ITY OF
30.1
CALIFOR
LIGN
(1868
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES


British Association.
Western Australia, 1914.
1-2
Handbook and Guide
TO
Western Australia.

CYGNI
INSIGNIS
Prepared for the Members of the Advance Party of
The British Association for the Advancement of Science
on the occasion of their visit to Perth and the South-Western
portion of the State, under the direction of the
Local Publications Committee.
PERTH:
BY AUTHORITY: FRED, WM, SIMPSON
GOVERNMENT PRINTER.
1914.






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State, lying in some cases at great distance from its commercial and political
centre—are liable to escape observation.
It is intended in the present instance to obviate as far as possible such a state
of affairs, but even though various excursions for our visitors have been arranged,
it will be impossible for them to see more than a small portion of this State.
Those citizens of the Empire who find themselves by destiny, or choice,
dwellers in Western Australia are inheritors of a vast territory.
Forming about one third of the island continent, this State stretches from
latitude 35° south to within 14 degrees of the Equator, and has a breadth from
east to west of approximately 850 miles. The area thus comprised is very
nearly a million square miles, or, to express the amount in a manner more striking
by comparison, about eighteen times the area of England and Wales.
The coast line of such a State must necessarily be of great length, and this
indeed is the case. For about 4,000 miles (neglecting minor indentations, the coast

ALBANY, UNITED STATES BATTLESHIPS
IN
THE HARBOUR,
of Western Australia stretches itself through tropics and temperate zones with all
varieties of scenery, of geological conditions, of natural products. This coast, too,
has a great historic interest, in that it formed for centuries at once the subject
of speculation and despair to those navigators who sighted its apparently
inhospitable sand-dunes or rocky heights.
De Gonneville early in the 16th century is generally credited with the discovery
of Australia, and it is certain that West Australia would be the first land he sighted.
Next came the Portuguese, and subsequently the Dutch, who gave the world of
those days the first definite tidings of the great island with the desert shores.
Our coast is rich in names reminiscent of the Dutch navigators, and there
now rests in the Museum in Antwerp the plate erected upon the northern end of
the island, to which Dirk Hartog gave his name, by that sturdy navigator in 1616.


a
or
an
well, but as rule to find that remoteness and richness are not always
synonymous terms when applied to gold discoveries.
Some two years later gold was found at Yilgarn, close to the present position
of Southern Cross, and as the years went on, link by link the golden chain which
binds the North and South was forged, till now from Kimberley through Pilbara,
Ashburton, Peak Hill, Murchison, Kalgoorlie,
Norseman, Ravensthorpe, from coast to coast,
a line of goldfields reaches.
Of these the crowning glory was Kal-
goorlie, the Golden Mile, which was respon-
sible for the inrush of population, which in a
very few years quadrupled the population of
the State by the advent of young, vigorous
and venturesome men from various parts of
the globe.
It is unnecessary to do more than to
allude to our mineral wealth, which will be
dealt with as a special subject later.
A further brief reference to the far-stretching coast
line of the State may perhaps be permitted. It has
already been stated that the nature of this coast furnished
for many generations an impassable barrier to settlement,
and while this is undoubtedly the case, it is no less true
that, whether regarded from a purely scientific
economic point of view, the coast of Western Australia is DURBAR SPRING, ON THE
intensely interesting. Strange to say, so far as scenic effects
are concerned, the least visited portions are the most attractive.
In the south the sea-scapes formed by the bold granite capes and sheltered
bays from Albany eastward to the hundreds of islands, large and small, of the
Recherche Archipelago, are equalled in few parts of Australia.
In the distant North, from · Derby to
Wyndham, precipitous red sandstone cliffs,
with a tropical growth taking advantage of
what available soil there is, render the journey
between these two ports a beautiful one ; and
everywhere islands as in the South, most of
them bearing names reminiscent of the French
navigators who followed one another down this
portion of the sea board. And to add a fur-
ther excitement to navigation, we have the
wonderful tides. At Fremantle the rise and
fall of the tide is almost negligible, thence north-
ward a gradual increase takes place till North-
West Cape, one of the corners of Australia, is
reached; then the tides increase amain till at
Derby, situated far up the inlet known as
King's Sound, into which the Fitzroy River
empties, a rise and fall at Spring tides of no
less than thirty-six feet occurs.

WILUNA-HALL'S CREEK
STOCK ROUTE.

5


on
more
seen at various sheltered spots. To-
day we find that, after languishing
and lying dormant for thirty years
or so, the whaling industry is being
revived, this occasion by Nor-
wegian craft. Two whaling stations
have been established within the last
year or two, one at Point Cloates,
about 500 miles north of Fremantle,
and the other at Albany, and from
each of these depôts at different
seasons of the year the whaling boats
set out, not, as in years gone by,
lumbering, greasy, evil-smelling sailing
vessels, but smart high-powered small
steamships, each armed with a mur-
derous bomb gun mounted in the
bows, fitted with wireless telegraphic
appliances, and possessing a speed
than equal to that of their
quarry. In this pursuit the element
of sport, such as it is, has been elimin-
ated and the element of profit cor-
respondingly increased.
The other industry to which
allusion has been made is that of
pearling, which has been carried on
along the coast for about forty years
altogether with fine results. Two prin-
cipal centres of this industry may be
shortly noticed. At Sharks Bay,
the scene over two hundred years ago
of Dampier's futile search for water,
the beginning of Western Australian
pearling took place. The shell raised
at Sharks Bay is quite different from
that occurring farther north. This
species of pearl oyster is small in size,
with a comparatively thin shell, and
is distinguished by bearing large
numbers of small pearls, both free and
also embedded in the flesh of the
oyster. It is found on shallow banks,
so shallow indeed that in many cases
the shell is picked up by men wading
across the banks; it occurs thickly, so
much so that in the deeper portions
of the shell-bearing ground a small
iron dredge is used for obtaining it.
The banks are leased to various owners,
and
readily respond by increased
yields to a rough sort of cultivation,

KING KARI, AFT. HIGJI, 40FT. GIRTII.
7


Attendance at the State schools was made compulsory where children lived not
more than three miles from such a school. In 1895 the scheme of assistance to
elementary schools before alluded to was terminated, and the then Government
paid to the representatives of the schools receiving assistance the sum of £15,000
as compensation for the assistance lost. Other gradual modifications brought
the system of primary education up to its present level.

1 SCHOOL GARDEN.
It has always been found that in a country of such exceptionally magnificent
distances as Western Australia, the administration of the Education Department
has been particularly difficult and costly, but successive Governments, recognising
that the existence of an efficient scheme of education formed one of the greatest
inducements to prospective settlers, particularly in the sparsely populated districts,
have spared neither expense nor trouble in this direction. The annual expenditure
to-day on education (neglecting the amount spent in the construction of school
buildings) is no less a sum than £319,312, or almost exactly twenty shillings for
every man, woman, and child in the State. For this sum a comprehensive
curriculum is provided, and nearly the whole of the amount is expended on primary
education. In addition to the ordinary subjects usually taught, it has been found
possible at all the larger centres for the boys to receive instruction in what is known
as manual training, while the girls have an opportunity to qualify themselves for
the duties of adult life by learning cookery and domestic economy. There are no
teaching fees for primary education.
Having regard to what has been done to provide secondary education for
the State, it will be found that here, too, an early beginning was made, firstly,
of course, by private enterprise.
In the year 1876, however, it was found that very many of the more wealthy
of the colonists were in the habit of sending their sons out of the State to receive
10


and this institution, which is prettily situated at Claremont, has been providing
a three years' course of training to the maximum number for which accommodation
can be found since its initiation.
In 1911 the Government of the day having come to the conclusion that
in addition to the assistance given to the High School some further extension
of secondary education was necessary, the Perth Modern School came into being.
and the facilities therein provided have ever since been eagerly availed of, till
to-day the fine building situated in one of the best parts of the City is taxed to
its utmost to meet the needs of the boys and girls who are taking their education
past the primary stage. In this Institution also no fees for tuition are charged,
while admission is decided by annual competitive examinations.
For many years past it had been realised that the time was fast approaching
when the final step should be taken for the completion of the educational system
of the State by the creation of a University, and as far back as the year 1904 an Act
passed the Legislature providing for the setting aside of certain lands of the Crown
for the purpose of furnishing revenue in years to come for the nascent University.

PERTH MODERN SCHOOL,
Later a Royal Commission was appointed to fix the lines upon which the University
should be governed, and upon which its teaching should be conducted. Subsequent
to the presentation of the carefully considered report of this Commission, an Act
for the establishment of the University of Western Australia was passed through
the Parliament of the State. Therein it was enacted that the governing body
of the University should primarily be the Senate, one-third of which (after the
12


first appointments) should be nominated by the Government of the day ; the
remaining two-thirds being elected by Convocation, which body consists of
graduates of the Western Australian and other Universities, other persons fitted
by educational diplomas to occupy such a position, benefactors of the University
and a representative of the Guild of undergraduates, the existence of which is
foreshadowed and legalised in the University Act.

MANUAL TRAINING CLASS.
Already a most auspicious start has been made with this new seat of learning,
numerous and apparently particularly well selected staff of Professors and
lecturers has been appointed, the number of students enrolled has delighted even
the most sanguine supporters of the movement, and in a word, this, the coping
stone of the Western Australian system of education, has been well and truly fitted
to its place, and completes an edifice of which the State may well be proud.
The Government has been generous in the University Act in the direction of
making worthy financial provision for the needs of its latest charge, and already
signs are not wanting, by the provision of a Chair of Agriculture by the generosity
of the Chancellor, Sir Winthrop Hackett, that private endowment which has done
so much for similar institutions in our sister States will not fail to play the same
part in Western Australia. To-day we have the satisfaction of possessing a system
of education which permits the passage of a boy or girl from the Kindergarten stage
to that of a graduate of the University without the payment of any tuition fees
whatever, so that we may fairly claim to have done our duty to those who are
growing up amongst us.
13



6
PHASES OF THE TIMBER INDUSTRY.
1. FELLING A FOREST GIANT.
2. HAULING TO THE TRAMWAY.
3. A BU'SH SIDING.
4. THE SAW MILL.
5. BREAKING DOWX.
6. STREET PAVINS FLOCKS FOR LONDON.


reason became the ('inderella of the Australian group of colonies until the discovery
of her golden slipper, or, more literally, gold mines. Payable gold was found in
Kimberley, in the north of the State, in 1885. Discoveries at Southern Cross
some 230 miles east of Perth were made in 1887, and at Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie
in 1892 and 1893, and were followed by the stirring times of the “roaring
nineties," as a result of which Western Australia came into her inheritance as an
agricultural State.
Up to this time the population was under 40,000, the people were scattered
over wide areas, and agriculture, practically confined to very limited areas, was
prosecuted only for local needs. Small power and even hand flour mills were
to be seen at many homesteads, barter was the common method of trade, and
practically the only agricultural exports were wool and skins. It is necessary to
bear these facts in mind in order to understand that although settlement took

LIFE'S GREATEST SUCCESSES HAVE OFTEX IIUMBLE BEGINNINGS.
place 85 years ago, it is only 20 years since the modern development of our
agricultural industry began. It took from 10 to 12 years to remove old
prejudices and misconceptions, so that popular belief in Western Australia as an
Agricultural State, and the consequent vigorous development of her lands, is only
eight or 10 years old. This point cannot be too strongly emphasised.
With the discovery of gold, people flocked from all corners of the earth to
mine or to provide for the needs of the gold seekers. A demand arose for all kinds
of agricultural produce, meat, grain, milk, butter, fruit and vegetables, to provide
18


demonstrated. In the early nineties the fortunate owner of a small orchard
found himself in possession of unexpected wealth. Apples were purchased by
dealers on the trees at 9d. per lb. The planting of fruit trees was undertaken as
rapidly as the clearing of the heavy timber would permit, and, when a few years
ago, the production of apples overtook local needs, the magnificent quality of the
fruit secured for it at once the top price on the London and German markets.
The acreage under fruit trees and vines is approximately 24,000 acres ; but the

A SHELTER CLUMP OF GIMLET TREES IN A WHEAT FIELD.
effective bearing area is much less. Last season some 70,000 bushels of fruit.
chiefly apples and grapes, were exported, and this year the total is expected to be
over 120,000 cases, and it must increase by leaps and bounds as the orchards
reach the full bearing stage.
The total area of the State is a little short of one million square miles. What
may be the agricultural future of the larger portion, no man can say.
At present
available water supplies are the controlling factors in preventing settlement ;
but no one can study the fairly abundant natural vegetation over scores of millions
of acres of the interior without coming to the conclusion that, although the rainfall
is limited and not regular, abundant natural waters are non-existent and wells of
fresh water hard to find, it is not drought country in the strict sense, and desert
is the last word that should be applied to it. The visitor to the Eastern goldfields
travels through hundreds of miles of salmon gum forest and prolific scrub country
which cannot be distinguished by the untrained observer from the best wheat lands.
Twenty years ago the limit of safe farming country was set at a little east of
Northam, or say 70 miles from the coast. Old settlers who then thought it was
madness to attempt to farm at Meckering, 89 miles from the coast, are able to
appreciate the success of their sons at Merredin 80 miles still further inland.
Leaving out the interior, where the absence of water so far prevents stocking
and cropping, pastoral and more strictly agricultural settlement is confined to a
20


The Eastern Districts.
In the same way that big section of the wheat belt north and south of the
Eastern Goldfields railway and its branches from York to Merredin is spoken of
as the Eastern districts, and, at the present time, is the best developed of our
wheat areas.
The Midland and Victoria Districts.
The country served by the Midland Company's railway is known as the
Midland country ; that served by the port of Geraldton is best known by the name
of its port, although it is more correct to call it the Victoria district.
These explanations are given because general settlement is so new that a good
deal of confusion exists, and it is well for the visitor to study the map and make
himself acquainted with the above sections of the country and the important
centres. Thus Mt. Barker on the Great Southern railway, some 40 miles from
Albany, and Bridgetown, some 59 miles by rail south-east of Bunbury, are
continually mentioned as the chief centres of the apple growing industry, although
apples are produced commercially here and there over an immense area.
The Wheat Belt
Is a term in common use and refers to a strip of country say 500 miles in
length from the Murchison on the north to the south coast east of Albany. At
its northern end it touches the coast, and is perhaps 30 miles wide. At the latitude
of Perth it commences say 50 miles from the ocean and extends inland, having
an approximate known width of 120 miles. Southward it increases in width,
and at its southern end extends eastward, probably to near the border of South

SCOOPING OUT A TANK.
22


get the
Australia. No man can at present define its limits even approximately, because
the rainfall records have been kept for too short a time to be a reliable guide.
So far pioneer methods prevail; in fact, the present wheat-growing industry
has been developed on the most crude cultivation, but so regular is the winter
rainfall in normal years that the results have justified the methods. In 1910 the
writer inspected some 12,000 acres of crop in the Dowerin district and saw one
plough and heard of one other which, however, had not been used. In reviewing
the position he remarked :“ If one judged by this year's results he might say,
'the worse the farming the better the crops.' During the past season that district
has produced little short of one
million bushels of wheat. In 1912
a farmer in the Midland district is
stated to have averaged 20 bushels
per acre over 2,000 acres without a
plough. The good luck with that
crop established him and he will
only crop fallow in future. This
year one of his fields averaged over
40 bushels over 202 acres.
The
pioneer endeavours to
timber burned up in February and
March, runs a cultivator over the
friable virgin soil, drills in 60lbs. of
seed and from 30 to 80 lbs. of
superphosphate on the dry soil and
waits for the rains and the harvest.
With from 10 to 15 inches of rain
nicely distributed from May to
October, anything from 10 to 30
bushels may be harvested by this
treatment of virgin land. Settlers
realise that this is not farming. In
the drier country the risk is too
great, and although there are hun.
dreds of examples where from three
to six crops averaging 12 bushels
per acre have been taken from land
in the same number of years with-
out ploughing the land, the gospel
of bare moisture conserving fallow
is almost universally accepted, and
crude pioneer methods are only
followed long enough to gain from
the virgin land the capital to
establish a farm. Every year the
area of fallow is being increased, and each year an increased number of farmers
are getting their holdings in a condition where they can keep sheep and crop once
in three years.
Under the climatic and economic conditions in the wheat belt
this is the only practical rotation at present open to them. The increase of sheep
on the farms is nearly as pronounced as the advance in wheat production, and the
export of mutton and lambs must come in a few years. In the districts of greater
rainfall more elaborate systems may be and are being adopted ; but these notes

FARM AND ORCHARD AT BALINGUP.
23



A HARVEST PICTURE AT KATANNING, ON THE GREAT SOUTHERN RAILWAY.





are
Irrigation.
No large irrigation schemes are yet in operation, but a number
contemplated. Owing to the fact that the hilly districts of the South-West
have a remarkably regular and heavy rainfall, varying from 33 inches at Perth,
to 40 inches farther south, the conservation of water is easy, and it is in the
districts with a good rainfall that irrigation will be the more general. The
remarkable fact about the rainfall is that on the average 90 per cent. falls
during the seven months from April to October, so that the growth of summer
crops is only practically without irrigation on the numerous areas of moist land
which are swampy in winter. These lands are immensely increased in value by
drainage and irrigation in the dry summer. During the past five years a rapid
and gratifying development of individual schemes of irrigation has taken place
especially south of Perth, and there is immense scope for further progress which
is sure to take place. Without irrigation, lucerne cannot be grown on a large
scale ; but with irrigation it grow's the whole year, although to a lesser extent
in winter. It is common on well cared for fields to secure eight cuts in the 12
months. In the same way, owing to the absence of summer rains, the conditions of
the South-West of Western Australia are not suited for maize, but with irrigation
it thrives and gives heavy returns.
What has been done so far is en indication of
the possibilities and a sure forecast of the development of the future.

PERMANENT POOL AT RIVERSDALE.
25


INCREASE IN POPULATION AND IMPROVED LAND.
Year.
Population.
l'nder ('rop.
Land in Fallow.
Area Improved.
1900
1905
1910
1913
179,000
254,779
276,832
320,000
Acres.
201,338
327,391
722,086
1,199,991
Acres.
44.116
81,441
284,267
639,582
Acres.
1,218,902
2,129,356
4,685,607
6,711,585
FRUIT TREES AND VINES.
Owing to rapid developments exact figures are not available with regard to
the present area under vines and fruit trees, but the following may be taken as
approximate. The major portion of the trees being young, the export figures
must increase with great rapidity in the next few years.
The vine-growing industry has had a set back owing to competition with the
old established vineries of the Eastern States, but this is past; the export trade in
grapes is causing rapid planting, and the production of grapes and wine must
increase rapidly.
Year.
Area under
Orchards.
Exports of
Fruit.
Area under
Vines.
Production of
Wine.
1900
1905
1910
1913
1914
Acres.
4,465
9,756
15,609
19,064
?
Cases.
Ni7
210
11,000
72,000
120,000
Acres.
3,245
3,413
2,917
3.010
Gallons.
113,799
185,070
1:40,559
149,132
!

"CHERRYDALE,'
IN THE DONNYBROOK FRUIT AREA.
27


Notes on the Climate of the Agricultural Areas of
Western Australia.*
These brief and somewhat disjointed notes apply to the South-Western por-
tion of the State, forming an irregular triangle, the two sides of which are the west
coast, from the mouth of the river Murchison for, say, 500 miles to Cape Leeuwin ;
and the south coast for a somewhat less distance from the same ('ape to Esperance,
while the hypotenuse, approximately 600 miles long. runs south-east from the
mouth of the Murchison, east of Northampton, through Mullewa and Merredin
to Esperance. This roughly coincides with what are known as the agricultural
areas, and although of necessity the conditions vary considerably over so wide
an area, the climate, subject specially to local conditions, is mainly governed by
the same general factors.
The outstanding characteristics of the climate are :
1. The pronounced division of the year into il wet season of seven months
from April to October, and a dry season of five months from November to March.
On the average over the whole area probably about 90 per cent. of the rain falls
during the seven cooler months of the year. The following table shows the average
monthly rainfall at nine typical stations :-
No.
Years
Station.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
Re-
cords.
26
47
38
Northampton
New Norcia
Kellerberrin
Northam
Beverley
Perth
Karridale
Mt. Barker
Esperance
31
28
20
32
30
38
19
20
2:9
13
41
61
27
36
33
39
27
36
24
29
31
17
1
10
19
14
32
92
58
58
38
76
115 !
127
97
38
83
71
66
52
70
125
136
99
79
75
166
227
184
151
282
240
172
221
220
478
633
309
294
117
95
8+
75
60
Station.
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Total.
Per cent.
Winter
Rain.
100
141
61
84
Northampton
New Norcia
Keller berrin
Northam
Beverley
Perth
Karridale
Mt. Barker
Esperance
165
39.
209
320
303
6.38
853
360
410
417
362
201
328
306
646
856
129
399
359
303
154
255
246
566
628
362
381
214
223
120
170
167
336
447
3.2
273
82
209
311
2::3
215
20:35
20.60
12:17
16:26
15.68
33.25
14:00
27.89
25.27
94
90
82
90
90
92
89
83
8.5
• Compiled by W. Catton Grasby, and revised and approved by E. B. Curlewis, Divisioval
Officer in charge of the Weather Burean, Perth.
28



THE APPLE INDUSTRY.
1. £300 WORTH OF APPLES. 2. PACKED FOR LONDON. 3. SKILFU'ILY GROWN, THE TREES
BEAR THEIR BURDEX BRAVELY. 1. HALF-MILE AVENUES OF APPLES,


The Mineral Industry of Western Australia.*

HE most important natural product of the State of
Western Australia, up to the present time, has
been minerals, constituting quite three-fourths of
the value of all its exports since the beginning of
1900, and nearly one-third of the total mineral
production of all Australia during the same period.
The principal mineral has been gold, which has been
raised to the value of approximately £115,000,000
to end of 1913, but copper ores and furnace products,
tin ores and smelted tin, and coal have also been of
importance, reaching total values exceeding £1,000,000
in each case, while lead and silver together account
for exports of over £700,000. Smaller values of
antimony, asbestos, bismuth, cobalt ore, diamonds,
ironstone, limestone, mica, plumbago, pyrites,
scheelite, tantalite, wolfram, and zinc
also
included in the Mines Department's returns of minerals
exported, to which reference should be made for
all statistics of the State's mineral production.
Numerous other useful metals and minerals
known to exist in the State also, which have not
been exported in commercial quantities.
are
are
are
over
The Ore Deposits : Geological Considerations.
Minerals
very widely distributed
the State, the metallic ore-deposits being principally
in rocks of great age, mostly at least pre-Cambrian,
which occupy about one-third of the 975,920 square
miles of its area. These old rocks are
a complex of very ancient metamor-
phic and igneous rocks of much variety
of facies and commonly strongly pli-
cated and foliated by tectonic earth-
movements, which have been invaded
by great granitic extrusions which con-
stitute the greater part of the whole
area in question. There is considerable
probability that the granitic masses
and the after-actions succeeding their
extrusion have a close genetic connec-
tion with the ore deposits, for it is a
notable characteristic of all the prin-
* By A. Montgoinery, M.A., F.G.S., State Mining Engineer.

A GOLDFIELDS DAM.
33


of Mines for 1912. Another table therein on page 10 shows that the total dividends
to the end of 1912 were £22,992,515, and on page 11 it is shown that the dividends
paid by gold mining companies have averaged 21 per cent. of the total production,
and nearly 24 per cent. of the companies' own production. The average value
of gold produced per man employed above and below ground for 1912 was £403.58.
Silver.— There is practically no mining done in the State for silver by itself,
and most of this metal which is produced is separated from the gold. A small

SUPPORTED BY
MANY OF THE PRINCIPAL MINING CENTRES ARE ALMOST ENTIRELY
ONE MINE.
amount of silver lead-ore has been exported from the Ashburton district, and a
little silver is got when smelting the copper ores of the Phillips River, Murchison,
and Pilbara fields.
Copper.-Ores of copper are fairly well distributed through the State, but
as a rule have been very little worked in most places except so far as obtaining
small parcels for export to determine the industrial value of the ore. In West
Pilbara, Northampton, and Phillips River fields, however, the production of
copper is of quite considerable importance. At Phillips River fairly large
smelting works are in operation.
Pyrites.-Cupriferous pyrites for manufacture of sulphuric acid have been
mined in some quantity in the Mount Morgans District, and large supplies of pyrite
and pyrrhotite have been proved to exist under iron cappings in the South Yilgarn
and Phillips River fields.
Lead Ore.—Lead ore containing very little silver or gold is obtained in
considerable amounts in the Northampton District, and argentiferous lead ores
in the Ashburton field. A little galena is common in the gold-bearing lodes.
Tin Ore.—The principal centres at which tin ores have been worked are in
the Greenbushes and Pilbara fields, in both of which tin is found both in veins
and as alluvial ore. The veins are generally pegmatitic. Tin ore also has been
found, however, in several other parts of the State, usually close to the margins of
granitic intrusions into old schist country.
39


Wolfram, Bismuth Ores, Molybdenite, Tantalite, Pitch Bleme, and Thorium
Minerals have been found also under much the same conditions of occurrence
as the tin ores, and often accompanying these. The tantalite discovery at
Wodgina appears to be the most important one of this mineral yet made
anywhere..
Antimony Ores not unfrequent in small quantities all
over the
goldfields, but have not been exported for this metal except from the Pilbara and
Cre

THE GOLDEN
MILE (OMPRISES
WONDERFIL GROUP OF
BONANZAS.
West Pilbara fields. There are no important mines of antimony in the State at
present, however.
Arsenic, as arsenical pyrites, is rather common in several of the goldfields
associated with gold, but has not yet been made commercially available except on
a very small scale. There is some likelihood that it will be exported on a larger
scale very shortly.
Zinc occurs fairly plentifully with the lead ores of Northampton as blende,
of which sundry small parcels have been exported.
Asbestos.-- Very fine samples of this mineral have been found in the Pilbara
goldfield, and a small tonnage has been extracted for export, but without leading
to the starting of a payable mine. The mineral is of the chrysotile variety, and
of excellent quality.
Mica.- Samples of this mineral also have been obtained and exported from
several localities in the State, without leading as yet to successful mining operations.
Some of it is very good muscovite, of good electrical quality. Year ('oolgardie
there is also lepidolite in fairly large sheets, but valueless for electrical insulation
on account of its fusibility:
Scheelite is very frequently found in association with auriferous quartz
throughout the goldfields, and also with tin ores at Wodgina, in the Pilbara
goldfield.
Diamonds and Precious stones. A few small diamonds have been obtained
at Nullagine in the Pilbara goldfield. Beryls and emeralds have been got at
Poonah, near ('ue, and rubellite at Greenbushes and Phillips River.
10


Phosphate Ruck, Bauxite, Magnesite. Felspar, Kaolin, Talc, Clays, Building
Stones and Limestones may also be mentioned as mineral products of the State
likely to be of importance.
Iron Ores exist in Western Australia in very large quantities and of excellent
smelting quality in several places, and less pure brown iron ore and laterite
deposits are very common. At present conditions do not favour iron-smelting,
but in good time doubtless the wealth of iron will be utilised.

IT IS ONE OF THE RICHIEST SQUARE MILES OF MINERAL COUNTRY IN THE WORLD,
Coal.- - The Collie ('oalfield has already been mentioned. The coal is not a
coking one and somewhat friable in furnaces, so is not suitable for blast furnace
smelting. Its calorific value is somewhat low, being only from 9,000 to 11,500
British Thermal Units as a rule. The use of this coal for bunkering steamships
has now become well established, its location on the West side of the Australian
continent giving it advantages of position which to some extent compensate for
its inferiority to the coals of New South Wales in calorific value. It has been
found also to be particularly od fuel for use in suction gas-producers supplying
gas to gas-engines, it use which is extending very rapidly.

AA OTHER SECTION OF THE GOLDEN MILE.
41





{
i


The Geology
of Western Australia.*
Introduction.
Physiography. Systematic Geology.
Economic Geology.
T
a
INTRODUCTION.
HE State of Western Australia is one, and the largest,
of the tropical divisions of the Commonwealth.
though it does
not constitute natural
geographical region. It occupies, as its name
implies, the Western portion of the Continent,
and embraces an area of 975,920 square miles
out of the 2.974,581 which make up the whole
area of the Commonwealth. Western Australia
lies between the 14th and 34th parallels of South
latitude, though when viewed broadly it does
not present any very great variety in its physical
features.
Geological investigation in the State has,
up to the present, consisted chiefly of a series
of more
or less unconnected observations, for
the co-ordination of which we must look to the
future. Despite this circumstance, it has now been
found possible to obtain a bird's eye view of the
salient geological features of Western Australia.
In the broad area of the State pretty nearly
all geological systems have representatives in the rocks. In general the Pre-
('ambrian rocks, which occupy about one-third of the superficial extent of the
State, are found chiefly in
the South-Western portion
of the State, and in scat-
tered areas
North of lati-
tude 26°. The Palæozoic
systems are best known in
the northern and the east.
ern interior, though they are
also met with in the Irwin
River valley to the north
The Mesozoic
Rocks are exposed chiefly
in the maritime districts
of the State in the North-
West and South.
The Tertiary and , recent
* By A. Gibb Maitland, Government Geologist,


of Perth.
West,
A STITE BATTERY.
15


formations form narrow fringe along the coast and have their widest
distribution in the westernmost portion of the country.
Dr. F. von Sommer was the first official geologist employed in Western
Australia, and held office from 1847 to 1857. Neither the maps nor the reports
of Dr. von Sommer have ever been published, although some articles from his
pen appeared in the current literature during the years 1848 and 1849. The

GOLIATHE
PER
BASAL CONGLOMERATE (NULLAGINE SERIES), GOONANARRINA POOL, SHERLOCK RIVER.
original drawings of Dr. von Sommer's maps were discovered some years ago, and
are preserved in the historical collection of the survey showing the progress of
geological mapping in Western Australia, which is now on view in the Geological
Gallery of the Museum.
After an interval of 21 years, during which much excellent geological work
was accomplished by the Gregory Bros., Mr. H. Y. L. Brown was appointed to
the post of Government Geologist. This gentleman during the years 1870 to
1873, prepared three geological maps and ten reports, dealing principally with the
southern and maritime portions of the State. In 1882, Mr. E. T. Hardman, of
the Geological Survey of Ireland, was appointed Government Geologist, and his
labours were confined chiefly to the Kimberley Division, in which he was the
pioneer geological observer; his field work, carried out during the years 1883-4,
laid the foundations of our knowledge of the geology of the tropical portion of
Western Australia, and played an important part in the opening up of the State's
first goldfield. The late Rev. C. G. Nicolay, Chaplain to the Fremantle Gaol,
contributed in very many ways to the knowledge of the geology of the State, and
was officer-in-charge of the Geological Museum at Fremantle, which was founded
16


by Mr. Hardman, and which ultimately became merged into the Western
Australian Museum. In 1887 the position of Government Ceologist was conferred
upon Mr. H. P. Woodward, who held the position from 1887 to 1895.
With a very
limited staff, and still more limited appropriation, and in spite of the difficulties
presented by the vast area of the State, the survey under Mr. Woodward issued
21 reports and six geological maps. It was during this period that the paramount
necessity for “the publication of reliable geological knowledge relating to the
nature and extent of useful mineral deposits, supplemented by geological maps
and plans," was impressed upon the Government by its scientific advisers.
The work of organising a more or less systematic geological survey was
entrusted to the writer in 1896, and had for its object the investigation of
the geological structure, mineral and allied resources, and underground water
supplies of the State,
PHYSIOGRAPHICAL FEATURES.
Physiographically considered the State of Western Australia falls naturally
into three fairly well-marked subdivisions, viz. :--The Coastal Plain, the Hill
Ranges, and the Plateau and Plains of the Interior. Each of these subdivisions
is comparatively well-defined, though
the line of separation cannot always
be very sharply drawn, owing to the
blending of one subdivision with
another; hence the boundaries can
only be spoken of as occurring within
certain lirnitz.
For purposes of description the
State may also be divided into six
geographical divisions, viz. :—The
Northern or Kimberley, the North-
West, the South-West, the South-
East or Eucla, the Central or Salt
Lake, and the Eastern Divisions.
The boundaries of these divisions are
fairly well marked.
The Coastal Plain consists in
reality of a fringe round the coast
with a more or less gentle slope to
the seaward. The plain has a width
of 60 or 70 miles in places on the
Western Coast, though in the country
at the head of the Great Australian
Bight it extends some 200 miles into
the interior, and is absolutely devoid
of rivers. The inner margin of the
Coastal Plain reaches an altitude of
600 feet above sea level in certain
localities. The line of demarcation
of the Coastal Plain, and the Hill Ranges on the East, is marked by what is termed
the Darling Fault Scarp, averaging about 1,000 feet in height and traceable to the
North and South of Perth for over 300 miles. The western limit of the coastal
Plain is at the edge of the continental shelf, which is located a great many miles

IN
ARTESIAN
BORE.
47


1.
Tai
.
A large portion of the Kimberley and North-West Divisions consists of a
dissected plateau built up of horizontal or gently inclined strata, and possesses
in general all the familiar scenic features of such formations. This dissected
plateau is drained by the principal rivers of the State, many of which extend
for some hundreds of miles inland, and some of which flow through cañons of
great extent and exceptional beauty.
There are no folded and little denuded mountain chains in Western Australia ;
such as do exist owe their origin either to block faulting or result from erosion.
The coast line is extensive and generally has a smooth irregular outline,
though portions are broken and indented and fringed with numerous islands and
archipelagoes. The very much indented coast line of the Kimberley Division
is due to the drowning of the river valleys, of which the Prince Regent River, falling
into Brunswick Bay, is the most typical example.
SYSTEMATIC GEOLOGY.
One of the most pronounced features in the geology of the State is the very
marked diversity between the western and the eastern portion of the Australian
Continent, and the very remarkable similarity in structure and constitution to
that of India, South Africa, and Madagascar. This noteworthy resemblance is
paralleled not only in the Pre-Cambrian Rocks, but also in the Palæozoic and
Mesozoic Beds.

Ty
pa
17
GAASITA
BTWA
GLACIATED GRANITE BOULDER, EMBEDDED IN BLUE CLAY, IRWIN RIVER.
19


PRE-CAMBRIAN, ARCHAEAN (?)
The oldest known rocks of Western Australia comprise a great group of crystalline
rocks, which almost everywhere constitute the foundation of the State. There
are huge tracts over which sedimentary strata effectually conceal the crystalline
rocks. To the whole of these rocks, however, observers have invariably assigned
an Archaean age ; but this is rather inferred than proved. In the absence
of any other evidence it has been found convenient to separate the crystalline
rocks of the State into two great lithological groups, viz., (a) gneissic, granitoid,
and schistose rocks, and (b) a group of conglomerates, quartzites, phyllites, schists

ESTRA
TYNE MA
FiLeo
HANXAY STREET, KALGOORLIE.
and soft felspathic and micaceous gneiss, associated with basic rocks, which have
been at times converted into greenstone schists. The rocks have been more or
less irregularly folded along highly inclined axial planes ; the folding is meridional,
the prevalent strike being generally north-west and south-east.
Some of the hornblendic rocks may possibly represent original gritty beds
made up of epidote, chlorite, etc., and the magnetic hematite quartz schists,
referred to below, may perhaps have originally been ferruginous grits of
sedimentary origin.
A remarkable and very noticeable feature of these older rocks are those bands
of laminated cherts and jaspers, which often contain oxide of iron to such an extent
as to warrant their being classed as iron-ores. These extend as roughly parallel
bands, sometimes several miles in length, in the form of attenuated lenses, which,
owing to their serrated ridges, stand out in bold relief, thus acquiring a
conspicuousness out of all proportion to their real stratigraphical importance.
These bands are often intersected by numerous faults, which in some districts are
of considerable economic importance, for it is along these fault lines that rich
shoots of gold often occur.
These older rocks are invaded by masses of veins of granite and allied rocks,
which in many parts of the State occupy very large areas, sometimes embracing
hundreds of square miles. The old granitic rocks are traversed by many large
ice-like quartz reefs, which rise to considerable altitudes above the surface like


In its lithological characters and general behaviour the Nullagine Series bears
a very strong resemblance to the quartzites, etc., which constitute that continuous
formation which extends from Wyndham to Mount Hart, a prominent summit in
the King Leopold Range in the Kimberley Division. This formation as developed
in Kimberley consists of a series of quartzites, sandstones, fine conglomerates,
and shales, disposed in a series of broad anticlinal folds. Associated with the

COOLGARDIE CELEBRATES THE OPENING OF THE RAILWAY IN 1896.
sediments is a series of bedded and intrusive igneous rocks, some of which are
distinctly amygdaloidal, and contain zeolites and agates in the cavities. Beds of
volcanic ash and breccia are common in certain localities. In certain portions
of the King Leopold Plateau are many excellent sections showing the intrusive
nature of some of the igneous rocks. The sandstones are sometimes altered into
hard compact quartzite, portions of which have been caught up in the body of
the igneous rock. Other sections indicate quite clearly that some of the igneous
rocks have found an easy passage along the bedding planes of the sedimentary
rocks, and evidently occur in the form of sills. The lavas are traversed by almost
vertical dykes of epidosite, which are traceable across country for long distances ;
while both the sedimentary and igneous rocks are intersected by numerous
segregation veins of quartz, some of which are of considerable size and horizontal
extent.
The recognition of the position of the beds of the Nullagine Series in the
stratigraphical succession is of considerable importance ; the entire absence of fossils
throughout the series renders correlation extremely difficult. The beds forming
the King Leopold Plateau have been claimed by previous observers as being of
Cambrian age. If the lithological and stratigraphical resemblance between beds of
the King Leopold Plateau and those of the Nullagine Series, as developed in Pilbara
and the Ashburton, should prove to possess greater significance than at present
appears, a Cambrian age for the Nullagine Series would have strong claims to
acceptance.
In its lithological characters and its structural relationships the Nullagine
Series bears a very marked resemblance to that formation in South Africa known
as the Potchefstroom or Transvaal System, which is Pre-Devonian in Age.
52


Cambrian.--Strata of undoubted Cambrian age are known to occur in the
Kimberley district, and were discovered by Mr. E. T. Hardman in 1883 1. In
the course of his explorations this observer gathered a suite of fossils, amongst
which were the head and spine of a trilobite belonging to the characteristic
(ambrian family Olenellus, 0. Forresti, and numerous Pteropods, Salterella
Hardmani. These came from a locality which, unfortunately, cannot now be
definitely identified. Despite the poor localisation of Mr. Hardman's fossils it
may be considered as proved that (ambrian strata do occur somewhere in
Kimberley about 18° southern latitude. The strata with which these fossils
were associated consist of limestones, sandstones, quartzites, clay slates, and
sandy flags. The superficial area, however, would seem to be extensive, for they
have been proved to extend in a north-east and south-west direction from the
Burt Range and for some distance to the southward of Mount Dockrell. The
strata have been tilted in such a way that the principal axis of folding is north-
west and south-east. No estimate has yet been made of the thickness of these,
the oldest fossiliferous beds yet found in Western Australia. The discovery of
Olenellus and Salterella in the limestones of the Daly River, in the Northern
Territory, is of considerable geological importance, indicating as it does a somewhat
wide distribution of ('ambrian strata in the northern portion of Australia.
Silurian.— The occurrence of strata of Silurian Age in Western Australia
has been rather inferred than proved. ('ertain rocks occurring in the Mount Barren
Range were described in 1861 by Mr. F. J. Gregory as probably belonging to this
period, though the evidence upon which this determination was based was not
given.
The strata forming the Stirling Range, which lies about 30 miles to the
northwards of Albany, have been claimed as Silurian. The Stirling Range Beds
form a grand chain of mountains, which lie not very far from the coast, and form

F.M STROTHERBC
CENERAL STOREKEEPERS
RELWEL
BAKER
GENERAL
STOREKEEPER
td
GOLD!
LOADING CAMELS FOR I
NEW RISI! IN THE EARLY NIYETIES.
one of the most conspicuous scenic features in the South-eastern portion of the
State. The beds consist of quartzites, sandstones, and shales, the whole being
traversed by quartz veins ; they are highly folded, contorted, and faulted in places.
53



+
FRESHWATER BAY.
ASUBURBIX VIEW OF THE STAN RIVER.





of 576ft. above sea-level, the following strata were passed through :-Eucla
limestone, 603ft. ; shales (sometimes glauconitic), 667ft.; fine and coarse sandstone
and conglomerate, 74ft. ; and granite, 28ft. ; the total depth of the bore being
1,372ft. The beds beneath the limestone have yielded two of the most
characteristic fossils found in the Lower Cretaceous strata of South Australia and
Queensland, viz., Aucella Hughendensis, Eth. ; and MacCoyella Corbiensis, Moore,
together with portions of a bivalve shell, possibly Fissilunula, which is found
in the Lower Cretaceous beds of Eastern Australia. There is, therefore, little
doubt that the strata pierced in No. 3 bore are the equivalents of the Rolling Downs
Beds of Queensland.
The Cretaceous rocks of Gingin consist of white chalky limestone without
flints, which passes downwards into a greenish glauconite marl, and below that
into a clay shale. Above the limestone is a bed of very ferruginous sandstone, the
whole series dipping to the northward at an angle of 8° to 9º.

Cara
LAVA FLOW,
BUNBURY.
The Gingin beds have yielded an extensive series of fossils, and although the
number of species which can be identified is comparatively small, nevertheless
it contains much that is important and indicates that a large and important fauna
could be obtained. Amongst the fossils (which will be found described in Geological
Survey Bulletin 55) are new species of Peronella, Coelosmilia. and Pollicipes, in
addition to seven new species of Brachiopods and a new Gastropod. An important
feature is the appearance in the Gingin beds of types new to the Australian
Cretaceous rocks, though common in the beds of the old world, the Australian
facies, however, being maintained by the presence of Inoceramus and Ammonites.
58


at
to
A purely homotaxial, though not a synchronal relationship, has already been
shown to exist between the Cretaceous rocks of Australia and Europe, whilst as a
result of recent palaeontological research into the rocks of Western Australia, it
now appears that a much nearer connection
probably exists with the Cretaceous rocks of
India, thus affording another instance of
that close geological kinship existing between
the countries bordering the Indian Ocean.
Further northwards, in the neighbour-
hood of Dandarragan, is a white chalky
limestone,
the base of which lies a
phosphatised bone bed, associated with
sandstones and shales, which are occasionally
glauconitic; these beds, which contain Ostrea
and Inoceramus, are of the same geological
age as the Gingin strata, with which they
appear to be coterminous.
According such
geological field
evidence as is at present available, the
Cretaceous and Jurassic beds of the Coastal
Plain owe their present position to faults,
which trend generally north and south.
Tertiary.-Owing to the absence of
valuable mineral deposits the Tertiary strata
have not as yet received much attention at
the hands of the Survey.
The basal beds of what are believed
to be . Tertiary strata
to rest
unconformably on the eroded surface of the
Jurassic beds of the Champion Bay district.
The beds consist of limestones, sandy shales,
and sandstones, which form a relatively
narrow strip of country along the coastline.
Similar strata occur at Sharks Bay and
to the southward of Perth, extending as far
as the South Australian border, where the
chalky limestone that bulks largely in the
formation contains fossils which seem to
point to its being of the Eocene age.
In the South-Western portion of the State the
Tertiary strata are associated with basaltic lavas as
well as basaltic dykes. These basaltic lavas may be seen at
Bunbury, at several places in the Blackwood River, at Black
FRESHWATER BAY,
Point on the south coast, and near Silver Mount between the
ON THE PICTURESQUE
Warren and Donnelly Rivers. They were also cut in two of
the bores put down in the search for petroleum on the Warren
River.
In the Kimberley Division basic lavas and ashes occur in great force. These
Tertiary lavas and ashes appear in the valleys of the Ord and the Bow Rivers to

are
seen
SWAN RIVER.
59


have levelled up the depressions formed therein, except certain knife-edged ridges
of the older rocks which still protrude above the general level. On the Behn
River, just above what is known as the Gorge, a dome or puy of basalt, which
apparently formed one of the foci from which some of these lavas issued, has been
described.
At Norseman remnants of an extensive dolomitic limestone formation at an
altitude of 900ft. above sea-level and 100 miles distant from the coast have been
discovered. This bed at Norseman contains species of Turitella, allied to T. terebra,
Pecten, Cardium (or Cardita), Magellania, and fragments of Polyzoa.

GOMI
OUTCROP OF LAMINATED QUARTZITE, MT. HUNT, EAST
COOLGARDIE GOLDFIELD.
Laterite.- No account of the geology of Western Australia would be complete
without some reference to that extensive development of residual deposits which
occur in nearly all portions of the State, and for which the term laterite has been
adopted. The laterites consist largely of hydrated oxide of iron and alumina,
producing on the one hand deposits of iron ore, and on the other bauxite. In
some localities the deposition of secondary silica in the laterite deposits produces
what are practically quartzites. These, by an increase in the ferruginous
colouring matter, pass into a jasperoid form of laterite. There are thus three
forms of laterite : an alumninous, a ferruginous, and a siliceous, the composition
being liable to vary considerably over a small area, being governed largely by
the nature of the underlying rocks. The laterites pass gradually into the
underlying rocks without any sharp line of demarcation. The ferruginous and
siliceous laterites are much commoner than the aluminous variety. This arises
from the fact that the former types are better able to resist disintegrating


influences ; they thus not only remain themselves, but act as a protecting cover
for the rocks beneath. The lateritic deposits occur as disconnected outliers which
once formed part of a continuous deposit. It is difficult to escape the conviction
that the laterites are of some geological antiquity, of which possibly the thickness
and state of consolidation may be some measure. On such geological evidence
as is available the laterites seem to be of earlier age than Late Tertiary, though
there is but little doubt that similar deposits are forming at the present time in
the State.
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.
The principal mineral products of greatest importance in Western Australia.
arranged in order of value, are gold, copper, coal, tin, lead, and phosphates.
The metals and metalliferous minerals make up by far the greater proportion
of the value of the output, being over 98 per cent. of the total.
Over 54 per cent. of the total gold output of the State has been obtained
from the East Coolgardie Goldfields, which contains the important mining centre
of Kalgoorlie.
The mineral deposits of the State occur in areas generally as more or less
parallel belts of relatively narrow lateral dimensions, though in certain localities
they appear as small isolated areas or patches. These narrow well-defined belts
have a general north-west and south-east direction, with occasional divergences
of several degrees on either side. The ore deposits in these zones or belts, owing
to dynamo-metamorphic processes, do not crop out in long lines, but are cut up
into relatively short lenticles, arranged en echelon.

POOL.
IN
THE
KIMBERLEY
COUNTRY
In addition to the minerals alluded to above, the State possesses a possible
asset of very great value in the deposits of laterite which occupy such extensive
areas in many localities. Some of the deposits contain considerable quantities
of alumina, and are in every respect identical with bauxite, which mineral is now
the chief source of aluminium.
Full details as to the geology of the mineral deposits will be found in
Geological Survey Bulletin 50, and Chapter X. (The Mining Fields of
Australia) of the Volume issued by the ('ommonwealth Government, and need
not be repeated.
61


REFERENCES.
Recent Advances in the knowledge of the Geology of Western Australia.
A. Gibb Maitland, Geol. Sur. Bull. 26.,
pp.
37-66.
Origin, History, and Work of the Geological Survey of Western Australia.
A. Gibb Maitland, Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv., 1910.
The Geology and Mineral Industry of Western Australia. A. Gibb Maitland
and A. Montgomery, Geol. Sur. Bull. 50.
Relics of the Carboniferous Ice Age in Western Australia. A. Gibb Maitland,
Nat. Hist. and Sci. Socy., W.A., Vol. IV.
The Rare Metals and their Distribution in Western Australia. E. S.
Simpson, Geol. Sur. Bull. 59.
Census of the Minerals of Western Australia. E. S. Simpson.
A List of Western Australian Fossils systematically arranged. L. Glauert.
Geol. Sur. Bull. 36, pp. 71-114.
The Mining Fields of Australia Western Australia. A. Gibb Maitland,
Commonwealth Handbook, Chap. X.
An Outline of the Physiographical Geology of Western Australia. J. T.
Jutson, Geol. Sury. Bull. 61.
Geological and Physiographical Notes on a Traverse over portions of the
Darling Plateau. J. T. Jutson, Geol. Sur. Bull. 18, pp. 138 - 173.

L'PPER REACH
OF THE SWAN
RIVER,
02


1


an
Of the 4,000 species, about two-thirds are endemic. The proportion of
endemic species is especially remarkable in the South-Western districts, where
the rainfall is considerable. This portion of the continent has been out off from
other regions where climatic conditions are approximately similar for
immensely long period, and the evolution of its plant-forms has naturally been
very distinct. The desert belt which cuts it off is continuous with similar desert
districts belonging to the other States, and its Flora naturally presents a greater
likeness to theirs.

are
one
ST
There are three orders which far
surpass all others in point of numbers,
viz., the Leguminosae, the Myrtaceae, and
the Proteaceae. Each of these orders
possesses over 400 species in extra-tropical
Western Australia ; the Leguminosae
number nearly 500. All of them
conspicuous over the whole area. The
Leguminosae have very few herbaceous
representatives. All the three sub-orders
are included. The Papilionaceae are very
abundant-yellows, reds,
and
browns
being the prevailing colours. The beautiful
dark blue Horeas are conspicuous about
Perth in the winter and early spring,
while Templetonia retusa, with its bright
red flowers and a half inches in
length, is a striking ornament of the
limestone coast. Several genera contain
plants that are very poisonous to sheep.
The Caesalpineae are far less abundant :
several species of Cassia are fairly common in
the drier regions, and two species of Labichea
are plentiful in the Darling Range, close to
Perth. The Mimoseae include about 150 species
of Acacia, of which only nine retain true leaves
when developed beyond the seedling stage. The
remainder exhibit various forms of flat or terete
phyllodia, or, in a few cases have nothing at all
resembling leaves. Many species are known as
Wattles;" many others, in the desert regions,
Mulga.” The bright flowers, often fragrant,
are very conspicuous in the spring.
Allusion has already been made to the
arborescent Myrtaceae. In addition to these
there are great numbers of “Heath-myrtles,"
1. CALADEXIA TENTACULATA.
smali shrubs with
very
attractive flowers,
2. ISOTOMA BROWNII.
amongst which those of the genus Verticordia
are especially striking. Another large and conspicuous group depends for the
brilliancy of its flowers upon its stamens, united in bundles and often of vivid
scarlet or crimson colouring. Many of these are known as Bottle-brushes."
The fleshy-fruited genera of Myrtaceae are not represented here. All our
species belong to the capsular group, which is almost confined to Australasia.
as
Sy
67


Of the former we have about 70 species, the only other representatives of the
order being some 15 species confined to Eastern Australia, and two species in
Asia. They are known as “ Trigger-plants," from the elastic spring of their
peculiar columns. In the early stages the ripe anthers occupy the top of the
column. Later, when the pollen is shed, the stigma appears between the anthers.
The delicate flowers are of great beauty and of great variety in colour ; they are
abundant all over the South-West.
Western Australia possesses more than half the known species of Drosera.
The flowers show a great variety of colour- yellow, white, pink, scarlet, crimson.
and purple. The plants vary from minute forms with rosettes of leaves scarcely
more than an inch in diameter, and with flower-scapes little more than an inch in
length, to sturdy, erect, much-branched plants a yard in height, or to climbers
reaching a length of five feet. Though most of them prefer moist or swampy
ground, some species grow regularly on bare, hot, dry sand, and others on rocky
or gravelly hillsides. Besides Drosera, the anomalous genus Byblis is included in
the order. B. gigantea is common on swampy ground near Perth, its flowers
being conspicuous in early summer. When not flowering the plants are easily
overlooked, except when the sun is low and lights up the dewy exudation that
covers the linear leaves thickly throughout their length.
Other dicotyledonous Orders that are well represented are Dilleniaceae, of
which the yellow flowered shrubs belonging to the genera Hibbertia and Candollea
are very abundant ; Rutaceae, including a few species of Boronia that are famed

EVERLASTINGS THROW AMAYTLE OVER THE COUNTRY FOR MILES AT A STRETCH.
69


16 species are known to occur, and some of these are local and rare. Not one is
endemic ; in fact all have a wide distribution outside Australia. The two that
are most abundant are the common Bracken and Cheilanthes tenuifolia.
name
Cycadaceae.*
To the English visitor, one of the most striking features of the vegetation
in Western Australia is the number of Zamia “Palms" that are seen dotted about,
sometimes within a few yards of each other. The quaint " Blackboys” or grass
trees and these yeads
alter the aspect of the
vegetation so much, that
they give quite
character to the land-
scape where they occur.
The
of this
common Cycad is Macro-
zamia fraseri Miq., and
it is the most important,
perhaps the only, ex-
ample of
the Cycads
found in Western Aus-
tralia. Systematically,
the species is not sharply
marked off. It is closely
related to the Eastern
species Macroza mia
spiralis Miq., and the
Central Australian species
Macrozamia macdonelli,
F. von M. In fact all
three appear to be modi.
fications of a single type
which stretches across
Australia between Lat.
25° and 30° South. The
Western Australian
species seems to be more
strongly built in every
way than its Eastern
relations. The only one
which appears larger is M. perowskiana, Miq., of tropical Queensland.
In Macrozamia fraseri the stiff pinnate leaves crown the top of the stem ; in
the middle of this funnel of leaves stand the cones. Usually there are several cones
present, the female cones being the larger, reaching a length of about 18 inches.
In many regions it is rather rare to find the fruits at all. It has been stated that
Macrozamia fruits more richly in the hilly regions of the edge of the Central
Plateau, and this has been considered to indicate that its original home was
probably at the height of 900 feet or more. This statement, however, is not
altogether correct, and I have found places on the banks of the Swan River, near
Fremantle, where a large number of Macrozamias were all bearing fruit in great
profusion. Furthermore, at the present time M. fraseri is not confined to the
* By Mrs. C.M.G. Dakin, B.Sc.

THE HANDSOME BLACKBUTT.



THE FLOWER SPANGLED SLOPES OF THE DARLING RANGES.








The Zoology of S.W. Australia.*

T
HE State of Western Australia is of such vast area and
extends into such diverse climatic zones that it
would be impossible in a few pages to give even a
few details of the Zoology of the region.
In the following pages a very brief account
is given of the South-Western portion of the State.
This region will be visited by the excursion parties
during the visit of the Advance Party to Western
Australia. It may be considered (quite arbitrarily)
for our purpose as extending as far North as Shark's
Bay, and as far East as Kalgoorlie.
Very much work indeed remains for zoologists
in the Western State of Australia. Isolated small
collections have been made from time to time and the birds and mammals col-
lected rather more thoroughly than other groups. The Hamburg expedition of
1905 made a great advance in the knowledge of the invertebrata, both land and
marine, of this region, and the West Australian Museum has, since its opening,
received specimens and, more recently, has taken a greater part in collecting
work. Unfortunately the great lack of literature is a stumbling block to the
systematist desirous of working on the spot.
South-West Australia is for the greater part a dry region, for although Perth
receives about 34 inches of rain annually, the rainfall diminishes rather regularly
as one recedes from the coast. Of the rain that does fall, however, most is pre-
cipitated during a few months of the year (winter months) and consequently
there are very long dry periods. This renders the country much less suited for
animals and plants requiring a moist climate than if the rainfall was more
uniformly distributed through the year.
The country is favourable for
“dry land” animals, and everywhere
can be sure of insects, arach-
nids, myriapods and reptiles. The
arid and other regions of Central
Australia are no barriers to many
of the species, and consequently
very many forms are
to
both East and West Australia.
It is impossible, however, to speak of the distribution of the larger groups of
animals in a few lines. In some cases a very large number of species of an order
or class are peculiar to S.W. Australia. In other cases, a large number are to be
found on the Eastern side of the Continent. Too little is known yet to write
* By Professor W.J. Dakin, D.Sc., and Mr. W. B. Alexander, M.A.

one
common
A MOUNTAIN DEVIL.
79


Weaver-finches, Bower-birds, Ant-thrushes, and Rifle-birds are the most striking
examples, are entirely absent or represented by very few species.
There are no genera confined to the district, but a few forms such as
Porphyrocephalus (the King Parrot), Lacustroica (White's Honey-eater), and
Eremiornis (the Desert-bird) are peculiar to the West of the Continent ; whilst the
genus Amytornis (Crass-wrens) has its headquarters in the West and extends
across the interior.
The Western Australian species do not appear to differ from their eastern
congeners, according to any definite rule ; they are sometimes smaller, sometimes
larger, sometimes duller in plumage, sometimes more brilliant. The Magpie
(Gymnorhina), Spinebill (Acanthorhynchus), and some others have longer beaks
than the corresponding forms in the East.
Undoubtedly the most prevalent colouring is a combination of black and
white, such as is seen in a number of familiar species, e.g. :—The Magpie,
(Gymnorhina dorsalis), Magpie Lark (Grallina picata), White-shouldered
Caterpillar-eater (Lalage tricolor), Restless Flycatcher (Sisura inquieta), Wagtail
(Rhipidura tricolor) and White-fronted Chat (Ephthianura albrifrons).
Birds of brilliant plumage are numerous. Amongst them may be mentioned
the Red-eared Finch (Zonæginhtus oculatus), the Scarlet-breasted Robin (Petræca
campbelli), the Blue Wren (Malurus splendeus), the male of which is perhaps the
most brilliant blue bird in the world, the Red-winged Wren (M. elegans), the

THE "SAN'' RIVER.
Mistletoe-bird (Dicæum hirundinaceum), the Spotted Diamond-bird (Pardalotus
punctatus), the Tricoloured Chat (Ephthianura tricolor), the Bee-eater
(Merops ornatus), the purple Kingfisher (Alcyone pulchra), and many species of
Cockatoos and Parrots.
Whilst none of our birds can be placed in the front rank as songsters, there
are a number whose notes are very melodious. Most Australians give first place
to the Magpie, which has a great variety of notes at its command, and is heard
at its best in the early morning in the bush. The Reed Warblers, Songlarks,
Thickheads, Songthrushes, Shrike-robins, and many of the Honey-eaters are also
St.


minstrels of no
mean order. Of birds which utter loud or curious calls the
Kookaburra or Laughing Jackass is the most famous. Curiously enough the
genus occurs wild all over Australia except the South-West, to which it has only
been recently introduced, but where it appears to be flourishing. The Butcherbrid
(Cracticus destructor) is often known as Little
Jackass from the similiarity of its laugh to that
of the Kookaburra. The loud harsh cry of the
Leaden (row-shrike (Strepera plumbea), has
earned its name of Squeaker ; another noisy
and quarrelsome species is the Wattle-bird
(Acanthochæra carunculata). The Pallid ('uckoo
(Cuculus pallidus), like its European relative,
repeats its loud call with persistent iteration
during the spring. The notes are, however,
entirely unlike those of its famous namesake.
At night time in the bush the call of
the Boobook Owl (Ninox ocellata) is
often heard, but is usually attributed
to the Frogmouth (Podargus), which
has thus earned the spurious name of
Morepork. Other birds whose calls
have earned them their names are the
Bell-bird and the Twenty-eight. The
latter (Barnardius semitorquatus) is the
commonest species of parrot in the
Jarrah forests and its cry when dis-
turbed is distinctly like those words.
Of flightless birds we possess three,
the well-known Emu, still frequent except in the
most settled districts, the little Penguin (Endyp-
tula minor), colonies of which occur on many
of the islands off the coast, and the Noisy
Scrub-bird (Atrichornis clamosa). The latter is,
was, an inhabitant of the thick scrubs on
the South coast between Albany and ('ape Leeu-
win, but as it is now many years since the last
individuals were seen it is almost certain that
the species is extinct, a result probably brought about by the introduction of
cats. The only other member of the genus, unique among Passerine birds is.
found in the thick tropical scrubs of northern New South Wales.
It is noteworthy that a number of other species of our avifauna appear to be
approaching the flightless condition ; these include the Steamer or Musk Duck
(Biziura lobata), common on the coastal lakes, and the Field Wren (Calamanthus
campestris), Coachwhip bird (Psophophotes nigrogularis), Emu Wren (Stipiturus
malachurus), Bristle-bird (Sphenura), Grass Wren (Amytornis), and Grass-bird
(Megalurus gramineus), all of which inhabit low scrubs either on the coast or in the
interior.
In conclusion we must refer to the Gnou or Mallee Hen (Leipoa ocellata)
which like the other members of its family forms a large mound of sand and dead
leaves in which it deposits its eggs. These hatch by the heat of the sun aided by
that derived from the decaying vegetation, and the young birds can fly as soon

or
AMONGST THE ROCKS
AT
CAPE VATI'RALISTE.
S.


season.
Our most peculiar lizard, the Mountain Devil (Moloch horridus), is also
a member of this family. It is not uncommon, especially in the drier regions,
extending as far east as Central and South Australia. This animal is covered all
over with stout spines, and has, in addition, a curious fleshy excrescence on the
back of the neck, its sharply contrasted brown and yellow colours add to its
formidable appearance, but it is in reality a very harmless creature. Its mouth
is extremely small and it appears to feed exclusively on ants.
The Varanidae are represented by two species of Varanus, of which V.gouldii
is the common form. It is usually called the Goana or Bungarra, and grows to
a length of considerably over six feet. It is completely terrestrial, living in an
underground burrow, which it presumably excavates for itself. The remainder
of our lizards belong to the family Scincidae. The most familiar is the Bob-tail
(Trachysaurus rugosus), which is very sluggish in its habits. The species of Egernia

THE CAMEL HAS BEEN THE KEY TO THE DRY
INTERIOR
are good sized lizards, of which two (E. stokesii and E. depressa) have flat spiny
tails, the rest having the tail long and cylindrical. The genus Lygosoma, of which
we have 20 species, contains most of our common small active lizards as well as
species in which the limbs are entirely absent. Connecting these two extremes
are numerous species with the limbs more or less reduced and bearing only three,
two, one or no digits.
Ophidia.
Of our 24 species of snakes 19 are venomous, and with the exception of the
Carpet Snake (Python spilotes), none of the others are very common. This
handsome species attains a length of considerably over six feet, and feeds chiefly
on small birds and opossums.
The two or three species of Typhlops are small, pale-coloured worm-like
reptiles, which are quite blind, and spend their lives underground, feeding on ants.
Of the many sea-snakes found in the North-West only one, the black and
yellow Hydrus platurus, extends into temperate waters. It is not infrequently
washed ashore on the beach at Cottesloe. Of the venomous snakes, Elapinae,
some are too small to be formidable, such being the black and white Ringed Snake
(Furina bimaculata) and the Crowned Snake (Denisonia coronata). Of the deadly
snakes the Brown Snake (Demansia nuchalis), the Black Snake (Pseudechis
87


It is impossible to discuss here the distribution of the teleostei recorded from the
south-west ; Indian forms are represented but the majority appear to be Australian.
It may suffice to mention some of the more prominent food fishes. Familiar
English names have
been given to many of
these, but the genera
are often very differ-
ent. Perhaps the most
valuable fish is the
schnapper (Pagroso.
mus auratus), one of
the Sparidae (Bream).
The same family is re-
presented by Sparus
sarba and S. Australis,
the black and silver
bream respectively.
Another fish caught in
large numbers is the
sea mullet (Mugil
dobula) which has been
smoked and canned at
Mandurah, a fishing
port, some miles south
of Fremantle. This mullet is fished in large quantities in the Swan River
near Fremantle.

ABORIGINALS IN WAR PAINT.
Another important food fish is the Whiting, but several species come under
this title, all of the genus Sillago, of the Indo-Pacific family Sillaginidae. The
Pleuronectidae are poorly represented by the Flounder ” (Ammotretis rostratus).
The genus Balistidae (Trigger or File fishes) is represented amongst the food fishes
by the Leather Jacket. Herrings can be bought at the Perth Fish Market, but
the species will probably be Arripes georgianus, a member of the family
Arripididae. The Australian Salmon (Arripes trutta) is a member of the same
genus, and both “ herring ” and “salmon " belong therefore to a group which
is but remotely related to that (the Clupeiformes) which contains the familiar
English herring and salmon.
Amongst other prominent food fishes are the Jew Fish (Glaucosoma
hebraicum), probably peculiar to Western Australia, the King Fish (Sciaena
antarctica) the Skipjack (Caranx platessa) ; the Tailer (Pomatomus saltatrix);
the Garfish (Hyporhampus, sp.); " Pike" (Sphyraena, sp.): Groper (Archaerodus
Gouldii) and others. (adoid fishes are unrepresented.
The Mackerel group is
represented by two genera in the south-west, but neither plays any part as a food
fish.
Of other teleosts it may be said that the Goby and Blenny families are found
along the coast, and round about the jetties large shoals of small “Blow Fish,"
belonging to the Tetrodontidae, occur at times and make themselves a perfect
nuisance to the fishermen. Another fish of somewhat remarkable appearance is
the Box Fish (Ostracionidae) characteristic of tropical seas and represented by
two species of the genus Arcana.
90


RETURNING FROM THE HUNT.
THE CRUSTACEA.
Very much work remains to be done in collecting and working out the Crustacea
of Western Australia. Many hundreds of species not yet recorded must occur, and
this applies particularly to the division Peracarida. Only about 15 species of
Decapoda are definitely recorded for W.A. in Haswell's Catalogue of the Australian
Malacostraca in 1882. Since then very few published records have added names
to the lists. The Amphipoda and
Isopoda particularly need collecting.
Decapods are numerous on the reefs
and rocks of the coast, but many of
the collections already made have
not yet been reported upon. The
fresh water Crayfishes are much
better known. The characteristic
genus is Chaeraps, no species of
which occur on the eastern side of
Australia ; the only other known
species being C. quadricarinatus of
the extreme North of Australia and
New Guinea. Three species of
Chaeraps are to be found. C. quin-
quecarinatus (the Jilgy or Gilgie)
which is common in the streams round Perth and in the rivers as far south as the
Vasse. C. tenuimanus (the Marron) a large form inhabiting the rivers of the
extreme south-west, and C. preissii found in small streams and ponds from the
Harvey River to the Margaret river in the south-west.
The place of the Lobster of the English coasts is taken here hy a species of
Spiny Lobster, Palinurus penicillatus, which is very abundant and is to be seen
on carts in the streets. The number sold at Fremantle in 1912 reached a total
of 14,199 dozen, their value being £4,259. Other common decapods which are of
considerable commercial importance are the Prawns." There are three common
species, one of which closely resembles Peneaus macleayi of the East ; the others
are P. canaliculatus and P. monodon. They are fished in the Swan River and
consumed largely in Perth and district.
Perhaps the most common crab of the coasts is Leptograpsus variegatus. It
may often be seen scuttling over the rocks some distance away from the water.
Burrowing crabs occur in large numbers on the sandy beaches, especially in the
north of the district considered where Ocypoda sp. is common. Amongst other
decapods may be noted Neptunus pelagicus, the common crab of the Swan River.
a species found also in the Indian waters and on the Eastern coast of Australia,
Thalamita phyrna, T. stimpsoni, and Liolphus planissimus. Most of the common
brachyura appear to be widely distributed, and generally occur in the Indian Seas.
Stomatopoda are probably common in places along the coast. Seven species
have been recorded, of which six are tropical Indo-Pacific forms.
Of the freshwater Phyllopoda, which occur so abundantly in the State during
the wet season, 15 species are known. Three of these are to be found in the Eastern
States, the others are peculiar to W.A. Both Apus and Lepidurus are to be found.

ONYCHOPHORA.
Two species of Peripatus have been obtained in Western Australia :
Peripatoides occidentalis at Bridgetown and P. gilesii in the Darling Ranges near
92


Orthoptera Cursoria.
Cockroaches are very well represented, about 50 species being known.
The great majority of these are wingless, and over half belong to the genus
Polyzosteria and its allies. It is only on the occasion of a bush fire, when they
are driven out by the heat, that the number and variety of cockroaches in the
bush is strikingly demonstrated.
Orthoptera Gressoria.
The Mantidae and Phasmidae are all known locally under the name of Mantis.
Several of the latter are beautiful mimics of sticks and are consequently not often
noticed. The best known member of this family is Podacanthus viridiroseus,
the pink-winged Phasma.
Of the Mantis family proper there are a considerable number of species.
The most common are the long brown Archimantis sobrina, the little green
Orthodera ministralis, and the small dark brown ground species Paroxypilus
tasmaniensis, whose wingless female has a leaf-like flattened body.
dead gum
leaves.
Orthoptera Saltatoria.
Of the Acridiidae one of the most remarkable is the long-nosed species Acrida
conica, whilst the ridge-backed species of Goniaea are very inconspicuous amongst
The largest common form is the blue-winged Locust
(Coryphistes cyanopterus), which generally rests on tree-trunks. Fortunately
none of the species have been known to occur in sufficient numbers to do any
considerable amount of damage. Locustidae are also numerous, perhaps the
most interesting is Caedicia longi pennoides, whose elytra are wonderfully like
the leaves of eucalyptus in shape, colour and markings. Of the Gryllidae the

TIIE SLEEPER-HETER AT WORK,
95


two commonest species are burrowing forms, the Mole-cricket (Gryllotalpa coarctata),
and the Sand-groper (Cylindracheta kochii). The species is only known from the
vicinity of Perth where it is abundant in sandy soil.
Isoptera.
The Termites are unfortunately only too numerous, and nearly 20 species
are known. On mild afternoons in the winter, when the perfect insects are
emerging, the air is sometimes so thick with them locally as to recall a slight fall
of snow. Most of our species do not form mounds above ground, hence their

IN
THE
EASTERN AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS.
presence is not suspected until one turns over logs or pulls up stumps.
The one
a rather regular
exception appears to be Coptotermes lacteus which forms
dome-shaped nest from two to four feet high.
Odonata Copeognatha.
Five species of Psocids were obtained by the Hamburg Expedition. Owing
to the researches of Mr. Tillyard of Sydney, some thirty species of Dragon-flies
have been recorded from the south-west. Of these a few only are peculiar, whilst
a number of others differ slightly from their congeners in the eastern part of the
continent. The widely distributed large species (Hemianax papuensis) is much
the commonest form.
Mecaptera.
Harpobittacus australis, our only Scorpion-fly, is very plentiful in the earlier
part of the summer.
96


Neuroptera.
This group of insects is well represented, members of almost all the families
being found. Ant-lions, Myrmeleonidae, are particularly plentiful and will pro-
bably prove to be more numerous than the Dragon-fies. Acanthaclisis fundatus is
the commonest large species.
Of the Ascalaphidae the most striking is Stilbopteryx costalis. Acmonotus
magnus is a beautiful and curious form with very long fragile antennae and a
blue and yellow body.
The Mantispidae are represented by more than one species of Mantispa.
Trichoptera.
The Caddis-flies are not numerous, though it is probable that many species
will be added to the meagre list of four at present described.
seen.
are
Hymenoptera.
Of this order some families are extremely abundant, especially the flower
haunting Thynnidae and Apidae. On the other hand certain other families are
hardly represented, among which are the Vespidae or true wasps and hornets.
Ichneumonidae too are not
very plentiful, their rôle in
keeping down the larvae of
Lepidoptera being played by
species of Diptera. Female
Mutillidae are not uncommon,
though the males are rarely
Scoliidae and Bembe-
cidae fairly plentiful,
whilst members of the families
Pompilidae, Sphegidae and
Eumenidae are all known
locally as hornets. These
attract attention owing to
their habits; especially is this
the
with Eumenes
bicincta, which builds its clay
cells on the walls of houses
and stores them with spiders.
The ants are the most ubiquitous living things in Australia, seeming able
to thrive in even the driest localities. Forel records 85 species as known from
South-West Australia, of which 37 are at present only recorded from that region.
The largest species is that known as the Bulldog or Sergeant Ant (Myrmecia
vindex), whose sting is very painful. This ant is interesting as a member of the
most primitive genus of existing ants in which the workers can only be distinguished
from the females by their slightly smaller size and by never possessing wings.

case
AN IMPROVISED CANOE-ONCE A SHEEP TROUGH.
Coleoptera.
This order is extremely rich in species in South-West Australia, and the great
majority of them are endemic. The families most largely represented are
Carabidae, Scarabaeidae. Buprestidae, Tenebrionidae, Curculionidae, Cerambycidae
and Chrysomelidae.
97


Siphonaptera.
The fleas of Western Australia are very little known.
Hemiptera Heteroptera.
The bugs are another group of which our knowledge is at present very slight.
Pentatomidae, Coreidae, Lygaeidae and Reduviidae are all well represented.
Hydrometridae, Notonectidae and Corixidee are found in ponds and creeks, and
a number of species of the first family occur on rock pools or near reefs along the
coast.
Homoptera.
('icadidae, Psyllidae and Coccidae are very well represented, whilst ('ercopidae,
Membracidae and Fulgoridae are not uncommon. Aphidae are only represented
by certain introduced species, there Being no native forms.
Cicadas, which are commonly known as locusts, are plentiful in the bush, and
on still, hot days their continual screech becomes most irksome. The commonest
large species is the white-banded Henicopsaltria fullo. Some of the larger
Psyllids are very much like small Cicadas, other species produce lerp-scales on the
foliage of gum-trees.

A TANK FED FROM NATURAL SPRINGS, NEW MARRACARRA.
Scale insects are very numerous and offer a great variety of forms, found on
plants of every kind ; moreover a large number of destructive species have been
introduced with fruit trees and are the worst pests of the orchardists. The largest
of our Coccids are the species of Mealy Bugs of the genus ('allipappus.
Mallophaga.
These parasites are very common on most of our native animals and birds.
They have not at present been studied by any worker in this State.
ARACHNIDA.
Scorpionidea.
Eight species of scorpion are at present known, only two of which are at all
These are Urodacus novaehollandiae, a light-brown animal of moderate
size found on the ground under logs, and Lychas marmoreus, a small slender species
usually found under the bark of trees.
common.
99


Species of Pinna occur off Fremantle. Mytilus has been recorded from West
Australia but the common member of the family is probably Brachyodontes
erosus, which occurs on the rocks of the coast and the islands outside Fremantle.
Four species of Cardium are to be found in the Swan River. No species of
Solen seem to have been found in the region.
A fresh water mussel, one of the Unionidae, is common in the rivers and occurs
in very large numbers in Mundaring Weir lake-the species is Diplodon ambiguus,
Philippi.
Another lamellibranch which forces itself upon the notice of the State is the
Teredo. Thousands of pounds have been lost at Fremantle and Bunbury owing
to the ravages of this pest. The hard jarrah piles are riddled away as if they were
pine. Two species are known, Nausithoria saulii and Nausithoria thoracites.
Limpets are quite common on the rocks, and very large forms occur which
remind one indeed of the Channel Islands at Home. Patella neglecta appears to be
the common species, but five others at least occur. Haliotis abounds and is
known locally as the Mutton Fish. The species H. Roli appears to be the most
common.
Of the remaining gastropoda it is difficult to say anything. At the very least
350 species have been recorded from the South-West. Vermetus, sp., is responsible
for great shelly tracts at Geraldton and the Abrolhos, and occurs also in considerable
numbers near Fremantle. The Nudibranchs appear to be numerous and very
brilliantly coloured, but little is at present known about the species. Of land
shells, a common one to be certainly seen at Yallingup is Bothriembryon kingii.
The Cephalopoda do not seem to be very well known. Spirula shells abound
on the sandy coasts ; living specimens are conspicuous by their absence. Only
one octopod has been named up to date, although other most certainly occur, and
six species of sepiidae have been recorded.

SOUTH PERTH, FROM KING'S PARK,
101


VERMES.
The Polychaeta are practically unrecorded from the coasts of South-West
Australia. A number of different species were collected at the Abrolhos Islands,
but they have not yet been reported upon.
The Oligochaeta have been studied in detail by Michaelsen of Hamburg.
Eighteen genera and 52 species are known from the district. Fluviatile oligochaeta
are very rare, and the species recorded have a wide distribution.
The Marine and littoral species show no well-marked distinctions from known
species. Thirty-four of the terrestrial species are endemic, but all the genera
are to be found in other states of Australia. Michaelsen states that South-West
Australia belongs to the Australian region of terrestrial Oligochaeta, and has no
special character of its own nor nearer connections with the nearest extra-Australian
districts than the Indo-Malayan and Ceylon districts.
COELENTERATA.'
The distribution of the Colenterata down the coast shou's very distinctly
(so far as the species are at present known) the tropical nature of Sharks' Bay and
northern regions, and the gradual disappearance of tropical species as one passes

HARVESTING THE CROP.
south. Reef corals occur in numbers in Sharks' Bay but do not appear to be reef-
builders there. If this is correct real coral reefs do not occur anywhere on the
coast of South-West Australia in the region under discussion, but are to be found
on the Abrolhos islands much further south than Sharks' Bay and forty miles or
so away from the coast. Species of Turbinaria, Pocillopora, Fungia, Madrepora,
occur in Sharks' Bay. Fungia does not appear further south. Isolated colonies
of Pocillopora are to be found on Rottnest and Garden Islands, opposite Fremantle,
and a species of Turbinaria as far south as Bunbury (33° south Lat.)
Eighteen species of Actiniaria were obtained by the Hamburg Expedition, and
of these, fifteen were recorded for the first time so that only three are of any use
at present for purposes of geographical distribution. These three occur in the
Torres Straits and at Thursday Island. There are undoubtedly many other species
in the collection made last year at the Abrolhos Islands.
103


A large number of Alcyonaria have been collected on the coast, almost all
coming from Sharks' Bay. Many species belong to the family Nephthyidae, and
are peculiar to the coast. Sarcophytum is well represented, the species occurring
elsewhere on the coast of East Africa, the Maldives, C'eylon, Madagascar. Two
Pennatulids only have been named and one of these has been recorded previously
from the Nicobar Islands. Of the hydroids no records are to hand. A species of
Sertularia is very common on Zostera along the coast.
SPONGES.
Dendy recognised a great similarity between the sponge fauna of Ceylon and
that of Australia and the adjacent islands. The sponge fauna of the south-western
region seems, however, to be very distinct, for most of the Tetraxonida collected
by the Hamburg Expedition are new species, and the two or three which occur in
Ceylon are to be found over a very great area. The coast is particularly rich in
sponge species, but up to date very little recent systematic work has been
published. Lendenfeld recorded about thirty species from Western Australia.
Whitelegge records the following sponges of commercial value :-Euspongia
illawarra, Hippospongia equina, var. elastica, and H. equina var. meandriformis,
Euspongia officinalis is also to be found. There is perhaps good material for a
sponge fishery. Papers have only been published on the Tetraxonida and fresh
water sponges by the Hamburg Museum Expedition. Although ten fresh water
sponges are known from Australia, only one has been found in West Australia. The
species belongs to the genus Ephydatia, .which occurs in the Eastern States.
Ephydatia multiformis is peculiar to the State and was found in Herdsman's Lake
--not much more than a swamp--in the vicinity of Perth.

QUEEN'S GARDENS, PERTH.
104


educational factor (introduced under Mr. Kingsinill's régime) is a system of
educational camps, by which country children camp in the Gardens for a week
at a time, and attend lectures kindly given by various gentlemen.
A splendid sports.ground, equipped for cricket, football, lawn tennis, and
hockey, is included in the Gardens ; and an artesian bore, 1,865 feet deep, gives
a good supply of hot water (103 degrees), which is suitable for watering plants,
heating reptile houses, and also medicinal baths.
The Botanical section of the Gardens is very large, and the palms, in particular,
form a beautiful feature. When funds permit, it is intended to make the Gardens
more educative by a proper system of descriptive labelling, both for the Zoological
and for the Botanical sections.

108


* The Observatory.*

T
a
HE Perth Observatory was founded in 1896, and
systematic transit work commenced in 1901.
The adopted position for the transit circle
is : Longitude 7h. 43m. 21.74s. E. ; latitude
31 deg. 57m. 08.9s. S. The Observatory
occupies a beautiful position on Mt. Eliza,
200 feet above the level of the Swan river,
that skirts the base of the hill immediately
west of and overlooking the city of Perth,
and cornmands splendid view, almost
down to the horizon, all round.
Eighteen well-equipped observatories
situated in different parts of the world are
engaged upon producing a photographic star
chart of the heavens. The work was started
many years ago by some, and only recently
by others—thus the Perth Observatory stepped
into the gap left vacant by one of the South
American observatories dropping out, and from
1903 the work has progressed, slowly at
first, but recently at a more rapid rate,
and now one-half of its share is about
completed.
The work connected with this
immense photographic catalogue of
the sky is divided into two parts.
1 The preparation of meridian
catalogues containing the positions
of stars required for the subsequent
reduction of the photographic plates,
and
2. The taking of the plates and the
measurement of all the star images thereon.
The measurement of the plates is performed by
four ladies. The observations and publication of some 10,000
stars included in the meridian catalogues have been completed.
So far as the meridian work is concerned it is proposed to confine it within the
limits of 31 degrees and 41 degrees south declination.
The transit circle was made by Messrs. Troughton and Simms, and the
Astrograph by Sir Howard Grubb, and are both erected in specially suitable
• By H. B., Curlewis, B.A., Acting Government Astronomer.
115