources
will not be out of place; as, from the manner in which
the enterprise has been since carried on by South
Australia, a successful development of the territory is
to be calculated upon. The average rainfall is 63 in.
Tropical in its character, the climate is not very dif-
ferent from that of Northern Queensland. A great deal
of the land is good, cattle thrive well upon the pastures,
pearl and béche-de-mer fisheries can be established,
while mines of gold and other metals are being opened
up. Contiguity to Java and other Indian islands will
promote the success of the settlement.
Conscious that the rich flats near the sea will one day
have plantations of rice, sugar, cotton, &c., while horses,
cattle, and sheep can be raised on the pastures for the
Indian market, the Government of South Australia has
made use of a wise and liberal policy to attract emi-
grants, and secure a permanent establishment.
Attempts had previously been made to settle the north-


nomnmm TERRITORY or SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 227
ern coast. The British Ministry, hearing that the French
were fitting out a colonising expedition for North
Australia, sent ofi‘ Sir Gordon Bremer, in 1824, to form
the settlement of Dundas, on Melville Island. Subse-
quently, this ofiicer took possession of the whole northern
coast westward from Cape Yorke.
Captain Stirling next tried a location on the east side
of Rafiies Bay, Coburg Peninsula. But his Wellington
settlement was sorely plagued by the Blacks and the
mosquitoes. The oflicer removed his party to Leeuwin,
in 1829, and Western Australia arose as a new colony.
As distressing cases of shipwrecks in the Indian seas
had occurred, with accounts of Malay piracy, a military
post was established at Victoria, on Port Essington.
Four years after Leichhardt had been so hospitably re-
ceived there, the station was abandoned.
The Adelaide Government determined to have a people's
settlement at Palmerston of Port Darwin, lat. 12%,” S.,
long. 131° E. The Land Act for the Northern Territory,
recently passed, is the best evidence of their intentions.
The and is to be divided by the Resident into counties
and hundreds. It is open to selection, upon credit, at
7s. 6d. an acre, upon deposit of sixpence an acre, though
cash is demanded for areas exceeding 1,280 acres.
Special surveys of 10,000 acres each may be purchased.
Township lots are sold by auction ; twenty per cent. cash,
and balance within the month. Ten years’ leases of
agricultural land may be had at sixpence per acre
rental.
Selections of not less than 320 acres, nor more than
1,280, for the special growth of sugar, cotton, tea, rice,
or tobacco, are to be had upon conditions. After paying
sixpence an acre rent for five several years, a free grant
is given if the laud be enclosed, and one half under culti-
vation. There is no want of water.
Pastoral Leases are for twenty-five years. They may
include from 25 to $00 square miles, though subject to
resumption of land at six months’ notice, if required for
public purposes. The stocking must be at the rate of
three great cattle, or ten sheep, per square mile. The
rental is sixpence each square mile, 64:0 acres, for the
first seven years, and ten shillings a year for the rest of
the term. The run can be resumed at six months’ notice.
SOUTH
IUSTRILII.
Old settle-
ments
abandoned
Port
Essingtou
settled.
Land Act
for North-
eru Terri-
tory.
Credit at
7s. 6d. an
acre.
Farms
rented 6d.
an acre.
Sugar or
cotton laud
2s. 6d. an
acre free-
hold.
Pastoral
leases at 641.
a s
quare
mile.
Q 2


228 nsnnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
SUUTII
ll.ISTIlAl.lll.
-ii
Other
leases.
Copper
leases.
Occupation
license.
Gold
mining.
Gold
licenses.
Extent of
claims.
Annual pastoral licenses are, also, to be obtained.
Unauthorised use of land subjects the individual to
penalties from 51. to 501. for the offence. All unbranded
wild cattle, above a year old, are held to be the property
of the Crown, and may be taken and sold.
Further facilities for settlement are afforded. Leases
are granted for wharf accommodation, gas factories, etc.,
on a term of twenty-one years, at the rate of not less
than a pound an acre a year. If the lease be revoked
by the Resident Commissioner, compensation will be
awarded for improvements.
For copper or other mining than gold leases for four-
teen years can be had, though in blocks of not more than
640 acres. The rent is to be estimated at from 2s. 601. to
10s. 601. an acre. Should the lease be renewed, a fee of
1001. an acre will be demanded. Annual licenses are
granted for the search after minerals, with a prior right
of lease. Occupation licenses for miners, working an area
of half an acre, may be extended over seven years at a
rental of not above 10s.
Gold mining is likely to be an important industry in
the Northern Territory, especially as excellent quartz
reefs have been opened up about 100 miles south of
Palmerston. By 1879 about 70,000 oz. were taken.
Tin and copper workings are commencing. Undue
mining speculation has retarded the Northern progress.
Persons unlawfully mining are subject to a pena ty of
a pound a day for so infringing the law, while the neglect
of getting a business license on a gold-field involves five
pounds a day penalty.
The warden may give licenses to search for the fee of
5s. A prospecting quartz claim is limited to 200 yards
in length by 250 in breadth; while an ordinary claim is
100 by 250. A prospecting alluvial claim is 100 yards
by 50; and the working claim 30 yards by 30, if less
than half a mile, and not less than 100 yards from a.
paying claim.
Alluvial and river claims are 100 yards to a stream,
and 30 on each side. If not the bed of river, and not
exceeding 40 feet deep, 100 yards by 100 are allowed.
Ordinary alluvial claims, not more than 40 feet, may be
160 feet by 75 feet; but, if over 40 feet depth, and two
employed in a claim, the extent is 250 feet by 250.


LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 229
A cement claim is 15 yards by 10 only. A puddling
claim, employing four men in old ground, may be 50
yards by 40. The area for a crushing machine cannot
exceed four acres.
Companies receiveland accordingto their capital. Those
with 2501. and 1001. paid up, claim 50 yards by 50;
with 5001. and 2501. paid up, 75 by 75; but with 1,0001.
capital, half paid up, an area of 100 yards by 100 is per-
mitted. All this is in addition to the usual allowance
for each miner at work. Many Chinese go North.
Land Laws and Immigration.
The land laws of South Australia have compensated
for the want of resources so abundant in neighbouring
colonies. Owing to facilities for settlement upon the
land, many emigrants flocked to Adelaide, when better
farming localities were locked against them on the Mel-
bourne and Sydney side.
Notwithstanding the general inferiority of soil, and the
severe trials of a dry climate, South Australia has had
the distinction, which it still enjoys, of being, relatively,
the most agricultural of the Australian Colonies. For a
number of years, when the neighbouring settlement of
Port Phillip, or Victoria, was virtually closed against
the farming immigrants, by the impediments in the way
of obtaining a farm from Government, the Adelaide
authorities threw open the country in 80-acre sections at
one pound an acre.
Capitalists, in many cases, purchased such sections to
sell again to intending settlers upon a system of long
credit, thus benefiting both parties. In other instances,
the rent was made in produce, either fixed in quantity,
or in ratio of yield for the season.
The Land Sales began in 1836, when 60,915 acres
were disposed of, though in London before the emigrants
sailed. In 1839, 170,841 acres were alienated; and so
large a sale stimulated that mad speculation in land,
which brought the Colony to the verge of ruin. In 1841
only 7,651 acres were purchased; and, in the bad year
of 1843, only 1,887. By 1879, 8,338,082 were sold.
Better times brought more buyers. In 1845, 49,658
acres were sold; in 1850, 64,949; in 1853, 213,321 ; in
SUUTI
AUSTRALIA.
Area ac-
cording to
capital
invested.
Lszm
Laws.
Good local
laws at
first.
80-acre lots
Land sales.


230 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
S0l.ITll
IUSTRILII.
Land
leases.
Credit
system.
Agricul-
tural areas.
Conditions
of purchase
by credit.
Credit for
sixteen
years.
1860, 129,262; in 1865, 316,477 ; and in 1872, 114,788.
In the latter year 299,957 acres were disposed of on
credit. In 1878, 153,102 acres fetched 253,678l.
At the beginning of 1874 the total acreage sold by the
Crown was 4,626,444, in addition to half a million acres
selected under the new regulations. In 1879 there were
1,750,000 acres open to selectors.
By the Land Act of 1867, if lands submitted to auc-
tion are not disposed of during the month, they could
be leased for twenty-one years, with a right of purchase
during that term at one pound an acre. The rental was
submitted to auction.
By the Act of 1869, the credit system was introduced.
A block, if not more than 640 acres (eight sections) could
be had by paying down 20 per cent. of the purchase-
money, as four years’ interest in advance, with time al-
lowed for the balance. This arrangement was modified
the year after, when two instalments of 10 per cent.
were substituted for the cash payment, one instalment
being at the end of three years.
Six Agricultural Areas are specified, in which land is
to be obtained on the credit system only, at a price to be
fixed by the Government, according to quality, &c. If
not taken up within a certain period, the rate of purchase
is lowered. Not above 640 acres in one block can be so
obtained. By 1879, 2.931,430 acres were selected.
Buyers on the credit plan signed an agreement with
Government, though this was not transferable, except on
permission from the Land Oflice. The balance of pur-
chase in the one case, or the whole in the other, could
be paid after the expiration of the four years. The tenant
could not obtain the Crown grant until he had resided
on the farm during the three previous years, and made
substantial improvements equal to 5s. an acre the first
year, and 2s. 6d. during each of the other three years.
The Act of 1884 limits the selection to 1,000 acres of
country lands. On the payment of ten per cent. of the
purchase, the balance can be paid in sixteen equal yearly
instalments, but no grant is issued during the first ten
years should there be the wish to pay the balance.
Such selectors are bound, further, to reside on the farm
at least three-fourths of the year, and to improve the
land up to a certain value per acre year by year, though


use LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 231
all the area must be properly fenced in. A government
oficial from time to time inspects the purchase to see if
the conditions are being observed.
Pastoral leases are granted beyond the limits of a
hundred, for the period of fourteen years. Some land was
assessed at 100 sheep per square mile, and another class at
250 sheep. But this has been altered to an assessment
according to situation and grazing capabilities, excepting
in cases otherwise determined.
The Act of 1867 divided lands north, north-east, and
west of Port Augusta into A, B, and C districts. In
the first a fourteen years’ pastoral lease was to be granted
at a minimum rent of ll. per square mile, and an assess-
ment of Gd. for a sheep, and 3s. for a horse or a
beast. In B, the leases were for twenty-one years at
8s. 6d. per mile rent ; and 4.<d. for sheep, with 2s. for larger
animals. In C district the rent was 2s. 6d., and the
assessment half of B rate.
Within a hundred, leases are annual only, though re-
newable until the land be required for public purposes.
By the regulations of 1884 waste land can be leased
for 21 years, at a rental to be fixed by the Land Commis-
sioner, subject to certain conditions of clearing, culti-
vating, or the destruction of rabbits and noxious plants.
Scrub leases for 21 years may be for areas up to
1,280 acres, the lessee being required to reside on the
land three-fourths of the year, and to clear a propor-
tionate amount every year. Drainage lands may be
leased, at rates determined by Government, for the term
of seven years, with liberty of renewal. Grazing
licenses are also issued, when half the land must be
cleared of its timber or scrub.
Timber licenses cost 30s. for one month, or 60s. for
three months. If the clearing be only needed as fire-
wood, the payment is one-half. Sawyers pay for a
license, and are charged 101. for erecting a saw mill.
Forest reserves cannot be entered by sawyers.
Licenses are also obtainable for the stripping of bark
from wattle trees, as well as for the removal of stone,
clay, or gravel. Barking licenses are 31. for three months,
but the licenses for the others are ll.
Relinqnished selections may be had on a lease of 21
years, with right of renewal, at a very moderate rental.
SOUTH
IIISTRILII.
Pastoral
leases.
Varieties of
tenure.
New land
regulations.


232 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND new zmmnn.
SOUTH
AUSTRALII .
IMMIGRA-
nos.
Agent-
General‘s
oiiices.
Hints.
Healthy
and moral
Colony.
Energy of
colonists.
The safe and cheap process of the Real Property Act
affects all land transfers. -
IMMIGRATION at the public expense had ceased in the
Colony, excepting those nominated by persons in the
Colony itself. In 1878, there arrived in port 14,572, and
8,174 left. In 1884 a higher proportion left.
Emigrants paying their own passage out secure a Land
Order, of the value of 201., the grant being issued after
two years’ residence in the Colony. A land allowance
is made of l0l. for each child between one and twelve.
The amount may go as deposit on purchase.
Assisted passages were afforded to labourers, artisans,
and miners, with their families and servants; children
under 12 paying 31. ; while 4l. would be paid by those
between 14 and 40. Land orders on paying the
balance.
The balance of passage money is required from per-
sons if leaving the Colony within two years. The Agent’s
Ofiice is in Victoria Street, Westminster, London. The
expenditure for immigration in 1884 was small.
South Australia has such attractions in its corn fields,
its vineyards, its copper mines, and in the enterprise,
economy, and high character of its people, that it will
not be forgotten or neglected by the prudent and
thoughtful intending emigrant.
Hints to Emigrants to South Australia.
This land of corn and wine, of pleasant gardens
and delicious fruits, of copper lodes and silver veins,
although subject to so much dry heat, is far from being
an unhealthy Colony. It should also be remembered
that no settlement has been better favoured with the
means of moral progression; while the zeal of religious
bodies has not been one of jealous rivalry, but of work-
ing fellowship.
South Australia is an instance of the influence of
character and intelligence, in enabling men to withstand
the lassitude and sloth so frequently accompanying resi-
dence in a warm region; for no country has exhibited
more indomitable energy and sustained industry. They
work there in the harvest field with a thermometer
running up above 100° in the shade, and take no siesta.
They ride after wild cattle in the teeth of a wind as hot


mums T0 EMIGRANTS T0 scum wsrnsnu. 233
as the blast of a furnace; and they mine, quarry, and
build with persistent steadiness in the heat.
The working man who is prudent in his habits may
preserve his health better in South Australia, than in
some climes with a lower atmosphere but more moisture.
He would certainly be less exposed to colds, coughs,
rheumatism, and consumption ; cases of sunstroke are far
more uncommon than in America. Fevers have no
holding ground in a land so absolutely free from malaria,
and with such rapid evaporation.
A caution is needed to those who prefer brandy or
beer to wine produced on the Adelaide plains, as the
stimulating air sufiicieutly excites nervous affections.
The old settlers, who so continually patronised the
pannican of tea, suffered less exhaustion from the climate
than imbibers of alcoholic liquors in hot countries.
An impression has prevailed that good land is of such
limited quantity that it is hopeless to expect a farm
in South Australia. The enormous amount leased out
during the last few years is the best reply to this rumour.
To those able to stand a warm climate, the Northern
Territory offers much temptation. No part of Australia
is so favourably situated as that for becoming another
Mauritius. Large sugar, cotton, and rice plantations
can be formed there, as coolies from India or the Indian
islands can be so easily obtained, and at a cheap rate.
The difiiculty of importing Chinese labour into
Queensland would not exist at Port Darwin. In the
other colony the men are drawn off from plantation
work by more profitable engagements over the country.
In the Northern Territory they would be more isolated
from other settlements; but South Australians rather
object to the introduction of coolie labour.
Squatters have no prospect of being undisturbed for
many years in South Australia near any settlement.
The capitalist who invests in the formation of a station
there, has considerable facilities granted him by the
Legislature. There is a wide range of country from
which to make a selection, and fresh explorations confirm
the story of good pasturage being in the interior. One
advantage is that he is not so likely to be cut ofi' from
civilisation, when advancing hundreds of miles from the
settled quarter of the colony, as copper and lead mines
$0lJTI
NISTBILII.
Climate not
ohjec Lion-
able.
Land to be
had.
Advan-
tages of the
Northern
Territory.
Easy to get
labour.
squatters ll
free course.


234 nmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND mew zmmnn.
SOUTH
IUSTRMII.
Dry
climate.
Sink for
water as
Canaan.
Cheap
farming.
German
settlers.
Mining
ventures.
Cheapest
colony.
in
are extending continually, both northward and westward,
up to 400 and 500 miles, and railways are advancing.
The great objection to the occupancy of such Runs
is the general aridity of the country. But it should be
borne in mind that seasons of destructive drought are
not so common but that a good time may be had out of
the ordinary seasons. It is well that in the prevailing
rock of the country, limestone, water is readily obtained
by sinking; so that flocks are often watered from wells
as those in Canaan were of old.
Farming, though confined to few products, has been,
in spite of sunny days, neither unpleasant nor unprofit-
able. The easy terms upon which land is obtained, are
recommendatory to the immigrant. The generally level
character of the country makes it very easy to gather
in the harvest by Ridley’s machine, at little cost for
labour.
Germans are extensively settled about the hills north,
south, and east of Adelaide, as well as in the Mount
Gambier District. As good judges of agriculture, their
selection of land may be a guide to others, who would
succeed the better by copying the sober and economical
habits of these foreigners. As vine-dressers they have
a deserved reputation.
Mining is the pursuit that rewards labour and enter-
prise. But new comers need be very prudent as to
their investments, though copper mines have paid ex-
ceedingly well. Silver and gold, though less paying
than copper, are worked to profit. Share speculations
should be attempted with great caution.
South Australia is the cheapest Australian colony to
live in ; as meat and bread, vegetables and fruit, are all
low in price. The people, too, have the reputation of
being such friendly neighbours, that a comfortable home
can be relied upon. '


DISCOVERY AN D HISTORY. Z35
QUEENSLAND.
Discovery and History.
Tum north-eastern portion of Australia has only been
known as Queensland since 1859, although its shore ap-
pears to have been visited by Eredia, the Portuguese,
in 1601. Maps exist of a much earlier date than that,
in which a. southern land is marked below Java.
Torres, the Spaniard, has usually been called the dis-
coverer of Cape York of Queensland. He spent two
months in the strait called after him, and saw the coasts
of New Guinea and New Holland in 1605. The Dutch
sailors of the ‘ Dnyf hen ’ are said to have landed on the
eastern shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria in March, 1606.
The Gulf was named after Carpenter, the Dutch
Governor-General of Java. A Dutch navigator, Captain
Pool, in 1636, met with the fate of Jnns Carstens in
1623, being murdered by the savage inhabitants of
Torres Strait. Pieterson, supercargo to Pool, sailed
afterwards for 150 miles along the northern coast, but
keepin out of the reach of natives.
To gaptain Cook was reserved the work of exploring
the inlets of the whole eastern coast of Queensland, in
1770.
He fell in with land near Cape Horn, on April 18,
and followed it on to the northward as far as Cape York,
giving names to capes and bays. Moreton Bay was
called after his patron, the Earl of Moreton. Refitting
in Endeavour River, he came in contact with the abori-
gines, and maintained friendly relations with them.
Everywhere else seeing evidences of cultivation, he
was puzzled at the total absence of fields among the
Australians, and fancied their crops were at some
distance inland.
In August of 1770, when on Possession Island, near
Cape York, Cook claimed the sovereignty of the country
QIIEEISLIII).
Coast by
Eredia,
1601.
Torres,
1605.
Carpenter.
Dutch
Visitors.
Capt. Cook,
1 770.
Intercourse
with
natives.
Cook
namrd land
N. S. Wales.


236 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
QUEEISLIIID.
Captain
Flinders,
1 80 2, at
Moreton
Bay.
Oxley to
Brisbane
River, 1823.
Cunning-
ham at the
Darling
Downs,
1827.
Mitchell’s
explora-
tions in-
land, 1846.
for George III., and called the whole eastern side of
the continent New South Wales.
By virtue of that act, the colony was included within
the area of New South Wales, when the penal settle-
ment of Botany Bay was determined on, in 1787.
Sydney was established in 1788, but no settlement
farther north than Port Macquarie was thought of for
many years.
In 1802, Captain Flinders, who had previously dis-
covered the coast of the colony of South Australia,
resolved to be the first to circumnavigate the continent
of New Holland. Exchanging his shattered ship, ‘ In-
vestigator,’ for the ‘ Porpoise,’ he left Sydney to com-
plete the survey of bays previously noted by Cook.
After examining Moreton Bay, and discovering Port
Curtis, he was shipwrecked on Barrier Reef. The ener-
getic explorer, however, made a boat and sailed in it a.
thousand miles back to Sydney. Procuring the thirty-
ton craft ‘ Cumberland,’ he continued his voyage along
the shores of Queensland.
The interior of Queensland was first reached by Mr.
Oxley, Surveyor-General of New South Wales. After
discovering the Lachlan in 1817, the Macquarie in 1818,
and then the Liverpool plains and ranges to the north-
ward, he was directed by two runaway convict sawyers
to the banks of a fine river, which he named after
Governor Brisbane, in 1823.
Mr. Allan Cunningham, the botanist of Sydney, hail
been requested by Mr. Oxley, when that surveyor was
on his death-bed, to continue his work of exploration in
the country to the west of Moreton Bay. In 1825,
therefore, he started upon his journey northward. In
April, 1827, he had the good fortune to come upon the
garden of Queensland, the renowned Darling Downs.
He named them after Governor Darling of Sydney.
Major, afterwards Sir T. L. Mitchell, who first made
known the rich pastoral plains of Australia Felix, was
the successful explorer of some of the finest squatting
regions of Western Queensland, in 1846.
As surveyor-general of New South Wales, he was
properly provided for his expedition. In his march
through the north-western part of the present limits of
New South Wales, his party suffered much from the ex-


msoovsnr AND msromr. 237
cessive heat and drought. His very kangaroo dogs were
killed by the heat. But, once across the Darling, and
entering the southern district of Queensland, he ex-
perienced only the pleasure of traversing a beautiful
country.
In his enthusiasm, after the discovery of the Maranoa,
the Claude, the Nogoa, the Belyando, etc., he declared
his conviction that ‘ these beautiful recesses of un-
peopled earth could no longer remain unknown.’
The back country of Maranoa, Warrego, West Leich-
hardt, and Mitchell was thus revealed by his celebrated
and triumphal progress. The Mantuan Downs reminded
him of Virgil, the pastoral poet. The soft, delicious
landscape near one stream recalled to his mind the
paintings of Claude, while the rugged beauty of the
volcanic hills elsewhere brought up before his cultured
fancy the pencil of Salvator Rosa. His Peninsular
campaign with Wellington was remembered in the
names he gave to places after brother companions in
arms, as Nive, Hope, etc.
Coming upon a broad river trending to the north-
west, the imaginative surveyor believed he had dis-
covered a highway to the Gulf of Carpentaria; and he
quitted the lily banks of the Victoria to announce in
England his wonderful discovery.
Alas for the inexorable logic of facts! His assistant,
Mr. Kennedy, left to follow the stream to the sea, found
it turn round to the south-west, and its waters gra-
dually diminish, till nothing but a parched channel
remained. Though since called the Barcoo, this river,
which loses itself in the desert of the interior, has some
magnificent plains beside it-.
Dr. Ludwig Leichhardt was pursuing his explorations
through Eastern and Northern Queensland, while Major
Mitchell was opening up the Western districts.
Without Government aid, helped only by the liberality
of a few Sydney friends, this German naturalist, in the
years 1843, 1844, 1845, and 1846, was able to examine
and report upon the whole extent of Queensland, from
its southern border to the Gulf of Carpentaria, keeping,
usually, at no great distance from the coast line.
He recorded his gratitude to his aiding friends by
calling after them the rivers Lynd, Macarthur, Cape,
QIIEEISLIID.
Names
' b
given 7
Mitchell.
Victoria
River, now
the Barcoo.
Leichhardt
in 1843
to 1846.
Across
Queens-
land.


238 nmnsoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmnmn.
IIIEEISLIIIL
Kennedy in
1848
spesred at
Cape York.
Burke and
Wills
through
Western
Queens-
land, 1860.
HISTORY-
Moreton
Bay dis-
trict till
1859.
Penal
settlement,
1823.
Darling
Downs 00-
cupied,
1841.
Opened to
free per-
sons, 1842.
Separation
fro N
m ew
South
Wales.
Mackenzie, Isaacs, Suttor, and Burdekin. Rivers, also,
were named after those gentlemen who accompanied
him—Calvert, Gilbert, and Roper. Two black fellows,
Harry Brown and Charley, were of great use to him.
In 1848 he started on another journey, and has not since
been heard of.
Mr. Surveyor Kennedy, in 1848, first attempted the
exploration of Cape York peninsula. After enduring
much, he was speared by the blacks when near Port
Albany. His faithful native attendant, J ackey J ackey,
brought back his papers to Sydney. The Messrs. J ardine
were more fortunate in their enterprise there.
Messrs. Burke and Wills, in 1860, were the first to
reach the Gulf of Carpentaria from Victoria, through
the length of Western Queensland. Messrs. Landes-
borough, Walker, and others have followed in the ex-
ploration of the interior of the colony. Mr. Hann in 1872
made important discoveries in York Peninsula.
The Izistory of Queensland may be briefly described.
Until 1859 it was known as the Moreton Bay district
of New South Wales, though only the southern part was
settled. After Mr. Oxley returned from the Brisbane,
in 1823, the Governor despatched a party of convicts to
form a penal settlement under a commandant at Moreton
Bay. At first at Redclifi' Point, it was afterwards re-
moved to Brisbane. Ipswich was settled very early.
Free persons gradually made their way to this fertile
region. The cedar was not less attractive, than the grass
for stock. In 18¥1, however, the Messrs. Leslie, having
been urged by Mr. Cunningham to take their flocks up
to the good land he had discovered, were the earliest to
occupy the Darling Downs, being rapidly followed by
other squatters. So great was the rush thither, that
the Sydney Government withdrew the convicts in 1842,
and proclaimed Moreton Bay a free settlement open to
immigrants. <'
The Rev. Dr. Lang was mainly the means of inducing
British emigrants to go forth to the rich lands by the
Brisbane and Condamine. The newly-introduced colo-
nists were unwilling to be governed from such a distance
as Port Jackson, and demanded Separation from New
South Wales. After several years’ agitation, and an
animated discussion as to the readmission of convicts,


esocnunr mo CLIMATE. 239
the majority gained their object—the establishment of a
new colony, and one of freemen only.
Queensland was the name conferred upon the province,
and the proclamation of its independence by Governor
Bowen took place at Brisbane on December 10, 1859.
Since that time, with but one short interval of trouble
through over-speculation, the colonial history has been
one of astonishing progres and success.
Geography and Climate.
Queensland occupies the north-eastern portion of the
continent of Australia, and was detached from the ter-
ritory of New South Wales in 1859, as Victoria had been
in 1850. Its area is 669,520 square miles, or 430,000,000
acres. The seaboard is 2,250 miles.
On the east it has the Pacific Ocean; on the west, the
north extension of South Australia; on the north, the
Torres Strait, separating it from New Guinea; on the
south, the colony of New South Wales.
Its western boundary is long. 141° E. from lat. 29° S.
to lat. 26°, and goes backward thence to long. 138° up
to the Gulf of Carpentaria. The greatest width on lat.
26° S. is 16° of long., or about 1,000 miles. While the
sea in lat. 10° S. is the northern limit, the southern is
not so determinate. From the seaside, the boundary is
about 27° along a small range. It then proceeds by the
course of the Dumaresq and M‘Intyre rivers, and after-
wards on the 29th degree to the western extremity. The
greatest perpendicular length is 19° of latitude, or 1,300
miles. Taking its length another way would add some
hundreds of miles more.
The colony is naturally divided into four portions. A
range of hills running nearly parallel to and not far
from the coast, cuts ofl' the so-called Pacific districts.
Another range, transverse to this, throws the water
northward to the Gulf in the Carpentaria country.
Westward there are two portions. The western in-
terior receives the western drainage of the first range,
with the southern fall of the other; but it has no sea outlet
for its rivers, which are lost in the land, or ultimately
gain the salt lakes of South Australia.
The remaining is the Darling area. receiving the
QUEEISLIIIL
Queens-
land pro~
claimed,
1859.
Gao-
GRAPH!’-
Area 430,
million
acres
Bounda-
ries.
1,000 miles
wide.
1,300 miles
long.
Four natu-
ral divi-
sions.


240 nssnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND nsw znunun.
QllEEISl ill).
Pacific dis-
tricts.
Carpen-
taria.
\Vestem
p)lains and
arling
ll a sin .
Districts
described.
Mountain.
south-western drainage of the main easterly range, and
having its water system connected with the great Darling
River. In this way, it has a. communication by the Dar-
ling with New South Wales, and thence by the Murray
with South Australia and Victoria.
The Pacific or Eastern districts are as follows, com-
mencing from the south :—Moreton, Wide Bay and
Burnett, Port Curtis, Leichhardt, Kennedy, and East
Cook. Burnett is north of Moreton; Leichhardt; and
Port Curtis are north of Burnett; Kennedy is north
of Leichhardt; and Cook, of Kennedy.
Burke district and West Cook are by the Gulf of
Carpentaria. Mitchell and Gregory districts form the
dry western plains. Warrego, Maranoa, and Darling
Downs districts belong to the south-west Darling basin.
Of the thirteen districts, Moreton and Darling Downs
were the earliest settled, and have the most farms and
towns. The Western Interior is occupied, though but
partially, with sheep. Burke, Warrego, Maranoa, Ken-
nedy, Leichhardt, and Darling Downs are great pastoral
districts. Sugar plantations are extending through the
sea-board scrubs of Moreton, Burnett, Port Curtis, Ken-
nedy, and Cook.
The auriferous country is chiefly in Burnett, Port
Curtis, Leichhardt, and Kennedy, though attracting
notice in Burke, Cook, and Darling Downs. The
ordinary farmer prefers the uplands of the last-named
district, as well as Moreton and Burnett. .
lifountains.
The main range, though traversing the whole length
of the colony, has few points over 3,000 feet in height.
In its greatest width it spreads into fertile and healthy
plate-aux. The M‘Kinlay and Mueller ranges to the west
are not very elevated. The Lynd Peak and Expedition
ranges are central. High land joins the New England
of New South Wales on the south. McPherson is 6,000 ft.
Among northern peaks are Bellenden Kerr, 5,200 feet ;
Daintree, Surprise, Dryander, 4,500 feet ; Abbot,Wheeler,
and Elliott. Towards the centre are Narrien, Aldis
Peak, Nicholson, Abundance, and Coxen. The Glass-
houses are north of Brisbane. King, Playfair, Hutton,
Bonwick, &c., are volcanic cones.


RIVERS. 241
The Downs are elevated. Peak, Orion, Oxford, Man-
tuan, Albinia, and Valley of Lagoons are in Leichhardt.
Natal, Avon, Burdekin, Cambridge, and Bluff are in
Kennedy. Bowen, Western, Isis, and Emerald are by
the Barcoo of Mitchell district. Ambi, Victoria, and
Mitchel] are in Maranoa. Canning, Acacia, and Cecil
are in Darling Downs. Gregory, Leichhardt, Albert,
Richmond, and Plains of Promise are in Burke district
Of the Gulf. Downs of black soil abound far west.
Rivers.
The streams flow easterly to the Pacific, northerly to
the Gulf, westerly to the desert, and southerly to the
Darling basin. Few of the rivers are important; two
of them only are navigable for a few miles from the coast ;
and many are but chains of water-holes the greater part
of the year.
All the western fall is lost in sands. The Barcoo, or
Mitche1l’s Victoria, rising near Tambo, receives the
Alice and the Landesborough Creek or Thompson River.
It is now found to join the Cooper’s Creek, near Sturt’s
desert. Diamantina. and Herbert or Georgina are far W.
The northern rivers of the Gulf are the Staaten, the
Mitchell, the Gilbert or Van Diemen, Norman, Flinders,
Leichhardt, Albert, and Nicholson. The Saxby and
Cloncurry join the Flinders, the Gregory flows to the
Albert, and the Etheridge to the Gilbert. The Lynd
and Walsh reach the Mitchell. The Endeavour, Dain-
tree, Hann, Johnstone, and Palmer are in York peninsula.
On the eastern side, the Burdekin is the most impor.
tant river of the north, the Fitzroy of the middle part,
and the Brisbane of the south. Of the Burdekin
the Clarke is a northern tributary, the Cape a western
one, the Belyando a- southern one, the Bowen an eastern
one. The Burdekin waters drain Kennedy district.
Herbert River is near Cardwell. The Pioneer reaches
Port Mackay. Calliope is in Port Curtis.
The Western Mackenzie and Southern Dawson meet
to form the Fitzroy. The Isaacs, Teresa, Nogoa, and
Comet are branches of the Mackenzie. Leichhardt and
Port Curtis are drained by these streams. The Mary and
Burnett run through the Wide Bay district. The Bris-
R
QUEEISLAIII.
Downs.
Rivera.


242 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmnmn.
QUEEISLIID.
Very few
lakes.
Bays.
St mi ts.
Capes
Islands.
bane and its Bremer tributary reach Moreton Bay. The
Logan is nearer the southern border.
The Darling Downs district is watered by the C0nda-
mine. This becomes the Balonne, and, after receiving
the Maranoa, forms a part of the Darling waters. The
Moonie and Weir join the M‘Intyre, which, with the
border Dumaresq, flow, also, towards the Darling. The
south-western Warrego and Paroo may in floods run
south into the Darling. Cooper’s Creek is at the south-
western corner, the continuation of the Barcoo.
Queensland is singularly wanting in lakes.
Bays.
Coming southward from Cape York the following are
successively passed:—Newcastle Bay, Shelbourne Bay,
Temple Bay, Weymouth Bay, Princess Charlotte Bay,
Trinity Bay, Rockingham Bay by Cardwell, Halifax Bay,
Cleveland Bay by Townsville, Upstart Bay, Port Denison
by Bowen, Broad Sound, Shoalwater Bay, Koppel
Bay of Fitzroy River, Port Curtis, Hervey Bay, Wide
Bay, Laguna Bay, and Moreton Bay of the south.
The eastern part of the Gulf of Carpentaria is in-
cluded in Queensland; and the western part in the
northern territory of South Australia. Endeavour Strait
is near Cape York. Torres Strait separates Cape York
from New Guinea. A new Gulf port is by Point Parker.
Capes and Islands.
Cape York is in latitude 10%° S. South of this, on the
Pacific side, are Cape Grenville, Cape Direction, Cape
Melville, Cape Flattery, Cape Tribulation, Cape Grafton,
Cape Sandwich near Cardwell, Cape Cleveland, Cape
Bowling-Green, Cape Upstart, Cape Edgecumbe, Abbott
Point, Cape Conway, Cape Hillesborough, Cape Palmer-
ston, Cape Clinton, Cape Manifold, Cape Keppel, Cape
Capricorn, Bustard Head, Break Sea Spit, Sandy Cape,
Double Point, Noosa Head, Point Wickham, Cape More-
ton, Amity and Look-out Points, and Point Danger of
the southern boundary.
The Gulf Islands are the Wellesley of Mornington,
Bentinck, Allen, Sweer. Near Cape York are Albany,
Thursday, and Prince of Wales. OE the north-east


rowns. 243
coast are the Claremont Isles, Lizard, Hinchinbrook of
Rockingham Bay, Magnetic by Townsville,Whit-Sunday,
Cumberland Isles, and Beverley group.
Curtis Island is north of Port Curtis ; Sandy or Frazer’s
ofi' Wide Bay; and Stradbroke, Moreton, Bribie, and
St. Helena are in Moreton Bay. Barrier Reef is east.
The tides are 7 feet at Brisbane, 6 to 10 at Port Denison,
6 to 12 at Rockingham Bay, 9 at Rockhampton, 10 to
12 at Port Curtis, 4 to 10 at Cape York, 12 at Mackay,
and 18 to 30 at Broad Sound and the Fitzroy River.
Towns.
Brisbane, the capital, lat. 27%’ S. and long. 153° E., is
on the river Brisbane in Moreton district. Rockhampton,
the northern capital, is on the Fitzroy of Port Curtis,
near the Tropic of Capricorn.
The eastern towns and ports are Maryborough, on the
Mary, in Burnett; Gladstone, on Port Curtis; St. Law-
rence, on Broad Sound ; Mackay, on the Pioneer; Bowen,
of Port Denison, in lat. 20°; Townsville, of Cleveland
Bay ; and Cardwell, of Rockingham Bay, lat. 18°.
Somerset is near Cape York. Burke Town is the Gulf
port of the Albert, and Norman Town of the Norman;
Cooktown on the Endeavour ; Palmerville on the Palmer.
Inland, Ravenswood of the Burdekin, Charters Towers,
Dalrymple, Maryvale, Herbertsvale, Wyatt, Broughton,
and Cape are in Kennedy; Clermont, Copperfield, Nebo,
S pringsure, Taroom, Banana, and Gainsford are in Leich-
hardt; Marlborough, Crocodile, Morinish, Calliope, and
Princhester are in Port Curtis; Cania, Perry, Bunda-
berg, Gayndah, Gympie, Kilkivan, and Nanango are in
Burnett; Ipswich, Beenleigh, Sandgate, Caboolture, and
Logan are in Moreton.
The Darling Downs townships are Toowoomba, Dray-
ton, Dalby, Warwick, Stanthorpe, Leyburn, and Conda-
mine. Roma, Surat, and St. George are in Maranoa
district; and Charleville is in Warrego. Blackall and
Tambo are by the Barcoo of the Western lnterior.
As to distances—Ipswich is 25 miles from Brisbane;
Toowoomba, 105 ; Caboolture, 30; Warwick, 105 ; Gympie,
125;Ma1-yborough, 180; Roma, 330; Gladstone, 350;
Mitchell Downs, 340; Rockhampton, 450 ; Broad Sound,
QUEEISLIIB.
Tides.
Towns.
Distances.
B 2


244 rmnnnoox ro susrnsnrs sun nnw ZEALAND-
QIIEEISLIID.
Not uni-
form.
W. is dry
and E. is
wet.
Not un-
suitable for
Europeans.
500 ; Mackay, 630 ; Peak Downs, 600 ; Bowen, 720 ;Alico
Downs of the Barcoo, 700; Ravenswood, 750; Townsville,
850; Cardwell, 950 ; Marathon of the west, 1,050 ; Burke
Town, 1,450; Cook Town, 1,100, Somerset, 1,500.
Clermont is 150 from Broad Sound; Ravenswood,
115 from Townsville ; Richmond Downs, of the Flinders,
300 from the Burdekin ; Westwood, 32 from Rockhamp-
ton; Stanthorpe, 4.0 from Warwick; Charters Towers,
90 from Townsville; George Town, 230 from Cardwell
and_250 from Norman Town; Mackay, 90 from Bowen;
Gilbert Town, 300 from Burke Town; Bowen, 715 from
Burke’s; Hughenden of the Flinders, 480 from Gulf;
Palmer, 140 W. Cooktown; Cloncurry W. of Flinders
R. ; Hodgkinson, S. of Palmer; Cork on Diamantina.
Climate.
Without saying with one writer, ‘ The climate of
Brisbane is the finest of all the Australias,’ it may be
conceded that for most months in the year it is clearly
so. The depressing heat of the summer is not o en-
joyable. Brisbane, in the summer of 1872, experienced
no greater thermometrical heat than London in 1874.
But so immense a country as Queensland has not the
uniformity of climate which some may suppose. The
dry and hot region of the Western Interior is different
from the moist and hot Pacific division. Along the
hills, again, another change may be had; as, in winter,
frost may occasionally be seen.
Many have asserted that the climate is quite unsuit-
able for Europeans, and especially for those who have to
labour. An argument has been thence drawn as to the
necessity for Polynesians to work in the tropics. But
it is notorious that miners are engaged in their arduous
toil every day in the year under a tropical sun, even
within fourteen degrees of the equator.
One, writing from Brisbane at the beginning of last
year, declares: ‘ I have lived in Queensland twenty
years, and the whole of my observation and experience
goes to form the solid conviction that all that has been
said, or that can be said, about the unsuitability of the
climate of Queensland‘for Europeans to be employed
agriculturally, is only so much rotten rubbish.’
Possibly, if men lived more temperately, especially in


cnmrm. 245
the use of alcoholic liquors, they would sufl'er less. But
it is certainly a trying climate for some, while endurable
for others. The plague of flies and mosquitoes does not
increase the comfort. At the same time, Britain is
not without drawbacks in frost and snow. Men very
rarely lose a day’s work through weather in Australia.
While the death-rate is so low in Queensland, as may
be seen under the head of ‘Population,’ it would be
rash indeed to pronounce the country unfit for English-
men. If there are more low fevers, there are fewer colds;
if more die from diarrhtraa, fewer suffer from coughs.
A man may, from delicacy of chest, emigrate to Brisbane
with decided advantage to his health; but heart and
nervous affections are more common there than in New
Zealand, though consumption and rheumatism are less.
The heat is undoubtedly considerable; and it is felt
the more from the moisture, as the rains of Queensland,
unlike those of New SouthWales and Victoria, prevail in
summer. Still, relatively to other tropical and subtro-
pical countries, the climate is wonderfully drier; while
the absence of malaria, from the character of Australian
leafless vegetation, prevents the occurrence of yellow
fever, and other disorders usual in hot regions.
The winds are so much from the seaward, that the
colony is benefited thereby in its climate. On the
Darling Downs the cool south-east breezes blow seven
months out of the twelve. At Brisbane, during 1871,
the winds from the equator side were as 320 to 582 of
those blowing from the pole, cooling more than heating.
The mean temperature for Brisbane is 69°, that of
London being 50°. The changes of the thermometer
have a far less range there than at Sydney, or even
Melbourne. Without frost (but very occasionally at
night) and without ice, the winters are very pleasant.
Being without many visits from the hot wind, so com-
mon in the other colonies, the settlers may sometimes in-
dulge in a hot bath, but rarely confront a fiery furnace.
Though Darling Downs has the finest climate in
Queensland, the thermometer is often higher there
than on the sultry tropical plains; but the heat is less
exhausting because of the rarefied atmosphere.
There is a remarkable difference in the humidity of
places in Queensland. While some parts on the coast
QUEENSLAND.
Drawbackl
of climate
in Britain.
Good for
chest dis-
orders.
Heat with-
outmalarin.
Sea breezes.
Few hot
winds.
Humidity


246 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
QUEEIISLIIID.
Dry cli-
mate to the
westward.
Darling
Downs.
Rain table
of coast
towns.
Rain
inland.
Gnonoov.
Two por-
tions.
have as much as 100 inches of rain in the year, the
WVestern Interior, about the Alice, Thompson, and Barcoo
rivers, has sometimes not 10 inches, with an excess of
evaporation. At the Mackay 16 in. fell in 2A hours.
Beyond the Dividing range the rainfall is always in-
considerable. Condamine, 180 miles from the sea, had,
in 1871, but 18 inches in 4:7 days. Roma, 230 miles oil‘,
had only 13 inches in 1871, but I9 in 1878.
Darling Downs, though from 80 to 120 miles from the
ocean, has sufficient rain in some parts. Toowoomba,
being 1,900 feet high, had 61 inches in 1870, 27 in 1871,
and 61 in 1872. Warwick had 28 in 1872. Ipswich,
below the Downs, had 37 inches on 101 days in 1872.
The undermentioned places are near the seaside, and
vary not only from latitude, but from local circumstances.
Ascending from the south, we learn that in 1878-
Cape Morton had 59 inches in 98 days.
n 134 »
Brisbane ,, 56
Maryborough ,, 40 ,, 72 ,,
Sandy Cape ,, 42 ,, 97 ,,
Rockhampton ,, 51 ,, 94 ,,
Port Mackay ,, 86 ,, 103 ,,
Port Bowen ,, 49 n 95 ,,
Townsville ,, 38 ,, 77 ,,
Cardwell ,, 98 ,, 1 1 1 ,,
Cooktown ,, 50 ,, 141 ,,
At a distance from the sea a difference is seen 1n1878
Stanthorpe, 40 inches. George Town, 33 inches
Warwick 25 ,, Taroom 29 ,,
Dulby 21 ,, Clermont 29 ,,
Gympie 45 ,, Normamon 23 ,,
Ipswich 28 ,, Nebo 43 ,,
Towoomba 29 ,, Roma 19 ,,
Gayndah 32 ,, Beechal 17 ,,
In the dry 1883 Brisbane had but 32, Maryborough
30, Rockhampton 23, Ipswich 23, Gladstone 17, Black-
all 11, Thargomindah 7, though Mackay 71 and John-
stone 118. The north-west monsoon gives the north a
summer rain.
Geology.
Queensland may be said to consist, geologically, of
two p0rtions—the Western Interior of recent formation,
and the Eastern and Northern of primary and secondary
rocks. Coal, gold, granite, slate, and basalt, found in
the latter, seem almost absent in the former.


, esonoor. 247
Almost all Queensland descended to receive the coarse
and sterile coating of desert sandstone in the tertiary era.
But while this surface is over some of the Western
Interior, considerable areas have elsewhere been denuded,
so as to expose other and more fertile formations. But
for this great denudation, Queensland would now present
as barren and wretched an aspect as most of the part we
know by the name of Western Australia.
From better acquaintance with the colony, a more
hopeful geology is now revealed even in the dreary in-
terior, whose thirsty plains are covered with rich black
soil and good grasses. But, taking the eastern portion,
and the great Carpentaria country, few colonies can
boast a geology so interesting and profitable as Queens-
land. Notwithstanding the researches of such colonial
geologists as Messrs. Leichhardt, Gregory, Mitchell,
Daintree, Aplin, Hodgkinson, Jack, our knowledge of
the extensive area of the province is a very limited one.
The primary rocks constitute the dividing ranges.
Granite is the coast guard. The coal formation lies
between the coast range and the main dividing one.
Gold appears in the granite by the sea, and in the pa-
laeozoic rocks of the inland chains.
Of the older rocks, porphyry is seen at Cleveland Bay
and Roby’s range; mica slate at Endeavour River;
quartzose slate at Cape Palmerston; quartz at the dig-
gings’ localities; mountain limestone at Camboon; mag-
nesian limestone at Taroom; marble at the Calliope
River; talc slate at the Endeavour, and serpentine at
Marlborough. The M‘Kiulay and Mueller ranges con-
tain porphyry. Old rocks abound in York peninsula.
Granite continues, with few intervals, from Cape York
along the coast to Broad Sound. It rises 2,500 feet on
Hinchinbrook Island. Patches occur southward. The
monoclinic felspar is said to be greatly in excess of the
triclinic in the Dividing range. Hornblendic rocks
prevail north of the Burdekin. The granite of the Ra-
venswood gold-field is called syenitic by Mr. Hacket,
from the hornblende it has in association with felspar,
quartz, and mica. Where the granite contains horn-
blende, the soil is better than where it is absent. Ac-
cording to Mr. Daintree, the granite area is not less than
114,000 square miles, or one-sixth of the colony. The
QUEEll°ll.KD
Desert
sandstone.
Interesting
geology.
Granite
Coast.
Primary
rocks.
Granite 10-
calities.


248 mmnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
QUEEIISIJIIIJ.
Metamor-
phic rocks.
Ca rbnnife-
rous and
Devonian.
Different
from New
South
\Vales and
Victoria.
Upper and
lower
oolite.
Discovery
of crem-
ceous beds.
granite of Cape York and the islands of To1'res Strait
is connected with the granite of New Guinea.
The metamorphic rocks are strong in the diggings
and near Brisbane, forming also the base of the Bunya-
Bunya range. The country upon them is generally poor,
and the grass is thin. Mr. Stutchbury called the Glass-
houses of Moreton only metamorphic sandstones. The
area of this geological division is said to be 20,000
square miles. Gold is found in these rocks.
Of the palseozoic rocks, the carboniferous extend over
14,000 square miles, and the Devonian over 40,000. The
M‘Kinlay range, 1,600 feet, contains much contorted
rock. Palseozoic sandstones are reported on Groote
Eylandt, in the Gulf, having a hard, crystalline aspect.
The Devonian formation of Queensland prevails in-
stead of the Silurian, as in New South Wales and Vic-
toria. It extends even 200 miles inland between lat.
29° and 18° ; but it is less noticed north of lat. 18°. -The
plant-beds of Mt. Wyatt and the golden Canoona are
upper Devonian. From the banks of the Burdekin to
the Gilbert digging-s, the Devonian rocks are thousands
of feet thick. They are common also at Gympie, the
Boyne, Talgai, and Lucky Valley. In a metamorphic
state they are very deep on the Burdekin, and there they
are thought by some to resemble the Silurian of Vio-
toria. The copper of Peak Downs is in this formation.
llfesozoic conglomerate crops out on the Burdekin and
the Clarke, and lies conformably with the palaeozoic
below. This position is maintained in the lower oolitic
of the western Gordon Downs. The upper oolitic fresh-
water and estuarine beds are detected in the southern
coal-field. Maryborough, with Hughenden and Mara-
thon of the Western Interior, display portions of the
upper oolitic series beneath the scrub or black soil cover-
ing. The Barcoo and Thompson are in mesozoic rocks.
It was in 1866 that Messrs. Carson and Sutherland,
two colonial youths, discovered fossil evidences of a
Secondary formation in Queensland. Up to that time
little or no thought was directed to its existence. In
fact, it was for a long period supposed by European
philosophers that no secondary remains were to be ob-
served in Australia. These cretaceous beds, first found
on the River Flinders of Carpentaria, have been recog-


GEOLOGY. 249
nised in other parts, to so great an extent, that Mr.
Daintree regards the cretaceous area as 200,000 square
miles, or one-third of the colony. Trias at Endeavour R.
The chief seat of the cretaceous lies to the north-west
and west of the colony. Hydraulic limestone, under-
lying the dreary desert sandstone, is associated with
gypsum. Mr. A. C. Gregory, in his exploration of Car-
pentaria, noticed streams issuing from this limestone on
the sides of the sandstone table land.
The mesozoic carbonaceous beds, 10,000 square miles
in extent, are of shales, limestone, and sandstone, with
hydraulic limestone and coal. The secondary country
generally is less fit for agriculture; as is a very large
portion of both primary and tertiary, says Mr. Daintree.
Coal is known over an area of 150,000 square miles,
above twice the size of England. As it is highly pro-
bable that coal measures extend beneath the compara-
tively thin cretaceous beds of the western plains, a very
much larger space may be hereafter discovered available
for the operations of coal viewers.
The true coal containing the Glossopteris, Spirifer, etc.,
is seen on the Dawson, Comet, Mackenzie, Bowen, Don,
Crackow, and Isaacs rivers. At Nebo, of the Leichhardt
district, an excellent cannel coal will prove very valuable.
One authority states that the Upper Dawson beds alone
cover 10,000 square miles. Mesozoic coal is in the south.
Nearer the old settlements the coal has been worked,
though much is of a mesozoic character. The Aberdare
mine, near Ipswich, is so highly bituminous as to be
supposed compressed peat. The seam is four feet thick.
Through the Darling Downs a very large deposit has
been traced, having good beds at Allora, Blackfellows
Creek, etc. The Burnett district is rich in carbonaceous
material. Near Toowoomba the vein rests upon fire
clay. Some oolitic coal seams are lacustrine in origin.
Kerosene shale is very abundant near Taroom, of the
Upper Dawson, and around Mount Hutton.
The volcanic area is considerable. Mr. Daintree speaks
of the trappeau as being 12,000 square miles, and the
volcanic proper as 20,000.
The diorite, or greenstone, is an important rock there.
It cuts the Devonian slates of the Boyne and Calliope;
and it is occasionally, as in the Gipps Land of Victoria,
QUEEISl.lI0-
Mesozoic
coal.
Not much
farming
country.
Coal beds.
Coal work-
ings.
Coal of
Darling
Downs and
Burnett.
Kerosene.
Volcanic
rocks.
Greeustone.


250 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND new ZEALAND.
QUEENSLAND-
Basaltic
localities.
Basalt of
Downs.
a matrix of gold. Pyritous diorites and diabases are
observed in the porphyry near the Gilbert and other
northern streams. Pyritous felsites are said by Mr.
Daintree to be limited in extent, though prevailing at
Mount Wheeler and the Cape River.
The Glasshouses—which those North Moreton hills so
much resemble--have rather puzzled geologists. Called
trachyte by some, metamorphic slate by others, the
Rev. W. B. Clarke pronounces that they are as old as
some of the slates. Mount Lindesay, 5,700 feet, consists
mainly of trachytic basalt. True trachyte, like that of
the Drachenfels on the Rhine, occurs near Gladstone.
Clinkstone is common on the Suttor and the Christmas
range. Porphyry runs under the southern coal-field.
The trap of the carboniferous period is chiefly dolo-
mite. The same rock penetrates the desert sandstone
in the Gilbert country. The quazrtzose porphyry of
Brisbane is seen in mesozoic rock. The serpentines
of Gladstone are rich in chrome iron. Ancient traps
pierce the Expedition range, and divide the Dawson
Valley from Burnett. The Peak Downs, with their
singular-looking domes, reminded Leichhardt of the Puy
do Dome of Auvergne. Mr. A. C. Gregory speaks of
the trap in the coal as coming up through fissures.
Basalt has played an important part in more modern
times,‘ down to the close of the tertiary sandstone
era. Cunningham’s southern Dividing range is largely
amygdaloidal; around Brisbane the stone is cellular:
some in Moreton rises 4,000 feet above the bay. At
Mount Owen and many other places the basalt issues
through the sandstone. The shotstone of Mount
Aquarius is of amygdaloidal origin. Dykes half a mile
wide appear in the Burdekin limestone. Separation
Creek was so named by Leichhardt as the division be-
tween the basalt and slate country. A -
The Downs and table lauds are indebted to the basic
basalts for their proverbial fertility. The Darling, Peak,
Albinia, and other Downs have been flooded thereby.
The Valley of Lagoons, Salvator Plains, and such like
grassy retreats, have their productiveness from a similar
cause. Rich downs far west extend 500 miles in a lino.
Mr. Daintree was reminded, at Fletcher’s Creek, of
a ‘walled city ruined by an earthquake.’ Prismatic


enonoer. 251
columns were seen by Landesborough on Gregory River.
The sources of the Flinders, Gregory, Albert, and Nichol-
son are in basalt. This rock runs under the tertiary at
Brisbane, and at Double Island Point of Wide Bay.
Craterform hills are common in the Dividing range,
being seen, too, far north on the York Peninsula. Such
mountains as Playfair, Pluto, Owen, King, Hutton,
Lang, Bonwick, etc., were centres of igneous action.
Three streams of lava are distinguished at the Valley of
Lagoons. Local craters are found about lat. 19° and
20°. A fine one may be noticed in the Perry range.
Another, near the Burdekin, is 500 yards wide. The
flow in one part of the Burdekin has been compared to
that of Keilor, near Melbourne. North of lat. 21° the
basalts have been regarded as pliocene ; and southward
as miocene. Cooktown neighbourhood is volcanic.
The most recent action, perhaps, may be observed in
the Murray Isles, off Cape York. Here ashes can be
traced to the extinct craters. The volcanic conglome-
rate in Erroob Island contains blocks of lava as large
as a man’s head. And yet a stream of lava has flowed
over this recent conglomerate. Ashes are strewn at
the northern base of Mount Lindesay, and are seen with
scoria in the Western Interior. Still, no part of Australia
can compare with Western Victoria in a display of
craters and ash.
Along the Queensland and New South Wales coast
pumice has been found, as if thrown up by the waves,
which have borne it from some distant seat of eruption.
The line extends for 2,000 miles. Ash pebbles, of the
size of walnuts, are spread along a raised beach, 15 feet
high, at Cape Upstart. The deposit is not very recent.
Hot springs are almost wholly unknown. In this re-
spect Queensland is very different from Northern New
Zealand. There is, however, a hot alkaline spring in
the Flinders country. The water contains 33 per cent.
of carbonic acid, and 31 of soda.
Tertiary or cainozoic formations reach over, it is said,
150,000 square miles, or nearly one-fourth of the colony.
These consist of conglomerates and the inhospitable
desert sandstone. Much of that space, lying westward,
is impossible for settlement, except for pasture; though
fine oases and rich mineral deposits exist.
QUEEISLIID.
iii-
Extinct
craters.
Age of
basalts.
Volcanic
ashes.
Pumice nu
the beach.
Unlike
New Zea-
laud in hot
springs.
Terti
rockaary


252 HANDBOOK ro AUSTRALIA nu) new ZEALAND.
QUEEISLIIID.
Source of
deserts.

Desert
sands.
Desert
sandstone.
Romantic
landscapes.
Varieties of
tertiary.
Upon the ordinary sandstone a coarser and looser
variety exists in some places, and is the supposed source
of some of the Australian thirsty wastes in Queensland,
South Australia, and Western Australia. ' The sands,
often, as in Egypt, resting on limestone, are blown up in
parallel ridges like the deserts of Arabia and the Sahara.
It was in such a part of the western border of Queens-
land that M‘Kinlay saw the thermometer rise to 160° in
the sun. The traveller thus remarks : ‘ The whole
country looks as if it had been carefully ploughed, har.
rowed, and rolled, the farmer having omitted the seed.'
Close by that are richly grassed pastures.
Generally the desert sandstone is conformable to the
cretaceous beds beneath. When very ferruginous it
forms the red rook of the fiat-topped hills, so singular
a feature in Central Australia. Some hills, by the Clon-
curry of Carpentaria, are 3,000 feet above the sea. The
table land by the Barcoo or Victoria extends to Cooper’s
Creek. Diorite often appears beneath the sandstone.
In places, the sandstone is very picturesque. Leich-
hardt compared some to ruined castles, and named
Tombstone Creek from rectangular slabs of sandstone.
Mitchell was reminded by it of the wild-looking pictures
of Salvator Rosa. Gregory spoke of the deeply serrated
edge of the table land, and saw gorges in it several
hundreds of feet deep. One escarpment was 600 feet.
On the Gilbert the rock shows lofty and beautiful pin-
nacles. The tertiary or cainozoic is over the cretaceous
in the north. While having leaf beds, Queensland ter-
tiary has, like New South Wales, no marine deposits.
' The geologist of the exploring party in 1856, Mr.
Wilson, observed different strata in the tertiary of the
northern table land. The upper, 300-400 feet, was in
thick beds of sandstone, capped by iron ore. Under
that wasa silieious sandstone, with but little stratification.
A bluish, slaty stone followed, and was succeeded below
by a limestone. The limestone passed into shale, and the
shale into lower sandstone. At a distance of 300 miles
from the Gulf the elevation was 1,600 feet. The flat-
topped hills appeared to him chiefly silieious sandstone.
His leader, Mr. Gregory, refers to the Gulf range as
horizontal bands of sandstones on shales, and coarse
silieious limestone with jaspers. Near the Gulf, a calca-


GEOLOGY. 253
reous breccia abounds. Blue clay and fern leaves are
conspicuous on the M‘Kenzie Plains.
The flat-topped hills of Australia have excited much
interest. They point to an extensive and prolonged state
of denudation, which left these landmarks of history.
Professor Agassiz describes those of Brazil as ‘the rem-
nant of a plain that once filled the whole valley of the
Amazon from the Andes to the Atlantic.’ And yet Mr.
Wilson, the geologist of Northern Australia, believed in
the evidence of a much higher elevation, by at least
2,000 feet.
The Barrier Reef of Queensland, 1,200 miles long, is
a wonderful geological curiosity. There is to be found
every description of coral formation—-atolls, fringes, etc.
At first it was a fringing reef, but got separated from the
shore as the Australian land descended. The coralline
animalcules continued to build upon the sinking reef.
Part is now 2,000 feet deep. The width in lat. 2%-° S.
is 90 miles. There are many gaps in the barrier; one
of these is 12 miles across. Between lat 12° and 14° the
reef is double. The inner part is five to fifteen miles
from the shore. The sea north of the reef is found to be
27,000 feet in depth. The uncovered area of the great
reef is about 30,000 s uare miles.
The metallic wealth of the colony is considerable.
Gold is found in slate, serpentine, greenstone, granite,
etc. It occurs at the junction of the metamorphic slates
and tertiary sandstone at the Cape and Charters Towers
diggings. It is at the Gilbert where trap meets the
Devonian rock. In the New Zealand gully, of Rock-
hampton, it occurs in a mass of chloride of silver;
and on metamorphic rocks at the Cape River, Peak
Downs, Cloncurry, Killdvan, Ravenswood, etc. It is
gathered, in the Cape district, where acid felspathic dykes
traverse mica and hornblende schists. The serpentine
locality for gold is the Gladstone neighbourhood.
For further information upon metals the reader is re-
ferred to the chapter on Mining.
The fossils of Queensland are, in some cases, similar
to forms now existing there. Crocodiles, 20 feet long,
are disinterred from the hardened volcanic mud far in
the interior, where deep bays once existed; in modern
days the Queensland alligators are formidable in looks.
QIIEEISLIID.
Flat-to d
hm’. PP“
Queens-
land once
2,000 feet
higher.
Barrier
Reef of
coral.
Metals.
Where gold
is found.
Fosailfi.


254: HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IUEEISLIIID.
The Dipro-
todon.
Huge fish
lizards.
Ammm
nites.
FOSS“
plants.
The mon-
ster bird.
Australia
and New
Zealand
once
umt8d-
Governa-
unxr.
As Moreton
Bay dis-
trict, ruled
from
Sydney.
The Monitor of the Condamine was 20 feet, and showed,
said Leichhardt, that ‘the conditions of life have been
very little changed.’ The fish Ceratodus is found there.
Prof. McCoy has done much service to science in
making known the wonderful fossils of Queensland.
The Diprotodon, the huge marsupial, herbivorous
animal, has been discovered in several parts of the colony,
especially on the Darling Downs; where also the Nota-
therium, of the size of a large ox, was known. Enormous
kangaroos have left their remains by the Isaacs and other
rivers. The Enauliosaurus, an Australian ichthyosaurus,
20 feet in length, once floated in the waters of Northern
Queensland. Its bones lie in the cretaceous rocks of
the Flinders. A plesiosaurus, 40 feet long, was its com-
panion. The eye was five inches in diameter in one of
25 feet. The large flapper had eight rows of bones.
Belemnites and ammonites are common at the head of
the Flinders River. Fossils of huge animals were lately
seen by Mr. Hann, in York peninsula.
The flora of the Dawson coal-field is very fine. There
are sigillariae, calamites, lepidodendrons, zamias, ferns,
etc. Mesozoic fresh-water plants are repeatedly turned
up between the range and the sea about lat. 20° S. Very
large fossil fruits are found on the Peak Downs. Of
27 species of carhoniferous and Devonian fauna, nine
are known as English fossils; and of 25 cretaceous ones,
two only are English. Fossilised wood is common west
of the Barcoo.
A full description of Queensland fossils, up to a cer-
tain date, may be seen in the Transactions of the Geologi-
cal Society from the pen of Mr. Daintree.
The most remarkable fossil form yet discovered there
has been the Dinornis, a gigantic bird, which identifies the
continent of Australia with New Zealand. This enormous
creature once, doubtless, could travel along the plains
formerly uniting these two countries, now separated by
the ocean 1,200 miles wide. The east coast is sinking.
Govemment.
As the Moreton Bay district, the country was governed
by Sydney from 1823 to 1859. Eight commandants
successively ruled in Brisbane when a penal settlement.
In 1842 the district was thrown open to the public, and
some extent of freedom was granted, as one member for


covamnmnr. 255
Moreton Bay was elected for the Sydney Legislature.
Ten years after two members were returned. After the
reconstruction, consequent upon the new Constitution in
New South Wales, all the colony north of the Clarence
River, including all the Moreton Bay district, sent nine
members. This was in 1859.
An attempt was made, in 184.-6, to organise a new colony
at Port Curtis. After living four months in tents, the
ofiicials from England set sail home again, alleging the
utter unsuitability of the country for settlement. New
South Wales, therefore, resumed its government over
what is now known as Queensland.
After the arrival of the first free emigrants from Bri-
tain, in 1849, a demand for separation from Sydney rule
arose. Port Phillip commenced the same cry some years
before, and gained its independence in 1851. The More-
ton Bay settlers were not free till December 10, 1859,
when the colony received the name of Queensland. The
boundary, which had been from 30° to 26°, was extended
to Cape York.
New South Wales, the parent, was allowed to nominate
eleven of the fifteen members of the first Legislative
Council of Queensland, who were to serve for five years ;
the other four were elected in Brisbane for life. By the
Act of 1865 the number was raised to 21, and their
position was secured for life; in 18841, to 33.
The Legislative Assembly consisted of 26 persons in
1860, and 32 in 1864; their term was for five years.
In 1877 the colony was divided into 40 electorates, that
return fifty-five members to the Assembly. The mem-
bers are not yet paid during the sitting of Parliament.
The Parliament of Queensland is become more demo-
cratic. The franchise was not an extended one at
the beginning. In 1867 the number was increased;
and all men having a freehold of 100l., or paying
a rental of lOZ. for six months before the time of
registration, could secure a vote. Lodgers at a rent of
101., or paying 40l. a year for room and board, were
entitled to the privilege. No stipendiary magistrate,
soldier, police clerk, or constable could vote. All hold-
ing university degrees had the franchise, irrespective of
rental. Aborigines, Chinese, and Polynesians, with
all naturalised foreigners, obtain the like liberty if
possessed of the property qualification.
QUEEISLIIO.
Failure of
new colony
at Port
Curtis-
Separation
from New
South
Wales in
1859.
First Par-
liament.
Life mem-
bers in the
council.
Five years
in As-
eembly.
Franchise
extended.


256 nmnsoox TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
QUEEISLIID .
tilled-
palities.
Revenue
for 1885.
E di
xpen -
ture and
debt.
Penal dis-
cipline.
Probable
subdivision
into several
colonies.
POPULA-
-nos.
Four races
there.
Aborigines
Rapidly
dying 0fl'.
The settled parts of the Colony are in the munici-
palities. These received, in 1884, the sum of 36,5611.
from Government, and raised 88,6601. The rate runs
from 6d. to ls. in the pound.
The net revenue for the year ending on June 30,
1885, was 2,720,656Z., and the expenditure was 2,819,853l.
The public debt has been increased to nineteen millions
by the demand for immigrants and railways. The re-
venue has been steadily increasing since 1860, when it
only reached 178,-5891. In 1884-85 the Customs gave
937,224l.; land, 328,422l.; pastoral rents, 258,909l.;
railways, 852,-5331.; stamps, 105,566l. ; and excise,
32,0141. The estimated revenue for 1885-86 was
2,982,500l., and expenditure 3,006,2l4l.
The Government place criminals on St. Helena Island,
in Moreton Bay, and so utilise their labour on sugar
and tobacco growth that the expense of their mainten-
ance is but 3l. or 41. a head for the year.
It is not improbable that, in a few years’ time, Queens-
land may be divided into several colonies, as New South
Wales has been. Already the northern settlers of
this Colony complain of being governed from Bris-
bane. Some seem to propose the latitude of Cape Pal-
merston as the line of separation. The essentially pas-
toral country to the westward is interested in a very
different policy from that adapted to the south-eastern
district, where commerce prevails, and where manufac-
tures must arise. The mining districts, again, have
different interests from the agricultural ones.
Population.
Four races may be said to form the population of
Queensland, viz.: the Blacks, or aborigines ; the Whites,
or those of European origin; the Yellows, or Chinese;
and the Brown Blacks, or Polynesians. The last, by the
returns of 1878, were 6,000 in number; the Mongolians
were141,500;thePalefaces were 190,000. The population,
Dec. 31, 1884, was 298,691 ; females 70 per cent. of males.
As to the NATIVES, no accurate return of their tribes
has ever been attempted. Calculations have varied as
to the amount from 10,000 to 50,000. Wherever food
is plentiful and water accessible they are the more
numerous. But, from various causes, they are so rapidly


POPULATION. 257
decreasing that their extinction may be looked for at no
great distance of time.
In Queensland they live not only upon the chase, but
have their annual feasts on the fruit of the Bunya-Bunya
trees, which, on that account, are not allowed to be cut
down by sawyers for timber. To the westward, as on
the Barcoo, Cooper’s Creek, etc., they eat the seeds of a
sort of wild millet, called the Nardoo.
Their customs differ little from those of other parts
of Australia. Circumcision has been found in some
northern tribes; while castes, and peculiar laws as to
intermarriage, are known to exist widely. Their re.
peated conflicts with the settlers in newly-opened dis-
tricts have often arisen from cruelties practised by the
whites, not less than from resentment at the invasion of
their hunting grounds.
The Black Police, an organised body of armed abori-
gines, under the command of Europeans, have secured
the safety of settlements from the inroads of disturbing
tribes, though often by indiscriminate slaughter.
All attempts to Christianise the race seem to be
failures. The most important of the missions were
those of the Lutherans at Moreton Bay, and of some
Italian priests further north. Both parties attribute
their failures to the presence of bad whites. The only
mission at the mouth of the N oosa, by Fraser Island, is
removed to Hinchinbrook Island.
The CHINESE arrived in former times to be servants
and cooks on stations, but are now almost wholly en-
gaged in mining, gardening, or fishing. They are
generally an industrious, a prudent, and an orderly popu-
lation. By the last census there was but one Chinese
woman in Queensland. Dr. Lang, who has no fancy for
the wifeless Chinamen, once gave the following toast :—
‘ The Chinese Ladies: and long may they stay at home
by their own firesides l’
The POLYNESIANS were first imported into Queensland,
by Captain Towns, for cotton growing on the Logan, in
1863. They are commonly called Kanakas. They are
not the light-coloured islanders, as Tahitians and
Samoans, but the darker tribes from the New Hebrides,
and other Papuan-Polynesian isles.
In 1871 there were but 47 women to 1,305 men. It
S
QUEEISLMID.
Circum-
cision in the
north.
Black
Police.
Missions.
Chinese.
Poly-
nesians.


258 mmnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmsn.
QUEEIISLIID.
No chil-
dren.
Protecting
laws for
Polyne-
sians.
Birthplaces
of the
people.
Occupa-
lr ons.
Population
of towns.
is a significant statement that there were few, if any,
children among them. Up to 1878, 14,000 had arrived,
6,000 returned, and 1,700 died. In 1884, 2,002 left.
By the Queensland Act of 1868, the natives are brought
to the colony for three years. The master is bound to
give them certain rations and 61. a year wages, besides
finding them a return passage home. The import cost
of a Polynesian is about 121. There can be no transfer
of these apprentices without the consent of Government.
They are subjected to imprisonment if absconding from
employment. Though fairly treated, the great mortality
among them is much to be regretted. As servants they
are generally docile, good-tempered, and intelligent.
The white population is thus classified, as to birth-
place, in the admirably arranged census returns, 1871:-—
Place
Queensland . .
Other Australian colonies
England . - .

Males
Females
Total
Ireland . .
Scotland . .
Germany .
France . .
Europe, less France
British America . .
United States . .
18,501
6,220
16,851
11,540
5,333
5,401
156
1,174
379
161
17,911
4,711
9,445
9,432
3,231
2,916
32
276
109
54-
36,412
10,931
26,296
20,972
8,564
8,317
188
1,450
488
215

As to occupations, while 11,360 men were engaged
on stations, there were but 330 women. On farms,
13,732 men and 2,066 women were employed. On the
gold-fields, 2,953 worked at alluvial diggings, and 3,183
at quartz mines. About 1,400 were variously labouring
on other mineral enterprises.
The towns’ population was not large at the end of
1871, as may appear from the following statement
Brisbane . . 19,413 Townsville . . 1,140
Rockharnpton . . 5,497 Rome . . . 841
Ipswich - . 6,092 Mackay . . 729
Toowoomba . - 3, 628 Gayndah . . 6 7 1
Maryborough . - 3,542 Gladstone . . 416
Warwick . . 2,228 Springsure . . 370
Dalby - 0 1,647 Cardwell. . , 96
Clement - Q 1,222 Somerset . - 1 1


POPULATION. 259
Though the births of male children have uniformly
been in excess of those of female, the proportion of the
sexes in the colony has been little changed during the
last ten years, being as three males to two females.
This relation differs according to age, being about
equal in tender years, and changing considerably at a
later period. Thus, according to one of the recent re-
turns, there were—-
7,409 men to 3,241 women between 40 and 50 years.
3,135 ,, 1,-L89 ,, ,, 50 ,, 60 ,,
1,051 ,, 510 ,, ,, 60 ,, 70 ,,
227 n 109 11 n 70 n 80 n
30 n 13 !I 1. 30 .. 90 .-
7 » 2 .. .. 90 .. 190 .-
Women about equal the men in the towns of Brisbane
and Ipswich, but are considerably in the minority in
remote districts. At the established diggings they are
rapidly gaining in proportionate number, though few at
the new rushes. In one of the more recently occupied
pastoral districts there are 20 men to one woman.
The births in 1884 were 10,679, though the births were
three times the deaths in 1872 ; illegitimate only 3 per
cent. The marriages were 2,661. In 1884 the births
were 35'75 per thousand; marriages, 8'91 ; deaths 22.
The death-rate is slightly heavier than in some more
settled colonies. This is partly to be accounted for
by the greater vicissitudes to which health is exposed in
so many persons wandering in a. new land, engaged in
hazardous employments, unprovided with the comforts
and conveniences of more settled places, and too often
indulging to excess in spirituous liquors.
The deaths were 3,373 in 1877, but 4,220 in 1878, a
QIIEEISLIIII.
MM,
Three
males to
two fe-
males.
Census of
sex.
Equal in
Brisbane.
Twenty
men to one
WOHIKIL
Births.
Causes of
high death-
rate.
Mortality
hot year. Yet even then the country parts averaged 17 gmaterwflh
per thousand, while England stood at 23. Sanitary
improvements in Brisbane will rectify the high death
rate of towns. Excessive mortality among wifeless
Chinese and Polynesians places Queensland at greater
disadvantage compared with other colonies than cli-
matic difference warrants.
Marm'age.9.—On this head, the statistical records of
the colony, especially those for 1877, afford the means
for presenting some curious and interesting tables.
The number joined together that year came to 970.
Old custom drew nearly nine-tenths of these to a reli-
the males.
Marriages.
s 2


260 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALANIL
QUEENSLAND.
Proportion
of mar-
riages.
Number of
m arried
people.
gious service on the occasion. And yet not only may
registrars tie the knot, but, in sparsely populated parts,
where those gentlemen are few and far between, a. justice
of the peace has authority to marry parties. One-fifth
the number were married by ministers of the Church of
gngland, and about as many by priests of the Church of
ome.
The proportion of marriages to population has fluc-
tuated, as will be seen in the annexed table :—






Year Marriages Population Per thousand
1860 , . 278 28,056 10'09
1861 . . 320 34,307 10‘72
1862 . . 570 45,077 7'9
1863 . - 774 61,640 7‘96
1864 . . 951 74,036 7‘78
1865 . . 1,074 87,804 8'17
1866 . . 1,068 96,201 9'0
1867 . - 935 99,849 10'67
1868 . . 863 107,427 1244
1869 - . 903 109,897 12'17
1873 . 1,354 140,122 9'32
1884 , , 2,661 300,000 9'0


There were, in 1871, 11,828 husbands under 40, and
6,965 over that age. The wives were 13, 74.41 under, and
4,326 over, 40. In 1871, 18 males and 257 females
married under 21 years; 585 males and 581 females
between 20 and 30; 293 and 107, respectively, between
30 and 40; 55 and 18 between 40 and 50; 20 and 7
over 50 years. Most men married at 27, and most
women at 21.
The complete table of the married people in the

Ma niage
age.
colony was the following :—
Ages Males Females
15 to 20 11 437
20 ,, 30 3,569 6,737
30 ,, 40 8,248 6,520
40 ,, 50 4,324 2,848
50 ,, 60 1,907 1,166
so ,, 70 610 27s
70 ,, so 112 as
80 ,, 100 12 3


POPULATION. 261
The unmarrierl numbered thus :— QUEEISLIID.

Ages
Males
Females Unmarried.

60
80
to
20
60
70
80
100
4,149
4.-770
2,714
895
252
54
12
3,331
1,707
33
14
1
0
15
20 ,, 25
25 ,, 30 5,868 744
30 ,, 40 7,189 385
40 ,, 50 95
50
70

The widowers under 40 were 327; and the widows,
344. Over 40, the former were 913, and the latter 944.
While there were 13 widowers between 80 and 100 years,
there were not less than 17 widows.
The full story of widowhood is thus told in the sta-
tistics :—-
Ages Widowers Widows
Under 20 . . 0 1
Between 20 and 30 . 52 165
6 1
13 17


40 . 275 278
50 .
I! I7
I! H
,, 50 ,, so .
H II I
s
337
317
297
335
185 223
,, 70 ,, 0 . 72
,, 80 ,, 100 .

The bachelors marrying spinsters came to 80 per
cent., and widows 112+. The widowers selecting spin-
sters were 7% per cent, and widows 2%.
The selection of partners was curious in a. national
point of view. Thus, the 536 Englishmen, marrying in
1877, chose 240 English, 105 Irish, 31 Scotch, and 128
Colonial women; but 425 English women selected 28
Irish, 31 Scotch, and 76 Colonial men, beside the 240
countrymen. Then 121 Scotchmen had but 33 Scotch
wives, 31 English, 19 Irish, and 32 Colonial. But the
99 Scotch women joined to 31 English, 9 Irish, 17 Co-
lonial, and 33 countrymen. Irishmen preferred their
own race ;' 294 having 194! Irish, 53 Colonial, 28 English,
Widows
and
widowers.
Bachelors
and
spinsters.
Marriage
nationall-
ties.


262 munsoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmun.
IUEEIISLAIIIJ.
Blending of
races.
Enum-
-nor.
Vested and
nun-vested
schools.
N 0 inter-
ference
with re-
ligious in-
struction.
Low aver-
age attend-
ance.
Schools and
cost.
Grammar
schools.
and 9 Scotch. The 402 Irish wives, besides country.
men, chose 105 English, 19 Scotch, and 41 Colonial.
The Colonial-born men favoured their Colonial sisters
as much as the latter regarded them. 213 Queensland
women married 38 Queensland men, 14 Sydney, 67
English, 41 Irish, 20 Scotch. 90 men chose 21 English,
15 Irish, 8 Scotch. The 131 Germans chose 82 German,
10 English, 15 Irish, 4 Scotch, and 15 Colonial.
This singular interchange of nationalities is not pe-
culiar to Queensland, but is a happy characteristic
blending of races throughout the colonies of Australia
and New Zealand, tending to the destruction of absurd
national prejudices, and the development of genuine
equality and fraternity.
Education and Religion.
Queensland has honourably distinguished itself in the
work of public instruction.
The Education Act of 1860 recognised vested and non-
vested schools under the Board. The latter——which are
denominational schools—receive aid from the State if
affording secular instruction to all comers for four con-
secutive hours. There is, however, ‘no inspection of,
or interference with, the special religions instruction
which may be given in any such school during the hours
set apart for such instruction.’ There is a Normal
school.
In 1884 there were 52,550 children upon the roll in
public schools, but only 27,863 in attendance. Private
schools in the country showed an average attendance of
81 per cent. The parents among the working classes in
the Colony have, perhaps, great need of help from their
children in the field and in other employments.
Of 425 schools in 1884 there were 264 as State
schools, and 161 provisional. The last-mentioned are
situated in districts where a full complement of pupils
cannot be had. The total expenditure was 139,508l.
There were 732 teachers, and 429 pupil teachers.
State assistance is given to Grammar schools for the
middle classes. Where 1,0001. can be raised for such an
object, tho Treasury gives double that sum, in addition
to land for the institution. If the trustees pay 2501.
for salaries of teachers, the State grants 5002.


EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 263
Teachers are classified according to attainments, and
paid accordingly. Since the Legislature threw open all
schools without charge, teachers have received a.n increase
of salary to compensate for the loss of fees. Sectarian
schools lose all State support in 1880. The Queens-
land Parliament has now made education compulsory
and free, even allowing access to grammar schools and
the University without payment.
Mechanics’ Institutes, Free Libraries, and Schools of
Art are liberally supported by the Colonial Government.
Queensland has, in respect to liberality in education, set
an example to the colonies. There are 80 periodicals.
Of these 25 are in Brisbane, with 40,000 people. The
country parts have six daily papers.
it is quite a mistake to suppose that the Queenslanders
are indifierent to the question of religion; although, it
must be admitted, the migratory life so many are obliged
to live, and the vast area occupied with so few people,
are serious drawbacks to church-going. In England,
with a concentrated population, an Established Church,
and an active Nonconformity, it is found impossible to
overtake the growth of cities with religious means:
how much more difiicult in Queensland!
One of the earliest accounts of religious services there
is given by Mr. Backhouse, the Quaker missionary, who
visited Brisbane in 1836. Alluding to his address to
the prisoners, he says: ‘They, with the military and
civil oflicers, whether Protestant or Roman Catholic,
assembled as on First Days in the chapel; where the
prayers and lessons of the Episcopalian church, with a
few omissions, in deference to the Roman Catholics,
were read in a becoming manner by the Superintendent
of Convicts.’
The free immigrants who arrived in 1848 and 1849
exercised a happy influence on the society of Moreton
Bay, in checking intemperance and irreligion. The
Brisbane ‘ Courier,’ of October 3, 1872, observed: ‘ The
criminal record this month is almost a blank, and it is
not in our power to indulge the British reader with
anything sensational in the way of murder or bush-
ranging. The improved morality of the people may be
attributed, in a great extent, to the remarkable spread
of teetotal principles.’ This year tells the same tale.
QllEEI$l.lIl-
All schools
free.
Mechanics’
Institutes,
Free Li-
braries, and
Schools of
Art.
Ruuoion.
Scattered
population
a difficulty.
Early ser-
vice.
Influence
of free im-
migrants.
Moral con-
dition of
Brisbane.


msromr. 265
1823, its active and independent existence, apart from
Government tutelage, began with the earliest Darling
Downs sheep stations from 1840 to 1842.
The squatting reputation gained by that district of
old has been ever since maintained. Excepting, perhaps,
some parts of Victoria, the finest pastoral properties of
Australia are seen at the Darling Downs, where sheep-
station holders are princes indeed. When the Messrs.
Leslie Brothers settled on Canning Downs in 1840, much
privation was experienced, and not a little danger from
savage tribes. Now, however, the refinements of civilisa-
tion can be enjoyed there.
Men of small capital must go farther than Darling
Downs. Much loss followed the indiscreet selection of
localities for sheep toward the coast, since occupied
by horses and cattle. It is not true of the Tropics that
the wool turns there to hair. This subject was once
discussed before a learned society in London, when it
was affirmed by a man of science that it was impossible
to grow wool in hot countries. Mr. Landesborough, the
Queensland explorer, being present, asked how it was,
then, that negroes were raised there.
A part of the colony, north-east of Flinders River, is
plagued with a poison plant, bearing a delicate white
flower, but for which sheep have afancy. The high-
lands of Kennedy, Leichhardt, Warrego, and Mai-anoa
are favourable for sheep, though the fleeces are not so
heavy as in Victoria, Tasmania, and New Zealand. The
dry but fertile plateaux westward are better fitted for
sheep than cattle, and are being rapidly taken up.
Horses and cattle are profitably kept on the lower,
hotter, but ‘better watered plains, as well as upon the
hilly country. India opens a market for the first, and
Britain for the last.
Squatting, like other good things of Australia, suf-
fered awhile from absurd speculation, followed, un-
fortunately, by two seasons of drought. High prices
of purchase, careless management, poor grass, expense
of carriage of stores, with high interest, brought on a
sad loss for many new comers. A succession of good
seasons, with judicious management, changed the
squatters’ fortunes.
The meat-preserving interest became the friend in
QUEEISLIIL
Darling
Downs the
best dis-
trict.
Wool-grovn
iug in the
tropics.
Poison
plant.
Land for
sheep.
Horses and
cattle.
Squatting
troubles.
Mea_t-pre-
serving.


266 mnmaoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
QIJEEISLIID.
Liebig’s
extract
made in
Queens-
land.
Pas '0 ml
prospects.
Stock in
1884.
Runs three
farthings
an acre in
settled dis-
tricts.
In unsettled
districts,
one-half of
a farthing.
Wool
export.
Cattle runs
ea sil y
obtained.
need. Fat sheep, cattle, and even horses, could be
boiled down for tallow; but, made into tinned meat, a
better price was obtained for beef and mutton.
At a large boiling-down station, eight miles from
Maryborough, a large amount of Liebig’s Extract of
Moat is prepared. It takes 40 lbs. of meat to make
1 lb. of extract. The hides are tanned on the premises.
Pigs fed upon the offal are boiled down for lard. The
extract is put into large tin cylinders for export.
A new compressing process, with the Bell-Coleman
freezing one, will revive the pastoral interest. There is
no want of good sheep pastures. Explorations have
revealed magnificent country in the west, especially the
Diamantina and the Herbert districts, once believed to
be desert. Land improves by use. The fine Barcoo re-
gion of the west is more fattening than ever.
The progress of the pastoral district may be gathered
from the following statistics :—-
Early in 1884 it was reported that there were 9,493,829
sheep, 4,266,172 cattle, and 253,116 horses.
The settled districts contain 87,220 square miles, or
56,000,000 acres. Of these, 7,443,840 were then leased
out in 334 runs, paying to Government the moderate sum
of three farthings an acre.
The unsettled district, comprising the rest of the Colony,
has an area of 582,300 square miles, or 370,000,000
acres. Butthe squatters had spread only over 308,000,000
acres, or three-fourths the area, in 9,208 runs. The
annual rental charged was over one-half of a farthing
per acre.
The wool export for 1884 was 1,909,504Z.; tallow,
76,0311. ; hides, 109,291l. ; preserved meats, 57,2741.
The drought of 1876-77 destroyed a number of sheep.
In 1884, Darling Downs district had 2,070,492 ; Leich-
hardt, 832,794; Mitchell, 2,559,645 ; Warrego, 1,559,735;
but Wide Bay had but 4,903, being too near the coast
for sheep, though famous for cattle.
Cattle runs have greatly advanced in price since meat-
preserving has commenced. As other colonies give up
eef-preserving, because the cost of beasts gives no
margin for the manufacturer, the Queensland squatter
will have the market pretty much to himself.
There is yet plenty of country available for cattle


PASTORAL. 267
runs. Where the grass is defective, salt bush often grows
luxuriautly. Upon this unpromising-looking food stock
will get fat in a short time. Localities like the plains
of the Warrego and Barcoo, far to the westward, sustain
enormous herds on this salt bush, and Mitchell grass.
Sheep pastures are found in the apparently arid
wastes to the west. On the distant plains, which are
useless for agriculture, wool can be grown without the
squatter dreading the advance of ‘free selectors.’ There
he will enjoy unmolested possession, perhaps, for many
years. The grass may be scarce ; but the salt bush will
fatten the bleaters, though failing to grow length of
staple. Periodical droughts and other hardships must
be faced by the sheep master with courage and patience.
The reward is certain in the long run. The native
grasses are much admired, though fires and close feed-
ing injure them. Kangaroos, grass-eaters, having much
increased, are being now destroyed at the public expense.
The wool is far better on the rich Darling Downs, for
there the squatting establishments have every conve-
nience for the getting up of the fleece. Sheep-washing
is managed with hot water, through pipes covered with
holes. Great care is exercised in the sorting and pre-
paring of the wool. By the fencing in of land a
great improvement of fleeces is effected. Among these
fences, some are of wire or basket work, others of post
and rail, and the rest of logs forming dog-leg or chock
and log fences. VVorm disease troubles the sheep.
While in Great Britain the sheep are equal to the
population, in Queensland they are thirty to one of the
people. The climate of the colony is more suitable to
the animals, and the cheapness of the land affords the
opportunity of depasturing them at a profit. Horses
thrive well in a region so warm and dry.
The means to be employed to secure a run are simple
enough, and the terms are certainly very easy.
The application to the land commissioner of the
squatting district must be made in writing. The appli-
cant must, at the same time, deposit 5s. for each square
mile he selects, and agree to stock at the rate of at least
100 sheep or 20 head of cattle per square mile.
He then obtains an occupatiim license for one year.
This can be exchanged for a twenty-one years’ lease.
QUEEISLIIIL
Salt bush
supports
cattle and
sheep.
Fine
stations
on Darling
Downs.
Sheep pm-
portion
sixty times
Great
Britain.
Horses do
well.
How to get
a run.
Occupation
licenses and
leases.


268 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
QUEENSLAND.
Squatting
regula-
tions.
Rent 55. a
square
mile.
»
Anemon-
TURE.
Mr. Trol-
lope’s
picture.
\
Colonial
farmers not
like many
English
ones.
Should he afterwards fail in having 100 sheep or 20
cattle per mile, he forfeits his lease.
No run can have less than 25 square miles, nor more
than 200. The lease is transferable upon payment of a
guinea fee, and having the consent of the chief commis-
sioner. If the whole or a part of a run be resumed by
the Crown, compensation is awarded after arbitration.
A block of 2,560 acres of leased land may be bought by
the tenant at 10s. an acre.
The annual rent for the first seven years is 5s. a square
mile ; for the second seven years, lOs. ; and for the third,
15s. But the tenant and the Government have the right,
during the seventh or fourteenth year, to demand an
assessment, when the rent may be raised or lowered.
But it can never be less than 7s., nor more than 15s., for
the second; or less than 12s., nor more than 25s., for the
third term. The fixed rental for 25 square miles is
271. 10s. from the 5th to 9th year, and 351. from the 10th
to 14th. Runs more than five miles from permanent
water can be had, on annual license, at 3.9. a square mile.
Agricultiue.
A sorrowful picture has been drawn by Mr. Trollope
respecting the agriculture of the colony.
‘ The Queensland farmer,’ says he, ‘is almost inva-
riably a struggling man, with small means, who grows a
little Indian corn, which he barters with shopkeepers for
other goods, having no market in which he can get
money for it, and who hires his services to the squatters
when the washing and shearing of sheep come round.
Wheat cannot be grown, or at least has not been grown,
so as to pay.’
Colonial farmers are not to be estimated after the
British standard. They are proprietors, and not lessees.
They have little capital, and think it no disgrace to work
for others while their own crops are growing. They
wish to make a home for their children, and deny them-
selves a present good for the future good of their family.
Queensland is not equal to New Zealand and Victoria
for so-called English farming. One great cause of failure
there in agriculture has been the want of American
adaptiveness to circumstances.
As Englishmen will consume an excess of beef and


AGRICULTURE. 269
beer in India, so do they persist in growing English
produce in an un-English climate. Gradually they are
learning that a farm near Brisbane or Rockhampton
may yield a better return from sub-tropical vegetation
than that of a colder zone. Sweet potatoes—a delicious
food—together with bananas, pineapples, arrowroot,
oranges, limes, sorghum, cassava for tapioca, yams, ginger,
tobacco, indigo, sago, cacao, coffee, cotton, and sugar
give the Queensland farmer a great advantage. The
State ofl'ers 1,0001. for a cure for rust in wheat.
But wheat will grow admirably on Darling Downs
and in West Moreton. At Warwick a farmer got 800
bushels from less than 20 acres, at a cost of 98l., and
realised 220l. But 2,682 acres on the Downs produced
an average of 19 bushels an acre in 1871. At Allora,
February 1879, 290 acres gave 1,300 bags.
Maize does far better. In 1878 there were 53,799
acres in maize to 9,627 in wheat, 1,065 in barley, and
132 in oats. It is strange that while maize is relished
in America, a prejudice against its use, except as maizena,
should exist among ourselves. Many in Queensland
think it better to import flour from the southern colonies,
and export to them that which succeeds so well in the
banana land. Maize ears are often a foot long.
Potatoes grow well, especially on Darling Downs, as
the returns of 3,882 acres lately proved. Sweet potatoes
reach an enormous size. Great quantities of tropical
and sub-tropical fruit are sent to Melbourne, New Zea-
land, &c. Leichhardt, being once asked what would grow
at Moreton Bay, replied, ‘You ought to ask what it
could not grow.’
The small farmer has as good prospects in Queensland
as elsewhere ; but he must adapt his work to the climate.
Arrowroot is easily raised, and is a grateful food for a
hot country. Most growers have a little mill at home
for use. After being washed in troughs, the roots are
rasped in a mill, in running water, and revolving blades
tear up the pulp. The beating continues till the starch
of the arrowroot is got from the pulp, and settles at the
bottom of the trough. The refuse is excellent for
manure. Not a great amount is as yet exported, because
the home consumption is large. An acre producing 9»
ton and a half will realise 501.
QUEEISLIIIL
Queensland
not so
adapted to
English
products.
Wheat
grown in S.
Queens-
land.
Of corn
crop, maize
best.
Sweet
potawel.
Leich-
hardt’s
saying.
Arrowroot
culture.


270 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
qumsuum.
Indigo,
tobacco,
coffee, up-
land rice,
etc.
Fruits
grown.
Silk-pr!»
ducing.
Acres in
produce.
Only -1 -
cultiviiigd.
Cotton-
growing.
Bonus for
cotton.
Indigo will become a profitable produce, though re-
quiring both warmth and moisture. Colonial tobacco has
hitherto sufiered in price, because being badly cured.
During 1884 19,040 lbs. tobacco and 80,000 cigarettes
were manufactured. Tapioca will pay there. Coffee
succeeds admirably in some places where sheltered from
the frosty west wind. Flax promises well. Arnotte dye,
ginger, opium, dates, vanilla, upland rice, turmeric, and
even tea, will become exports of the colony. The Accli-
matisation Society has done good service in the colony.
But oranges, lemons, figs, olives, pomegranates, citrons,
melons, peaches, pineapples, bananas, and other fruits of
warm climates, are delicious in Queensland. The vine
also does well, though the summer rains are not friendly
to it. A German grower one year made 2,700 gallons
of wine from 7 acres. The produce of 1884 was but
95,358 gallons of wine.
Sericulture may yet make South Queensland the
Lombardy of Australia. As the mulberry is so suited
to the climate, the care of silkworms will one day be a
common work of farmers’ wives and daughters there.
The Moms multicaulis leafs early there, though the oak-
leaved and rose-leaved varieties are more advantageous.
The alianthus is equally successful. The raising of silk
is as interesting as it is profitable.
The Government returns for 1884 give the following
acreage of produce.—Wheat, 12,105 acres; barley, 686;
oats, 143; maize, 61,064; potatoes, 3,775; tobacco, 73;
arrowroot, 352 ; English grasses, 24,865; vines, 1,276;
bananas, 731; pineapples, 312; gardens and orchards,
2,433; sugar cane, 57,687; oranges, 457; cotton, 49;
hay and other crops; making a total of 199,580 acres,
or only one three-thousandth part of the Colony under
cultivation. In 1872 the wheat land was 3,661 acres.
Dr. Lang, to whom Queensland owes so much, ob-
serves : ‘ My efforts in connection with cotton cultivation
in Australia. originated, in great measure, if not ex-
clusively, in my desire to get out to our colonies a
population of the right description from Great Britain
and Ireland. Cotton cultivation, I conceived, was to be
the means.’
The first legislators of the new Colony in 1860 offered
a bonus for the encouragement of cotton-growing. Mr.


AGRICULTURE. 271
Sloman showed how six acres could be cultivated by one
man, using half a pound of seed to the acre A free,
open soil is needed, and limestone is preferred. The
drills may be 5 or 6 feet apart; and the plants 3 to
5 feet. Care is required to keep down the weeds. The
picking has to be done in dry weather, otherwise the
bolls do not open freely. The quantity varies, according
to weather and sort, from 20 to 120 lbs. a day to the
picker.
The ginning is usually done at about a penny a
pound. The Sea Island kind, the most valuable, is
most easily freed from seeds. Formerly the seeds were
thought useless, but are now crushed for their oil, while
the residue is made into good fattening cakes for pigs.
Cotton seed meal, mixed with bran, causes a cow to
throw a rich cream.
The cotton is a ready money produce, like corn. A
man with a family can easily manage a crop, and yet
find time to attend to other things. The wife and chil-
dren can keep down the weeds, and gather the fleecy
pods. As much as 600 lbs. an acre may be obtained.
A pressed sacli of cotton weighs 500 lbs. Cotton fac-
tories are already spoken of, and large bonuses have
been offered by the State to induce persons to commence.
It was said that the labour was unsuitable to Euro-
peans. But Sir Morton Peto, visiting the Carolina
cotton fields, observed that the slave system prevented
the supply from equalling the demand. President
Grant once said: ‘ Where labour was the property of the
capitalist, the white man was excluded from employ.
ment, or had but the second best chance of finding it.’
The Southern Queenslanders seem determined to
oppose importation of Polynesian labour for cotton
plantations. They declare that the white man can and
does work without injury; and they point triumphantly
to the fact that while, in 1871, the cotton crop was on
12,433 acres around Brisbane and Ipswich, only 136
were cultivated by the coloured men of the north. The
fall of prices has arrested cotton growing of late years.
It is fortunate for the interests of British emigrants,
that so convenient and agreeable a culture as that of
cotton can be conducted by the families of the whites in
Southern Queensland, when rates rise again.
QUEEIISUIO
Mode of
culture.
Use of
seeds.
Cotton and
family
work.
Cotton
factories.
Fit for
Europeans.
Almost all
cotton
grown by
whites.


272 mmnsoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmnmn.
QIIEEIISIJID.
Sugar
plantations
greatly ex-
tending.
Best lo-
calities.
Planters’
trials.
Sugar land
selecting
easy.
How to
do it.
Cane-grow-
ing more
simple than
sugar-
making.
Mode of
culture.
But sugar plantations are the rising industry of the
colony, making it the Mauritius of Australia.
These are now spreading along the whole eastern
shore of the colony, from the Logan of the south to the
Endeavour of the north. Rich, scrubby flats, yielding
naturally a luxuriant coarse grass, and being situated
within 30 miles from the sea, are the favourite selections.
Frost is a serious evil, making the field look like dead
maize. The removal from hills is, therefore, necessary;
the young shoots are covered awhile by cane leaves.
Dry heat limits the yield of juice, though increasing the
density of it. Draining is essential to wet lands; and
provision is taken against floods, so common in Eastern
Queensland. Good drainage keeps off the sugar blight,
which destroys leaf and stem.
Sugar lands can be obtained on favourable terms. A
man may select from 320 to 1,280 acres, and pay in ten
annual instalments of ls. 601. an acre. He is required
to reside on the block for the first three years, but not
longer, should he have then cultivated one-tenth of the
area. Some sugar lands pay 2s. 601. annually.
One, writing from the great sugar district of Port
Mackay, says: ‘With a capital of 1,0001. to 1,5001. a
man may take up from 300 to 400 acres, grow a crop of
30 acres, erect a cattle mill to take it off, never run into
debt, and have his plantation—and his money back in
his pocket—at the end of three years, if sugar continues
to average about 241. per ton.’
It is not necessary that so large a capital be employed.
The work of cane-growing can be carried on without
entering upon the more extensive work of sugar manu-
facture. Mill-owners are ready to take the produce of
a farmer, and give him one-half to two-thirds the sugar,
according to the yield. The better the growth, the more
the sugar. There were last year from sixty to seventy
mills at work. T0oth’s process is an improvement.
The planting must be according to the prevalent sys-
tem of the particular district selected. The traslzing, or
pulling ofl' the dead leaves, is the main labour. Many
lay the leaves between the rows to shield the land from
the sun, and yield manure. The ash from the furnace
and the lees of the molasses form the best cane manure.
Of the 15,220 acres of cane in 1877, nearly 6,000


AGRICULTURE. 273
acres were in the North, 4,000 in the Maryborough
district, 1,340 in the Brisbane, and 2,600 in the Logan.
Of the sugar crop of 1884-85, Mackay district produced
11,255 tons; Brisbane district, 813 ; and Maryborough
district, 1,430. The total, 32,010 tons, were off 29,952
acres, the amount ready for crushing, out of 57,687
acres in cane. Mackay averaged lg ton ; Maryborough,
1}; Logan, 131; ; and Brisbane, 1% in 1877.
The average yield was greater in the north, reaching
up to 5,000 gallons, or 2% tons per acre. As much as
30 tons has been raised on 10 acres of rich soil. Ging-
ham cane has yielded 3% per acre, when of superior
density. Other favourite sorts are the Bourbon, Black-
Java, Ribbon, and Yellow. Many varieties are grown
there. The produce of 1884 was 32,010 tons.
There were eight distilleries last year in Queensland.
In the year 1884 the rum produced was 133,768 gallons,
in spite of much illicit trade unrecognised by the autho-
rities. In 1868, the quantity was but 35,599. There
were 170 sugar-crushing mills in 1884, 10 in 1868. The
molasses yield for 1884 was 804,613 gallons. But
while the cane is perfect in one year at Port Mackay,
Cardwell, or Herbert River, it takes nearly twice as
long to mature in the cooler latitude of Brisbane. In
1884-85 Herbert gave 3,030 tons from 2,417 acres.
The Chief Inspector of Distilleries has an encouraging
word to men of limited capital, saying : ‘ The cultivators
of small patches of well-grown cane, kept clean and well
looked after, have received satisfactory returns from the
millsowners.’ Of cane, 40 varieties are grown.
The sorghum and the imphee, or Planter’s Friend, is
well adapted to the Queensland climate. The imphee
is a summer crop entirely. Two crops can be raised to
one of the cane. A ton of imphee yields about 90 lbs.
of sugar and 60 lbs. of molasses. From 10 to 15 tons
per acre can be expected. It is also an advantage that
when the cane is crushed, the imphee is ready to keep
the mill going.
Splendid sugar land has been found on the Johnstonq
Daintree, and other rivers of the far North. This is
only sold by Government in small quantities to restrain
speculation and to facilitate settlement.
But while Southern Queensland is content with white
1‘
QUEEISLAIB.
N. Queens-
land best
for sugar.
Average
yield.
Varieties
of cane.
Distilleries.
Rum and
sugar
produce.
Cane
growers
have a
profit.
Sorghum
and imphee.
For and
against.


274 nmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA mo new ZEALAND;
QUEENSLMID.
coloured
labour.
Moral
objection.
Kingsley’s
ideal tropi-
cal state.
labour, the Northern part looks mainly to coloured men
for work, though the supply is got with diificulty.
Some planters extol Polynesian hands as superior to
all others. It is argued with much force that the
swampy, rich scrubs of river flats in the tropics of
Queensland are, from their sultry climate and confined
air, unfit for Europeans to toil in. Mr. Trollope was
pleased with the Polynesians of Port Mackay. He says:
‘ They who go to Queensland for three years are sent
back to their islands with their hands full, in good
health, and with reports of a life far better than that
which Providence has given them at home.’
On the other hand, missionaries speak of the returned
labourer as being by no means morally improved by
the change. Others condemn the herding of so large a
number of men together without their wives, and dread
the extension of the system as worse than negro slavery
in moral efiects. The lddnapping from the islands is
kept under check by Government regulations, and the
people are certainly well treated in the country.
Sir Charles W. Dilke, speaking of the sugar fields of
the north-east, remarks: ‘ Coloured labour is now almost
exclusively employed, with the usual effect of degrading
field work in the eyes of European settlers, and of forcing
on the country a form of society of the aristocratic type.’
This is a too strongly expressed opinion by a traveller,
not a colonist.
Southern Queensland condemns the system. The
Brisbane ‘Courier,’ of January 241, 1873, writes thus:
‘ Polynesian immigration, with all its attendant wrong-
doing, we hope to see speedily and entirely discontinued.’
Many there exclaim with the poet--
Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey,
Where wealth increases, but where men decay.
That was a fine dream of the noble-hearted Kingsley,
when he says: ‘ The ideal of what a tropical white nation
might be, when properly acclimatised, is, if we will then
let our imagination but soberly work out the details, too
dazzling to be dwelt on long without pain, beside the
fearful contrast which the social state of Europe presents
to it at this moment, and is likely to present for many
years to come.’
But such afuture Queensland hopes to unfold. Already


AGRICULTURE. 275
the agriculturist there is progressing beyond the most
sanguine expectations indulged in a few years ago. It
is of such white sugar growers that a. recent Brisbane
paper wrote: ‘ This class keeps but few buggies; but
nevertheless they put in a good physical appearance,
and mostly have a little ready money at call.’
Who would not wish agricultural success, under such
circumstances, to the hot, but not unhealthy, cotton and
sugar plantations of Queensland ?
The colony is peculiarly rich in forest trees adapted
for house and ship building, or for ornamental furniture,
and large districts like Port Curtis give employment to
woodcutters and sawyers. The species of the useful and
health-giving Encalypti are more numerous there than
in any other part of Australia.
Among the coniferaa are the bnnya-bunya, the Moreton
Bay pine, the cypress pine, and the kauri pine; the first
two are often 200 feet in height. There are also the
hard wooded he, she, forest, river, swamp, and fire
oaks. The cedar family are well represented. The
Flindersia, yellowwood, the native plum, native orange,
native tamarind, native lime, cumquat, satinwood, pit-
tosporum, and capivi are all close grained and beautiful
woods.
The tulipwood is very handsome. The silver-tree is
so called from its silver foliage. The bottle-brush, tea-
tree, black butt, ironbark, apple-tree, yellow box, red
mahogany, bloodwood, and turpentine are both hard and
durable. The white, blue, red, grey, and spotted gums
are all valuable. Stringy bark is useful for boards;
bloody bark for red gum; mountain ash for gunstocks;
silky oak for staves; mangrove for ship-knees; myall
for pipes; wattle for tan bark; coachwood for coach
manufacture.
The beefwood, Queensland nut, acacia, sandalwood,
ironwood, crabtree, daphnandra, ebony, and tulipwood.
take a high polish. The dogwood gives out an offensive
odour when burning, and one of the acacias yields the
odour of violets. A huge native fig throws up wall-like
abutrnents at the root. The Moreton Bay fig drops roots
to the ground from its branches. The Moreton Bay pine
is the king of Queensland trees for size, use, and beauty.
Mr. Walter Hill, the Government Botanist, recently
QUEEISLIND.
\Vhite
sugar
growers.
Timber
trees.
Use and
beauty.
'r 2


lmuse. 277
But the most important auriferous display is in the
north. Ravenswood, opened in 1869, is a field of 550
square miles ; the township is 100 miles south of Towns-
ville Port. The reefs have paid splendidly. Even the
tailings, thrown aside as useless, have been recently
determined by an assay at the School of Mines, J ermyn
Street, London, to contain from 2 ounces to 18 ounces
of gold, and 1 ounce to 5 ounces of silver, to the ton.
The iron pyrites have been the difliculty. Mt. Morgan,
near Rockhampton, the product of geyser action, is full
of old in a fine state.
imong the other northern mines are the Palmer, Coen,
Etheridge, and Hodgkinson of York Peninsula, the
Cloncurry, &c., S.W. of the Gulf, the Gilbert and Nor-
manby, S.E. of the Gulf, the Charters Towers, west of
the Burdekin River, the Star, west of Townsville, and
the Cape River field. The Central mines are near
Rockhampton. The southern ones are at Gympie and
near Warwick. The Woolgar rush is by the Flinders.
The escort returns in 1877 from Charters Towers
were 87,200 oz. ; Palmer River, 52,077 oz.; Gympie,
44,527 oz.; Hodgkinson, 32,004 oz.; Ravenswood, 12,962
oz. The total yield was 353,266 oz., besides What the
Chinese carried home. The produce from 89,494 tons
of gold quartz was 169,387 oz., or 1 oz. 17 dwts. 20 grs.
per ton. In 1884, the northern mines, with Charters
Towers, gave 166,295 oz. ; central, near Rockhampton,
28,860; southern, with Gympie, 307,804 oz. One mine,
‘ Day Dawn,’ had 30,130. Of 307,804 oz., only 26,175
came from alluvial ground; the rest from quartz. Of
5,453 miners, 1,225 were Chinese, who worked the
alluvial, while the Europeans were upon the quartz
reefs. In 1884, the gold export was 9225,8831.
The Peak Downs mine has yielded a million pounds’
worth of metal. The dividends in five years were 215,2-501.
Mount Perry, of the Burnett district, is a more southern
centre of copper-working. Kroombit is also rich in ores.
Nebo, Mt. Flora, Mt. Orange, West Moreton, and Tre-
verton Creek are hopeful places. Virgin copper and
malachite are got from Cloncurry Australian mine, as
well as from Rannes on the Upper Dawson. Cress-
brook, 40 miles from Ipswich, Rawbelle, Edina, Bool-
boonda, Drummond, Harpur, Clara, and Normanby are
QUEEISLIIII.
Ravens-
Wood, 1869.
Northern
diggings.
Gold yield
for 1884.
Copper
mines.
Copper ore
localities.


278 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
QUEENSLAND
Peak mine
lodes.
Copper
prospec-
tors.
Tin-
streaming
localities.
Tin yield.
Geolo of
the till?’
Iron ores.
hopeful localities. The copper export for 1884 was
but 3,0141. The low prices have restricted production.
Keelbottom copper of Dotswood is very rich.
It is singular that in the Peak copper mine the lodes
are east and west instead of north and west, with no
branches or parallel lodes, and in conformity with the
strata of the micaceous clay slate.
A good counsel is given by Mr. Daintree to copper
prospectors. ‘ Distrust,’ says he, ‘ carbonate surface ores
coating hard crystalline rock, or spangles of metallic
copper disseminated through it. Such may possibly be
workable as copper-bearing rock, but such are not lodes.
Trust rather “ gossan” ores on the surface, associated
with quartz or regular load gangue.’
The new tin exports for 1872 amounted to the sum
of 109,8161. The export for 1884 was 228,-11571.
Stanthorpe, rightly named, is the centre of the south-
ern stanniferous field by the Severn River. The area
is called 550 square miles, and the country is granitic.
The metal is also found at the head of the Burdekin
and other more northern rivers. Stanthorpe, Quart Pot
Creek, 36 miles from Warwick of the Darling Downs,
was the first favourite locality for stream-tin. Sugar-
loaf Creek, Four Mile Creek, Kettle Swamp, Pike's
Creek, Broad Sound, and Folkstone have tin workings.
In July 1872—only a few months after discovery—
850 selections of tin ground had been made, having a
population of 1,500. The yield during 1873 averaged
about 150 tons of ore weekly. It takes more trouble to
refine than the Cornish tin, and, therefore, fetches a
lower rate in the market. Smelting works are estab-
lished at Stanthorpe. The lodes are like Cornish ones.
_ The Herberton tin district, in the tropics, is a won-
derful collection of tin lodes in granite mountains 3,000
feet high, a healthy and cool retreat for miners. So
great has been the result that Queensland is now called
the Cornwall of Australia. Tin is worked at Tinaroo,
the Walsh, the Wild, the Tate, &c. Six companies
washed, in 1884, 11,031, for 1,902 tons of tin, worth
68,4741.
Iron ore is common enough, from the southern
boundary up to lat. 12°. The Logan, the Burrum, the
Burnett, the Styx of Broad Sound, and all coal lo-
calities, are rich in iron; but chrome iron ore wi"


MINING. 279
be the earliest worked. Of a lode near Ipswich, Mr.
Daintree remarks : ‘ This is said to be one of the largest
deposits of chrome iron ore known in the world.’ The
same is found also in the Rockhampton district. Brown
hematite abounds at Toowoomba and Bandamba Creek,
red hematite at Pine Mountain of West Moreton, specular
at the Gilbert, and micaceous iron ore at the Cloncurry.
Carpentaria red oxide showed 65 per cent. of iron.
Among the Queensland formations rich in iron are the
Desert Sandstone, the igneous, cretaceous, oolitic,
mesozoic, carboniferous, and Silurian. Rich ferruginous
clays, probably once volcanic matter, are seen in the
basaltic Darling Downs district. All sorts of iron ore
are detected in the gold fields. In the Southern coal
field iron is abundant, and limestone is near it. The
chrome of Brisbane River is in huge boulders over a large
area. A similar deposit is known northward, toward
Broad Sound. Micaceous iron is very common. The
Northern coal district of the Dawson River has a fine
bed of ironstone resting on clay over carboniferous
sandstone. A part tertiary deposit of valuable ore has
been lately discovered near C. York. The Mt. Hedlow
blocks realised as much as 89 per cent. in the analysis.
Mercury, in the state of cinnabar, occurs at the head
of the Mary, on the Clarke, and at Kilkivan and Gympie.
It is not yet worked. Antimony is got at St. John’s
Creek, the Burnett, and at Neardie. Manganese, with
nickel and cobalt, are known near Gladstone ; and
bismuth is brought down from the Cloncurry. The
silver of Ravenswood, Minto, Western Creek, and the
Gilbert produced 24,7561. in 1884.
Precious stones—as diamonds, sapphires, etc.——are
gathered while streaming for tin; and are seen also in
the Burnett and Rockhampton districts. Agate Greek
is near the Gilbert. Rich opals in situ are to be dug
out of the sandstone and limestone of _the western in-
terior; but chiefly near the Barcoo, at Listowell,
where the rock is changed by contact with basalt. Opal
was first obtained from the shale at the head of the
Bulla Creek, Barcoo River, in 1870.
Queensland has immense stores of the best coal wait-
ing for the miner. North beds are older than the south.
The Aberdare mine is worked to a profit. It is five
miles from Ipswich, with a seam of 5 ft. An analysis
QUEENSLl.N'J-
Iron.
Mercury,
antimony,
bismuth,
galena.
Precious
stones.
Barcoo
opals.
Coal mines
of Queens-
land.


280 mnnsoox TO msrrumu AND NEW zmnsno.
QUEEISLIID.
Coal in the
future.
Mining
re< 1 '
_ gu 8.-
hulls.
Gold leases.
Leases for
oth
er
minerals
than gold.
gives carbon 59'69 ; hydrogen, 4-29 ; oxygen and
nitrogen, 9'64; sulphur, 0'22; ash, 2425; water, 1'91.
The Tivoli mine, near the Aberdare, has 79'Ol of
carbon, 6'56 of oxygen and nitrogen, 5‘19 of hydrogen,
and only 7‘73 of ash. Its seam is 3 it. The Allora of
Darling Downs has 69'31 of carbon, 6'08 of hydrogen,
11'51 of oxygen and nitrogen, 0'31 of sulphur, 8'87 of
ash, and 3'92 of water. Cannel is on the McIntyre.
The Flagstone Creek mine, near Toowoomba of the
Downs, is,also worked. The Bingera mine of Burnett
and the cannel coal of Gatton promise well. With
readiness of access much will be soon available for
export. The Mackenzie and Bowen have fine beds.
Coal is seen southward, westward, eastward, and
northward. York Peninsula contains it by the En-
deavour river. The Bowen field, lat. 20°, has true coal ;
and so has Burrnm, with a rail to Maryborough foun-
dries. Some southern seams are secondary in age, of
excellent quality. The coke is much admired. The
carboniferous area of Queensland is twice the size of all
England.
Gold prospectors are encouraged by the promise of
having an extended claim given them on any new field.
The Gold Commission of the district settles questions
of disputes about claims. Each miner has 30 ft. front-
age to the bed of a stream; but, for dry diggiugs, one
person has 40 ft. by 40 ft.; two men have 40 by 80;
three, 50 by 80; and four, 60 by 80. In wet alluvial
claims two have 50 ft. by 100 ft. ; three, 75 by 80 ; and
four, 100 by 100. Chinese pay much more than Europeans.
An ordinary quartz claim is 40 ft. on the line of reef ;
but 600 ft. may be had, and 750 in width.
Leases may be held for eight acres of alluvial ground,
500 yards of river bed, or 400 yards by 100 on a reef.
The term is for five years. The annual rent is 51. an
acre, or 100 yards of river bed, or 100 of reef. But
leases of 25 acres at ll. an acre rent, are to be had for
21 years. A business license is 41. a year. A miner’s
right, which all workers must possess, costs 10s. for the
year. Rights are now to be had for ten years.
The Mineral Act of 1872 applies to the land worked
for any other mineral but gold.
Land may be bought in blocks of from 20 to 320 acres.


TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. A 281
A deposit of 5s. an acre is made, and the balance of 25s.
an acre has to be paid within a year. A frontage of
not more than five chains to a creek is allowed upon a
20 acre purchase.
Leases and licenses of mineral lands are granted.
The annual rental is 5s. an acre. The claim may be for
20 to 320 acres, and the term 99 years. Such leases are
transferable upon payment of a fee. Miners may rent
40 acres for farming on Gold Fields at a shilling per acre.
Licenses are granted annually for working mineral
Crown land. Each miner so employed pays 10s. a year.
See, further, page 287, for mineral leases.
Trade and Manufactures.
When known as Moreton Bay, the trade was very
limited, and almost confined to wool. The first steamer
on the Bay was the ‘ James Watt,’ in 1837. Butin 1865
the trade of the Colony was as great as of the whole
American colonies after a hundred years’ existence. The
inward tonnage for 1884 was 1,84-4,384.7.
The exports of Queensland for the year 18841 were
4,673,864l., and the imports were 6,381,976l. The
following may be quoted to show the character of the
trade :—

Countries Imports from Exports to
£ £
United Kingdom . . . 2,520,863 1,715,391
New South Wales . . 2,677,623 2,194,314
Victoria . . . - 233,747 132,809
South Australia . . 202,793 9,083
Tasmania . . . 20,157 20
New Zealand . - . 53,807 28,667
Germany . . . 519 —
China . , . . 62,100 —
East Indies . . . . 13,700 7

United States , . 126,745 7
Hong Kong . . . 112,670 86,772 _
Total seawards . . 6,045,026 4,180,184
Borderwise . . . — -
Live stock (overland) . 336,950 493,680

Total . . 6,381,976 4,673,864


QIIEE ISLIII
TRADE
Increase
of trade.
Exports
and im-
ports.


282 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
QUEENSLAND.
Import
value.
Expoi t
value.
Opening
trade.
Pearl
fishery.
Tarifi‘.
Among the imports we find 479,4351. for drapery, etc.~;
3744,7801. for flour; 2233,5441. for spirits; 1 38,3181. for tea;
143,0081. forboots and shoes; 130,9151. for beer; 260,0841.
for hardware; 325,933l. for iron; 15,4891. for sugar;
175,9021. for apparel; tobacco, 78,1231.
In the exports wool occupies the first place, realising
1,889,5041. ; gold then stood at 923,8831.; cattle,
60,2271.; tallow, 76,0191; shells, 94,0211; preserved
meats, 57,2741; hides, 109,2911.; sugar, 454,9951.; timber,
12,1991.; tin, 228,4771. The imports for 1884 were
211. 7s. 4d. per head; the exports were 151. 12s. 1101.;
those for England being not a. fourth part of that rate.
Trade is opening up with the Asiatic and South Sea
Islands. The pearl fishery in 1878 brought 112,3201.
The Tamf, in 1885, comprehended the following :—
Per gallon: brandy, 12s.; spirits, 12s. ; methylated
spirits, 5s.; wine, over 25 per cent. 10s.; not over, 6s.; sar-
saparilla, 4s. ; beer in wood, 901. ; in 6 qts. or 12 pts., ls. ;
oils, 601.; turpentine, 641. Per 1b.: tobacco and snuff,
2s. 6:1; cigars, 5s. ; opium, 20s.; tea and roasted
coffee, 641.; raw coffee, chicory, cocoa, chocolate, 401.;
corn-flour, rice, arrowroot, jams, sago, starch, powder,
and twine, 1d. ; biscuits, butter, candles, confectionery,
dried fruits, ginger, spices, pepper, mustard, glue,
honey, cheese, bacon, hams, hops, and leather, 2d.
Per cwt.: sugar, refined, 6s. 801.; raw, 5s.; molasses,
3s. 401.; soap and dried fish, 5s.; cordage and salt-
petre, 4s. ; paints, shot, galvanised iron, iron wire,
nails, iron castings, and lead (white and red), 2s.
Per ton: oatmeal and maizemeal, 40s.; potatoes, hay,
and onions, 10s.; coals, 1s._6a1. Per doz. 1bs.: bottled
fruits and mustard, castor and salad oils, pickles, sauces,
jams, ls. ; preserved meat and fish, 2s. Per bushel:
wheat, barley, maize, oats, and malt, 601. ;-bran, 2d. Per
barrel: cement, 2s. Iron tanks, 8s. ;' doors and sashes,
2s. 6d. The excise on spirits is a duty of two-thirds.
All other articles pay an ad valorem duty of 5 per
cent., except the following:—-Unmanufactured metals,
anchors, machinery, printed books and newspapers, live
animals, manure, seeds, flour, salt, specimens of natural
history, passengers’ baggage, and naval and military
stores. There is now no gold duty. Stamp duties
are levied. There has been a decrease of ad valorem


LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 283
duties; in October, 1874, the rate was reduced from 10
to 5 per cent.
The six banks, Dec. 31, 1884. had assets 11,155,4231.,
and liabilities 7,662,542l. The Savings Bank in January
1885 had 1,163,973l., in 28,818 deposits.
The postal work is not a trifling one over so enormous
an area as nearly a dozen times that of England. One
telegraph line, from Brisbane to Normauton of the Gulf
of Carpentaria, is 1,425 miles long. In 1885 there were
nearly 8,000 miles of line.
The railways, though constructed with great economy,
are costly enough in the hilly districts, where the chief
population reside. Nearly 1,300 miles are open. The one
from Brisbane westward is 500 miles long; and others
from Brisbane are southward. From Rockhampton to
the westward is 300 ; and Townsville west, 180. From
Maryborough are 150 miles rail. All are narrow gauge.
MANUFACTURES are being now fostered by State bonuses.
The first to erect a cotton factory costing 3,0001. is to
have a bonus of 1,5001. ; while 1,0001. is given for the
founder of a woollen manufactory. A bonus of 301.
a ton is offered for the manufacture of the first 100 tons
of iron. In 1884 there were 955 different works.
But boiling-down and meat-curing establishments,
tanneries, sugar mills, arrowroot manufactories, agri-
cultural implement works, etc., mark the progress in
useful industries, for the encouragement of which land
is readily granted by the Legislature. Woods are being
utilised; and no colony has finer timber. The Side, or
Queensland hemp, at present a noxious weed, promises
to be a valuable manufactured export. A good fibre
plant, the Sesbania, abounds in the Western Interior.
At the Paris Exhibition these fibres were admired.
The colony, however, is too busy raising raw produce
to have much time and capital to spare for manufactures.
Land Laws and Immigration.
Land regulations form the most important subject to
intending emigrants. Queensland having nearly seven
times the area of either Victoria or New Zealand, with
so much less population than these, can offer the most
favourable land terms of all the colonies.
QIIEEISLIID
Banks.
Post
telegrap h .
Railways.
Manufac-
tures.
Raw pro-
duce at
present.
Lama
Laws.
L and
offers.


284 mrmnoox TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmnmn.
QIIEEISLIIB.
Little sold
of old.
Pre-emp-
tion.
Squatting
mania.
Free selec-
tion
adopted.
Female
land.
Liberal
Land Act
of 1868.
Three
classes of
land.
Payment
in 10 years.
7,680 acres
for 1921.
Plenty of
good land
to be had.
From the date of the first settlement, in 1823, up to
1853 very little land was sold, or even leased. In the
few straggling towns, allotments were to be had; but
country blocks were rarely offered for sale by the Sydney
Government. Pastoral lords of the wastes occupied the
Darling Downs, and but little more.
The law of 1846 gave squatters a pre-emption of 640
acres upon every 16,000 leased from the Crown. When,
after the proclamation of Queensland in 1859, a mania
for runs was begotten, immense acreages were taken up
by speculators, on a sort of rule of thumb measure, with
a view of selling their right of pasturage to moneyed new
comers. The bursting of this bubble involved the ruin
of many, caught by the promoters, but led to more honest
and satisfactory settlement upon the land.
The right of ‘free selection,’ introduced in 1860 by
New South Wales, became the practice in the newer
colony. Between free selectors and squatters no amicable
feeling has existed. It was a liberal act, however, to allow
women the right of selecting land.
The Queensland Parliament advanced in the freedom of
their land regulations. The 1866 Leasing Act was sup-
planted by the Land Act of 1868, of which the fol-
lowing were the chief features :—
A selection of agricultural land could be bought for
15s. an acre ; first-class pastoral at 10s. ; second-class
pastoral at 5s. The payment was distributed over ten
years, at ls. 6d., 1.9., and 6d. per acre respectively an-
nually. The agricultural land must be in blocks of from
40 to 640 acres; the first-class pastoral from 80 to 2,560;
the second-class pastoral from 80 to 7,680.
Thus a farm of 640 acres involved a yearly rental of
481. for ten years, when the land became a freehold. In
like manner, a station of 2,560 acres of first-class pastoral
land could be bought in ten payments of 1281. each; and
7,680 acres of a more moderate character at 1921.
Such lands were to be situated in the settled districts
around the coast ; above the half of 50,000,000 acres
of this best part of the colony are still open for selec-
tion. By application at a Government land agency, par-
ticulars as to available blocks can be procured. In 1878,
there were 2,772,014 acres freehold, and 2,601,946 lease-
hold. Of 105,449 in cultivation, 71,020 were freehold.


LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 285
Certain conditions have to be fulfilled before the deeds
are granted by the Crown. There must be residence by
person or by bailiff. Permission is given to pay the
balance of purchase at the end of three years, if there
have been residence for two years, and the fencing of the
ground or the expenditure of 10s. an acre in improve.
ments. The sanction of the Land Oflice is required for
any transfer of the lease. During the term of the ten
years’ lease, miners are permitted to dig for and remove
metals on the land.
The conditional purchaser of pastoral land must like.
wise prove that he has improved the property during
the three years, at the rate of 10s. an acre for first-class
land, and 5s. for the second; or that he has put a sub-
stantial fence around the whole of his selection. Such
selectors, however, cannot run more than twenty head
of cattle or fifty sheep for every hundred acres while the
land is unfenced. This is necessary for the protection
of the squatter. By the law, one-half of a run in the
settled districts is liable to be resumed ; and conditional
purchasers have the privilege, being provided with a
licensefor the purpose, of running stock over that half area.
Sugar and oojfee leases are granted on very easy terms.
The block of agricultural class land may be from 320 to
1,280 acres, within ten miles from the coast or a navi-
gable river. The purchase will be at the rate previously
mentioned—-10. 6d. per acre as an annual rent for ten
years. If, however, one-tenth of the land be in sugar
or coffee cultivation within three years, the lessee is
relieved from the necessity of residence. On the wonder-
ful new sugar lands in York Peninsula, no one can have
more than 640 acres, as the Government seeks to promote
cultivation rather than speculation. Rent 2s. 6d. an acre.
In ordinary Government land sales by auction, the
upset price of town lots is 81. per acre; suburban, 15s.
and 20s.; agricultural, 15s.; first-class pastoral, 10s.;
second-class, 5s. One-fifth of the purchase-money is
demanded at the sale, and the balance within a month.
The Homestead Areas Act of 1872 is the great boon to
immigrants. Mr. Daintree’s oflicial work thus describes
it :—-
‘Proclaimed homestead areas are open to selection.
The limit of the block is 120 acres of agricultural land,
or 320 of pastoral and agricultural together.
QllEE||S|.lID¢
Conditional
purchase-
conditions
and rights.
Sugar and
coffee
leases.
Sales of
laud.
Homestead
8.l‘€BS B
great boon-


286 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
QIIEEISLIID.
Home-
steads.
160 acres
for 20l.
Not liable
for debts.
Land Act
1876,
How to get
a run.
Rental of a
run.
pl
‘ If the selection be but 80 acres of agricultural, or
160 of pastoral, the annual rental is 9d. an acre for the
first, and 6d. for the second, during the term of five
years. But for all land above those respective areas
the rent is ls. 6d. per acre for agricultural, and 9d. for
pastoral, for ten years. The additional acreage selected
must bear the proportion of one acre of agricultural to
tw‘0Aafti:rS £1i)tii?ii)d:t fietslideiiatalgefiiiotggve years upon a
selection not exceeding 80 acres agricultural, or 160
pastoral, and having enclosed the same with a substan-
tial fence, or having cultivated one-tenth of the land,
the lessee may obtain a Crown grant.’
The 80 acres of land, m fact, cost altogether but 151. ;
while the 160 acre farm costs only 201. for the freehold.
If the lessee die before com letin his urchase, his
widow or hei.r will enjoy the gightsg. Sugh a farm is
indeed a settler’s castle, since the law afiirms that
‘homestead areas are in no case liable to the satisfac-
tion of any debt incurred before the issue of the Crown
grant.’ Should any pecuniary trouble come, the family
retains the home.
The Land Act of 1876 allows 80 acres within the
Homestead area, or 160 without it, at five annual pay-
ments of sixpence an acre only, if there be no compe-
tition for the lot; the 80 acres ma cost onl l0l. But
each acre must be substantially iyrrnproved §l0s. by the
lessee. Above 30,000,000 acres were then thrown open
for ‘selection in the settled districts. This amount will
be increased as squatters’ leases fall in.
The Pastoral Leases Act of 1869 concerns squatters.
The applicant for a run obtains an occupation license
for a year, to enable him to stock with notlless ioghan one-
fourth the limit assumed er s uare mi e. uns are
from 25 to 100 square mile}; eaclil. If competed for, the
upset is 5s. rent per square mile.
At the expiration of the occupation license a lease is
obtained for 21 years. The rental for the year’sflicense
is 5s. er s uare mile. That for the lease is 5s. or the
first srdvenqyears; 10s. for the second seven; and 15s.
for the third. But an appraisement of the rent may be
made during the seventh or fourteenth year, at the op-
tion of the Government or the lessee. But 111 no case
can the rent be less than 7s. nor more than 15s. during


mun LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 287
the second term of seven years; neither can it be less
than 12.9. nor more than 25s. for the remaining seven.
All runs are supposed to carry 100 sheep or 20 head
of cattle per square mile. The stock must be kept up
to this average during the lease, and one-fourth that
rate during a license. Runs may be subdivided or con-
solidated, according to Government regulations.
Unwa-tered runs, or those five miles from permanent
water, are had on annual licenses, at only 3.9. per sq. m.
Leases are transferable, with the sanction of the antho-
rities. Lessees are allowed to purchase, without com-
petition, a block of 2,560 acres of their land, at 10s. an
acre. If part or the whole of a run be resumed by
the State, adequate compensation for improvements is
awarded, according to arbitration.
The ltfineral Lands Act of 1872 provides for the work-
ing of any mineral but gold. The selections are from
20 to 320 acres, and the payment is 30s. per acre: 50.
must be paid down, and the balance within a year. No
grant is given unless ll. per acre has been expended
within two years. Leases of such are at 5s. annual
rental; but no mineral lode claim can be more than
3 chains by 5, or alluvial more than 4 by 4.
By Act 1884 agricultural farms of from 320 to 1,280
acres can be selected on lease for fifty years, at rentals
changed at certain periods, but subject to improvements
and residence, with right of transfer, and liberty of
purchase at the end of ten years. Grazing farms of
from 2,500 to 20,000 acres are leased for thirty years,
subject to improvements and residence. Annual occu-
pation licenses are for pastoral land. Further advan-
tages are offered to those taking up smaller areas.
Tieases for auriferous lands are granted for five years,
with 8 acres of alluvial ground, 500 yards of a river bed,
or 400 yards by 100 on a line of reef. The rent is 51.
an acre; 5l. per 100 yards of river bed; and 5Z. per 100
yards of a quartz reef. Special leases of not more than
20 acres are granted at an annual rental, or at a certain
royalty upon the gold obtained from the land.
IMMIGRATION has engaged the serious attention of the
Queensland Legislature.
In 1861, 402 immigrants arrived there; in 1862, 5,559 ;
in 1863, 9,039; in 1864, 4,040; in 1865, 9,494; in 1866,
7,385. A falling ofi' appeared after the wild speculation of
QUEEIISLIIID.
Pastoral ra-
gulations.
Unwatered
runs.
Working
other
minerals
than gold.
Land law,
1884.
Leases of
auriferous
lands.
Immigra-
tion.
Number oi
inimi-
grants.


288 HANDBOOK mo AUSTRALIA AND saw zmnmn.
QUEEISLAIID.
Emigra-
tion regula-
tions.
previous years. In 1867, 1,075 arrived; in 1868, 453;
in 1869, 1,909; in 1884, 12,775, 7,542 being females.
As to nationality, 7,039 were English, 1,334 Scotch,
3,473 Irish, and 929 Germans. In 1878 there were
5,139 males, 3,392 females; but in 1885 about 12,000.
The Ofiicial Emigration Regulations for 1885 relate
to Free, Assisted, and Indented passengers.
‘Free Passages are granted to domestic servants
and single farm labourers, from 17 to 35 years of
age. (Daughters of assisted families, if domestic ser-
vants, are also eligible for free passages.) Married
farm labourers, when taken, must be under 45 years,
and have not more than three children under 12.’ As
so many are nominated, single men requiring a free
passage must make special application to the office.
‘Assisted Passages are given to farmers, labourers,
railway carriage builders, blacksmiths, bricklayers,
sawyers, carpenters, wheelwrights, farm labourers, gar-
deners, vine dressers, road makers, miners, quarrymen,
navvies, and others. The steamers of the Queensland
Royal Mail Line sail from London every fourteen days,
and from Glasgow periodically, carrying free, assisted,
and full-paying passengers. Cost to approved assisted
passengers, third class, 7l.; second cabin 211. 10s.’
Employers in Queensland may engage labourers in
Europe, subject to the approval of the Agent-General.
Large numbers of Swedes and Danes are thus being
introduced. These indented persons are thus paid for :
males between 15 and 45 years, 21. each; females, 1l.;
under 12, 1l.; above 45, full rates. Queensland colonists
can nominate some for assisted passages, upon these
terms: under 12 years, ll. ; 12 to 40, males 21., females
ll. ; 40 to 55, 41.; above 55, full passage rate.
‘The voyage is an agreeable and a safe one now.
The rate of passage for cabin passengers is from 40l. to
501. in sailing vessels, and 501. to 601. in steamers.
Second cabin passages run from 201. to 351. Steerage,
from 13l. to l7l.’
Free passengers must pay ll. per adult for their kit.
Persons going in ships sailing under the direction of
the Queensland Government are found in good provi-
sions and skilful medical attendance during the voyage,
emirely free of cost.


mums TO umemurs PROCEEDING ro QUEENSLAND. 289
Further particulars obtained at the oflice of the Agent-
General, 1 Westminster Chambers, London, S.W.
As to Wages, the Ofiicial Blue Book for 1884 gives
the following for the rates the previous year :—
Tailors, 105. per diem; masons, 10s.; plasterers, 10s.;
bricklayers, 11s. ; carpenters, 10s. to 11s.; painters, 10s.;
blacksmiths, 11s.; wheelwrights, 10s. without rations.
Farm labourers, ploughmen, reapers, mowers, and thresh-
ers, 401. to 501. per annum, with board and lodging;
shepherds, 401. to 501. ; stock keepers, 401. to 601. ; hut
keepers, 301. to 401.; generally useful men on stations,
351. to 401.; sheep washers, 5s. to 7s. per diem; shearers,
15.9. to 25s. per 100 sheep sheared, with rations ;
married couples without family, 601. to 651.; married
couples with family, 501. to 521.; men cooks for hotels,
501. to 601.; grooms, 501. to 521.; gardeners, 501. to 521.;
female cooks, 301. to 401. ; laundresses, 301. to 501. ;
general servants, 201. to 351. ; housemaids, 201. to 301.;
nursemaids, 181. to 251. ; farmhouse servants, 261. to 351. ;
dairywomen, 261. to 351., with rations ; quarrymen, about
10s. per diem; general labourers, 6s. to 70. 6d., with-
out rations; seamen, 41. to 61. per month, with rations.
Hints to Emigrants proceeding to Queensland.
There are fewer luxuries and refinements in this
colony, but there is elbow room for a man willing to
work hard and endure hardships awhile. By rough-
ing it for a few years, a prudent colonist may calculate
upon that success which will lighten the cares of ad-
vancing age.
Queensland is not the place for all classes of labour.
For some time to come, absorbing attention must be
directed to raw produce and not elaborate manufactures.
Rough hands and not delicate fingers will find employ-
ment. Utilities and not elegancies will be in demand.
But while labour is honourable, no one need fear being
caught at any honest toil there. Crawlers are not
wanted, and will soon discover that they are i.u the way.
No colony presents a finer opening for co-operative
employment. That which certain religious communities
have done so well in America, could be advantageously
attempted by others in Queensland. A company of
U
QUEENSLAND
Agent-
General.
VVages list.
Hm-rs.
Not for all
trades.
Co-opera-
tive parties.


290 mmnsoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
QUEENSLAND.
Communi-
cation.
Climatic
diificulties.
Renewal of
enterprise.
Farming
openings.
Small
farms.
workers, knowing one another, and ready to sacrifice
some self in the undertaking, could take up a fine block
of agricultural or pastoral land, or even lease a mining
piece of ground, and by patient perseverance, with
the exercise of common sense and good feeling, they
might attain to a very respectable position.
Enormous as the area is, the settled parts for farmers
and miners are accessible from one of the many ports
now reached by coasting steamers. A good opening
exists for those who will aid in promoting inland com-
munication, as the people are essentially migratory.
The climate may not suit some constitutions, although
there are lowlands and highlands from which to select
a residence, and a territory a thousand miles long to
camp in. Ague and intermittent fever, those common
foes of the American prairies, are sometimes found in
parts of Queensland, and must be met with doses of
quinine. The new comer will be, perhaps, troubled
awhile by flies and mosquitoes; though the latter, says
Mr. Trollope, are nothing so virulent as the American
ones. Diarrhoea in the summer need not be helped by
imprudent drinking, but relieved by careful diet.
The man who fears to make a home in a distant
land, because of the endurance of evils he did not ex-
perience in his own country, had better not venture from
his quiet village, where he will suffer some evils not
known in the colony, without tasting the blessings there
in store for the courageous.
Queensland has land for the landless, and on easy
terms. At present it is far below other colonies in
agriculture, growing a small proportion of the wheat
per head which South Australia grows. But, then,
as people are crowding in, the corn farmer has a
good chance where there are heavy importations of
flour. '
It is fortunate that the diggings, now drawing off so
much population, have generally decent land in their
neighbourhood, with a capital market for the cultivator.
While Chinese make fortunes raising cabbages, English
spades ought to do well. Afamily of boys and girls
upon a farm, not too ambitiously large, cannot fail to
build up a comfortable future. Many persons hamper
themselves by undertaking too much for the strength


umrs ro smenmrs PROCEEDING 1-o QUEENSLAND. 291
of their pocket at first. A few good acres well tilled
give less care and more relative profit than an unmanage-
able farm. As a mining community is a. very uncertain
one to rely upon for any great length of time, a selection
easily worked and easily relinquished, if necessary, is
worth consideration.
But, for permanency of farming, a locality had better
be sought among the hills for grain, or lower for cotton or
sugar. A brilliant future is certainly before this colony for
tropical and semi-tropical produce. The man of small
means should be content to increase his capital as he
goes carefully forward, and the real capitalist ought to
watch and wait a little before venturing far.
A sugar plantation, or a well-managed stock farm to
provide squatters with improved breeds, can hardly fail
to return good interest for investment and personal
oversight. The profits of cane-growing, especially in
Northern Queensland, are likely to draw continued
attention. Recent explorations show that the seaboard
north of Cardwell, up into York Peninsula, has splendid
spots for this cultivation.
While sawyers get from 5l. to IOZ. per 1,000 ft. for
native timber, the forest as well as the field has a voice
for labour and capital.
While Victoria, New South Wales, Tasmania, and
New Zealand are being practically closed against the easy
system of squatting, by reason of the demand for farms
in their more limited areas, a growing population so en-
hancing the rentals of Crown lands, Queensland, by its
vast territory, can still hold out great attractions to the
immigrant seeking pastures; though the fleeces are not
so heavy there as in more temperate climes.
The large capitalist can invest his tens or hundreds of
thousands in the purchase or formation of stations, and
may calculate upon satisfactory returns if his business
arrangements are prudently conducted.
It is absurd to quote rates of interest on such a specu-
lation. Much depends upon first cost, selection of run,
character of season, value of labour, ruling selling prices,
and distance from market and depot of supplies. The
striking of an average for a certain number of years is
the only consistent mode of calculation. It is sufficient
to say that, while the richest men of Queensland are
QUEENSLAND-
Where to
settle.
Sugar and
stock
breeding.
Forest
openings.
Best
openings
for
squatting.
v 2


292 nsmmoox ro AUSTRALIA AND new znsmnn.
QUEEIISLIID.
Impru-
dent in-
vestments.
Bush
pleasures.
Station
hands.
Mining
prospects.
Business
openings.
squatters, most of them have endured great vicissitudes,
and a large proportion were originally men of no capital-
The impression that sheep and cattle in Queensland
were a certain fortune to all investors has occasioned
much disappointment and misery. Fathers in Great
Britain sent out inexperienced and often improvident
sons there, who, purchasing stations at absurd rates, and
managing them recklessly and ignorantly, soon got into
the hands of the banks, and lost their all.
To the man of moderate capital, content to plod along
with economy and self-denial for a few years, always re-
serving something in hand for a sudden emergency or
to tide over a bad season or two, and who is determined
to look after his own affairs, a future of substantial
wealth may be pretty safely promised. But he must be
prepared to forego some pleasures and endure some trials.
Still, bush enjoyments are neither few nor slight, in spite
of solitude ; but better with the companionship of a wife,
loyally helping a man to make a bright future for a
family.
On a station, shearers, shepherds, etc., have few claims
upon their wages, which are high. Their weekly rations
are from 10 to 14¢ lbs. of meat, 10 of flour, 2 of sugar,
and J; of tea: few working men in England live so well.
A few years’ savings may purchase and stock a farm.
Mining matters have gone a-head so marvellously in
the colony, that it is no wonder the intending emigrant
has an eye to them. The sanguine expect to equal South
Australia in copper, Cornwall in tin, and Victoria in gold.
Without doubt a good percentage can be realised in the
mines by more opportunities than ordinary town life
presents. The time has come for the known but un-
developed coal mines to be wrought by imported capital.
Labour is well requited in the gold-fields ; ordinary wages
running from 40s. to 60s. per week.
Commerce has quite got under weigh, and the
ports have several lines of coast steamers. All new
comers with modern ideas of business may find a
corner for themselves. The Colony has now got such a
start that all who commence trading there, and are con-
tent to wait, can scarcely fail to secure a good stand.
Manufactures will surely come with increased popula-
tion, though their day is but just dawning. At present


umrs ro EMIGRANTS rnocnnnma TO QUEENSLAND. 293
large foundries exist at Maryborough, &c., where steam
engines and machinery for mines and sugar are made.
The pearl fisheries offer a splendid opening for com-
mercial speculators. One schooner northward netted
8,0001. in a six months’ trip. Australian blacks and
South Sea Islanders are employed as divers. About
one hundred vessels are now engaged in the industry.
Beche-de-mer is another paying product of the same
warm seas off the north and north-east coasts of
Queensland.
Working men must be prepared not to keep to their
own craft always, but turn a hand to anything offering.
No one need fear the voyage. The mortality on board
the Queensland emig-ant ships is but 1'14 ; being much
lower than the death-rate on land in England.
A Brisbane settler, of much colonial experience, wrote
an address to intending emigrants for Queensland. In
that he speaks of the status of a working man thus :—
‘ Your master,’ says he, ‘ may be an intelligent, culti-
vated man, but you notice with surprise that he does not
expect any bowing and scraping. He makes no descent
to meet you, and you make no ascent to meet him. You
are accosted and treated like a man, not as a chattel.’
He adds: ‘One last word. Every one of you, man,
woman, and child, sign the teetotal pledge before you
start from your native village. This simple act, faith-
fully kept to, will remove many difliculties out of your
way, and save you from a thousand snares and pitfalls.’
The recent discovery of rich soil and good grasses,
with some considerable streams, in Western Queensland,
will greatly aid in the development of the colony. The
outlet of this distant district, so promising in wool,
copper, and gold, will be by the new Gulf port, near
Point Parker. Though generally dry and warm, the
climate is remarkably healthy, for the air is pure and
not depressing. The new refrigerating process will be
2-. great boon to meat-exporting Queensland.
QIIEEIISLRIIIL
Counsel to
the work-
ing man.


Z94 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IESTERII
IUSTRALII.

Early
Maps.
Dutch dis-
eoverers.
Black
swans.
Nuyt’a
Land,
1627-
Dampier in
the north-
west, 1688.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
Discovery and History.
IT is highly probable that the north and north-east
parts were known to Europeans not very long after
the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope passage to India.
It was the policy of navigators to keep their discoveries
secret, from jealousy of other nations. Maps nearly 300
years ago indicate ‘South Java,’ ‘ Southern Land,’ or
in other terms, to express what we call North Australia.
The Dutch, undoubtedly, surveyed the coast west of
the Gulf of Carpentaria. De Witt’s Land, to the north,
received its name from the captain of the Vianen, in
1628. Tasman, the discoverer of New Zealand and
Tasmania, visited the north coast of the continent more
than once.
The south-western district was discovered by the
Dutch between 1616 and 1630. Dirk Hartog left his
mark there in 1616. Edel, three years after, followed
down Hartog’s Shark’s Bay country. Houtman suffered
shipwreck, in 1619, on a desolate island off Shark's
Ba .
The Cape Leeuwin, or Lioness, was first seen by the
captain of a vessel so called, in 1622. The river Swan
was named after the black swans, which struck the
curiosity of the Dutch sailors in 1697. The captain of
the vessel then was Captain Vlaming.
A thousand miles of the coast east of Cape Leeuwin
was followed down by the Dutch ‘ Guide Zeepaard,’ or
Good Shepherd, in 1627. This received the appellation
of Nuyt’s Land, from a. distinguished passenger on board
going out to Japan. The bold, perpendicular clifi‘ gave
no opportunity of landing.
The English added their quota to the discovery.
Dampier, the buccaneer, gave his name to land and
islands on the north-west coast. He remained for two


mscovnnr. 295
months in that sterile country, and was annoyed and
surprised at the indjsposition of the natives to do negro
work. He returned in 1696, eight years after his first
visit.
Captain Vancouver was the English discoverer of
King George’s Sound, in 1791. It is said of his seamen,
that their guns and aim were too bad to hit a black
swan. He was followed the next year by the French
Admiral Bruni d’Entrecasteaux, who surveyed the south
Shore of Van Diemen’s Land.
In 1802, Captain Baudin, who professed to have dis-
covered Flinder’s Land of South Australia, made the first
accurate survey of Swan river, and gave names to places
after his two ships, Geographe and Naturalists. Going
further north, he, in like manner, honoured Voltaire, and
other countrymen of reputation. The Frenchman was
followed by his southern rival, Flinders, who named Port
Malcolm and other parts of the south coast.
To Captain King, between 1820—4.~, belongs the credit
of the best surveys of the northern coast. Prince Regent
river, Admiralty Gulf, and Mounts Waterloo and
Trafalgar were portions of his exploration. Captain
Grey, subsequently Governor of South Australia, New
Zealand, etc., came upon some fine country, in 1837,
about Glenelg river of the north shore. He subsequently,
after shipwreck near Shai-k’s Bay, made an overland
journey to Perth, crossing the Murchison and other
streams, but experiencing the usual Australian difiiculty
of want of water.
Further surveys of the northern coast were made by
Captains Wickham and Stokes, of H.M.S. Beagle,
between 1837 and 1843.
Land explorations were conducted by Captain Stirling,
in 1827; he became the first Governor at Swan river.
Captain Bannister first crossed from Swan river to King
George’s Sound, in 1831. Mr. Eyre reached the Sound,
in 1841, by an overland journey from Port Lincoln in
South Australia. He suffered much from thirst.
During that weary march of 1,500 miles he met with
no surface water, and depended for his supply upon
wells he sank in the sea sand, at long intervals. His
description of that heartless coast has been since con-
firmed by others, especially by Mr. Giles in 1875.
IESTERI
IUSTRILII.
Vancouver,
1791.
French (lis-
covery,1T92
and 1802.
Flinders,
1802.
King.
1820-4.
Grey, 1837.
H'.M.S.
Beagle.
Stirling,
1827.
Eyre,
ovei-laud,
1841.


296 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND new ZEALAND.
WESTERN
IUSTRILII.
Roe‘s ex-
plorations.
Salt lakes
and
sterility.
Austin’s
sufferings.
Gregory in
the north.
Gregory
and
M ueller.
Pearl
fishery.
Good land.
Hisronr.
First settle-
ment, 1825.
Private
colony,
1829.
Mr. Peel
the
founder.
Mr. Surgeon Roe from 1836 to 1848 made excursions
northward and eastward from the settlement, but came
only to small patches of gr.-od land in the midst of dread-
ful deserts. He often failed to obtain water in the bed
of so-called rivers. The salt lakes of the granite regions,
north-east of the Sound, were seen in the midst of a
sterile country. The Forrests explored E. from 1870-8.
Mr. Austin penetrated far into the interior, east of the
Murchison, encountering fearful heat and droughts on the
sandstone plateau, and on the granitic wastes. The two
brothers, Mr. A. C. and Mr. F. Gregory, did their best to
reveal a better land, though without success. Mr. F.
Gregory was more fortunate, when he went in 1858
across the country south of the Dampier Archipelago,
discovering the Fortescue and De Grey rivers.
In a later expedition of Mr. A. C. Gregory and Dr.
Von Mueller, Sturt Creek was seen to lose itself in a salt
lake of the desert in the north-east.
Land south of Nickol Bay was afterwards shown to be
available for pasturage, and the coast for pearl fishery.
Col. Warburton recently crossed the desert from central
South Australia to the North-West Coast. Forrest has
since revealed vast tracts of rich soil in the north-east.
The history of the Colony is not an eventful one, except
for difficulties.
As the attempt at French colonisation in New Zealand
was prevented by the energy of the English, so was it in
Western Australia. The report of a contemplated settle-
ment on that coast induced the Governor of New South
Wales, in 1825, to forward a small party of convicts to
King George’s Sound, afterwards abandoned.
But a private colony was established on the banks of
the Swan River four years after. Capt. Freemantle had,
in 1829, taken possession of the country in the name of
the King of England, as Vancouver had that of the
Sound.
It was resolved to establish a Colony there. Large
grants of land were made to a Mr. Peel and others, on
the condition of forwarding thither a certain number of
free emigrants. Capt. Stirling, appointed Governor,
was, like the rest, dependent for an income upon large
grants. If able to induce men of some capital to come out
and purchase land, the original proprietors would do well.


GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 297
Many entered sanguine-ly into the speculation, and
1,300 were landed by the end of 1829. So long as
weather was fair, and cash lasted, the immigrants enjoyed
life in their tents. But when the stormy rains came,
distress appeared. Colonial vessels from Hobart Town
and Sydney sold then flour at 1001. a ton to the nearly
starved out inhabitants.
To add to their misfortunes, the land proved not to be
the paradise held forth. The soil was sandy, and the
grass was poor. Those who had means to pay their pas-
sage fled to Van Diemen’s Land and other settlements.
The rest endured many hardships for a number of years.
The private Colony, of course, became by the failure of
the original company a Crown one.
At length, in 1848, the settlers resolved to forsake the
country unless the British Government came to the
rescue. As the eastern colonies were freed from con-
victism, the men of Perth asked for the transportation
system rejected by others. Their petition was granted,
and the convicts were sent the next year, and till 1868.
The result has been, in a. material sense, of great ad-
vantage. A very large amount of money was put in
circulation, and Western Australia was proved to be a
better country than it was ever thought before to be.
Mines in Victoria District, north of Perth, have
turned out very rich in lead and silver. The timber
trees, equal to any in the world for shipbuilding, opened
up a trade. Pearl fishery was successful on the coast.
The pasturage turned out better elsewhere. New country
brought new hopes for a future. The Colony, if not
equal in variety of resources to New South Wales, or
abounding in such tokens of civilisation as Victoria, can
become a healthy and prosperous home to many.
Geography and Climate.
Western Australia occupies one-third of the continent,
or 978,300 square miles, being nearly a dozen times as
large as Great Britain. It is about 1,500 miles long.
Bounded on the north, west, and south by the sea, it
has the meridian of 129° E. as the eastern limit on the
side of South Australia Part of its shore is 300 miles
from Timer, and 800 miles from Java.
WESTERI
MISTRILII.
Failure of
specula-
tion.
Flour 1001.
a ton.
Poor
farming
land.
Crown
colony.
Petition
for convict
labour.
Effect of
transporta-
tion.
Colony
risen in
repute.
Metals,
timber, and
pearls.
Gaoomv
rur.
Area
978,300
square
miles.
Boundaries.


298 munnoou T0 AUSTRALIA AND new znsmun.
WESTERII
IUSTMLII.
Swan

River set-
tlement.
Districts.
Mountains.
Rivers.
Though the coast line has been known more or less for
250 years, very little of the interior has ever been ex-
plored. Our information is almost limited to one-
twentieth of its area, toward the south-west extremity,
in what is called Swan River Settlement. What is be-
yond eastward can hardly be conjectured, unless it be a
desert with some salt lakes. On the north-west side,
except a fringe of fair land for 30 miles, it is poor; but
great tracts of rich black soil are known north-east.
The lands discovered by Arnhem, De Witt, Ede],
Dampier, and Tasman are on the Indian Ocean coast to
the north. Nuyt’s Land is only the southern shore to
South Australia. Kimberley, north-east, is the most
hopeful district. Victoria District is in the neighbour-
hood of Champion Bay, to the south-west.
Mountains.
Excepting Kyeuneruf, near King George's Sound,
which is 3,500 ft., there are few points over 2,000 ft.
high. The Darling, Stirling, Roe, Bennett, Dundas, and
Russell ranges are in the Swan River Settlement portion
of the Colony. Hampden’s Tableland is south-east.
A little northward lie the ranges known as Gairdner,
Moresby’s Flat-topped, and Victoria. Mount Bruce is
to the east of North-west Cape. Mueller is near Sturt
Creek. Waterloo and Trafalgar are in the extreme
north-east, with Leopold range and Mt. Broome.
Rivers.
These are very few and feeble. Some, like the Swan
and Murchison, may be from 200 to 300 miles long, but
are often without water for many miles in succession.
In the Swan River Settlement corner are the Swan,
with its tributaries, Canning, and Avon. The Black-
wood is near Cape Leeuwin. The Murchison, Irwin,
and Greenough are toward Champion Bay. The Gas-
coigne reaches Shark’s Bay.
On the northern side, east of North-west Cape, are
the Fortescue, George, De Grey, Yule, and Ashburton.
The Fitzroy and Roe fiow to King Sound. G'rrey’s Glenelg
is not far from the north-east extremity, near Prince
Regent River. The mouth of the Victoria is just outside
the north-east border. The Oakover and Ord are near.


eaoenirnr AND CLIMATE. 299
Lakes.
The shallow salt lakes are very numerous to the east
of the settled districts. Lakes Moore and Austin are
north east of the Swan. Amadeus is farther east.
Bays.
The Great Australian Bight, to the south, is the largest
bay. There are, also, on the south side, Flinders and
Irwin Bays, and King Ge0rge’s Sound. Géographe
Bay and Peel’s Inlet are south-west. Champion and
Gantheaume Bays are north-west of Swan River.
Sl1ark’s Bay is higher up on the west coast. Roebuck
Bay and King’s Sound are about lat. 18° S. Nickel Bay
is west of Roebuck Bay, in lat. 20§°. Cambridge Gulf
and Sunday Strait are to the north-east. The mouth of
the Glenelg is in Camden Sound or Harbour.
Capes.
Cape Leeuwin is the south-western extremity, and
North-west Cape the north-west one. Londonderry is
to the north-east. N aturaliste is to the north of Leeu-
win, and Nuyt east of it. Arid is S.E. of the colony.
Islands.
Rottenest is near Swan River, and Dirk Hartog in
Shark’s Bay. The Dampier Archipelago is east of
N orth-west Cape. Guano Lacepedes are north-west.
Towns.
Though very small settlements exist in the north, as
Roebourne, Cossack, or Derby of King Sound, the other
townships are located within 200 miles of Swan River.
Perth, the capital, is in lat. 32° S., long. 116° E.
Freemantle is its port. York is 60 E., Guildford is 9 E.,
and Albany, of King George's Sound, 250 S.E. of Perth;
Geraldton, 300 N. Champion Bay. Bunbury, Busselton,
and Pinjarrah are South; Roeburne, of Nickol Bay, is
1,200 miles N.W. of Perth. Port Eucla, S.E. by the Bight.
Climate.
The CLIMATE of Western Australia proper, that is, the
south-western corner of the Colony, is one of the most
healthy in the world.
WESTERN
IUSTRMIR.
Lakes.
Bays.
Capes
Island!-
Towns.
Cnnurn.
Health
s.w. y


300 HANDBOOK ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
WESTERN
lllSTRl\L|l-
Rain.
Very dry.
Heat of
interior.
Sandy soil.
Northern
climate.
Gaonoor.
Granite
and sand-
stone the
prevailing
rocks.
Trough-
like centre.
The sterility of the country is most favourable to its
healthiness, as there is no luxuriant vegetation decom-
posing to produce miasma, and there are no rich mo-
rasses and lowlands to breed agues and fevers.
The heat of summer, of course, provokes attacks of
dysentery and ophthalmia, but these are usually reduced
by care and temperance.
Near the coast, about thirty inches of rain may be ex-
pected during the year, but much less an amount over
the coast range in the interior. The rains come during
the four winter months, and from the north-west quarter.
In some seasons hardly a shower falls during the rest of
the year. Snow has been known to descend on a range
3,500 feet high. Perth had 28 in. rainfall in 110 days.
The mean temperature of Perth is 63°. The sea-
breezes qualify the heat of the sea-board settlements,
though the interior is often subject to a. considerable
thermometrical elevation. The dryness of the air, how-
ever, renders the heat more endurable. Monsoons prevail.
King Ge0rge’s Sound has the advantage of a better
rainfall, though the sandy soil around soon absorbs it.
In the Northern District, though in the tropics, there
is very little humidity. The wet season is from the end
of November to February. It is cool from March to
July, and dry and hot from August to November. The
south-east breeze prevails for months. The season for
flowering plants on the elevated plains is two or three
months later than in the valley of the northern rivers.
Geology.
The Gnonoor of Western Australia is little known, as
so very small a proportion of the Colony has been ex-
plored. It would appear that there is much granite and
unsatisfactory sandstone, with few oases.
Although a great part of the continent was once covered
with a thick deposit of tertiary cretaceous sandstone, yet
subsequent denudations relieved the eastern side from
much of this barren covering. Western Australia, how-
ever, has retained the chief portion, and is oppressed by
its dry sterility. Victoria desert is 1,000 miles long.
The centre of the continent is trough-like, the country
rising from it towards the east, north, and west, though


ononoer. 301
but to a lessor amount towards the south. The rise to
the west and north-west culminates in the vast plateau of
Western Australia, two to three thousand feet high, and
seen from fifty to two hundred miles inland from the coast.
The ranges in the south-west corner, by the settlement
of Swan River, seldom reach three thousand feet. The
central part is of primitive rock, and the sides are ter-
tiary. No anticlinal axis has been clearly distinguished.
The slate runs through the Darling range, and in some
portions makes its appearance in the metallic Old Red
Sandstone district of Champion Bay. On the Old Red
Sandstone cliffs of Collier Bay the tides have produced
needle-like points. Fossil plants as in India and Africa.
Some ancient limestone has been discovered in small
areas to the north. But the vast bed of recent sandstone
has been removed in too few places to make observations
upon the primary rocks beneath.
The granite, as in almost all cases in Australia, pre-
sents an intrusive aspect in Western Australia. Patches
crop out in the new country toward the Indian Sea, by
the De Grey, &c. But eastward and northward from
Cape Leenwin, and north-eastward of King George’s
Sound, the granite is prominently visible as sheets on
the surface, and as isolated hills.
Granite knobs thrust themselves up through the dreary
sandstone at intervals from the Sound to the Australian
Bight. They appear beside the salt lakes, and crop up
at Champion Bay. Mount Magnet, east of Murchison
river, is of a gneiss character. The Flat-topped range
contains many granitoid rocks. Near Mount Kenneth
the green and white ribbons of hornblende and quartz
are much contorted. All the so-called granite country
has only recently been freed from the incubus of sand-
stone. The tertiary beds usually rest on granite.
Secondary beds, of a cornbrash or inferior oolite kind,
have been noticed not far from the south-west coast. A
spiriferous limestone occasionally crops out beneath the
sandstone of thenorth. The mesozoic is middle and lower.
The volcanic element is not strong. In the north, trap
rocks occupy the position which the granite ones do in
the south. Columns of basalt and greenstone rise on
the coast from Cape Leeuwin and Cape Naturalists.
Near Géographe Bay, they have quite the look of a
IIESTERI
I STRILII.

ll
Plateau
land.
Primary
rocks.
Granite
intrusive
Secondary
formation.
Volcanic
rocks.
Basaltic
columns


302 mnnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW znumn.
WESTERN
IUSTRALII,
Volcanic
hills.
Tertiary
rocks.
Coal and
lead.
GOVERN-
.\u~:x'r.
Council.
Resident.
Giant's Causeway. Decomposed basalt is common on
Moresby’s Flat-topped hills. There is syenitic green-
stone with conchoidal fracture north of Glenelg ; and trap
at the De Grey, Roe Plains, and Camden Harbour.
The headwaters of the Fortescue and the De Grey ex-
hibit the basaltic formation. Black volcanic hills alter-
nate with granite knobs, near the lat. 16° S. Greenstone
is prominent at Nickol Bay. A volcanic region lies
towards Shark’s Bay and the Dampier Archipelago.
But the tertiary strata are all prevailing. In some
cases, the sandstone element overcomes the cretaceous;
in others, the limestone is stronger than the arenaceous.
On the Denison Plains it is 300 feet thick. The table-
laud on the north side is 2,000 feet high. Around
Mount Kenneth it rises 1,200 feet. Shark’s Bay country
is of limestone conglomerate, gypsum, and coral débris.
Kimberley has granite hills and basalt plains.
The Albrolhos are of sand, coral, and broken shells in
limestone, The limestone shore of North-west Australia
is similar to that of the Murray basin of South Australia.
This is one of the largest formations in the world.
Carboniferous rocks are known to be beneath, appear-
ing on the Irwin and Murchison. They are doubtless
connected with the carboniferous system of Eastern
Australia. The lead area is 5,000 square miles.
Government.
Western Australia, by the introduction of convicts,
has retarded its political enfranchisement.
The Executive Council consist of a Governor, Colonial
Secretary, Surveyor-General, Attorney-General, &c.
The Legislative Council has a Speaker, with three
official, four nominee, and sixteen elective members.
So vast an area, if it become at all populated, will
naturally be constituted into several colonies, as New
South Wales has been. At Nickel Bay, a Resident, or
Commissioner, is the representative authority under the
Governor at Swan River.
Owing to the great extent of the territory, the dis-
persion and limited number of the inhabitants, the
Colony has not yet arrived at the condition of respon-
sible government, being, as yet, in a state of transition
toward mature freedom. -


POPULATION. 303
The revenue of so poor a colony was a very limited
one for a long time. In 1857, thanks to some prosperous
years from British outlay, it rose to 89,079l., while the
expenditure was 90,1001. In 1878 the first amounted to
165,412l., and the last to 182,959l. The colonial revenue
for 1884 was 366,et72l. The debt in 1885 was 765,000l.
Population.
The population grew very slowly for many years. Im-
migration was absolutely nothing after 1830. Twenty
years after, the total gain to the Colony was but about
a couple of thousand souls, so great had been the
migration to other colonies.
In 1850, the returns gave 5,293. The arrival of con-
victs, with officers and soldiers, swelled up the number,
in 18-31, to 7,096, though only 2,444 were females. In
1859, there were 9,522 males and 5,315 females. At the
end of 1877, the population, 27,838, consisted of 16,326
males and 11,512 females; in 1885, 32,958.
The births in 1857 were 507, in a population of 13,601 ;
and the deaths were 153. In 18841 the former were
1,094, and the latter 707. The nw/Wiages for the year
were 230. Births were 33, deaths 21, per thousand.
In ten years, after 1849, the convicts introduced into
the Colony were 5,500. The last arrivals came in 1868.
‘The pensioners, 270 in number, do military duty for
many colonial advantages.
The Aborigines of the Colony have not been utterly
neglected in the settled district, though few practical
results have followed the efforts for their civilisation.
Several schools and missions have been organised.
Outside the boundary of the settled parts the country
is too bad to keep the tribes in food, as game is very
scarce there. Encounters have repeatedly occurred be-
tween explorers and the Blacks. There is but slight
ditfereuce in the manners, customs, and appearance of
these natives and those of Eastern Australia; though the
languages, except in grammatical construction, are quite
diiferent. Bishop Salvado’s aboriginal mission is at
New Norcia, where the natives are well taught, wisely
trained and kindly treated. Their intercourse with
the Whites has been no more happy and virtuous in
Western than in Eastern Australia.
WESTERN
IUSTRMIM.
Revenue
d
an ex-
penditure.
Por c LA-
non.
Numbers.
Births. &c.
Convicts.
Aborigines.


304 nannnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmsn.
IESTERI
IUSTMLII.
Low state
Education.

R. Catholic
h l
sc oo s
alone.
State aid
to religion.
AoRicUL-
rams.
Farmers’
trials.
Great
attention to
agriculture.
Education and Religion.
The work of the schoolmaster was not an encouraging
one of old. An effort is now being made, in the present
revival of the Colony, to get teachers from the home
country. The cost of schools, 1884, was but 10,0951.
A general system exists, with a very particular excep-
tion. There were, at the end of 1884, 90 public schools,
under the Board of Education. But, as the Roman
Catholics objected to the instruction of their children
along with those of the Protestant community, special
assistance, of a monetary kind, is given to the dissen-
tients, who thus manage their own educational affairs.
The fees of the Roman Catholic schools are lower
than in the regular public schools. OF the 90 schools,
16 were the assisted, or Roman Catholic ones. The
total number of pupils in 1884 was : 3,052 in the public
schools, 1,221 assisted.
State aid to religion is not abrogated in this Colony.
One-half the people are Church of England, and nearly
one-third are Roman Catholic. The Protestant Bishop
of Perth had earned a good reputation for his devotion
to the interests of the Aborigines.
_ Agriculture.
Though some good soil was found around York, on
the banks of the Avon, Vasse, Arthur, and some other
rivers, as well as near Champion Bay, the farmer has to
struggle against many difficulties. With water supply,
a fair crop can be guaranteed.
Land, for many years, was so cheap as scarcely to be
marketable at all. The small town population furnished
few consumers of produce. Recent industries have,
however, brought paying customers to the farmer.
The aridity of the country, especially over the ranges,
told much against husbandry in former years.
Notwithstanding all troubles, there were 29,416 acres
in wheat, during 1884, 37,342 in corn, altogether; 500
in potatoes; 686 in vines ; 26,061 forage. The total
acreage in crop was 79,669, a fair amount for so small
a population as 33,000 persons, yet but 1 acre in 85,000.


306 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
WESTERN
IUSTRALIA.
Wool.
Palestine
pastoral
system.
’l1.\'i.\'o.
Not
a uriferous.
Ci > I >pcr.
Lead and
Geraldine
mine.
In the north districts there were 517,200 sheep, 11,360
cattle, and 6,460 horses, in 1884:.
The wool export for 1877 was 3,992,487 lbs., valued
at 199,624J., but was 2419,2551. in 1884.
Like as in the Holy Land, the owners of flocks and
herds in Western Australia have to wander with them in
search of pasture, and depend largely on wells for water.
Early in 1885, 148,5-50,986 acres in 6,021 runs wer
leased and licensed.
Mining.
Taking the area of the Colony as a whole, there is less
prospect of an extensive mineral deposit than elsewhere
in Australia, owing to the extra space covered by the
recent or desert sandstone.
It is not a golden land, though poor quartz has been
awhile worked near Albany. A bonus of 5,0001. was
offered for a payable field, and gold has been found in
several places. Silver has been obtained in the argenti-
ferons lead mines. Copper was discovered on the
northern coast by Captain King. The iron is said to be
equal to any in Sweden. Zinc is seen on the Canning.
Copper is hopefully exhibited in the Champion Bay
district, the mineral region of the Colony. On the Irwin
river some fine lodes have been cut. The Narra-Tarra,
the Gwalla-Gwalla, WVheal-A1-rino, Roebourne, Northam,
and Fortune mines, once were in promising condition.
But lead is being worked to decided profit in the
Champion Bay country. The province of Victoria is
rich in such deposits between lat. 28° and 30° South,
from the Irwin river to the Murchison, and for, perhaps,
30 miles inland from the coast. Northampton has mines.
The mineral veins are only apparent where the over-
lying cretaceous sandstone has been denuded. Doubt-
less, therefore, other metallic treasures may be found by
searching for places where this sterile covering has been
removed by the action of rivers.
The Geraldine lead and silver mine has been a success.
The export in 1878 of lead ores realised 43,4101. The
first amount sent to England was in 1845. Want of
labour has been urged as the cause of limited production.
The lodes almost invariably run north 32 east, and from
5“ to 15° from vertical. Elvan dykes, as in Cornwall,


308 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
WESTERN
MISTRILIR.
Shell, pearl,
8:0.
Flour and
wool.
MAnnrAc-
runes.
Teleizraph
toAde1aide.
Tarilf.
LAsn
Laws.
Grants at
first.
102,’/'O31. and 44,1931. For the year to Dec. 31, 1884,
these amounts increased to 5532,1671. for imports, and
4053,6931. for exports. Above half the exports were to
England, a ninth to Adelaide, much to Singapore.
Tortoise shell was first exported from Nickol Bay in
1868. In 1884 pearls and mother-of-pearl were 25,3121. ;
sandal-wood, 20,9601; lead, 4,8721.; timber, 68,936l.;
and wool, 249,2551. Flour, once almost wholly supplied
from abroad, is now home grown. Wool has greatly
risen in production of late years. Guano fetched 7,5591.
Manufactures have been encouraged from the poverty
of the colonists depriving them of the power of purchase
elsewhere. Prisoners’ labour has developed workshops;
and a protection policy is already spoken of as a means
of fostering local effort and retaining capital for home
trade. In 1884were 6 breweries, 17 saw mills, 4 foundries.
The telegraph wires extend from Perth by Port Eucla
to Adelaide. The rail connects Port Geraldton with
mining Northampton, 32 miles. Freemantle is being
joined to Geraldton and the Sound. Timber south-
western districts have tramways to carry jarrah-wood.
Pearl fishery boats pay 51. to 301. for licence. Sandal-
wood brings 71. 10s. a ton. The 15 Savings Banks had
recently many depositors, and 84,9641. balance.
The Tm-Ijf is heavier than in some colonies. Upon
spirits the duty is 15s. per gallon; beer, 1s.; vinegar,
(ic1.; wine,4s. That upon salt, 20s., onions, 10s., potatoes,
10s. per ton ; rice is 21. per ton ; soda, 21. Cheese, cocoa,
coffee, hops, spices, bacon, salt meat, dried fruits, at 3d.
per lb.; manufactured tobacco, 3s.; cigars and snuff,
5s.; tea, 401.; sago, 1d. Moist sugar is 4s. per cwt.
Oils are 6d. per gal. ; iron is ls. per cwt.
On other goods not freely admitted into port an ad
oalorem duty of ten per cent. is charged. The export
duty upon sandal-wood is 5s. per ton, and on kangaroo
skins ls. each. Pearl shells, 41. per ton; guano royalty, 1 3s.
Land Laws and Immigration.
The Swan River Settlement originated in a system of
grants of immense areas of country to a few individuals,
who were to supply the new Colony with free immi-
grants, in number proportional to the acreage gift.
As land became the medium of exchange, and was


LAND LAWS AND IMMIGRATION. 309
bartered for service and goods, it fluctuated in value.
When the brief good times departed, land was truly a
drug in the market, especially as its general character
for poverty was well known.
The revival of the Colony, since the convict migration
thither, has increased the demand for land. Sales have
advanced. In 1856, 2,456 acres were disposed of; in
1860, 18,193; in 1865, 7,564; in 1868, 15,783; but in
1877, the sale fell to 7,233. Up to 1878, 376,546 acres
were sold, and 1,591,641 were granted. Land leases
brought, in 1884, 76,5381. rental.
Much more land would have been purchased were
surface water to be obtained. Tracts of good soil are
known in parts of the eastern country, where plenty
of water can be got by sinking. Droughts are not
uncommon in parts where rivers exist, but which are
repeatedly found dry for months together.
The land laws of the Council are liberal. Country
land, in blocks from 40 acres, may be bought at 10s.
per acre. Mineral land is 31. Some runs are free.
Tillage leases are granted all over the Colony. The
acreage must be less than 320 acres. The term is for
8 years, at a rent of ls. per acre, or for not less than 51.
for a block. A freehold in 3 years if paying 7s. an acre.
The country, as to lands, is divided into North Dis-
trict and East District. The former is north of the
Murchison river, and east of Mount Murchison. The
latter is south of lat. 30°, and to the eastward.
Lands are either A or B. The A are the best pasture
lands, and are leased at the rate of 2s. per 100 acres, in
areas not exceeding 1,000 acres each. But the leases
are only annual. The purchaser of 10 acres of A land
has a certain right of commonage granted to him over
contiguous pasturage. Rent of B lands 10s. 1,000 acres.
On the B lands an area of 10,000 acres may be had on
a lease of eight years for 51. a year, and a fee of 10s. extra
for each thousand acres selected. The lessee may pur-
chase a homestead property, if not more than two acres
for each hundred leased, at 10s. an acre. Such leased
lands are available for purchase by the lessee after the
first year, if not mineral land ; or, in Homestead Areas,
at the end of three years if improvements be made.
In other parts, called O’ lands, free pasturage is per-
WESTERI
IUSTRALII.
Low price.
Land Sales
Drought:
10s. an
acre.
Tilla ge
leases.
Two
systems
of lnnd
leasing.


310 mmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
WESTERN
IUSTRIL IA.
Free pas-
turage.
Other
licenses.

New Land
Law.
l|i.n.\~
rxox.
HINTS.
Reasons for
going
there.
mitted for the first two years over a space not exceeding
100,000 acres, and the squatter can then select 20,000
acres on a lease of eight years at 5s. per thousand acres.
Lease of A and B lands, 14 years, 10,000 acres.
Timber licenses are 201. a year for 640 acres, or 40l.
for 1,280 acres, besides 10s. a year for each pair of
sawyers employed. Sandal-wood cutters pay a fee of
28. 6d. a month, the same as bark peelers.
The Land Act of 1885 is founded on that of 1882.
Country lands have an upset of 10s. an acre in central
and Kimberley, -5s. elsewhere. Ten per cent. is deposited,
and the balance paid in a month. While the minimum
area must be 40 in central districts, it is 200 in Kim-
berley, 400 elsewhere.
Licenses of lands, for ten years, are at ls. rental per
acre. Pastoral leases are granted, in area according to
character of soil, part at 5s. per thousand acres a year,
part at 10s. The leases are limited in time, according
to the district, and the mm must be stocked by a certain
time to a certain amount.
Mineral land is leased in blocks of 20 to 200 acres,
for seven years, at 5s. an acre rent. Timber cutting
licenses are of monthly payment.
Immigration is now solicited by the Government. To
the man of sober habits, steady industry, and some en-
tcrprise, the supposed slow Colony of Western Austra-
lia has advantages. Colonists may nominate persons
for assisted passages, 4~.l. being deposit for an adult.
The immigrant is required to pay one-fburth the passage
money within two years. A grant of 151. worth of land
is made to the immigrant who has paid his own passage.
In 1878 the immigrants were 581 ; and the emigrants,
575. Agents, Messrs. Felgate & Co., Clement’s Lane.
Hints to intending Emigrants to Western Australia.
While some persons go to the most prosperous colonies,
others have found a visit profitable to those then
neglected. Western Australia has long had a bad name.
The early settlers were to a large extent unsuitable ; and
the localities they selected were not the most fortunate.
The poison plant, the sandy interior, the salt lakes, the
dry climate, the isolation from other colonies, have all
been urged against it. The very poverty which induced


nmrs T0 EMIGRANTS T0 wnsrnnn AUSTRALIA. 31]
the settlers to ask for convict immigration operated still
more strongly.
But with interest so high as it is there, some capitalists
must be making money. It may be, also, presumed that
the borrowers are so well engaged that they can aflbrd
to pay thus well for accommodation.
The commercial position of the Colony in relation to
Asia ought to be turned to account by enterprising immi-
grants, though the people have been too long content
with half labour to put forth energy for it themselves.
The timber trade has never been well wrought, though
no place has finer woods than that west of.King Ge0rge’s
Sound. Jarrah-wood cutters are in demand on the
Vasse river. The wood resists the sea-worm.
Sandal-wood is an established and easily managed
employment ; but pearl fishery could be extended very
largely, and with the aid of Asiatic divers. At present
very many divers are employed, but few of whom are
Malays, the majority being Australians. The season is
from September to April. The principal place is from
Exmouth Gulf to Camden Harbour. One ship lately
had 350 oz. of pearls, and another 50 hogsheads of shells.
One pearl was worth 5,0001. Mother-of-pearl has brought
1201. a ton. A former season closed with 265 tons, worth
45,0001. A great fishery is between the Ashburton and
Fortescne Rivers, King’s Sound, and Shark’s Bay.
Cossack, the pearler’s port, is N .W.
Squatting pursuits are open to the investor, though he
need avoid poison-plant localities, and dry sandy wastes.
The grass is often very tufty, but still nutritious. The
c iuntry is not, like New Zealand, fit for the man with a
small flock. Mining pursuits reward labour, and are
very promisinv. Kimberley is fine stock country.
The high dirty on spirits may check the prevalent
intemperance in the Colony; but the morals, generally,
have not been improved by convictism, though that has
now ceased. The climate is considered very favourable to
health. An Englishman would be likely to find a better
home in Western Australia than in many parts of Ame-
rica. Wages are high, food is cheap, and farms are to be
had on easy terms, in this land of fruit and bright skies.
WESTEBI
""~'sT_‘“i’—_
High
interest.
Good pros-
pect"; ior
immi-
grants.
Better than
many parts
of America.


812 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
TASMANIL
Tnsm an’s
lll-.\C\) \'61‘)',
lb 12.
His
h fo
searc r
the South
Island.
Particulars
of his visit.
Maria,
daughter of
Van
Diemen.
TASMANIA.
Discovery and History.
THIS charming island lies to the south of Victoria,
from which it is removed by a steam passage of twenty-
four hours only.
On the first of December, 1642, Abel Jansen Tasman,
a Dutch navigator, anchored ofi' its shore in his voyage
from Western Australia. He named it Van Diemen’s
Land, after the governor of Java ; though, since the
abolition of transportation, the appellation of Tasmania
has been given to the Colony.
Tasman had been despatched from Java, in the yacht
‘Heemskirk,’ and the fly-boat ‘ Zeehaarn,’ with orders
from Governor Van Diemen to find out, if possible, the
Southern extent of ‘ The Great South Land,’ afterwards
called ‘ New Holland,’ and now known as ‘ Australia.’
Particulars of this voyage are found in the brief
journal of the captain. The introduction to the narrative
sets forth the piety of the worthy Dutchman ; as it says,
‘May God Almighty be pleased to give his blessing to
this voyage ! Amen.’ -
After sighting Point Hibbs, on the west coast, on the
24th of November, he rounded South Cape, and deter-
mined, as he thought, the southern extrernity of the
Great South Land. On the 1st of December he an-
chored in Frederick Henry Bay, so called after the Stadt-
holder of Holland, the father of our English William IIT.
Two days after he resolved to take possession of the new
land. But the surf was too strong for a boat to approach
the shore. The carpenter, however, one Peter Jacobs,
boldly leaped into the sea. with the flag of the Prince of
Orange, and swam with it through the breakers.
Ofi’ the east coast Tasman sighted a lonely island,
which he tenderly called after Maria, the daughter of his
friend Van Diemen.


314 nmnnoox TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
TASIMNIA.
First set-
tlement of
the
I Perwcnt,
ISU3.
Hobart
Town by
Collins,
L504.

Launces-
ton in
I806.
Black War.
Transpor-
tation
ceased.
GEOGRA-
PHY-
Ilinunlains.
counteract the supposed plans to form a French colony in
Van Diemen’s Land. Lieutenant Bowen landed at Risdou,
on the Derwent. It was there that, through the blunder-
ing or rashness of our marines, a terrible slaughter took
plaoe of hundreds of aboriginal hunters.
In October, 1803, Captain Collins sought to establish
apenal settlement on the shore of Port Phillip. Not
approving of the site, he requested permission from
Governor King, of Sydney, to remove to the Derwent.
Early in 1804 the whole party left the continent, and
organised a settlement at Hobart Town.
About this time another location was made at the
mouth of the Tamar, and removed, in 1806, to Port
Dalrymple, or Launceston. Two lieutenant-governors,
independent of each other, ruled in the same island till
1812, when Hobart Town became the capital of Van
Diemen’s Land.
The early history of the island is a dark and sorrowful
one. The home of convicts was plagued by scenes of
violence. Bushrangers in armed bands contended with
soldiers and constables. The celebrated Black War be-
tween the colonists and the natives lasted a number of
years. In 1830 a levy en masse of the population took
place, which resulted in the capture of a single black,
and the death of no one. Peaceful negotiation eflected
what arms did not. The remnant of the race submitted.
At the present time only one Tasmanian native. an old
woman of seventy-eight years, is alive.
The convict system of transportation was not abolished
till after the gold discovery in Australia. Free settlers
received grants of land on condition of employing the
prisoners. The population gradually changed its cha-
racter, till, from being a prison home of crime, it has
become one of the most moral countries in the world, as
it is, doubtless, the most healthful and beautiful.
Geography and Climate.
The island has an area of 24,600 square miles, in-
cluding the surrounding islands, being only about a
couple of hundred miles across, and 200 from Victoria.
llfountains.
It is one of the most hilly countries in the world.
Though the shores are usually bold, the laud geuerallv


316 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
TASMAIIIR.
Capes.
Islands.
Divisio as
Marion, Frederick Henry, Presser, Spring, and Oyster
Bays, with Swanport, are on the east side.
Southward are Storm Bay, Pittwater, Southport, and
Recherche Bay. D’Entrecasteaux Channel, west of
Bruni Island, meets Storm Bay not far fromHobart Town.
Port Cygnet and Oyster Cove are in the channel.
C0ok’s Adventure Bay is in Bruni. Norfolk Bay and
Port Arthur are in South-eastern Tasman’s Peninsula,
{qvhich is joined to Forrestier’s Peninsula by Eagle Hawk
eck.
Capes.
On the north are Table Cape, Circular Head, Cape
Grim, and Portland at the north-east. On the west are
Northwest Point, West Point, Point Hibbs, and Rocky
Point. On the east are Bougainville, Waterloo Point,
Long Point, Patrick’s Head, and St. Helen’s Point. On
the south are South Cape, Southwest Cape, Whale Head,
Fluted Cape of Bruni, Raoul and Pillar of Tasman's
Peninsula.
Islands.
Bruni, fifty miles long, and De Witt are to the south
Schouten and Maria are eastern isles. Those in Bass’s
Strait are Flinders, 500,000 acres; King, forty miles
long; Hunter’s Isles, Robbins, Barren, Clarke, Crocodile,
the Devil's Tower, Curtis, and Swan. Banks’ Strait
divides Furneaux isles from the main. Kent’s group lie
to the eastward of the Strait. There are altogether
fifty-five Tasmanian islands, too rocky for fertility.
Dim'si0'n.s.
The eighteen counties are thus situated :-Wellington,
Devon, Cornwall, and Dorset in the north ; Glamorgan,
east; Franklin, Russell, Montagu, Arthur, and Mont-
gomery, west; Monmouth, Pembroke, Buckingham,
and Kent, south; Lincoln, Somerset, Westmoreland,
and Cumberland, central.
The seven Police Districts are Emu Bay, Franklin,
Georgetown, Hobart, Port Sorell, Russell to the north-
west, and Selby on the Launceston side. There arc, also,
nineteen rural municipalities.


CLIMATE. 317
Towns.
Hobart Town, on Sullivan's Cove of the Derwent, is
in lat. 43° S., long. 14'/'§° E., and contains 20,000 people.
Launceston, once Port Dalrymple, 120 miles north, at
the head of the Tamar, has 11,000.
Of the southern townships on the road to Launceston,
N ewtown is 2 miles from Hobart Town; Glenarchy, 5 ;
Bridgewater, 12 ; Pontville of Bagdad, 16 ; Greenponds,
28 ; Jericho, 44; Oatlands, 51 ; and Tunbridge, 65.
Of other southern and eastern ones, Brown's River is
9; Sorell, 13; Richmond, 14; New Norfolk, 20; Jeru-
salem, 25 ; Franklin of the Huon, 26; Hamilton on the
Clyde, 40; Bothwell, 45; Dover of Esperance Bay, 50;
Spring Bay of Prossers, 55 ; Port Arthur, 65 ; Hythe of
Southport, 65; Swansea of Swanport, 90; Penquin, N.W.
On the north side, Perth is 11 miles from Launceston,
Evandale, 11; Snake Banks, 19; Longford, 14 ; West-
bury, 20; Deloraine, 30 ; George Town, 35 ; Ilfracombe,
40 ; Campell Town, 40; Ross,48; Fingal, 66; Torquay,
70; Black Boy, 84; Emu Bay, 102; Wynyard, 114.
Burgess is at Port Sorell, Stanley at Circular Head,
Bathurst at Port Davey, Victoria at Huon, Seymour,
E. coast, Lempriere on Tamar, Bischoflf 50 S. Emu Bay.
Climate.
The CLIMATE of Tasmania gives the island the appel-
lation of the Sanatorium of the South. Perhaps no
part of the world equals it in adaptation to the physical
condition of man. The area is so small, and the country
so hilly, that a considerable change of temperature can
be obtained by a journey of a few hours only.
That the summer is not without a very high thermo-
meter is certainly true, though the night after a hot day
is deliciously cool and restorative. The sea-breezes tem-
per the heat, and the mountain airs perform the same
oflice. The continued and exhausting high temperature
of the continent is not experienced in the little island.
The fierce hot wind visits the place in summer. It is
probably but the northern blasts from Australia, which,
after rising in passing the cool Straits, descend upon the
plains of Tasmania, giving an occasional 130°in the sun.
z
TASIIIII.
Towm.
CLIMATE.
Heat
tempered
by breezes
Cause of
hot wind-1.


318 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
TRSIIIIIIQ
Hobart
town mean
5'-l%°.
Rain.
Settled
pans not
wet.
Hobart
Town
humidity
Winds.
In the winter the cold is sufiicient to produce thin ice
on the lowlands, with snow showers among the elevated
ranges. _
The mean temperature of Hobart Town, as ascertained
in the observations of twenty-five years, is 54° 45’. The
lowest usually felt is 29°. The summer mean is 62°,
and the winter 47°, producing a most salubrious climate.
The barometrical mean is 29°'807, the extreme being
30°'812 and 28°'510. The dew-point mean is 45%“.
The rain is a very variable quantity. While some
parts of the little island have not much more than falls
in the interior of Australia, others suffer, like the west
coast of New Zealand, from an excess of moisture.
While the east coast had, like Hobart Town, but 20
inches, Launceston had 32; Circular Head, 35; Port
Arthur, 45 ; Hampshire Hills, 65 ; and Macquarie Har-
bour over 100.
The mean, through thirty-five years, has been 24
inches at Hobart Town. This is considerably less than
almost any port of consequence throughout Australia
and New Zealand. But the clouds laden with wet
are usually arrested by the high ranges on the western
or wet side of the city. All the settled part of the
country is in like manner shielded by the lofty tiers
from much rainfall. The north side, by the Strait, has
more rain.
The variation of Hobart Town humidity is not trifling,
as the following record of inches will prove :-1843,
1343; 1841, 13-95; 1847, 1446; 1850, 14‘51; 1863,
40'67; 1883, 24'O5. South Australia and the interior
portions of Queensland and New South Wales are the
only places where such low rates may be observed.
There is, nevertheless, a wonderful difference between the
evaporation of Hobart Town and its neighbours ; yet, in
the five years ending 1870, while the rainfall was 115
inches, the evaporation was 210, or 95 excess.
The mean number of rainy days at the capital is 145.
The prevailing winds are from the north-west and south-
east. The mean force is 64 lbs. to the square foot. The
island is in no want of winds, because of the mountains.
Storms from the south-west render navigation rather
dangerous oil‘ the south coast. The cyclones, though of
less strength than along the shores of Australia, have the


NATURAL HISTORY AND sonny. 319
same direction. They have an opposite course to that
or the north side of the Line, being from N.E. to S.W.
The ozonometer indicates apure atmosphere, being as
high as 718. The ozone is most plentiful witha south
wind and a humid atmosphere.
Dr. Hall says, ‘ No part of the world is, perhaps, more
favourable to infant life than Tasmania. About nine
put pf every ten children born survive the first year of
ife.
Local Natural History and Botany.
The fauna of Tasmania is, to a great extent, similar
to that of Continental Australia ; still there are certain
dilferences which demand a passing notice. It is a re-
markable fact that in such a comparatively small island
there should exist two genera of carnivorous marsupials,
of considerable size, which are not to be met with on
the mainland. These are the Thylacinus cynocephalus,
or ‘tiger-wolf’ of the colonists; and the Sa/rcophilus
ursinus, or ‘ native devil.’ The former dwells amidst the
fastnesses of the rocky ‘gullies,’ in the impenetrable
forests of the island. It is decidedly the most formi-
dable and blood-thirsty of all Australian quadrupeds.
This marsupial or pouched wolf, although not sufliciently
powerful to attack man in ordinary cases, formerly com-
mitted sad havoc amongst the flocks of the settlers in
the vicinity of the densely-wooded mountains, from
whence it issued forth at night in search of its prey.
This creature, which has somewhat the aspect of a dog,
with a prolonged snout and a long thick tail, has short
powerful legs, and when full-grown measures between
three and four feet from the nose to the tip of the tail.
It is of a greyish-fawn colour, handsomely marked across
the hind-quarters with dark bands or stripes.
The Sm"c0_phz'lus was styled the ‘ native devil ’ by the
early settlers, on account of its black colour and dis-
gusting appearance. It is a savage and untameable
animal, and is not only destructive to the smaller native
quadrupeds, but attacks the sheepfold of the farmer and
the hen-roosts of the homestead. It attains a length of
two and a half feet, is a short, thick-set, ungainly-looking
beast, with a large bulldog-like head and jaws, armed
with formidable teeth. It has a short, waddling sort
TISIIIM.
Ozone.
Healthy
for
children.
Nnrnk an
Hisronr
‘ Tiger
wolf '
‘ Native
devil.’


320 nsmmoox TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
TISIMIIL
Wombat.
Birds.
Acclima-
tised
salmon.
Trees.
Valuable
timber.
Huon
pine.
Myrtle-
wood.
Blue-gum.
Tree-ferns.
of gait, and, like the Thylacinus, is nocturnal in its
habits.
The wombat of Tasmania differs from the species in-
habiting the mainland. It has a narrower head, with
a short, sharp snout, and a very dark-coloured fur.
It is the Phascolomys -wombat of naturalists, the earliest
discovered species of the genus.
Birds are very numerous, and some of the smaller
species appear to be peculiar to the island, though the
majority are identical with those of other portions of
Australia. Only three species of snakes occur in
Tasmania, all of which are venomous. English salmon
and trout have been successfully acclimatised in the
Tasmanian rivers. The forests are far more densely
wooded than those of the mainland, and the trees
attain an enormous height and development._ Many
of them are famous for the valuable timber they
produce. Beautiful cabinet-woods and the largest
sized timber alike abound. The celebrated Huon pine
\Da.crJdium Franklini), which grows profusely on
the West coast, is a most important production ;
its great durability and its quality for resisting the
attacks of insects make it valuable for both house and
ship building. The fragrant acacia, the sassafras, and
the musk-wood, would all yield their grateful odours,
were the perfumer only to exercise his art upon them.
The beauty of the so-called ‘ myrtle-wood,’ when polished,
can hardly be surpassed; its immense size also (being
200 feet high and 40 in circumference) is a great ad-
vantage to the cabinet-maker. The blue-gum ( Eucalyptus
globulus) attains, in Tasmania, its extreme development
in both girth and altitude. Fine examples of this noble
tree are from 300 to 350 feet in height, and from 50 to
100 feet round the base. -In the forests, trees are often
found with a clear 200 feet below the first branch. The
age of some of these trees has been estimated at 1,000
years. The wood of the blue-gum has proved to be the
best kind of timber in the world for ship-buildiugpun
poses. Tree-ferns, almost equalling in size and elegance
those of New Zealand, grow in the mountain glens;
and a great variety of smaller ferns are to be met with
everywhere.
Many of the native flowers differ from those of Con-


GEOLOGY. 321
tinental Australia, and are remarkable for their curious
forms and beautiful colours. The Telopia grows abun-
dantly on the sides of the mountains. Amongst the
Tasmanian flora. may be enumerated the Blandfordia,
or Tasman lily; the Prostanthera, or native lilac; the
creeping Kennedia, ‘ the wax-flower,’ ‘ the native rose,’
‘the clematis,’ and many kinds of Epacris and terres-
trial orchids.
Geology.
Tasmania was at no remote period united to Victoria.
The granite of the Wilson’s Promontory on the continent
corresponds with the granite of the north-eastern corner
of the island, while the granite isles in the Bass’s Strait
are so many stepping-stones across, being the peaks and
highlands of a submerged district.
While ranges appear to ramify in all directions, there
is a general trend of mountains to the south-east. The
centre, or, rather, a little northward of the centre, is a
great plateau, with broad and deep lakes. North, east,
south and west the hills reach the sea, though plains ot
an elevated character are traced throughout. The great
amount of eruptive rocks gives a sublimity and beauty
to the landscape, while afibrding fertile meadows and
glens for the farmer.
Prima1'_z/ rocks occupy by far the largest area. The
metamorphism is stronger than on the continent. The
palaeozoic rocks form the framework of the country, and
are found everywhere. To the westward, the quartzose
aspect of the hills is discovered far out to sea. Quartz
is present largely throughout the interior, and in the
northern districts. The acidic decidedly prevails over
the basic in the north-east and west, though the basic
has the advantage to the south and south-east.
The Silurian upper series are hardly noticed west of
the river Forth. Contorted slate occurs in very many
places, especially in the valley of the South Esk, at St.
Pau1’s Dome, and to the west. Chlorite schist abounds
at Cape Grim, good slate between Circular Head and the
Mersey, quartzose slate to the north-east and south-
west, claystone near Hobart Town. talcose slate at
Mount Gell, mica slate at Port Davey, siliceous limestone
on the west bank of the Tamar, altered upper Palaaozoic
Y
TISIAIII.
Native
flowers.
Gaonoev.
Once
united to
Victoria.
Plateau
central.
Primary
formations.


enomer. 323
Wellington limestones. The limestones of the Mersey
country, onward to the Middlesex Hills, are much ad-
mired. The marble of Chudleigh, by Deloraine, is ex-
ported. The same rock lies on the siliceous slates of the
Eastern Marshes. The western Gordon River has torn
a passage through fossiliferous limestone, which is, like
that by the Florentine, of the Wellington character.
The Goal formation of the island has been regarded
by Mr. Selwyn and Prof. McCoy as only mesozoic. Mr.
Gould, Tasmanian Government Geologist, contends that
the coal is of two distinct ages-Palseozoic and Oolitic.
Though the west side is not without some carboniferous
element, it being seen near the Nive, the chief localities
are eastward and southward. The Fingal coal-field is of
large extent. The bituminous mineral is got from hori-
zontal beds of sandstone and crinoidal limestone, and in
seams of even a dozen feet in thickness. Near Mount
Nicholas, above ten miles from the east coast, it showed,
upon analysis, 70 parts of carbon, 5 of hydrogen, 5 of
oxygen, and 10 of nitrogen. The coal is well developed
about Seymour, Bicheno, and the Douglas River of the
east coast. It is seen on the side of Ben Lomond at the
height of 3,500 ft.
Southward it is found in connection with the sand-
stone in the neighbourhood of Hobart Town, at Rich-
mond on the Coal River, and northward at Jerusalem
in sandstone 1,000 ft. thick. The Jerusalem coal, 800 ft.
above the sea, is in a grey sandstone, but much inter-
rupted by intrusive greenstone. It contains 72 parts
carbon, 14 hydrogen, 4 oxygen, and 9 nitrogen. On the
eastern Schouten Island, Dr. Milligan believed three
million tons of good coal existed. Maria Island is also
rich in coal. The Newtown coal, by Hobart Town, is
of a serviceable character, th on gh with too much sulphur
and anthracite. Dr. Hector calls it Jurassic.
-The Storm Bay has cut ofi' the coal beds of Tasman’s
Peninsula from those of Bruni Island, Brown’s River,
Southport, and Recherche Bay. The basalt of Port
Arthur is, perhaps, the cause of the anthracitic feature
of the coal there. Greenstone cuts up the field on the
shores of D’Entrecasteaux Channel. While the sulphur
is so great in the anthracite of Southport as to make the
mineral unfit for domestic use, the Recherche coal con-
TISMIIL.
Coal of two
ages.
Y 2


324 mnnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
TASIIIIIII.
Dysodile.
Tertiary
rocks.
Travertine.
Moraiuea.
I slaud once
higher.
tains 72 parts carbon, 14 hydrogen, 5 oxygen, and 6
nitrogen. Nowhere does it pay well to work.
On the north side of the island the carboniferous rocks
provide an excellent bituminous mineral on the banks of
the Mersey, Don, and other rivers, though Mr. Selwyn
doubted the extent of its area. Lignite is dug near
Port Sorell and on the banks of the Tamar.
Near the Mersey is found the brown substance known
as dysodile, burning with much smoke and a white flame,
but emitting a peculiar odour. The resinous substance
in it is called Tasmanite. Mersey coal is Permian.
The Tertiary beds are supposed by Mr. Gould to cover
half the surface of the occupied part of the colony.
They are by no means extensive beyond that location.
A good stretch of them runs northward to Launceston
from Epping Forest, Evandale, and the Norfolk Plains.
Count Strzelecki calls this a siliceous breccia and coarse
sandstone. The formation is only bounded westward by
the precipitous Western Tier. The valleys of the Der-
went, Gordon, Mersey, Jordan, and other large rivers dis-
play the tertiaries. The basaltic plains of the interior
belong mainly to that epoch. The marine tertiary is on
the north-west side, not south or east. ~
Near Hobart Town, at Gerlstown Bay, some traver--
tine beds of freshwater limestone have been described
by Mr. Wintle. Freshwater limestone also shows itself
at Richmond. There are raised beaches on both sides
of the Derwent; and oyster beds on the Sorell Bluffs are
now 100 ft. above the sea. Pleistocene boulders of
greenstone, as much as seven feet in diameter, are seen
near Hobart Town. Mr. Gould has recorded observation
of some glacial moraines at the end of Cuvier Valley, to
the westward. These proclaim the fact of the island
having once had a greater elevation than at present,
though several peaks are 5,000 ft.
Gold is found under circumstances similar to those of
Australia, and New Zealand. Specimens have been taken
from the Frenchma.n’s Cap, Port Davey, Point Hibbs,
the base of Mount Arrowsmith, and the Hellyer and
other western waters. But the best workable veins have
been found in the north-eastern angle of the island, as
in the Fingal District, Piper’s River, &c. The slate of
Fingal is vertical and meridional, as on the Victoria
diggings. A specimen of gold was taken from coal.


ouonoor. 325
The and volcanic rocks of Tasmania give it
quite a distinctive character.
Porphyries and greenstones of ancient date occur, with
basalts of, according to Strzelecki, four different epochs,
extending down to Pliocene days. But, unlike New
Zealand, the country exhibits no modern development
of lavas, cinders, and ashes; nor has it, like Victoria,
a number of extinct cones and craters.
The greenstone has been thought by Mr. Gould to
have continued its eruption after the deposition of the
coal beds, as it often cuts up the carboniferous fields.
Unlike basalt, this rock never occurs as a lava. The
rock forms a prominent feature on one side of Mount
Wellington, where it presents a bold front of prismatic
columns hundreds of feet in height, or lies strewed in
enormous fragments, as the so-called Ploughed Field.
It is the table land of Ben Lomond, 5,200 ft. The
central plateau is almost a mass of greenstone, while on
the shores of Bay Storm and the Channel it overwhelms
everything. It boldly rears at Dry’s Bluif and other
steep mountain sides. On the western side, excepting
toward the lake country, it is not conspicuous. On
the north, likewise, its comparative rarity is obvious.
In the middle of the island, from Hobart Town to Perth,
the traveller can go but few miles without its presence.
It is the capping rock of the hills in Fingal and Avoca
districts, resting on the Dome, on Mount Nicholas, &c.,
and proving, by its isolation on such summits, how ex-
tensive was the ancient denuding force. Schouten Isle
has greenstone on the west side, and Bruni Island has it
on t e south. Diorites are at Whyte R. and Mt. Bischoif.
Greenstone is often the formation of the celebrated
Tasmanian waterfalls, as at Mount Wellington and at
the cataracts of Launceston.
Basalt often flows over greenstone, and extends in the
plains of Bagdad, Ross, Macquarie, Middlesex, Break-o’-
Day, Salt Pan, &c. It meets the greenstone on Mount
Wellington, and pierces the Hobart Town sandstone.
Upon Tasman’s Peninsula the basalt and greenstone
monopolise the surface of the country. The waters of
the Derwent and Huon are separated by basaltic moun.
tains. Circular Head, North Bruni, Mount Huge],
Mount Picton, Maria Island, and Campbell Town dis-
trict are highly basaltic, like the Bischofi' tin area.
TISIIIII.
Igneous
rocks.
Greenstone.
Basalt.


326 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA sun NEW zmrmn.
HSIIIII.
Fossfls.
Petrified
tree.
GOVERN-
M BN1‘.
Two
governors.
Indepen-
dent 1825.
Councils.
While no ash has been found, there is some scoria at
Sandy Bay and Table Cape. Mr. Wintle regards some
of the basaltic eruptions as subaérial.
The fossils of the country difi'er but little from those
of the main, excepting in the discovery of the labyriutho-
don, a gigantic frog, in the Hobart Town sandstone.
The ancient rocks, particularly the claystone of Mount
Wellington, &c., contain only casts of spirifers, &c. Cue
of the spirifers is like that in the English mountain lime-
stone. The lace coral, fenestilla, is often very beautiful
in the beds beneath the coal. The carboniferous lime-
stone of the more arenaceous strata abounds in casts.
Trilobites are in the Mersey limestone.
The coal flora has been called oolitic. Fossil plants
have been obtained at very nearly the top of Mount
Wellington. The bones of the thylacinus, or tiger, with
other remains, have been seen in a bone cave near Hobart
Town. Neither ammonites nor belemuites are recog-
nised in the formations of Tasmania. An orthoceras,
14 inches long, was recovered from the carboniferous
limestone of O’Brien’s Bridge. The Hobart Town tra-
vertine has impressions of leaves of existing species.
Fossil wood is very abundant near the coal centres.
The petrified trees of Macquarie Plains, &c., are some-
times known erect, surrounded and opalized by basaltic
lava. The trees are conifera, and different from those
growing now in the island.
Government.
The north and south sides of the island were at first
so separated by scrub and rocks, and so divided in their
interests, that one Lieutenant-Governor ruled in Hobart
Town and another in Port Dalrymple or Launceston,
while both received their orders from Sydney. The
two governments were afterwards united.
After 1825 the colony was declared independent of
New South Wales. Under some Governors, especially
Colonel Arthur, the rule was rather a despotic one. But
at first one concession and then another came, till poli-
tical emancipation followed. The Constitution of 1855
completed the freedom. The Executive Council consists
of a responsible ministry. The Legislative Council has
16 members, and the House of Assembly has 32; the


328 rmunnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND new ZEALAND.
TISIAIII.
Deaths.
Numbers
live over
00 years
Causes of
death.
Anon!-
emns.
68. The marriages in 1871 were 5'90 to 1,000; 6'61 in
1875; and 9'01 in 1883.
The death rate has been affected by several circum-
stances. For many years the population consisted of a
great majority of men. Even in 1847 the women were
but 13,623 to 37,750 men; in 1825 the sexes were
3,213 to 10,979. When the people were mainly adults,
their mortality must have been necessarily diiferent to
that when the children exceeded the number of adults.
In 1827—keeping up the same years as before-—the
deaths were 1 in 68; in 1837, 1 in 71 ; in 1847, 1 in 61 ;
1853, gold year, 1 in 32; 1854», 1 in 33; 1883, 1 in 53.
As children, more subject to disease, formed so large a
proportion of the community in 1878, the more healthy
condition arose from a higher tone of morals. The
dissipation of 1853 and 1854: accounted for the extra
mortality of those prosperous years.
Of the 2,122 dying in 1883, 1,263 were males, and 859
were females. According to the ratio of the sexes, the
latter should have been at a higher number; the superior
prudence of the women doubtless preserved their health
the better. In 1884, deaths were 15% per thousand.
In the Hobart Town Asylum, with 400 children, only
two deaths occurred in three consecutive years. But
while in England 16 per cent. die under 1 year, only
9'45 die in Tasmania; with 31 under 10 years, to 50 in
Australia.
A number of persons have lived over a hundred years
of age. One died a few years ago aged 109. Of lung
disease, in 1883, 9 males and 3 females died; heart
disease, 86 and 59 ; cancer, 36 and 31; rheumatism, 7
and 4; diphtheria, 8 and 2 ; dysentery, 16 and 10; diar-
rhoea, 47 and 45 ; phthisis, 73 and 64; paralysis, 20 and
14; pneumonia, 54 and 35 ; apoplexy, 35 and 22 ;
enteritis, 16 and 10; liver disease, 141 and 13; kidney
disease, 5 and 1; accidents, &c., 73 and 20; stomach
disease, 4 and 5.
Aborigines.
The Natives, or aborigines, of the island became re-
duced to one old woman. The whole of the race have
now died. Half-castes live on isles in the Straits.
¥Vh1le in customs, superstitions, and ways of life they


EDUCATION AND nnuexox. 329
were like the New Hollanders, yet in physique they were
stouter, shorter, stronger, and darker in complexion.
Their eyes were bright, their teeth were powerful, their
hair was almost woolly, hanging in ringlets, and their
noses were wide, flat, and without bridges.
Armed only with a wooden spear and a short club,
they engaged in the celebrated Black War with the
whites. As the latter had, in many cases, acted cruelly
to them, they sought revenge. After many had fallen
in battle, or perished from fatigue and want, the rest
were induced to surrender through Mr. George Robinson,
the peacemaker.
The remnant were taken to Flinders’ Island after
1832. There, notwithstanding the care taken of them,
they died ofl' in such numbers, leaving scarcely any chil-
dren, that the few who were left were removed to Oyster
Cove, near Hobart Town.
Although some could read and write, and all had a
slight knowledge of Christianity, their habits were in-
temperate whenever drink could be had ; and one by one
dropped off, till neither an adult nor a child remained of
the tribes of Tasmania.
Education and Religion.
The Government has taken much interest in the ques-
tion of public instruction during the past thirty years.
The changes in the system have corresponded with those
described under Education in New South Wales. There
is now compulsory instruction, under a penalty of 21.
from neglecting parents.
In the 191 public schools under the Council of Edu-
cation in 1884 there were 10,134 on the roll, and 7,297
in attendance, under 280 teachers. The cost averaged
31. 12s. Od. per head. Examinations are held each
year, when there is conferred the degree of Associate
of Arts. Six exhibitions of 161. each are awarded for
four years, to enable youth to attend superior schools,
as the High School, Hutchins’ School, Church Grammar
School, and Horton Wesley College. Girls are now to
have similar advantages to those granted to boys.
Two scholarships are annually presented to successful
students from public or private schools. These are of
the value of 2001. each, held for four years, to enable the
'l'lSIllIll-
Physique.
War with
Europeans.
Removal to
Flinders
Island.
End of the
race.
Emacs-
non.
Compul-
sory.
Schools and
cost.
Exhibi-
tions.
SCl10l8l‘—
ships.


330 nmnsoox TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
TISIIIIIII.
,_.i_
Rnuoron.
State aid.
Church
census.
Sunday
schools.
AGRICUL-
-runs.
Acreage
per head.
Return of
crops, 1885.
young men to attend a British university. This generous
provision of Parliament was made in 1861.
Religion was provided for in olden times by the
nomination of colonial chaplains. These were only of
the Church of England; but ministers of the Roman
Catholic, Presbyterian, and Wesleyan denominations
afterwards received the state grant. There is now no
parliamentary grant for religion, though compensation
was made upon its public withdrawal.
Considering the small population of 115,000, ample
provision is made for religious instruction.
The Church of England is by far the leading Pro-
testant body; having, by the census, 60 ministers ; while
the Presbyterians have 9 ; the Free Presbyterians 4; the
Wesleyans 21 ; the Independents 14; and the Baptists
6; the Roman Catholics have a bishop and 23 clergymen.
The estimate for 1884 gave the following return:
Church of England, 67,414; Church of Scotland, 8,444;
Free Presbyterians, 3,067; Wesleyans, 9,127; Inde-
pendents, 4,998 ; Baptists, 1,187; Roman Catholic,
28,071; Jews, 290; other sects, 3,620.
Tasmania is strong in societies for the benefit of
humanity. Sunday schools are better attended, perhaps,
than in any other colony.
Agriculture.
When Van Diemen’s Land, the colony contributed
its farming produce to furnish bread to the settlers of
Swan River, Adelaide, and Port Phillip, besides sending
heavy shipments of flour to Sydney and New Zealand. As
these colonies now largely support themselves, and some
of them are very considerable exporters of the same
produce, the fields of the island are not so remunerative
as they were in former days.
In 1818 the acreage was 1% per head; in 1830, 231,-;
in 1840, 2§; in 1851, 271;; in 1853, 1%; in 1860, 21,-; m
1865, 2%; in 1883, 31,- nearly.
Agriculturally, Tasmania occupies a position midway
between New Zealand and Australia, being drier than
the former and cooler than the latter.
A return of March 31, 1885, gives the following par-
ticulars:-——Acres in crop, 146.327; in wheat, 34,091;
barley, 5,646; oats, 28,956; potatoes, 9,037; turnips,


AGRICULTURE. 331
3,342; onions, 63; carrots, 128; mangel wurzel, 928;
hay, 44,735; pease, 6,334; hops, 694 ; green forage,
1,362 ; permanent artificial grasses, 188,014.
The produce per acre was 19'20 bushels for wheat;
29'68 for barley ; 2865 for oats ; 4'37 tons for potatoes;
13-63 tons for mangel; 1'22 for hay; 1,355 lbs. for
hops. The yield in March, 1873, was 17'6 for wheat;
23 barley; 25 oats; 4'21 potatoes; 1'44 hay. The
wheat crop was 778,977 bushels; and hops, 801,226
lbs. in 1879.
The prices through 1883 varied much according to
locality. Thus, wheat was 4s. 6d. a bushel at Oatlands;
5s. at Ross; 3s. 6d. at Deloraine; 4a. Hobart Town; and
5s. at Launceston. Hay was 5l. a ton at Hamilton ; and
51. 10s. in Hobart Town. Hops varied from 9d. at Hamil-
ton, and 6d. at New Norfolk, to 2s. at Huon. Onions
fetched 5l. per ton at Richmond, 51. at. Hobart, 31. at
Longford, and 81. at Greenponds. Oats were 2s. at
Port Sorell, 2s. at Oatlands, and 2a. 6d. at Campbell Town.
Potatoes were as low as ll. 15s. at Deloraine, 31. 10s. at
Launceston, 2Z. 10s. at Evandale, and 51. at Bothwell.
Agricultural machines in 18841 included 95 steam
engines, 195 cultivators, 81 clod-crushers, 163 mowing
machines, 235 reaping, 101 sowing.
Recently the great sorrow of the Tasmanian farmer,
especially on the northern side, was conveyed in these
words of an oflicial at Port Sorelli ‘ The loss of Victoria
as a market for our surplus produce, and the almost
prohibitory tarifl's at other more distant ports, has also
had a serious effect upon this coast.’
Formerly, Victoria was provided with flour from South
Australia, and potatoes from Tasmania, but now grows
sufficient of both articles. But in hops the island has
no competitor. New Norfolk engaged 3,000 hop-pickers
one season. For keeping apples, pears, and roots, the
colony has decided pre-eminence. Butter and cheese are
extensively produced in the Fingal district.
The Van Diemen’s Land Company of London Share-
holders had a grant of 350,000 acres in 1825. They had
150,000 acres at the Surrey Hills, 125,000 at Woolnorth,
50,000 at Emu Bay, 10,000 at Hampshire Hills, &c. The
Circular Head was their great agricultural establish-
ment. Thcir tenants have, generally speaking, farms of
TISIIIIII.
Average
per acre.
Yield for
1873.
Variation
of prices.
Machines.
Want of
market.
Hop-_
growing.
Apple
country.
Van
Diemen’l
Land
COMP"!-


332 nmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmnmn.
TASIIIIII.
Rich land
N.W.
Indian
settlement.
Good
farms.
Help for
roads.
Pnsronnn.
Scrubs and
forest.
Not the
Australian
style.
the richest soil, though the land is commonly covered at
first with heavy timber.
It is the density of the scrub, or the thickness of trees,
which is the difliculty with Tasmanian farmers. On the
north-west, where the earth is rich, the timber is removed
with great difliculty. But when that productive district
is opened up by the railway from Launceston to the
Mersey, no place in the colonies will present greater at-
tractions for country settlement. To such a country
Capt. Crawford directs the attention of his Indian brother
olficers, especially to Castra.
The Huon River has wonderful depth of soil on its
banks, with trees 200 ft. to the first branch. Many
Germans are now located on land once purchased by
Lady Franklin there. The Denison and Shefiield Plains
are highly recommended. Near Ringarooma, to the
north-east, is a rich basaltic earth, which is also to be
found on the Dorset Table-land.
The charms of residing on a farm in such a. delightful
country counterbalauces in no small degree the difficul-
ties of a good market. Mr. Crawford lately reported
90,500 acres of first-class land open for agricultural
selection, 395,600 of second-class, and 874,499 of third-
rate kind. One-third of the land fund is appropriated
to road-making, the Government giving 601. to every
ls. raised by the settlers.
Pastoral.
The colony was never a pastoral one. There are open
plains, and some open forest, but of limited extent. The
prevalence of impracticable scrub, dense woods, barren
rocks, and lofty mountains, is much against stock keep-
ing. It is no small difliculty to gather in a mob of cattle,
or collect a scattered flock of sheep.
The best places were selected by the early grantees;
whose farms, though now enclosed, are still the depas-
turing lands of the island. Wool-growers on the north.
ern plains have been very successful, and live in com-
fortable style.
There is but little of the Australian system of squatting.
The Crown lands are not extensively leased. In 1842
there were but 39,000 acres so rented, yielding 6581. a
year to the state. In 1853, owing to the pastoral dis-


334 nmnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
TISIIIII.
,_______
Search for
gold.
Coal leases.
Gold
licenses.
Gold
returns.
Coal mines.
anxiety has been exhibited by the Government to have
a paying gold-field, and a good export of coal.
The mining regulations are liberal. A large reward
has been offered for the finding of a thoroughly working
gold-field. Fingal, Brandy Creek or Beaconsfield, Back
Cr., Mt. Arthur, Mt. Meredith, and Pieman's R. have gold.
Leases are granted of from 20 to 320 acres of coal
ground, and of from 20 to 80 acres of other mineral land.
The length of the selection cannot be more than four
times the width. While the rental for coal-bearing land
1's but half-a-crown an acre, that for other mineral areas
is five shillings. The lease is for twenty-one years,
though an extension of fourteen years may be subse-
quently obtained. In 1884 were 21 leases on 4,709 acres.
Gold is rapidly developing; licenses are regularly
issued for its working, a miner’s right being 5s. a year.
The gold districts are as beautiful as healthful. The
cost of surveys of auriferous land varies from 25s. for
less than two acres to 5l. 13s. for fifty acres.
Quartz claims may be from 100 to 4410 yards long,
and from 80 to 100 broad. Gold leases are for 10 years.
The leading working claims are of quartz, and now in
many districts. There were in 1884, 325 leases granted
for 3,243 acres. Of miners’ rights, 1,306 were issued, and
40 business licenses. The fees realised 4,60-31.; with 269
men on the alluvial diggings, 38,3821. of gold was pro-
duced. The yield from quartz-crushing was 15 dwts.
9 gr. per ton; and 1,164 men raised 138,060l. worth.
The value of the gold in 1884. was 160, 404=l. In February
1879, 270 tons quartz yielded 1,160 ounces.
Coal ought, one would imagine, to be of more com-
mercial importance than it has been. But the fields are
difiicult of access. The bituminous product of the east
coast cannot be made so available as is wished, owing to
the approach being simply an open roadstead. The
Mersey coal is easier reached, while that of Jerusalem
and other inland fields is too far away from a port.
In olden times the thick beds of anthracite at Port
Arthur were wrought by convicts; the coal was then
sold in Hobart Town at about 8s. a ton. The yield for
the year 1883 was 8,872 tons. Of that quantity, 2,932
came from New Town, Hobart Town; 1,200 Ballahoo;
900 Sherwood; 1,200 York ; 2,210 Jerusalem; 330
Adventure Bay.


nuns AND mmuncrunrs. 335
Iron promises to be an important source of wealth.
Mr. Gould calculated that 700,000 tons of hematite were
easily obtainable at Ilfracombe, on the north coast. The
ore there and by the Tamar cannot pay with labour high.
A valuable lode of the same crops out in other parts also.
The iron of the Severn and Forth will be of future value.
Good specular iron may be wrought in the Dial range.
Nodules of pyrites are gathered on the islands of
D‘Entrecasteaux Channel. Red and brown hematite
is found with peroxide near the Blythe, and on the
Hellyer. Mount Ramsay bismuth lode is 40 feet wide.
Tin in rich lodes and sand is known at Mount Bischoif
and Mount Heemskirk, N.W., where the wash dirt is
thirty feet thick. Antimony is also seen there. Some tin
nuggets are several hnndredweight each. Silver lead is
known at the Forth in a seam one foot thick. Man nese
and zinc are at Penguin creek, to the north-west. Eiathat
creek, also, were specimens of copper. Plumbago is seen
on the Norfolk plains, at the Den, Spring Boy, and Mount
Bischofi'. The tin exports for 1884 came to a total
value of 2301,4231.
Bismuth exists in an enormous lode ; while copper
and antimony ores will pay. Freestone and slate are
being exported.
Trade and Manufactures.
The ports of Hobart Town and Launceston are nearly
equal in their trade; for, though the former is the capi-
tal, the latter is nearer Australia. As it was many years
before a good road connected the two, the trade of the
north side was conducted independently of that of the
south. The commercial jealousy of the two ports is seen
in the distinct returns of their imports and exports in the
yearly Government bl ue-book.
_ While the inward tonnage of Hobart Town in 1883
was 121,443, that of Launceston was 87,353. Of the total
vessels, there cleared out 255 of 129,642 tons, at Hobart
Town, and 393 of 111,388 at Launceston. The tonnage
inwards of the colony was 230,092, in 657 ships ; in
1884, 304,574 tons, in 696 ships.
The shipping trade has had some changes since 1822,
when the tonnage was 16,987. Just before the gold era,
TISIIIII.
Iron very

pl'0l11lS1Dg.
Tin
workings.
Exports
1301,4231.
Mining
leases.
TRADE.
Two ports.
Tonnage.


336 umnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
TISMMIII.
Imports.
Exports.
Whaling.
Bank
deposits.
Decline.
Colonial
trade of
north and
south.
in 1850, it was 104,017. But three years after it rose to
198,612. The dream of wealth was not destined to be
realised. In 1865 the tonnage fell below what it had
been before the gold discovery. In 1872, it was 102,379.
The imports and exports tell a similar tale.
The imports of 1822 came to 22,2141. In 1851 they
were 64l,6091. Under the inspiration of auriferous times,
they ascended to 2,604,6801. in 1854. After that they
gradually declined; being 1,068,4l11. in 1860; 762,3751.
in 1865; 778,0871. in 1871; and but 1,656,l181. in 1884.
The exports for 1824 were valued at 14,5001. In 1839
they were 875,l651. ; in 1851, 665,7901. ; in 1853,
1,756,3l61.; in 1860, 962,1’/'01.; in 1865, 880,9651.; in
1872, 910,6331.; yet the exports mounted during the
year 1884 to 1,475,8571. The whaling trade brought
135,2101. in 1837; but in 1883 the oil yielded only 19,7941.
In like manner the banks held coin to the amount of
1,340,3521. in the good year of 1853; 280,5031. in 1860;
174,3571. in 1865; but rose to 257,1351. in June 1873.
The bank assets on Jan. 1, 1885, were 3,986,3761.
As the population has varied but little for the last
dozen years, it may be presumed that the circumstances
of the colonists are not so good as they were. The loss
of the expenditure by the Commissariat has also
affected trade. The arrest of transportation in 1853 re-
duced the Home Government outlay in the island from
309,1381. to 6,7521. in 1883.
The colony is now inferior in many ways to Victoria,
which was indebted to the little island for its first flocks
and its first inhabitants.
For Launceston the exports were 822,9241., and
the imports 756,9471.; Circular Head had 8,0681. and
4,7851. ; Emu Bay, 6,0481. and 48,2881. ; Ulverstone,
8,7811. and 3,1211. ; Torquay, 31,0751. and 22,6201.
The Launceston side showed 985,7861. and 997,7591.,
while the Hobart side gave 745,8l31. and 834,8781.
Trade with Victoria came to 1,496,3721.
The following items of export in 1877 will show the re-
lation of these to the north and south sides of the islands.
Hobart‘; Town Lauugeston
Flour . - 722 2, 47 1
Jams. . . 100,069 501
Green fruit . . 44,001 2,718 ,


TRADE AND MANUFACTURES. 337
Hobn£rt Town Launcgston
Hides . . 2.193 4--451
Hops . . . 36,457 2,486
Oil . . . 33,547 305
Timber . . 53,612 19.-237
Gold . . 1.393 25,061
W001. . . 299,514 223,371
But Tasmania, if not so rich as it hoped to be, es-
pecially since the Victorian tariff has almost closed the
door to its produce, is comfortable in circumstances, and
in the enjoyment of more solid peace and real happiness
than it was in the prosperous times twenty years ago.
The five banks had, in Dec. 1883, assets of 3,512,6l8l.
The Hobart Town and Launceston Savings’ Banks had
assets of 4141,5031. at the beginning of 1885. The sub-
marine telegraph to Victoria is landed at Cape Otway.
To encourage local manufactures, the Government has
adopted the Victorian system of bonuses and a protective
tariff. Corn sacks and wool sacks, salt, beet sugar, and
woollen stnfis have their manufactures encouraged by
bonuses up to 2,000l. In 1884 were 3,489 works and trades.
Railways and good roads promote the trade of the
colony. The rail from Launceston to Deloraine has
been open some years. That from Deloraine to the
Mersey is proceeding; and another, 120 miles long, now
unites the northern and southern capitals, but is not
successful. In 1885, 230 miles were open.
The TARIFF of the island is rather high, and is largely
protective. On goods not named below, an ad valorem
duty of ten per cent. is levied.
Spirits are charged 12s. per gallon, and wine 6s.,
though wine in wood will pass for 4s. Malt liquors
are at 6d. per gallon wood, or ls. 3d. bottled. Methy-
lated spirits pay 3s. per gallon ; perfumed, 18s.
Sugar is 6s. per cwt. ; tea, 3d. per 1b.; c0fi'ee and
cocoa, 3d. and 4d. ; spices, 4d. ; hops, hams, bacon,
cheese, butter, candles, pepper, mustard, sago, macaroni,
&c., at 2d. ; soap, glue, and starch, 1cZ.; dried fruits, 2111.;
rice, pearl and Scotch barley, rape seed, dried fish,
and paints, §d.; perfumed soap, 3d. ;’ wool bags, 4d.;
lead, 3s. 6d. per cwt.; nails, 2s. 6d. ; iron bolts and
camp ovens, 2s. 6d.; iron wrought castings, 1s.; iron
fencing, 9d. ; chalk, 9d. ; plaster of Paris, 9d. ; molasses,
z
USIIIIIII.
Still good
times.
Banking.
Bonus for
manufac-
tures.
Railways.
Tariff.
Duties.


338 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
TASMMIII.
Duties.
LAND
LAws.
01a system.
3s. 611.; salt, ls. 6d. ; coals, ls.; grain, 10d. per 100 lbs. ;
beef and mutton, 1s. 6d. ; tobacco, 3s. per lb. ; cigars and
snuff, 5s. ; tobacco for sheep-wash, 3d. ; gunpowder, 6d.
Carriages on two wheels are rated at 51., and on
four wheels, ]Ol.; doors and wood mouldings, 20 per
cent. ; paper bags and agricultural tools, 5 ; other
tools, 10.
Among lO per cent. are apparel, boots and shoes, axe
handles, blankets, brooms, boilers, playing cards,
carpets, chandeliers, chinaware, clocks, cloth, coir,
combs, cotton goods and rags, crockeryware, cutlery,
drugs, earthenware, envelopes, feathers, fireworks, fish
in tins, calico, fruits bottled, furniture, furs, galvanised
iron and zinc, glass, gloves, guns, haberdashery, har-
moniums, harness, hats, hemp, iron hollow-ware, hosiery,
ironmongery, jams, jute, lamps, leather goods, linen,
mats, oil-cloth, oilmen’s stores, room paper, perfumery,
pistols, salt pork, iron pots, rugs, whips, woollen goods.
Watches, jewellery, gold and silver plate, 12% per cent.
In the early times there was a much simpler tariff.
The only exports were whale oil and whalebone, with
seal skins and oil. The imports were confined mostly to
necessaries. Should Victoria and Tasmania be joined in
commercial relations, the tariffs will be further altered.
An anxiety to retain the island population disposes
rulers to make a tariff to encourage industries.
Among the articles exempted are manures, trees,
horses, pigs, poultry, hay, grasses, canvas, boats, anchors,
ice, printed books and maps, ink and type, railway
plant, steam-engines, hides, iron bridges, works of art,
ores of metals, unmanufactured steel and tin, slates, and
specimens of natural history.
Land Laws and Immigration.
The old land system of the colony was similar to that
in New South Wales, and grants were made of areas
proportionate to the capital one brought into the country,
or the number of convicts the party felt willing to em-
ploy. Sales were afterwards effected, though the upset
prices varied from 50. in 1831 to 128. in l838, and then


Linn) LAWS AND rnnrenarron. 339
20s. an acre in 1842. Of 16,778,000 acres in the island,
only 4,403,885 had been glranted or sold up to 1885.
44,933 were sold in 1878. he area leased was 2,002,872
acres ; averaging ld. per acre. ,
Although the island is of such limited extent, but a
very small amount of it was actually utilised. When,
then, other colonies attracted population by the liberality
of land regulations, it became necessary for Tasmania to
present more tempting ofi'ers for settlers. There were
no more square-mile grants to the new-comer with 5001.,
as in 1828, but there were cash purchasers at land
sales.
In 1863 the principle of selection was introduced. A
man could select 320 acres, and by paying 4s. an acre
cash, he could have eight years in which to pay the
balance of the pound, though one-fifth of the purchase
was added to the amount by way of interest. But,
though some 13,000,000 of acres were open to selection, it
was admitted that not half thereof was fair land.
At present, some parts are open at 5a. an acre on
twelve years’ rental. Agricultural land is 11. an acre,
in addition to survey fees, for an area of 320 acres. The
new credit system requires one-eighth cash, and the
balance distributed in thirteen annual payments. In that
case, one-third of the purchase-money is added for in-
terest. The lease is transferable with Government con-
sent. Pastoral land may be had on a fourteen years’ lease,
at a rental determined by the character of the country.
To encourage immigration, land orders were given to
those paying their own passage out. For those over
fifteen years of age the land grant was equal to 181.;
for those under, 91. Cabin or intermediate passengers
could claim 30 acres for themselves, 10 for their wives,
and 5 for each child ; but they must reside five years upon
the land before legal title could be given. A man who
took out a wife and four children, paying steerage pas-
sage, could secure land to the value of 901.
Bounty tickets, obtained in the colony, can bring
out a person with his wife, and all children under twelve,
on the payment of 151. only. If leaving the colony
before four years, repayment of the balance of passage
money is required. Single females are able to go there
on payment of 51. in Europe; men pay 101. Children
HSMAIII.
Three-
fourths
unsold.
Land
selection
Credit
system ovel
fourteen
years
Pastoral
leases.
Land
orders to
immi-
grants.
Bounty
ticketa
I 2


340 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
TRSIMNIA.
\Vages.
l.nlm111'
required.
His-rs.
Healthy
home.
Good for
consump-
tion.
Land of
enjoyment.
over twelve are reckoned as adults. A steady flow of
emigrants is commencing from Europe.
Wages are not quite equal to those prevailing in the
Australian colonies. All classes of labour are less paid.
For this reason it is, perhaps, that the emigrants from
the island have exceeded the immigrants. Most men
regard the cash question before that of mere health and
comfort of life. Germans now emigrate thither.
Yet labour is much required there, although the re-
turns for a ricultural produce will not permit the pay-
ment of the same rates as Victoria can aflbrd. A
man with a family, looking for a healthy and pleasant
home, with wages far in advance of those in Britain,
would do better by going to Tasmania than to many
other places.
Hints to Intending Emigrants to Tasmania.
The advantages of the island, in point of salubrity of
climate and beauty of scenery, are not to be despised.
The maintenance of health, and the enjoyment of a fine
country, are esteemed by many above the mere accu-
mulation of a fortune.
As a home, undoubtedly it has unsurpassed claims.
The editor of the ‘Australasian ’ justly remarked: ‘ In com-
puting the sources of personal happiness and of national
progress, one can scarcely attach too much value to the
possession of a climate so favourable to infant life, and to
the growth and development of healthy childhood and of
vigorous youth, as that of Tasmania.’ Dr. E. S. Hall adds:
‘ Emigrants from Europe with the consumptive tendency,
if not too far gone, soon have the germs of this disease
eradicated, if they observe the necessary laws of health.’
Though the population have neither the energy nor
the refinement to be found in Victoria, there is a vigorous
heartiness, a genuine simplicity, and a kind hospitality
among them, rendering them honest friends and good
neighbours. If not, then, the place in which the most
money can be made, it is pre-eminently the one in which
a little money can be effectually enjoyed.
Worlcing men may do better for themselves by cross-
ing Bass’s Straits, and going to Melbourne, Sydney, or
Brisbane; but theymay not have the pleasure to be gained
on the banks of the Derwent and Tamar. Professional


mscovnnr AND msronr. 343
NEW ZEALAND.
Discovery and History.
To Tasman, the Dutch navigator, is due the honour of
first discovery. After leaving Van Diemen’s Land, in
December 1642, he steered to the eastward, and fell in
with the west coast of New Zealand on January 4, 1643.
He made a rough survey from lat. 34° to 43° S. Land-
ing men for water near what is now known as Nelson,
the Maories killed several of the sailors. The captain,
therefore, named the locality the Bay of Murderers, since
called Massacre Bay. The extreme north-western point
of the island received the appellation of Cape Maria Van
Diemen, after the daughter of the Dutch Governor of
Java.
The Frenchman Marion, who had a contest with the
Tasmanians in 1770, came into collision with the New
Zealanders, who cooked and ate him, as well as sixteen
of his crew. The year after, the wild tribe dined off ten
Englishmen belonging to Captain Furneaux’s ship.
Captain Cook first circumnavigated the Islands in his
three visits, and accurately surveyed the principal bays.
It was on October 16, 1769, that he saw the first land at
Poverty Bay. Greatly interested at all times with native
races, Cook was much struck with the noble appearance
of the Maories, and the superior display of native civilisa-
tion. He evidenced his desire for their good, in his gifts
of the pig and the potato.
The earliest white settlers of the country were sailors,
and some runaway convicts from New South Wales and
Van Diemen’s Land. The beneficial influence of such
intercourse was not obvious in the character of the can-
nibals. Our countrymen formed marriage alliances some-
times with the tatooed tribes, and purchased farms on
very easy terms. Whalers frequented the ports of Cook's
Strait and the Bay of Islands.
Tasman,
1043.
French and
English
sailors
eaten.
Captain
Cook, 1769.
H1s'ro1:\'.
First
settlers of
New
Zealand.


344 rmnnnoox TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW zssmnn.
IEW
ZERLRND.
Massacre of
the Boyd.
Missions to
the
1\l aories.
Relapse of
tribes.
Missions
helped colo-
nisation.
New Zea-
land a de-
pendencyof
New South
¥Va1es.
Baron da
Thierry.
United
chiefs of
New
Zealand.
English
Consul,
1837.
The heathenism and cannibalism of the Maories drew
forth the Christian charity of the Rev. S. Marsden,
chaplain of New South Wales, who attempted to esta-
blish a Mission among them. The fearful massacre, in
1809, of seventy persons who belonged to the ship ‘Boyd,’
delayed the execution of the scheme for five years. Mis-
sionaries of the Wesleyan and Roman Catholic com-
munions followed those of the Church of England, and
the islanders forsook their idols, while their ovens were
defiled no more with human flesh.
The subsequent relapse of some tribes from Chris-
tianity, in the adoption of pagan rites, has been owing
to their hatred of the pakelza, or white man, and not to
religious convictions.
Missionary successes paved the way for true colonisa-
tion. The pastors of native flocks have been charged
with obstructing the work of British settlement. Though
decidedly objecting to the presence of vicious and dis-
orderly countrymen among the coloured converts, the
missionaries undoubtedly promoted the establishment of
English rule in New Zealand.
The country had been appropriated, on parchment, as
early as 1787 as a dependency of New South Wales, by
virtue of Captain Cook having taken possession of it.
And yet, in 1814, any jurisdiction of the kind was re-
pudiated by the Government. In 1820 an eccentric
Frenchman, Baron de Thierry, purchased from two of
the chiefs the barren right of sovereignty over New
Zealand. His Majesty, however, was the subject of
ridicule from his quondam subjects, while his limited
resources but poorly supplied his own table.
In 1830,‘ the tribes that had always hitherto preserved
most jealously their independent existence made an
attempt at a confederation. The King of England,
William 1V., warmly approved of the object ; and, while
disclaiming any right of interference, sent out a national
flag to the ‘ United Chiefs of New Zealand.’
British Government was much required there, owing
to the reckless conduct of many of the European resi-
dents. A consul, or Government resident, Mr. Busby,
was established at the Bay of Islands in 1837. Much
disorder arosc from the irregular purchase of land, as
from continual wars the rightful owner of the soil was


346 nsnmaoon ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEW
lEl|.lND-
Land
claims re-
quire
British in-
terference.
Two oppo-
site views.
Treaty of
Waitangi,
1 840.
Land to be
sold to the
Govern-
ment only.
Colony
established,
May 21,
1840.
Land dif-
ficulties.
Payment
for lam].
The English Government now felt compelled to inter-
fere, and sent Captain Hobson to New Zealand. Already
there existed claims of Englishmen for land, these
amounting to far more than the total acreage of the
country. For the protection of British subjects, and the
prevention of war, some negotiation was necessary.
A very diificult question had to be settled. Lord John
Russell, in 1840, declared ‘ The British Statute-book has
in the present century, in three distinct enactments,
declared that New Zealand is not a part of the British
dominions.’ On the other hand, it was contended by
Mr. Buller, that ‘God gave the earth to man to use-
not to particular races.’
Captain Hobson, with the help of the missionaries,
gathered a large number of native chiefs together. Not
less than 312 chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, in
the early part of 1840, during a progress through the
country from north to south.
This treaty stipulated that the sovereignty of the
island should belong to the Queen, but the land to the
natives. As they expressed it, ‘She was to have the
shadow and they the substance.’ Land was to be sold
to the Government only, and afterwards disposed of by
the State to immigrants.
On May 21, 1840, Captain Hobson proclaimed New
Zealand an English dependency, and exhibited his own
authority to act as Lieutenant-Governor thereof, under
the superior orders of the Governor of New South Wales.
A year afterwards, the country was declared independent
of the parent Australian Colony.
Then came the investigation and settlement of land
claims. The New Zealand Company, the actual founders
of this British colony, put in a claim for twenty millions
of acres. The Crown compromised, by the bestowal of four
times as many acres as the company had expended pounds
in their enterprise, and gave compensation to native
claimants whose rights had been overlooked, as the
Wellington blocks had been bought of the wrong
tribe.
In this way the thousands of persons who had paid
for laud were enabled at last to get possession of farms,
and the Colony became securely established in 1841. But
for the land sold by Government at 20s. an acre the


348 mmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEW
ZEALMID.
Native
difiiculties
at an end.
Settlement
of Auck-
land and
Welling-
ton.
Otago by
F e
r e
Church,
1848.
Owe»
Crown
Colony,
1 852.
Canterbury
Associa-
tion, 1849.
Crown
Colony,
1852.
French set-
tlement in
Canter-
bury.
One central
Legislation.
Geo-
ennui.
fulfilment of certain conditions of the Treaty of Waitangi
so long neglected by the Government. The Maories, too,
have felt themselves ignored in the new constitution
granted to the Colony.
The more recent disputes and conflicts with the
natives need not be described here. They involved the
country in much expense and anxiety, and seriously
retarded its progress. Firmness and justice have, how-
ever, greatly removed any further cause for alarm. The
Maories, unhappily, are rapidly decreasing in number;
and the white population are above a dozen times as
many as the coloured.
Auckland was chiefly settled from New South Wales,
and Wellington by settlers from Great Britain.
The Free Church of Scotland sought, in 1848, to estab-
lish a New Zealand settlement, upon restrictive religious
views. Nearly half a million acres were taken up near
Port Otago. The land was to be sold at 2l. an acre;
one-eighth of the proceeds was spent on schools and
churches, one-eighth for emigration, and the rest on the
purchase from the New Zealand Company, etc. But the
difliculty of cash payments to the British Government,
according to their charter, obliged the Company to yield
in 1852, when Otago became a Crown Colony.
In 1849 a Church of England Association attempted to
form the model Canterbury Colony. Two millions of acres
were bought in the South Island. The land was sold at
3Z. an acre. The company devoted a third of the proceeds
of land sales to emigration purposes, and one-third for
schools and churches; the balance went to pay for the
purchase, and for road-making. Inability to pay a few
thousands owing to the British treasury obliged the
Company to surrender their territory, in December 1852 ;
since which time Canterbury has been a Crown Colony.
The French Company that had settled Banks’ Penin-
sula failed about the same time, and their lands were
united to Canterbury province.
The union of the Islands under one head and one
central Legislature has been favourable to their progress.
Geography and Climate.
New Zealand consists of two large islands, and several
smaller ones, of which Stewart, to the south, is the


350 HANDBOOK ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEVI
ZEALMID.
South
Island no
craters.
Lakes.
North Is-
land crater
lakes.
South Is-
land lakes.
Rzvers.
West coast
South Is-
land, small
rivers
Wcstland County includes some of the loftiest of the
Alps. Otago has an elevated district around its western
lakes, with mountains 8,000 ft. and more. Earnslaw is
10,000 ft. Ben Nevis is near lake Wakatipu. Umbrella
range and Dunstan range are in Otago. The South
Island has no volcanic hills.
Lakes.
North Island lakes are almost all ancient craters filled
with water. Taupo is thirty-six by twenty miles. Rotorua
is seven across, and Waikari is thirty round. The volcanic
centre abounds in warm lakes and sulphurous lakes.
Rotomahana, a hot water basin, is surrounded by geysers,
boiling mud ponds, and steaming waterfalls. Wairarapa
lake is near Port Nicholson.
South Island has several very large and deep mountain
lakes, some of which are thought to have been formed
by the ice of glaciers. Ellesmere or Waihora, of Canter-
bury, may be called a sea lake. Coleridge is seven miles
wide; Brunner is near Hokitika westward.
On the borders of Canterbury and Otago, and in
central Otago, are many noble lakes—as Hawea, Wanaka,
and Wakatipu. In South Island the lakes are more
numerous than in the North one. Some of the alpine
lakes have been estimated at nearly a thousand feet deep.
Rivers.
The streams in the North Island, and on the west side
of the South Island, are numerous, though generally
short.
The Waikato from Lake Taupo is 250 miles long; the
Waipa is its chief tributary. The Thames, further east,
runs nearly parallel to it into the Frith of Thames.
The Wanganui, Hutt, and Wairarapa are in the Welling-
ton Province. The Mokau is in Taranaki.
The South Island has some fine rivers on the eastern
side. The Wairau falls into Cloudy Bay. The Avon,
Kakaia, Ashby, Ashburton, Selwyn, and Rangitota are
in Canterbury. The Waitaki is between Canterbury
and Otago. The Taieri and the Clutha or Molyneux are
in Otago.
The West coast has only small streams. The Buller
is in Nelson. The Grey is the southern border of Nelson.


BAYS.—-CAPES.—ISLANDS. 351
The Hokitika is in Westland. Jacob’s river and New
river are in Southland.
Bays.
North Island has three large bays: Gulf of Hauraki,
Bay of Plenty, and Hawke’s Bay. The Bay of Islands
is to the north-east. Hokianga. is west of it. Manukan.
Harbour leads up to Auckland from the west, and
Waitemata from the east. The Frith of Thames is east
of Auckland Harbour. Parengaranga Harbour is near
North Cape.
Mercury Bay and Tauranga Harbour are in the Bay
of Plenty. Poverty Bay is north of the eastern Hawke’s
Bay. Wangaroa and Kawia Harbours are north of
Taranaki. Palliser Bay and Port Nicholson are south
of Wellington Province.
Blind Bay, Massacre Bay, Cloudy Bay, and Port
Underwood open into Cook’s Strait on the south side.
Akaroa Harbour is in Banks’ Peninsula of Canterbury,
and Pegasus Bay is north of it. Port Cooper is the
chief harbour of Canterbury. Otago Harbour leads up
to Dunedin. Bluff Harbour is the port of Southland.
The west coast of South Island has scarcely any ports.
The settlements are reached from roadsteads. Martin’s
Bay, Milfordhaven, and Preservation Inlet are in Western
Otago. Paterson Inlet and Port William are in Stewart
Island. Jackson Bay is in West Otago.
Capes.
The Reinga, North Cape, and Maria Van Diemen are
northern extremities. Egmont is the western head land.
Runaway and East Cape are east of the Bay of Plenty.
Kidnapper Point is south of Hawke’s Bay. Cape Palliser
is the south-eastern end of North Island.
Cape Campbell is opposite to Wellington. Farewell
is the north-western end of South Island. Foulwind,
south of Farewell, is on the west coast. The Blufi‘ is
in Southland. Akaroa Head is on Banks’ Peninsula.
Cape Saunders is south of Otago Harbour. South Cape
is the southernmost point of Stewart Isle.
Islands.
Norfolk and Phillip Islands to the north belong to
NEW
ZEALAND.
Bays.
Roadsteads
st
on we
coast.
Capes.
Islands.


cnmun. 3.23
Christchurch, the capital of Canterbury, is eight III
miles from the port Lyttleton, and Akaroa is the French zm"D'
port of Banks’ Peninsula. Kaiapoi is on the Courtenay.
Dunedin, capital of Otago, 9 m. from port Chalmers.
Invercargill, Southland, is 20 miles from Bluif port.
The distances of the principal places are here given :—- Dl~‘*"1"°"
Akaroa to Lyttleton .
Albertland to Auckland .
Arrow River to Dunedin .
Ashburton to Christchurch
Auckland to New Plymouth
Cambridge to Auckland .
Clyde or Dunstan to Dunedin
Collingwood to Nelson .
Coromandel to Auckland .
Drury to Auckland .
Dunedin to Christchurch .
Grahamstown to Auckland
Greymouth to Hokitika .
Hokianga to Auckland -
Hokitika to Nelson .
Hokitika to Christchurch .
Hutt to Wellington .
Howick to Auckland .
Kingston to Dunedin .
Manchester to Wellington
Molyneux to Dunedin .
Mount Ida to Dunedin .
Napier to Wellington .
New Plymouth to Auckland
Oamaru to Dunedin .
Cnehunga to Auckland .
Oxford to Christchurch .
Queenstown to Dunedin
Palmerston to Dunedin
Riverton to Invercargill
Russell to Auckland
Shortland to Auckland
Taieri to Dunedin
Tauranga to Auckland
Timaru to Christchurch
Westport to Nelson
Wellington to Nelson
Wanganui to Wellington
The CLIMATE of a country a thousand miles in length, CLIMATB
0
0
0
30 miles of tow“
50 n
210 ,,
55 n
140 ,,
104 ,,
150 ,,
76 »
30 n
22 »
200 ,,
35 n
25 .,
180 ,,
240 ,,
150 ,,
9 ..
14 ,,
250 ,,
75 ,,
75 ..
90 n
290 ,,
120 ,,
80 n
6 II
40 ,,
220 ,,
35 .-
26 ,-
140 ,,
50 »
6 »
150 ,,
100 ,,
140 ,,
150 ,,
130 ,,
with lofty mountains and broad plains, cannot be expected
to be uniform. While one portion is in the latitude of pique
Sydney, and another is fourteen degrees nearer the Pole, Inlwh =18
the temperature is far from being equal. The south- ‘° P1“"""°'
AA


354 nmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND new zmnmn.
IEI
IEILAIID .
Hot winds.
Mild in
North
Island.
South Is-
land much
cooler.
Ice and
snow there.
Climate of
the Canter-
buryPlains.
western coast, exposed to stormy sea breezes, must have
a higher amount of humidity than the country sheltered
by the lofty Southern Alps. The warm sun and balmy
airs of the North are not to be experienced among the
glaciers of Mount Cook. Captain Drury speaks of eight
atmospheric districts in the colony.
The heat in the summer months is so tempered by the
sea-breezes, as never to be so unpleasant as in corre-
sponding latitudes on the continent of Australia. The
fiery breath of the latter is unknown in the flax laud,
unless it be in the dry summer blasts of Otago and
Canterbury interior. The vast marshes, broad lakes,
dense forests, and many ranges of the warmer North
Island tend to ameliorate the fervour of the sun.
Hawke’s Bay has the best climate.
The South Island, less timbered and with fewer
marshes and lakes, has its summer temperature modi-
fied by the cold currents from the Alps of 12,000 feet,
not less than by the frigid airs from antarctic icebergs.
Stewart Isle and the storm-beaten islets beyond have
no sultry seasons to sigh over.
Cold is almost unknown in the North Island, except
during the prevalence of south-westerly gales at Wel-
lington. During the wet weather, so common on the
western shore, shivering sensations are not uncommon.
Snow lies for weeks together upon the plateaux of Otago,
and substantial ice is trodden by the men of Southland.
Even the plains of Canterbury are covered with snow
for two or three months of winter. In both islands most
of the lofty peaks are never free from white caps.
Canterbury, taken as a province, experiences the great-
est vicissitudes of temperature. The winds which pass
over its extensive plains are very cold in winter, and hot
in summer. The prevailing breezes, coming from the
west, must pass over the lofty, snowclad Alps; and,
though, reasonably enough, they are cold in winter, it
was not so apparent why they were so hot in summer.
But as the hot winds of Australia are felt in Tasmania,
it has been held that they might also visit New Zealand.
It is said that the warm airs rise when passing over the
cool surface of the ocean, but descend when brought
over the warmer earth. It is certain that the sirocco
raises whirlwinds of dust in Canterbury, as on the plains


CLIMATE. 355
of Australia. Otago, and even Southland, have visits
from these heated western breezes.
Archdeacon Paul refers to the Canterbury Plains as
having ‘ a mixture of the climate of the south of France
and the Shetland Isles.’ On Christmas Day, 1872, the
thermometer was 92°'3 in the shade at Christchurch of
Canterbury. The cold of winter, 1876, was 12°'6.
Nelson only suffers in a lesser degree, being better
favoured with sea breezes. Hawke’s Bay, on the con-
trary, being sheltered from these cool winds by the
Ruahine Mountains, is a hotter province in summer,
while its limestone rocks reflect the heat still more.
The Northern Island, being so much more wooded
than the South, has, upon the whole, a more equable
climate. The elevated, volcanic district in the centre,
in spite of its numerous hot springs, is not without its
frost and snow. New Plymouth, though with a seaboard,
is not favoured as Auckland town with water on both
sides, and has a wider range of temperature.
Observations made at Bealey, in lat. 43°, on the slope
of the Alps, at an elevation of 2,104 feet, point out, as
might be expected, a lower winter thermometer than at
places several degrees more to the south. Hokitika, on
the coast, not far from the latitude of Bealey, has a
much milder winter and a cooler summer. Invercargill,
though 11° farther south than Auckland, has even hotter
days in summer. In 1877 it was 157° in the sun.
The official returns for 1871 will afl'0rd the reader the
opportunity of comparing the temperature of certain
towns, though learning little by that means of the climate
of the several provinces. The thermometrical readings
were as follows :—
Mean Maximum Minimum Range
58'5 83‘2 34'0 49'2
56'3 82'6 29'0 53'6
58'0 86'0 34'0 52'0
54'6 78'5 33'9 44'6
46'8 79'2


.
n
Napier ,
Weflington .
Nelson .
Christchurch .
Bealey .
HOklt1kB 0
55'1 84'0 28'0 56'O
86'9
52'0 24'9
17'0
29‘2
30‘0
2l'0
62‘0
62'?
47'7
65'0
65'0
74='9
8-5‘0
86'0
53'1
50'3
50'0
Southland (in .46”)
Auckland
New_ Plymouth
Dunedin

IEI
ZEILIIIL
Of Nelson
and
Hawkc’s
Bay.
North Is-
l d
an more
equable
than Sou th
Island.
Besley and
Hokitika.
Invercar-
gill and hot
summers.
Tempera-
ture of
different
towns.
AA
2


356 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEI
ZEILAIII.
Rain.
Relative
moisture.
Westland
W et.
Snow days.
Rainfall in
the year.
\Vest side
flve times
as wet as
east
The mean temperature of Auckland, after 13 years’
observations, is ascertained to be 60'3°; Wellington,
from 10 years, 55'7°; Nelson, 16 years, 55°; Christ-
church, 11 years, 55'1°; Dunedin, 15 years, 50'7°; Marl.
borough, 5 years, 534° ; Hokitika, 10 years, 54°.
In 1876 Auckland averaged 60'0; Napier, 594;
Nelson, 55'9; Hokitika, 5410 ; Dunedin, 51'5. The
mean of the North Island was 582; and of the South
Island, 5412. Dunedin shade, 1884, from 30° to 84°.
The temperature, therefore, of New Zealand gene-
rally may be prononnced decidedly agreeable. But the
humidity of some parts is unpleasant, and on the west
coast of the South Island is obstructive to agriculture.
The east coast of both Islands is by no means troubled
with an excess of moisture, having a less quantity than
the Australian shores. Hokitika had 136 in. fall, 1877.
The Alps shield the plains of Canterbury from the
clouds, as the Ruahine hills do for Hawke’s Bay District.
Nelson is more sheltered than New Plymouth. The Bay
of Islands has far less rain than Auckland, while Wan-
ganui has more than its neighbour Wellington.
Westland is not only wet, but foggy. The coast lower
down, toward the south-west corner, has excessive rain-
fall. Most of this rain comes in the winter, though
summer is by no means dry. There fell 13 in. at
Pakawau, Golden Bay, in 1872, during 12 hours.
The snow days in 1877 were 3 in Wellington; 0 in
Nelson; 4 in Christchurch; 0 in Hokitika; 7 in Dune-
din ; 4 in Invercargill; and 22 in Bealey. In June,
1873, the snow was 15 inches thick for 5 days in South-
land. Dunedin had only 5 snow days in 1884.
1875 gave the following results of rainfall :-
Auckland . . 51-310 inches in 200 days
Taranaki . . 66‘!->60 ,, 169 ,,
Napier . . 38'260 ,, 144 ,,
Wellington . . 65-827 ,, 176 ,,
Nelson . . . 69'070 ,, 106 ,,
Christchurch . . 32'3l0 ,, 135 ,,
Hokitika . - . 130790 ,, 186 ,,
Dunedin . . . 42-631 ,, 158 ,,
Invercargill . . 44180 ,, 201 ,,
For 1877 the oflicial figures stood thus :—
Auckland . . 40'37 inches in 203 days
Taranaki . . 52 ,, 173 ,,


cum-.rr.. 357
Napier . . . 33-450 inches in 108 days
Wellington . . 51-92 ,, 151 ,,
Nelson . , . 4852 ,, 85 ,,
Christchurch . . 23'72 ,, 117 ,,
Hokitika. . . 136‘66 ,, 214 ,,
Dunedin . . . 37‘46 ,, 134 ,,
Invercargill . . 4315 ,, 222 ,,
The winds are boisterous enough off the western and
southern shores, and the tempestuous seas of those
neighbourhoods are thoroughly appreciated by voyagers.
Co0k’s Strait and Fouveaux Strait have an unenviable
notoriety for blasts. The course of the winds, as else-
where in the Southern Hemisphere, is with the sun, or
contrary to the hands of a watch. By far the most
common wind is west-south-west. In Cook’s Strait,
owing to the land, there are but two directions in which
the winds blow, north-west and south-east.
In Port Cooper, of Canterbury, the summer sea breezes
are from the north-east in the day, and the light ones
from the south-west at night. In winter the prevalent
ones are the south-east at sea and the south-west on
land. The north-west is the hot or cold plains’ wind.
On the west coast of the North Island it is fine from
November to April. South-east winds are experienced
often in June and July. North-west winds are twice as
common as south-east, and south-west twice as many
as the rest. Wellington, or Port Nicholson, is much
troubled with boisterous weather. Landing at western
ports is sometimes a source of real danger, from the heavy
surf rolling in after rough breezes outside.
To show the windy character of some parts, it may be
stated that in 1876 the number of calm days in the year
was 89 for Queenstown, 97 for Dunedin, 45 for Bealey,
86 for Wanganui, 0 for Auckland, 13 for Christchurch,
1 for Wellington, and no calm day for Invercargill, Nel-
son Taranaki, and Hokitika. Wellington had 30, 1884.
In Auckland the winds with a westerly direction blew
161 days in the year 1876, and with easterly, 119. In
Napier they were 109 to 151 ; in Wellington, 198 to
166; Christchurch, 191 to 168; Dunedin, 137 to 107;
Hokitika, 134 to 178; Southland, 208 to 138.
The barometer is very variable in some parts of the
coat of New Zealand, as off Tierra del Fuego. It may
go down verv low without an observable change of
NEW
ZEILMID.
Winds.
Course of
wind in
Southern
Hemi-
sphere with
the sun.
Change of
winds.
West
prevalent.
Barometer
action.


358 mmnsoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmnn.
IEI
ZEALMID.
Thunder
days.
Fags.
Earth-
q nakes in
Cook’s
Strait.
Earth-
quake dayl.
Often wet
and windy.
Place for
healthy
children.
GEOLOGY.
Difference
in the two
islands.
weather. Rain and storm may come with a high glass,
and the finest days with a low one. The barometer rises
on the west coast of North Island when the wind is from
the south or east, and falls with the north and north-
west. At Hawke’s Bay it rises with the north-east,
south-east and south, but falls with north and west.
Electrical phenomena vary much as to place. The
thunder clouds of Cook's Strait run from south-east
to north-west. The thunder days of I877 were but 7
at Taranaki, 14 at Auckland, I5 at Hokitika, 15 at
Invercargill, I2 at Bealey, 8 at Wellington, and 5
at Napier. Fogs were 25 Hokitika, 21 Bealey, I1
Auckland, 7 Dunedin, 3 Wellington.
Earthquakes are thought to have a climatic influence.
In C00k’s Strait they occur, perhaps, a dozen times a
year. Though troublesome, and even terrifying, they
are comparatively harmless. In 1848, however, houses
reeled at Wellington and fell, while for months more or
less disturbance was experienced. Earthquakes occurred
during I877 in 45 different places. In I877 shocks
were felt at Wellington on twelve days, at Wanganui
on four, and at Christchurch and Dunedin on one day.
Wellington, during 1884, had 11 earthquakes.
On the whole it may be safely asserted that, for the
British constitution, a more bracing climate than this
colony cannot be had. Without the bitter cold of
Canadian winter, or its parching heat of summer, and
unlike Australia, in sweltering heat and frequent drought,
New Zealand has many attractions for the farmer in its
weather, though the traveller may object to its frequent
showers and blustering winds. Delicate frames would
find, perhaps, the brighter skies of Australia. more con-
genial; but for rosy, healthy children, the land of ferns
is first in the world. While the death-rate for England
is 22, that of New Zealand in 1884 was stated to be
10% in the 1,000, or double the health value.
" Geology.
The Geology of New Zealand is as interesting as that
of any country in the world.
The two Islands, though separated by the narrow
Cook’s Strait, are singularly different in many respects.
The North is essentially volcanic, and the South is


enonoer. 3.29
r
crystalline and primary. The North has elevated volcanic
cones, and the South has long ranges of lofty mountains
of slate and granite. The centre of the North Island is
a mass of craters, boiling springs, lava, and sulphur.
The central parts of the South Island have hardly a
trace of igneous action.
The geological difl'erence gives a different landscape
to the traveller. In the basalt of Banks’ Peninsula
and Otago Harbour only will he behold in the South the
romantic scenery so often presented in the volcanic
country of the North. The beauty of the western coast
of the North Island is strikingly brought out in the
elevations of lava hills. The solemn grandeur of the
primitive rocks is made apparent to the voyager by the
Alps of the South.
There are, nevertheless, points of resemblance between
the two. Both contain beds of true coal, and of tertiary
or Bovey coal. Both have gold and copper workings.
But while the gold of the North is almost confined to
the valley of the Thames, that of the South is seen in
every province; being found in the north, east, south,
west, and middle.
Perhaps it may still with truth be said that, though
New Zealand is altogether only about the size of Great
Britain, and has been known to the Europeans so many
years, not much of the area has been sufliciently ex-
plored to determine its geology accurately.
The Primary formations are to be seen in the south
and west of the North Island, forming mainly the Pro-
vince of Wellington. They are far from being pro-
ductive there. In the valley of the Thames and on the
Coromandel Peninsula they are fertile in metals. Meta-
morphic rocks are chiefly seen in south Silurian beds.
In South Island the primary constitute the main
country of Nelson, Marlborough, Otago, and Westland
county. The mighty Alps, rising 13,000 ft. and running
through the Island, as another Andes, beside the western
sea, are formed of slates, sandstones, and limestone of
Silurian ages, often very highly metamorphosed. There
are also many mountains of granite there.
The strong stony bulwark of the south-west coast is
of the slates and granites. The intermediate land from
the Alps to the Otago eastern bays is of the ancient
III
Zilllllll.
Effect on
the land-
scape.
Similarity
of geology.
Primary
rocks of
North
Island.
Primary of
South
Island


Grower. 361
for a tertiary covering. The fertile Oamara district of
Otago rests upon a tertiary limestone. Other farming
land at Timaru and Caversham is indebted to that age.
Syenitic granite débris rests in south-west Otago. A
drift, forty miles by ten, stretches from the Buller to Lake
Brunner. Eocene fossils are 9 per cent. of existing kinds.
Septarian boulders, of limestone in clay, strew the
beach north of Dunedin. Lacustriue remains are found
north of the Clutha; while, in the basin of Invercargill,
they cover an area of thirty by twelve miles.
The celebrated Canterbury Plains, reaching from the
sea to the foot of the Alps, are of glacial production in
the pliocene period. Already thirty terraces have been
counted in the ascent of the plains. A vast number of
years must have passed while glaciers, from twenty to
eighty miles in length, carried down those moraines,
now recognised as horizontal terraces.
At that time the island must then have had the appear-
ance Greenland now has. For the country to have had
such enormous glaciers, as we detect from the moraines,
the elevation must have been considerable. The longest
glacier of the New Zealand Alps at present is Tasman,
from Mount Cook, and it is eighteen miles in extent.
Large moraines are to be seen near Hokitika and other
parts of the west coast. The glaciers are after bordered
by luxuriant and even semi-tropical vegetation. Wake»
tipu lake of Otago, 1,400 ft. deep, is the effect of glacial
erosion, says Capt. Hutton. _
The Canterbury covering may be called a pleistocene
alluvial derived from the glacial action. Floods still
bring down much débris on those plains. The pleisto-
cene of Timaru rests on a tufa. The dolerite of Mount
Horrible is recent tertiary. The pleistocene shore of
Taranaki is 150 feet above the sea; and the Timaru silt
is 686 feet. Pleistocene glaciers carried down the gold.
In the North Island there 1S a cretaceous and. a yellow
argillaceous deposit at the Bay of Islands, a horizontal
limestone at Tauranga Bay, a sandstone at Auckland, a
calcareous rock at Kawia, a boulder formation south of
Hokianga, a cretaceous cliff at Wanganui, and the débris
of clay slate at the Hutt valley. The two islands were
separated before the pleistocene period.
As volcanic tufa, as conglomerate, as cinder heaps, as
IEI
ZEILIND.
Lacustrine
deposits.
Canterbury
Plains from
glacial
action.
Glaciers
and
moraines.
Pleisto-
cene.
Various
tertiary
deposits.


362 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND-
HEW
ZEILMID.
Volcanic
conglomer-
ate.
Great
volcanic
character-
istics.

Tufa beds.
Signs of
volcanic
action
Active
craters.
lava streams, the North Island is full of tertiary expo-
nents. The Reinga, or land of souls, is of a volcanic
conglomerate, as are the banks of the Waikato and other
rivers.
The Volcanic characteristics of the North Island give
it quite an Icelandic appearance in all but the cold. It
has not, however, such powerfully active and demonstra-
tive craters now in operation, though sufficient to illus-
trate a comparatively recent period of terrific violence.
The whole Island——or certainly one half-of it, must
have been in a convulsive movement at the same time.
But instead of one era of volcanic force, there were
successive displays of this subterranean fury, as modern
deposits of ash and lava rest upon more ancient beds of
the same material. Floods of rain, ever accompanying
eruptions, swept onward and around the discharged tufa-
ceous matter.
The traveller may walk for hundreds of miles, and
scarcely for an hour be oif the track of this fiery shower.
The extreme north of the Island indicates that earth-
quakes and tempests may have thus carried ofl' many
leagues of volcanic country from the length of New
Zealand. Similar indications are noticed at the projecting
eastern point of Taranaki. Extensive denudations of
volcanic deposits have taken place elsewhere.
Lakes in the old crater of Otaua, Bay of Islands, still
bubble up white mud and gas. White Island and Whale
Island are now smoking solfataras. White Island is
said to have 100,000 tons of sulphur easy of access.
Boiling springs, sulphur lakes, mud ponds, and geysers,
are as abundant as in Iceland. Ran gitoto, near Auckland,
has but recently cooled from its discharges.
But Tongariro, in the centre of the Island, rearing up
its head 6,500 feet, continues to pour forth its streams
of lava, or its showers of ash, from three craters out of
the five. When the earthquake of 18541 was shaking
the rocks of Wellington, a side of one of these heaving
craters fell down. Ruapahu, 10,000 feet high, and
twenty-five miles round, was not long since as noisy and
destructive as its neighbour Tongariro.
Egmont, of Taranaki, with its summit of snow, con-
ceals its vast and once turbulent crater from view. But
around, for many miles, lies the witness of its former


cnoroor. 363
deeds. Boto-rua is the centre of a volcanic desolation.
For hundreds of square miles, sterility is as heartless as
in a Sahara.
Lake Taupo, an ancient crater, has lofty cliffs of tra-
chyte; and, though silent awhile itself, reflects upon its
waters the fires of Tongariro. The island has a great
number of lakes whose lava sides tell the old story of
fire. Mt. Tanakira, or Devil’s Thumb, thought once a
volcanic cone, is only recent clay.
Nothing in Iceland can compete with the wonders of
Rotomahana, with its extensive siliceous deposits, the
cascade of boiling water, the smoking sulphurous lakes,
yawning caves, and gaping chasms.
Auckland city, within a dozen miles, has sixty cones
and craters, from 300 to 900 feet high. The harbour
guardian, Rangitoto, may well be calledthe ‘ Sky of Blood ’
by the natives. The craters there have been ages quiet.
The South Island, though with no actual volcano,
and very few extinct ones, can exhibit its scars from
these throes of nature. Tufa may be seen at Oamaru,
and also in Nelson Province, Westland, and to the north
of Invercargill. Auckland and Chatham Is. are volcanic.
Basalt and greenstone. so common in the N orth, can
be traced among the Alps of the South. Banks’ Pe-
ninsula of Canterbury is a chaotic mass of these rocks.
The trappean harbour of Otago is sixteen miles in
length.
According to Dr. Hector, the square miles of formation
in New Zealand are as follows :—

Fluviatile . . . 8,447 north 6,286 south = 14,733
Marine Tertiary . 13,898 ,, 4,201 ,, = 18,099
Secondary . . . 2,390 ,, 2,110 ,, = 4,600
Paleeozoic . . . 5,437 ,, 20,231 ,, =- 25,068
Sehistose . . . 15,308 ,, = 15,308
Granite . . . 6,978 ,, = 5,978
Volcanic - O . 14,864 ,, 1,150 ,, = 18,714
44,736 55,264 100,000
Earthquakes, as may readily be supposed, are no more
IEI
ZEILIIID.
Volcanic
desert.
Lake
Ta u po
quiet.
Iceland
charac-
teristics.
Craters
round
Auckland
Tufa in
South
Island.
Basalt.
Change of
absent from New Zealand than from the countries of °°"s‘1‘*"el
Vesuvius and Hecla. A great elevation in Cook’s
Strait took place during the shocks of 1823. In
1848, 200 square miles were raised. The west coast,
however, has been steadily sinking, especially on the
South Island.


364 nmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW znsmmv.
1:l'flh.
Earth-
quakes.
Fossils.
The Mos.
New Zea-
land and
Australia
once united.
NATURAL
1-Irsronr.
Ancient
fauna.
Bats.
Native rat.
Wellington and Wanganui have been most troubled
with earthquakes, especially in 1848 and 1855, when
the earth opened and walls cracked. In 1871 there
were eleven days of earthquake shocks. No other pro-
vince had more than three days of such disquietude.
While fossils peculiar to formations distinguish New
Zealand as other places, it is interesting to observe that
the old Saurians, as the Plesiosaurus, and Ichthyosaurus,
have their representatives, these being found at the
Waipara. Ostreae, one foot long, are found in the Kawia
limestone. The Wanganui sands contain shells of which
one-tenth are extinct; and those of Patea, one quarter.
But the Moa is the attraction to men of science. As
the Dinornis, and broader skulled Palapteryx, the wing-
less Moas are discovered in alluvium, and sometimes
with the bones of the dog and existing species of birds.
In one case, the remains of a cannibal feast of ancient
days contained the charred bones of the Moa and man.
Eggs, ten inches by seven, have been unearthed. The
islands once contained a gigantic bird of prey. The
fossil forms of large birds of flight have lately been
found. Evidence exists of an ancient race of man.
As the bones of the Dinornis have been discovered
in Queensland, where the Plesiosaurus has been also
found, another evidence is afforded of Australia and
New Zealand having once been united. Norfolk Island
was formerly connected with New Zealand.
Natural History.
Whilst Australia presents us with the very earliest
forms of mammalian life, and with low types of organi-
sation, the Islands of New Zealand—representing as
they do the remnants of a former continental area now
submerged beneath the ocean—ofl'er for the study of
the biologist a still more ancient fauna. The only ter-
restrial mammals strictly indigenous to New Zealand
appear to be a small frugivorous rat, called ‘kiore
maori ’ by the natives, and two species of bat. In
former times the indigenous rat was largely used as an
article of food by the natives, but it has of late years
become nearly extinct, except in a few places of the
interior of the Northern island, in consequence of the


NATURAL msronr. 365
extermination carried on against it by the introduced
European rat.
At the period of Captain Cook's first visit to New
Zealand there existed a small species of wild dog,
resembling a jackal, and of a dirty yellowish colour.
This animal has disappeared within the last twenty
years. Although bearing certain aflinities to the wild
dog or ‘dingo ’ of the Australian continent, it is doubt-
ful if this animal can be regarded as indigenous, having
probably been introduced at some period antecedent to
the discoveries of Captain Cook.
The ma/r1'/ne mammalia inhabiting the shores of New
Zealand and the adjacent groups of the Auckland and
Chatham Islands, include several species of seals,
amongst which are the ‘ sea lion’ (Phoca jubata), the
‘ sea leopard ’ (Stenorhynchus leptonyav), the ‘ fur seal,’ or
‘ sea bear ’ (Arctocephalus ursinus), and the bottle-nosed
seal (Phoca proboscidia, of Péron). One species of por-
poise is met with on the coast, the Delphinm Zela/ndiw,
or New Zealand dolphin.
Formerly, and probably down to as recent a period
as the last two or three hundred years, there existed in
these islands a remarkable group of gigantic Wingless
birds, allied to the cassowarics, and varying in size
from that of a bustard to a stature far exceeding
that of the ostrich. It is now about thirty years
ago since the first bones of the ‘moa’ (the name
applied by the natives generally to all the species of
these great extinct birds) were discovered in an alluvial
deposit on the East coast. Since that period the semi-
fossilised, and, in some instances, comparatively recent
remains of no less than ten species of the ‘moa ’ have
been found, together with fragments (and, in one in-
stance, a perfect example) of their eggs. All these have
been carefully examined and described by Professor
Owen, who resolves them into two genera, Dinormls and
Palapieryz. In the former genus the Professor includes
eight species, and in the latter two. In their general
aspect, characters, and habits it is supposed that these
birds resembled much more nearly the cassowary tribe
than they did the ostrich or the emu. To convey some
idea of the stature of these birds, as ascertained from
their skeletons, it may be mentioned that the largest
IEI
Zillllll.

Wild dog.
Seals.
Poi-poise.
Great
Wingless
birds.
Many spe-
cies of
‘moa.’


366 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND-
III
IEILIIID.
The
apteryx.
Notornls.
species of the ‘ mow,’ the Dinornis mazrimus, stood, when
erect, ten feet six inches in height, and the D. dro-
rnoeoides and the P. elephantopus both exceeded five feet;
whilst the Dirtorruls struthiiiides attained the altitude
of seven feet. Still more recently, Dr. Haast, of Canter-
bury, New Zealand, who has carefully studied the re-
mains of these extinct birds, has divided them into four
genera, viz., Dt'norm's, M6’i0%OTflt8, Palapteryw, and E'u/ry-
apteryw, comprising altogether no less than twelve well-
established species. In the Glenmark deposits, in the
South Island, Dr. Haast has also discovered the bones of
a. huge diurnal bird of prey, which he has described
under the name of Harpagornis moo-rei. These huge
birds might yet have been extant, had it not been for
the arrival of the present aboriginal inhabitants on
the shores of New Zealand, by whom they were gradu-
ally exterminated.
Nearly allied in structure to these gigantic creatures,
there still lingers in New Zealand a remarkable genus of
wingless birds called Apterym, of which four species are
described. Their bodies are covered with long, loose,
hair-like feathers, and their legs and feet are remarkably
powerful, and armed with sharp claws for digging in
the earth. The beak is long and slender, having the
nostrils nearly at the extremity of the upper mandible.
This they introduce into the ground in search of grubs
and worms. Like many "of the New Zealand terrestrial
birds, the Apterya: is nocturnal in its habits, concealing
itself during the day beneath the extensive beds of fern.
Its nest is a burrow in the earth, in which it lays one
egg of enormous size compared with that of the bird
itself, which is not larger than a domestic fowl.
Amongst the other extraordinary birds that yet exist
in New Zealand, constituting the remains of an almost
extinct fauna, is the Notornis mamtelli, a huge hand-
somely plumaged rail, about the size of a goose, and
having very small wings, a single living example of
which was taken several years ago by some sealers in
the neighbourhood of Dusky Bay. This bird has much
the aspect of a gigantic water-hen. Both its beak and
feet are large and strong, and of a bright red colour;
the general plumage is glossy bronze-green, with the
head and breast purple, and the tail-coverts snow-white.


NATURAL msronv. 367
There are also other rails belonging to several distinct
genera, the most interesting of which are the wood-hens
(Ocydromus), a group of brevipennate rails quite peculiar
to the New Zealand fauna.
Amongst the strange ornithological forms that occur
in the Southern islands is a very remarkable bird
of the owl tribe, called the ‘wekau’ by the natives,
and the ‘laughing owl’ by the settlers. It is larger
than the ordinary screech~owl, spotted with chesnut and
black, and has long legs and small green feet. The
head is very small, with the beak somewhat resembling
that of a hawk. It is a ground-feeder, and nocturnal
in its habits. It is now almost extinct. Its scientific
name is Sceloglauzv albz_'fac'ies.
The extraordinary Strigops habroptilus, or ‘ Kakapo ’ of
the natives, is a large, greenish-coloured nocturnal parrot
having certain owl-like characters, which was formerly
abundant in New Zealand, but is now extinct every-
where except on the south-west coast of the South
island, where it dwells in inaccessible ravines, living in
communities in holes under rocks, and is never seen
during the day. At night it comes out to feed, nibbling
the grass and roots like a rabbit. A singular group of
parrots, belonging to the genus Nestor (also remnants
of an ancient fauna), are peculiar to New Zealand and
the adjacent islands; of four species described, one is
already extinct, and two of the others are extremely
rare; whilst the remaining one is still comparatively
common, and is often domesticated by the natives, who
style it ‘ kaka.’ Its chief peculiarities consist in its
having the upper mandible of the beak very long and
hooked, and in the brown, grey, and orange colouration
of the plumage.
There are two singular birds, denizens of the forests
of the Northern island, well worthy of notice. These
are the Neomorpha, gouldi, or ‘ huia. ’ of the natives ; and
the Prosthemadem Nova: Zeelandice, or ‘ tui,’ the ‘ Parson
bird,’ of the settlers. The first of these birds is about
the size of a small crow, with glossy black plumage, the
tail feathers being tipped with white. The beak of the
male is straight and pointed, whilst that of the female
is long, slender, and curved into the arc of a circle.
The tail feathers are much valued by the natives for
III
ZEILINIJ.
The laugh-
ing owl.
Noctumal
parrot.
TheNest-or.
The ‘ Huia.
and ‘ Tui.’


368 nmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW znsmun.
IEW
lElLlI|D-
The
‘ Parson-
bird.‘
F mit-
pigeon.
Co!-morants
and shags.
Reptiles.
No snakes.
The '
° tuatara.’
One species
of frog.
Fish.
purposes of ornament, and are carefully preserved in
finely-carved wooden boxes. The ‘ Parson-bird ’ derives
its clerical appellation from the circumstance of its
having two little tufts of white feathers under the throat,
contrasting strongly with the shining black colour of
the rest of its plumage. The ‘ tui’ is a very lively and
amusing bird in captivity, and rivals even the mocking-
bird in its powers of imitation. It is the size of a
blackbird.
The fruit-eating pigeon (Oarpophaga. Nova; Zeelandiw)
is a fine bird, of handsome plumage, and is much esteemed
for the table.
Amongst aquatic birds some nine or ten kinds of
ducks are enumerated as inhabiting New Zealand, and
some of them are delicious eating. There are several
species of cormorants, and the crested shag (Phalacro-
comm punctatus) is a very beautiful bird. Dr. Buller, in
his ‘ History of the Birds of New Zealand,’ enumerates
one hundred and forty-five species as already described;
the greater portion of which, together with many of the
genera, are peculiar to the country.
New Zealand presents a striking contrast to Australia
in the paucity of its reptiles. The traveller may walk
in safety through the long grass and the thick fern
without the uneasy feeling arising from the dread of
treading on apoisonous serpent, which pedestrians in the
latter country so often experience. Of snakes there are
none, the only indigenous reptiles being a few species
of lizards, the most remarkable of which is the Hatteria.
pwnctata, or ‘ tuata/ra,’ which is now nearly extinct.
This large lizard possesses a bird-like skeleton, and,
according to naturalists, constitutes of itself a distinct
order of reptiles ; it formerly existed in abundance,
dwelling in holes in the sand-hills on the sea-shore, and
was killed by the natives for food. At the present time
it has been completely exterminated by the wild pigs,
and is only to be met with in some of the islands in
the Bay of Plenty, on the East coast.
Batrachians are represented by one small species of
frog, which is uncommon and but seldom seen.
The coasts of New Zealand abound in fish, many of
which are excellent for the table. Upwards of 1-50
kinds have been enumerated. Some of the most impor-


NATURAL HISTORY. 3 6 \
9
taut species for edible purposes do not, however, frequent
the bays and inlets of the sea, but are gregarious in the
more open waters, where they frequent banks, upon
which they may be systematically sought for. Sharks
are numerous, especially on the Northern coasts; one
fierce and dangerous kind, the tiger-shark, is killed by
the natives for the sake of its teeth, which they use as
ornaments. The flesh of the shark is much valued by
them as an article of food ; it is dried in the sun, and
was formerly consumed in large quantities at their
public feasts and convivial gatherings. That hideous-
looking fish, the Chimera, or ‘elephant-fish’ (Galler-
hynchus anta/rcticus), is frequently met with on the coasts.
Eels are found in the fresh waters of the Thames and
others rivers. In many of the streams and lakes small
fresh-water fish of delicate flavour are abundant, espe-
cially a small kind resembling whitebait, which are
caught in nets, and, when cooked in bundles wrapped
up in flax-leaves, in an oven formed of heated stones,
are delicious eating. Among the forms peculiar to
the country is a very remarkable species of mud-fish,
described by Dr. Giinther as Neoohanna apoda, which is
met with in gravelly clay, inhabiting a little cell some-
times ten feet below the surface of the ground ! In the
first specimen examined, which was sent to England by
Sir George Grey, the eyes were undeveloped, but it is
now found that the fish has perfect vision and swims
actively in clear water. Salmon from Europe have been
introduced into some of the rivers of the South island.
Large crayfish and other crustaceans are numerous
along the rocky coasts; and the mollusks are, to a
great extent, peculiar specifically to New Zealand.
Some of the marine shells are very beautiful, and
highly prized by collectors. In Cook’s Straits we
meet with the imperial turbo, several species of Stmthi0-
laria; the large Haliotis iris, the richly-coloured, irides-
cent lining of which is used by the natives for crnaa
menting their canoes and weapons, and also for a kind
of glittering fishhook. Some species of Elenchus they
use as ear-drops. Oysters are numerous and well-
flavoured.
The land-shells consist of a great many species of
small snails, together with three or four of considerable
B B
IEI
ZEILIID.

Tiger-
shark.
The
Chimera.
Fresh-
water fish
‘ \Vhite-
bait.’
Mollusks.
Land-shells


372 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW
lEl\Ll.'HJ-
Open fern-
land.
Swamps.
Grasses.
Fre_1/cinefla
Banksii.
Jralid»
impassable by the rope-like stems of the Smilax, or supple
Jack. The whole is shaded externally from the sun by
the lofty canopy of foliage overhead, and nourished by
the ceaseless moisture that drops from every spray, ren-
dering thcse antipodean forests rank with vegetation.
Parasites sprout from the loftiest trees, while mosses and
smaller ferns clothe their trunks with green, carrying a
profusion of vegetable life up into their topmost branches.
All is of the deepest green, and amidst the gloom an
almost unbroken silence reigns ; whilst the warm, damp,
windless air is laden with the delicious fragrance of the
blossoms of the wax-like pink hoya; and the tangled
undergrowth of fuchsias is rendered gay by the large,
star-like blossoms of a species of white clematis. Coming
suddenly out of the forest, the traveller enters upon vast
tracts of undulating land, without a tree, except here
and there a solitary dracerza or cord]/Zine, the whole being
densely covered with the social fern, breast-high, through
which wind the narrow footpaths of the natives. The
third phase of vegetation is represented by the swampy
flats near the lakes and rivers, which are covered with
clumps of the Phormium tenaw, or New Zealand flax,
and clusters of a sort of large Tussack grass, the Typha
augusfgfolia, or ‘raupo’ of the natives, who employ it for
building and thatching their houses.
Besides these three distinctive features there are
certain volcanic tracts on the barren table-lands in the
interior of the North island, where a coarse, wiry sort of
grass called wiwi takes the place of ferns; and in the
South island, and to the north of the valley of the Hutt,
are large areas of land suitable for cattle and sheep.
Amongst the climbing plants which seek the support
of large trees the principal one is the Freycinetia Banksii.
It attaches itself principally to the ‘ Kahikatea’ pine. It
flowers in September, and the natives are very fond of
the sweet and luscious bractew of the blossoms.
The Aralia crassigfolia, or Fish-bone tree, grows to a
height of twenty-five feet, and from its remarkable
growth forms a curious object in the landscape. During
spring, the banks of the large rivers are made gorgeous
by the blossoming of the Edwardsia, or New Zealand
laburnum, with its pendulous clusters of golden blossoms.
Many of the timber trees yield excellent woods, suit-


oovnnnmnnr. 375
felt as a grievous burden a few years ago. Anxious to
keep their position in the colonial race and attract more
immigrants, they were prepared to involve themselves in
a few millions more ; but the greater part of this capital
became absorbed by such productive works as railways.
As an illustration of expenditure on loan acount, these
items appear in 1884 :—Immigration 98,2321. ; railways,
769,21/11. ; public works department, 24,7021. ; surveys
of new lines, 22,1081; roads, 162,567l.; telegraph ex-
tension, 30,2411. ; public buildings, 135,298I. ; lighthouse
and harbour works, 4.<5,6221.; land purchases 58,2921;
waterworks on gold-fields, 9,1781. ; gold-fields roads,
21.8581.
The revenue of the several provinces for 1872 will in-
dicate their relative progress :——
Provinces Revznus
Auckland . . . 196,822
Taranaki , 11,263
Wellington . 119,762
Hawke’s Bay . . . 41.018
Nelson . . . 74,028
Marlborough . . . 10,747
Canterbury . - . 477,736
Westland . - . 70,229
Otago . . . . 432.763
1,434,377
In 1877 the Customs revenue from difierent ports
will show the relative importance of places under the
consolidated Government :-
£
Dunedin . . . . . 352,223
Lyttleton . . - . 200,857
Auckland . - . . . 196,232
Wellington . . . 176,939
Greymouth . . 41,116
Napier . . . 40,257
Hokitika . . . . 33,808
Invercargill . 33,036
Nelson . . . . 32,817
Wanganui . . 21,500
Westport . . . . 13,297
Oamaru . . . . . . 11,544
The total Customs revenue for 1884 was 1,409,3431.;
from sales and rents of land, 2383,5591; from rallways,
IEI
ZEALMD.
Provincial
liabilities.
Revenue.


376 HANDBOOK 1'0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEI
ZEALMID.
Financial
troubles.
Revenue,
expendi-
ture
POPULA-
TION.
First in-
lmbitantu.
1,045,225Z. ; from telegraph, 92,212l.; from post and
stamps, 498,870l.; from gold-fields, 19,021l.; from gold
duty, 24,7921.
Among items of expenditure in 1884 were: Interest
of debt, l,699,764:l.; payment to counties, 138,847l.;
railways, 639,085l.; schools, 336,177l.; post, 256,377l. ;
judicial, 84,1291. ; defence and police, 160,047l. ; surveys,
13-5,276l.; natives, 25,8.’-311.; pensions, 32,6451; gaols,
lunatic asylums, 77,7141. The working expenses have
been lessened by the union of the nine provinces in
one.
The difiiculties of New Zealand finance have been of
long standing. Deficiencies have called for increased
taxation, and disheartened the colonists. But the work-
ing of the mines and the prodigious development of the
farms encourage the financiers in the hope that better
days have come, and that no new disorders are likely to
occur. With exports at above 151. per head, and imports
at 181., thewcalth of the country seems established. The
embarrassment of a Government, however, is possible,
while the people may be prosperous.
The colonial revenue for 1884 was 3,707,488l., and
the expenditure, without loans, 4,101,318Z. The revenue
of the year ending June 30, 1879, was 3,551,8l4l. The
taxes are heavy to meet the heavy interest on loans. A
new land tax may bring 100,000l. extra, a fresh burden.
The property tax is one penny. But railroads were 9.
necessity in such a colony, and the profits will soon
meet the interest. There were 1,500 miles in 1885, all
State property. Railways gave 145,000l. profit in 1877.
The land is being rapidly taken up, and the increase of
stock is remarkable. Excessive speculation and impru-
dent immigration may retard progress, but be of no
lasting injury.
Population.
Soon after the settlement of New South Wales, in
1788, runaway sailors and convicts found their way to
New Zealand. lt is true that some were eaten by the
cannibals, but others settled among them, and raised
families of fine-looking half-castes.
When whaling commenced with Sydney and Hobart


POPULATION. 377
Town merchants, New Zealand was a favourite ground IEI
for the blubberly fish; and stations, with boats’ crews, lawm-
were established permanently at the Bay of Islands, and wh,1;n,._.
in Cook's Straits. Associations were formed with the Betti»-
natives, land was irregularly purchased, and settlements ment"
grew in the whaling ports.
The first great exodus from Great Britain took place B1_'itish_im-
in 1842. The English immigration soon swamped the "“5““‘°"'
old colonial one. For a number of years no reliable
census was obtained. As with other colonies, New
Zealand had intervals of rest from European immigra-
tion. The gold discovery in the Colony sent thousands
of diggers thither from Sydney and Melbourne.
The increase from 1851 to 1858 was at the rate of 122
er cent.; from 1858 to 1861, 40; from 1861 to 1864,
73 ; from 1864 to 1867, 27 ; and thence to 1871, 17 per
cent. In 1878, 230,998 males, 183,414 females.
In the three years preceding that last census, Auckland _Ratio of
increased 29 per cent.; Otago, 25; Canterbury, 22; “Wease-
Marlborough, 19%; Hawke’s Bay, 14%; and Wellington
9 per cent. Nelson was the only province that lost Pr0\'invifl1
ground. In 59 boroughs, 1878, were 163,028 people. gr°wth'
The po ulation in 1843 was 13,128; 1854, 32,554; in Census
1860, 79,711; in 1865, 190,607; in 1871, 266,986 ; and “"t“"‘s'
January, 1885, above 564,000, and 40,000 Maories.
The proportion of population in the capitals is thus FOP‘?-
IOH
Provinces.

Towns
Males
Females
Total
Wellington Auckland .
Hokitika
Napier . . .
Invercargill . .
Plymouth . . .
12,663
11,599
9.854
6,969
4,500
4,545
1,912
1,321
12,313
10,891
9,183
6,762
3,475
3,823
1,841
1,357
24,976
22,490
19,037
13,731
8,975
8,368
3,753
2,678
placed by the Census of 1878, taken February 27 :—
Christchurch .
Dunedin .

In 10 years, Otago province had in excess of births
over deaths, 25,225; Canterbury, 18,827; Auckland,
16,730; Wellington, 9,477; Nelson, -5,136; Westland,
3,376; Hawke’s Bay, 2,611; Taranaki, 1,966; Marl-


HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
III
ZEALIIIIJ.
Proportion
of sexes.
Occupa-
tions.
Males and
Females.
borough, 1,891. The Chinese in 1878 were 4,300 males,
5 females.
The disproportion of the sexes has varied much. In
1858 the excess of males was 13-,1; per cent.; in 1861,
23%; in 1867, 20%; and in 1877, 13;} per cent. New
Zealand is thus far from presenting that equality of the
sexes which marks the advance of civilisation, and dis
tinguishes several of the Australian colonies. The Maori,
or aboriginal, population was estimated in 1871 to be
about 35,000 in the North Island, and only 2,350 in the
South Island. After years of decline, the number rose
in 1877 to 45,000 and 1,826 half-castes.
The occupations of the whites were, 1878, classified:
trade and commerce, 17,622; agricultural and pastoral,
47,356; mechanics, &c., 20,625 ; mining, 21,522 ; la-
bourers, 13,554 ; servants, 4,614 ; paupers, 2,225 ;
professions, 3,795.
The number under 21 years of age was 108,358 males
and 106,900 females; over 21, 121,279 males and 76,104
females. Above the age of 65, there were 3,103 men
and 2,232 women. In 1878, 79 females to 100 males.
The sexes, in a total of 564,304, ending 1884, ranged
thus in the provinces :-—-

Provinces Males i Females Total
' Otago . - - . 84,755 69,146 153,901
Canterbury . . 69,265 60,534 129,799
Auckland . . 61,289 52,963 114,252
Wellington . . 37,617 33.854 71,471
Nelson . . 16,316 12,696 29,012
We-stland . . 10,199 6,700 16,898
Hawke's Bay . . 11,136 9,231 20,417
Taranaki . . 9,886 7,635 17,521
Marlborough . . . 5,979 4,776 10,755

Some of the townships were wider in this relation
few years ago :—

8|
Males Females Total
Grahamsfown . 1,252 929 2,181
Port Chalmers . 824 582 1,406
519 359 878
525 192 717
Westport .
Cobden . -


POPULATION. 379
While the increase of males in the three years before
1871 was 144 per cent., that of the females was 22} per
cent. Dunedin in 1874 had 32,000 people, and Auckland
21,000. There were 4,4410 Chinese in 1878.
The nationality of the population is different to that
of Australia. Those born in the Colony formed 36'4.~6
per cent. of the whole, in 1871. The English born were
26'15 per cent.; Scotch, 1438; Irish, 11'60; Australian,
4'85; Chinese, &c., 2'28; German, 0'94; United States,
0'49 ; Welsh, 0'52 ; French, 0'22. New Zealand, except-
ing in Auckland, is not so much an Irish Colony, as
portions of the Eastern Australias appear to be.
The births were 1,460 in 1855, and 19,846 in 1884.
The marriages were 406 in 1855, and 3,800 in 1884:.
The married males were 26 per cent. and the married
females were 36 per cent. of their several sexes. The
widowers were, in 1871, 2,840, and the widows were
3,229. Of the unmarried over fifteen years of age,
57,088 were males and 17,468 were females in 1878.
Of the total marriages, 586 were contracted in Auck-
land Province, 440 in Wellington, 178 in Nelson, 699 in
Canterbury, and 829 in Otago in 1878.
While 884: marriages were performed by registrars,
793 were by ministers of the Church of England, 937
by Presbyterian ministers, 4.71 Roman Catholic, 341
Wesleyan, 83 Baptist, 126 Primitive Methodist, 84 Inde-
pendent, 51 United Methodist, 9 Church of Christ, and
12 Lutheran, with 5 Hebrew congregations, in 1884.
The ratio of marriages has not been maintained with
the advance of population. In 1872 the marriages were
in the proportion of 1370 to 1,000 population; in 1876,
16'50; in 1884.-, 13'74.<, in couples.
Although comparatively few marriages are now con-
tracted between the Maori women and white men, yet
the half-caste children of such unions amounted to 1,947
in 1877. Half of them were living in Auckland Province,
and few in Wellington. Though only a little over a
couple of thousand natives are in the South Island, yet
there were 472 half-castes in that island in 1871.
The deaths in 1884 were 5,740. The ratio per 1,000
was 1265 in 1855; 1428 in 1866; 1513 in 1865; and
10'39 in 1884. While there was one birth to 24 in 1877,
there was 1 death to 87 of the living ; though the
IEI
ZEILMID.
Nationali-
ties.
Births.
Marriages.
Ratio of
marriages.
Half-castes
Ratio of
deaths.


THE MAORIES. 381
tion of their own, like that of Tahitians in the south
and Hawaiians in the north of the Pacific. They knew
the eight points of the compass, and had a Calendar.
Their traditions and songs exhibited a superior develop-
ment of thought.
But, more remarkable, they had an organised system
of mythology, as elaborate as that of Rome and Greece.
Many of their customs, as circumcision, washings,
sacrifices, and views about food, were observed to be
like those of the ancient Jews. But these, like their
mythological ideas, must have been derived, ages ago,
as those of the Mexicans and Peruvians, whom they
so resemble, from a highly advanced people. While re-
specting inferior spirits, they believed in and worshipped
the One God. Though heathen, they were not idolaters.
That which astonishes the learned is to recognise in
the religion of the Maories so decided a likeness to that
of the Phoenicians and ancient Egyptians. The New
Zealanders, who are of the family of the light-coloured
Pacific Islanders, must have had formerly some associ-
ation with old-world civilisation.
It is grievous to observe that, since they have relin-
quished cannibalism, tribal wars, polygamy, slavery,
tapu superstition, human sacrifice, sorcery, and heathen-
ism, they have so strangely lost their former elasticity
of spirit, their hearty enjoyment of life, and have
become almost a childless community and a fast-d.ecay-
ing race. Our civilisation never suited them.
Native wars with the Colonial Government sprang to
some extent from misapprehension of our object in coloni-
sation, though British statesmen openly advocated the
seizure of the Maori lands, as had been done with Aus-
tralian lands.
When submitting to the sovereignty of England, by
the Treaty of Waitangi, in 1840, the coloured inhabitants
were guaranteed the safety of their possessions. But,
suspecting the faith of the Government, a party rose in
rebellion under the chivalrous Honi Heki, in 18415.
Other wars have followed land difiiculties, especially
in the Waikato country. The Waikato chiefs had never
signed the Treaty of Waitangi, and did not approve of a
yoke to which they had never submitted. Some indis-
cretion on the part of hasty ofiicials and designing
III
ZEILIID.
L-
Mythology
remark-
able.
Jewish
customs.
Heathens
not
idolaters.
Religion
like the
Phoenician
and Egyp-
tian.
Our civilis-
ation not
fitted to the
race.
Cause of
native
wars.
Rebellion.
Wars from
land
disputes.


382 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
NEW
lE|\L|\||D.
Doubtful
rule.
Effect of
concilia-
tion.
Yative
saying.
Encou-
nox.
Otago and
Canterbury
best
educated.
Expendi-
ture for
schools.
High
schools.
civilians complicated afl'airs, and led the impetuous and
suspicious tribes into open war.
Another cause of trouble was the sort of double govern-
ment which existed. The Maories were considered sub-
jects, but denied the rights of citizens. They had to
obey laws, with the constitution of which they could
have no part. They sought to be united under a King,
with their own native rule, and yet they were amenable
to the colonial authorities.
King Tawhiao, living in the interior of North Island,
and long estranged from the whites, has lately shown a
return of friendly feelings toward them.
No one denies the courage and military prowess of
the Maories, while their intelligence as men is admitted.
A better policy, giving them two representatives in the
Assembly, and two members in the Council, has done
more than steel to quiet the disloyalty of the tribes.
Every year the difficulty diminishes, for the whites
increase as the Maories die ofi'. As the English clover
destroys the native grass, and the English rat is annihi-
lating the native rat, so, believe the natives, mustthe Maori
be swept ofl' the fern-home of his fathers by the ever-
rolling wave of British colonisation.
Education and Religion.
Some of the Provinces, as Canterbury and Otago, have
taken more interest in schools than others; doubtless,
from a stronger religious principle actuating the original
settlers of Dunedin and Christchurch.
Otago and Canterbury have maintained their early
educational pre-eminence for the character of their in-
stitutions, though recently their neighbours have made
rapid advance.
In 1871 the following proportions of ordinary revenue
were expended in education :—Auckland, about I11, ;
Taranaki, nearly 3}-6; Wellington, -1&6; Hawke’s Bay,
1%,; Nelson, E1-r; Marlborough, T1,-; Canterbury, -[1, ;
Otago, -113. The secular system prevails in most parts.
The High Schools of Dunedin and Christchurch have
quite a colonial reputation. The rush of immigration
to the gold-fields, and the consequent demand for public
works, although distracting attention for awhile from
the school question, cannot affect it long. The Scotch


EDUCATION AND RELIGION. 383
founders of Otago made admirable arrangements for
public instruction. There is a high school for girls there.
The poverty of New Zealand, until the recent growth
of the wool and gold exports, necessarily restricted school
expenditure. In 1878 the cost per head was 6l. 3s. 9d-.
Education land reserves exist. High schools are aided.
There were at the beginningof 1884, 943 public schools,
having 2,291 teachers, 92,476 children on the roll, and
72,214 in attendance. Normal schools exist in four
provincial capitals. The number belonging to private
schools were one-seventh those with State aid. Schools
for the Maories cost 18,827Z.—1,923 scholars.
Taranaki has not a public system of instruction, but
grants so much a head for children taught in private
schools. In the Otago public schools, in some instances,
Latin, Greek, German, French, chemistry, drawing, and
science are subjects for the class room.
The New Zealand University has an annual grant of
3,300l., and fifty scholarships of 201. each.
Religion has not been unheeded by New Zealand
colonists.
Though the first settlers bore not the best of repu-
tation, a better class afterwards migrated thither from
Sydney, Hobart Town, and Melbourne. The early
British migrations had, perhaps, a larger percentage of
religiously-disposed persons than subsequent ones have
exhibited.
Canterbury and Otago were avowedly established on
Christian principles, the former by a Church of England
Association, and the latter by a Free Presbyterian one.
Though neither could, from the nature of things, main-
tain such sectarian exclusiveness, the influence of the
foundation is still obvious in both. The gold fever,
spreading through so very quiet and orderly a- popula-
tion as existed in Otago, produced as great a moral con-
vulsion as a commercial one. The wild spirits of the
colonies gathered to the diggings, and considerably
modified the supposed Puritan laws of the Old Dominion.
The Church of England and the Wesleyan body had
established Missions among the Maories long before the
foundation of the Colony. Their ministers, therefore,
exercised the earliest religious influence upon immi-
grants. The Presbyterian element was introduced at a
later date.
IEI
ZE MIND.
Debt re-
tards pro-
gress.
School re-
turns.
Advanced
subjects
taught.
University-
Rsuciozt.
Character
of im mi-
grant?
Religious
foundation
of Otago
and Can-
bury.
Mission in-
fluencc.


384 mmnnoox ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW zaunun.
NEW
IEILMID.
Church
census.
Protes-
tants.
Roman
Catholics
fewer
than in
A ust ralia.
Provincial
churches.
Sunday
scholars.
Denomina-
tiona.
AGRICUL-
runs.
Area
available.
In 1883 the various denominations, who are equal in
the sight of the law, and equally unsupported by the
State, occupied the position given below :-—-
Church of England, 200,016; Presbyterians, 113,038;
Wesleyans, 39,544; Baptists, 11,476; Independents,
6,699 ; Lutherans, 5,773 ; Primitive Methodists, 4,643;
Society of Friends, 232; Protestants, without church
described, 6,083; Greek Church, 55; Unitarians, 489 ;
Mormons, 271; Apostolic Church, 121; while other
Methodists, Moravians, Spiritualists, Universalists, &c.,
were not given; Pagans (Chinese),4,936; Mahometans, 7.
The total number of Protestants in New Zealand
would be about 400,000, without estimating those persons
who declined to state their opinions. The Jews were
1,536.
The Roman Catholics were 68,349, or one-sixth the
Protestant population. They are, consequently, fewer
relatively in New Zealand than in Victoria, and less
still than in Queensland and New South Wales. Auck-
land has the largest proportion of Roman Catholics,
from its old connection with Sydney.
In 1884 there were in the colony 235 ministers of the
Church of England, 138 Presbyterian, 86 Roman
Catholic, 95 Wesleyan, 19 Independent, 16 Baptist,
17 Primitive Methodist, 11 United Methodists, 9 Lu-
theran, 6 Hebrew. The six bishops of the Episcopalians
are at Dunedin, Auckland, Christchurch, VVellington,
Nelson, Napier. Canterbury has most Episcopalians,
and Otago Presbyterians.
The pupils attending Sunday schools were 78,000.
The denominations in 1878 numbered as follows :—-
Church of England, 176,337; Presbyterian, 95,103;
Roman Catholics, 58,880; Methodists, 37,879; Baptists,
9,159; Independents, 5,555; Lutherans, 5,643; Jews,
1,424. The 4,379 Chinese are pagans, but the Maories
are mostly Christians.
Agriculture.
As the geology and meteorology of a country deter-
mine its capacity for agriculture, New Zealand, as a
whole, may boast of its superiority over most colonies.
A far larger area of the South Island than of the North


AGRICULTURE. 385
must be pronounced unfavourable, though the centre of
the North is generally unfit for cultivation.
As to soil, while the upper half of the North Island
is somewhat sandy, the strong clays appear toward
Y/ellington, and the very deep deposits of black mould
in Taranaki. The volcanic character of the Island ren-
ders it peculiarly attractive to farmers. The decom-
position of lavas and volcanic ash gives a wonderful
fertility to the region round Auckland and New Ply-
mouth.
While the same geology runs eastward in one part,
carrying productiveness with it, the primary rocks to
the south-east yield no such agreeable deposits of mould.
In the South Island, while igneous rocks have provided
arable soil in Nelson Province, and in the neighbourhood
of both Christchurch and Dunedin, yet the prevalence
of slates and ancient crystalline sandstones elsewhere
has thwarted the hopes of the agriculturists.
Few places, however, are preferred to the Oamarn
and Timaru of Otago, and some portions of the Canter-
bury Plains near the rivers. Good land is also obtained
in Southland. Marlborough has some rich soil.
It is difiicult to come to a just estimate of the relative
advantage of the various provinces from a comparison of
their population and average crop. Some, as Auckland,
Westland county, Nelson, and Otago, employ a large
number of men in gold-mining, while Wellington and
Ha.wke’s Bay are not sufiering from that withdrawal
from their fields.
Bearing this in mind, let the reader look at the
average cropping. In this calculation, however, the
acres relate to 1872 and the population to 1871.
Auckland Province had 2% acres per head; Nelson, 2%;
Otago, 4%; Taranaki, 5l,~; Marlborough, 52 ; Canterbury,
6%; Wellington, 8%; Hawke's Bay, 12§. Golden West-
land had but one-seventh of an acre.
This has no reference to the enclosures of the Maories,
who, unlike the Australian natives, are essentially agri-
cultural in their habits, and were so before accepting
European civilisation. They have withdrawn themselves
to their reserves, and enter into active competition with
the whites in their produce. Their land in Auckland
and Taranaki provinces is equal to any in the world,
C O
IEI
ZEILAID.
Di fference
of soiL
Advantage
of
volcanoes.
South-east
poorer.
South
Isl and
soil.
Good loca-
lities for
fanning.
Provincial
acreage.
Maori
farms.


AGRICULTURE. 387
fitted for potatoes, though hardly yet to be styled an
agricultural centre. Nelson, Otago, and then Auckland,
are strongest in roots.
The acres under grain crop in 1885 were : Auckland,
12,008; Taranaki, 4,440; Wellington, 23,068; Hawke’s
Bay, 5,150 ; Nelson, 8,971; Marlborough, 9,254; West-
land, 0; Otago, 270,596; and Canterbury, 331.143—a
total in grain of 664,540; but, in 1878, of 456,462.
The fluctuations in yield are not trifling, although the
climate is called so equable. Thus, wheat averaged 22}
bushels at Wellington in 1871, and 18 in 1873; while
in Auckland it was 14% in the lirst, and 18 in the second.
Oats varied from 66 to 18 those years in Westland, and
from 29% to 24 in Canterbury. Barley ranged from 2212-
to .11 in Nelson, and from 22% to 17% in Auckland.
Potatoes were 6% tons, in 1871, in Westland, but 44,; in
1872. Taranaki had nearly the same crop both years ;
but Wellington dropped from 6;} to 5%, Auckland from
4% to 2%, and Otago from 5} to 3%.
The wheat crop, which in South Australia is the abso-
lute dependence of the farmer, was not at one time of so
much consequence in New Zealand. The total acreage
in wheat, for 1873, 131,797, is but one-eleventh of the
whole in cultivation. The yield, however, was far ahead
of that in one of the Australian Colonies, being no less
than 3,188,696 bushels, or 24 per acre. The year before
it was 23% bushels.
Canterbury and Otago in 1873 took the lead in wheat.
The lands are open, fairly fertile, and in not too dripping
a climate. The west coast is too wet for wheat.
While Westland had not an acre in this grain, Hawke’s
Bay had 474 acres, Taranaki 1,052, Wellington 1,770,
Marlborough 2,309, Auckland 3,372, and Nelson 3,576,
Otago had 50,781, and Canterbury 68,463 acres.
In 1885 the wheat crop averaged 0 bushels in West-
land, 20 Marlborough, 24 Nelson, 25 Auckland, 25 Can.-
terbury, 20 Wellington, and 28 in Otago. The oats were
27 in Auckland, 31 Canterbury, 39 Otago. The barley
was 26 in Auckland, 32 in Wellington, 27 Canterbury,
33 Marlborough, 40 Hawke’s Bay, 30 Otago. The po-
tatoes were 4 tons in Taranaki, 4% Westland, 5 Otago
and Nelson, 6 in Wellington, 4% Hawke’s Bay, but 7 in
Marlborough. The hay crop was best in Westland.
IEVI
ZEILHD.
Yield
variations.
Wheat
crops better
th '
an I11
Australia.
Acreage
in wheat.


388 HANDBOOK TO AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEAI.-AND.
NEW
ZEFLMD.
Potatoes.
Yield
per acre.
Land for
artificial
grasses.
Farmers
there are
meat and
wool
producers.
Increase of
grasses.
I in ple-
ments.
The colony had a reputation for potatoes before the
Government was formed there. Captain Cook's gift of
the root has been gratefully acknowledged. The original
ground in which his seed was placed has been tabooed,
or made sacred.
The crop of 1885, on 21,102 acres, amounted to 113,198
tons, or more than 5 per acre. In 1871 the average was
5}, and 3% in 1872. Bay of Plenty grows tobacco.
It is not to be expected that the climate would allow
of the growth of the sugar-cane, as in Queensland, or
of maize, as in New South Wales. But with the heavy
production of grain and roots, New Zealand is placed at
no disadvantage. In one respect, however, it is in ad-
vance of all, and that is, in its capacity to raise artificial
grasses. In 1877-8, 7,379,447 lbs. butter were made.
The hay of Australia is made from Cape barley, oats,
and even wheat. But the hay of New Zealand is from
sown grasses. The crop of February, 1885, on 56,670
acres, was 79,368 tons, or 1% ton to the acre.
N 0 less than 5,258,834 acres were laid down in perma-
nent English grasses, nearly five times the cultivated
land. ln 1872 the grain of Auckland was one-fortieth
of the acreage, the grass lands were about eight-ninths.
In Wellington they reached to forty-three forty-fifths.
Nelson's grasslands occupied about eight-elevenths,
Taranaki’s seventeen-twentieths, and Marlborough’s
eleven-fifteenths. But Otago and Canterbury had each
but one-half in grass, owing to the greater dryness of
the climate, and the openness of the country. New
Zealand has since doubled its grass in five years.
It will thence follow that a considerable amount of
wool and meat is raised by the farmer in New Zealand,
instead of, as in Australia, being left almost absolutely
in the hands of the Crown-leasing squatter. Nothing
will tend to raise the character of farming in New Zea-
land so much as this wonderful capacity for laying down
green and succulent grasses.
The increased attention to this profitable crop is evi-
denced in the rapid advance of its acreage. This, in
1858, was 98,061; in 1861, 158,062; in 1864, 272,123 ;
in 1867, 427,893; in 1878, 2,608,339 sown grass.
In 1878 there were 985 thrashing machines, 4,829
reaping machines, and many steam ploughs.


AGRICULTURE. 389
The recent statistics for 1885 show the great superiority
of South Island for agriculture; having 251,590 acres
in wheat, 330,878 in oats, 37,567 in barley, and 13,900
in potatoes, while North Island had but the respective
amounts of 18,632, 23,896, 2,138 and 7,448. The average
area of farms was 97 acres in the North, and 89 in the
South. The amount under artificial grasses, ploughed
land, was 328,640 in North Island, and 748,814 in South;
sown unploughed, 1,166,143 and 365,242 in 1878.
Some of the products are herein compared in acres :—-


Wheat Oats Barley 063132551
Canterbury . . S. 182,560 129,133 19,450 1,215,235
Otago . . S. 64,071 196,120 10,315 988,571
Nelson , _ S, 2,339 3,025 3,609 174,442
Marlborough . S. 2,620 2,620 4.193 117,370
Westland . . S. 0 0 0 7,959
Auckland . . N. 6,264 5,271 +73 677,469
Wellington . . N. 9,612 12,609 847 1,058,015
Taranaki . . N. 1,735 2,570 135 181,084
Hawke‘s Bay . N. 1,021 3,446 683 843,689
The farmer in that colony is certainly not so tried by
the climate when at his work as he would be elsewhere.
But he will have his difiiculties. It is not easy to drain
a swamp to get at its rich, fat ground; nor is it a trifle
to lay low a thick forest, or get rid of tussack-grass and
fern roots. But he is sustained in his toil with the hope
of valuable results when he shall have achieved his task.
At the beginning of 1885 there were held of Govern-
ment 120,063 acres on agricultural leases, subject to a
rental of 8,612l., about 18d. an acre.
V Pastoral.
New Zealand is not, like Australia, very favourable for
squatters.
The wooded, marshy, and mountainous character of
the country, the small area over which pasturage could
take place, the limited extent of the colony, the great
demand for agricultural plots advancing the price of
land, the occupation of the interior by natives jealous of
IEI
ZEALIIIJ.
Farm
work.
Products.
PASTORAL
Not a
squatting
colony.


1>1sron.11.. 391
wire worm, however, considers itself entitled to a luxu- IEI
rious repast on these pleasant and improved pastures. 25*‘-um
Seeds are thrown on unploughed laud.
The increase of stock has been much greater in some Stock
respects than in Australia. The returns of five several '°‘“"“'
years will exhibit the progress of the pastoral interest
there :—


1858
1861
1864
1867
1834 1
Horses 1 Cattle Sheep Pigs
14,912 | 137,204 1,623,324 40,734
28,275 193,235 2,761,583 43,270
49,409 249,760 4,937,273 61,276
65,716 312,835 3,413,579 116,104
61,736 698,637 14,066,266 200,033

Cattle require space to ramble over, and therefore
thrive best on the plains of Canterbury and Otago. The
same provinces are first in sheep-farming, some of the
stations containing a hundred thousand sheep each.
The details of the Stock Table of 1878 exhibit the pro-
portionate pastoral wealth of some of the provinces :—

Auckland
Hawke’s Bay
Canterbury
Wellington
Otago
Horses
Cattle
Sheep
20,932
18.807
6,758
87,117
38,103
127,577
99,234
27,746
100,310
147,329
544,277
1,386,305
1,572,544
3,560,301
4,446,023

poultry, 1,323,542.
The number of goats that year was 14,243; and of

Auckland
Taranaki
Wellington
Canterbury
Otago

Horses Cattle Sheep
2,894 24.555 36,749
329 2,525 13,148
2,000 20,000 250.000
1,637 13,893 285,100
1,307 15,355 276,089
1,076 15,600 129,902
The progress of each province since 1856 is obvious
from the contrast with the statistics of that year :-

Large
stations in
Otago and
Camer-
bury.
Stock
in the
provinces,
1878,
Nelson
and in
1856


394 HANDBOOK ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmnn.
ll I
ZEAIEMIL
South
Island more
auriferous
than N orth.
Likeness to
fields in
Australia.
Glacial
work.
Beach-
combers.
Export
from ports.
Auriferous
terraces.
The distribution of gold is far greater in the South
Island than in the North. With the latter it is confined
to one province out of four, Auckland, and to but few
places there. The South Island has diggings in every
province. Wellington ofi'ered 2,0001. as a. bonus for the
discovery of gold-fields.
Some have seen a singular correspondence between the
mines of New Zealand and those of Australia. Thus, the
Thames is said to correspond with the Queensland
Gympie field, Collingwood with Bingera, Buller and
Hokitika with Ophir and Tambaroora, Tuapeka and
Wakatipu with the Ovens. One field is entirely in the
carboniferous formation ; others are in chalk tertiary.
The gold is found under similar circumstances to those
of New South Wales and Victoria. But glaciers have in
olden times carried oil‘ the gold drifts from the Alps of
New Zealand. There are gold deposits covered still by
portions of moraines. I
On the west coast ‘beach combers ’ rush down to the
beach after a gale, to gather the fine golden sands brought
down by the current from the north. These are golden
beach terraces.
The gold exported for the year ending June 30, 1878,
from the ports was as follows :-
£
Dunedin . - . . 378,627
Auckland . . - . 224.454
Hokitiks . . . . 243.052
Greymouth . . . 268,276
Westport . - . . 60,758
Nelson . - 0 . 23.525
Invercargill . . . 43,770
Picton . . . . 1.617
£1,240,079
The total for 1884 was 988,953Z.—216,392 oz.
The cement leads of the west coast are of indurated
sand. The hydraulic hose is extensively employed upon
the terraces there. These terraces are of two ages. The
first, containing much auriferous treasure, run parallel
with the mountain chains. Rivers coursing through
them have carried ofl' gold to settle it in other terraces
nearer the coast. Mining leases, 1884.-, 59,252 acres.
The reason why gold-fields have not opened on the


396 mmnnoox ‘IO AUSTRALIA AND new zmnmn.
IEYI
ZEAUND.
TRADE-
Not much
inter-
colonial
trade.
Shipping.
Tonnage.
Imports
1884.
Goods from
Melbourne
and
Sydney.
Exports
1884.
Grey coal to Nelson, as the west coast is without har-
bours. Several seams are eighteen feet thick. In 1880-1
101 collieries produced 299,923 tons, mostly brown.
Trade and Manufactures.
New Zealand, with its splendid coast line, is well
situated for inter-provincial trade. But its inter-colonial
trade, from its distance away from Australia, is not ex-
tensive. Communication with California has benefited
the islands in a commercial sense. The South Sea
Islands trade is a growing one, and will be more im-
pp!-tant as British colonisation extends throughout the
acific.
The shipping is, nevertheless, a very important in-
terest in New Zealand, as steamers are almost the only
available means of communication of one place with
another. The gold rushes of late years, and the occasional
rushes of immigrants, affect the returns of shipping.
The tonnage entering the ports in 1853 was recorded
as 65,504; in 1860, 140,276; 1863, 419,935; 1865,
295,625; 1868, 277,105; 1884, 388,568 in 812 ships.
The tonnage belonging to Auckland was 120,669 ; to
Wellington, 65,687; to Dunedin, 64,651 ; to Lyttleton,
62,067; to Bluff Harbour, 26,919, in 1878. The coast-
ing trade is very great.
The Imports for 1884 were valued at 7,663,8881., only
a small proportion of which was re-exported. The im-
ports from Great Britain were 4,934,493l. ; from Mel-
bourne, 800,5391.; from Sydney, 675,8311. Drapery
was 9lO,4261. ; sugar, 694,5981.; spirits, 211,8381. ;
hardware, 16'/',9l01.; tea, 180,3011.; boots, 143,8-401.;
apparel, 190,3041. ; wine, 68,1521; tobacco, 97,2321.
The exports for 1884 were 7,09l,6671. Those to
Great Britain were 5,158,0781. ; to Melbourne, 754,0441.
to Sydney, 714,9161.; to America, 2l4,3691. ; to China,
13,7621. ; to Adelaide, 45,5051.
Wool was the chief, 3,267,5271.; gold, 988,9531.;
wheat, 436,728l.; tallow, 2234,8291; Kauri gum,
5342,1511. ; preserved meats, 404,3l41.; timber, 152,2491.;
oats, 267,2861. ; barley, 25,1381. ; leather, 57,2271;
butter, 66,5931; hides, 38,1991. ; rabbit skins, 107,5141.


TRADE AND HANUFACTURES. 397
The imports and exports for the year ending Dec. 31,
1884, were as follows
Imports Exports
Auckland . . £2,035,071 £1,011,375
Taranaki . O 28,320 2,528
Wellington . . 1,343,756 1,087,015
Hawke’s Bay . 185,164 676,951
Marlborough 4 21,745 17,578
Nelson . . 4 190,350 2,821
Westland . . 107,578 11,383
Canterbury . . 1,378,108 2,067,216
Otago . . . 2,373,796 2,214,300
£7,663,888 £7,091,667
For 1878 the imports were 8,755,6631. ; and the ex-
ports, 6,015,5251.
The wool growth has been from a million pounds in
1853 to over eighty-one millions in 1884.
The hemp has had some alternations of fortune. So
long as labour was cheap the fibre paid. It is only since
the introduction of suitable machinery that the manu-
facture has so sensibly afi‘ected the export.
In 185-5 the export was 150 tons, worth 4,6741; in
1856 it was but 22, at 5521.; in 1861, 2 tons; and in
1865, 3 tons of phormium, or New Zealand hemp.
But in 1869 it rose to 2,028 tons, at 45,2451. ; and in
1870 it reached 5,471 tons, or 132,5781. The year after
it fell again to 4,248 tons, at 90,6111; though for
the year 1873 the export was 139,267l., one-third of
which went from Auckland. In 1877 it was only
18,8261. ; in 1884, 1525 tons, 23,4751.
The Kauri gum export has considerably advanced
during t-he last few years. Up to 1864 it gained the ex-
tent of 2,000 tons but in two years. Since then it has
been but once below that amount. In 1872 it was
4,811 tons, valued at 154,1671. ; in 1884, 342,151l.
The value of the article has often changed. Thus,
in 1853 it was about 201. a ton; in 1855, 131.; 1860,
not 101.; 1863, 191.; 1864, 271.; 1869, 391. ; 1878,
701.; 1884, 531.
The tallow, in 1872, realised 68,7881; the hides,
31,7631. ; leather, 18,2241; sheepskin, 18,2451. Meats,
fresh and salt, brought 173,041l. Timber sold for
50,9011, 1877 5 tallow, 234,827 in 1884.
IEI
ZEMIID.
Table of
exports nnd
imports.
Wool
growth.
Flux.
Knuri
gum.
Tallow, & c


398 mmnsoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND new ZEALAND.
' NEW
ZEALAND.
E x port
of farm
produce.
Oil and
seal skins.
Railways.
Telegraphs
Banks.
Post Ofiice.
Agricultural produce export is but in its infancy.
But the export of wheatfetched 436,7281. ; oats, 267,2861.;
barley, 25,1581.; flour, 33,3421; cheese, 25,0951; butter,
66,5931., in 1884. Bran, &c. was 41,5561. '; bacon, 12,4331.
Potatoes once formed an important export, especially
after the gold rush to Victoria. Even as late as 1865
the sale brought 13,7011. But in 1871 the export was
down to 1,3101. At present the New ;Zealand farmer
has an increasing number of miners and traders to supply
at home, though the export in 1884 was 53,5361.
Sperm oil, once so great an export, realised only
5,5471. in 1884. Sealing also, once so prosperous an
undertaking, has latterly come to an end. The discoverer
of the Macquarie Isles, in 1811, got 80,000 skins.
Railways are of very great interest in New Zealand at
present, and earnest efforts are being made in that direc-
tion. Until very recently there were but the short
lines to connect Christchurch with Lyttleton port, and
Invercargill with the Bluff. Seven millions of money
are now seen devoted to new lines. By 1885, 1,500
miles of rail cost 11,810,0001., and 160 miles were being
made. The receipts, 1884-5, were l,045,7l21.; but the
expenses only 690,0'!61.
The want of good means of communication is a serious
drawback to the colony. But it is not so easy to make
roads there as in Australia, owing to marshes, rivers,
forests, scrubs, and fern thickets, or else rough rocks.
Railways, therefore, are of imperative necessity to the
expansion of trade.
The telegraph wires now extend from Auckland to the
Bluff of Southland. The length of wire, 1885, was 11,000
miles. The Post Offices, in 1885, were over 1,000.
Banking is a prosperous institution there. Six banks
showed average assets, in 1884, amountingto18,442,1391.,
of which the New Zealand Bank claimed 8,822,7361.
The banks, in 1884, had 18,442,1391. assets to 10,691,599l.
liabilities. Their deposits amounted to 9,883,2131.
The Post Olfice Bank deposits for 1884 were
1,499,1121., among 65,717 accounts. In 1867 the
accounts were 6,977, and the deposits 96,3731. The
Savings’ Bank, 1884, had deposits of over 427,6461.
Telegraph communication is successfully established
between the Colony and Australia.


rams AND MANUFACTURES. 399
The shipping business of the provinces may be in some
way indicated by the shipping returns for -1884, giving
the number of vessels and their tonnage with cargo or
in ballast.

Inwards Outwanls Vessels
Auckland - . 162,781 132,235 478
Wellington - . 99,906 82,538 186
Dunedin . . . 92,765 34,174 184
L ttleton . . 65.199 123,790 251
The Blufi' . . 59,880 71,923 169
Hokitika . . . 804 134 7
Nelson . . 2,331 1,2-12 11
Napier . . . 6,227 17,498 60
Tisnaru . . . 9,819 10,569 65

For the year 1884 the total tonnage inwards was
529,188 ; and outwards, 534,242. Regular and frequent
steam traflie exists from port to port, and to other
colonies. There is a monthly mail to San Francisco by
Honolulu. Steam service to Europe is superior.
Manufactures commence hopefully. A colony with
such resources must eventually be provided with flour-
ishing industries, though never, perhaps, to the extent
of some other colonies nearer to a market. At present,
like its energetic rival, Queensland, it has mainly to
attend to raw materials.
The leading towns have, at present, too small a popu-
lation for many manufactures. The flax promises to be
a great success, though a few difliculties in its manu-
facture have yet to be removed. Bonuses were ofiered
as encouragement by Government, of 5,0001. for the first
1,000 tons of iron, and 10,0001. for 100 tons of steel;
10,0001. for 250 tons of beet-root sugar; and 2,5001. for
100 tons of paper. Government recently tendered for
100,000 tons of steel rails made in the colony.
The works and manufactures in 1871 were 529, and
1,643 in 1881. There were 40 meat-preserving, 223 saw-
mills, 35 foundries, 119 tanneries, 40 flax, 99 breweries.
The trading progress of New Zealand is a remarkable
one. It is something to develop an export of 5,282,084Z.
in 1871, from 3023,2821. of 1853, or some 1,700 per cent.
advance. But the growth of some of the provinces is
interesting to observe.
III
ZEILIIID.
Shipping
returns.
Relation
of Trade.
MANI‘FAO
TURllԤ.
Bonus for
manufac-
tures.
Works.
Trade
increase
1,700 per
cent '
. 111
18 years.


402 HANDBOOK ro AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALANDQ
IEW
lilllllll.
Lama
Laws.
Difiiculties
difi‘ t
eren
from
Australian
ones.
Maori sales.
Little
trouble in
the South
lsland.
manteaus, prints, raspberry vinegar, rice (ground),
rugs, saddlery, sacks, silk goods, soap powder, sta-
tionery, syrups, tinware, toys, trousers, trunks, turnery,
twine, umbrellas, walking-sticks, watches, washing
powder, weighing machines, woodenware, and zinc
manufacture.
Twenty-five per cent. is put upon matches, perfumery,
and toilet preparations. There are many stamp duties.
The Free List includes brass tubing, building material,
calico (piece) carriage material,c0tton dress (piece),felts,
forges, gaspipes, harrows, ink (printing), iron (sheet,
galvanised sheet), machinery (agricultural), machinery
works, printing paper, passengers’ baggage, peram-
bulators, ploughs, printed books, sewing machines, ship
chandlery, sheeting (piece), steel, steam-engines, tools.
Land Laws and Immigration.
New Zealand is actively competing with the Australian
Colonies, in the attraction of immigrants. The ‘ unlock-
ing of the lands,’ first successfully achieved by Victoria
after the gold discovery, grew to be a public cry among
the inhabitants of all the southern settlements. But
while the Australians had only to contend with the vested
interests of squatters, New Zealand had the formidable
difliculty of considering the claims of an alien race, the
real and just owners of the soil.
In their days of savagedom, the Maories were willing
to part with blocks of land to white visitors for merely
nominal rates. A small payment in old guns, iron toma-
hawks, and gaudy cottons, might then have purchased a.
large estate. And yet, the unpleasant neighbourhood of
warlike cannibals, not always scrupulous in the observ-
ance of bargains, and occasionally indulging in the
slaughter of whites, was not conducive to extensive im-
migration.
The New Zealand Company, as has been mentioned,
paved the way for Crown rule in the Islands. The law
was then passed, that no land could be legally transferred
from the natives, except to the Colonial Government.
Maori rights were strong and firmly maintained, in the
Northern Island ; but, in the provinces of the Southern


404 mnnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmnsnn.
III
ZEALIIID.
,i?__.
Pastoral
regula-
tious.
Timber
licenses.
Land sales.
Leases of
flax land.
Taranaki
land laws.
though not more than 200 acres could be thus obtained
by the members of one family.
Certificates of occupation can be transferred after one
year’s residence; and the rights of the holder, in the
event of his decease, are claimed by his appointee or
personal representative. But there is a suspension of
land orders to those paying their own passage.
Pastoral tenants of the Crown have not the same ad-
vantages as in the broader lands of Australia. A license,
for fourteen years, may be procured for a run in the pro-
vince, but subject to these two conditions, beside the pay.
ment of rent. The license ceases on any part of the run
which may be subsequently included in a hundred, for the
purposes of settlement, or, that which may be sold or
selected under Land Orders. If the area be held sulfi-
cient for the depasturing of 100 head of large cattle, or
the equivalent of 600 sheep, the annual payment will be
51., with the addition of 51. for every such 100 or 600.
Queensland and South Australia can afford to be more
liberal to squatters.
Timber licenses are issued at the rate of 51. for a year.
According to the Regulations of 1871, lands sold by
public auction must be paid for in a cash deposit of one-
fourth, and the balance within three months. The
upset price of town lands was tixed at 201. per acre; of
suburban, at 31.; of rural, at from 5s. to 408.; while
lands supposed to contain minerals other than gold were
to be put up‘at a much higher price.
Flax-growing land can be leased for twenty-one years,
in blocks not exceeding 600 acres, and after competition
by auction. One-tenth part of the area is open to pur-
chase during the term at a rate fixed by the Government,
while the annual rent is to be not less than five per
cent. upon that amount, or one per cent. upon the whole
value. The holder is required, however, to dress a cer-
tain quantity of flax proportionate to the land leased.
Flax may be out upon public lands on the payment of
21. for a lease, and 11. for each license.
TARANAKI, formerly New Plymouth, has a. division of
rural sections and town sites ; the former cannot exceed
200 acres in each. A noble provision for public instruc-
tion is made in the reservation of abelt round each town
site, and one-twentieth part of a district, as an endow-


mun LAWS sun IMMIGRATION. 405
ment for schools. Facilities are afforded for the purchase
of land for cemeteries, or church use, before a district is
opened to the public for sale. The upset price of rural
land in this fertile province is 10s. per acre. Ifnot sold
at auction, other arrangements are made for lots of from
40 to 240 acres.
WELLINGTON Paovmcn is favoured with liberal land
regulations. Pasturage within the limits of the hundreds
is only enjoyed by grantees, pensioners, or natives. Out-
side of such boundary inferior land may be had for 5s.,
and better at 10s. an acre. The holders of runs have a
right of pre-eruption over their homesteads at 10s. an acre.
In 1870 special settlements were sanctioned. Occupa-
tion licenses were to be issued for fourteen years, at id.
per acre rent for the first four years, at -§<l. for the next
five, and 101. for the last five. Such runs must, of
course, be stocked according to the regulations.
In 1871 the system of deferred payments was adopted.
The prices range from 20s. to 40s. an acre. If, after
two years’ occupation of land, the person has built a
house, fenced the land, or cropped one-tenth of the farm,
he is entitled to pay the balance of the purchase in four
equal annual instalments. N on-fulfilment of agreement,
or non-payment of rent, involves the forfeiture of the
land. The area of these blocks varies from 40 to 200
acres each.
NELSON Paovmcn made reserves for public purposes,
and appropriated one-twentieth of each district for edu-
cational endowment. All lands are sold by auction.
The upset price is according to the quality of the land,
from 50. to 40s., determined by the Land Board. One-
tenth of the purchase-money is to be deposited at the
sale, and the balance within one month. Lands not
open to sale may be privately purchased at 21. an acre.
Squatters obtain fourteen years’ leases of ground not
held suitable for agricultural purposes. The area may
be from 50 to 10,000 acres, at an annual rent of five
per cent. of the assessed value of the land. The lease
may be renewed once, for fourteen years, but at a doubled
rental. Any portion of the run may, at six months’
notice, be resumed by the Grown, after compensation to
the tenant. The occupier has a pre-emption of home-
stead, though not exceeding 80 acres.
IEI
ZEILIID.
Wellington
land laws.
Special
settle-
ments.
Deferred
payments.
Nelson
land laws.
Grants for
schools.
Pastoral
land.


406 HANDBOOK T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IEI
ZEMMID.
Mineral
licenses.
Mining
land leases.
Auriferous
land.
Timber
and flax
licenses.
Land pay-
ment for
public
works.
Canterbury
land laws.
Pastoral
leases.
Gran ts for
public
purposeo.
Mineral licenses form an important feature of the
land laws of this mineral province. Prospectors for
other minerals than gold have a license for twelve
months over six contiguous square miles of unsurveyed
land, upon payment of 1d. an acre. Mineral licenses,
for all minerals other than gold, require a deposit of 2s.
an acre, with a rental of 6d. an acre for the first two
years, and ls. for each year following. The term of
lease is for twenty-one years, though the area cannot
exceed two square miles. The rent is reduced by the
royalty, which is not less than one-tenth, nor more than
one-twentyfifth. When the royalty equals or exceeds
the rent in any year, no rental is to be paid. The lessee
may renew his term at the rate of double rent and
royalty. The land cannot be sold during the period of a.
mineral lease.
Gold leases are procurable for blocks of land not ex-
ceeding 10 acres, at a rent of ten per cent. upon the
value of the lands assessed by the Land Board. Recent
changes have, however, affected the law of gold leases.
Timber licenses are granted for 10 acres at a fee of
5l. for the year. Licenses to cut flax may extend for
seven years over 500 acres.
By the Act of 1872, Nelson grants land in part or
whole payment of public works, road making, &c.,
within two miles of the scene of labour. Auriferous land
is not included in a grant. Under some circumstances,
the occupier of land on a gold-field may purchase a
quarter acre for 101. when reserved for a township.
CANTERBURY Pnovmcn has been well administered.
Its increasing prosperity has demanded a reduction in
its land privileges. But there has been no want of
claimants for areas at increased rates. Runs, duly
stocked, containing less than 1,000 acres, paid, after May
1st, 1873, not less than 3l. 4s. rent per 100 acres. If
extending to 5,000 acres, 21. 13s. 401. per 100 acres
would be required for the first 1,000 acres, and ll. 6s. 8d.
for each additional 100 acres. Above 5,000 acres, the
rent is ll. per 100 acres. This rate will continue till
May, 1880. Certain improvements must be made upon
these pastures; though over certain proportionate parts
of runs rights of pre-emption can be exercised.
Canterbury has always taken deep interest in educa-


408 nsunnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmun.
IEI
ZEILAID.
Pastoral
reg uln-
tions.
Special
leases.
Land
sales.
Colonist-
tion settle-
ments in
the south-
west.
Female
licenses. -
proclamation of a hundred, the lease ceases, if within
such a limit, though 80 acres may be had at 11. an acre,
and improvements are paid for on other portions of the
run. On granting a lease, the Government require a fee
of from 51. to 701., according hundred, annual licenses
3,000 to 40,000 acres. Within a to extent of lease from
are issued to resident occupiers, pensioners, natives, or
half-castes. The assessmentis ls. a year for small stock,
and 5s. a head for great cattle. Lessees may purchase
640 acres of their run, if not recognised as auriferous
land, at the usual upset price.
Land may be rented from the State for the cutting of
timber and flax, removal of clay, gravel, or stone, for the
working of quarries, or as sites for saw mills, flour mills,
potteries, tanneries, slaughter yards, and, in thinly popu-
lated districts, for houses of accommodation, though not
for the sale of alcoholic drinks.
Rural land is put up for auction at an upset of 11. an
acre, in blocks of not more than 320 acres. If within a
run, the sale needs the consent of the lessee. If not sold
within seven years after such proclamation, the upset
price will be reduced to 10s. Applications for unsur-
veyed lands must be accompanied by a deposit of 2.9. an
acre for the estimated area, as payment for survey, to-
gether with one-tenth the value of the land. Both sums
are returned if the purchase be effected. Should the
survey cost more than 2s. per acre, however, the excess
will be first deducted from the deposit.
COLONISATION SETTLEMENTS were authorised in 1869,
for the western parts, at Martin’s Bay and Perseverance
Inlet. The lands are divided into blocks A, B, and C.
In the first, free grants, if not exceeding 100 acres, may
be made to persons over fifteen years of age, subject
to residence of two years out of three. In block B, 100
acres are sold at 5s. an acre. In block C, the land is
exposed by auction at an upset of 5s., or open to selec-
tion at 10s. an acre, in areas of not more than 500 acres.
By a recent Act, licenses of occupation over 200 acres,
for three years, may be obtained in Otago. Women, if
not living with husbands, can be licensees. The annual
fee is 2s. 601. an acre, and certain improvements are re-
guired to be made. At the end of the three years,
70. 6d. will be demanded before the Crown grant is


LAND LAWS AND mmeiurion. 409
given. If the person prefer, a further lease of seven
years may be had. The freehold is gained when 25s. per
acre has been paid. Inferior land, valued at 10s., can be
leased at ls. 3d. per acre annually, and the farm ex-
tended to 320 acres.
Payment for labour on public works can be made in
land by the Government, at the rate of one acre for every
pound value of work. With special sanction, a man
may thus obtain 1,000 acres.
Mineral lands, when not more than 80 acres, are
leased for twenty-one years, at a reserved rent, though
they may be put up to auction, after three years, at the
lessee’s request. The Land Board may refuse to sell
land leased from the Crown, in the event of gold being
discovered thereon. But holders of agricultural leases
in gold-fields can purchase at the upset of ll. an acre.
SOUTHLAND, once an independent province, has been
re-united to Otago since 1870, though subject to its own
land laws. These were very liberal to the squatter ;
as, when sales were made within the area of an exclusive
pasturage license, he received not only compensation for
improvements, but from sixpence to two shillings for
each acre disposed of, according to the unexpired term
of his 14 years’ license. The rental was the same as in
Otago. The pre-emptive rightis limited to 250 acres,
or 5 per cent. of the run when under 5,000 acres.
The Hundred system prevailed there, as in other parts
of New Zealand, to the advantage of residents; whose
right of depasturing, however, was regulated by the
amount of land held within the area of the hundred.
HAWKE’S BAY Paovmcn has much the same land re-
gulations as it neighbour Wellington. But the Act of
1872 provides that special blocks of 20,000 acres be put
up in farms of from 40 to 200 acres, at from 10s. to
40s. an acre, in payments extending over five years.
Mnsnsoxoucn Paovmcn was separated from Nelson
in 1856, when new land laws were promulgated. While
rural land can be obtained at the upset of 11., pasture
land is rated at 5s. only. One-tenth of the purchase is
deposited at the sale, and the balance within one month.
Privileged sales are allowed for sites for churches, schools,
cemeteries, etc. Of all gross proceeds of all land sites,
2% per cent. are paid over to the Board of Education.
IEI
ZEILIIIJ.
Leases for
purchase.

Mineral
leases
Southland
land laws
good for
squatting.
Hundreds.
Hawks’!
Bay laud
laws.
Marl-
borough
land law!
Part of
land sales
to schools.


410 mnnroon T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
IIEW
ZEALMID.
Land sales
to 1884.
Land
Laws
1879.
Special
regula -
tions.
IMMIGRA-
'1‘10N.
Free
Passages.
By Act 1877 lands can be selected on the system Of
payments over ten years. In 1878, 15,000,000 acres
were open for selection, and 13,500,000 were leased in
1878 for pastoral purposes for 118,531l. ; 66,577,160
acres, to 1884:, sold for 17,430,021l.
By Act 1879 lands are Suburban or Rural, and may
be selected in lots from 20 to 320 acres, at the upset of
5s., 10s., and 15s., according to quality, on the system of
deferred payments, 5 years for suburban, 10 for rural.
The cultivation must be annually T16 of the first, 12% of
the last, with improvements of ll. in 6 years. Pastoral
lands, by the law 1884, can no longer be had on deferred
payments. In Village Settlements selections of one
acre town and 50 acres country land can be made, 5l.
for the one, and ll. each farm acre. By the Homestead
System, certain lands are secured by a family: under
18 years, 20 acres first class or 36 second; over 18, 50
or 75 acres. No family can have more than 200 first or
300 second. There must be residence 5 years, and cul-
tivation annually 1-1; open land, Q5 forest. Special Settle-
ments may be had by large parties at ll. an acre, and a.
rebate of 20l. allowed for each resident emigrant thereon.
Licences for 7 years are granted for timber or flax
cutting, coal working, and Kaurie gum digging.
A Mining Board is constituted wherever 500 miners are
gathered. Wardens have power to grant leases for15 years.
By law of 1877 an alluvial claim for one mi11er’s right
may be 100 by 100 feet, and extended claim to 6 acres.
A quartz claim is 100 by 300 on each side of the vein,
no party having above 1,000 feet on line of reef. River
claims are up to 100 by 30; dredging, 200 to 2,000;
and sea-beach frontages, 100 to 1,000. Prospecting
areas are larger. Gold leases are granted. A business
area is 20 perches, at 51. a year.
Emigration to New Zealand is a recognised fact.
Free passages are given to cooks, housemaids, general
servants, dairymaids, &c., between the ages of 15 and
35. Daughters of married couples, when over 12 years
of age, have also a free passage. In 1884: the arrivals
were 20,021, and the departures 10,700.
Free passages are granted to married agricultural
labourers, navvies, shepherds, and mechanics. Whilst
three children between 1 and 12 in a. family have a free


IMMIGRATION. 411
passage, payment must be made for others. Those above
12 are rated as adults, and betweenl and12 as half adults.
Boys above twelve, if going with their parents, have a
free passage. Married men above 45 are not free. No
single man above 40 is eligible.
At present, 1885, no grants are made to those paying
their passage out, and there is a temporary suspension
of the regulations for free and assisted passages.
Wages, though decidedly fluctuating, and being dif-
ferent in the various provinces, are thus stated in a
circular, dated Jan. 1, 1879, sent out by the Agent-
General for New Zealand, from the oifices, 7, Westminster
Chambers, Victoria Street, Westminster, London. The
list, however, is the average for 1878.
Bakers, 5s. to 7s. a day at Auckland ; 8s. to 9s. Christ-
church; 10s. Dunedin. Blacksmiths, 9s. to 10s. at Nel-
son and Invercargill; 10s. to 12s. Wellington and
Timaru; 10s. to 1/Ls. Auckland; 12s. to 14s. Dunedin.
Bookbinders, 7s. to 8s. Auckland; 8s. to 10s. Nelson and
Christchurch; 9s. to 10s. Dunedin. Brewers, 7s. to 10s.
Auckland; 10s. to 12s. Blenheim, Christchurch, and
Dunedin. Bricklayers, 10s. to 12s. Auckland, Napier,
Wellington, and Dunedin. Brick makers, 7s. to 8s.
Auckland; 8s, to 10s. Wellington ; 10s. to 12s. Dunedin.
Butchers, 6s. to 10s. Auckland and Timaru; 7s. to 8:.
Nelson; 8s. to 10s. Christchurch and Dunedin.
Carpenters and cabinet makers, 9s. to 10s. Auckland
and Nelson; 10s. to 12s. Napier, Taranaki, Wellington,
Christchurch and Dunedin; 12s. to 14s. Timaru and
Inveroargill. Garters, 5s. to 7s. Auckland; 7s. to 8s.
Blenheim and Christchurch; 8s. to 10s. Dunedin.
Coach builders, 9s. to 10s. Auckland and Nelson ; 10s. to
12s. Taranaki, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin.
Goal miners, 6s. to 8s. Auckland; 8s. to 9s. Christchurch;
10s. Dunedin; 9s. to 12s. Nelson. Coopers, 8s. to 10s.
Christchurch ; 9s. to 10s. Nelson. Engineers, 9s. to 10s.
Auckland; 10.9. to 12s. Nelson and Blenheim; 12s. to
14.<a. Dunedin. Engine drivers, 8s. to 10s. Christchurch.
Founders, 8s. to 9s. Auckland ; 10s. to 12s. Christchurch ;
12s. to 15s. Timaru. Gardeners, 6s. to 7s. Auckland;
7s. to 8s. Wellington and Christchurch; 8s. to 108.
Dunedin. Masons, 9s. to 12s. Christchurch; 10s. to 12s.
Nelson and Taranaki; 12s. to Ms. Dunedin.
IE!
ZEALRIII.

Wages.
Otago
wages list


412 nsnnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA sun NEW znsnsnn.
IEI
ZEILAID.
Millers, 7s. to 9s. Nelson; 8e. to 10s. Auckland; 90.
to 10s. Christchurch and Dunedin. Miners, 8s. to 9s.
Auckland; 7s. to 8s. Christchurch; 12s. to 20s. Nelson.
Painters, 8s. to 10s. Auckland and Christchurch; 10a.
to 12s. Dunedin and Invercargill. Coach painters, 9s.
to 10s. Auckland ; 10s. to 12s. Christchurch, Wellington,
and Dunedin. Paperhangers, 8s. to 9s. Auckland; 88.
to 10s. Dunedin. Plasterers, 10s. to 12s. Nelson, Wel-
lington, and Christchurch; 14s. to 16s. Dunedin and
Invercargill. Plumbers, 8s. to 9s. Auckland; 10s. to
12s. Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin. Com-
ositors, 8s. to 10s. Nelson; 10s. to 12s. Wellington;
€2s. to 15s. Christchurch. .P’I‘€88’WL6’!L, 8s. to 10s. Nelson;
10s. Dunedin ; 10s. to 12s. Christchurch. Lithograplwrs,
10s. Dunedin; 10s. to 12s. Christchurch. Saalollers, 6s.
to 8s. Nelson; 8s. to 10s. Christchurch and Dunedin.
Shipwrights, 9s. to 10s. Auckland; 10s. to l2s. Nelson,
Wellington, and Christchurch. Shoemakers, 6s. to 10s.
Auckland; 8s. to 9s. Nelson; 10s. to 128. Blenheim;
Surveyors, 10s. to 14s. Auckland; 12s. to l4~s. Dunedin;
15s. to 20s. Nelson. Slaters, 8s. to 11s. Christchurch.
Tailors, 8s. to 9s. Nelson; 10s. Auckland; 10s. to 12s.
Christchurch. Tarmers, 7s. to 8s. Auckland; 8s. to 108.
Christchurch; 10s. to 12s. Dunedin. Turner-9, 8s. to 10s.
Christchurch. Watchmakers, 10s. to12s. Christchurch;
12s. to 14$. Auckland and Dunedin. WheeZwrz'_qhts, 8s.
to 10s. Christchurch; 10s. to 12s. Napier and Welling-
ton. Labourers, 5s. to 6s. Auckland; 6s. to 8s. Nelson
and Christchurch; 7s. to 8s. Dunedin; 8s. to 10s. In-
vercargill. Shopwornert, 4s. to 5s. Nelson; 4s. to 7s.
Christchurch; 5s. to 8s. Auckland. Dressmakers, 2s. 6d.
to 4s. Auckland and Nelson; 3s. to 5s. Christchurch.
Mtlltners, 3s. to 5s. Auckland; 7s. to 10s. Christchurch.
In 1883-84¢ there was a similar dillerence in the pro-
vinces. Farrn labourers had 7s. a day in Wellington;
8s. Hawke’s Bay; 9s. Westland. Shepherds had 501.
and rations in Nelson ; 55l. to 80l. Canterbury. Station
labourers had 20s. a week and board in Auckland; 189.
to 25s. Otago. .llIr/sons, 7s. to 9s. Taranaki; 15s.
Marlborough ; 16s. Westland. Carpenters, 9s. Auckland ;
10s. Hawke’s Bay; 10s. to 15s. Otago. Briehlag/ere,
10s. to 12s. Wellington; 12s. Marlborough. Plumbers,
10s. Auckland; 12s. Marlborough; 145. Westland.


414 mmnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW zmmnn.
IEI
ZEMLMID.
\Vhere to
look for
farms.

Grasses.
Vines and
flax.
Butter and
cheese.
Railways
necessary.
than in some other localities. An attentive perusal of the
provincial land laws will inform the intending emigrant
how to get a farm. But, if prudent, he will first con-
sider what he wants, or he may select the wrong place.
The North Island is not the wheat-growing one. The
farmer who intends depending upon the plough had
better choose the open plains of Canterbury and Otago,
or the deep and fertile soils of Southland. The best
crops for weight and quantity are undoubtedly got near
Invercargill. As the acres near old settlements are now
enclosed, the selector will have to go back on the New
Zealand prairies. But the Canterbury Government is
resolved to run a railway along the Plains as far as the
Alps; and the Otago rulers are equally resolved to bring
the produce with ease to market.
If, however, the man wishes to follow the distinctive
style of the New Zealand farming, laying down artificial
grasses, he will probably prefer Auckland or Taranaki.
The settlers of Canterbury and Otago, however, contrive
to get a first crop of corn, and then lay down in grass
for stock. Nelson, Marlborough, and Welhngton are
more available for that kind of work.
The interior of South Island is generally too rocky
and rough for cultivation; while that of North Island
is still a region of craters, hot springs, sulphur fumes,
and too often of aridity. The natives hold the latter
part, though having elsewhere still some of the richest
soil of the country.
Vineyards can be profitably raised in Auckland and
Hawke’s Bay Provinces, though scarcely equal to those
of New South Wales and South Australia. Flax can be
grown easily enough, though the native Phormium is be-
coming, through new and successful treatment, a most
important local manufacture. If one can bear the w%
climate, the largest yield of oats and barley can be raised
in stormy Westland. Dairy produce is in the greatest
plenty on artificial grass lands. If not a land for wine
and oil, it is pre-eminently one of butter and cheese.
Railways are essential to the success of the country
which depends so much on agriculture; for the extra
moisture, the prevalence of morasses, the multiplicity of
streams, are all unfavourable to road-making. North
Island, too, is so full of forests and scrub, that a tra~
l


HINTS T0 EMIGRANTS FOR mew ZEALAND. 415
veller can make little use of a horse in his way. South
Island is more open for horseback, but rough for wheel
tracks. The railway has now been completed between
Christchurch, of Canterbury, and Dunedin, of Otago;
thus the best farming district of New Zealand will have
ready access to two ports.
The country is not a squatting one, though fine areas
can still be selected for such a pursuit in Otago and
Canterbury. When the latter province had 230,000
acres taken up in seven months, it may be presumed that
much of this was for stock. But Australia has no com-
petitor for squatting. For all that, New Zealand has
the pre-eminent ability for feeding animals on artificial
grass through the year, and can thus realise a future
pastoral prosperity which the founders of the colony
never contemplated.
Gold-mining can be wrought with more personal com-
fort in the Thames Valley of Auckland than in the
tropical heat of Northern Queensland; though none
but the most robust should encounter the tempestuous
climate and hardships of the west coast of South Island.
Yet Westland offers a great temptation to visitors, in its
sands thrown up after storms. Crucible work on the shore
extracts gold and silver from these ferruginous deposits.
Commerce, with such a coast line, must become a great
industry. Small steamers were much called for, as the
settlements rarely extend beyond a few miles from the
coast. Seamen and engineers get high wages.
In short, the emigrant to New Zealand, if sober and
industrious, is not an object of eommiseration, but one
to be congratulated upon his enterprise. He must not,
however, expect all the refinements and luxuries of life
to be found in Victoria, which has gained its fortunate
position at a bound. Though essentially agricultural,
the land supports an ever-increasing number of sheep,
tended more after the English than the Australian style.
Mines of gold, copper, and coal add to the resources.
The progress of coal is a most hopeful sign.
NEW
ZEILMID.
‘li-
Openings
for
squatting.
Gold-
mining.
Commerce.
Advan-
tages of
emigration


418 nmnnoox TO AUSTRALIA AND new ZEALAND.
FIJI ISLIIDS.
Geographi-
cal features.
next in importance to the King, also seceded from the
Government; and, in this dilemma, Thakambau and
his advisers offered to cede the islands to Great Britain,
with a debt of some 82,000l. contracted by the de faeto
Government during the last two years of its existence,
in the hope of securing a better state of things under
British rule—the result of which is shewn in the
figures given further on.
The archipelago of Fiji is situated in the South-
western Pacific, between the parallels of 15° and 19°
S. latitude, and the meridians of 177° E. and 178° W.
longitude. It comprises nearly 200 islands, besides
islets, rocks, and reefs. The two largest of these, called
Viti Levu and Vanna Levu, are of considerable size,
having each a circumference of from 200 to 250 miles ;
the names of the other more important islands are
Ovalau, Kandavu, Taviuni, Koro, Ngau, and Lakemba.
Sixty-five of them are described as being inhabited.
There are several good harbours in the group, the prin-
cipal of which is that of Levuka, on the eastern side of
the island of Ovalau, where the capital or chief European
town of the same name is situated. The native capital
is Bau, the former residence of the kings. It occupies
a small island close to the mainland of Viti Levu, and
is only a few’ hours’ sail from Levuka. The largest
river, the Rewa, is in Viti Levu ; it is a broad and rapid
stream, from 400 to 500 yards wide, and navigable for
small vessels for a considerable distance. Most of the
islands rise abruptly from the sea, and present in their
bold and irregular outline the peculiar character of the
volcanic formation to which they belong. In Viti
Levu there are thousands of acres of splendid flat lands;
and, although most of the country is undulating, and
in some places mountainous, the soil everywhere is re-
markably fertile and productive; indeed, it is said that
there is hardly an acre of land throughout this group
that might not be either converted into a pasture or a
plantation. The lofty peaks of Voma and Buke Levu
are 4,000 feet high.
Like most islands situated within the influence of the
easterly trade winds, the aspect of the weather side of
all of them is essentially different from that to leeward.
Owing to the constant moisture brought with the trade
winds from the ocean, the former teems with a dense


422 nmnnoox TO msrsum AND new ZEALAND.
FIJI ISLMIDS.
Climate.
Native
population.
the material for their ‘ tappa,’ or native cloth, which
they wear as a toga. Distinguished persons envelop
their bodies in pieces of ‘tappa’ many yards long, and
allow extensive trains to drag after them on the ground.
Timber of excellent quality abounds on the larger islands,
and a trade in it has sprung up with the Australian
colonies. The Fiji Kaurie pine (Dammara vitiertsis)
rivals that of New Zealand. A species of Casuarina
produces an exceedingly hard and heavy wood, formerly
used for making war-clubs. Six species of palms orna-
ment the forests, as well as many ferns of extraordinary
beauty. Some of the native flowers are gaily coloured,
and others emit a delightful fragrance, with which the
natives profusely decorate their persons. Sugar, cofl'ee,
tamarinds, and tobacco, as well as cotton, thrive wonder-
fully well, the former growing wild in many localities.
The climate of the Fijis, though tropical, is, as a rule, re-
markably pleasant during the greater portion of the year.
The heat is moderated by the trade-wind, so that its mean
temperature does not exceed 80° Fahr. The lowest reading
of the thermometer is 65°, and when it falls so low as this
the days are by comparison cold and damp, and the native
population do not care to stir out of doors; whilst the
Europeans find the benefit of an overcoat. Such weather,
however, only occurs during periods of strong gales and
rain. Fevers occurring as epidemics are unknown, the
only disease that Europeans have to fear being dysen-
tery. Elephantiasis and occasional leprosy, together
with glandular swellings, are frequent amongst the
native population. From October to April, the hottest
season, a considerable quantity of rain falls; whilst
there are occasional showers during the dry season, which
lasts from May to September. Hurricanes, or revolving
storms, occasionally visit the islands during the first
three months of the year, but successive years frequently
pass by without their occurrence.
The native population at the present time is variously
estimated at between 120,000 and 200,000. The Fijians
are a tall, well-made, muscular race of men. Neither so
black nor so woolly-haired as the true Papuans, they are,
nevertheless, nearer akin to them than to the lighter-
coloured Polynesians of Tonga and Samoa. Formerly
they were considered to be the most inveterate cannibals


comnancnu. rnonucrs. 423
of any existing race; and although the introduction of
Christianity amongst them has abolished this terrible
custom wherever the missionaries have established them-
selves, it is aflirmed that it still exists to a certain extent
amongst the heathen tribes who inhabit the mountainous
and as yet almost unknown interior of Viti Levu. The
former method of dressing their crisp and somewhat
woolly hair, spread out like a mop to a distance of ten or
twelve inches from the head, is still adhered to by the
less civilised tribes. They are very careful not to crush
these grand wigs; and when they lie down they
rest their necks on wooden pillows, elevated with
legs some eight inches from the floor, so that the
elaborately-dressed hair may sustain no pressure. They
build large canoes, in which they perform somewhat dis-
tant voyages from one island to another. In the manu-
facture of their houses and weapons, as well as in their
handsomely-chequered ‘ tappa ’ cloths, their wicker-work
baskets and their earthenware vessels, they exhibit both
taste and skill. In the Windward Islands there is a con-
siderable mixture of the lighter Tonguese blood, owing
to the colonisation of that portion of the group by the
powerful Tongans, who were attracted thither by the
plentiful supply of large timber for canoe-building.
During the American war, when cotton was every-
where in demand, and realised such high prices, there
was a general rush from the Australian colonies to Fiji,
and the cultivation of cotton was extensively carried
on with considerable success; but, owing to the subse-
quent reaction in prices, the planters in Fiji have
latterly been less fortunate. Sugar will, eventually,
form one of the most valuable products of these islands,
but the present state of depression, and the want of
capital to procure the necessary plant for the mills, have
retarded the progress of its cultivation. Tobacco oifers
a promising field to those who understand its manage-
ment; the leaf in Fiji, grown from the best Cuban seed,
being said to equal in every respect the finest produc-
tions of the Antilles. Sheep and cattle have been in-
troduced by energetic adventurers from Australia; and
some of the well-grassed smaller and uninhabited islands
have been purchased from the chiefs and turned into
Fl-ll ISLIIDS.
L.
Com-
mercial
products.


424 nmnnoox T0 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND.
FIJI ISLIIDS.
Exports
and
imports.
Land.
The capital.
Progress of
the colony.
Climate.
Rotumah
annexed.
Tra de.
sheep-runs, the wool being of a good quality, and
realising a fair price in the market.
The value of the exports in 1878 was 192,8651. They
consisted chiefly of Sea Island and other cotton, sugar,
coffee, cocoa-nut oil, wool, tortoise-shell, béche-de-mer,
candle-nuts, and other products of the islands. The
imports came to 434,5221. ; exports 345,3431., in 1884.
Many of the earlier white settlers possess large tracts
of land, which they have obtained from the natives.
Desirable holdings were bought from them at prices
realising 6 to 25 dollars per acre. In land purchasing,
application is made to Government, not to chiefs.
Levuka, on the island of Ovalau, was the commercial
capital. It is supplied with Christian churches and
schools for the natives, and all the appliances of modern
civilisation. But Suva is capital for oflicial residences.
Levuka is 1,180 miles from Auckland, and 1,730 from
Sydney. The legislature is 8 oflicial, 6 non-ofiicial.
Asa British colony, under Governor Sir A. H. Gordon,
Fiji has greatly progressed. The revenue was 16,0001.
in 1875, and 88,0001. in 1884. Sugar, cotton, tobacco,
and coffee are largely raised. A wise system of local
taxation, on a native plan, maintains good order.
The climate, though tropical, is healthy. But measles
in 1875 carried ofi' 40,000 out of 150,000. The tem-
perature at Delauassau ranged from 58° to 98°, with
124 inches of rain, on 170 days. But 212 inches fell
in 1875 on 230 days at Vuno Point. Summer is wetter
than winter. Population, 115,000 blacks, 2,300 whites.
Rotumah Isle, north of Fiji, has recently been pro-
claimed a British colony, at the request of the inhabit-
ants. It is but 6 miles long, and is placed under Fiji.
Fijian trade in 1884 showed exports of 3l3,4891. to
British possessions; 31,8551. foreign. Sugar brought
218,224l. ; copra, 69,6421; fruit, 19,7101. ; cotton,
15,3091; pea-nuts, 2,7841.; coffee, 2,1511; maize,
2,5441.; fibre, 1,0321.; béche, 7391.; pearl shells, 4001.
The whites cultivated 35,608 acres :—cotton, 3,231 ;
cofiee, 882 ; cocoanuts, 18,330; maize, 545; sugar-
cane, 9,470; yams, 559 ; bananas, 1,622; cinchona,
36; tea, 200; tobacco, 18. Fiji has one of the largest
sugar mills in the world.


428 mnnx.
BUR
Burdekin downs, 241
Burdekin river, 241
Burgess town, 317
Burke and Wills cross Australia,
226 ; at Cooper’s Creek where
they perish, 194 ; their discoveries,
238
Burke town, 243
Burnett district, 240; river, 241
Burra-Burra coppermines, 196, 219
Burra county, 199; river, 198
Burr mount, 200
Burrumbeet lake, 110; farming
township, 113
Bush pleasures in Queensland, 292
Bustard Head, 242
Byron cape, 13
GABOOLTURE TOWN, 243
Calliope 1'iver, 241 ; town, 243
Cambridge downs, 241 ; gulf, 299
Camden county, 14; town of, 15;
sound or harbour, 299
Campaspe river, 109
Campbelfield, farming township, 112
Campbell town, 15, 317 ; cape, 351
Camperdown, farming township, 113
Canabolas, height of, 12
Cania town, 243
Candlenut tree, 420
Canning downs, 241; river, 298
Canterbury plains, 349 ; province,
352; climate of, 354 ; from glacial
action, 361
Cape river, 241 ; town, 243
Caper plant, 72
Capes, of Victoria, 110 ; of Wes-
tern Australia, 299; of Tasmania,
316
Capricorn cape, 242
Carboniferous rocks, 25; of Queens-
land, 248
Cardwell, town of, 243
Carisbrook, farming township, 113
Carlton, a suburb of Melbourne, 111
Carngham, farming township, 113
Carpentaria, gulf of, 198, 199, 240,
242
Carpenter, the Dutch Governor-
General of Java, 225,235

GLU
Carstens, Hans, his discoveries, 225
Casino, town of, 15
Casterton, farming township, 1 1 3
Castle hill, height of, 108
Castlemaine, diggingstownship, 112 ;
population of, 113
Castlereagh river, 13
Castor oil plant, 420
Cattle, trade in, 64
Cave deposits, 23
Cawndilla lake, 13
Cecil downs, 241
Ceres of Barrabool hills, farming
township, 112
Champion bay, miners at, 298,
299
Charleville town, 243
Charlotte Springs, town of, 200
Charters Towers, town of, 243
Chatham isles, 352
Chiltern, mining township, 112
Chinese, labour, 50; suifer more
than Europeans, 134; their emi-
gration to Victoria, 134; fann-
ing, 159 ; diggers, 165; popula-
tion of, in Victoria, 131 ; S.
Australia, 209; Queensland, 257
Christchurch, 353
Church and School Corporation Act,
52; the Act repealed, 53
Circular head, 316
Claremont isles, 243
Clarence district, discovery of the,
5; harbour, 13; river, 13 ; North-
east district, 14 ; straits, 199
Clare town, 199, 200
Clarke river, 241 ; island, 316
Clermont town, 243
Cleveland bay, 242; cape, 242
Climate of New South Wales, 16 ,
of Victoria, 113; of South Aus-
tralia, 200; of Queensland, 244;
of Western Australia, 299 ; of
Tasmania, 317 ; New Zealand,
353; of the Fiji Islands, 422
Clinton cape, 242
Cloncurry river, 241
Cloudy bay, 350, 352
Clunes, "diggings township, 112;
population of, 113
Clutha, or Molyneux, river, 350


mnsx. 429
CLW
Clwyd, Vale of, 3
Clyde river, 315
Coal in New South Wales, 25; coal
rocks of three ages, 26; area of
working fields, 79, 120; extent of
coalfields, 80; at Newcastle, 21,
80; coal leases, 81, 169, 334;
other coalfields, 81; coal raised
and exported, 81; rent and area
of coal leases, 81; coal area, 82;
advantages for manufactures, 87 ;
hope of, 120; coal plants, 125; coal
prospecting, 181 ; in South Austra-
ia, 220; Mesozoic coal in Queens-
land, 249; beds there, 249; coal
mining in Queensland, 279, 280;
in Western Australia, 302, 307 ;
of Tasmania, 323, 326 ; mines,
334; of New Zealand, 360, 395
Coal river, 315
Cobalt, 168
Cobboras mountains, 108
Colac lake, 110; farming township,
113
Cole mountain, 108
Coleraine, farming township, 113
Coleridge lake, 350
Coliban river, 109
Colleges, Denominational, 140
Collingwood town, 352; a suburb
of Melbourne,'1l1
Collins, Captain, to be Lieutenant-
Governor of Port Phillip, 103 ; his
ill-assorted party, 103; his aban-
donment of Port Phillip, 103 ;set-
tles Hobart Town, 314
Colville cape, 351
Comet river, 241
Common rights, 184
Condamine river, 242; town, 243
Connewarre, sea-lake of, 110
Conway cape, 242
Cook, Captain, his discovery of
Botany Bay, 1; his first fleet at,
6 ; his discovery of Victoria, 101 ;
his explorations, 235, 313; first
circumnavigated New Zealand,
343
Cook’s Adventure bay, 316
Cook county, 14; district, 240;
mount, 349

CUB
Cooper port, 351
Cooper's creek. 198, 241, 242; Burke
and Wills at, 194
Coorong lake, 198
Copperfield town, 243
Copper leases in South Australia,
228
Copper mines, 79, 168, 277
Copper mining in South Australia,
219; Burra.-Burra mines, 219 ;
Moonta lodes, 219; principal
mines, 220 ; export of, 220 ; in
Western Australia, 306; in New
Zealand, 395
Coral reefs, 419
Corangamite, salt lake of, 110
Corinella, farming township, 112
Corner inlet, 110
Corn in Queensland, 269
Coromandel mountains, 349
Cossack, pearl port, 311
Cotton growing in Queensland, 270,
271 ; in the Islands, 423
Councils, revenue, and debt of Tas-
mania, 326 ,
Coxen mountain, 240
Crackemback, height of, 12
Cradle mountain, 315
Cranbourne, farming township, 112
Crawford mount, 197 ; town, 200
Crescent lake, 315
Cressy, farming township, 113
Creswick, diggings township, 112
Croajingolong county, 111
Crocodile town, 243 ; island, 316
Crops and fruit in Queensland, 270
Crops and prices in South Australia,
214
Crown lands, 62
Cullarin, the, 12
Cultivation increasing more than po-
pulation, 158
Cumberland county, 14, 316; isles,
243
Cunningham, Mr. Allan, 4; mur-
dered, 5; at the Darling downs,
236
Curdie river, 109
Curtis island, 243, 316; Port dis-
trict, 240, 24-2; the port drained,
241


430 mnsx.
CUB
Customs and habits of the Fijians,
423
Cygnet, port, 316
I)./KINTREE MOUNTAIN, 240
Dairy farms, 158
Dalby town, 243
Dalhousie county, 111
Dalrymple town, 243; port, 315
Daly Waters, town of, 200
Dampier archipelago, 299
Dampier, his discoveries, 294
Dandenong mountains, 108 ; farming
township, 1 12
Danger, point, 13, 242
Dargal mount, 12
Dargo county, 111
Darling district, exploration of the,
4; south-west, 14
Darling downs, 242, 298; district
240; river, discovery of the, 4;
explored, 5, 12, 242; eastern afilu-
ents of the, 13
Darling, Governor, his reign, 9
Darwin, port, 199
Dasyurus, 28
Davey, port, 315
Dawson river, southern, 241
Daylesford, diggings township, 112;
population of, 113
Dee river, 315
De Grey river, 298
Delatite county, 111
Deloraine town, 317
Deniliquin, town of, 15
Denison mountain, 198 ; plains of
Western Australia, 298; port,
242
D’Entrecasteaux, Admiral, his ex-
plorations, 313 ; channel, 315, 316
Denudation in Victoria, 118
Derwent, country of the, 103 ; river,
in Tasmania, 313, 315
Deserts in Queensland, 252; desert
sands and sandstone, 252; in
Western Australia, 296, 298
Devil, bones of the, 125; native, 319
Devil’s tower, 316
Devon county, 316
Devonian rocks, 119, 248

EA!
De Witt island, 316
Diamonds, 169
Digby, farming township, 113
Diggings townships, 112
Dingo, a native dog, 31, 126, 365
Dinornis, a monster fossil bird, 254
Diprotodon, 27,125, 206; of Queens-
land, 254
Direction cape, 242
Diseases in Australia, 17
Doddington castle, mining township,
1 1 2
Dog, wild, 31, 125, 365
Don river, 315
Dorset county, 316
Double point, 242
Douglas river, 315
Dover town, of Esperance bay, 317
Drayton town, 243
Dromedary mountain, 315
Drought, 159
Dryander mountain, 240
Dry’s bluff; 315
Dubbo, town of, 15
Dumaresq river, 11, 242
Duudas mountains,109, 298 ;county,
111
Dundas, settlement of, formed on
Melville island, 226
Dunedin, 351 ; town, 353
Duneed, farming township. 112
Dunkeld, farming township, 113
Dunolly, diggings township, 112
Dunstan mountains, 350
Durham county, 14
D’Urville, his discovery, 416
D’Urville island, 352
Dutch discoverers, 294
Duties of New South Wales, 84;
list of articles, 84
Dysodile, in Tasmania, 323
EAGLE HAWK, diggings town-
ship, 112
Eagle Hawk Neck, 316
Earnslaw mountain, 350
Earthquakes in New Zealand, 368,
364 ; in the Fiji Islands, 419
East cape, 351
East coast portion, rivers of, 10


434 mnnx.
GRE
Gregory district, 240; downs, 241 ;
river, 241
Grenville, cape, 242
Grenville county, 111
Grey’s Barrier range, 197; county,
199; river, 298, 350
Grey, Captain, his discoveries, 295
Grey, Earl, elected member for Port
Phillip, 127
Grey, Governor, his administration,
196
Greymouth town, 352
Grim, cape, 316
Groote-Eyland island, 199
(iuildford, town, 299
Guinea, New, 242
Gulf islands, 242
Gummeracha town, 200
Gunbower county, 111
Gundagai, town of, 15
Gwydir river, 5, 13; district, 14
Gympie town, 243; mines, 276
HACKING, PORT, 13
Hahndorf town, 200
Hahn river, 241
Halifax bay, 242
Hamilton of the Grange, farming
township, 113
Hamilton town, 317
Hampden county, 111
Hampshire hills, 315
Hanging Rock, height of, 12
Harrow, farming township, 113
Hartog, Dirk, island, 299
Hastings river, 3, 13; town of, 15
Hauraki, gulfof, 351, 352
Hawdon salt lake, 198
Hawea lake, 350
Hawke's bay, 351; province, 352
Hawkesbury river, 13
Hawthorne, a suburb of Melbourne,
l 11
Hayes, Captain, his explorations,
313
Hay, ./own of, 16
Heat at various places, 19, 114, 200,
245, 300, 317, 355
Heathcote of Mclvor, diggings town-
ship, 112

HUN
Heidelberg, a suburb of Melbourne,
1 12
Hellyer river, 315
Henry bay, 316
Henty family, the, 102; at Portland
bay, 104
Hepburn of .1 im Crow, diggings
township, 112
Herbert river, 241
Herberton tin, 278
Hervey bay, 242
Hexham, farming township, 113
Heytesbury county, 111
Heywood, farming township, 113
Hibbs, point, 316
Highland district, the, 11
Hillesborough, cape, 242
Hinchinbrook island, 243
Hindmarsh, Captain, appointed Go-
vernor, 196
Hindmarsh lake, 110; river, 198;
county, 199
Hobart police district, 316; town,
314, 316
Hoddle mountains, 108
Hokianga hay, 351
Hokianga town, 352 _
Hokitika river, 351
Holland, New, 1
Hope lake, 198
Hopeless, mount, 191
Hopkins river, 109
Horrocks mountain, 197
Horses and cattle in Queensland, 265
Horses boiled down for tallow, 150
Horses, trade in, 64
Horsham, farming township, 113
Hot springs, 419
Hot Winds in Victoria, 114; of South
Australia, 200 ; of Tasmania, 317
House rent, 94
Hovell, Captain, his explorations,
102
Howe, cape, Captain Cook ofi’, 1
Howe, cape, 13, 110
Howqua river, 109
Hume, Hamilton, his explorations,
4, 102
Hunter county, 14
Hunter, Governor, his introduction
of free immigrants, 6


436 mnsx.
KAR
Kara-Kara county, 111
Karkarooc county, 111
Kawia harbour, 332
Keilor, farming township, 112
Kennedy, Mr., Surveyor, his dis-
coveries, 238; speared, 238
Kennedy district, 240
Kensington town, 199
Kent mountain, 108 ; county, 316
Kent’s islands, 316
Keppel bay of Fitzroy river, 242;
cape, 242
Kermandée, Captain, his explora-
tions, 313
Kerosene oil, 26, 81 ; shale in
Queensland, 249
Kew, a suburb of Melbourne, 111
Kiama, town of, 15
Kilkivan town, 243
liilmore mountains, 108
Kimberley, 302
King, Captain, his discoveries, 225,
295
King county, 14; lake, 110; island,
316; volcanic cone, 240
King Georges sound, 299
King, Governor, 101
Kingower, diggings township, 112
Kingscote town, 200
Kingston, farming township, 113 ;
town of, 200
Kooringa of Burra-Bu.rra, town of,
200
Koro island, 418
Koroit of Tower Hill, farming
township, 113
Korong river, 109; diggings town-
ship, 112
Kosciusko mount, 12; sienite, 23
Kyenneruf mountain, 298
Kyneton, farming township, 113
IABYRINTHODON of Victoria,
J 125
Lacepede bay, 199
Lachlan river, 3, 13; district, 14
Lacustrine deposits of New Zea-
land, 360
Lady bay, 110
Lagoons, valley of, 241, 419

LEI
Laguna. bay, 242
Lakemba island, 417, 418
Lake river, 315
Lakes in Victoria, 109; salt, 110;
fresh, 110; once craters, 124; in
South Australia, 198; of Tas-
mania, 315; in Western Austra-
lia, 299; of New Zealand, 350
Lancefield, farming township, 1 1 3
Landesborough creek, 241
Land, lawless occupation of crown,
62; Crown Land Commissioners
appointed, 62; licenses issued, 63 ;
land laws of New South Wales,
87 ; Victoria, 1 8 1 ; South Australia,
229; Queensland, 283; Western
Australia, 308; Tasmania, 338;
New Zealand, 402; Fiji Islands,
424; grants and quit-rents, 87;
grants to capitalists, 87; a million
acres given to a company,
S7; price of land, 87; sold and
unsold land, 88 ; mineral and
pastoral land, 88, 89; leases and
length of runs, 89 ; cheap food by
cheap land, 151 ; Land Act of
1862, 183; Land Act of 1869,
183; land fees, 184; land sales,
184 ; leases,184 ; landholders, 185;
land in Australia still rising, 204;
sales and leases, 229, 230; credit
system, 230; pastoral leases, 231
Lang, Rev. Dr., objects to tolera-
tion, 56; his cry for separation,
127; induces British emigrants
to settle in Queensland, 238
Latrobe, Mr., appointed superinten-
dent on the Yarra, 105; first
governor of Victoria, 106, 127
Latrobe river, 109
Launceston settled, 314; town, 317
Lead mines, 168; silver mines,
306; Geraldine mine, 306
Leake, crater lake, 198
Learmouth lake, 110 ; farming town-
ship, 113
Leases, the first, 62; for working
gold, coal, iron, &c., 78, 81, 170
Leeuwin, cape, 299
Leichhardt, Dr. Ludwig, his dis-
coveries, 221, 226, 237


mnax. 437
LEI
Leichhardt mount, 198 ; district,
240; downs, 241; drained, 241 ;
river, 241
Leopold range, 298
Lethbridge, farming township,
1 13
Levuka, port of the Fiji Islands,
424
Lexton of Bum Bank, diggiugs
township, 112
Leyburn town, 243
Liberty, results of, 47
Libraries, free state, 141
Licenses, mineral, 169; water-right
licenses, I70; squatting, 63
Light river, 198; county, 199
Lincoln port, 199; town of, 200;
native settlement at, 210; county,
316
Lindsay, height of, 12
Linton, diggings township, 112
Lion, the butcher-pouched, 125
Liptrap cape, 110
Liverpool plains, discovery of the,
3; range, 12; area of, 14; town
of, 15; river, 198
Lizard island, 243
Lizards, huge fish, 254
Llamas and alpacas, 148
Loan fund, 48
Lockwood, farming township, 113
Lockyer, Major, his explorations, 4
Loddon river discovered, 102, 109;
district of, L10 ; squatting district,
111
Lofty mountain, 197 ; range, 197
Logan river, 242; town, 243
Lomond, Ben, 12, 313
Londonderry, cape, 299
Longford town, 317
Long point, 316
Lonsdale, cape, 110
Lonsdale, Captain, appointed as
commandant on the Yarra, 105
Lookout point, 242
Lorne, 113
Lowan county, 111
Lyell mount, 349
Lynd river, 24-1
Lyttleton, port, 353

MAR
MACALISTER RIVER, 100
Macarthur, Mr. John, founder
of Australian squatting, 60
Macarthur river, 198
Macedon, mount, discovered, 102;
mountains, 108
Macclesfield town, 200
Macdonnel mountain, 198 ; port,
199, 200
Mclntyre river, 11, 242
McIvor mountains, 108
Mackay town, 243
Mackenzie river, western, 241
M‘Kinlay mountains, 240
Macleay, east, district, 14; river, 13
McMillan, Mr. Angus, his disco-
very, 102
Macquarie county, 14
Macquarie, General Lachlan, his
appointment, 8
Macquarie, Governor, called the
‘ Prisoner’s Friend,’ 9
Macquarie river, traced to a marsh,
3, 4; port, established, 3; river,
13, 315
Maifra, farming township, 112
Magnetic island, 243
Magnetic variation of places in
South Australia, 203
Maitland, town of, 15
Maize, 71, 72, 269
Maldon of Tarrengower, diggings
township, 112
Malmsbury, farming township, 113
Malvern hills, 349
Manganese, 168
Manifold, cape, 242
Manning river, 13
Mansfield, farming township, ll 3
Mantuan downs, 241
Manufactures progressing, 86; ot
Victoria, 180; of South Australia,
222, 223; of Queensland, 282
Manukau harbour, 351
Maories, the, 380-382
Maranoa district, 240
Margaret mount, 200
Maria isle, 312, 316
Maria Van Diemen, cape, 351
Marion bay, 316


440 mnnx.
NGA
364; botany, 370; government,
373 ; fertility of soil, 373; debt,
374 ; revenue and expenditure,
374, 375; population, 376; the
Maories, 379 ; education and reli-
gion, 382; agriculture, 384;
farming, 385; corn, 386 ; oats
and potatoes, 387 3 grasses, 388 ;
products, 389; pastoral, 389 ;
stock, 391 ; wool, 392; meat-
preserving, 392; mining, 393 ;
railways and telegraphs, 398 ;
banks, 398; manufactures, 399;
land laws and immigration, 402;
hints to emigrants, 412
N gau island, 418
Nicholas, mount, 315
Nicholson mountain, 240 ; river,
241; port, 351
N ickol bay, 299
Nive river, 315
Noalunga town, 200
Nogoa river, 241
Noorat mountain, 109
Noosa head, 242
Norfolk bay, 316
Norfolk island, Pitcairn Islanders
at, 6; Rose hill, or Parramatta,
6, 351
Norfolk, New, town of, 317
Normanby county, 111
Norman river, 241
Norman town, 243
North cape, 351
North-eastern pastoral district, 199
Northern coast range, 12; pastoral
district, 199
Northern territory of S. Australia,
225
Northumberland county, 14
North-west bend, town of, 200;
point, 316
Norwood town. 200
Notatherium, 27
Nuyt’s archipelago, 199; his land
discovered, 294
Nuyt, cape, 299
OATLANDS TOWN, 317
Oats, 73

PAS
Oil of New Zealand, 398
Olives in South Australia, 216
Omeo, lake, 110 ; mining towship,1 12
Onkaparinga. river, 198
Oolite, absence of, 120
Ophir, mines of, 15
Oranges, 74
Orange, town of, 15
Orion downs, 241
Orphan school, female, established,
52; male, 52
Osmond, Glen, town, 200
Otago, elevated district around, 350;
harbour, 351 ; province. 352
Otway, cape, discovery of, 101, 110
Ouse river, 315
Ovalau island, 418
Ovens river, 109 ; district, rain in
the, 114
Oxford down, 241
Oxley, Mr., Surveyor-General, his
survey, 3 ; his supposition of an
inland sea, 3; discovers the Liver-
pool plains and the Peel and Hast-
ings rivers, 3 ; his discoveries in
Queensland, 236
Oxley's peak, 12; height of, 12
Oyster bay, 316; cove, 316
Ozone in New South Wales, 19 ; at
Melbourne, 115; uses of, 116 ;
in Tasmania, 319
PALEOZOIC HILLS, 22; forma-
tion, area of, 118 ; forms, 124;
Palliser bay, 351 ; cape, 351
Palmerston town, 200 ; cape, 242
Parengarenga harbour, 351
Parliament, formation of, 47; and
the franchise in Queensland, 255
Paroo river, 242
Parramatta, location of, 6, 14
Parraroo town, 200
Pastoral affairs, history:—New
South Wales, 58; produce, 65;
the Auditor-General on the pas-
toral returns, 66; most pastoral
land rented from Government, 67;
freeholders and leaseholders, 69;
progress of cultivation, 70; the
crops and average in 1871, 70;
=~


442 mnnx.
PYA
Pyalong, farming township, 113
Pyrenees mountains, 108
QUADRUPEDS, 28, 319; two
only in New Zealand, 364
guartz, barren and fertile, 163
ueenbeyan, town of, 15
Queenscliif, 111
Queensland, discovery of, 3, 5;
colony of, 10; establishment of,
ll; climate of, 113; discovery
and history, 235; the colony pro-
claimed, 239; geography and
climate, 239 ; area of, 239 ; moun-
tains, 240; rivers, 241 ; very few
lakes, 242; bays, capes, and
islands, 242; towns, 243 ; climate,
244; geology, 246; the country
once 2,000 feet higher, 253 ; bar-
rier reef of coral, 253; metals,
253; fossils, 253; government,
254; separated from New South
Wales, 255; first parliament, 255 ;
population, 256; native police,
257; Chinese. 257; Polynesians,
257; populations of the towns,
258; census of age and sex, 259 ;
education and religion, 262;
pastoral, 264; how to get a run,
267; and its rental, 286; agri-
culture, 268; mining, 276; pre-
cious stones, 279, 280; trade,
281 ; banks, post, telegraph, and
railways, 283; manufactures, 283 ;
land laws and immigration, 283 ;
homestead areas, 285; pastoral
regulations, 287; mining and
mineral leases, 287; auriferous
lands, 287; number of immi-
grants, 287; assisted and free
passages, 288; wages, 289; hints
to emigrants, 289
RAFFLES BAY, 199
Raglan, diggings township, 112
Railways, 86; a help to the far-
mer, 69; in Victoria, 179; fares,
179; in South Australia, 223;
of New Zealand,398 ; essentia.1,414

ROB
Rainfall in New South Wales, 17;
in Victoria, 114 ; in South Austra-
lia, 201; in Queensland, 246; in
Western Australia, 300; in Tas-
mania, 318; in New Zealand, 356;
in the Fiji Islands, 422
Ram’s head, height of, 12
Rangitota river, 350
Raoul, cape, 316
Rapid bay, 198, 199
Ravenswood town, 243
Razorback mountain, 197
Rebellion, the Irish, of 1804, 7
Recherche bay, 316
Redruth town, 200
Reef leases, 170
Reeve lake, 110
Reinga cape, 351
Religion, in New South Wales, 55
in Victoria, 142-146; in South
Australia, 200 ; in Queensland,
263 ; in Western Australia, 304 ;
in Tasmania, 329; in New Zea-
land, 383
Remarkable mountain, 197
Remutaka mountains, 349
Rent paid in tithes, 172
Reptiles, 36, 368, 420
Revenue, of New South Wales, 47;
of Victoria, 129; of South Aus-
tralia, 207 ; of Queensland, 256;
of Western Australia, 303; of
Tasmania, 327; of New Zealand,
375; of Fiji, 424
Rewa river, 418
Richmond, river, 13; town of, 15,
317 ; down, 241
Ridley’s reaping machine, 213
Ringarooma bay, 315
Ripon county, 111
Riverina, claims separation, 11 ;
country, 14
Rivers of New South Wales, 12 ; of
Victoria, 109 ; of South Australia,
198 ; of Queensland, 241 ; of
Western Australia, 298; of Tas-
mania, 315; of New Zealand, 350
Rivoli bay, 199
Roads, history of, in Victoria, 179
Robbins isle, 316
Rochester farming township, 113


444 mnnx.
\
SIL
upper Silurian has little gold,
119
Silver mine, 167, 220, 395
Simpson, Mr., appointed arbitrator,
at Melbourne, 105
Singleton, town of, 15
Skiddaw, mount, 349
Skipton, farming township, 113
Smeaton mountain, 109 ; farming
township, 113
Smoky cape, 13
Smythesdale, diggings township, 112
Smyth mountain, 108
Snake Banks town, 317
Schnapper point, 111
Snares, the, 352
Snowy river, 109
Social condition in New South
Wales, 50
Sofala, mines of, 15
Soils, variety of, 68, 139
Somerset town, 243; county, 316
Sorell lake, 315; port, 315; police
district, 316; town, 317
Sorghum, 75, 273
South Australian Company, 195;
the colony settled, 196
South Australia, discovery,‘ 193;
history, 195 ; Colonisation Asso-
ciation, 195 ; failure of the As-
sociation, 196 ; becomes a Crown
colony, 196; its prosperity, 196;
geography and climate, 196; area
and boundaries, 197; mountains,
197 ; rivers, lakes, and bays, 198;
islands, divisions, and towns, 199 ;
climate, 200 ; rain, 201 ; hail-
storms, 202; barometrical action,
202 ; water in the centre of Aus-
tralia, 203 ; hot winds, 203 ;
waterspouts, 203 ; geology of,
204; metalliferous wealth of, 206;
gold, 206; no coals, 207; govern-
ment, 207 ; Legislative Council
and House of Assembly, 207 ; re-
venue and expenditure, 207, 208 ;
debt and economy, 208; popula-
tion, 208; diseases, 209 ; kind
treatment of the aborigines, 209 ;
education and religion, 210; places
of worship and Sundayschools,21 1,

STO
212; agriculture,2l2 ; wheat, 213;
Rid1ey’s reaping machine, 213;
hay, 215; orchards and grapes,
215; wine, 215; olive, flax, and
silk,216 ; pastoral lands, 217 ; in-
crease of exports, 218; mining,
219 ; trade and manufactures,
221 ; railways, post-office, tele-
graphs, and banks, 223, 22-1;tarifl',
224; duties, 224; sugar lands,
226; land to be lent on credit,
227; farms and sugar or cotton
land, 227 ; pastoral land, 227;
other leases, 228; copper leases,
228 ; occupation licenses and gold
mining, 228; land laws and immi-
gration, 229
South cape, 316, 351; island, 349;
has no volcanic hills, 350; lakes
at, 350 ; called Tavai Poenam-
moo, the Greeustone isle, 352
Southland, province of, 352
Southport town, 200; bay, 316
Southwest cape, 316
Spencer's gulf, 199
Spencer mount, 349
Spring hill, 108; river, 315; bay,
316; of Prossers, town of, 317
Springsure town, 243
Squatters versus farmers, 63, 150
Squatting. See Pastoral
Staaten river, 241
Stamp duties, 48, 402
Stanley barrier range, 197 ; county,
199; town, 317
Stanthorpe town, 243
Stawell of Pleasant creek, diggings
township, 112
Steamers, river, 179
Steiglitz, diggings township, 112
Stephens, port, 13
Stewart island, or Southern island,
or New Leinster, 349, 352
Stirling, Capt., his discovery, 226,
295
Stirling mountains, 298
Stock, history and statistics of, 60;
annual assessment of, 63 ; the
farmer versus the squatter, 63;
breeding, 158; in South Austra-
lia, 218; in Queensland, 266;


mnnx. 445
STO
cattle runs, 266 ; in Tasmania,
333; wool, 333
Stokes, Capt, his discoveries, 225
Stony rises, 124
Storm bay, 316
Stradbroke island, 243
Strangsway's Springs, town of, 200
Stratlialbyn town, 200
Streaky bay, 198 ; town of, 200
Stroud, town of, 15
Strzelecki, Count, his discoveries, 5 ;
mountains, 108; creek, 198
Stuart, Mr. John McDouall, endea-
vours to cross the continent, 195;
his sufferings, 195; his disco-
veries, 225, 226
Stuart’s centre, 198
Sturgeon mountains, 109
Sturt, Capt., his discoveries, 4; in
the desert, 194; on the Murray, 194
Sturt river, 198
Sugar and coffee leases in Queens-
land, 285
Sugar-growing, 74; advantages, 98;
in Queensland, 272
Sugar in Western Australia, 305;
white sugar growers, 275; in the
Fiji Islands, 423
Sugar-loaf point, 13
Sullivan’s cove of the Derwent, 317
Sunday schools. See Religion and
Education
Sunday strait, 298, 299
Sun-stroke, fatal, 16
Surat town, 243
Surprise mountain, 240
Suva, 424
Swan Hill, mining township, 112
Swanport, 316
Swan river, 295, 298; island, 316
Swansea of Swanport, town of, 317
Sweer island, 242
Sydney founded, 6; its former name,
6; city of, 14; mean heat of, 19:
the University established, 55 ;
free libraries and the Sydney
Museum established, 55
TABLE CAPE, 316
Table peak, 315

TAU
Tachera county, 111
Taieri river, 350
Take-all, 72
Talbot county, 111
Tamar river, 315
Tambo county, 111
Tamboritha mountain, 108
Tambo town, 243
Tamworth, town of, 15
Tangil county, 111
Tanks, the former name of Sydney, 6
Tanunda town, 200
Taranaki province, 352
Tararua mountains, 349
Tarcutta river, 13
Tariif of New South Wales, 84 ;
Victoria, 176 ; South Australia,
224; of Queensland, 282 ; of
Western Australia, 308 ; Tas-
mania, 337 ; New Zealand, 400
Tarnagulla, diggings township, 112
Tar-oil, 27
Taroom town, 243
Tarradale, diggings township, 112
Tarrengower mountain, 108
Tarwin river, 109
Tasman, his discoveries, 225, 294,
312, 343, 416
Tasmania, discovery and history of,
312; geography and climate, 314;
mountains, rivers, lakes, and bays,
315; capes, islands, and divisions,
316; towns and climate, 317;
natural history and botany, 319;
geology, 321 ; rocks, 321 ; govern-
ment and population of, 326, 327;
aborigines of, 328 ; education and
religion of, 329 ; pastoral and
mining, 332, 333 ; trade and
manufactures, 335 ; tonnage, im-
ports, and exports, 335; whaling
and banks there, 336, 337; rail-
ways, tarifi", and duties, 337; land
laws and immigration, 338 ; wages,
339; hints to emigrants, 339
Tasmanite, of Tasmania, 324
Tasman's peninsula, south-eastern,
316
Tatiara, district, 199
Taupo lake, 350; a former volcano,
363


446 mnnx.
TAU
Tauranga harbour, 351
Taviuni island, 418
Taxation. See Government
Teacher, the first, and grant in aid,
51, 52 ; technical education, 141 ;
technological museums, 141
Telegraph, 86
Telegraphs in Victoria, 179; rates,
179 ; in South Australia, 224
Temperature of Melbourne, 114
Temple bay, 242
Tenterfield, town of, 15
Terang lake, 1 10 ; farming township,
113
Teresa river, 241
Terrible peak, 197
Tertiary beds, 23, 121 ; in Queens-
land, 251; varieties of, 252; of
Tasmania, 324; deposits, 22, 361;
of New Zealand, 360
Thakambau, King of Fiji, 416, 417,
418
Thames diggings, 352
Thames river, 350; Frith of, 351
Thierry, Baron de, in New Zealand,
344
Thompson river, 109, 241
Three Kings, island of the, 352
Thumbs, the, mountain, 315
Thylacoles carnifex, or butcher»
pouched lion, 28, 125
Tiberias, lake, 315
T1Ll(’S in various places in South
Australia, 243
Tiger, bones of the, 125; wolf, 319
Timber, trees, 184; wood splitters,
184
Timboon lake, 110
Tin, 22, 168; very rich, 79; leases,
169; mining, 278; mines in Tas-
mania, 335; N. Zealand, 395
Tinaroo, 278
Tobacco, 72, 73, 423
Tonga islands, 417
Tongans, 423
Tongariro volcanic peak, 349
Toowoomba town, 243
Torlesse mountain, 349
Torquay town, 317
Torrens, lake, visited, 194 ; country
about, 195, 198; mountain, 197;

VAL '
the Adelaide river, 198; tertiary
rocks, 205; town, 200
Torres straits, 235, 242; Captain
Pool murdered there, 235
Tower hill, 109; crater, 124
Towns of New South Wales, 14 ; of
Victoria, 111 ; of South Australia,
199; of Queensland, 243 ; of
Western Australia, 299; of Tas-
mania, 317; of New Zealand,
352; distances of towns, 353
Townsville, 243
Trachyte, 25
Trade :—Trade in New South Wales,
82; trade per head, 82; trade
with other states, 82 ; imports
per head, 84; trade in Victoria,
170; in South Australia, 221; in
Queensland, 281 ; in Western
Australia, 307 ; in Tasmania, 335;
in New Zealand, 396
Trafalgar mountains, 298
Transportation ceases in Tasmania,
314
Travertine beds in Tasmania, 324
Trees, 41, 320,372
Trial bay, 13
'1‘rias at the Clarence, 22
Tribulation, cape, 242
Trinity bay, 242
Tufa beds of New Zealand, 362
Tumat mountain, 12; river, 13;
town of, 15
Tunbridge town, 317
Turon, mines of, 15
Twofold bay, 13
Tyers lake, 110
Tyndall mount, 349
Tyrrell lake, 110
UMBRELLA MOUNTAINS, 350
Underwood, port, 351
University of Victoria, 140
Unley town, 200
Upstart bay, 242 ; cape, 242
Useful mountain, height of, 108
VALENTINE MOUNTAIN. 315
Vancouver, Captain, his dis-
coveries, 295


mnnx. 4 17
VAN
Van Dicmen's gulf, 198, 199; cape,
199
Van Diemen’s Land. See Tasmania
Vanua Levu island, 418
Victor harbour, 199
Victor harbour, town of, 200
Victoria, 5; establishment of, 11 ;
discovery and history, 101 ; Cook's
discovery, 101 ; Western port dis-
covered, 101; Port Phillip disco-
vered ; French claim of discovery,
101 ; Major Mitchell's discoveries,
102 ; the land named Australia
Felix, 102; Gipps Land, 102; his-
tory of Victoria, 103 ; the first set-
t.1emsnt,l03; Captain Collins to be
Lieutenant-Governor, 103; who
with his party removes to Van
Diemen’s Land, 103; Port Phillip
becomes Victoria, 106 ; gold disco-
vered in, 106; the gold fever, 106;
order restored, 106; demand for
social and political progress, 107 ;
satisfactory state of the colony,
107; becomes first in the Austra-
lias, 107 ; geography and climate,
107; area of,108; mountains, 108;
rivers and lakes, 109 ; bays, capes,
islands and division s, 110; electoral
provinces and districts of, 111 ;
shires and road districts of, 111 ;
towns, 111 ; climate of, 113 ; popu-
lation, 113; hot winds of, 114;
geology of, 116 ; rainfall, 115;
earthquakes and meteors, 116;
scenery of, 117; rocks useful, 117 ;
great denudation produces fertil-
ity and exposes metals, 117; the
base is Silurian, 117; the Victo-
rian constitution, I28; electors,
129; working classes truly con-
servative, 129; revenue, 129; ex-
penditure, 129; loans, 130 ; public
debt for public works, 130; muni-
cinal system, 130; shires and road
districts, 131 ; population, 131 ;
the colony becoming more healthy,
132; malformations,133; diseases,
133; Victorian aborigines, 135;
Christian missions, 135; educa-
tion and religi on, 135 ; university,

VOL
140; public museum, 140; state
libraries, 141; moral progress of
the colony, 145; crime, 146; no
poor law, 146 ; pastoral statistics,
146; squatters and squatting, 146 ;
land and stock, 147 ; implements,
147; first flock of sheep, 147;
the first overlander, 148; Accli-
matisation Society, 148; salt-
bush-fattening, 148; statistics of
stock, 148 ; diseases of sheep, 149;
wool and tallow rates, 149 ; runs,
149 ; pastoral districts in Victoria,
149; purchased land, 149; la-
bour on stations, 150 ; agriculture,
150; population, 153 ; geology
and farming, 154 ; rust in wheat,
155; statistics of crops, 155;
mining, 159; history of the gold
discovery, 160 ; nuggets, 164 ;
other mines, 168; mining laws,
169; trade and manufactures,
170; shipping, 170 ; bmiks,
171, 177; imports and exports,
173-175; tarifi‘, 175; protective
law, 176; excise duty, 177;
mortgages and savings banks,
178; building societies and post-
oflices, 178; manufactures, 181;
land laws and immigration, 181,
185; prices, 182-185, 188;
wages, 186; Victorian farming,
189; town civilisation, 191; Mr.
Trollope on, 192
Victoria, district of Western Aus-
tralia, 298
Victoria lake, 5, 13, 110, 198; once
a bay, 205; mountains, 109, 298,
315 ; river, now the Barcoo, 198,
237, 298; valley, town of, 317
Victoria, Port Essington, settlement
of a military station at, 227
Villiers county, 111
Vinegar hill, colonial engagement
of, 7
Vines and wine. See Wine
Vita Levu island, 418
Volcanic ashes, 25, 124; cones and
craters, 109; rocks, but no active
crater, 122 ; productsof the, 123;
extinct, 123; height of cones, 123;


448 mnsx.
VOL
in South Australia, 206; craters,
206 ; the Devil’s punchbowl, 206;
the Devil's inkstand, 206; in
Queensland, 249 ; rocks and vol-
canic hills, 301, 302; peaks in
the north island of New Zealand,
349; conglomerate of New Zea-
land, 361 ; characteristics of, 362,
363; desert, 363; active craters,
362
Volcanic formations, 418
Voma peak, 418
WAGES in New South Wales 92;
in Victoria, 187 ; in New
Zealand, 411
\Vagga-Wagga, town of, 15
Waikari lake, 350
Waikato river, 350
Waimate town, 352
Waipa river, 350
Wairarapa lake, 350 ; river, 350
Wairau river, 350
Waitemata bay, 351
Waitaki river, 350
Waitemata town, 352
Wakatipu, lake, 350
Wakefield 1'lV91‘, 198 ; port, 200 ;
mountains, 349
\Vales, Prince of, island, 242
Walhalla, diggings township, 112
Wallan-Wallan, farming township,
112
Wallaroo town, 200
Walsh river, 241
Wanaka lake, 350
Wanganui river, 350
Wangaratta, mining township, 112
Wangaroa harbour, 351
VVannon river, 109
Warrego district, 240; river, 242;
north district, 14
Warrenheip, near Ballarat, farming
township, 113 ; mountain, 108, 109
Warrnambool, port of, 111 ; popula-
tion of, 113
Warwick town, 243
Waterloo mountains, 298 ; point, 316
Water reservoirs, 159
Wednesday island, 242

WEE
Weeah county, 111
Weimby, town of, 15
Weir river, 242
Wellesley island, 199, 242
Wellington county, 14, 316; district,
W. of Macquarie, 14 ; town of, 15,
200; mountain, 108, 315; lake,
110; province, 352
Welshpool, mining township, 112
Wendouree lake, 110
Wentworth, Mr., his work, 67
Wentworth, town of, 15
Werribee river, 109
Wesleyan Missionaries at Tonga
island, 417. See Religion
Westbury town, 317
Western Australia, discovery and
history of, 294; history, 296;
geography and climate, 297 ;
area of the colony, 297; moun-
tains and rivers, 298 ; lakes, bays,
capes, islands, towns, and climate,
299; rain, 300; heat of interior,
300 ; geology, 300 ; primary
rocks, 301 ; granite intrusive.
301; secondary formation, 301;
volcanic rocks and basaltic
columns, 301 ; government, 302;
revenue and expenses, 303 ; popu-
lation, 303 ; education and reli-
gion, 304 ; agriculture, 304; pas-
toral, 305; mining, 306; not au-
riferous, 306; trade and manufac-
tures, 307; telegraph, 308 ; the ta-
riff, 308 ; land laws and immigra-
tion, 308 ; hints to emigrants, 310
Western downs, 241
Western interior, extent of, 11 ;
boundaries of, 11 ; extent and
area of, 11; of Queensland, 240
Western pastoral district, 199
Western plains, discovery of the, 3
Western port, discovery of, 101, 103,
110
Westland county, 352
Westmoreland county, 14, 316
West point, 316
Weymouth bay, 242
Whale head, 316
Wheat fields, 11 ; a good crop, 72
diseases of wheat, 72, 158


mnnx 449
WU
Wheeler mountain, 2-10
White island, 352
Whit-slinday island, 243
Wiannmatta carboniferous beds, 26
Wickham, point, 242
Wicklilfe, farming township, 113
Wide bay district, 240, 242
Wilkes, Commodore, his discovery,
416
William, mount, 109; port, 351
Williamstown, port of, 111 ; popula-
tion of, 113
Willunga town, 200
‘Wilson's promontory, 108, 110
Wimmera river, discovered, 102,
109 ; district of, 110 ; available
for feeding sheep, 121
Winchelsea, farming township, 112
Winds, those usual, 20, 114; bursters,
20; in Queensland, 245; of Tas-
mania, 317, 318
Wind, the hot, 16; in Victoria, 114
Windsor, town of, 15
Windward Islands, 423
Wine, 74 ; beer versus wine, 74 ;
in Victoria, 157; in South Aus-
tralia, 215 ; in Western Australia,
305
Wingen mount, a volcano, 25
Wollomai cape, 110
Wollondilly, the, 15
Wollongong, 12 ; harbour, 13 ; town
of, 15
Wonnangatta county, L11

ZIB
Wood in Western Australia, 305
Wooclend, farming township, 112
Woodside town, 200
Wood's point, diggings township, 1 12
\Vool, of New South Wales, 58 ;
of Victoria, 149; of South Aus-
tralia, 2l8; in the tropics, 265;
of Queensland, 266; of Western
Australia, 306; of Tasmania,
333; of New Zealand, 392
Wyatt town, 2-13
Wyld’s craig, 315
Wynyard town, 311
'YACKANDANDAH,miningtown-
ship, 112
Yambuck, farming township, 113
Yam creek, town of, 200
Yandoit, farming township, 113
Yankalilla river, 198
Yankalilla town, 200
Yan-Yean, farming township. 112
Yarra-Yarra of Melbourne, 109
Yass, 14; town of, 15
Ynss river. 13
Yea, fal-ming township, 113
York, cape, 242; town, 299
York, height of, 12
Yorke peninsula, 198
Young, town of, 15
ZERO mountain, 109
PRINTED BY
Bl‘0T‘1‘l5WOOD1i AND C0., NEW-STREET SQUARE
Lox nox
G G


INDEX TO ADVERTISERS, ANNOUNCEMENTS.

PAGE . PAGE
MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENT TELEGRAPH CABLE, &c.,
MAKER-— MANUFACTUBERB—
Porter, H. . . 17 India Rubbel-,Gutta Percha,
and Telegraph Works
Company . . . 5
SEED MERCHANTS—
Sutton Sc Sons . . 18
3 VINEGAR MAKERS———
smP_BB0KERs &c_ Pott, A. W. R. & N. . . 17
Flint, J. H. . . 10 ‘
. . -. 12
gfijgtigoe’ F 12 WATER BOTTLES—
Shaw, Savill, & C0. . . 11 The ‘ Service’ Ebonite
Shipwrecked Mariners’ Soc. 4 Water Bottle . . 6 8: 7


B» W. SILVER AND CO-’S HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. 1
COLONIAL MAPS 860.
CANADA. A New Map of the Dominion.
Showing the Railway Routes, &c. &c. Coloured Sheet. Price la.
Pnocxsnmos Roux. GEOGRAPHICAL Socurrr, April 1881.—‘ Very clearly
engraved, showing the chief physical features of British North America. . . .
Well worked up to date, and shows railroads in operation and projected, and
provincial capitals, &c.'
AUSTRALIA and NEW ZEALAND (I886) '
7
including the Fiji Islands; also recent discoveries on the mainland.
Showing divisions, Chief Towns, Rivers, Explorers’ Routes, &c.
Coloured Sheet, ls.
SOUTH AFRICA. A New Map; including
the Cape, Natal, Transvaal, Orange Free Stlato, &c. Coloured Sheet, ls.
ILLUSTRATED Loxwox Nnws.—‘ A good map.’

S. W. SILVER & CO., Publishers, 67 Cornhill, London.
SIMNITT & CO.
BOOTMAKEBS,
78 B/SHOPSGA TE STREET W/TH/N,
LONDON,
In returning thanks to their numerous customers in Australia, India, China,
and the Colonies for their kind support, beg to renew their Instructions for
Self-Measurement, a close attention to which will ensure the continuance of
such an article as that for which their Firm has been so long celebrated. Lay
the foot on a piece of paper, and take the outline with a. pen or pencil, then
take the size roimd the ball or joint; the same round the instep; again from
the heel to the upper part of the instep, and round the calf. If Riding or
Long Hunting Boots are required, it will be necessary to state the length of
the leg, and measurement round the thigh. Orders to be accompanied by a
remittance or reference for payment in London.
A SPECIAL DEPARTMENT FOR LADIES.


S. W. SILVER AND CO.,S HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. 7

s. W. SILVER & o0.'s
NEW PATENT EBONITE " SERVICE" WATER BOTTLE.
It is the lightest and most convenient Bottle yet produced,
it keeps the contents cool on the hottest day, being made of a
nonconducting material and covered with thick felt. It is
durable, cleanly, and specially adapted for the use of Travellers,
Explorers, and others. The 2 and 41 Quart sizes are made with
two, three, and four cups to nest, which are secured over the
cork by a leather strap and fastened by a padlock, as shown in
the sketch.
CAPACITY AND WEIGHT.
Q pint, 8 ozs. 1} pint, 10 ozs. 1 quart, 1 lb.
From Col. Paar, Scots Fusileer Guards.
You ask me what I think of your flask, and I can only say that it is far
and away the best thing of the sort that I have ever seen. I have tested it
at the autumn manmuvres, and on the Moors, and it appears to me to fulfil
every possible requirement. Though very light in itself, it holds plenty.
It keeps anything cool through the hottest day. I have tried every sort of
drink in it; iced champagne, claret and cider cups, cold tea, brandy and soda,
and plain water, and have found that anything iced put in at night, retained
not only its coolness, but its eifervescence all through the following day. It
is very easily cleaned and kept from tasting of anything it has contained, and
its shape. makes it convenient to carry. I can only say further that I shall
never go anywhere without one.
From Col.‘ MITCHELL, R.H.A.
With reference to the Ebonite Water Bottle, lately carried by Sergeant-
Major Fairburn, I have the honour to inform you that it has so far sustained
its trial very successfully, having been in constant use for more than eleven
months. During this time it has been exposed to great changes of tempera-
ture, and appeared equally efficacious in carrying water cool in hot weather,
and tea and coffee hot in cold weather. From its shape it rides conveniently
and comfortably, and as yet exhibits no sign of wear; but I think it should
betried by some one riding actually in the ranks. It weighs, full, 2 lbs. 10 ozs.,
and empty, 1 lb. 2 ozs., holds about 1} pint. On the whole, I look upon it
as the best Water Bottle suggested for the Service.
From Col. PHILLPOTTS, R.H.A.
I forward you a report I have received from Capt. King, the Ofiicer Com-
manding A Battery, B Brigade, R.H.A., of your Water Bottle. I can assure
you that the report is not more favourable than I expected, as I have used one
myself and seen how well it wears. The Bottle that Capt. King has had in
use is now in my ofiice, and is in quite as good condition as the day you sent it
to me‘ From Capt. Kmo, R.H.A.
I have the honour to report for your information that during the two
months I was at Aldershot 1 had your “ Ebonite Water Bottle ” in constant
use. I consider it the best Water Bottle I have seen, and it bore the test of
frequent use remarkably well. I may add that when in use in my Battery, it
was fastened to the saddle, and had the constant knocking of sword and mess
tin against it.


8 s. w. srtvsa AND eo.’s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER.

UNION BANK or AUSTRALIA
LIMITED.
ESTABLISHED 1837. INCORPORATED 1880.
Paid-up Capital . . . . . . . . . . £1,500,000
Reserve Funds .. . . .. .. . . 980,000
. Together .. . . .. £2,480,000
Reserve Liability of Proprietors .. .. . .. 3,000,000
Total Capital and Reserve Funds .. .. .. .. £5,480,000
_~
HEAD OFFICE:
1 BANK BUILDINGS, LOTHBURY, LONDON, E.C.
COLONIAL BRANCHES.

VICTORIA. TASMANIA (Van Diemelfs Land)-
MELBOURNE. nosaar.
%2~_)1gg%$%r (BENDIGO). oarnanns.
. LAUNCESTON.
DAYLESFORDJ LATROBE.
TARNAGULEA. SCOTTSDALE.
' NE:§..ea.e:AND-
BALLABAT. -
EGERTON. THAMES ~
SMYTEES1) ALE-_ HAWERA (TARANAKI).
(31,UNEg_ HAMILTON (Wamxro). -
§§‘§§§ELL (PWABATT CREEK)‘; AND i7*vld5IIfiit'hIig:.|r:8§'NoRTH
BOROUGH. PORT . L -
‘NAPIER
NEW SOUTH WALES. WAIPUKURAU _
SYDNEY. JUNEE. HA3T1N(;,g HAWKBS BAY-
DENILIQUIN. NEWCASTLE. PORT AHURIRI
HAY- YOUR G- GISBORNE (Povaarr Bu).
wacca WAGGA. BURROWA. NELSON,
QUEENSLAND. HOKITKA WEB AND.
BRISBANE, TOOWOOMBA. §I§§¥s1‘.}.%%%%_CH} TL
nocxnsnrron. mossy. LTON
TOWNSVILLE. MARYBOROUGH gggfu
SOUTH ..?.‘.”;,%;.“i‘£“.".. “i§‘.‘é‘.’鑧2“ . R
ADELAIDE. | roar ADELAIDE. SOUTHBRIDGE
WAIMATE
WESTERN AUSTRALIA. DUNEDIN
PEP~TH- OAMARU Ozueo.
YORK INVEROARGILL
FREMANTLE.
ALBANY (Km; GEORGE’s Sounn). FIJ I ISLANDS-
GERALDTON (CHAMPION BAY). LEVUKA.
ROEBOURNE. 1 cossacx. suva.
Letters of Credit and Bills of Exchange upon the Branches are issued by
this Ofiice, and may also be obtained from the Bank’s Agents throughout
England, Scotland, and Ireland.
Telegraphic Remittances are made to the Colonies.
Bills on the Colonies are purchased or sent for collection.
Lennon: March, 1886. W. R. MEWBURN, Manager.


s. w. SILVER AND co.’s mmnsoox ADVERTISER. 11'
NEW ZEALAND, LTASMANIA, AUSTRALIA.
THE PASSENGER LINE.
SHAW SAVILL 86 ALBION G0. Limited.
Dmncr Monthly Royal Mail Steamers between London and New
Zealand, calling at Plymouth, Teneriffe, Cape of Good Hope, and
Hobart, at which latter port passengers are landed for Tasmania and
Australia, through tickets being issued.
The Fleet of Steamers consists of the following magnificent vessels:——

Vs-.ssax.s Toxs Comuszrnxas
ARAWA 5,026 Joan Srusnr.
IONIC 4,753 J. G. CAMERON.
DORIC 4,784 J. W. Jzmrmos.
COPTIC 4,448 W. H. KIDLEY.
TAINUI 5,031 B. J. BARLOW, R.N.R.
These Steamers are amongst the finest and fastest afloat (the
‘Arawa’ has made the quickest passages on record to and from
New Zealand), and are fitted in the most luxurious and sumptuous
style, having every modern improvement for the safety and conveni-
ence of passengers. They are fitted with the Electric Light, and have
Refrigerating Chambers, thereby securing a constant supply of fresh
meat and provisions in the tropical regions and throughout the
voyage.
An experienced Surgeon and Stewardesses are carried by each
vessel.
By this route the intense heat of the Red Sea is avoided.
Fares moderate. Return Tickets and the exclusive use of Cabins
granted at considerably reduced rates.
In addition to these unrivalled steamers the Company despatch,
at regular intervals from the East India Docks, First-class Sailing
Ships carrying passengers and cargo to the principal New Zealand
ports.
For further particulars apply to the Head Ofiices of the Company,
34 LEADENHALL STREET,
Lonnox, E.C.


12
S. W- SILVER AND CO.’S HANDBOOK ADVERTISER.

AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALANAD, & TASMANIA
ORIENT LINE.












FORTNIGHTLY MAIL SERVICE
9
Via SUEZ CANAL.
The magnificent full-powered Steamships belonging to the Oannrr STEAM NAVIGATION
Courexy. Limited, and the Puzxvxc STEAM NAVIGA'l‘IO.\I COMPANY, leave London every alternate
Thursday, and Plymouth one day later, for Annmum, MELBOURNE, and SIDKEY direct, and take
Passengers on through ti:-ken for all mrts in AUSTRALIA, TABMANIA, and Nnw ZEALAND.
FARE8 from £16. 16s. to £70.
F_ GREEN &' (_‘,Q_' 13 FENCBURCH Avmmn, LONDON, EC. MM
ANDERSQNI ANDERSQNI 3‘ Q0“ 5 FENCHURCH Avnvxm, Lounon, 13.0.} "9""
1-‘or Freigh! or Pas-rage apply to the latter Firm. '


s. w. SILVER AND co.'s HANDBOOK ADVERTISER. 15
S. W. SILVER & G0.'S DEPARTMENTS.
CLOTHING 0 ever descri tion or use in INDIA
and EVERY PART f0F TEIE WOIl,?LD—fincll4ding Navaltzizgoglglgtzfiisy
Uni/’orms—PRIVATIs' CLOTHING FOR HOME USE, and of Gossamer
Cloths, Tropical Tweeds, and other Specialities for various Climates &c.
SHIRTS, Pgiamahs, Hosiery and Underclothing, &¢». ’ ’
PORTABLE BARRACK AND CABIN FURNITURE‘
Deck Chairs, Ship Bedding, Packing Cases, and Boxes for the Hold,‘
Tents, Hammocks, &c. ’
_ORl_ENTAL AND OVERLAND TRUNKS of regulation
Cabin size, Portmanteaus, ‘Gladstone’ and fitted Ba s, Hat Cases,
Dressin Cases, and Leather Goods generally. Japanneg Tin Air-tight
Boxes fqitted with Indiarubber.
FIREARMS, including Guns, Rifles and Revolvers of the most
improved patterns, also S. W. SILVER & C0.’S Patent ‘ Transvaal ' Rifle
and Patent Anti-Recoil Heel-plate, and Steel Chambers for converting
a BtI'08(,;£l-l0lld87' into a Muzzle-loader; Ammunition, Loading Imple-
men s, c.
SADDLERY: ‘Colonial’ Saddles-—Pack Saddles, &e.—Web Bridles
—Mule Harness—Stock Whips, &c.
COLO N |STS' TOOLS: Roll- Up Cases of Farriers’ or Carpenters’
Tools, Felling Axes, &c.—Surveying and Scientific Instruments—Sporting
Knives, &c., in every variety.
WATERPROOF GARM ENTS and Indiarubber Goods of
every description, Oilskin Suits and Sou’-westers.
VENTILATED FELT AND PITH HELMETS, TWEED
HATS AND CAPS.


LAD/E8’ AND CHILDREN'S UNDEROLOTH/NG’
FOR INDIAN, COLONIAL, AND HOME USE.
QQNTRAQTS for the Supply of Clothing, Accoutrements, &c., for
Home and Colonial Volunteer Forces, and for Emigrants’ necessaries, &c.
PASSAGES SECURED, INSURANCES EFFECTED, PASSENGERS' BAGGAGE AND GOODS
OF ALL KINDS RECEIVED, PACKED, AND SHIPPED.
COLONIAL IEIANDBOOKS, MAPS, &c.
CIRCULAR NOTES (s. W. SILVER & cons)
IN DUPLICATE, PAYABLE ALL THE WORLD OVER.
67 CORNHILL, LONDON.
\.
/-_-


l6 S. W. SILVER AND CO.‘S HANDBOOK ADVERTISER.


S. W. SILVER & CO.’S
NEW PATENT,’ SOLID FRAME, SELF-EXTRACTIIG REVOLVER
‘THE EXPERT3 ’
A REVOLVER WITH SAFETY BOLT. AN ENTIRELY NEW PRINCIPLE

~,E
Tan EDITOR or ‘ FIELD’ sue :-
‘We have recently seen this pistol tried, and find that after a portion of the load is fired
and the striker made safe, the extractor brings out the empty cases and flips them away, while
the loaded ones are only brought out so as to be easily replaced. As far as we can judge from
the limited trial we have given it, Slnvssls “ EXPERT" REVOLVER appears to meet all the
objections urged against those “ self-extractors" at present in the market.’
SAFETY BOLTED STRI KER.
450 GAUGE


80s.
DITTO,
IIICKELPLATED
J SHOWING RAPID
EXTRACTION
OF CARTRIDGE
CASES
ILLUSTRATED G-UN CATALOGUE FREE
ON APPLICATION TO '
W SILVER & CO.
S .
INVESTORS OF‘ THE
‘Perfect Safety’ Hammerless Gun, ‘Anti-Recoil
Heel-plate,’ ‘Transvaal’ Gun and Rifle
combined, &c. &c.

~i_i
Full particulars on application to
S. W. SILVER & 00., Oornhill, London. ’
(7. _