none generously made available by the internet archive/american libraries.) making your camera pay by frederick c. davis new york robert m. mcbride & company copyright, , _photo-era magazine_ copyright, , by robert m. mcbride & co. _printed in the united states of america_ published, a word before the demand of publishers for good pictures is increasing. editors are eager to use the best photographs that may be obtained. they draw no distinction between the work of the amateur and that of the professional photographer. if a photograph meets their requirements, they buy it and care little whence it comes. the opportunity to sell good pictures has never been better than it is to-day. to give accurate and helpful information with regard to making the camera a profitable investment is the purpose of this book. frederick c. davis is well-known to readers of photographic magazines, and is a practical photographer in addition to being a successful and experienced professional writer. mr. davis has written this monograph in a non-technical style that will entertain the reader and encourage him to make the most of photography. this little book is a practical, up-to-the-minute answer to the question: "how can i make my camera-work profitable?" a. h. beardsley, publisher, _photo-era magazine_. contents chapter page a word before v i. what it's all about ii. the tools of the trade iii. what to photograph iv. what not to photograph v. size, shape and form vi. where to sell vii. a survey of markets viii. shipping the product to market ix. the prices paid x. art photographs xi. competitions xii. prints for advertising xiii. copyrights and other rights xiv. illustrated special articles xv. the high road making your camera pay i what it's all about whence come the thousands of photographs used every month by newspapers and magazines? more than that, whence do the photographs come which are used by makers of calendars, postcards, for advertisements, and for illustrating books, stories and articles? at first thought, the answer is, "from professional photographers and publisher-photo-services." but professional photographers do not produce one-third of the photographs used, and publisher-photo-services are supplied by that same large number of camerists that supply publications with most of their prints. no one can deny that the greatest number of prints published are bought from amateur photographers in towns no larger than the average, and sometimes smaller. the camerist does not have to get in an air-ship and fly to africa in order to produce photographs that will sell. read what waldon fawcett says, himself a success at selling his photographs: "the photographer is apt to think that all his ambitions would be realised if only he could journey to foreign shores or to distant corners of our country; or if he could attend the spectacular events that focus the attention of the world now and then. _this is a delusion. the real triumph is that of the photographer who utilises the material ready at hand in his own district, be it large or small._" and more, a person does not have to be an expert photographer in order to succeed at the work. here is what one prominent writer says about it: "the requirements of the field are well within the capabilities of even the beginner in photography, viz.; the ability to make good negatives and good prints, the ability to recognise news-value, and a methodical plan to find the market where the prints will find acceptance. the man or woman who can meet these requirements should be fairly successful from the beginning, and will open up quickly new avenues of special work and profit." in short, ability to make metaphors, create lovely heroines or such is not at all necessary to the successful selling of photographs to publications. is the field overcrowded? _no._ if there were ten times as many persons engaged in the work they could all keep themselves busy. the field--how wide is it? get out your map of the world. the field for _making_ photographs extends from the top margin to the bottom, and from the left to the right. the field for _selling_ photographs--which is more to the point--extends over about five thousand publications which use prints; not to speak of a few score of other markets. the markets may be classified briefly: ( ) newspapers ( ) magazines ( ) postcard-makers ( ) calendar-makers ( ) art-study producers ( ) illustrations for books ( ) illustrations for articles ( ) prints for advertising. and there are more, of more specialised branches. and how does it pay? please note: "a certain magazine once paid $ for four prints of sundials. an amateur, who happened to be on the spot with a kodak, made over $ out of a head-on railroad-collision. a new york professional netted $ from the newspaper-use of a wedding-party, of considerable local prominence, which was leaving the church after the ceremony." one amateur "realised $ a year for two or three years from a lucky snapshot of eight pet rabbits in a row." a set of south-pole photographs brought $ , from _leslie's_ and $ , more from the international feature service. these all, though, are very exceptional instances. the average print sells for about three dollars. but there is absolutely nothing in the world to hinder a wide-awake person with a camera from making from several hundred to over $ , a year from his prints. if he becomes a specialist he may earn as high as $ , or even more. no discrimination is made between press-photographers. the person wins who "delivers the goods." however, i do not mean that the instances of $ or so for prints should be taken as the prices ordinarily paid. i do not maintain that there is a fortune awaiting the man with the camera; but i do say there are unlimited possibilities for salable photographs and almost an unlimited number of markets for them. but there are not "barrels of money" in it, for all. a person may add appreciably to his income for having sold photographs; and having developed the trade to a high degree, he may cash cheques to the amount of $ , or more a year. but not every one. just some. and it isn't like the log and the falling off it. it's work--hard work--_hard work_. success at selling press-photographs does not depend on the size of the town you live in, the cost or manufacture of your apparatus, or on your literary ability. it depends on you and your worship of the homaged gods of success if you would sell photographs. the gift of these gods is the ability to make good. ii the tools of the trade have you ever wakened in the drear dead of a dismal night, possessed body and soul with a great desire--an incontrollable, all-moving, all-consuming, maddening desire that knows no satisfaction--a desire for a new camera or a better lens? it is a sensation more disconcerting than that of the father who is detected by his small son in the act of rifling the latter's bank for car-fare. never would i be so unwise as to cultivate that desire in any one; for that reason i do not here go deeply into a discussion of the best kind of camera for press-photography! unless the camera you now possess is of a hopelessly mediocre grade, it will do very well. a reflex camera is of course the ideal instrument for the purpose, for sharp focusing is so easy and so necessary. the high speeds of the focal-plane shutter incorporated into such a camera will rarely be utilised by the average user; but its other features are admirable. however, the hand-camera of the folding type is supreme. it is so light it can be carried for a long time without fatigue; the user of one is inconspicuous when making exposures; the cost of operation as well as the original outlay is comparatively small--and there are several dozen more things in favor of it, including its greater depth-of-field, which is most important. the lens is the heart of the camera, and some cameras have "heart-trouble." if you intend seriously to market photographs you should possess an anastigmat lens; not necessarily an f/ . lens, nor even an f/ . lens if too expensive; in that case an f/ . lens will do very well. an f/ . anastigmat is slightly slower than a rapid-rectilinear of u.s. aperture; but its excellence lies in its ability--as with all anastigmats--to form images of razor-edge sharpness, which is a prime requisite of a print intended to grace a page of a periodical. a rapid-rectilinear lens will do very well if you are always assured of sunshine or bright clouds to supply exposure-light--and in such conditions even the lowly single-achromatic lens will suffice. now you see i have agreed that virtually any lens that will form a sharp image will meet the requirements. indeed, to paraphrase lincoln: "for the sort of thing a lens is intended to do, i would say it is just the lens to do it." in other words, each lens has its limitations and abilities very sharply defined; and these limits the user must know and appreciate. and the shutter; it is folly to put a poor lens in a good shutter, and just as absurd to do the opposite. an expensive shutter with high speeds cannot be successfully used except with a lens capable of large aperture--otherwise underexposure will result. a speed of / second is the highest available in an ordinary between-the-lens shutter, and that is sufficient for almost anything. the slower speeds, as one-fifth, one-half and one second are in my opinion more usable than the extremely fast ones. speeds varying from one second to / second are embodied in two well-known shutters: the optimo and the ilex acme. the one is on a par with the other. but no such high-grade shutter is needed unless the high speeds are necessary to the user, for the slower speeds may be given with the indicator at b. but enough! this is not a manual on the elements of photography. the requirements of the apparatus to be used for press-photography are that the lens produce a sharp and clear image, the shutter work accurately, and the whole be brought into play quickly. i have used every sort of camera; reflex, × view, × view, hand-cameras with anastigmat, rapid-rectilinear and single lenses, and box-cameras, and they are all entirely satisfactory "for the things they were intended to do." the camera i have used most and which is my favorite is a folding kodak, that makes - / by - / photographs, and is equipped with an ilex anastigmat working at f/ . , in an ilex acme shutter. to this i have added a direct-view finder for reasons apparent to any one who has tried to photograph high-speed subjects by peeking into the little reflecting-finder. this camera has served me admirably for interiors, flashlights, outdoors, high-speed work, portraiture, and anything else to which i have applied it. your own camera should do the same for you. a photographer comes to know his camera as a mother knows her baby--and if he doesn't he will be no more successful than the mother who does not understand her child. the camera-worker must forget all about manufacturers' claims and should judge his tool by experience; he must ignore most of the theory and rely wholly on practice. in short, he must know his camera inside and out, what it will do and what it will not do; everything must be at his finger-tips ready for instant use. coupled with that is the need of the ability to produce, sometimes, within an hour after making the exposure, crisp, sharp, sparkling prints. after all, no more qualifications are required of the press-photographer than of most other photographers. he may have to work like lightning, snap his shutter literally under the very hoofs of racing-horses, rush out of a warm and cozy bed into a chill and bleak night--but "it's all in the game." if any one of the old veteran press-photographers were to lead the life of an ordinary business-man, he would die of ennui. when the camerist makes photographs for publishers it is zip-dash--and later, cash. it is the exciting life of a never-sleep reporter, with a camera to manage instead of a pencil. iii what to photograph if you wish immediate wealth you have only to locate several oil-pockets and dig into them. similarly, if you aspire to success at marketing photographs you have only to discover the needs of editors and to satisfy them. but although there are not many more available oil-pockets, there are many editors and innumerable editorial needs. it would be as absurd for me to attempt to state precisely what you should photograph as it would be for me to make a pencil-dot on a map and to say: "there's an oil-pocket; go dig into it." the one way to discover the needs of editors and how to satisfy them is to develop a "nose for news." a "nose for news" is simply the ability to determine the value of any certain photograph to any certain editor. the several ways of acquiring that very necessary ability are: (_a_) by experience, which consumes the most time and is the most difficult; (_b_) by examining the nature of photographs already sold to publications and printed in them, which is less difficult and just as effective; and (_c_) by careful study of prevailing editorial needs and market-demands, which is the best method of all. to succeed, mix thoroughly liberal quantities of (_a_), (_b_) and (_c_). not many, other than the large metropolitan newspapers, employ staff-photographers; and if a smaller one does, the photographer is usually a reporter who has much scribbling to do besides. when most newspapers require a photograph of something local, the city-editor telephones to a commercial-photographer and tells him to "get it." thereupon, the commercial-photographer packs up his forty-pound outfit, goes out and gets it. however, a good many subjects are not of sufficient interest to cause the city-editor to dispatch a commercial-photographer to obtain them; but, if photographs of those same subjects were brought unsolicited to him he would at once see their value and buy them. that is the biggest advantage of the free-lance photographer with the newspapers. if the press-photographer wishes to follow these tactics he may profit, even in a very large city; for staff-photographers go where city-editors tell them to go, and city-editors have much to think about. the kinds of subjects bought by newspapers from free-lance photographers are those of local interest, brought to the office while the interest in them is still keen. a large number of such subjects are available daily. the news-photographer may glean his tips from a morning-newspaper and sell his prints to an evening-journal. when he becomes sufficiently well known, he may be called upon and dispatched after a photograph just as the commercial-photographer. but first he must impress the editorial mind by giving it, unasked, the very sort of thing it wants. the free-lance photographer should see possibilities in many subjects: a public building burns. a corner-stone is laid. an illicit still is found. a new building is erected. a murder occurs. a new fire-department truck is bought. the governor comes to town. josh jones finds a hen's egg three-times normal size. a park is improved. the first baseball-game is played. the robber of the postoffice is caught. i. wright, the local author's new book, is published. the local inventor again invents. any one of these suggestions holds possibilities for photographs useful to a newspaper; and many more events are just as promising. the types of photographs used by postcard-makers are known to almost every one. the subjects run from famous buildings and historical monuments to artistic human-interest pictures such as a small kitten sleeping with its feet entangled in a maze of thread with which it has been playing. at that point, merge the demands of the calendar-makers. they use the human-interest type, and run to landscapes, seascapes, and portraits of pretty girls. usually the demand of both postcard- and calendar-makers is that the picture tell a story. if it can be used without an explanatory caption, all the better. for an example of a picture-told story, glance at almost any cover of the _saturday evening post_ and note how the whole situation is made clear without one word of explanation. it is that kind of photograph that postcard- and calendar-makers want. if you will glance over the postcard- and calendar-illustrations you have at hand you will readily see the types of photograph used. sometimes book-publishers send out calls for special kinds of photographs they need in preparing certain books. in that case, they usually advertise in an appropriate magazine and mention the kind of photograph they wish; for example, historical prints if a history is in preparation. the unlimited variety of books published calls for an unlimited variety of photographs. certain publisher-photo-services make it their business to supply publishers with the photographs they wish; but that is not hurtful to the prospects of the free-lance, for the photo-services must obtain photographs of every kind from every source, and must be stocked with a larger number and variety of prints than any one magazine or publisher could possibly use. thus, in fact, the news-photographer has an increased market. the largest field for the free-lance photographer i have left until last; that is, the magazines. there are so many magazines and such a variety of them that almost any print, if it is of interest at all, should find a place with one of them. besides the large magazines there are many smaller ones; those devoted to almost any conceivable vocation, and others to almost any interest or hobby. besides the publications issued for the great mass of the reading public, there are magazines published solely for advertisers, architects, real-estate agents, automobilists, bakers, confectioners, cement-users, drug-stores, dry-goods merchants, electricians, engineers, miners, bankers, financiers, fraternal members, furniture-dealers, millers, grocers, hardware-sellers, historians, hotel-owners, owners of restaurants, jewelers, labor-union members, lawyers, insurance-agents, soldiers, sailors, municipal workers, printers, publishers, railroad men, magicians, fox-raisers, blacksmiths, fruit-growers, undertakers, stamp-collectors, and scores of others, not to speak of almost two thousand house-organs issued by manufacturers as sales-promotion literature or for the benefit of their employees. and each of these uses photographs occasionally, if not regularly. the photographer need not deplore a lack of sufficient markets for his photographs. the greatest influence toward the development of a "nose for news" is the giving to it of several whiffs of news. a photographer may "shoot"--a professional photographer never photographs--he shoots--he may shoot and shoot, and have his every photograph returned to him as useless for publication--but not if he first discovers what to photograph and what not to photograph. as a means toward that end i have selected, at random, issues of three magazines whose pictorial sections contain prints which are, broadly, just the sort of photographs the photographer in a medium-size town produces. the magazines are _popular science_, _illustrated world_, and _popular mechanics_; despite their names, these magazines print photographs of a very general scope--more general than one would suppose. i have selected only photographs with short captions, or those with explanatory articles not more than two hundred or so words in length. in _popular science_ i find: an apartment-house for plants. a hospital on wheels. potato-gathering made easy. this rudder makes the boat behave. new light for the photographer. he wears a showcase. a rubber heel with a noise. milking cows by electricity. anchoring bricks to the side of a house. sketching on fungus, one artist's hobby. sampling the soil. making house-wrecking easy. a machine that harvests crimson clover seed. wheel-guards that save life. working safely on high voltage lines. a lake that has a crust of salt. punching your votes. your money is safe in this bank-tank. in _illustrated world_: motorized wheel-chair for invalids. whirr of motors replaces song of cotton-pickers. how aristocrats of dogdom travel. perform marriage-ceremony in oil-filling station. rail motor-trucks for short-line road's use. no more backaches from the lawn-mower. novel arrangement of air-hose for work-benches. largest milk-tank in the world. comfortable footrest for a rustic seat. dog hurt in auto accident wears wooden leg. street-cars adopt "pay-as-you-leave" system. dentists' scales for weighing mercury. toy makes spelling easy for kiddies. small check-book in silver-case. nine-story building collapses. traveling mail-box on interurban car. clever method of advertising perfume. makes suit out of stamps. wellesley girls have a "sneezing closet." raising chickens on a back porch. in _popular mechanics_: owner of artificial hands is proud of dexterity. imperishable burial robes shown on living models. novelty window-sign spells words with snowflakes. imposing new bridge at jacksonville. street-sign calls for help if robbers invade store. new style log-cabin built like stockade. vines completely cover office-building. beautiful ice stalagmites are pranks of jack frost. unique wood-sculptures are work of a decade. electric warehouse-truck performs heavy tasks. hydraulic jack tears up street-car tracks. man-power onion-planter sets an acre a day. grotesque images reward motor-cycle race winners. weak derrick starts work of steel-building. concrete logging piers are used in lumber-industry. world's largest clock keeps accurate time. grotesque face on auto advertises carnival. river-bed proves to be a rich coal-mine. outlets of odd shapes made for irrigation. unusual park-playground built in circus-form. giant vase, lawn-ornament, is made of concrete. old silo in railroad-yard houses little store. street rises so abruptly four flights of steps are necessary. church uses bill-board to "sell" scriptures. this wide variety of subjects cannot but serve to show that even in very small towns there are many opportunities for salable pictures. more than that, there are markets for prints of: statues blacksmith-shops farm light-plants sheep landscapes paintings girls' heads farm-buildings new inventions new achievements live game birds in flight industrial arts fields of grain desert-views domestic animals poultry harbors garage-methods railroading concrete-construction flowers electrical appliances live-stock prize-winners art-museums motorboats musical work shoe-factories prize-dogs yachts farm-scenes mural decorations seascapes gardening operations interior decorations designs camping-scenes trapped wild animals freaks cattle orchards time-saving plans social progress fashions wharves paint-departments mills new banks large estates factory-equipment show-window displays store-fronts motorcycles economic interest good and bad roads spraying-methods counter-displays blasting landscape-gardening sports if you live in a large city you have the additional opportunities to obtain photographs such as are published in the _mid-week pictorial_ and the _illustrated review_, and also in some of the large national magazines and in the rotogravure-sections of the leading sunday newspapers. although the large city offers more opportunities for photographs of celebrities and such, there is much competition. the photographer in an average-size city may not have frequent opportunities for photographs of renowned persons; but he has many other chances for salable photographs, which evens up things. sometimes, a notable person does come to town; but i would no more presume to tell you here to camp on his trail than i would dare to remark to a duck-hunter: "pardon me, old man, but you'd better pull your trigger. there's a bird right where you've pointed your gun." iv what not to photograph knowing _what_ to photograph is no more important than knowing _what not_ to photograph. i cannot show you so easily by example the kind of photographs editors will not buy; for a search of any number of magazines will fail to unearth such examples. experience is an expensive school; but, sometimes, the others are closed because of lack of patronage. it would seem that when you learn _what_ to photograph you should learn automatically _what not_ to photograph; and, indeed, you should; but you don't. however, there is another way. after sending a photograph to a score of publications, and after the photograph is returned from the same score of publications, you may truthfully say: "well, i've discovered one thing that those editors don't want." editors have very clear reasons why they don't buy certain kinds of photographs. the editor is there to produce a live, newsy, unusual publication. he buys only live, newsy, unusual photographs. what could be simpler? publications do not want photographs which are similar to other photographs that they have already printed. the reason is obvious. to take an example from my own early days: a shoe-dealer, for an advertisement, placed a huge pair of shoes, size , in his window. i grasped the opportunity to make a salable photograph. it did sell; but not to _popular mechanics_, for the editor wrote that he was unable to use it because he had printed, several months before, a picture of a huge pair of shoes made for a circus sideshow worker. consequently, the subject of your photograph may be just the thing the editor would want if he hadn't had his requirements already satisfied. therefore, study those photographs which have been printed, and make newer and better ones. when the king of england comes to town, it may be all very well to command him to stand still, to look serious or to smile, for a picture of him so posed may be literally "eaten up" by the local newspapers; but a national weekly, such as _collier's_, demands something different. posed photographs are at a discount. they are too plainly "pictures of men having their pictures made." what is wanted are life and action. it isn't necessary to ask the king to stand on his head. ask him to shake hands with the chief-of-police; or let him do something else which shows he has the power of action. on an invaluable rejection-slip prepared by a national magazine, examples are given of "what we want and don't want." under a photograph of senator johnson with upraised fist, as if he were driving home a point in his speech, is printed: "here the upraised fist does the business--makes action, life--and transforms what would otherwise be just an ordinary likeness of senator johnson into a striking and arresting picture." but if a photograph is sufficiently unusual it may be without life and yet may sell, although it gains materially by a show of action. under a photograph of a floating submarine, the rejection-slip notes: "no action here; but it is safe to say that few of the readers of this magazine skipped this one when it appeared. submarines are common today; but not the kind that carry huge twelve-inch guns." similarly under a photograph of three men standing in a row and looking with a "where's-the-birdie?" expression at the camera, the caption is: "a posed picture and, as is usual in such circumstances, a dead one. we used it because a story centering around these men was a singularly interesting one appealing to a large audience in america." but no matter how extraordinary a photograph is, it gains a hundred-fold by exhibiting signs of _life_. true, a "dead" picture may sell; but a live one will sell more quickly, and the photographer's work will be more in demand, and the resulting cheque will be larger--much larger. if you make a photograph of a building--even for instance, a new arsenal--you will never sell it to such a publication as the new york _times_ roto-section. the rejection-slip says, under such a picture: "there isn't even a human being in it to relieve the severity of the building's hard lines and the flat expanse of water. we do not care for such pictures." true, a photograph of a building--and of a building only--may sell for a few dollars to an architectural magazine; but more dollars and a bigger future come from putting life into photographs and in getting your work into the national weeklies as a result. again, no magazine wishes to buy a photograph of something not new. a monument, if photographed a moment after the unveiling and with the crowd around it, is a likely seller; but if the photographer waits several years, a print of the monument is unsalable. and that is not strange: you prefer fresh to cold-storage eggs. the big secret of the successful press-photographer is the introduction of human beings into his photographs of inanimate objects. human beings have a deep interest in each other. when one is introduced into a picture, human-interest is introduced at the same time; and, if the human being is pictured in the act of doing something, the interest is even higher. for no one ever outgrows the question, "what ya doin', mister?" _popular science monthly_ says: "we want good, clear photographs of a human being doing something of a mechanical nature. the subjects must be new." if a new invention is pictured alone, it is lifeless and meaningless. but let a human being operate it and a photograph of it gains in value. one has only to apply his common sense to the matter. if a murder is committed in the city, the newspapers will not demand photographs of the corpse; it will do very well to obtain a photograph of the "arrow-points-to-the-scene-of-the-crime" variety. one has to depend wholly on his "nose for news" and this sometimes proves treacherous. "a human-interest photograph sometimes slips past the trained nose of a photographer of twenty years' experience and is picked up by a beginner," to paraphrase charles phelps cushing. and, on the other hand, the old-timer may snap away confidently at a subject which the beginner has scorned, and then find he has an unsalable print on his hands. sometimes, so to say, "noses for news" contract colds and are unable to scent a subject's salability. but colds may be cured and the scents picked up once more. the best remedy is to stop, to think, and to sniff again. there is a market somewhere for every good print. there is no market anywhere for a print that is not good. the best part of the whole business is this: no one--not even old nick himself--can induce an editor to buy a photograph he does not want; and if, on the other hand, he knows he can use it, he will buy it at once, be it offered by donald thompson, who is a world-famed press-photographer, or by john brown of smithville, whose first attempt it may be. v size, shape and form aspiring fictionists learn at some stage of their budding genius that one long stride toward editorial favor lies in the proper preparation of the manuscript. just so, a photograph which is not prepared in accordance with editorial standards suffers a handicap. some editors specify the size of photograph they prefer. thus, _collier's_ prefers × prints; but it will use prints larger, and a few smaller than that size. in the same way, _garden magazine_ reports that it prefers - / × - / prints, and the thompson art company says it prefers the × or × size. other magazines make no mention of size. _popular mechanics_ reports: "the size of the print is not so important as clearness and gloss." indeed, the greater number of magazines do not specify a preferable size because by so doing they discourage contributors of prints which are desirable, but not of the size specified. if a magazine insists on having prints of one certain size the photographer should not be discouraged because his camera does not make photographs of those dimensions. the making of enlargements is now no more difficult than the making of contact-prints; if the negative is sharply focused and the lens of the enlarging-machine is good, an enlargement will not differ much in quality from a small print. to me, it seems that the ideal camera makes photographs of - / x - / inches. this is very slightly smaller than × , and a less costly "film-eater." negatives of that size are sufficiently large to make salable prints without enlarging them, and if a larger print is desired, they are of good proportions for the operation of enlarging. prints of the - / × - / size are too small to offer to magazines unless the subjects are all-commanding; however, the size is a very good one, and not too small for the making of excellent enlargements if the lens of the camera is good. i have heard of one photographer who uses exclusively a vest-pocket camera equipped with a fast anastigmat lens: he never attempts to market any of the small prints, whose size is - / × - / , but enlarges the prints to about × . there are many advantages possessed by the small camera over the large camera; but - / × - / is the happy medium. i have never had a print of that size returned because it was too small. there is no need to limit one's self to the production of prints of only standard dimensions. in the cases of magazines desiring artistic prints, the prints gain materially by trimming them so as to produce a compositional balance of masses. also, some buyers specify prints of a certain shape for use as covers and headings, to fit frame-cuts and such. these buyers state their specifications, as "prints size × , with the long edges horizontal," or the opposite. it is not necessary to produce prints trimmed to the exact size of the cover, either; all that is necessary is to make the print of the same _proportions_ as the cover, and the engraver will enlarge or reduce it to the correct size. there is one best finish for prints intended for publication: that is, black-and-white--_never sepia_--and glossy, burnished. glossy prints are not much more difficult to make than dull-surfaced prints, the only necessary additional effort being the use of a squeegee plate, or ferrotype plate. the preference for glossy prints results from the fact that their surfaces are absolutely smooth and without grain. this enables the engraver to make a clearer halftone, for a print with a grained surface reproduces surface and all in the cut. glossy paper, when dried in the ordinary way, has a surface which is perfectly smooth, yet half-dull. when glossy prints are dried in contact with a ferrotype plate the surfaces are highly polished, and this gives the prints more brilliancy. prints so prepared are ideal for reproduction-purposes. newspapers, as well as some moderate-priced magazines printed on news-print paper, and printed at high speed, require coarse-screened cuts; in these, fancy lighting is detrimental, and fine details are lost; what is wanted are broad masses of light and shade. some editors prefer prints which are untrimmed and printed to the very edges of the negative. such prints give the editor opportunities to trim the prints as he pleases. and in the case of simple news-photographs and ones which have no claim to artistic consideration, it seems to be the preferable method of submission. certainly, editors will not object to such prints, and they may welcome them in preference to trimmed ones. single-weight paper is always preferable to double-weight, even in the larger sizes. prints must be sharply focused and distinct--not "fuzzy." a contrasty print is sometimes recommended as the best to offer; but that is a mistake. the photo-engraver wants prints with plenty of detail in the shadows, and with a tendency to softness; but with not a vestige of flatness. "in the making of the screen-negative and in the various steps of etching, he--the engraver--can introduce highlights into a rather soft subject; but he cannot produce detail in harsh lights and shadows," declares _photo-era magazine_. the process of halftone-making has developed so that the reproduction can be made almost indistinguishable from the original. in any event, make the best print possible--a normal and truthful representation. having produced your print, add your name and address to the back of it, and then write, in pencil and on a hard surface, the caption that should be placed under the photograph when it is printed. some editors decry the practice of writing the caption on the back of the print; for the print goes to the engraver and the copy for the caption goes to the printer. the alternative is to write the caption on a slip of paper which should be pasted by one end to the back of the print. in any case the photographer's name and address should be stamped on the back. an ideal print for reproduction and publication, then, should be: not smaller than - / × - / inches; on single-weight glossy paper, burnished; very sharp; not contrasty or flat; correct proportions if necessary; untrimmed, if preferred; name and address on back; caption plainly written on back, or on an attached slip. prints passing this examination are ready to be shipped to market. vi where to sell once upon a time a publisher had a remarkable inspiration. he would publish a perfect book. he went about the task with painful care. months were consumed in the making of a book which would be perfect from every viewpoint. after the publisher had corrected every typographical error, had made every possible improvement, and was unable to detect even one flaw in it, he made proof-copies of it and sent them to men on the faculties of universities, to leading printers, to book-making experts, to authorities in english, and to leaders in every other branch of work from which it was possible to view critically the making of the book. he asked them to examine the proofs minutely and to tell him of any flaw, however small, that they might find. each one of the critics returned his proof with the statement that he had not found the slightest imperfection. thereupon the beaming bookmaker published his perfect book and offered a large sum to any one who could find a single flaw in it. and many months passed. then, one day, he received a letter that pointed out an error in the book. another letter followed; then another; and at the end of a year, he had received a half dozen letters, each pointing out a different mistake--and each was very noticeably a mistake. and that is the story of the perfect book. it is with that book in mind that i have decided not to give here the usual list of buyers of photographs. such a list may be complete and correct when compiled; but by the time it could be put into print and published, lo! some of the magazines would have suspended publication, other new ones would have sprung up, other buyers would have changed their requirements; so that after a year, the entire list would be useless. i do not add even a list of non-buyers who were once buyers, for the reason that some of them may become buyers again at any moment. consequently, in my opinion, to place a list of photograph-buyers in this article would be to waste much space, and with the possibility of inconveniencing any photographers who might attempt to use the list after a year or so of its publication. furthermore, there are magazines and other books issued yearly which are devoted almost exclusively to listing markets for manuscripts and photographs; these are in a position to make changes, additions and withdrawals with each subsequent issue, and so to keep the lists up-to-date and of value. one such book is, "where and how to sell manuscripts." this book classifies photographic markets separately; and also lists elsewhere many buyers of photographs. in addition, lists are given of newspapers, postcard-and-calendar-makers, and lists of magazines devoted to the household, agriculture, gardening, juveniles, sports, outdoors, the drama, music, art, the trades, etc., all of which magazines use photographs. the book is published by the home correspondence school, myrick building, springfield, massachusetts. another such book, which is very similar and which contains such lists, is " places to sell manuscripts," published by james knapp reeve, at franklin, ohio. these are the only two market-books which are enabled to keep their lists up-to-date and correct. writer-craft magazines, which maintain literary-market news-columns, list markets for photographs; these supplement the market-books. _the editor_, published weekly at book hill, highland falls, new york, publishes perhaps more market-notes than any other. _the writer's digest_, - west sixth street, cincinnati, ohio, is a monthly writer-craft magazine which conducts a very good department of market-notes. _the writer's monthly_ is the name of another magazine that lists such markets. it is published monthly. its market-news, upon publication, is rather older i have found, than that printed in _the editor_. the longer time necessary to print the magazine may account for that. this magazine is published by the home correspondence school, springfield, massachusetts. _the student writer_, champa street, denver, colorado, published monthly, maintains an excellent market-list. their notes are many, varied, and reliable. photographic magazines sometimes list markets for photographs, although not frequently. _american photography_, newbury street, boston, massachusetts, sometimes publishes market-notices in its "the market-place" department, but they are scanty. _photo-era magazine_ lists, when available, market-notes. book-publishers wishing prints of special character have used this magazine as an advertising-medium. besides the magazines noted, other writer-craft and photographic publications may publish market-notes from time to time. it is by no means necessary to buy both books and to subscribe for all the magazines; but if you can do so without financial discomfort, it cannot be otherwise than to your advantage. by all means, obtain one of the market-books and subscribe for one of the writer-craft magazines; and if you can add a photographic publication, so much the better. even a market-book alone is a great aid; indeed, it is a necessity. obtain one or both and you will be amazed at the number of times each can say, "open sesame" without stuttering. the best salesman in the world could not induce a sane blacksmith to put in a stock of groceries. if the salesman has groceries to sell, he goes to a grocer and talks. similarly, a photographer cannot hope to sell the most remarkable photograph in the world, unless he sends it to the right market. each magazine has its own particular needs; but the needs of different ones overlap so far, and are sometimes so similar, that a print offered to one and rejected by it may be very desirable to another; this applies to _classes_ of magazines as well as _individual_ publications. as an instance: _popular mechanics_, or _illustrated world_, although requiring unusual photographs, rarely buy photographs of human freaks--but nevertheless the _saturday blade_ (chicago) uses just that sort of thing. a few blocks from here stands the largest writing-tablet factory in the world: a photograph of it would not be acceptable to the rotogravure-sections nor to _popular mechanics_, _illustrated world_, nor to _popular science_; yet such a photograph would be useful to an architectural magazine, a stationers' publication, or a local newspaper. when a photograph may be viewed from several industrial angles, as well as from a new-achievement or from a human-interest standpoint, the more likely are markets to open for it. _the press-photographer should not stop until he has tried every possible market._ after one or two rejections, the photographer is apt to form the opinion that editors are prejudiced against his work because he is a beginner; but nothing could be further from the fact. one national magazine says; "should we return what you submit, do not be discouraged. sooner or later, if you study our needs carefully, you will succeed in finding what we are after." the same thing is true of every other magazine. there is not one of them but is eager to buy your wares if you offer them the kind of goods they want. a rejection is not a rebuke. it is a challenge. it means that your "nose for news" has failed you--has played you false; or that you have tried to sell groceries to a blacksmith. rest assured that no editor will willfully refuse to accept, pay for and print any photograph which possesses enough merit to warrant acceptance. the editor holds his chair only so long as he produces the kind and quality of magazine its owners want him to produce; and he can do that only by co-operation with contributors. without contributors he is at sea in a tub. the editor is the best friend the press-photographer can have. it matters not how much "pull" you have with an editor, or how near a relative you are, or how good a friend, you can't sell a photograph to him unless you "deliver the goods." elliot walker observes: "the way to sell is to give editors what they want and in the way they want it." if you do that you can't fail if you try. nor will any editor reject your photographs because of his personal feelings. "the magazine-editor, in the first place, keeps his personal feelings tied up; in the second place, he would be foolish, indeed, to allow them to influence his decisions; and, in the third place, the editor 'ain't got no' personal feelings when it comes to buying material for his magazine." there is only one course to pursue--send the photograph to every possible market for it in its special line; then see if it can be viewed from another magazine-angle, and try every magazine of that trend; then repeat and repeat and ship it away again and again. _don't stop until it has been returned from every market with the slightest possibility of buying it._ then sit up nights to discover another shipping-point for it. keep on to the bitter end; but if your "nose" is working and you keep on steadily, the end will come rather suddenly, and it will not be bitter. vii a survey of markets what follows is no attempt to list and classify existing markets, but to offer a generalized survey of magazine needs by class. while the success of the small-town press-photographer is not in proportion to his city's size, the magazines which find their ways to him month after month do not disclose the whole field of markets to him. he needs something more--something to reveal to him the broad needs of magazines. this chapter has as its mission the summarizing of the needs of magazines of every class. thus, photographs taken all over the world, showing the beauty and commerce of the old and new eras, are eagerly sought by several magazines. _travel_, west sixteenth street, new york, wants photographs of out-of-the-way places, unusual methods of producing world necessities, and photographs of general travel interest. the same may be said of the _national geographic magazine_, though the photographs and articles used by this publication are so specialized and exhaustive that it is rarely a free-lance writer can supply their needs--for they maintain their own staff of writers and explorers. however, if you are able to catch vivid photographs of wide travel interest, here is a most excellent market. if you are interested in picturing homes, _country life_, _garden magazine_ and _house beautiful_ are waiting for your prints. these magazines are very artistic and use only the best work; but they are interested in unusual gardens, beautiful lawns, landscaping, interior decorating. a house remodelled from a common building to an unusual or striking residence will find ready sale to them if photographs of the "before and after" variety are offered. nature, sport, and building in the country are the specialty of _country life_, garden city, new york; _garden magazine_ is interested in nothing but gardens and ornamental horticulture, preferably of the personal experience trend. same address as _country life_. _house beautiful_, park street, boston, wants photographs of unusual types of interior decorating and landscape architecture. what a wealth of material a well-kept, modern home contains! owners should readily give consent to photograph if the photographer explains his purpose. _arts and decoration_, fourth avenue, new york, also uses garden and house material, but runs also to the arts. photographs of architecture, interior decorating, etc., here find another market. so it is with the broad field of country-life magazines generally, as an example. house furnishing and "before and after" remodelling pictures are easily obtained and easily sold if well done. every class of magazines uses photographs: literary magazines, women's, farm journals, juvenile, religious, outdoor, photographic, theatrical, musical, art, and trade publications. the following notes generalize the needs of each of these fields. general magazines this excludes most fiction magazines; those which do use photographic illustrations buy the work of professional studios already established and perhaps specializing in that type of illustrating. the beginner may develop into one of these illustrators--many magazines use them, as _love stories_, _cosmopolitan_ for special articles, _national pictorial monthly_, etc.,--but these markets are not open to the free-lance photographer. _current history_, times building, new york, new york, is an example of a news-magazine which uses timely photographs of wide interest. _the literary digest_ is of similar nature, but this second magazine does not buy photographs from the open market. the curtis publishing company occasionally uses photographs of a scenic or artistic nature as fillers. these magazines comprise _the saturday evening post_, _the ladies' home journal_, _the country gentleman_. these are always available, and a glance through several numbers of each will disclose the type of photograph wanted. _grit_, williamsport, pennsylvania, uses many photographs, and short articles written around them. this publication wants common, human-interest subjects treated carefully. the needs of _the illustrated world_, _popular mechanics_ and _popular science_ have been made very clear in previous portions of this book. _the scientific american_ always wants photographs of new inventions of wide interest, accompanied by brief articles. address broadway, new york, new york. _physical culture_, west th street, new york, new york, always wants photographs of persons having splendid physical development. a glance through this magazine will disclose the types of poses desired. straight front, back, etc., views are never used; action in the picture is essential. women's magazines these magazines use generally pictures of home improvements, remodelling of residences, flower gardens of unusual variety, and use short illustrated articles on house-building, interior decoration, rugs, gardens, domestic science, etc. the magazines listed below are only a few of the many which use photographs and illustrated articles of interest to women. _the ladies' home journal_, philadelphia, pa.; the _woman's home companion_, new york; the _delineator_, new york, and _good housekeeping_, new york, are all generally fiction magazines with a homey flavor which do not offer a good market for separate photographs or short illustrated articles, although they are in the market for suitable material of this sort, in a limited way. others are: _american cookery_, columbia ave., boston. _better times_, fifth ave., new york. _canadian home journal_, richmond st., west, toronto, ontario, canada. _farm and home_, springfield, mass. _mother's magazine_, no. wabash ave., chicago. _new england homestead_, springfield, mass. _vogue_, west th st., new york, uses exclusive photographs of society in new york, newport, etc.; photographs of handsome homes of well-known society people, beautiful and unusual gardens, etc. _woman's weekly_, so. dearborn st., chicago, uses short articles of home interest, illustrated. farm journals the needs of farm journals are specific. they form an important division of published magazines, and a large one which uses a great amount of material. articles on farm improvements, etc., are always used, and photographs also. a conjunction of the two, in an illustrated article, forms a much more marketable commodity. the farm work is composed of many divisions--agriculture, bee culture, botany, breeding, cheese-making, etc. the following are a representative few of the agricultural markets which are always buying material: _american agriculturist_, fourth ave., new york. _american bee journal_, hamilton, ill. _american botanist_, joliet, ill. _american breeder_, west th st., kansas city, mo. _american farming_, so. dearborn st., chicago. _american forestry_, h st., washington, d.c. _american fruit grower_, state lake bldg., chicago. _american poultry journal_, so. dearborn st., chicago. _american seedsman_, chicago, ill. _bean-bag_, syndicate trust bldg., st. louis, mo., is devoted to the bean industry. _canadian countryman_, simcoe st., toronto, ontario, canada; material of canadian interest. _country gentleman_, independence square, philadelphia. _dairy farmer_, waterloo, iowa. _farm and fireside_, fourth ave., new york. _farm journal_, philadelphia, pa. _the horse world_, - marine bldg., buffalo, new york. _jewish farmer_, second ave., new york. _kennel advocate_, market st., sierra madre, cal. _the milk magazine_, waterloo, iowa. _national alfalfa journal_, otis building, chicago. _orchard and farm_, so. broadway, los angeles, cal. _potato magazine_, room , no. clark st., chicago. _power farming_, st. joseph, mich. _rabbitcraft and small stock journal_, lamoni, iowa. _southern agriculturist_, nashville, tenn. _wallace's farmer_, des moines, iowa. juvenile publications almost every magazine uses juvenile material, and there are many that specialize in it. the following markets use the well-known type of photograph and illustrated article which are of interest--travel, how-to-make-it, etc. a great field is open here to picturized activities of boys. _the american boy_, lafayette blvd., detroit, mich. _boy's magazine_, scarsdale, n.y. _classmate_, plum st., cincinnati, ohio. _forward_, witherspoon bldg., philadelphia. _girl's world_, chestnut st., philadelphia. _junior christian endeavor world_, mt. vernon st., boston, mass. _kind words_, nashville, tenn. _open road_, boylston st., boston. _st. nicholas magazine_, fourth ave., new york. _youth's companion_, commonwealth ave., boston, mass. religious papers religious publications are not given to printing many photographs, although there is a market of appreciable size here. this field is a difficult one to generalize upon, but the following may be taken as such a list: _adult student_, nashville, tenn. _american messenger_, park avenue, new york, new york. _christian advocate_, broadway, nashville, tenn. _christian endeavor world_, mt. vernon st., boston, mass., uses photographic covers. david c. cook company, elgin, illinois, publishes about forty magazines, which use a great amount of photographs and illustrated material. _epworth herald_, rush st., chicago. _front rank_, pine st., st. louis, mo. _lookout_, cincinnati, ohio, uses photographs for covers. _the missionary_, apostolic mission house, brookland, washington, d.c. _sunday school world_, chestnut st., philadelphia. _the watchword_, otterbein press, dayton, ohio. outdoor magazines here is a group of magazines which is deeply interested in unusual fishing-trips, hunts, and such excursions--it wants material on the animals in water or air or on land, that its readers may bag them the more easily; it desires material on bird-dogs, on outdoor devices and tricks, on tennis, motoring, baseball, cats, dogs, golf, horses, yachting, and on every phase of outdoor and sport life. photographs of men prominent in each line are wanted; prints of hunting, fishing, camping, canoeing, sailing, and everything connected with the big outdoors. here is a large and remunerative market for open-air photographs and sport prints. _aerial age_, madison ave., new york, wants material on aviation. _all outdoors_, _outing_, _forest and stream_, _field and stream_, etc., want the wide variety of outdoor material that appeals to any sort of sportsman. these magazines circulate widely, and a study of them will disclose their needs. dogs are the subjects of such magazines as _american beagle_, west federal st., youngstown, ohio; _dogdom_, battle creek, michigan; _dog fancier_, battle creek, michigan; _dog world_, so. california ave., chicago. material about cats is welcomed by such as _cat review_, centre st., orange, new jersey. fishing material appeals to the general run of outdoor magazines, including _american angler_, broadway, new york. tennis appeals to _american lawn tennis_, broadway, new york, and the _tennis review_, california bldg., los angeles, cal. golf material is used by _american golfer_, liberty st., new york, and _golfer's magazine_, monadnock block, chicago. motoring appeals to a long list of such publications as: _american motorist_, riggs building, washington, d.c. _mileage_, no. racine ave., chicago. _motor_, west th st., new york. _motordom_, state st., chicago. _motor life_, west th st., new york. _speed_, shipley st., wilmington, del. then there are a variety of different subdivisions of this class, the mere names of which are sufficient to disclose the great variety of material they use: _american checkers_, so. th ave., chicago. _american chess bulletin_, nassau st., new york. _american cricketer_, morris building, philadelphia. _baseball magazine_, fifth ave., new york. _billiards magazine_, so. dearborn st., chicago. _bird lore_, west d st., new york. _bowler's journal_, exchange ave., chicago. _the horse world_, - marine bank bldg., buffalo, new york. _spur_, fifth ave., new york--raising prize winners. _yachting_, west th st., new york. photographic magazines these magazines pay more attention to the photograph itself than to what it pictures. here is a market for artistic prints, for prints showing new working methods, and such material interesting to photographers. artistic taste and technical accuracy are instrumental in getting you into these magazines. _american photography_, newbury street, boston. _the camera_, no. th st., philadelphia, pa. _camera craft_, claus spreckels bldg., san francisco, cal. _photo-era magazine_, wolfeboro, new hampshire. theatrical magazines theatrical magazines embrace the following representative few who desire prints of current news in the show world, new theatres, interviews with actors and actresses and photographs of them, etc. _the drama_, riggs bldg., washington, d.c. _theatre arts magazine_, east d st., detroit, mich. _theatre magazine_, east th st., new york. musical journals photographs of bands, orchestras, leaders, band-stands that are unique, artists, composers, etc., are used by this class. _musical courier_, fifth ave., new york, new york. _musical enterprise_, camden, n.j. trade papers these include magazines published and devoted to every trade imaginable. one magazine will be cited for each division of trade, the title of which is self-explanatory, and which uses photographs in its particular field: advertising: _advertising and selling_, fifth avenue, new york. architectural: _american builder_, prairie ave., chicago. automobile: _american garage and auto dealer_, so. michigan ave., chicago. baking and confectionery: _baker's helper_, so. la salle st., chicago. _western confectioner_, underwood bldg., san francisco. cement, etc.: _concrete_, new telegraph bldg., detroit, mich. drug, oil, paint, etc.: _druggists' circular_, william st., new york. _painters' magazine_, same address. dry goods: _dry goods reporter_, so. market st., chicago, ill. electric: _journal of electricity_, crossley bldg., san francisco. engineering: _everyday engineering magazine_, west th st., new york. financial: _financial world_, broadway, new york. fraternal: see particular paper referring to particular fraternity or lodge in list given in market book. furniture: _furniture news_, wainwright bldg., st. louis, mo. grain: _grain dealers' journal_, s. la salle st., chicago. grocery: _national grocer_, so. la salle st., chicago. hardware: _good hardware_, so. dithridge st., pittsburgh. history: _hispanic american historical review_, irving st., n.e., washington, d.c. house organs: some two thousand of these are listed in the market books named. jewelry: _jewelers' circular_, john st., new york. labor: see particular division desired by consulting market book. law: _casualty review_, east ohio st., indianapolis, ind. lumber: _lumber_, wright bldg., st. louis, mo. medical: see division desired, as dental, hospital, etc., in market book. military: _american legion weekly_, west d st., new york. municipal: _american city_, nassau st., new york. printing: _the inland printer_, inland printing co., sherman st., chicago. railroad: _the railroad red book_, stout st., denver, colo. shoes: _boot and shoe recorder_, south st., boston. this survey gives a general idea of the wide market open to photographs which fall within each magazine's requirements. no attempt has been made to give the needs of magazines, or to present what is usually called "a list of markets." we have been concerned here with generalizing the market--pointing out to the reader who never sees most of the magazines named that they really exist and buy photographs. the purchase of a market book is necessary if one desires seriously to make his way selling photographs to publications. "study the magazine" is the bromide flung always in the teeth of the beginner. but what if one can't obtain copies of the magazines which print material which the reader may easily find? then he has only to request from the editor a sample copy of the magazine, using the address gleaned from the market book--and he then has the best information as to what that particular magazine wants. and at a cost of only two cents per copy. viii shipping the product to market when a print is to be offered to a local newspaper, the photographer starts out, sometimes, as soon as one hour after making the exposure, with the print in his hand, and, arriving at the desk of the city-editor, he allows him to examine it. in such a case, mailing the print would delay it; perhaps delay it until its interest has cooled, and so make it worthless. but when submitting prints to magazines one should always invoke the aid of uncle sam's mail-service, no matter if the editor lives just next door and the publication-office is but a block distant. the shipping of your prints to their markets merits special consideration. if the photograph, after being wrapped, can be bent easily, it is apt to arrive at the editor's desk in a cracked and crumpled condition. then the editor could not buy it if he wished. and, when it is returned, its maker finds it to be so mutilated that it is useless to try to market it elsewhere. proper protection of photographs when shipping them is an aid to both editor and contributor. photographs which are × inches in size can be sent safely in a no. envelope of heavy manila paper if a sheet of cardboard is placed in the envelope too. the cardboard prevents the breaking of corners, the bending, and the cracking of the print. for a return-envelope--_never omit to enclose an envelope addressed to yourself and adequately stamped for the return of the print if it is unavailable_--for a return envelope, a no. manila envelope is the best. prints which are × inches or larger should be sent in larger envelopes--in clasp-envelopes. these envelopes can be obtained at stationers' in sizes suitable for almost any photograph. the envelope should be about an inch larger each way than the print. the print, as well as a piece of cardboard--which should be somewhat larger than the print--can be sent safely in the clasp-envelope container. _on no occasion forget to enclose a return-envelope, which should be self-addressed and stamped._ the return-envelope may be of the same size as the outer one; and, if it is folded, it may be easily inserted. the envelopes mentioned, i have found by experience, are the best containers that can be used for photographs that are to be mailed. never roll a print and insert it in a mailing-tube. if there is anything an editor does _not_ want you to do, it is that. prints so sent never lose the violent curve they acquire in transit, and then they are no more amenable to reason than a temperamental mule. prints should always be sent _flat_--never rolled or folded, nor in any other condition except perfectly _flat_. the envelope should be addressed to "the editor" of the particular magazine selected. do not address it to the editor by name, for it might arrive at a time when he is on his vacation, and so it will follow him all over the country and perhaps become lost. there should be no enclosure other than the photograph; except, when it is necessary, a sheet carrying an explanation or a short article to be printed with the picture. do not write a letter to the editor unless the photograph is timely and should have an immediate decision. the professional news-photographer submits his work without letters, and with no identification except his name on the back of each print--and it isn't what's on the back, but what's on the front, that counts. photographs properly require only third-class postage rates. the addition of a caption to the print, or any other written matter included with it, automatically raises the rate to first-class. even if nothing but the photograph alone is sent, i advise the use of first-class service for several reasons: the print is then carried more quickly; it is handled more carefully; and the sender may seal the container, which he is unable to do with third-class matter. always, then, send your photographs by first-class mail. editors do not maintain special funds for the purpose of paying for postage-due stamps. that is, if a package of photographs arrives at the editor's desk with the postage not fully prepaid, the payment by the editor of the postage due does not make his attitude kindly toward the work itself. there are a good many editors who will not accept contributions from the postoffice which have postage-due stamps attached because of the neglect of the sender to fully prepay the postage. there are a great many more editors who will not return photographs unless a stamped and self-addressed envelope is enclosed with the offering. the attitude is entirely justified, for the supplying of postage to careless contributors in such cases would cost a magazine hundreds of dollars every year. never send your photographs by registered mail unless their value is extraordinary; and never send them by special-delivery mail unless the prints are addressed to a newspaper and possess burning-hot news interest. to send photographs of average quality by either registered or special-delivery mail is a trick of the novice struggling for recognition. use ordinary first-class service and the editor will feel more kindly toward you than if he is made to stop his work and sign a mail-receipt. not all photographs are accepted by the very first editor who sees them. very often it is the fifth, or the tenth, or even the twentieth editor who buys them. so if a print comes back, immediately send it out again and again and again. _don't stop, for the very next time you might sell it._ if it's a good print, there is an editor somewhere waiting for it. ix the prices paid the most remarkable news-photographs ever made--they were exposed at the south pole--brought $ , from _leslie's_ (now no longer published) for "first rights," and $ , more from international feature service for "second rights." some photographers have realized hundreds of dollars from lucky shots; an extraordinary photograph may bring from $ to $ ; but the average price paid is $ . ; and, indeed, there are some editors who unblushingly offer as little as ten or twenty-five cents for prints; and some who find it impossible, unwise, or unnecessary to pay for prints at all. although the average price paid is not astounding, it is a good return on the cost of making; also, the abundant opportunities for salable prints compensate for what each cheque lacks. a photographer who is wide-awake and moving ought not to find it difficult to sell at least ten prints each week, if not more, when one considers the large number of available subjects and the multitude of magazines. newspapers pay for prints according to their breadth of circulation. a widely-read daily will pay more for photographs than one of small circulation. very often, newspaper-editors prefer that the press-photographer send a bill for his services. if you are asked to do that, do not hesitate to charge a price you think is entirely just; but don't grasp the opportunity to profiteer. better, discover the price asked by the newspaper's favorite commercial-photographer, and mark down your price accordingly. that is business; it isn't taking an unfair advantage. whatever the price that is paid, don't object if you think it is too low; accept the payment and seek a more remunerative market next time. this applies to magazines as well as to newspapers. the prices paid by magazines vary likewise, but none of any reputation pays less than one dollar per print. there are many factors which decide the size of the cheque which the press-photographer receives. the first is the circulation of the publication, for its financial reserve depends on the number of buyers. the size of the print in some instances decides the price paid. thus, one magazine pays $ . for prints of one size and $ . for larger ones. however, there are not many magazines who pay according to the size of print. sometimes, retouching must be applied to a print in order to make it suitable for reproduction; and, as the service of a retoucher is expensive, something is deducted from the photographer's cheque to pay for the work. _popular science_ is a magazine of that policy. the photographer can avoid such deductions from his cheques by supplying photographs of such quality that they will need no retouching. if a photograph is offered for the exclusive use of one magazine it may bring a higher price than if it were non-exclusive. thus, _collier's_ pays $ . for non-exclusive prints and $ . for exclusive ones. some few magazines rarely accept any print that is not exclusive; indeed, non-exclusiveness may be a reason for rejection. calendar-makers and postcard-makers, of course, buy only exclusive rights. a publisher is always more favorably inclined toward an exclusive than toward a non-exclusive print; and, very often, the added favor means added dollars to the payment. the use to which a print is put is also a deciding factor in payment. a print bought for use as a cover-illustration will bring home a bigger cheque than if it were used merely as one of many illustrations. too, _illustrated world_ pays $ . and more for prints used in its pictorial section, but $ . for those used in its mechanical department. other magazines do not make this distinction. after all, the price paid depends wholly on the usefulness and quality of the print. if, sometimes, as in the case of the _ladies' home journal_, the payment is made with a view to the photographer's reputation, it is only because news-photographers of experience produce prints of a higher average quality than beginners do. but, if a beginner "delivers the goods," the editor is just as glad to pay to him the large cheque as he is to pay it to any one else. a few examples of prices paid will be of interest. _collier's_ pays $ . for non-exclusive prints and $ . for exclusive prints, and from $ . to $ . a page for layouts (spreads). _illustrated world_ pays $ . for each print. _popular mechanics_ pays $ . and up, and $ . a page for layouts. _popular science_ reimburses at the rate of $ . for each photograph, and sometimes more. the _saturday blade_ pays $ . for each. the thompson art company pays from $ . to $ . . underwood and underwood pay from $ . and up, according to the value of the print. the woodman and teirman printing company pays at rates varying from $ . to $ . . "but when is payment made?" you ask. the answer is, "either upon acceptance or upon publication." by far, most magazines pay according to the more desirable plan--upon acceptance. as soon as such a magazine decides that a photograph is useful to it, it mails a cheque to the sender. sometimes, a receipt is sent with the cheque, which the recipient must sign and return; but, more often, the cheque itself is the receipt. payment upon acceptance is by far the more desirable method, for with it the worker is paid as soon as his work is done; there is no waiting for weeks and months for payment, as in the case of pay-on-publication magazines. there are a few magazines who wait until the photograph actually appears in the pages of the publication before payment is made. in such cases, the photographer has no recourse but to wait until the editor is ready to print his contribution whenever it may be. in the case of pay-on-publication magazines, notice is usually sent that the photograph has been accepted for publication and that it will be paid for as soon as it is published. sometimes, no notice is given at all of publication or acceptance; and in that case the photographer must scan each issue of the magazine in order to find his contribution when it appears, or he must wait until the cheque arrives that denotes publication. either method is uncertain; but there is nothing to do but to endure it. some publications even wait for some time after publication before making payment, as in the case of the _kansas city star_, which pays on the fifteenth of the month following publication, and the _saturday blade_ which also mails all cheques the month following publication. this is a discouraging policy; but as the cheque always arrives in the end, there is little to be said in condemnation of it; the photographer is obliged to make the best of it. the contributor should always keep a record of prints accepted and to be paid for on publication. otherwise, by an oversight, a cheque for published material may never come, and the photographer may never miss it. too, a cheque may arrive unexpectedly from a forgotten source and cause an attack of heart-failure. the beginner does not achieve mountain-top prices except by a lucky shot now and then. prices increase with your experience and your reputation. the photographer who develops his "nose for news" until it can scent a salable photograph in every conceivable situation is the photographer who has the large cheques forced upon him. the sky-high cheques come to the camerist who, night and day, through sunshine and storm, earthquake and cyclone, is always "hot on the trail" of the salable photograph that is tucked away somewhere, where only a keen scent and a large amount of perseverance can lead him; and when he arrives, the subject will be singing truthfully, "shoot me and the wor-rld is tha-hine." there are enough of these subjects to shame the biggest choir on earth by their "singing." however, the photographer must know good music when he hears it. x art photographs an art-photograph may be either of two things: a photograph, itself artistic; or a photograph of some artistic thing. there are markets for both. artistic photographs are used by calendar and postcard makers; also, by photographic magazines, and magazines given to the beautiful in art or literature. when submitting such photographs to makers of postcards and such, they should be submitted in the usual manner. the subjects used by card- and calendar-makers are interesting landscapes, beautiful seascapes, pretty girls, attractive children, and animals, as every one knows. such pictures are sometimes bought outright--indeed, they usually are; but some firms pay according to their value as indicated by the demand for them after publication. thus, one firm pays on a fifty-fifty basis. an example of beautiful photography, at the same time picturing an unusual or artistic subject, will usually find a market in a photographic magazine, as _photo-era magazine_ or a magazine such as _shadowland_. the _architectural record_ demands that its prints, although of architectural subjects, be artistic and beautiful. indeed, there is such a wide market for photographically artistic prints of beautiful subjects that the photographer is doubly rewarded who can supply these, as well as hot-off-the-bat news-photographs. artistic photographs are printed on sensitive-paper of a surface suited to their subjects, and are trimmed so as to carry the correct compositional balance; and after, they are tastefully mounted. photographs which are not themselves artistic, but which are of art-subjects, may be prepared as are other photographs intended for publication. such photographs are of statues, pictures, new art-museums, art-collections, paintings, mural decorations, drawings, and anything at all of interest to artists. material of such sort is sought by such publications as _american art news_, _art in america_, _art and decoration_, and others that appreciate the very best. in short, the photographer may market his game among a wider patronage if he can bring down birds of paradise as well as ducks and geese and the common denizens of the air. xi competitions competition is the life of business. certainly, then, an aspirant for honors from publishers experiences no lack of life. often, however, after a print has proved unavailable for publication, when offered by the regular process, it may be entered in a photographic competition where current interest is not essential; and so, perhaps, even bring home a larger cheque than it could have captured otherwise. the two leading photographic publications, _photo-era magazine_ and _american photography_, conduct monthly competitions. the monthly prizes for the advanced competition of _photo-era magazine_ are $ . , $ . and $ . in value of photographic goods. although cash is not paid, a prize awarded will go a long way toward obtaining for the photographer a desired piece of apparatus, or in supplying sensitised material, developing-agents and such with which to produce photographs intended for other magazines. "the contest is free and open to photographers of ability and good standing--amateur or professional." the publisher of _photo-era magazine_ assigns subjects for each month, as "winter-sports," "speed-pictures," and so on. since the photographer must buy supplies in any event, the awarding of such to the amount of $ . is a distinct help. _american photography_ also conducts monthly photographic contests. for these no subjects are assigned. the prizes for the senior class are $ . , $ . and $ . , paid in cash. "any photographer, amateur or professional, may compete." this magazine last year held an annual competition, which it intends to repeat, with prizes of $ . , $ . , two of $ . , and ten of $ . , not to mention one hundred subscriptions for the magazine. highly artistic work is necessary for recognition in the annual competition. both _photo-era magazine_ and _american photography_ supply data-blanks which must be sent with entries. competitions for amateur photographs are also conducted by the _american boy_, which offers monthly prizes of $ . , $ . and $ . for "the most interesting amateur photographs received during each month." these are worthwhile. photographs of popular interest are used in monthly competitions by many magazines; and many manufacturers conduct occasional, if not regular, prize-contests. probably the largest company to offer prizes in competitions is the eastman kodak company. the eastman company for many years conducted a yearly contest with thousands of dollars in prizes offered. last year, it decided on an innovation; the running of a monthly contest with prizes of $ . . this practice has been continued for many months and shows no signs of being discontinued at this writing. prizes are offered for four classes of photographs, the class being determined by the camera with which the photograph was made. in all, twenty prizes are awarded each month, the highest being $ . and the lowest $ . . frequently one person wins two or three prizes. the photographs entered must be of good workmanship, of human-interest and must preferably tell a story. no subjects are set. upon writing to the company, a leaflet is sent which gives rules and an entry-blank. a good many photographers have cleaned-up in these competitions. now and then, different manufacturers and magazines, who do not ordinarily do so, offer prizes for photographs. at every opportunity, the press-photographer should enter his prints, for if they win a prize, he has the advantage of a larger remuneration as well as a boosted prestige among editors and publishers. xii prints for advertising advertisers who are manufacturers are all possessed of the belief that the buying public is painfully ill-informed of the unequalled merits of their products. consequently, any photographic evidence of the superiority of their goods which will enlighten the public is welcomed with open arms. any photograph that shows plainly the excellent service that any product has given will bring the photographer's own price from the manufacturer. the demand is almost universal. makers of camera-lenses are continually on the lookout for unusual photographs made with their products. the wollensak, the bausch and lomb, and the goerz companies frequently buy negatives that portray vividly some features of their lenses. makers of camera-shutters also buy photographs which were made with cameras equipped with their shutters. usually, the point emphasised in the pictures bought is the shutters' ability to "stop motion" at their high speeds. as press-photographers frequently find it necessary to use the shortest exposures given by their shutters, they should have something in their negative-files which the shutter-makers should be eager to obtain. makers of photographic material other than lenses and shutters often buy examples of work done with their goods. thus, the ansco company "uses photographs of natural scenes for advertising-purposes," the photographs being made on _ansco_ film and _cyko_ paper, or other ansco products. burke and james, makers of _rexo_ cameras, "use photographs for advertising-purposes which must be of unusual interest and must illustrate their goods in use, or be made with their cameras or films." inasmuch as the news-photographer, in his daily work, finds many unusual things, he should find no difficulty in selling a few prints to camera-makers. an advertiser is always seeking any information likely to help sell his product. if, in your work, you see an old storage-battery with electric energy still unimpaired, or a well-preserved tire, or a shaving-brush of "strong constitution" unweakened by much use, it would very likely prove profitable to photograph it and describe your find to the company that makes the product. thus, an insurance-agency may buy a photograph of a garage destroyed by fire, the cars in which were fully protected by their insurance. a maker of strong-boxes may appreciate a photograph of one of his boxes raked out of, perhaps, the same fire, the box having held valuable papers which were fully protected from the terrific heat. the makers of a portable typewriter once purchased a photograph of one of their machines which had fallen from an airplane and which had to be dug from the ground; but which, of course, suffered no injury whatever because of its fall and burial. if you should unexpectedly come upon irvin cobb writing a masterpiece with his neverleek fountain-pen, snap him (with his permission) and see what the makers of neverleeks say. manufacturers of patent roofings use photographs of roofs covered with their products; makers of steam-rollers want photographs of roads tamped by their machines; and so on and on and on. it is wiser to write first to the advertising-manager of the particular company favored, and to inquire if he is buying photographs that show plainly the unparalleled merits of his excellent product, and if so--etc., etc. some advertisers will ask you to name a price for your work, and on such an occasion you should judge fairly the value of the print to them. if they require the negative also, raise the rate. any prints should be worth $ . even to a small manufacturer, and if it is acceptable at all, a larger firm should pay from $ . to $ , . for suitable propaganda. this branch of press-photography is little used by many workers, yet it is remunerative. besides furnishing the manufacturer with advertising for his product, the photographer supplies himself with some advertising to the effect that "he delivered the goods once, and could do it again, so there." xiii copyrights and other rights if, as often happens, one photograph is useful to more than one publication, is it all right to sell the one photograph to as many magazines as will buy it? when a publication prints a photograph on its pages, it copyrights it in the name of the publishing company. the photographer then has parted with his _entire rights_ to it, and cannot sell it elsewhere, _unless_ one of two precautions has been taken. the first precaution is the writing on the back of each print: "first magazine-rights only." those "mystic" words mean that the print is offered for publication only one time, after which it again becomes the property of the photographer. that is, the magazine, when buying such a print, buys only the right to print it the first time. immediately after its publication, it becomes again the property of the photographer, although he cannot of course sell "first rights" again, any more than he can sell the same horse twice at the same time. after "first rights" has been sold, the photographer may then sell "second rights," _provided_ those words are written on the back of the second print. "'second rights' is the right to publish a photograph in some other publication than the one in which it originally appeared." for instance: a photograph of a novel shop-window display may be acceptable to _popular mechanics_, which buys a print _marked_ "first magazine-rights only." but the same photograph may be acceptable too to an advertising-magazine, and so it buys "second magazine-rights." unless these terms are written on the backs of prints which are sold to more than one magazine, trouble is apt to result. another plan by which it is possible to sell a photograph to more than one publication is the labeling _each print_ as: "non-exclusive" or "not exclusive." when that is done, the photograph may be sold to as many editors as care to buy it. if no mention of any rights or of exclusiveness is made at the time of sale, it is inferred that the publisher buys "all rights." in that case the photographer loses _all_ claims to the photograph; if he attempts to sell it again without the consent of the editor who first bought it he is breaking the copyright laws; in fact, he is selling another's property. there is no need to affix any such terms to any photograph which can sell to only one, or which is to be offered to only one magazine. magazines are more partial to prints which they can buy outright, and thus acquire "all rights." indeed, there are very few prints of enough value to sell to more than one magazine. now we plunge deep into the mysteries of copyrights. when a print is copyrighted it is unalterably the property of the person _first_ copyrighting it until he signs "transference of copyright." a copyrighted print may be published in a dozen publications if they will buy it, and it still remains the property of the one who first copyrighted it. copyright laws were passed for the benefit of those who "promote the progress of science and useful arts." this is done "by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to use their respective writings and discoveries." under this law, "author" includes makers of photographs, and "writings" includes photographs. the process of copyrighting a photograph is not an involved one. a request should be addressed to the register of copyrights at washington, d.c., for a few copyright-blanks, form j . (form j is for photographs to be sold, j for photographs not to be sold.) one of these cards is then filled out, and two prints of the photographs sent with it to the copyright office, as well as the necessary fee. "the fee for the registration of copyrights ... in the case of photographs, when no certificate (of copyright) is demanded is fifty cents; for every certificate, fifty cents" additional. a certificate is not usually necessary, and is useful only in cases of disputed copyright ownership, etc. the fee should be sent only in the form of a money-order to the register of copyrights, and the photographs must bear the mark of copyright, which is "either the word 'copyrighted' or the abbreviation 'copr.' accompanied by the name of the copyright proprietor. in the case of photographs the notice may consist of the letter c inclosed in a circle _provided_ that on some accessible portion of such copies ... the name of the person copyrighting shall appear." upon the copyright office receiving the photographs, the sender is notified; and again, when copyright is granted, he is sent a small card notifying him, or the certificate is sent to him if he has ordered one. then the print is considered copyrighted. it is useless to copyright any except those prints of extraordinary value, the rights of which the photographer wishes to retain at all costs. the average quality prints are not likely to be stolen, and so the copyrighting of them is unnecessary. if the photograph is merely to be offered to two or more publications it is only necessary to mark each print as directed in the foregoing paragraphs. publishing companies are business-institutions which are of necessity conducted according to the highest ethics. to unwittingly sell to another magazine a print one magazine purchased as exclusive, would be likely to exile the photographer's work from those particular magazines. the photographer should remember that a print of his making is not his property once it is first copyrighted by someone else, _unless_ he has sold only certain rights of it. it is nothing less than theft, to make a photographic copy of a published photograph and to offer it as original and unpublished. the photographer should never try to sell what is not his own work. but since not many have the urge to do so, undue emphasis on that point would be offensive. "the sum of the foregoing advice is that the author (photographer) should exercise common sense in disposing of rights," says j. berg esenwein, editor of the _writer's monthly_, in one of his books. "in most cases it would be better to allow the publisher to have 'all rights' than to forego the chance of a sale; but nearly all magazine-editors are disposed to be reasonable and will agree to share any future profits that may arise from supplementary sales of a manuscript (photograph). the chief point is that author and publisher should clearly understand each other, without the author's losing his rights, yet, without harassing the publisher by making unnecessary stipulations regarding a trifling matter." the law of copyright should be followed strictly when attempting to submit the same photograph to more than one publication or buyer. if the photographer keeps an eye on what rights he has sold when he cashes his cheque, and governs himself accordingly, he will sail along without trouble of any kind. xiv illustrated special articles it would require a surveyor of extraordinary skill to mark the boundary between the lands of _photographs-with-explanatory-data_ and _articles-illustrated-with-photographs_. since the dividing line is so vague it is not difficult to pass from the one to the other. the jump from the making of photographs to the writing of non-fiction is not a difficult one to make. in his rambles after salable photographs the press-photographer may unearth a subject to which a single photograph does not do justice. then the making of more photographs and the writing of an article about them is the logical and the progressive and the more remunerative thing to do. indeed, subjects which would not sell otherwise may be made very useful to an editor by the writing of an enticing article around them. at once, there is a means of broadening one's market and of disposing of photographs, by themselves, unsalable. an illustrated article naturally calls forth a fatter cheque than would the text or the photographs alone. there is as much a demand for illustrated articles as there is for photographs; so that the photographer with the ability to tell facts simply and clearly has two avenues of revenue. many illustrated articles sold to magazines are just groups of photographs with interesting texts written about them. a search through a few magazines reveals a broad variety. from _popular mechanics_: new mountain-road now open to traffic. new orleans public elevator. artistic roof-garden features city-factory. steamer repaired in eighteen days. where the earth collapsed. flying anglers troll for deep-sea fish. a four-track concrete railroad-bridge. waterfalls near big city just discovered. concrete smokestack difficult to demolish. vast stores of mineral paint-pigments in salton sea. from _illustrated world_: what the circus does in winter. snow on the overland trail. city over coal-mines slowly sinking. running the farm by windmill. truck equipped for sealer of weights and measures. marvelous development in the hemp-industry. public camp-conveniences. mud-splashing guards for autos. work for waterfalls everywhere. building the road to fit the car. heading off mountain-floods. lawn-pools and fountains in concrete. from _photo-era magazine_: children in the snow. the quartz-meniscus lens. introduction of figures in landscape-work. photographic greeting cards. balance by shadows in pictorial composition. mounting and framing photographs. the photographer and a goat-ranch. in nature's studio. from _science and invention_: science measures the athlete. world's largest clock. making microphotographs. how cartoon movies are made. a miniature "sky." curing soldiers' ills with electricity. largest electric crane lifts complete tug-boat. wintertime uses for the electric fan. monster italian searchlight. these are articles written around several photographs--not merely illustrated by them. besides the classes of magazines mentioned there are numerous others--almost any publication that uses illustrations in fact--which are in the market for illustrated articles. such magazines cater to outers, hunters, sportsmen, business-men, physical culturists, travelers--almost every class of reader. having produced and sold articles written around the illustrations, the writer-photographer cannot other than form an idea, now and then, of an article a magazine should want which may be illustrated; but to which the illustrations are supplementary rather than basic. in such cases, the writer will have greater chance of acceptance if he, by means of his camera, makes several photographs to illustrate the text. even if an article is acceptable without illustrations, it will bring a bigger cheque nevertheless if it is illustrated. if the lack of illustrations makes the article unavailable, then the photographer has the means of making a cheque grow where none grew before. his camera stands him in good stead. there is no editor but prefers an illustrated article to an unillustrated one--unless his magazine is pictureless from policy. then, from having his pictures printed without his name attached, the photographer blossoms into a writer whose work appears under such a head as "_'how fruit is raised on the moon_,' by john henry jones, with illustrations by the author." although the jump from the making of photographs to the writing of non-fiction is easy, you may slip at the first attempt. but hammer away and soon the nail will go in. "for know ye, there isn't a magazine-editor in the business who wouldn't buy an article from his worst enemy if he thought it was good stuff for his magazine." the photographer must not only "smell out" news; but he must, by the sensitiveness of his "nose" tell just how much the news is capable of being worked up. he will find it comparatively easy to write illustrated special-articles where before he sold just photographs. and such ability stands not far below that of the fictionists. xv the high road not much of an exalted vocation, the selling of photographs? not, perhaps, proclaimed from the housetops as a handsomely paying vocation; but one which may be cultivated into almost anything having to do with inveigling publishers into writing cheques. when you receive your first cheque your sensation is something like that of the man who has passed through a cyclone and has come through with his "flivver" still in the barn. but when the first contribution is _printed_! the world is yours! you have broken into print! if not into type, at least into printing-ink. when the excitement wears off there are many branches that beckon. the press-photographer may specialise--he may devote all his efforts to some one branch of the work, as the making of photographs of celebrities, of microphotographs, of almost anything. witness the amateur photographer who quietly went about photographing the interior of every church in new york, and who then "cashed in" on them to the amount of $ , . you may even obtain a position--or job--as press-photographer on a big metropolitan daily, with all the world before you and part of it dropping every saturday afternoon into your pocketbook. then, you may be sent overseas--and be paid great oodles of money. or you may devote all your time to the making of calendar-photographs, or to illustrating stories photographically, as is the fashion now with some magazines, see _true-story_. there are so many opportunities to grasp that if you look about you and select the specialised branch in which you desire most to work, there is no reason in the world why you should not do it--and, perhaps, earn $ , a year at it. "do one thing better than anyone else and the world will beat a path to your door." having broken into printers'-ink, it is comparatively easy to break into type. from selling photographs one may easily advance to the writing and illustrating of non-fiction. and your fame as a non-fictionist, together with the training you have gleaned, may cause you to forward a work of fiction to an editor acquainted with your name--and lo! from the ranks of the "snap-shooters" you have risen to the highest class of scribe--the successful fictionist. and that, too, is not difficult for him who wills and works. "and work. spell it in capital letters, work," advised jack london. "work all the time. find out about this earth, this universe; this force and matter, and the spirit that glimmers up through force and matter from the maggot to godhead. and by all this i mean work for a philosophy of life. it does not hurt how wrong your philosophy of life may be, so long as you have one and have it well.... with it you may cleave to greatness and sit among the giants." another agrees: "draw long breaths of confidence, of faith in yourself and your work.... strike 'despair' out of your dictionary! get into your chair! do your stint! be just as much of a fool as you like. it is your privilege and mine. then you will have amusing reminiscences. no great writer but can look back and say, 'what a fool i was!'" realisation results from "ten per cent. inspiration and ninety per cent. perspiration." a liberal quantity of this mixture will bring one to the high road. the high road is smooth. but anyone may travel it who wishes--and works sufficiently hard. not much, the making and selling of photographs? the start of the trail may be barren and unpromising; but the persevering fellow who follows it persistently will find that it suddenly widens and blossoms and lo, opens full into the high road. the end generously made available by internet archive (http://www.archive.org) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see http://www.archive.org/details/evolutionofphoto werguoft transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). whole and fractional parts of numbers are displayed as - / for four and five-eights or as a decimal number. several of the advertisements display another type of 'fraction' to represent shillings and pence: / - / for one shilling and one and one-half pence; and /- is shilling and no pence. [illustration: first period. paper, asphaltum, &c. thomas wedgwood. _from a plaster cast._ joseph nicÉphore niÉpce. _from a painting by l. berger._ rev. j. b. reade. _from a photograph by maull & fox._ henry fox talbot. _from a calotype._ sir john herschel. _from a daguerreotype._] the evolution of photography. with a chronological record of discoveries, inventions, etc., contributions to photographic literature, and personal reminiscences extending over forty years. by john werge. illustrated. london: piper & carter, , furnival street, holborn, e.c.; and john werge, a, berners street, oxford street, w. . [all rights reserved.] printed by piper & carter, , furnival street, holborn, london, e.c. preface. no previous history of photography, that i am aware of, has ever assumed the form of a reminiscence, nor have i met with a photographic work, of any description, that is so strictly built upon a chronological foundation as the one now placed in the hands of the reader. i therefore think, and trust, that it will prove to be an acceptable and readable addition to photographic literature. it was never intended that this volume should be a text-book, so i have not entered into elaborate descriptions of the manipulations of this or that process, but have endeavoured to make it a comprehensive and agreeable summary of all that has been done in the past, and yet convey a perfect knowledge of all the processes as they have appeared and effected radical changes in the practice of photography. the chronological record of discoveries, inventions, appliances, and publications connected with the art will, it is hoped, be received and considered as a useful and interesting table of reference; while the reminiscences, extending over forty years of unbroken contact with every phase of photography, and some of its pioneers, will form a vital link between the long past and immediate present, which may awaken pleasing recollections in some, and give encouragement to others to enter the field of experiment, and endeavour to continue the work of evolution. at page it is stated, on the authority of the late robert hunt, that some of niépce's early pictures may be seen at the british museum. that was so, but unfortunately it is not so now. on making application, very recently, to examine these pictures, i ascertained that they were never placed in the care of the curator of the british museum, but were the private property of the late dr. robert brown, who left them to his colleague, john joseph bennett, and that at the latter's death they passed into the possession of his widow. i wrote to the lady making enquiries about them, but have not been able to trace them further; there are, however, two very interesting examples of niépce's heliographs, and one photo-etched plate and print, lent by mr. h. p. robinson, on view at south kensington, in the western gallery of the science collection. for the portrait of thomas wedgwood, i am indebted to mr. godfrey wedgwood; for that of joseph nicéphore niépce, to the mayor of chalons-sur-saône; for the rev. j. b. reade's, to mr. fox; for sir john herschel's, to mr. h. h. cameron; for john frederick goddard's, to dr. jabez hogg; and for frederick scott archer's, to mr. alfred cade; and to all those gentlemen i tender my most grateful acknowledgments. also to the autotype company, for their care and attention in carrying out my wishes in the reproduction of all the illustrations by their beautiful collotype process. john werge. _london, june, ._ contents. introduction first period. the dark ages second period. publicity and progress third period. collodion triumphant fourth period. gelatine successful chronological record. inventions, discoveries, etc. contributions to photographic literature. list of illustrations. frontispiece portrait of thomas wedgwood. " portrait of joseph nicéphore niépce. " portrait of rev. j. b. reade. " portrait of henry fox talbot. " portrait of sir john herschel. portrait of l. j. m. daguerre. portrait of john frederick goddard. copy of instantaneous daguerreotype. portrait of frederick scott archer. hever castle, kent. portrait of dr. r. l. maddox. portrait of richard kennett. index. archer, frederick scott, - argentic gelatino-bromide paper, abney's translation of pizzighelli and hubl's booklet, a string of old beads, bacon, roger, bennett, charles, boston, bromine accelerator, bingham, robert j., burgess, j., cabinet portraits, camera-obscura, chronological record, - convention of , claudet, a. f. j., , chlorine accelerator, collodion process (archer's), collodio-chloride printing process, davy, sir h., daguerre, l. j. m., , daguerreotype process, , , ---- apparatus imported, diaphanotypes, dolland, j., donkin, w. f., draper, dr., dublin exhibition, - eburneum process, elliott & fry, eosine, &c., errors in pictorial backgrounds, first photographic portrait, fizeau, m., , flash-light pictures, gelatino-bromide experiments, globe lens, goddard, john frederick, , harrison, w. h., heliographic process, , , heliochromy, herschel, dr., herschel, sir john, hillotypes, hughes, jabez, , hunt, robert, international exhibitions, , , , johnson, j. r., kennett, r., lambert, leon, laroche, sylvester, lea, carey, "lux graphicus" on the wing, - lights and lighting, maddox, dr. r. l., magic photographs, mawson, john, mayall, j. e., macbeth, norman, montreal, morgan and kidd, newton, sir isaac, new york, , niagara, niépce, j. nicéphore, , niépce de st. victor, niagara, pictures of, - notes on pictures in national gallery, orthochromatic plates, panoramic lens and camera, pistolgraph, pensions to daguerre and niépce, philadelphia, ponton, mungo, , poitevin, m., , porta, baptista g., potash bichromate, pouncy process, pictures of the st. lawrence, - pinhole camera, pizzighelli's platinum printing, pictures of the potomac, - photography in the north, - perspective, - photography and the immured pompeiians, rambles among studios, - reade, rev. j. b., - , rejlander, o. g., ritter, john wm., rumford, count, russell, col., sable island, salomon, adam, sawyer, j. r., scheele, c. w., , senebier, simpson, george wharton, , soda sulphite, swan's carbon process, stannotype, sutton, thomas, spencer, j. a., stereoscopic pictures, sharpness and softness _v._ hardness, simple mode of intensifying negatives, talbot, henry fox, , talbot versus laroche, taylor, professor alfred swaine, the hudson river, - the society's exhibition, the use of clouds in landscapes, ---- as backgrounds in portraiture, union of the north and south london societies, vogel, dr. h. w., washington, wedgwood controversy, wedgwood, thomas, , , whipple gallery, wolcott reflecting camera, wollaston's diaphragmatic shutter, wollaston, dr., woodbury process, wothlytype printing process, introduction. photography, though young in years, is sufficiently aged to be in danger of having much of its early history, its infantile gambols, and vigorous growth, obscured or lost sight of in the glitter and reflection of the brilliant success which surrounds its maturity. scarcely has the period of an average life passed away since the labours of the successful experimentalists began; yet, how few of the present generation of workers can lay their fingers on the dates of the birth, christening, and phases of the delightful vocation they pursue. many know little or nothing of the long and weary travail the minds of the discoverers suffered before their ingenuity gave birth to the beautiful art-science by which they live. what form the infant art assumed in the earlier stages of its life; or when, where, and how, it passed from one phase to another until it arrived at its present state of mature and profitable perfection. born with the art, as i may say, and having graduated in it, i could, if i felt so disposed, give an interesting, if not amusing, description of its rise and progress, and the many difficulties and disappointments that some of the early practitioners experienced at a time when photographic a b c's were not printed; its "principles and practice" anything but familiarly explained; and when the "dark room" was as dark as the grave, and as poisonous as a charnel-house, and only occasionally illumined by the glare of a "bull's-eye." but it is not my intention to enter the domain of romance, and give highly coloured or extravagant accounts of the growth of so beautiful and fascinating an art-science. photography is sufficiently facetious in itself, and too versatile in its powers of delineation of scenes and character, to require any verbose effort of mine to make it attractive. a record of bare facts is all i aim at. whatever is doubtful i shall leave to the imagination of the reader, or the invention of the romance writer. to arrange in chronological order the various discoveries, inventions, and improvements that have made photography what it is; to do honour to those who have toiled and given, or sold, the fruits of their labour for the advancement of the art; to set at rest, as far as dates can succeed in doing so, any questionable point or order of precedence of merit in invention, application, or modification of a process, and to enable the photographic student to make himself acquainted with the epochs of the art, is the extent of my ambition in compiling these records. with the hope of rendering this work readily referable and most comprehensive, i shall divide it into four periods. the first will deal broadly and briefly with such facts as can be ascertained that in any way bear on the accidental discovery, early researches, and ultimate success of the pioneers of photography. the second will embrace a fuller description of their successes and results. the third will be devoted to a consideration of patents and impediments; and the fourth to the rise and development of photographic literature and art. a strict chronological arrangement of each period will be maintained, and it is hoped that the advantages to be derived from travelling some of the same ground over again in the various divisions of the subject will fully compensate the reader, and be accepted as sufficient excuse for any unavoidable repetition that may appear in the work. with these few remarks i shall at once enter upon the task of placing before the reader in chronological order the origin, rise, progress, and development of the science and art of photography. first period. the dark ages. more than three hundred years have elapsed since the influence and actinism of light on chloride of silver was observed by the alchemists of the sixteenth century. this discovery was unquestionably the first thing that suggested to the minds of succeeding chemists and men of science the possibility of obtaining pictures of solid bodies on a plane surface previously coated with a silver salt by means of the sun's rays; but the alchemists were too much absorbed in their vain endeavours to convert the base metals into royal ones to seize the hint, and they lost the opportunity of turning the silver compounds with which they were acquainted into the mine of wealth it eventually became in the nineteenth century. curiously enough, a mechanical invention of the same period was afterwards employed, with a very trifling modification, for the production of the earliest sun-pictures. this was the camera-obscura invented by roger bacon in , and improved by a physician in padua, giovanni baptista porta, about , and afterwards remodelled by sir isaac newton. two more centuries passed away before another step was taken towards the revelation of the marvellous fact that nature possessed within herself the power to delineate her own beauties, and, as has recently been proved, that the sun could depict his own terrible majesty with a rapidity and fidelity the hand of man could never attain. the second step towards this grand achievement of science was the construction of the double achromatic combination of lenses by j. dolland. with single combinations of lenses, such pictures as we see of ourselves to-day, and such portraits of the sun as the astronomers obtained during the late total eclipse, could never have been produced. j. dolland, the eminent optician, was born in london , and died ; and had he not made that important improvement in the construction of lenses, the eminent photographic opticians of the present day might have lived and died unknown to wealth and fame. the observations of the celebrated swedish chemist, scheele, formed the next interesting link between the simple and general blackening of a lump of chloride of silver, and the gradations of blackening which ultimately produced the photographic picture on a piece of paper possessing a prepared surface of nitrate of silver and chloride of sodium in combination. scheele discovered in that the blackening of the silver compound was due to the reducing power of light, and that the black deposit was _reduced silver_; and it is precisely the same effect of the action of light upon chloride of silver passing through the various densities of the negative that produces the beautiful photographic prints with which we are all familiar at the present time. scheele was also the first to discover and make known the fact that chloride of silver was blackened or reduced to various depths by the varying action of the prismatic colours. he fixed a glass prism in a window, allowed the refracted sunbeams to fall on a piece of paper strewn with _luna cornua_--fused chloride of silver--and saw that the violet ray was more active than any of the other colours. anyone, with a piece of sensitised paper and a prism, or piece of a broken lustre, can repeat and see for themselves scheele's interesting discovery; and anyone that can draw a head or a flower may catch a sunbeam in a small magnifying glass, and make a drawing on sensitised paper with a pencil, as long as the sun is distant from the earth. it is the old story of columbus and the egg--easy to do when you are shown or told how. charles william scheele was born at stralsund, sweden, december th, , and died at koeping, on lake moeler, may st, . he was the real father of photography, for he produced the first photographic picture on record without camera and without lens, with the same chemical compound and the same beautiful and wonderful combination of natural colours which we now employ. little did he dream what was to follow. but photography, like everything else in this world, is a process of evolution. senebier followed up scheele's experiments with the solar spectrum, and ascertained that chloride of silver was darkened by the violet ray in fifteen minutes, while the red rays were sluggish, and required twenty minutes to produce the same result. john wm. ritter, born at samitz, in silesia, corroborated the experiments of scheele, and discovered that chloride of silver was blackened beyond the spectrum on the violet side. he died in ; but he had observed what is now called the fluorescent rays of the spectrum--invisible rays which unquestionably exert themselves in the interests and practice of photography. many other experiments were made by other chemists and philosophers on the influence of light on various substances, but none of them had any direct bearing on the subject under consideration until count rumford, in , communicated to the royal society his experiments with chloride of gold. count rumford wetted a piece of taffeta ribbon with a solution of chloride of gold, held it horizontally over the clear flame of a wax candle, and saw that the heat decomposed the gold solution, and stained the ribbon a beautiful purple. though no revived gold was visible, the ribbon appeared to be coated with a rich purple enamel, which showed a metallic lustre of great brilliancy when viewed in the sunlight; but its photographic value lay in the circumstance of the hint it afterwards afforded m. fizeau in applying a solution of chloride of gold, and, by means of heat, depositing a fine film of metallic gold on the surface of the daguerreotype image, thereby increasing the brilliancy and permanency of that form of photographic picture. a modification of m. fizeau's chloride of gold "fixing process" is still used to tone, and imparts a rich purple colour to photographic prints on plain and albumenized papers. in , dr. herschel's "memoirs on the heating power of the solar spectrum" were published, and out of his observations on the various effects of differently coloured darkening glasses arose the idea that the chemical properties of the prismatic colours, and coloured glass, might be as different as those which related to heat and light. his suspicions were ultimately verified, and hence the use of yellow or ruby glass in the windows of the "dark room," as either of those coloured glasses admit the luminous ray and restrain the violet or active photographic ray, and allow all the operations that would otherwise have to be performed in the dark, to be seen and done in comfort, and without injury to the sensitive film. the researches of dr. wollaston, in , had very little reference to photography beyond his examination of the chemical action of the rays of the spectrum, and his observation that the yellow stain of gum guaiacum was converted to a green colour in the violet rays, and that the red rays rapidly destroyed the green tint the violet rays had generated. is, however, a memorable year in the dark ages of photography, and the disappointment of those enthusiastic and indefatigable pursuers of the sunbeam must have been grievous indeed, when, after years of labour, they found the means of catching shadows as they fell, and discovered that they could not keep them. thomas wedgwood, son of the celebrated potter, was not only the first that obtained photographic impressions of objects, but the first to make the attempt to obtain sun-pictures in the true sense of the word. scheele had obtained the first photographic picture of the solar spectrum, but it was by accident, and while pursuing other chemical experiments; whereas wedgwood went to work avowedly to make the sunbeam his slave, to enlist the sun into the service of art, and to compel the sun to illustrate art, and to depict nature more faithfully than art had ever imitated anything illumined by the sun before. how far he succeeded everyone should know, and no student of photography should ever tire of reading the first published account of his fascinating pastime or delightful vocation, if it were but to remind him of the treasures that surround him, and the value of hyposulphite of soda. what would thomas wedgwood not have given for a handful of that now common commodity? there is a mournfulness in the sentence relative to the evanescence of those sun-pictures in the memoir by wedgwood and davy that is peculiarly impressive and desponding contrasted with our present notions of instability. we know that sun-pictures will, at the least, last for years, while they knew that at the most they would endure but for a few hours. the following extracts from the memoir published in june, , will, it is hoped, be found sufficiently interesting and in place here to justify their insertion. "white paper, or white leather moistened with solution of nitrate of silver, undergoes no change when kept in a dark place, but on being exposed to the daylight it speedily changes colour, and after passing through different shades of grey and brown becomes at length nearly black.... in the direct beams of the sun, two or three minutes are sufficient to produce the full effect, in the shade several hours are required, and light transmitted through different coloured glasses acts upon it with different degrees of intensity. thus it is found that red rays, or the common sunbeams passed through red glass, have very little action upon it; yellow and green are more efficacious, but blue and violet light produce the most decided and powerful effects.... when the shadow of any figure is thrown upon the prepared surface, the part concealed by it remains white, and the other parts speedily become dark. for copying paintings on glass, the solution should be applied on leather, and in this case it is more readily acted on than when paper is used. after the colour has been once fixed on the leather or paper, it cannot be removed by the application of water, or water and soap, and it is in a high degree permanent. the copy of a painting or the profile, immediately after being taken, must be kept in an obscure place; it may indeed be examined in the shade, but in this case the exposure should be only for a few minutes; by the light of candles or lamps as commonly employed it is not sensibly affected. "no attempts that have been made to prevent the uncoloured parts of the copy or profile from being acted upon by the light have as yet been successful. they have been covered by a thin coating of fine varnish, but this has not destroyed their susceptibility of becoming coloured, and even after repeated washings, sufficient of the active part of the saline matter will adhere to the white parts of leather or paper to cause them to become dark when exposed to the rays of the sun.... "the images formed by means of a camera-obscura have been found to be too faint to produce, in any moderate time, an effect upon the nitrate of silver. to copy these images was the first object of mr. wedgwood, in his researches on the subject, and for this purpose he first used the nitrate of silver, which was mentioned to him by a friend, as a substance very sensible to the influence of light; but all his numerous experiments as to their primary end proved unsuccessful." from the foregoing extracts from the first lecture on photography that ever was delivered or published, it will be seen that those two eminent philosophers and experimentalists despaired of obtaining pictures in the camera-obscura, and of rendering the pictures obtained by superposition, or cast shadows, in any degree permanent, and that they were utterly ignorant and destitute of any fixing agents. no wonder, then, that all further attempts to pursue these experiments should, for a time, be abandoned in england. although thomas wedgwood's discoveries were not published until , he obtained his first results in , and does not appear to have made any appreciable advance during the remainder of his life. he was born in , and died in . sir humphry davy was born at penzance , and died at geneva in , so that neither of them lived to see the realization of their hopes. from the time that wedgwood and davy relinquished their investigation, the subject appears to have lain dormant until , when joseph nicéphore niépce, of chalons-sur-saône, commenced a series of experiments with various resins, with the object of securing or retaining in a permanent state the pictures produced in the camera-obscura, and in , l. j. m. daguerre turned his attention to the same subject. these two investigators appear to have carried on their experiments in different ways, and in total ignorance of the existence and pursuits of the other, until the year , when they accidentally became acquainted with each other and the nature of their investigations. their introduction and reciprocal admiration did not, however, induce them to exchange their ideas, or reveal the extent of their success in the researches on which they were occupied, and which both were pursuing so secretly and guardedly. they each preserved a marked reticence on the subject for a considerable time, and it was not until a deed of partnership was executed between them that they confided their hopes and fears, their failures with this substance, and their prospects of success with that; and even after the execution of the deed of partnership they seem to have jealously withheld as much of their knowledge as they decently could under the circumstances. towards the close of m. niépce visited england, and we receive the first intimation of his success in the production of light-drawn pictures from a note addressed to mr. bauer, of kew. it is rather curious and flattering to find that the earliest intimation of the frenchman's success is given in england. the note which m. niépce wrote to mr. bauer is in french, but the following is a translation of the interesting announcement:--"kew, th november, . sir,--when i left france to reside here, i was engaged in researches on the way to retain the image of objects by the action of light. i have obtained some results which make me eager to proceed.... nicéphore niépce." this is the first recorded announcement of his partial success. in the following december he communicated with the royal society of london, and showed several pictures on metal plates. most of these pictures were specimens of his successful experiments with various resins, and the subjects were rendered visible to the extent which the light had assisted in hardening portions of the resin-covered plates. some were etchings, and had been subjected to the action of acid after the design had been impressed by the action of light. several of these specimens, i believe, are still extant, and may be seen on application to the proper official at the british museum. m. niépce named these results of his researches heliography, and mr. robert hunt gives their number, and a description of each subject, in his work entitled, "researches on light." m. niépce met with some disappointment in england on account of the royal society refusing to receive his communication as a secret, and he returned to france rather hurriedly. in a letter dated "chalons-sur-saône, st march, ," he says, "we arrived here th february"; and, in a letter written by daguerre, february rd, , we find that savant consoling his brother experimentalist for his lack of encouragement in england. in december, , the two french investigators joined issue by executing a deed of co-partnery, in which they agreed to prosecute their researches in future in mutual confidence and for their joint advantage; but their interchange of thought and experience does not appear to have been of much value or advantage to the other; for an examination of the correspondence between mm. niépce and daguerre tends to show that the one somewhat annoyed the other by sticking to his resins, and the other one by recommending the use of iodine. m. niépce somewhat ungraciously expresses regret at having wasted so much time in experimenting with iodine at m. daguerre's suggestion, but ultimate results fully justified daguerre's recommendation, and proved that he was then on the right track, while m. niépce's experiments with resins, asphaltum, and other substances terminated in nothing but tedious manipulations, lengthy exposures, and unsatisfactory results. to m. niépce, most unquestionably, is due the honour of having produced the first permanent sun-pictures, for we have seen that those obtained by wedgwood and davy were as fleeting as a shadow, while those exhibited by m. niépce in are still in their original condition, and, imperfect as they are, they are likely to retain their permanency for ever. their fault lay in neither possessing beauty nor commercial applicability. as m. niépce died at chalons-sur-saône in , and does not appear to have improved his process much, if any, after entering into partnership with m. daguerre, and as i may not have occasion to allude to him or his researches again, i think this will be the most fitting place to give a brief description of his process, and his share in the labours of bringing up the wonderful baby of science, afterwards named photography, to a safe and ineffaceable period of its existence. the heliographic process of m. niépce consists of a solution of asphaltum, bitumen of judea, being spread on metal or glass plates, submitted to the action of light either by superposition or in the camera, and the unaffected parts dissolved away afterwards by means of a suitable solvent. but, in case any student of photography should like to produce one of the first form of permanent sun-pictures, i shall give here the details of m. niépce's own _modus operandi_ for preparing the solution of bitumen and coating the plate:-- "i about half fill a wine-glass with this pulverised bitumen; i pour upon it, drop by drop, the essential oil of lavender until the bitumen is completely saturated. i afterwards add as much more of the essential oil as causes the whole to stand about three lines above the mixture, which is then covered and submitted to a gentle heat until the essential oil is fully impregnated with the colouring matter of the bitumen. if this varnish is not of the required consistency, it is to be allowed to evaporate slowly, without heat, in a shallow dish, care being taken to protect it from moisture, by which it is injured and at last decomposed. in winter, or in rainy weather, the precaution is doubly necessary. a tablet of plated silver, or well cleaned and warm glass, is to be highly polished, on which a thin coating of the varnish is to be applied cold, with a light roll of very soft skin; this will impart to it a fine vermilion colour, and cover it with a very thin and equal coating. the plate is then placed upon heated iron, which is wrapped round with several folds of paper, from which, by this method, all moisture had been previously expelled. when the varnish has ceased to simmer, the plate is withdrawn from the heat, and left to cool and dry in a gentle temperature, and protected from a damp atmosphere. in this part of the operation a light disc of metal, with a handle in the centre, should be held before the mouth, in order to condense the moisture of the breath." in the foregoing description it will be observed how much importance m. niépce attached to the necessity of protecting the solution and prepared plate from moisture, and that no precautions are given concerning the effect of white light. it must be remembered, however, that the material employed was very insensitive, requiring many hours of exposure either in the camera or under a print or drawing placed in contact with the prepared surface, and consequently such precaution might not have been deemed necessary. probably m. niépce worked in a subdued light, but there can be no doubt about the necessity of conducting both the foregoing operations in yellow light. had m. niépce performed his operations in a non-actinic light, the plates would certainly have been more sensitive, and the unacted-on parts would have been more soluble; thus rendering both the time of exposure and development more rapid. after the plate was prepared and dried, it was exposed in the camera, or by superposition, under a print, or other suitable subject, that would lie flat. for the latter, an exposure of two or three hours in bright sunshine was necessary, and the former required six or eight hours in a strong light. even those prolonged exposures did not produce a visible image, and the resultant picture was not revealed to view until after a tedious process of dissolving, for it could scarcely be called development. m. niépce himself says, "the next operation then is to disengage the _shrouded_ imagery, and this is accomplished by a solvent." the solvent consisted of one measure of the essential oil of lavender and ten of oil of white petroleum or benzole. on removing the tablet from the camera or other object, it was plunged into a bath of the above solvent, and left there until the parts not hardened by light were dissolved. when the picture was fully revealed, it was placed at an angle to drain, and finished by washing it in water. except for the purpose of after-etching, m. niépce's process was of little commercial value then, but it has since been of some service in the practice of photo-lithography. that, i think, is the fullest extent of the commercial or artistic advantages derived from the utmost success of m. niépce's discoveries; but what he considered his failures, the fact that he employed copper plates coated with silver for his heliographic tablets, and endeavoured to darken the clean or clear parts of the silvered plates with the fumes of iodine for the sake of contrast only, may be safely accepted as the foundation of daguerre's ultimate success in discovering the extremely beautiful and workable process known as the daguerreotype. m. niépce appears to have done very little more towards perfecting the heliographic process after joining daguerre; but the latter effected some improvements, and substituted for the bitumen of judea the residuum obtained by evaporating the essential oil of lavender, without, however, attaining any important advance in that direction. after the death of m. nicéphore niépce, a new agreement was entered into by his son, m. isidore niépce, and m. daguerre, and we must leave those two experimentalists pursuing their discoveries in france while we return to england to pick up the chronological links that unite the history of this wonderful discovery with the time that it was abandoned by wedgwood and davy, and the period of its startling and brilliant realization. in , mr. henry fox talbot, of lacock abbey, wilts, "began to put in practice," as he informs us in his memoir read before the royal society, a method which _he_ "had _devised_ some time previously, for employing to purposes of utility the very curious property which has been long known to chemists to be possessed by the nitrate of silver--namely, to discolouration when exposed to the violet rays of light." the statement just quoted places us at once on the debateable ground of our subject, and compels us to pause and consider to what extent photography is indebted to mr. talbot for its further development at this period and five years subsequently. in the first place, it is not to be supposed for a moment that a man of mr. talbot's position and education could possibly be ignorant of what had been done by mr. thomas wedgwood and sir humphry davy. their experiments were published in the journal of the royal institution of great britain in june, , and mr. talbot or some of his friends could not have failed to have seen or heard of those published details; and, in the second place, a comparison between the last records of wedgwood and davy's experiments, and the first published details of mr. talbot's process, shows not only that the two processes are identically the same, but that mr. talbot published his process before he had made a single step in advance of wedgwood and davy's discoveries; and that his fixing solution was not a fixer at all, but simply a retardant that delayed the gradual disappearance of the picture only a short time longer. mr. talbot has generally been credited with the honour of producing the first permanent sun-pictures on paper; but there are grave reasons for doubting the justice of that honour being entirely, if at all, due to him, and the following facts and extracts will probably tend to set that question at rest, and transfer the laurel to another brow. to the late rev. j. b. reade is incontestably due the honour of having first applied tannin as an accelerator, and hyposulphite of soda as a fixing agent, to the production and retention of light-produced pictures; and having first obtained an ineffaceable photograph upon paper. mr. talbot's gallate of silver process was not patented or published till ; whereas the rev. j. b. reade produced paper negatives by means of gallic acid and nitrate of silver in . it will be remembered that mr. wedgwood had discovered and stated that the chloride of silver was more sensitive when applied to white leather, and mr. reade, by inductive reasoning, came to the conclusion that tanned paper and silver would be more sensitive to light than ordinary paper coated with nitrate of silver could possibly be. as the reverend philosopher's ideas on that subject are probably the first that ever impregnated the mind of man, and as his experiments and observations are the very earliest in the pursuit of a gallic acid accelerator and developer, i will give them in his own words.--"no one can dispute my claim to be the first to suggest the use of gallic acid as a sensitiser for prepared paper, and hyposulphite of soda as a fixer. these are the keystones of the arch at which davy and young had laboured--or, as i may say in the language of another science, we may vary the tones as we please, but here is the fundamental base. my use of gallate of silver was the result of an inference from wedgwood's experiments with leather, 'which is more readily acted upon than paper' (_journal of the royal institution_, vol. i., p. ). mrs. reade was so good as to give me a pair of light-coloured leather gloves, that i might repeat wedgwood's experiment, and, as my friend mr. ackerman reminds me, her little objection to let me have a second pair led me to say, 'then i will tan paper.' accordingly i used an infusion of galls in the first instance in the early part of the year , when i was engaged in taking photographs of microscopic objects. by a new arrangement of lenses in the solar microscope, i produced a convergence of the rays of light, while the rays of heat, owing to their different refractions, were parallel or divergent. this fortunate dispersion of the calorific rays enabled me to use objects mounted in balsam, as well as cemented achromatic object glasses; and, indeed, such was the coolness of the illumination, that even _infusoria_ in single drops of water were perfectly happy and playful (_vide_ abstracts of the 'philosophical transactions,' december nd, ). the continued expense of an artist--though, at first, i employed my friend, lens aldons--to copy the pictures on the screen was out of the question. i therefore fell back, but without any sanguine expectations as to the result, upon the photographic process adopted by wedgwood, with which i happened to be well acquainted. it was a _weary while_, however, before any satisfactory impression was made, either on chloride or nitrate paper. i succeeded better with the leather; but my fortunate inability to replenish the little stock of this latter article induced me to apply the tannin solution to paper, and thus i was at once placed, by a very decided step, in advance of earlier experimenters, and i had the pleasure of succeeding where talbot acknowledges that he failed. "naturally enough, the solution which i used at first was too strong, but, if you have ever been in what i may call _the agony of a find_, you can conceive my sensations on witnessing the unwilling paper become in a few seconds almost as black as my hat. there was just a passing glimpse of outline, 'and in a moment all was dark.' it was evident, however, that i was in possession of all, and more than all, i wanted, and that the dilution of so powerful an accelerator would probably give successful results. the large amount of dilution greatly surprised me; and, indeed, before i obtained a satisfactory picture, the quantity of gallic acid in the infusion must have been quite homoeopathic; but this is in exact accordance with modern practice and known laws. in reference to this point, sir john herschel, writing from slough, in april, , says to mr. redman, then of peckham (where i had resided), 'i am surprised at the weak solution employed, and how, with such, you have been able to get a depth of shadow sufficient for so very sharp a re-transfer is to me marvellous.' i may speak of mr. redmond as a photographic pupil of mine, and at my request, he communicated the process to sir john, which, 'on account of the extreme clearness and sharpness of the results,' to use sir john's words, much interested him. "dr. diamond also, whose labours are universally appreciated, first saw my early attempts at peckham in , and heard of my use of gallate of silver, and was thus led to adopt what admiral smyth then called 'a quick mode of taking bad pictures'; but, as i told the admiral in reply, he was born a _baby_. whether our philosophical baby is 'out of its teens' may be a question; at all events, it is a very fine child, and handles the pencil of nature with consummate skill. "but of all the persons who heard of my new accelerator, it is most important to state that my old and valued friend, the late andrew ross, told mr. talbot how first of all, by means of the solar microscope, i threw the image of the object on prepared paper, and then, while the paper was yet wet, washed it over with the infusion of galls, when a sufficiently dense negative was quickly obtained. in the celebrated trial, "talbot _versus_ laroche," mr. talbot, in his cross-examination, and in an almost breathless court, acknowledged that he had received this information from ross, and from that moment it became the unavoidable impression that he was scarcely justified in taking out a patent for applying my accelerator to any known photogenic paper. "the three known papers were those impregnated with the nitrate, chloride, and the iodide of silver--the two former used by wedgwood and young, and the latter by davy. it is true that talbot says of the iodide of silver that it is quite insensitive to light, and so it is as he makes it; but when he reduces it to the condition described by davy--viz., affected by the presence of a little free nitrate of silver--then he must acknowledge, with davy, that 'it is far more sensitive to the action of light than either the nitrate or the muriate, and is evidently a distinct compound.' in this state, also, the infusion of galls or gallic acid is, as we all know, most decided and instantaneous, and so i found it to be in my early experiments. of course i tried the effects of my accelerator on many salts of silver, but especially upon the iodide, in consequence of my knowledge of davy's papers on iodine in the 'philosophical transactions.' these i had previously studied, in conjunction with my chemical friend, mr. hodgson, then of apothecaries' hall. i did not, however, use iodised paper, which is well described by talbot in the _philosophical magazine_ for march, , as a _substitute_ for other sensitive papers, but only as one among many experiments alluded to in my letter to mr. brayley. "my pictures were exhibited at the royal society, and also at lord northampton's, at his lordship's request, in april, , when mr. talbot also exhibited his. in my letter to mr. brayley, i did not describe iodised pictures, and, therefore, it was held that exhibition in the absence of description left the process legally unknown. mr. talbot consequently felt justified in taking out a patent for uniting my _known_ accelerator with davy's _known_ sensitive silver compound, adopting my method (already communicated to him) with reference to wedgwood's papers, and adding specific improvements in manipulation. whatever varied opinion may consequently be formed as to the defence of the patent in court, there can be but one as to the skill of the patentee. "it is obvious that, in the process so conducted by me with the solar microscope, i was virtually _within_ my camera, standing between the object and the prepared paper. hence the exciting and developing processes were conducted under _one operation_ (subsequently patented by talbot), and the fact of a latent image being brought out was not forced upon my attention. i did, however, perceive this phenomenon upon one occasion, after i had been suddenly called away, when taking an impression of the _trientalis europæa_--and surprised enough i was, and stood in astonishment to look at it. but with all this, i was only, as the judge said, "_very hot_." i did not realize the _master fact_ that the latent image which had been developed was the basis of photographic manipulation. the merit of this discovery is talbot's, and his only, and i honour him greatly for his skill and earlier discernment. i was, indeed, myself fully aware that the image darkened under the influence of my sensitiser, while i placed my hand before the lens of the instrument to stop out the light; and my solar mezzotint, as i then termed it, was, in fact, brought out and perfected under my own eye by the agency of gallic acid in the infusion, rather than by the influence of direct solar action. but the notion of developing a latent image in these microscopic photographs never crossed my mind, even after i had witnessed such development in the _trientalis europæa_. my original notion was that the infusion of galls, added to the wet chloride or nitrate paper while the picture was thrown upon it, produced only a new and highly sensitive compound; whereas, by its peculiar and continuous action after the first impact of light on the now sensitive paper, i was also, as talbot has shown, employing its property of development as well as excitement. my ignorance of its properties was no bar to its action. however, i threw the _ball_, and talbot caught it, and no man can be more willing than myself to acknowledge our obligations to this distinguished photographer. he compelled the world to listen to him, and he had something worth hearing to communicate; and it is a sufficient return to me that he publicly acknowledged his obligation to me, with reference to what sir david brewster calls 'an essential part of his patent' (_vide north british review_, no. article--'photography'). "talbot did not patent my valuable fixer. here i had the advantage of having published my use of hyposulphite of soda, which mr. hodgson made for me in , when london did not contain an ounce of it for sale. the early operators had no fixer; that was _their fix_; and, so far as any record exists, they got no further in this direction than 'imagining some experiments on the subject!' i tried ammonia, but it acted too energetically on the picture itself to be available for the purpose. it led me, however, to the ammonia nitrate process of printing positives, a description of which process (though patented by talbot in ) i sent to a photographic brother in , and a quotation from my letter of that date has already appeared in one of my communications to _notes and queries_. on examining brande's chemistry, under the hope of still finding the desired solvent which should have a greater affinity for the simple silver compound on the uncoloured part of the picture than for the portion blackened by light, i happened to see it stated, on sir john herschel's authority, that hyposulphite of soda dissolves chloride of silver. i need not now say that i used this fixer with success. the world, however, would not have been long without it, for, when sir john himself became a photographer in the following year, he first of all used hyposulphite of ammonia, and then permanently fell back upon the properties of his other compound. two of my solar microscope negatives, taken in , and exhibited with several others by mr. brayley in as illustrations of my letter and of his lecture at the london institution, are now in the possession of the london photographic society. they are, no doubt, the earliest examples of the agency of two chemical compounds which will be co-existent with photography itself, viz., gallate of silver and hyposulphite of soda, and my use of them, as above described, will sanction my claim to be the first to take paper pictures rapidly, and to fix them permanently. "such is a short account of my contribution to this interesting branch of science, and, in the pleasure of the discovery, i have a sufficient reward." these lengthy extracts from the rev. mr. reade's published letter render further comment all but superfluous, but i cannot resist taking advantage of the opportunity here afforded of pointing out to all lovers of photography and natural justice that the progress of the discovery has advanced to a far greater extent by mr. reade's reasoning and experiments than it was by mr. talbot's ingenuity. the latter, as mr. reade observes, only "caught the ball" and threw it into the patent office, with some improvements in the manipulations. mr. reade generously ascribes all honour and glory to mr. talbot for his shrewdness in seizing what he had overlooked, viz., the development of the latent image; but there is a quiet current of rebuke running all through mr. reade's letter about the justice of patenting a known sensitiser and a known accelerator, which he alone had combined and applied to the successful production of a negative on paper. mr. talbot's patent process was nothing more, yet he endeavoured to secure a monopoly of what was in substance the discovery and invention of another. mr. talbot was either very precipitate, or ill-advised, to rush to the patent office with his modification, and even at this distant date it is much to be regretted that he did so, for his rash act has, unhappily for photography, proved a pernicious precedent. mr. reade gave his discoveries to the world freely, and the "pleasure of the discovery" was "a sufficient reward." all honour to such discoverers. they, and they only, are the true lovers of science and art, who take up the torch where another laid it down, or lost it, and carry it forward another stage towards perfection, without sullying its brightness or dimming the flame with sordid motives. the rev. j. b. reade lived to see the process _he_ discovered and watched over in its embryo state, developed with wondrous rapidity into one of the most extensively applied arts of this marvellous age, and died, regretted and esteemed by all who knew him, december th, . photographers, your occupations are his monument, but let his name be a tablet on your hearts, and his unselfishness your emulation! the year gave birth to another photographic discovery, little thought of and of small promise at the time, but out of which have flowed all the various modifications of solar and mechanical carbon printing. this was the discovery of mr. mungo ponton, who first observed and announced the effects of the sun's rays upon bichromate of potash. but that gentleman was unwise in his generation, and did not patent his discovery, so a whole host of patent locusts fell upon the field of research in after years, and quickly seized the manna he had left, to spread on their own bread. mr. mungo ponton spread a solution of bichromate of potash upon paper, submitted it under a suitable object to the sun's rays, and told all the world, without charge, that the light hardened the bichromate to the extent of its action, and that the unacted-upon portions could be dissolved away, leaving the object _white_ upon a yellow or orange ground. other experimenters played variations on mr. ponton's bichromate scale, and amongst the performers were m. e. becquerel, of france, and our own distinguished countryman, mr. robert hunt. during the years that elapsed between the death of m. niépce and the period to which i have brought these records, little was heard or known of the researches of m. daguerre, but he was not idle, nor had he abandoned his iodine ideas. he steadily pursued his subject, and worked with a continuity that gained him the unenviable reputation of a lunatic. his persistency created doubts of his sanity, but he toiled on _solus_, confident that he was not in pursuit of an impossibility, and sanguine of success. that success came, hastened by lucky chance, and early in january, , m. daguerre announced the interesting and important fact that the problem was solved. pictures in the camera-obscura could be, not only seen, but caught and retained. m. daguerre had laboured, sought, and found, and the bare announcement of his wonderful discovery electrified the world of science. the electric telegraph could not then flash the fascinating intelligence from paris to london, but the news travelled fast, nevertheless, and the unexpected report of m. daguerre's triumph hurried mr. talbot forward with a similar statement of success. mr. talbot declared his triumph on the st of january, , and published in the following month the details of a process which was little, if any, in advance of that already known. daguerre delayed the publication of his process until a pension of six thousand francs per annum had been secured to himself, and four thousand francs per annum to m. isidore niépce for life, with a reversion of one-half to their widows. in the midst of political and social struggles france was proud of the glory of such a marvellous discovery, and liberally rewarded her fortunate sons of science with honourable distinction and substantial emolument. she was proud and generous to a chivalrous extent, for she pensioned her sons that she might have the "glory of endowing the world of science and of art with one of the most surprising discoveries" that had been made on her soil; and, because she considered that "the invention did not admit of being secured by patent;" but avarice and cupidity frustrated her noble and generous intentions in this country, and england alone was harassed with injunctions and prosecutions, while all the rest of the world participated in the pleasure and profits of the noble gift of france. in july, , m. daguerre divulged his secret at the request and expense of the french government, and the process which bore his name was found to be totally different, both in manipulation and effect, from any sun-pictures that had been obtained in england. the daguerreotype was a latent image produced by light on an iodised silver plate, and developed, or made visible, by the fumes of mercury; but the resultant picture was one of the most shimmering and vapoury imaginable, wanting in solidity, colour, and firmness. in fact, photography as introduced by m. daguerre was in every sense a wonderfully shadowy and all but invisible thing, and not many removes from the dark ages of its creation. the process was extremely delicate and difficult, slow and tedious to manipulate, and too insensitive to be applied to portraiture with any prospect of success, from fifteen to twenty minutes' exposure in bright sunshine being necessary to obtain a picture. the mode of proceeding was as follows:--a copper plate with a coating of silver was carefully cleaned and polished on the silvered side, that was placed, silver side downwards, over a vessel containing iodine in crystals, until the silvered surface assumed a golden-yellow colour. the plate was then transferred to the camera-obscura, and submitted to the action of light. after the plate had received the requisite amount of exposure, it was placed over a box containing mercury, the fumes of which, on the application of a gentle heat, developed the latent image. the picture was then washed in salt and water, or a solution of hyposulphite of soda, to remove the iodide of silver, washed in clean water afterwards, and dried, and the daguerreotype was finished according to daguerre's first published process. the development of the latent image by mercury subliming was the most marvellous and unlooked-for part of the process, and it was for that all-important thing that daguerre was entirely indebted to chance. having put one of his apparently useless iodized and exposed silver plates into a cupboard containing a pot of mercury, daguerre was greatly surprised, on visiting the cupboard some time afterwards, to find the blank looking plate converted into a visible picture. other plates were iodized and exposed and placed in the cupboard, and the same mysterious process of development was repeated, and it was not until this thing and the other thing had been removed and replaced over and over again, that daguerre became aware that quicksilver, an article that had been used for making mirrors and reflecting images for years, was the developer of the invisible image. it was indeed a most marvellous and unexpected result. daguerre had devoted years of labour and made numberless experiments to obtain a transcript of nature drawn by her own hand, but all his studied efforts and weary hours of labour had only resulted in repeated failures and disappointments, and it appeared that nature herself had grown weary of his bungling, and resolved to show him the way. the realization of his hopes was more accidental than inferential. the compounds with which he worked, neither produced a visible nor a latent image capable of being developed with any of the chemicals with which he was experimenting. at last accident rendered him more service than reasoning, and occult properties produced the effect his mental and inductive faculties failed to accomplish; and here we observe the great difference between the two successful discoverers, reade and daguerre. at this stage of the discovery i ignore talbot's claim in _toto_. reade arrived at his results by reasoning, experiment, observation, and judiciously weakening and controlling the re-agent he commenced his researches with. he had the infinite pleasure and disappointment of seeing his first picture flash into existence, and disappear again almost instantly, but in that instant he saw the cause of his success and failure, and his inductive reasoning reduced his failure to success; whereas daguerre _found_ his result, was puzzled, and utterly at a loss to account for it, and it was only by a process of blind-man's bluff in his chemical cupboard that he laid his hands on the precious pot of mercury that produced the visible image. that was a discovery, it is true; but a bungling one, at best. daguerre only worked intelligently with one-half of the elements of success; the other was thrust in his way, and the most essential part of his achievement was a triumphant accident. daguerre did half the work--or, rather, one-third--light did the second part, and chance performed the rest, so that daguerre's share of the honour was only one-third. reade did two-thirds of the process, the first and third, intelligently; therefore to him alone is due the honour of discovering practical photography. his was a successful application of known properties, equal to an invention; daguerre's was an accidental result arising from unknown causes and effects, and consequently a discovery of the lowest order. to england, then, and not to france, is the world indebted for the discovery of photography, and in the order of its earliest, greatest, and most successful discoverers and advancers, i place the rev. j. b. reade first and highest. [illustration: second period. daguerreotype. l. j. m. daguerre. _used iodine, ._ john frederick goddard. _applied bromine, ._ new york. _copy of instantaneous daguerreotype, ._] second period. publicity and progress. has generally been accepted as the year of the birth of practical photography, but that may now be considered an error. it was, however, the year of publicity, and the progress that followed with such marvellous rapidity may be freely received as an adversely eloquent comment on the principles of secrecy and restriction, in any art or science, like photography, which requires the varied suggestions of numerous minds and many years of experiment in different directions before it can be brought to a state of workable certainty and artistic and commercial applicability. had reade concealed his success and the nature of his accelerator, talbot might have been bungling on with modifications of the experiments of wedgwood and davy to this day; and had daguerre not sold the secret of his iodine vapour as a sensitiser, and his accidentally discovered property of mercury as a developer, he might never have got beyond the vapoury images he produced. as it was, daguerre did little or nothing to improve his process and make it yield the extremely vigorous and beautiful results it did in after years. as in mr. reade's case with the calotype process, daguerre threw the ball and others caught it. daguerre's advertised improvements of his process were lamentable failures and roundabout ways to obtain sensitive amalgams--exceedingly ingenious, but excessively bungling and impractical. to make the plates more sensitive to light, and, as daguerre said, obtain pictures of objects in motion and animated scenes, he suggested that the silver plate should first be cleaned and polished in the usual way, then to deposit successively layers of mercury, and gold, and platinum. but the process was so tedious, unworkable, and unsatisfactory, no one ever attempted to employ it either commercially or scientifically. in publishing his first process, with its working details, daguerre appears to have surrendered all that he knew, and to have been incapable of carrying his discovery to a higher degree of advancement. without mr. goddard's bromine accelerator and m. fizeau's chloride of gold fixer and invigorator, the daguerreotype would never have been either a commercial success or a permanent production. was almost as important a period in the annals of photography as the year of its enunciation, and to the two valuable improvements and one interesting importation, the daguerreotype process was indebted for its success all over the world; and photography, even as it is practised now, is probably indebted for its present state of advancement to mr. john frederick goddard, who applied bromine, as an accelerator, to the daguerreotype process this year. in the early part of the daguerreotype period it was so insensitive there was very little prospect of being able to take portraits with it through a lens. to meet this difficulty mr. wolcott, an american optician, constructed a reflecting camera and brought it to london. it was an ingenious contrivance, but did not fully answer the expectations of the inventor. it certainly did not require such a long exposure with this camera as when the rays from the image or sitter passed through a lens; but, as the sensitised plate was placed _between_ the sitter and the reflector, the picture was necessarily small, and neither very sharp nor satisfactory. this was a mechanical contrivance to shorten the time of exposure, which partially succeeded, but it was chemistry, and not mechanics, that effected the desirable result. both mr. goddard and m. antoine f. j. claudet, of london, employed chlorine as a means of increasing the sensitiveness of the iodised silver plate, but it was not sufficiently accelerative to meet the requirements of the daguerreotype process. subsequently mr. goddard discovered that the vapour of bromine, added to that of iodine, imparted an extraordinary degree of sensitiveness to the prepared plate, and reduced the time of sitting from minutes to seconds. the addition of the fumes of bromine to those of iodine formed a compound of bromo-iodide of silver on the surface of the daguerreotype plate, and not only increased the sensitiveness, but added to the strength and beauty of the resulting picture, and m. fizeau's method of precipitating a film of gold over the whole surface of the plate still further increased the brilliancy of the picture and ensured its permanency. i have many daguerreotypes in my possession now that were made over forty years ago, and they are as brilliant and perfect as they were on the day they were taken. i fear no one can say the same for any of fox talbot's early prints, or even more recent examples of silver printing. another important event of this year was the importation of the first photographic lens, camera, &c., into england. these articles were brought from paris by sir hussey vivian, present m.p. for glamorganshire ( ). it was the first lot of such articles that the custom house officers had seen, and they were at a loss to know how to classify it. finally they passed it under the general head of optical instruments. sir hussey told me this, himself, several years before he was made a baronet. what changes fifty years have wrought even in the duties of custom house officers, for the imports and exports of photographic apparatus and materials must now amount to many thousands per annum! having described the conditions and state of progress photography had attained at the time of my first contact with it, i think i may now enter into greater details, and relate my own personal experiences from this period right up to the end of its jubilee celebration. i was just fourteen years old when photography was made practicable by the publication of the two processes, one by daguerre, and the other by fox talbot, and when i heard or read of the wonderful discovery i was fired with a desire to obtain a sight of these "sun-pictures," but the fire was kept smouldering for some time before my desire was gratified. nothing travelled very fast in those days. railroads had not long been started, and were not very extensively developed. telegraphy, by electricity, was almost unknown, and i was a fixture, having just been apprenticed to an engraving firm hundreds of miles from london. but at last i caught sight of one of those marvellous drawings made by the sun in the window of the post office of my native town. it was a small daguerreotype which had been sent there along with a notice that a licence to practise the "art" could be obtained of the patentee. i forget now what amount the patentee demanded for a licence, but i know that at the time referred to it was so far beyond my means and hopes that i never entertained the idea of becoming a licencee. i believe some one in the neighbourhood bought a licence, but either could not or did not make use of it commercially. some time after that, a miss wigley, from london, came to the town to practise daguerreotyping, but she did not remain long, and could not, i think, have made a profitable visit. if so, it could scarcely be wondered at, for the sun-pictures of that period were such thin, shimmering reflections, and distortions of the human face divine, that very few people were impressed either by the process or the newest wonder of the world. at that early period of photography, the plates were so insensitive, the sittings so long, and the conditions so terrible, it was not easy to induce anyone either to undergo the ordeal of sitting, or to pay the sum of twenty-one shillings for a very small and unsatisfactory portrait. in the infancy of the daguerreotype process, the sitters were all placed out-of-doors, in direct sunshine, which naturally made them screw up or shut their eyes, and every feature glistened, and was painfully revealed. many amusing stories have been told about the trials, mishaps, and disappointments attending those long and painful sittings, but the best that ever came to my knowledge was the following. in the earliest of the forties, a young lady went a considerable distance, in yorkshire, to sit to an itinerant daguerreotypist for her portrait, and, being limited for time, could only give one sitting. she was placed before the camera, the slide drawn, lens uncapped, and requested to sit there until the daguerreotypist returned. he went away, probably to put his "mercury box" in order, or to have a smoke, for it was irksome--both to sitter and operator--to sit or stand doing nothing during those necessarily long exposures. when the operator returned, after an absence of fifteen or twenty minutes, the lady was sitting where he left her, and appeared glad to be relieved from her constrained position. she departed, and he proceeded with the development of the picture. the plate was examined from time to time, in the usual way, but there was no appearance of the lady. the ground, the wall, and the chair whereon she sat, were all visible, but the image of the lady was not; and the operator was completely puzzled, if not alarmed. he left the lady sitting, and found her sitting when he returned, so he was quite unable to account for her mysterious non-appearance in the picture. the mystery was, however, explained in a few days, when the lady called for her portrait, for she admitted that she got up and walked about as soon as he left her, and only sat down again when she heard him returning. the necessity of remaining before the camera was not recognised by that sitter. i afterwards reversed that result myself by focussing the chair, drawing the slide, uncapping the lens, sitting down, and rising leisurely to cap the lens again, and obtained a good portrait without showing a ghost of the chair or anything else. the foregoing is evidence of the insensitiveness of the plates at that early period of the practice of photography; but that state of inertion did not continue long, for as soon as the accelerating properties of bromine became generally known, the time of sitting was greatly reduced, and good daguerreotype views were obtained by simply uncapping the lens as quickly as possible. i have taken excellent views in that manner myself in england, and, when in america, i obtained instantaneous views of niagara falls and other places quite as rapidly and as perfect as any instantaneous views made on gelatine dry plates, one of which i have copied and enlarged to by inches, and may possibly reproduce the small copy in these pages. in i came into direct contact with photography for the first time. it was in that year that an irishman named mcghee came into the neighbourhood to practise the daguerreotype process. he was not a licencee, but no one appeared to interfere with him, nor serve him with an injunction, for he carried on his little portrait business for a considerable time without molestation. the patentee was either very indifferent to his vested interests, or did not consider these intruders worth going to law with, for there were many raids across the borders by camera men in those early days. several circumstances combined to facilitate the inroads of scotch operators into the northern counties of england. firstly, the patent laws of england did not extend to scotland at that time, so there was a far greater number of daguerreotypists in edinburgh and other scotch towns in the early days of photography than in any part of england, and many of them made frequent incursions into the forbidden land without troubling themselves about obtaining a licence, but somehow they never remained long at a time; they were either afraid of consequences, or did not meet with patronage sufficient to induce them to continue their sojourns beyond a few of the summer weeks. for many years most of the early daguerreotypists were birds of passage, frequently on the wing. among the earliest settlers in london, were mr. beard (patentee), mr. claudet, and mr. j. e. mayall--the latter is still alive, --and in edinburgh, messrs. ross and thompson, mr. howie, mr. poppawitz, and mr. tunny--the latter was a calotypist--with most of whom it was my good fortune to become personally acquainted in after years. secondly, a great deal of ill-feeling and annoyance were caused by the incomprehensible and somewhat underhanded way in which the english patent was obtained, and these feelings induced many to poach on photographic preserves, and even to defy injunctions; and, while lawsuits were pending, it was not uncommon for non-licencees to practise the new art with the impunity and feelings common to smugglers. mr. beard, the english patentee, brought many actions at law against infringers of his patent rights, the most memorable of which was that where mr. egerton, , temple street, whitefriars, the first dealer in photographic materials, and agent for voightlander's lenses in london, was the defendant. during that trial it came out in evidence that the patentee had earned as much as forty thousand pounds in one year by taking portraits and fees from licencees. though the judgment of the court was adverse to mr. egerton, it did not improve the patentee's moral right to his claim, for the trial only made it all the more public that the french government had allowed m. daguerre six thousand francs (£ ), and m. isidore niépce four thousand francs (£ ) per annum, on condition that their discoveries should be published, and _made free to all the world_. this trial did not in any way improve mr. beard's financial position, for eventually he became a bankrupt, and his establishments in king william street, london bridge, and the polytechnic institute, in regent street, were extinguished. mr. beard, who was the first to practise daguerreotyping commercially in this country, was originally a coal merchant. i think mr. claudet practised the process in london without becoming a licencee, either through previous knowledge, or some private arrangement made with daguerre before the patent was granted to mr. beard. it was while photography was clouded with this atmosphere of dissatisfaction and litigation, that i made my first practical acquaintance with it in the following manner:-- being anxious to obtain possession of one of those marvellous sun-pictures, and hoping to get an idea of the manner in which they were produced, i paid a visit, one sunny morning, to mr. mcghee, the daguerreotypist, dressed in my best, with clean shirt, and stiff stand-up collar, as worn in those days. i was a very young man then, and rather particular about the set of my shirt collar, so you may readily judge of my horror when, after making the financial arrangements to the satisfaction of mr. mcghee, he requested me to put on a blue cotton _quasi_ clean "dickey," with a limp collar, that had evidently done similar duty many times before. you may be sure i protested, and inquired the reason why i should cover up my white shirt front with such an objectionable article. i was told if i did not put it on my shirt front would be _solarized_, and come out _blue_ or dirty, whereas if i put on the blue "dickey" my shirt front would appear white and clean. what "solarized" meant, i did not know, nor was it further explained, but, as i very naturally wished to appear with a clean shirt front, i submitted to the indignity, and put on the limp and questionably clean "dickey." while the daguerreotypist was engaged with some mysterious manipulations in a cupboard or closet, i brushed my hair, and contemplated my singular appearance in the mirror somewhat ruefully. o, ye sitters and operators of to-day! congratulate yourselves on the changes and advantages that have been wrought in the practice of photography since then. when mr. mcghee appeared again with something like two wooden books in his hand, he requested me to follow him into the garden; which was only a back yard. at the foot of the garden, and against a brick wall with a piece of grey cloth nailed over it, i was requested to sit down on an old chair; then he placed before me an instrument which looked like a very ugly theodolite on a tripod stand--that was my first sight of a camera--and, after putting his head under a black cloth, told me to look at a mark on the other side of the garden, without winking or moving till he said "done." how long i sat i don't know, but it seemed an awfully long time, and i have no doubt it was, for i know that i used to ask people to sit five and ten minutes, afterwards. the sittings over, i was requested to re-enter the house, and then i thought i would see something of the process; but no. again mr. mcghee went into the mysterious chamber, and shut the door quickly. in a little time he returned and told me that the sittings were satisfactory--he had taken two--and that he would finish and deliver them next day. then i left without obtaining the ghost of an idea of the _modus operandi_ of producing portraits by the sun, beyond the fact that a camera had been placed before me. next day the portraits were delivered according to promise, but i confess i was somewhat disappointed at getting so little for my money. it was a very small picture that could not be seen in every light, and not particularly like myself, but a scowling-looking individual, with a limp collar, and rather dirty-looking face. whatever would _mashers_ have said or done, if they had gone to be photographed in those days of photographic darkness? i was, however, somewhat consoled by the thought that i, at last, possessed one of those wonderful sun-pictures, though i was ignorant of the means of production. soon after having my portrait taken, mr. mcghee disappeared, and there was no one left in the neighbourhood who knew anything of the mysterious manipulations of daguerreotyping. i had, nevertheless, resolved to possess an apparatus and obtain the necessary information, but there was no one to tell me what to buy, where to buy it, nor what to do with it. at last an old friend of mine who had been on a visit to edinburgh, had purchased an apparatus and some materials with the view of taking daguerreotypes himself, but finding that he could not, was willing to sell it to me, though he could not tell me how to use it, beyond showing me an image of the house opposite upon the ground glass of the camera. i believe my friend let me have the apparatus for what it cost him, which was about £ , and it consisted of a quarter-plate portrait lens by slater, mahogany camera, tripod stand, buff sticks, coating and mercury boxes of the roughest description, a few chemicals and silvered plates, and a rather singular but portable dark room. of the uses of the chemicals i knew very little, and of their nature nothing which led to very serious consequences, which i shall relate in the proper place. having obtained possession of this marvellous apparatus, my next ardent aspiration was to make a successful use of it. i distinctly remember, even at this distant date, with what nervous curiosity i examined all the articles when i unpacked them in my father's house, and with what wonder, not unmixed with apprehension, my father looked upon that display of unknown, and to him apparently nameless and useless toys. "more like a lot of conjuror's traps than anything else," he exclaimed, after i had set them all out. and a few days after he told one of my young friends that he thought i had gone out of my mind to take up with that "daggertype" business; the name itself was a stumbling block in those days, for people called the process "dagtype, docktype, and daggertype" more frequently than by its proper name, daguerreotype. what a contrast now-a-days, when almost every father is an amateur photographer, and encourages both his sons and daughters to become the same. my father was a very good parent, in his way, and encouraged me, to the fullest extent of his means, in the study of music and painting, and even sent me to the government school of design, where i studied drawing under w. b. scott; but the new-fangled method of taking portraits did not harmonise with his conservative and practical notions. one cause of his disapprobation and dissatisfaction was, doubtless, my many failures; in fact, i may say, inability to show him any result. i had acquired an apparatus of the roughest and most primitive construction, but no knowledge of its use or the behaviour of the chemicals employed, beyond the bare numerical order in which they were to be used, and there was no one within a hundred miles of where i lived, that i knew of, who could give me lessons or the slightest hint respecting the process. i had worn out the patience of all my relations and friends in fruitless sittings. i had set fire to my singular dark room, and nearly set fire to the house, by attempting to refill the spirit lamp while alight, and i was ill and suffering from salivation through inhaling the fumes of mercury in my blind, anxious, and enthusiastic endeavours to obtain a sun-picture. it is not long since an eminent photographer told me that i was an enthusiast, but if he had seen me in those days he would, in all probability, have told me that i was mad. though ill, i was not mad; i was only determined not to be beaten. i was resolved to keep pegging away until i obtained a satisfactory result. my friends laughed at me when i asked them to sit for a trial, and they either refused, or sat with a very bad grace, as if it really were a trial to them; but fancy, fair and kindly readers, what it must have been to me! finding that my living models fought shy of me and my trials, i then thought of getting a lay figure, and borrowed a large doll--quite as big as a baby--of one of my lady friends. i stuck it up in a garden and pegged away at it for nearly six months. at the end of that time i was able to produce a portrait of the doll with tolerable certainty and success. then i ventured to ask my friends to sit again, but my process was too slow for life studies, and my live sitters generally moved so much, their portraits were not recognisable. there were no head-rests in those days, at least i did not possess one, or it might have been pleasanter for my sitters and easier for myself. what surprised me very much--and i thought it a singular thing at the time--was my success in copying an engraving of thorburn's miniature of the queen. i made several good and beautiful copies of that engraving, and sent one to an artist friend, then in devonshire, who wrote to say that it was beautiful, and that if he could get a daguerreotype portrait with the eyes as clear as that, he would sit at once; but all the "dagtypes" he had hitherto seen had only black holes where the eyes should be. unfortunately, that was my own experience. i could copy from the flat well enough, but when i went to the round i went wrong. ultimately i discovered the cause of all that, and found a remedy, but oh! the weary labour and mental worry i underwent before i mastered the difficulties of the most troublesome and uncertain, yet most beautiful and permanent of all the photographic processes that ever was discovered or invented; and now it is a lost art. no one practises it, and i don't think that there are half-a-dozen men living--myself included--that could at this day go through all the manipulations necessary to produce a good daguerreotype portrait or picture; yet, when the process was at the height of its popularity, a great number of people pursued it as a profession in all parts of the civilized world, and in the united states of america alone it was estimated in that there were not less than thirty thousand people making their living as daguerreans. few, if any, of the photographers of to-day--whether amateur or professional--know anything of the forms or uses of plates, buffs, lathes, sensitising or developing boxes, gilding stands, or other daguerreotype appliances; and i am quite certain that there is not a dealer in all england that can furnish at this date a complete set of daguerreotype apparatus. it was in that i gilded my first picture--a portrait of one of my friends playing a guitar. i possess that picture now, and, after a lapse of forty years, it is as good and bright as it was on the day that it was taken. it was not a first-class production, but i hoped to do better soon, and on the strength of that hope determined to commence business as a professional daguerreotypist. while i was considering whether i should pitch my tent permanently in my native town, or take to a nomadic kind of life, similar to what other daguerreotypists were pursuing, i was helped to a decision by the sudden appearance of a respectable and experienced daguerreotypist who came and built a "glass house"--the first of its kind--in my native town. this somewhat disarranged my plans, but on the whole it was rather opportune and advantageous than otherwise, for it afforded me an unexpected opportunity of gaining a great deal of practical experience on easy terms. the new comer was mr. george brown, who had been an "operator" for mr. beard, in london, and as he exhibited much finer specimens of the daguerreotype process than any i had hitherto seen, i engaged myself to assist him for six months at a small salary. i showed him what i had done, and he showed and told me all that he knew in connection with photography, and thus commenced a business relation that ripened into a friendship that endured as long as he lived. at the end of the six months' engagement i left mr. brown, to commence business on my own account, but as neither of us considered that there was room for two daguerreotypists in a town with a population of _one hundred and twenty thousand_, i was driven to adopt the nomadic mode of life peculiar to the itinerant photographer of the period. that was in . up to that time i had done nothing in calotype work. mr. brown was strictly a daguerreotypist, but mr. parry, at that time a glass dealer and amateur photographer, was working at the calotype process, but not very successfully, for nearly all his efforts were spoiled by decomposition, which he could not then account for or overcome, but he eventually became one of the best calotypists in the neighbourhood, and i became the possessor of some of the finest calotype negatives he ever produced, many of which are still in my possession. mr. parry relinquished his glass business, and became a professional photographer soon after the introduction of the collodion process. another amateur photographer that i met in those early days was a flute player in the orchestra of the theatre. he produced very good calotype negatives with a single lens, and was very enthusiastic, but extremely reticent on all photographic matters. about this period i made the acquaintance of mr. j. w. swan: i had known him for some time previously when he was apprentice and assistant to mr. mawson, chemist, in mosley street, newcastle-on-tyne. neither mr. mawson nor mr. swan were known to the photographic world at that time. mr. mawson was most popular as a dealer in german yeast, and i think it was not until after archer published his process that they began to make collodion and deal in photographic materials--at any rate, i did not buy any photographic goods of them until , when i first began to use mawson's collodion. in october, , i went to hexham, about twenty miles west of newcastle-on-tyne, to make my first appearance as a professional daguerreotypist. i rented a sitting-room with a good window and clear view, so as to take "parlour portraits." i could only take small pictures--two and a half by two inches--for which i charged half a guinea, and was favoured with a few sittings; but it was a slow place, and i left it in a few weeks. the next move i made was to seaham harbour, and there i did a little better business, but the place was too small and the people too poor for me to continue long. half guineas were not plentiful, even among the tradespeople, and there were very few gentlefolk in the neighbourhood. some of the townspeople were very kind to me, and invited me to their homes, and although my sojourn was not very profitable, it was very pleasant. i had many pleasant rambles on the sands, and often looked at seaham hall and thought of byron and his matrimonial disappointment in his marriage with miss milbank. from seaham harbour i went to middlesborough, hoping to do more business among a larger population, but it appeared as if i were only going from bad to worse. at that date the population was about thirty thousand, but chiefly people of the working classes, employed at balchow and vaughn's and kindred works. i made portraits of some of the members of mr. balchow's family, mr. geordison, and some of the resident quakers, but altogether i did not do much more than pay expenses. i managed, however, to stay there till the year , when i caught the world's fair fever, so i packed up my apparatus and other things i did not require immediately, and sent them to my father's house, and with a few changes in my carpet-bag, and a little money in my pocket, i started off to see the great exhibition in london. i went by way of york and hull, with the two-fold object of seeing some friends in both places, and to prospect on the business chances they might afford. at york i found mr. pumphrey was located, but as he did not appear to be fully occupied with sitters--for i found him trying to take a couple of boys fighting in a back yard--i thought there was not room for another daguerreotypist in york. in a few days i went to hull, but even there the ground was preoccupied, so i took the first steamer for london. we sailed on a saturday night, and after a pleasant voyage arrived at the wharf below london bridge early on sunday evening. i put up at the "yorkshire grey," in thames street, where i met several people from the north, also on a visit to london to see the great exhibition. this being my first visit to london, i was anxious to get a sight of the streets and crowds therein, so, after obtaining some refreshment, i strolled out with one of my fellow passengers to receive my first impressions of the great metropolis. the evening was fine, and, being nearly the longest day, there was light enough to enable me to see the god-forsaken appearance of thames street, the dismal aspect of fish street hill, and the gloomy column called "the monument" that stands there to remind citizens and strangers of the great fire of ; but i was both amazed and amused with the life and bustle i saw on london bridge and other places in the immediate neighbourhood, but my eyes and ears soon became fatigued with the sights and sounds of the lively and noisy thoroughfares. after a night's rest, which was frequently broken by cries of "stop thief!" and the screams of women, i arose and made an early start for the great exhibition of . of all the wonderful things in that most wonderful exhibition, i was most interested in the photographic exhibits and the beautiful specimens of american daguerreotypes, both portraits and landscapes, especially the views of niagara falls, which made me determine to visit america as soon as ever i could make the necessary arrangements. while examining and admiring those very beautiful daguerreotypes, i little thought that i was standing, as it were, between the birth of one process and the death of another; but so it was, for the newly-born collodion process very soon annihilated the daguerreotype, although the latter process had just reached the zenith of its beauty. in the march number of the _chemist_, archer's collodion process was published, and that was like the announcement of the birth of an infant hercules, that was destined to slay a beautiful youth whose charms had only arrived at maturity. but there was really a singular and melancholy coincidence in the birth of the collodion process and the early death of the daguerreotype, for daguerre himself died on july th, , so that both daguerre and his process appeared to receive their death blows in the same year. i don't suppose that daguerre died from a shock to his system, caused by the publication of a rival process, for it is not likely that he knew anything about the invention of a process that was destined, in a very few years, to abolish his own--living as he was in the retirement of his native village, and enjoying his well-earned pension. as daguerre was the first of the successful discoverers of photography to be summoned by death, i will here give a brief sketch of his life and pursuits prior to his association with nicéphore niépce and photography. louis jacques mandé daguerre was born at cormeilles, near paris, in , of poor and somewhat careless parents, who appear to have bestowed upon him more names than attention. though they did not endow him with a good education, they had the good sense to observe the bent of his mind and apprentice him to a theatrical scene painter. in that situation he soon made his mark, and his artistic and mechanical abilities, combined with industry, painstaking, and boldness of conception, soon raised him to the front rank of his profession, in which he gained both honour and profit. like all true artists, he was fond of sketching from nature; and, to save time and secure true proportion, he employed such optical appliances as were then at his command. some of his biographers say that he, like fox talbot, employed the camera lucida; others the camera-obscura; as there is a considerable difference between the two it would be interesting to know which it really was. at any rate it was one of these instruments which gave him the notion and created the desire to secure the views as they were presented by the lens or reflector. much of his time was devoted to the painting and construction of a diorama which was first exhibited in , and created quite a sensation in paris. as early as he commenced his photographic experiments, with very little knowledge on the subject; but with the hope and determination of succeeding, by some means or other, in securing the pictures as nature painted them on the screen or receiver. doubtless he was sanguine enough then to hope to be able to obtain colours as well as drawings, but he died without seeing that accomplished, and so will many others. what he did succeed in accomplishing was marvellous, and quite entitled him to all the honour and emolument he received, but he only lived about twelve years after his discovery. he was, however, saved the mortification of seeing his beautiful discovery discarded and cast away in the hey-day of its beauty and perfection. after a few weeks sojourn in london, seeing all the sights and revisiting all the daguerreotype studios, i turned my back on the great city and my footsteps homewards again. as soon as i reached home i unpacked my apparatus and made arrangements for another campaign with the camera at some of the sea-side resorts, with the hope of making up for lost time and money through visiting london. i had looked at scarborough and found the brothers holroyd located there; at whitby, mr. stonehouse; and i did not like the appearance of redcar, so i settled upon tynemouth, and did fairly well for a short season. about the end of october i went on to carlisle, but a scotchman had already preceded me there, and i thought one daguerreotypist was quite enough for so small a place, and pushed on to penrith, where i settled for the winter and gradually worked up a little connection, and formed some life-long friendships. i was the first daguerreotypist who had visited the town of penrith, and while there i made daguerreotypes of sir george and lady musgrave and family, and some members of the lonsdale family. it was through the kindness of miss lowther that i was induced to go to whitehaven, but i did not do much business there, so, after a bad winter, i resolved to go to america in the spring, and made arrangements for the voyage immediately. thinking that i would find better apparatus and appliances in america, i disposed of my "tent and kit," closed up my affairs, bid adieu to my relatives and friends, and departed. to obtain the benefit and experience of a long sea voyage, i secured a cabin passage in a sailing ship named the _amazon_, and sailed from shields towards the end of april, . we crossed the tyne bar late in the evening with a fair wind, and sailed away for the pentland frith so as to gain the atlantic by sailing all round the north of scotland. i was rather upset the first night, but recovered my appetite next morning. we entered the pentland frith on the saturday afternoon, and were running through the channel splendidly, when the carpenter came to report water in the well--i forget how many feet--but he thought it would not be safe to attempt crossing the atlantic. i was a little alarmed at this, but the captain took it very coolly, and ordered the ship to be pumped every watch. being the only passenger, i became a kind of chum and companion to the captain, and as we sat over our grog that night in the cabin our conversation naturally turned upon the condition of the ship, when he remarked that he was disappointed, and that he "expected he had got a sound ship under his feet this time." these words did not make much impression upon me then, but i had reason to comprehend their meaning afterwards. i was awoke early on the sunday morning by the noise caused by the working of the pumps, and on going on deck found that we were becalmed, lying off the coast of caithnesshire, and the water pouring out of the pump-hole in a continuous stream. after breakfast, and while sitting on the taffrail of the quarterdeck along with the captain, waiting for a breeze, i asked him if he intended to cross the atlantic in such a leaky vessel. he answered "yes, and the men are all willing." so i thought if these men were not afraid of the ship foundering, i need not be; but i had reasons afterwards for coming to an opposite conclusion. towards evening the breeze sprang up briskly, and away we went, the ship heading w.n.w., as the captain said he wanted to make the northern passage. next morning we were in a rather rough sea, and a gale of wind blowing. one of the yards was broken with the force of the wind, and the sail and broken yard dangled about the rigging for a considerable time before the sail could be hauled in and the wreckage cleared up. we had several days of bad weather, and one morning when i got up i found the ship heading east. i naturally concluded that we were returning, but the captain said that he had only turned the ship about to enable the men to stop a leak in her bows. the carpenter afterwards told me that the water came in there like a river during the night. thus we went on through variable weather until at last we sighted two huge icebergs, and then newfoundland, when the captain informed me that he intended now to coast up to new york. we got out of sight of land occasionally, and one day, after the captain had taken his observations and worked out the ship's position, he called my attention to the chart, and observed that he intended to sail between an island and the mainland, but as the channel was subject to strong and variable currents, it was a rather dangerous experiment. being in such a leaky ship, i thought he wanted to hug the land as much as possible, which i considered a very wise and safe proceeding; but he had ulterior objects in view, which the sequel will reveal. on the night of the st of may, after a long yarn from the captain about how he was once wrecked on an iceberg, i turned in with a feeling of perfect safety, for the sea was calm, the night clear, and the wind fair and free; but about daylight next morning i was awoke with a shock, a sudden tramping on deck, and the mate shouting down the companion stairs, "captain, the ship's ashore." both the captain and i rushed on deck just as we jumped out of our berths, but we could not see anything of the land or shore, for we were enveloped in a thick fog. we heard the breakers and felt the thud of the waves as they broke upon the ship, but whether we had struck on a rock or grounded on a sandy beach we could not then ascertain. the captain ordered the sails to be "slewed back" and a hawser to be thrown astern, but all efforts to get the ship off were in vain, for with every wave the ship forged more and more on to the shore. as the morning advanced, the fog cleared away a little, which enabled us to see dimly through the mist the top of a bank of yellow sand. this sight settled the doubt as to our whereabouts, and the captain immediately gave the order "prepare to abandon the ship." the long boat was at once got ready, and lowered with considerable difficulty, for the ship was then more among the breakers. after a good deal of delay and danger, we all succeeded in leaving the ship and clearing the breakers. we were exposed in the open boats all that day and night, and about ten o'clock next morning we effected a landing on the lee side of the island, which we ascertained to be sable island, a bald crown of one of the banks of newfoundland. here we received help, shelter, and provisions, all provided by the home and colonial governments, for the relief of shipwrecked people, for this island was one of the places where ships were both accidentally and wilfully wrecked. we were obliged to stay there sixteen days before we could get a vessel to take us to halifax, nova scotia, the nearest port, and would possibly have had to remain on the island much longer, but for a mutiny among the crew. i could describe some strange and startling incidents in connection with the wreck and mutiny, but i will not allow myself to be tempted further into the vale of divergence, as the chief object i have in view is my reminiscence of photography. on leaving sable island i was taken to halifax, where i waited the arrival of the cunard steamer _niagara_, to take me on to boston; thence i proceeded by rail and steamer to new york, where i arrived about the end of june, . on landing in new york i only knew one individual, and not knowing how far i should have to go to find him i put up at an hotel on broadway, but soon found that too expensive for my means, and went to a private boarding house as soon as i could. visiting all the leading daguerreotypists on broadway, i was somewhat astonished at their splendid reception rooms, and the vast number of large and excellent specimens exhibited. their plain daguerreotypes were all of fine quality, and free from the "buff lines" so noticeable in english work at that period; but all their attempts at colouring were miserable failures, and when i showed one of my coloured specimens to mr. gurney, he said, "well, if you can colour one of my pictures like that i'll believe you;" which i soon did, and very much to his astonishment. in those days i prepared my own colours, and mr. gurney bought a box immediately. the principal daguerreotypists in new york at that time were messrs. brady, gurney, kent, lawrence, mead brothers, and samuel root, and i called upon them all before i entered into any business arrangements, finally engaging myself to messrs. mead brothers as a colourist and teacher of colouring for six months, and while fulfilling that engagement i gave lessons to several "daguerreans," and made the acquaintance of men from all parts of the union, for i soon obtained some notoriety throughout the states in consequence of a man named humphrey attacking me and my colouring process in a photographic journal which bore his name, as well as in the _new york tribune_. i replied to his attack in the columns of the _tribune_, but i saw that he had a friend on the staff, and i did not feel inclined to continue the controversy. mr. humphrey knew nothing about my process, but began and continued the discussion on his knowledge of what was known as the "isinglass process," which was not mine. after completing my engagements with messrs. mead brothers, i made arrangements to supply the stock dealers with my prepared colours, and travel the states myself to introduce them to all the daguerreans residing in the towns and cities i should visit. in the principal cities i found all the daguerreans quite equal to the best in new york, and all doing good business, and i gave lessons in colouring to most of them. in newark i met messrs. benjamin and polson; in philadelphia, marcus root and dr. bushnell. i encountered a great many _doctors_ and _professors_ in the business in america. in baltimore, maryland--then a slave state--many of the daguerreans owned slaves. in washington d.c., i renewed my acquaintance with mr. george adams, one of the best daguerreans in the city; and while visiting him a very curious thing occurred. one of the representatives of the south came in to have his portrait taken, and the first thing he did was to lay a revolver and a bowie knife on the table beside him. he had just come from the house of representatives. his excuse for such a proceeding was that he had bought some slaves at the market at alexandria, and was going to take them home that night. he was a very tall man, and when he stood up against the background his head was above it. as he wanted to be taken standing, this put mr. adams into a dilemma, and he asked what he should do. i thought the only thing that could be done was to move the background up and down during exposure, which we did, and so obviated the appearance of a line crossing the head. while staying in washington i attended one of the levées at the white house, and was introduced to president pearce. there was no fuss or difficulty in gaining admission. i had only to present my card at the door, and the city marshall at once led me into the room where the president, surrounded by some of his cabinet, was waiting to receive, and i was introduced. after a cordial shake of his hand, i passed on to another saloon where there was music and promenading in mixed costumes, for most of the men were dressed as they liked, and some of the ladies wore bonnets. it was the weekly _sans cérémonie_ reception. finding many of the people of washington very agreeable and hospitable, i stayed there a considerable time. when i started on the southern journey i did intend to go on to new orleans, but i stayed so long in philadelphia and washington the summer was too far advanced, and as a rather severe outbreak of yellow fever had occurred, i returned to new york and took a journey northward, visiting niagara falls, and going on to canada. i sailed up the hudson river, stopping at albany and troy. at the latter place i met an englishman, named irvine, a daguerrean who treated me hospitably, and for whom i coloured several daguerreotypes. he wanted me to stay with him, but that i declined. thence i proceeded to rochester, and there found that one of my new york pupils had been before me, representing himself as werge the colourist, for when i introduced myself to the principal daguerrean he told me that werge--a very different man--had been there two or three weeks ago. i discovered who the fellow was, and that he had practised a piece of yankee smartness for which i had no redress. from rochester i proceeded to buffalo, where i met with another instance of yankee smartness of a different kind. i had sold some colours to a man there who paid me in dollar bills, the usual currency of the country, but when i tendered one of these bills for payment at the hotel, it was refused. i next offered it on board a steamboat, but there it was also declined. when i had an opportunity i returned it to the man who gave it to me, and requested him to send me a good one instead. he was honest enough to do that, and impudent enough to tell me that he knew it was bad when he gave it to me, but as i was a stranger he thought i might pass it off easily. i next went to niagara falls, where it was my good fortune to encounter two very different specimens of american character in the persons of mr. easterly and mr. babbitt, the former a visitor and the latter a resident daguerrean, who held a monopoly from general porter to daguerreotype the falls and visitors. he had a pavilion on the american side of the falls, under which his camera was in position all day long, and when a group of visitors stood on the shore to survey the falls from that point, he took the group--without their knowledge--and showed it to the visitors before they left. in almost every instance he sold the picture at a good price; the people were generally delighted to be taken at the falls. i need hardly say that they were all taken instantaneously, and embraced a good general view, including the american fall, goat island, the horse shoe fall, and the canadian shore. many of these views i coloured for mr. babbitt, but there was always a beautiful green colour on the brink of the horse shoe fall which i never could match. for many years i possessed one of mr. babbitt's daguerreotype views, as well as others taken by mr. easterly and myself, but i had the misfortune to be deprived of them all by fire. some years after i lent them to an exhibition in glasgow, which was burnt down, and all the exhibits destroyed. after a delightful sojourn of three weeks at niagara falls, i took steamer on the lower niagara river, sailed down to lake ontario, and down the river st. lawrence, shooting the lachine rapids, and on to montreal. in the canadian city i did not find business very lively, so after viewing the fine cathedral of notre dame, the mountain, and other places, i left montreal and proceeded by rail to boston. the difference between the two cities was immense. montreal was dull and sleepy, boston was all bustle and life, and the people were as unlike as the cities. on my arrival in boston, i put up at the quincy adams hotel, and spent the first few days in looking about the somewhat quaint and interesting old city, hunting up franklin associations, and revolutionary landmarks, bunker hill, and other places of interest. having satisfied my appetite for these things, i began to look about me with an eye to business, and called upon the chief daguerreans and photographers in boston. messrs. southworth and hawes possessed the largest daguerreotype establishment, and did an excellent business. in their "saloon" i saw the largest and finest revolving stereoscope that was ever exhibited. the pictures were all whole-plate daguerreotypes, and set vertically on the perpendicular drum on which they revolved. the drum was turned by a handle attached to cog wheels, so that a person sitting before it could see the stereoscopic pictures with the utmost ease. it was an expensive instrument, but it was a splendid advertisement, for it drew crowds to their saloon to see it and to sit, and their enterprise met with its reward. at mr. whipple's gallery, in washington street, a dual photography was carried on, for he made both daguerreotypes and what he called "crystallotypes," which were simply plain silver prints obtained from collodion negatives. mr. whipple was the first american photographer who saw the great commercial advantages of the collodion process over the daguerreotype, and he grafted it on the elder branch of photography almost as soon as it was introduced. indeed, mr. whipple's establishment may be considered the very cradle of american photography as far as collodion negatives and silver prints are concerned, for he was the very first to take hold of it with spirit, and as early as he was doing a large business in photographs, and teaching the art to others. although i had taken collodion negatives in england with mawson's collodion in , i paid mr. whipple fifty dollars to be shown how he made his collodion, silver bath, developer, printing, &c., &c., for which purpose he handed me over to his active and intelligent assistant and newly-made partner, mr. black. this gave me the run of the establishment, and i was somewhat surprised to find how vast and varied were his mechanical appliances for reducing labour and expediting work. the successful practice of the daguerreotype art greatly depended on the cleanness and highly polished surface of the silvered plates, and to secure these necessary conditions, mr. whipple had, with characteristic and yankee-like ingenuity, obtained the assistance of a steam engine which not only "drove" all the circular cleaning and buffing wheels, but an immense circular fan which kept the studio and sitters delightfully cool. machinery and ingenuity did a great many things in mr. whipple's establishment in the early days of photography. long before the ambrotype days, pictures were taken on glass and thrown upon canvas by means of the oxyhydrogen light for the use of artists. at that early period of the history of photography, messrs. whipple and black did an immense "printing and publishing" trade, and their facilities were "something considerable." their toning, fixing, and washing baths were almost worthy the name of vats. messrs. masury and silsby were also early producers of photographs in boston, and in employed a very clever operator, mr. turner, who obtained beautiful and brilliant negatives by iron development. on the whole, i think boston was ahead of new york for enterprise and the use of mechanical appliances in connection with photography. i sold my colours to most of the daguerreotypists, and entered into business relations with two of the dealers, messrs. french and cramer, to stock them, and then started for new york to make arrangements for my return to england. when i returned to new york the season was over, and everyone was supposed to be away at saratoga springs, niagara falls, rockaway, and other fashionable resorts; but i found the daguerreotype galleries all open and doing a considerable stroke of business among the cotton planters and slave holders, who had left the sultry south for the cooler atmosphere of the more northern states. the daguerreotype process was then in the zenith of its perfection and popularity, and largely patronised by gentlemen from the south, especially for large or double whole-plates, about by inches, for which they paid fifty dollars each. it was only the best houses that made a feature of these large pictures, for it was not many of the daguerreans that possessed a "mammoth tube and box"--_i.e._, lens and camera--or the necessary machinery to "get up" such large surfaces, but all employed the best mechanical means for cleaning and polishing their plates, and it was this that enabled the americans to produce more brilliant pictures than we did. many people used to say it was the climate, but it was nothing of the kind. the superiority of the american daguerreotype was entirely due to mechanical appliances. having completed my business arrangements and left my colours on sale with the principal stock dealers, including the scovill manufacturing company, messrs. anthony, and levi chapman. i sailed from new york in october , and arrived in england in due time without any mishap, and visiting london again as soon as i could, i called at mr. mayall's gallery in regent street to see dr. bushnell, whom i knew in philadelphia, and who was then operating for mr. mayall. while there mr. mayall came in from the guildhall, and announced the result of the famous trial, "talbot _versus_ laroche," a verbatim report of which is given in the journal of the photographic society for december st, . mr. mayall was quite jubilant, and well he might be, for the verdict for the defendant removed the trammels which mr. fox talbot attempted to impose upon the practice of the collodion process, which was frederick scott archer's gift to photographers. that was the first time that i had met mr. mayall, though i had heard of him and followed him both at philadelphia and new york, and even at niagara falls. at that time mr. mayall was relinquishing the daguerreotype process, though one of the earliest practitioners, for he was in business as a daguerreotypist in philadelphia from to , and i know that he made a daguerreotype portrait of james anderson, the tragedian, in philadelphia, on sunday, may th, . during part of the time that he was in philadelphia he was in partnership with marcus root, and the name of the firm was "highschool and root," and about the end of mr. mayall opened a daguerreotype studio in the adelaide gallery, king william street, strand, london, under the name of professor highschool, and soon after that he opened a daguerreotype gallery in his own name in the strand, which establishment he sold to mr. jabez hughes in . the best daguerreotypists in london in were mr. beard, king william street, london bridge; messrs. kilburn, t. r. williams and claudet, in regent street; and w. h. kent, in oxford street. the latter had just returned from america, and brought all the latest improvements with him. messrs. henneman and malone were in regent street doing calotype portraits. henneman had been a servant to fox talbot, and worked his process under favourable conditions. mr. lock was also in regent street, doing coloured photographs. he offered me a situation at once, if i could colour photographs as well as i could colour daguerreotypes, but i could not, for the processes were totally different. m. manson, an old frenchman, was the chief daguerreotype colourist in london, and worked for all the principal daguerreotypists. i met the old gentleman first in , and knew him for many years afterwards. he also made colours for sale. not meeting with anything to suit me in london, i returned to the north, calling at birmingham on my way, where i met mr. whitlock, the chief daguerreotypist there, and a mr. monson, who professed to make daguerreotypes and all other types. paying a visit to mr. elisha mander, the well-known photographic case maker, i learnt that mr. jabez hughes, then in business in glasgow, was in want of an assistant, a colourist especially. having met mr. hughes in glasgow in , and knowing what kind of man he was, i wrote to him, and was engaged in a few days. i went to glasgow in january, , and then commenced business relations and friendship with mr. hughes that lasted unbroken until his death in . my chief occupation was to colour the daguerreotypes taken by mr. hughes, and occasionally take sitters, when mr. hughes was busy, in another studio. i had not, however, been long in glasgow, when mr. hughes determined to return to london. at first he wished me to accompany him, but it was ultimately arranged that i should purchase the business, and remain in glasgow, which i did, and took possession in june, mr. hughes going to mr. mayall's old place in the strand, london. mr. hughes had been in glasgow for nearly seven years, and had done a very good business, going first as operator to mr. bernard, and succeeding to the business just as i was doing. while mr. hughes was in glasgow he was very popular, not only as a daguerreotypist, but as a lecturer. he delivered a lecture on photography at the literary and philosophical society, became an active member of the glasgow photographic society, and an enthusiastic member of the st. mark's lodge of freemasons. only a day or two before he left glasgow, he occupied the chair at a meeting of photographers, comprising daguerreotypists and collodion workers, to consider what means could be adopted to check the downward tendency of prices even in those early days. i was present, and remember seeing a lady daguerreotypist among the company, and she expressed her opinion quite decidedly. efforts were made to enter into a compact to maintain good prices, but nothing came of it. like all such bandings together, the band was quickly and easily broken. i had the good fortune to retain the best of mr. hughes's customers, and make new ones of my own, as well as many staunch and valuable friends, both among what i may term laymen and brother masons, while i resided in glasgow. most of my sitters were of the professional classes, and the _elite_ of the city, among whom were sir archibald alison, the historian, col. (now general) sir archibald alison, dr. arnott, professor ramsey, and many of the princely merchants and manufacturers. some of my other patrons--for i did all kinds of photographic work--were the late norman macbeth, daniel mcnee (afterwards sir daniel), and president of the scottish academy of art, and also her majesty the queen, for she bought two of my photographs of glasgow cathedral, and a copy of my illustration of hood's "song of the shirt," copies of which i possess now, and doubtless so does her majesty. one of the most interesting portraits i remember taking while i was in glasgow was that of john robertson, who constructed the first marine steam engine. he was associated with henry bell, and fitted the "comet" with her engine. mr. napier senr., the celebrated engineer on the clyde, brought robertson to sit to me, and ordered a great many copies. i also took a portrait of harry clasper, of rowing and boat-building notoriety, which was engraved and published in the _illustrated london news_. several of my portraits were engraved both on wood and steel, and published. at the photographic exhibition in connection with the meeting of the british association held in glasgow, in , i saw the largest collodion positive on glass that ever was made to my knowledge. the picture was thirty-six inches long, a view of gourock, or some such place down the clyde, taken by mr. kibble. the glass was british plate, and cost about £ . i thought it a great evidence of british pluck to attempt such a size. when i saw mr. kibble i told him so, and expressed an opinion that i thought it a waste of time, labour, and money not to have made a negative when he was at such work. he took the hint, and at the next photographic exhibition he showed a silver print the same size. mr. kibble was an undoubted enthusiast, and kept a donkey to drag his huge camera from place to place. my pictures frequently appeared at the glasgow exhibition, but at one, which was burnt down, i lost all my daguerreotype views of niagara falls, whipple's views of the moon, and many other valuable pictures, portraits, and views, which could never be replaced. [illustration: third period. collodion. frederick scott archer. _from glass positive by r. cade, ipswich. ._ hever castle, kent. _copy of glass positive taken by f. scott archer in ._] third period. collodion triumphant. in i abandoned the daguerreotype process entirely, and took to collodion solely; and, strangely enough, that was the year that frederick scott archer, the inventor, died. like daguerre, he did not long survive the publication and popularity of his invention, nor did he live long enough to see his process superseded by another. in years, honours, and emoluments, he fell far short of daguerre, but his process had a much longer existence, was of far more commercial value, benefitting private individuals and public bodies, and creating an industry that expanded rapidly, and gave employment to thousands all over the world; yet he profited little by his invention, and when he died, a widow and three children were left destitute. fortunately a few influential friends bestirred themselves in their interest, and when the appeal was made to photographers and the public to the archer testimonial, the following is what appeared in the pages of _punch_, june th, :-- "to the sons of the sun. "the inventor of collodion has died, leaving his invention unpatented, to enrich thousands, and his family unportioned to the battle of life. now, one expects a photographer to be almost as sensitive as the collodion to which mr. scott archer helped him. a deposit of silver is wanted (gold will do), and certain faces, now in the dark chamber, will light up wonderfully, with an effect never before equalled by photography. a respectable ancient writes that the statue of fortitude was the only one admitted to the temple of the sun. instead whereof, do you, photographers, set up gratitude in your little glass temples of the sun, and sacrifice, according to your means, in memory of the benefactor who gave you the deity for a household god. now, answers must not be negatives." the result of that appeal, and the labours of the gentlemen who so generously interested themselves on behalf of the widow and orphans, was highly creditable to photographers, the photographic society, her majesty's ministers, and her majesty the queen. what those labours were, few now can have any conception; but i think the very best way to convey an idea of those labours and their successful results will be to reprint a copy of the final report of the committee. the report of the committee of the archer testimonial. "the committee of the archer testimonial, considering it necessary to furnish a statement of the course pursued towards the attainment of their object, desire to lay before the subscribers and the public generally a full report of their proceedings. "shortly after the death of mr. f. scott archer, a preliminary meeting of a few friends was held, and it was determined that a printed address should be issued to the photographic world. "sir william newton, cordially co-operating in the movement, at once made application to her most gracious majesty. the queen, with her usual promptitude and kindness of heart, forwarded a donation of £ towards the testimonial. the photographic society of london, at the same time, proposed a grant of £ , and this liberality on the part of the society was followed by an announcement of a list of donations from individual members, which induced your committee to believe that if an appeal were made to the public, and those practising the photographic art, a sum might be raised sufficiently large, not only to relieve the immediate wants of the widow and children, but to purchase a small annuity, and thus in a slight degree compensate for the heavy loss they had sustained by the premature death of one to whom the photographic art had already become deeply indebted. "to aid in the accomplishment of this design, mr. mayall placed the use of his rooms at the service of a committee then about to be formed. sir william newton and mr. roger fenton consented to act as treasurers to the fund, and the union, and london and westminster banks kindly undertook to receive subscriptions. "your committee first met on the th day of june, , mr. digby wyatt being called to the chair, when it was resolved to ask the consent of professors delamotte and goodeve to become joint secretaries. these duties were willingly accepted, and subscription lists opened in various localities in furtherance of the testimonial. "your committee met on the th day of july, and again on the th day of september, when, on each occasion, receipts were announced and paid into the bankers. "the society of arts having kindly offered, through their secretary, the use of apartments in the house of the society for any further meetings, your committee deemed it expedient to accept the same, and passed a vote of thanks to mr. mayall for the accommodation previously afforded by that gentleman. "your committee, believing that the interests of the fund would be better served by a short delay in their proceedings, resolved on deferring their next meeting until the month of november, or until the photographic society should resume its meetings, when a full attendance of members might be anticipated; it being apparent that individually and collectively persons in the provinces had withheld their subscriptions until the grant of the photographic society of london had been formally sanctioned at a special meeting convened for the purpose, and that their object--the purchase of an annuity for mrs. archer and her children--could only be effected by the most active co-operation among all classes. "your committee again met on the th of november, when it was resolved to report progress to the general body of subscribers, and that a public meeting be called for the purpose, at which the lord chief baron pollock should be requested to preside. to this request the lord chief baron most kindly and promptly acceded; and your committee determined to seek the co-operation of their photographic friends and the public to enable them to carry out in its fullest integrity the immediate object of securing some small acknowledgment for the eminent services rendered to photography by the late mr. archer. "at this meeting it was stated that an impression existed, which to some extent still exists, that mr. archer was not the originator of the collodion process; your committee, therefore, think it their duty to state emphatically that they are fully satisfied of the great importance of the services rendered by him, as an original inventor, to the art of photography. "professor hunt, having studied during twenty years the beautiful art of photography in all its details, submitted to the committee the following explanation of mr. archer's just right:-- "'as there appears to be some misconception of the real claim of mr. archer to be considered as a _discoverer_, it is thought desirable to state briefly and distinctly what we owe to him. there can be no doubt that much of the uncertainty which has been thought by some persons to surround the introduction of collodion, has arisen from the unobtrusive character of mr. archer himself, who deferred for a considerable period _the publication of the process of which he was the discoverer_. "'when professor schönbein, of basle, introduced gun-cotton at the meeting of the british association at southampton in , the solubility of this curious substance in ether was alluded to. within a short time collodion was employed in our hospitals for the purposes of covering with a film impervious to air abraded surfaces on the body; its peculiar electrical condition was also known and exhibited by mr. hall, of dartford, and others. "'the beautiful character of the collodion film speedily led to the idea of using it as a medium for receiving photographic agents, and experiments were made by spreading the collodion on paper and on glass, to form with it sensitive tablets. these experiments were all failures, owing to the circumstance that the collodion was regarded merely as a sheet upon which the photographic materials were to be spread; the dry collodion film being in all cases employed. "'to mr. archer, who spent freely both time and money in experimental research, it first occurred to dissolve in the collodion itself the iodide of potassium. by this means he removed every difficulty, and became the inventor of the collodion process. the pictures thus obtained were exhibited, and some of the details of the process communicated by mr. scott archer in confidence to friends before he published his process. this led, very unfortunately, to experiments by others in the same direction, and hence there have arisen claims in opposition to those of this lamented photographer. everyone, however, acquainted with the early history of the collodion process freely admits that mr. archer was the _sole inventor of iodized collodion_, and of those manipulatory details which still, with very slight modifications, constitute the collodion process, and he was the first person who published any account of the application of this remarkable accelerating agent, by which the most important movement has been given to the art of photography.' "your committee, in may last, heard with deep regret of the sudden death of the widow, mrs. archer, which melancholy event caused a postponement of the general meeting resolved upon in november last. sir wm. newton thereupon resolved to make another effort to obtain a pension for the three orphan children, now more destitute than ever, and so earnestly did he urge their claim upon the minister, lord derby, that a reply came the same day from his lordship's private secretary, saying, 'the queen has been pleased to approve of a pension of fifty pounds per annum being paid from the civil list to the children of the late mr. frederick scott archer, in consideration of the scientific discoveries of their father,' his lordship adding his regrets 'that the means at his disposal have not enabled him to do more in this case.' your committee, to mark their sense of the value of the services rendered to the cause by sir william newton, thereupon passed a vote of thanks to him. in conclusion, your committee have to state that a trust deed has been prepared, free of charge, by henry white, esq., of , southampton street, which conveys the fund collected to trustees, to be by them invested in the public securities for the sole benefit of the orphan children. the sum in the union bank now amounts to £ s. d., exclusive of interest, and the various sums--in all about £ --paid over to mrs. archer last year. thus far, the result is a subject for congratulation to the subscribers and your committee, whose labours have hitherto not been in vain. your committee are, nevertheless, of opinion that an appeal to parliament might be productive of a larger recognition of the claim of these orphan children--a claim not undeserving the recognition of the legislature, when the inestimable boon bestowed upon the country is duly considered. since march , when mr. archer described his process in the pages of the _chemist_, how many thousands must in some way or other have been made acquainted with the immense advantages it offers over all other processes in the arts, and how many instances could be adduced in testimony of its usefulness? for instance, its value to the government during the last war, in the engineering department, the construction of field works, and in recording observations of historical and scientific interest. your committee noticed that an attractive feature of the photographic society's last exhibition was a series of drawings and plans, executed by the royal engineers, in reduction of various ordnance maps, at a saving estimated at £ , to the country. the non-commissioned officers of this corps are now trained in this art, and sent to different foreign stations, so that in a few years there will be a network of photographic stations spread over the world, and having their results recorded in the war department, and, in a short time, all the world will be brought under the subjugation of art. "mr. warren de la rue exhibited to the astronomical society, november, , photographs of the moon and jupiter, taken by the collodion process in five seconds, of which the astronomer-royal said, 'that a step of very great importance had been made, and that, either as regards the self-delineation of clusters of stars, nebulæ, and planets, or the self-registration of observations, it is impossible at present to estimate the value.' when admiring the magnificent photographic prints which are now to be seen in almost every part of the civilized world, an involuntary sense of gratitude towards the discoverer of the collodion process must be experienced, and it cannot but be felt how much the world is indebted to mr. archer for having placed at its command the means by which such beautiful objects are presented. how many thousands amongst those who owe their means of subsistence to this process must have experienced such a feeling of gratitude? it is upon such considerations that the public have been, and still are, invited to assist in securing for the orphan children of the late mr. archer some fitting appreciation of the service which he rendered to science, art, his country--nay, to the whole world. "m. digby wyatt, _chairman_, "jabez hogg, _secretary to committee_. "_society of arts, july, ._" after reading that report, and especially mr. hunt's remarks, it will appear evident to all that even that act of charity, gratitude, and justice could not be carried through without someone raising objections and questioning the claims of frederick scott archer as the original inventor of the collodion process. nearly all the biographers and historians of photography have coupled other names with archer's, either as assistants or co-inventors, but i have evidence in my possession that will prove that neither fry nor diamond afforded archer any assistance whatever, and that archer preceded all the other claimants in his application of collodion. in support of the first part of this statement, i shall give extracts from mrs. archer's letter, now in my possession, which, i think, will set that matter at rest for ever. mrs. archer, writing from bishop stortford on december th, , says, "when mr. a. prepared pupils for india he always taught the paper process as well as the collodion, for fear the chemicals should cause disappointment in a hot climate, as i believe that the negative paper he prepared differed from that in general use. i enclosed a specimen made in our glass house. "in mr. hunt's book, as well as mr. horne's, mr. fry's name is joined with mr. archer's as the originators of the collodion process. "should mr. hunt seem to require any corroboration of what i have stated respecting mr. fry, i can send you many of mr. fry's notes of invitation, when mr. a. merely gave him lessons in the application of collodion, and mr. brown gave me the correspondence which passed between him and mr. fry on the subject at the time mr. home's book was published. i did not send up those papers, for, unless required, it is useless to dwell on old grievances, but i should like such a man as mr. hunt to understand _how_ the association of the two names originated." as to priority of application, the following letter ought to settle that point:-- "_alma cottage, bishop stortford._ "_ th december, ._ "sir,--my hunting has at length proved successful. in the enclosed book you will find notes respecting the paper pulp, albumen, tanno-gelatine, and collodion. you will therein see mr. archer's notes of iod-collodion in . you may wonder that i could not find this note-book before, but the numbers of papers that there are, and the extreme disorder, defy description. my head was in such a deplorable state before i left that i could arrange nothing. those around me were most anxious to destroy _all the papers_, and i had great trouble to keep all with mr. archer's handwriting upon them, however dirty and rubbishing they might appear, so they were huddled together, a complete chaos. i look back with the greatest thankfulness that my brain did not completely lose its balance, for i had not a single relative who entered into mr. archer's pursuits, so that they could not possibly assist me. "mr. archer being of so reserved a character, i had to _find out_ where everything was, and my search has been amongst different things. i need not tell you that i hope this dirty enclosure will be taken care of. "the paper pulp occupied much time; in fact, notes were only made of articles which had been much tried, which might probably be brought into use.--i am, sir, yours faithfully, "_j. hogg, esq._ f. g. archer." if the foregoing is not evidence sufficient, i have by me a very good _glass positive_ of hever castle, kent, which was taken in the spring of , and two collodion negatives made by mr. archer in the autumn of ; and these dates are all vouched for by mr. jabez hogg, who was mr. archer's medical attendant and friend, and knew him long before he began his experiments with collodion--whereas i cannot find a trace even of the _suggestion_ of the application of collodion in the practice of photography either by gustave le gray or j. r. bingham prior to ; while mr. archer's note-book proves that he was not only iodizing collodion at that date, but making experiments with paper pulp and _gelatine_; so that mr. archer was not only the inventor of the collodion process, but was on the track of its destroyer even at that early date. he also published his method of bleaching positives and intensifying negatives with bichloride of mercury. frederick scott archer was born at bishop stortford in , but there is little known of his early life, and what little there is i will allow mrs. archer to tell in her own way. "dear sir,--i do not know whether the enclosed is what you require; if not, be kind enough to let me know, and i must try to supply you with something better. i thought you merely required particulars relating to photography. otherwise mr. archer's career was a singular one: losing his parents in childhood, he lived in a world of his own; i think you know he was apprenticed to a bullion dealer in the city, where the most beautiful antique gems and coins of all nations being constantly before him, gave him the desire to model the figures, and led him to the study of numismatics. he worked so hard at nights at these pursuits that his master gave up the last two years of his time to save his life. he only requested him to be on the premises, on account of his extreme confidence in him. "many other peculiarities i could mention, but i dare say you know them already. "i will send a small case to you, containing some early specimens and gutta-percha negatives, with a copy of mr. a.'s portrait, which i found on leaving great russell street, and have had several printed from it. it is not a good photograph, but i think you will consider it a likeness. i am, yours faithfully, "_j. hogg, esq._ f. g. archer." frederick scott archer pursued the double occupation of sculptor and photographer at , great russell street. it was there he so persistently persevered in his photographic experiments, and there he died in may, , and was interred in kensal green cemetery. a reference to the report of the committee will show what was done for his bereaved family--a widow and three children. mrs. archer followed her husband in march, , and two of the children died early; but one, alice (unmarried), is still alive and in receipt of the crown pension of fifty pounds per annum. while the collodion episode in the history of photography is before my readers, and especially as the process is rapidly becoming extinct, i think this will be a suitable place to insert archer's instructions for making a _soluble_ gun-cotton, iodizing collodion, developing, and fixing the photographic image. _gun-cotton_ (_or pyroxaline, as it was afterwards named_). take of dry nitre in powder parts sulphuric acid " cotton " the sulphuric acid and the nitre were mixed together, and immediately the latter was all dissolved, the gun-cotton was added and well stirred with a glass rod for about two minutes; then the cotton was plunged into a large bowl of water and well washed with repeated changes of water until the acid and nitre were washed away. the cotton was then pressed and dried, and converted into collodion by dissolving grains of gun-cotton in fluid ounces of ether and ounces of alcohol--putting the cotton into the ether first, and then adding the alcohol; the collodion allowed to settle and decanted prior to iodizing. the latter operation was performed by adding a sufficient quantity of iodide of silver to each ounce of the plain collodion. mr. archer tells how to make the iodide of silver, but the quantity is regulated by the quantity of alcohol in the collodion. when the iodized collodion was ready for use, a glass plate was cleaned and coated with it, and then sensitised by immersion in a bath of nitrate of silver solution-- grains of nitrate of silver to each ounce of distilled water. from three to five minutes' immersion in the silver bath was generally sufficient to sensitise the plate. this, of course, had to be done in what is commonly called a _dark room_. after exposure in the camera, the picture was developed by pouring over the surface of the plate a solution of pyrogallic acid of the following proportions:-- pyrogallic acid grains distilled water ounces glacial acetic acid minims after the development of the picture it was washed and fixed in a solution of hyposulphite of soda, ounces to pint of water. the plate was then washed and dried. this is an epitome of the whole of archer's process for making either negatives or positives on glass, the difference being effected by varying the time of exposure and development. of course the process was somewhat modified and simplified by experience and commercial enterprise. later on bromides were added to the collodion, an iron developer employed, and cyanide of potassium as a fixing agent; but the principle remained the same from first to last. when pyrogallic acid was first employed in photography, it was quoted at s. per oz., and, if i remember rightly, i paid s. for the first _drachm_ that i purchased. on referring to an old price list i find daguerreotype plates, - / by inches, quoted at s. per dozen; nitrate of silver, s. d. per oz.; chloride of gold, s. d. for grains; hyposulphite of soda at s. per lb.; and a half-plate rapid portrait lens by voightlander, of vienna, at £ . those were the days when photography might well be considered expensive, and none but the wealthy could indulge in its pleasures and fascinations. while i lived in glasgow, competition was tolerably keen, even then, and amongst the best "glass positive men" were messrs. bibo, bowman, j. urie, and young and sun, as the latter styled himself; and in photographic portraiture, plain and coloured, by the collodion process, were messrs. macnab and j. stuart. from the time that i relinquished the daguerreotype process, in , i devoted my attention to the production of high-class collodion negatives. i never took kindly to _glass positives_, though i had done some as early as . they were never equal in beauty and delicacy to a good daguerreotype, and their low tone was to me very objectionable. i considered the ferrotype the best form of collodion positive, and did several of them, but my chief work was plain and coloured prints from collodion negatives, also small portraits on visiting cards. early in january, , my home and business were destroyed by fire, and i lost all my old and new specimens of daguerreotypes and photographs, all my daguerreotype and other apparatus, and nearly everything i possessed. as i was only partially insured, i suffered considerable loss. after settling my affairs i decided on going to america again and trying my luck in new york. family ties influenced this decision considerably, or i should not have left glasgow, where i was both prosperous and respected. to obtain an idea of the latest and best aspects of photography, i visited london and paris. the carte-de-visite form of photography had not exhibited much vitality at that period in london, but in paris it was beginning to be popular. while in london i accompanied mr. jabez hughes to the meeting of the photographic society, feb. th, , the right honorable the lord chief baron pollock in the chair, when the report of the collodion committee was delivered. the committee, consisting of f. bedford, p. delamotte, dr. diamond, roger fenton, jabez hughes, t. a. malone, j. h. morgan, h. p. robinson, alfred rosling, w. russell sedgefield, j. spencer, and t. r. williams, strongly recommended mr. hardwich's formula. that was my first visit to the society, and i certainly did not think then that i should ever see it again, or become and be a member for twenty-two years. i sailed from liverpool in the ss. _city of baltimore_ in march, and reached new york safely in april, . i took time to look about me, and visited all the "galleries" on broadway, and other places, before deciding where i should locate myself. many changes had taken place during the six years i had been absent. nearly all the old daguerreotypists were still in existence, but all of them, with the exception of mr. brady, had abandoned the daguerreotype process, and mr. brady only retained it for small work. most of the chief galleries had been moved higher up broadway, and a mania of magnificence had taken possession of most of the photographers. mr. anson was the first to make a move in that direction by opening a "superb gallery" on the ground floor in broadway right opposite the metropolitan hotel, filling his windows with life-sized photographs coloured in oil at the back, which he called diaphanotypes. he did a large business in that class of work, especially among visitors from the southern states; but that was soon to end, for already there were rumours of war, but few then gave it any serious consideration. messrs. gurney and sons' gallery was also a very fine one, but not on the ground floor. their "saloon" was upstairs, this house was one of the oldest in new york in connection with photography. in the very early days, mr. gurney, senr., was one of the most eminent "professors" of the daguerreotype process, and was one of the committee appointed to wait upon the rev. wm. hill, a preacher in the catskills, to negotiate with the reverend gentlemen (?) for his vaunted secret of photography in natural colours. as the art progressed, or the necessity for change arose, mr. gurney was ready to introduce every novelty, and, in later years, in conjunction with mr. fredericks, then in partnership with mr. gurney, he introduced the "hallotype," not hillotype, and the "ivorytype." both these processes had their day. the former was photography spoiled by the application of canada balsam and very little art; the latter was the application of a great deal of art to spoil a photograph. the largest of all the large galleries on broadway was that of messrs. fredericks and co. the whole of the ground and first floor were thrown into one "crystal front," and made a very attractive appearance. the windows were filled with life-sized portraits painted in oil, crayons, and other styles, and the walls of the interior were covered with life-sized portraits of eminent men and beautiful women. the floor was richly carpeted, and the furnishing superb. a gallery ran round the walls to enable the visitors to view the upper pictures, and obtain a general view of the "saloon," the _tout ensemble_ of which was magnificent. from the ground floor an elegant staircase led to the galleries, toilet and waiting rooms, and thence to the operating rooms or studios. some of the parisian galleries were fine, but nothing to be compared with fredericks', and the finest establishment in london did not bear the slightest comparison. mr. brady was another of the early workers of the daguerreotype process, and probably the last of his _confrères_ to abandon it. he commenced business in the early forties in fulton street, a long way down broadway, but as the sea of commerce pressed on and rolled over the strand of fashion, he was obliged to move higher and higher up broadway, until he reached the corner of tenth street, nearly opposite grace church. mr. brady appeared to set the franklin maxim, "three removes as bad as a fire," at defiance, for he had made three or four moves to my knowledge--each one higher and higher to more elegant and expensive premises, each remove entailing the cost of more and more expensive furnishing, until his latest effort in upholstery culminated in a superb suite of black walnut and green silk velvet; in short, longfellow's "excelsior" appeared to be the motto of mr. brady. messrs. mead brothers, samuel root, james cady, and george adams ought to receive "honourable mention" in connection with the art in new york, for they were excellent operators in the daguerreotype days, and all were equally good manipulators of the collodion process and silver printing. after casting and sounding about, like a mariner seeking a haven on a strange coast, i finally decided on buying a half interest in the gallery of mead brothers, , broadway; harry mead retaining his, or his wife's share of the business, but leaving me to manage the "uptown" branch. this turned out to be an unfortunate speculation, which involved me in a lawsuit with one of mead's creditors, and compelled me to get rid of a very unsatisfactory partner in the best way and at any cost that i could. mead's creditor, by some process of law that i could never understand, stripped the gallery of all that belonged to my partner, and even put in a claim for half of the fixtures. over this i lost my temper, and had to pay, not the piper, but the lawyer. i also found that mrs. henry mead had a bill of sale on her husband's interest in the business, which i ended by buying her out. husband and wife are very seldom one in america. soon after getting the gallery into my own hands, refurnishing and rearranging, the prince of wales's visit to new york was arranged, and as the windows of my gallery commanded a good view of broadway, i let most of them very advantageously, retaining the use of one only for myself and family. there were so many delays, however, at the city hall and other places on the day of the procession, that it was almost dark when the prince reached , broadway, and all my guests were both weary of waiting so long, and disappointed at seeing so little of england's future king. when i recommenced business on broadway on my own account there was only one firm taking cartes-de-visite, and i introduced that form of portrait to my customers, but they did not take very kindly to it, though a house not far from me was doing a very good business in that style at three dollars a dozen, and messrs. rockwood and co. appeared to be monopolising all the carte-de-visite business that was being done in new york; but eventually i got in the thin edge of the wedge by exhibiting _four_ for one dollar. this ruse brought in sitters, and i began to do very well until abraham lincoln issued his proclamation calling for one hundred thousand men to stamp out the southern rebellion. i remember that morning most distinctly. it was a miserably wet morning in april, , and all kinds of business received a shock. people looked bewildered, and thought of nothing but saving their money and reducing their expenses. it had a blighting effect on my business, and i, not knowing, like others, where it might land me, determined to get rid of my responsibilities at any cost, so i sold my business for a great deal less than it was worth, and at a very serious loss. the outbreak of that gigantic civil war and a severe family bereavement combined, induced me to return to england as soon as possible. before leaving america, in all probability for ever, i went to washington to bid some friends farewell, and while there i went into virginia with a friend on sunday morning, july st, and in the afternoon saw the smoke and heard the cannonading of the first battle of bull run, and witnessed, next morning, the rout and rush into washington of the demoralised fragments of the federal army. i wrote and sent a description of the stampede to a friend in glasgow, which he handed over to the _glasgow herald_ for publication, and i have reason to believe that my description of that memorable rout was the first that was published in great britain. as soon as i could settle my affairs i left new york with my family, and arrived in london on the th of september, . it was a beautiful sunny day when i landed, and, after all the trouble and excitement i had so recently seen and experienced, london, despite its business and bustle, appeared like a heaven of peace. mr. jabez hughes was about the last to wish me "god speed" when i left england, so he was the first i went to see when i returned. i found, to my disappointment, that he was in paris, but mrs. hughes gave me a hearty welcome. after a few days' sojourn in london i went to glasgow with the view of recommencing in that city, where i had many friends; but while there, and on the very day that i was about to sign for the lease of a house, mr. hughes wrote to offer me the management of his business in oxford street. it did not take me long to decide, and by return post that same night i wrote accepting the offer. i concluded all other arrangements as quickly as possible, returned to london, and entered upon my managerial duties on the st november, . i had long wished and looked out for an opportunity to settle in london and enlarge my circle of photographic acquaintance and experience, so i put on my new harness with alacrity and pleasure. among the earliest of my new acquaintances was george wharton simpson, editor of the photographic news. he called at oxford street one evening while i was the guest of mr. hughes, by whom we were introduced, and we spent a long, chatty, and pleasant evening together, talking over my american experience and matters photographic; but, to my surprise, much of our conversation appeared in the next issue of his journal (_vide_ photographic news, october th, , pp. - ). but that was a power, i afterwards ascertained, which he possessed to an eminent degree, and which he utilized most successfully at his "wednesday evenings at home," when he entertained his photographic friends at canonbury road, n. very delightful and enjoyable those evenings were, and he never failed to cull paragraphs for the photographic news from the busy brains of his numerous visitors. he was a genial host, and his wife was a charming hostess; and his daughter eva, now the wife of william black the novelist, often increased the charm of those evenings by the exhibition of her musical abilities. it is often a wonder to me that other editors of photographic journals don't pursue a similar plan, for those social re-unions were not only pleasant, but profitable to old friend simpson. through mr. simpson's "at homes," and my connection with mr. hughes, i made the acquaintance of nearly all the eminent photographers of the time, amongst whom may be mentioned w. g. lacy, of ryde, i.w. the latter was a very sad and brief acquaintanceship, for he died in mr. hughes's sitting-room on the st november, , in the presence of g. wharton simpson, jabez hughes, and myself, and, strangely enough, it was entirely through this death that mr. hughes went to ryde, and became photographer to the queen. mr. lacy made his will in mr. hughes's sitting-room, and mr. simpson sole executor, who sold mr. lacy's business in the arcade, ryde, i.w., to mr. hughes, and in the march following he took possession, leaving me solely in charge of his business in oxford street, london. about this time mr. skaife introduced his ingenious pistolgraph, but it was rather in advance of the times, for the dry plates then in the market were not quite quick enough for "snap shots," though i have seen some fairly good pictures taken with the apparatus. at this period a fierce controversy was raging about lunar photography, but it was all unnecessary, as the moon had photographed herself under the guidance of mr. whipple, of boston, u.s., as early as , and all that was required to obtain a lunar picture was sufficient exposure. on december rd, , thomas ross read a paper and exhibited a panoramic lens and camera at a meeting of the photographic society, and on the th october, , i saw the same apparatus, in perfect condition, exhibited as a curiosity at the photographic society's exhibition. no wonder the apparatus was in such good condition, for i should think it had never been used but once. the plates were inches long, and curved like the crescent of a new moon. cleaning board, dark slide, and printing-frame, were all curved. fancy the expense and trouble attending the use of such an apparatus; i should think it had few buyers. certainly i never sold one, and i never met with any person who had bought one. amateurs have ever been the most restless and discontented disciples of the "fathers of photography," always craving for something new, and seeking to lessen their labours and increase their facilities, and to these causes we are chiefly indebted for the marvellous development and radical changes of photography. no sooner was the daguerreotype process perfected than it was superseded by _wet_ collodion, and that was barely a workable process when it became the anxiety of every amateur to have a _dry_ collodion process, and multitudes of men were at work endeavouring to make, modify, or invent a means that would enable them to use the camera as a sort of sketch-book, and make their finished picture at home at their leisure. hence the number of dry plate processes published about this period, and the controversies carried on by the many enthusiastic champions of the various methods. beer was pitted against tea and coffee, honey against albumen, gin against gum, but none of them were equal to wet collodion. the international exhibition of did little or nothing in the interests of photography. it is true there was a scattered and skied exhibition at the top of a high tower, but as there was no "lift," i suspect very few people went to see the exhibits. i certainly was not there more than once myself. among the exhibitors of apparatus were the names of messrs. mclean, melhuish and co., murray and heath, p. meagher, t. ottewill and co., but there was nothing very remarkable among their exhibits. there was some very good workmanship, but the articles exhibited were not beyond the quality of the every-day manufacture of the best camera and apparatus makers. the chief contributors to the exhibition of photographs were messrs. mayall, t. r. williams, and herbert watkins in portraiture; and in landscapes, &c., messrs. francis bedford, rejlander, rouch, stephen thompson, james mudd, william mayland, h. p. robinson, and breeze. by some carelessness or stupidity on the part of the attendants or constructors of the exhibition, nearly all mr. breeze's beautiful exhibits--stereoscopes and stereoscopic transparencies--were destroyed by the fall of a skylight. perhaps the best thing that the international exhibition did for photography was the issue of the jurors' report, as it was prefaced with a brief history of photography up to date, not perfectly correct regarding the rev. j. b. reade's labours, but otherwise good, the authorship of which i attribute to the late dr. diamond; but the awards--ah! well, awards never were quite satisfactory. commendees thought they should have been medalists, and the latter thought something else. thomas ross, j. h. dallmeyer, and negretti and zambra were the english recipients of medals, and voightlander and son and c. dietzler received medals for their lenses. early in the harrison globe lens was attracting attention, and, as much was claimed for it both in width of angle and rapidity, i imported from new york a by and a whole-plate as samples. the by was an excellent lens, and embraced a much wider angle than any other lens known, and mr. hughes employed it to photograph the bridal bed and suite of apartments of the prince and princess of wales at osborne, isle of wight, and i feel certain that no other lens would have done the work so well. i have copies of the photograph by me now. they are circular pictures of five inches in diameter, and every article and decoration visible in the chambers are as sharp and crisp as possible. i showed the lens to mr. dallmeyer, and he thought he could make a better one; his wide-angle rectilinear was the result. mr. john pouncy, of dorchester, introduced his "patent process for permanent printing" this year, but it never made much headway. it was an oleagenous process, mixed with bichromate of potash, or bitumen of judea, and always smelt of bad fat. i possessed examples at the time, but took no care of them, and no one else did in all probability; but it appeared to me to be the best means of transferring photographic impressions to wood blocks for the engraver's purpose. thomas sutton, b.a., published a book on pouncy's process and carbon printing, but the process had inherent defects which were not overcome, so nothing could make it a success. sutton's "history of carbon printing" was sufficiently interesting to attract both readers and buyers at the time. i have previously stated that daguerre introduced and left his process in an imperfect and uncommercial condition, and that it was john frederick goddard, then lecturer at the adelaide gallery, london, and inventor of the polariscope, who discovered the accelerating properties of bromine, and by which, with iodine, he obtained a bromo-iodide of silver on the surface of the silvered plate employed in the daguerreotype process, thereby reducing the time of exposure from twenty minutes to twenty seconds, and making the process available for portraiture with an ordinary double combination lens. somehow or other, this worthy gentleman had fallen into adverse circumstances, and was obliged to eat the bread of charity in his old age. the facts of this sad case coming to the knowledge of mr. hughes and others, an appeal, written by mr. hughes, was published in the photographic news, december th, . as mr. hughes and myself had benefitted by mr. goddard's improvement in the practice of the daguerreotype, we took an active interest in the matter, and, by canvassing friends and customers, succeeded in obtaining a considerable proportion of the sum total subscribed for the relief of mr. goddard. enough was obtained to make him independent and comfortable for the remainder of his life. mr. t. r. williams was appointed almoner by the committee, but his office was not for long, as mr. goddard died dec. th, . on the th of april, , i attended a meeting of the photographic society at king's college, and heard mr. j. w. swan read a paper on his new patent carbon process. it was a crowded meeting, and an intense interest pervaded the minds of both members and visitors. the examples exhibited were very beautiful, but at that early stage they began to show a weakness, which clung to the collodion support as long as it was employed. some of the specimens which i obtained at the time left the mounting boards, and the films were torn asunder by opposing forces, and the pictures completely destroyed. i have one in my possession now in that unsatisfactory condition. mr. swan's process was undoubtedly an advance in the right direction, but it was still imperfect, and required further improvement. many of the members failed to see where the patent rights came in, and mr. swan himself appeared to have qualms of conscience on the subject, for he rather apologetically announced in his paper, that he had obtained a patent, though his first intention was to allow it to be practised without any restriction. i think myself it would have been wiser to have adhered to his original intention; however, it was left to others to do more to advance the carbon process than he did. during this year ( ) an effort was made to establish a claim of priority in favour of thomas wedgwood for the honour of having made photographs on silver plates, and negatives on paper, and examples of such alleged early works were submitted to the inspection of members of the photographic society, but it was most satisfactorily determined that the photographs on the silver plates were weak daguerreotypes of a posterior date, and that the photographic prints, on paper, of a breakfast table were from a calotype negative taken by fox talbot. messrs. henneman and dr. diamond proved this most conclusively. other prints then exhibited, and alleged to be photographs, were nothing but prints from metal plates, produced by some process of engraving, probably aquatint. i saw some of the examples at the time, and, as recently as nov. st, , i have seen some of them again, and i think the "breakfast table" and a view of "wedgwood's pottery" are silver prints, though very much faded, from calotype negatives. the other prints, such as the "piper" and "a vase," are from engraved plates. no one can desire to lessen thomas wedgwood's claims to pre-eminence among the early experimentalists with chloride of silver, but there cannot now be any denial to the claims of the rev. j. b. reade in , and fox talbot in , of being the earliest producers of photographic negatives on paper, from which numerous prints could be obtained. the wothlytype printing process was introduced to the notice of photographers and the public this year: first, by a blatant article in the _times_, which was both inaccurate and misleading, for it stated that both nitrate of silver and hyposulphite of soda were dispensed within the process; secondly, by the issue of advertisements and prospectuses for the formation of a limited liability company. i went to the patent office and examined the specification, and found that both nitrate of silver and hyposulphite of soda were essential to the practice of the process, and that there was no greater guarantee of permanency in the use of the wothlytype than in ordinary silver printing. on march th, , george wharton simpson, editor and proprietor of the _photographic news_, read a paper at a meeting of the photographic society on a new printing process with collodio-chloride of silver on paper. many beautiful examples were exhibited, but the method never became popular, chiefly on account of the troubles of toning with sulpho-cyanide of ammonium. the same or a similar process, substituting gelatine for collodion, is known and practised now under the name of aristotype, but not very extensively, because of the same defects and difficulties attending the simpsontype. another new method of positive printing was introduced this year by mr. john m. burgess, of norwich, which he called "eburneum." it was not in reality a new mode of printing, but an ingenious application of the collodion transfer, or stripping process. the back of the collodion positive print was coated with a mixture of gelatine and oxide of zinc, and when dry stripped from the glass. the finished picture resembled a print on very fine ivory, and possessed both delicate half-tones and brilliant shadows. i possess some of them now, and they are as beautiful as they were at first, after a lapse of nearly quarter of a century. it was a very troublesome and tedious process, and i don't think many people practised it. certainly i don't know any one that does so at the present time. this was the year of the dublin international exhibition. i went to see it and report thereon, and my opinions and criticisms of the photographic and other departments will be found and may be perused in "contributions to photographic literature." on the whole, it was a very excellent exhibition, and i thoroughly enjoyed the trip. a new carbon process by m. carey lea was published this year. the ingredients were similar to those employed by swan and others, but differently handled. no pigment was mixed with the gelatine before exposure, but it was rubbed on after exposure and washing, and with care any colour or number of colours might be applied, and so produce a polychromatic picture, but i don't know any one that ever did so. i think it could easily be applied to making photographic transfers to blocks for the use of wood engravers. december th, , mr. walter woodbury demonstrated and exhibited examples of the beautiful mechanical process that bears his name to the members of the photographic society. the process was not entirely photographic. the province of photography ceased on the production of the gelatine relief. all that followed was strictly mechanical. it is somewhat singular that a majority of the inventions and modifications of processes that were introduced this year related to carbon and permanency. thursday, january th, , i read, at the south london photographic society, a paper on "errors in pictorial backgrounds." as the paper, as well as the discussion thereon, is published _in extenso_ in the journals of the period, it is not necessary for me to repeat it here, but i may as well state briefly my reasons for reading the paper. at that time pictorial backgrounds and crowded accessories were greatly in use, and it was seldom, if ever, that the horizontal line of the painted background, and the horizontal line indicated by the position of the camera, coincided. consequently the photographic pictures obtained under such conditions invariably exhibited this incongruity, and it was with the hope of removing these defects, or violations of art rules and optical laws, that i ventured to call attention to the subject and suggest a remedy. a little later, i wrote an article, "notes on pictures in the national gallery," which was published in the _photographic news_ of march th, in support of the arguments already adduced in my paper on "errors in pictorial backgrounds," and i recommend every portrait photographer to study those pictures. february th i was elected a member of the photographic society of london. quite a sensation was created in the spring of this year by the introduction of what were termed "magic photographs." some one was impudent enough to patent the process, although it was nothing but a resurrection of what was published in by sir john herschel, which consisted of bleaching an ordinary silver print to invisibility with bichloride of mercury, and restoring it by an application of hyposulphite of soda. i introduced another form of magic photograph, in various monochromatic colours, similar to sir john herschel's cyanotype, and i have several of these pictures in my possession now, both blue, purple, and red, dated , as bright and beautiful as they were the day they were made. but the demand for these magic photographs was suddenly stopped by someone introducing indecent pictures. in all probability these objectionable pictures came from abroad, and the most scrupulous of the home producers suffered in consequence, as none of the purchasers could possibly know what would appear when the developer or redeveloper was applied. on june th mr. f. w. hart read a paper, and demonstrated before the south london photographic society, on his method of rendering silver prints permanent. "a consummation devoutly to be wished," but unfortunately some prints in my possession that were treated to a bath of his eliminator show unmistakable signs of fading. in my opinion, there is nothing so efficacious as warm water washing, and some prints that i toned, fixed, and washed myself over thirty years ago, are perfect. the "cabinet" form of portrait was introduced this year by mr. f. r. window, and it eventually became the fashionable size, and almost wiped out the carte-de-visite. the latter, however, had held its position for about nine years, and the time for change had arrived. beyond the introduction of the cabinet portrait, nothing very novel or ingenious had been introduced, but a very good review of photography up to date appeared in the october issue of the _british quarterly review_. this was a very ably written article from the pen of my old friend, mr. george wharton simpson. no radical improvement or advance in photography was made in , but m. adam-salomon created a little sensation by exhibiting some very fine samples of his work in the paris exhibition. they were remarkable chiefly for their pose, lighting, retouching, and tone. a few of them were afterwards seen in london, and that of dr. diamond was probably the most satisfactory. m. salomon was a sculptor in paris, and his art training and feeling in that branch of the fine arts naturally assisted him in photography. the duc de luynes's prize of , francs for the best mechanical printing process was this year awarded to m. poitevin. in making the award, the commission gave a very excellent résumé of all that had previously been done in that direction, and endeavoured to show why they thought m. poitevin entitled to the prize; but for all that i think it will be difficult to prove that any of m. poitevin's mechanical processes ever came into use. on june th, in the absence of mr. jabez hughes, i read his paper, "about leptographic printing," before the south london photographic society. this leptographic paper was claimed to be the invention of two photographers in madrid, but it was evidently only a modification of mr. simpson's collodio-chloride of silver process. about this period i got into a controversy--on very different subjects, it is true--but it made me determine to abandon for the future the practice of writing critical notices under the cover of a _nom de plume_. i had, under the _nom de plume_ of "union jack," written in favour of a union of _all_ the photographic societies then in london. this brought mr. a. h. wall down on me, but that did not affect me very much, nor was i personally distressed about the other, but i thought it best to abandon a dangerous practice. under the _nom de plume_ of "lux graphicus" i had contributed a great many articles to the _photographic news_, and, in a review of the society's exhibition, published nov. nd, , i expressed an honest opinion on mr. robinson's picture entitled "sleep." it was not so favourable and flattering, perhaps, as he would have liked, but it was an honest criticism, and written without any intention of giving pain or offence. the close of this year was marked by a very sad catastrophe intimately associated with photography, by the death of mr. mawson at newcastle-on-tyne; he was killed by an explosion of nitro-glycerine. mr. mawson, in conjunction with mr. j. w. swan, was one of the earliest and most successful manufacturers of collodion, and, as early as , i made negatives with that medium, though i did not employ collodion solely until , when i abandoned for ever the beautiful and fascinating daguerreotype. on friday, december th, antoine jean françois claudet, f.r.s., &c., &c., died suddenly in the st year of his age. he was one of the earliest workers and improvers of the daguerreotype process in this country, and one of the last to relinquish its practice in london. mr. claudet bought a share of the english patent of mr. berry, the agent, while he was a partner in the firm of claudet and houghton in , and commenced business as a professional daguerreotypist soon afterwards. before the introduction of bromine as an accelerator by mr. goddard, mr. claudet had discovered that chloride of iodine increased the sensitiveness of the daguerreotype plate, and he read a paper on that subject before the royal society in . he was a member of the council of the photographic society for many years, and a copious contributor to its proceedings, as well as to photographic literature. in his intercourse with his _confrères_ he was always courteous, and when i called upon him in he received me most kindly, i met him again in glasgow, and many times in london, and always considered him the best specimen of a frenchman i had ever met. towards his clients he was firm, respectful, and sometimes generous, as the following characteristic anecdote will show. he had taken a portrait of a child, which, for some reason or other, was not liked, and demurred at. he said, "ah! well, the matter is easily settled. i'll keep the picture, and return your money"; and so he thought the case was ended; but by-and-by the picture was asked for, and he refused to give it up. proceedings were taken to compel him to surrender it, which he defended. in stating the case, the counsel remarked that the child was dead. mr. claudet immediately stopped the counsel and the case by exclaiming, "ah! they did not tell me that before. now, i make the parents a present of the portrait." i am happy to say that i possess a good portrait of mr. claudet, taken in november, , with his _topaz lens_, / -inch aperture. strangely enough, mr. claudet's studio in regent street was seriously damaged by fire within a month of his death, and all his valuable daguerreotypes, negatives, pictures, and papers destroyed. on april th, , i exhibited, at the south london photographic society, examples of nearly all the types of photography then known, amongst them a daguerreotype by daguerre, many of which are now in the science department of the south kensington museum, and were presented by me to form the nucleus of a national exhibition of the rise and progress of photography, for which i received the "thanks of the lords of the council on education," dated april nd, . there was nothing very remarkable done in to forward the interests or development of photography, yet that year narrowly escaped being made memorable, for mr. w. h. harrison, now editor of the _photographic news_, actually prepared, exposed, and developed a gelatino-bromide dry plate, but did not pursue the matter further. also passed without adding much to the advancement of photography, and i fear the same may be said of , with the exception of the publication, by thos. sutton, of gaudin's gelatino-iodide process. on february st, , robert j. bingham died in brussels. when the daguerreotype process was first introduced to this country, mr. bingham was chemical assistant to prof. faraday at the royal institution. he took an immediate interest in the wonderful discovery, and made an improvement in the application of bromine vapour, which entitled him to the gratitude of all daguerreotypists. when mr. goddard applied bromine to the process, he employed "bromine water," but, in very hot weather, the aqueous vapour condensed upon the surface of the plate, and interrupted the sensitising process. mr. bingham obviated this evil by charging hydrate of lime with bromine vapour, which not only removed the trouble of condensation, but increased the sensitiveness of the prepared plate. this was a great boon to all daguerreotypists, and many a time i thanked him mentally long before i had the pleasure of meeting him in london. mr. bingham also wrote a valuable manual on the daguerreotype and other photographic processes, which was published by geo. knight and sons, foster lane, cheapside. some years before his death, mr. bingham settled in paris, and became a professional photographer, but chiefly as a publisher of photographic copies of paintings and drawings. abel niépce de st. victor, best known without the abel, died suddenly on april th, . born at st. cyr, july th, . after passing through his studies at the military school of saumur, he became an officer in a cavalry regiment. being studious and fond of chemistry, he was fortunate enough to effect some saving to the government in the dyeing of fabrics employed in making certain military uniforms, for which he received compensation and promotion. his photographic fame rests upon two achievements: firstly, his application of iodized albumen to glass for negative purposes in , a process considerably in advance of talbot's paper negatives, but it was quickly superseded by collodion; secondly, his researches on "heliochromy," or photography in natural colours. niépce de st. victor, like others before and since, was only partially successful in obtaining some colour reproductions, but totally unsuccessful in rendering those colours permanent. in proof of both these statements i will quote from the juror's report, on the subject, of the international exhibition, :--"the obtaining of fixed natural colours by means of photography still remains, as was before remarked, to be accomplished; but the jurors have pleasure in recording that some very striking results of experiments in this direction were forwarded for their inspection by a veteran in photographic research and discovery, m. niépce de st. victor. these, about a dozen in number, - / by - / inches, consisted of reproductions of prints of figures with parti-coloured draperies. each tint in the pictures exhibited, they were assured, was a faithful reproduction of the original. amongst the colours were blues, yellows, reds, greens, &c., all very vivid. some of the tints gradually faded and disappeared in the light whilst under examination, and a few remained permanent for some hours. the possibility of producing natural colour thus established is a fact most interesting and important, and too much praise cannot be awarded to the skilful research which has been to this extent crowned with success. the jury record their obligations to their chairman, baron gross, at whose personal solicitation they were enabled to obtain a sight of these remarkable pictures." such was the condition of photography in natural colours towards the close of , and so it is now after a lapse of twenty-eight years. in several examples of niépce de st. victor's heliochromy were sent to the photographic society of london, and i had them in my hands and examined them carefully in gas-light; they could not be looked at in daylight at all. i certainly saw _faint_ traces of colour, but whether i saw them in their original vigour, or after they had faded, i cannot say. all i can say is that the tints were very feeble, and that they had not been obtained _through the lens_. they were, at their best, only contact impressions of coloured prints obtained after many hours of exposure. the examples had been sent to the photographic society with the hope of selling them for the benefit of the widow, but the society was too wise to invest in such evanescent property. however, a subscription was raised both in england and france for the benefit of the widow and orphans of niépce de st. victor. december, , was marked by the death of one of the eminent pioneers of photography. on the th, the rev. j. b. reade passed away at bishopsbourne rectory, canterbury, in the sixty-ninth year of his age. i have already, i think, established mr. reade's claim to the honour of being the first to produce a photographic negative on paper developed with gallic acid, and i regret that i am unable to trace the existence of those two negatives alluded to in mr. reade's published letter. mr. reade told me himself that he gave those two historic negatives to dr. diamond, when secretary to the photographic society, to be lodged with that body for safety, proof, and reference; but they are not now in the possession of the photographic society, and what became of them no one knows. several years ago i caused enquiries to be made, and dr. diamond was written to by mr. h. baden pritchard, then secretary, but dr. diamond's reply was to the effect that he had no recollection of them, and that mr. reade was given to hallucinations. considering the positions that mr. reade held, both in the world and various learned and scientific societies, i don't think that he could ever have been afflicted with such a mental weakness. he was a clergyman in the church of england, an amateur astronomer and microscopist, one of the fathers of photography, and a member of council of the photographic society, and president of the microscopical society at the time of his death. i had many a conversation with him years ago, and i never detected either weakness or wandering in his mind; therefore i could not doubt the truth of his statement relative to the custodianship of the first paper negative that was taken through the lens of a solar microscope. mr. reade was a kind and affable man; and, though a great sufferer on his last bed of sickness, he wrote loving, grateful, and christian like letters to many of his friends, some of which i have seen, and i have photographed his signature to one of them to attach to his portrait, which i happily possess. in the coming revolution in photography was faintly heralded by dr. r. l. maddox, publishing in the _british journal of photography_, "an experiment with gelatino-bromide." successful as the experiment was it did not lead to any extensive adoption of the process at the time, but it did most unquestionably exhibit the capabilities of gelatino-bromide. as that communication to the _british journal of photography_ contained and first made public the working details of a process that was destined to supersede collodion, i will here insert a copy of dr. maddox's letter _in extenso_. "an experiment with gelatino-bromide. "the collodio-bromide processes have for some time held a considerable place in the pages of the _british journal of photography_, and obtained such a prominent chance of being eventually the process of the day in the dry way, that a few remarks upon the application of another medium may perhaps not be uninteresting to the readers of the journal, though little more can be stated than the result of somewhat careless experiments tried at first on an exceedingly dull afternoon. it is not for a moment supposed to be new, for the chances of novelty in photography are small, seeing the legion of ardent workers, and the ground already trodden by its devotees, so that for outsiders little remains except to take the result of labours so industriously and largely circulated through these pages, and be thankful. "gelatine, which forms the medium of so many printing processes, and which doubtless is yet to form the base of many more, was tried in the place of collodion in this manner:--thirty grains of nelson's gelatine were washed in cold water, then left to swell for several hours, when all the water was poured off, and the gelatine set in a wide-mouthed bottle, with the addition of four drachms of pure water, and two small drops of _aqua regia_, and then placed in a basin of hot water for solution. eight grains of bromide of cadmium dissolved in half a drachm of pure water were now added, and the solution stirred gently. fifteen grains of nitrate of silver were next dissolved in half a drachm of water in a test tube, and the whole taken into the dark room, when the latter was added to the former slowly, stirring the mixture the whole time. this gave a fine milky emulsion, and was left for a little while to settle. a few plates of glass well cleaned were next levelled on a metal plate put over a small lamp; they were, when fully warmed, coated by the emulsion spread to the edges by a glass rod, then returned to their places, and left to dry. when dry, the plates had a thin opalescent appearance, and the deposit of bromide seemed to be very evenly spread in the substance of the substratum. "these plates were printed from, in succession, from different negatives, one of which had been taken years since on albumen with oxgall and diluted phosphoric acid, sensitised in an acid nitrate, and developed with pyrogallic acid, furnishing a beautiful warm brown tint. "the exposure varied from the first plate thirty seconds to a minute and a half, as the light was very poor. no vestige of an outline appeared on removal from the printing-frame. the plates were dipped in water to the surface, and over them was poured a plain solution of pyrogallic acid, four grains to the ounce of water. soon a faint but clean image was seen, which gradually intensified up to a certain point, then browned all over; hence, the development in the others was stopped at an early stage, the plate washed, and the development continued with fresh pyro, with one drop of a ten-grain solution of nitrate of silver, then re-washed and cleared by a solution of hyposulphite of soda. "the resulting tints were very delicate in detail, of a colour varying between a bistre and olive tint, and after washing dried with a brilliant surface. the colour of the print varied greatly according to the exposure. from the colour and delicacy it struck me that with care to strain the gelatine, or use only the clearest portion, such a process might be utilised for transparencies for the lantern, and the sensitive plates be readily prepared. "some plates were fumed with ammonia; these fogged under the pyro solution. the proportions set down were only taken at random, and are certainly not as sensitive as might be procured under trials. the remaining emulsion was left shut up in a box in the dark room, and tried on the third day after preparation; but the sensibility had, it seems, greatly diminished, though the emulsion, when rendered fluid by gently warming, appeared creamy, and the bromide thoroughly suspended. some of this was now applied to some pieces of paper by means of a glass rod, and hung up to surface dry, then dried fully on the warmed level plate, and treated as sensitised paper. "one kind of paper, that evidently was largely adulterated by some earthy base, dried without any brilliancy, but gave, under exposure of a negative for thirty seconds, very nicely toned prints when developed with a weak solution of pyro. some old albumenized paper of marion's was tried, the emulsion being poured both on the albumen side, and, in other pieces, on the plain side; but the salting evidently greatly interfered, the resulting prints being dirty-looking and greyed all over. "these papers, fumed with ammonia, turned grey under development. they printed very slowly, even in strong sunlight, and were none of them left long enough to develop into a full print. after washing they were cleared by weak hypo solution. it is very possible the iron developer may be employed for the glass prints, provided the acidification does not render the gelatine soft under a development. "the slowness may depend in part on the proportions of bromide and nitrate not being correctly balanced, especially as the ordinary, not the anhydrous, bromide was used, and on the quantities being too small for the proportion of gelatine. whether the plates would be more sensitive if used when only surface dry is a question of experiment; also, whether other bromides than the one tried may not prove more advantageous in the presence of the neutral salt resulting from the decomposition, or the omission or decrease of the quantity of _aqua regia_. very probably also the development by gallic acid and acetate of lead developer may furnish better results than the plain pyro. "as there will be no chance of my being able to continue these experiments, they are placed in their crude state before the readers of the journal, and may eventually receive correction and improvement under abler hands. so far as can be judged, the process seems quite worth more carefully conducted experiments, and, if found advantageous, adds another handle to the photographer's wheel. r. l. maddox, m.d." after perusing the above, it will be evident to any one that dr. maddox very nearly arrived at perfection in his early experiments. the slowness that he complains of was caused entirely by not washing the emulsion to discharge the excess of bromide, and the want of density was due to the absence of a restrainer and ammonia in the developer. he only made positive prints from negatives; but the same emulsion, had it been washed, would have made negatives in the camera in much less time. thus, it will be seen, that dr. maddox, like the rev. j. b. reade, threw the ball, and others caught it; for the gelatine process, as given by dr. maddox, is only modified, not altered, by the numerous dry plate and gelatino-bromide paper manufacturers of to-day. meanwhile collodion held the field, and many practical men thought it would never be superseded. in this year sir john herschel died at a ripe old age, seventy-nine. photographers should revere his memory, for it was he who made photography practical by publishing his observation that hyposulphite of soda possessed the power of dissolving chloride and other salts of silver. [illustration: fourth period. gelatine. dr. r. l. maddox. _from photograph by j. thomson._ gelatino-bromide emulsion . r. kennett. _from photograph by j. werge, ._ gelatino-bromide pellicle dry-plates ] fourth period. gelatine successful. in , mr. j. burgess, of peckham, london, advertised his gelatino-bromide emulsion, but as it would not keep in consequence of decomposition setting in speedily, it was not commercial, and therefore unsuccessful. it evidently required the addition of some preservative, or antiseptic, to keep it in a workable condition, and mr. j. traill taylor, editor of the _british journal of photography_, made some experiments in that direction by adding various essential oils; but mr. gray--afterwards the well-known dry plate maker--was most successful in preserving the gelatine emulsion from decomposition by the addition of a little oil of peppermint, but it was not the emulsion form of gelatino-bromide of silver that was destined to secure its universal adoption and success. at a meeting of the south london photographic society, held in the large room of the society of arts, john street, adelphi, mr. burgess endeavoured to account for his emulsion decomposing, but he did not suggest a remedy, so the process ceased to attract further attention. mr. kennett was present, and it was probably mr. burgess's failure with emulsion that induced him to make his experiments with a sensitive pellicle. be that as it may, mr. kennett did succeed in making a workable gelatino-bromide pellicle, and obtained a patent for it on the th of november, . i procured some, and tried it at once. it gave excellent results, but preparing the plates was a messy and sticky operation, which i feared would be prejudicial to its usefulness and success. this i reported to mr. kennett immediately, and found that his own experience corroborated mine, for he had already received numerous complaints of this objection, while others failed through misapprehension of his instruction; and very comical were some of these misinterpretations. one attempted to coat the plates with the _end_ of the stirring-rod, while another set them to drain in a rack, and those that did succeed in coating the plates properly, invariably spoiled them by over-exposure or in development. he was overwhelmed with correspondence and visitors, and to lessen his troubles i strongly advised him to prepare the plates himself, and sell them in that form ready for use. he took my advice, and in march, , issued his first batch of gelatino-bromide dry plates; but even that did not remove his vexation of spirit, nor lessen his troublesome correspondence. most of his clients were sceptical, and exposed the plates too long, or worked under wet-plate conditions in their dark rooms, and fog and failure were the natural consequences. most, if not all, of his clients at that time were amateurs, and it was not until years after, that professional photographers adopted the dry and abandoned the wet process. in fact, it is doubtful if the profession ever tried mr. kennett's dry plates at all, for it was not until j. w. swan and wratten and wainwright issued their dry plates, that i could induce any professional photographer to give these new plates a trial, and i have a very vivid recollection of the scepticism and conservatism exhibited by the most eminent photographers on the first introduction of gelatino-bromide dry plates. for example, when i called upon messrs. elliott and fry to introduce to their notice these rapid plates, i saw mr. fry, and told him how rapid they were. he was incredulous, and smilingly informed me that i was an enthusiast. it was a dull november morning, , and i challenged him, not to fight, but to give me an opportunity of producing as good a picture in quarter the time they were giving in the studio, no matter what that time was. this rather astonished him, and he invited me up to the studio to prove my statement. i ascertained that they were giving _ninety_ seconds--a minute and a half!--on a wet collodion plate, by . i knew their size, and had it with me, as well as the developer. mr. fry stood and told the operator, mr. benares, to take the time from me. looking at the quality of the light, i gave _twenty_ seconds, but mr. benares was disposed to be incredulous also, and, after counting twenty, went on with "one for the plate, and one more for mr. werge," but i told him to stop, or i would have nothing more to do with the business. the plate had twenty-two or three seconds' exposure, and when i developed in their dark room, it was just those two or three seconds over-exposed. nevertheless, mr. fry brought me a print from that negative in a few days, and acknowledged that it was one of the finest negatives he had ever seen. they were convinced, and adopted the new dry plates immediately. but it was not so with all, for many of the most prominent photographers would not at first have anything to do with gelatine plates, and remained quite satisfied with collodion; but the time came when they were glad to change their opinion, and give up the wet for the dry plates; but it was a long time, for mr. kennett introduced his dry plates in , and it was not until and that professional photographers had adopted and taken kindly to gelatine plates generally. with amateurs it was very different, and many of their exhibits in the various exhibitions were from gelatine negatives obtained upon plates prepared by themselves, or commercial makers. in the london photographic society's exhibition of , and following, several prints from gelatine negatives were exhibited, and in they were pretty general. among the many exhibited that year was mr. gale's swallow-picture, which created at the time a great deal of interest and controversy, and mr. gale was invited over and over again to acknowledge whether the appearance of the bird was the result of skill, accident, or "trickery;" but i don't think that he ever gratified anyone's curiosity on the subject. i can, however, state very confidently that he was innocent of any "trickery" in introducing the bird by double printing, for the late mr. dudley radcliffe told me at the time that he (mr. radcliffe) not only prepared the plate, but developed the negative, and was surprised to see the bird there. this may have been the reason why mr. gale was so reticent on the subject; but i am anticipating, and must go back to preserve my plan of chronological progression. in a considerable impetus was given to carbon printing, both for small work and enlarging by the introduction of the lambertype process. similar work had been done before, but, as mr. leon lambert used to say, he made it "facile"; and he certainly did so, and induced many photographers to adopt his beautiful, but troublesome, chromotype process. there were two lamberts in the tent--one a very clever manipulator, the other a clever advertiser--and between the two they managed to sell a great many licences, and carry away a considerable sum of money. i was intimate with them both while they remained in england, and they were both pleasant and honourable men. on january th, , o. g. rejlander died, much to the regret of all who took an interest in the art phase of photography. rejlander has himself told us how, when, and where he first fell in love with photography. in he was not impressed with the daguerreotypes at the great exhibition, nor with "reddish landscape photographs" that he saw in regent street; but when in rome, in , he was struck with the beauty of some photographs of statuary, which he bought and studied, and made up his mind to study photography as soon as he returned to england. how he did that will be best told by himself:--"in , having inquired in london for the best teacher, i was directed to henneman. we agreed for so much for three or five lessons; but, as i was in a hurry to get back to the country, i took all the lessons in one afternoon! three hours in the calotype and waxed-paper process, and half-an-hour sufficed for the collodion process!! he spoke, i wrote; but i was too clever. it would have saved me a year or more of trouble and expense had i attended carefully to the rudiments of the art for a month." his first attempt at "double printing" was exhibited in london in , and was named in the catalogue, _group printed from three negatives_. again, i must allow mr. rejlander to describe his reasons for persevering in the art of "double printing":--"i had taken a group of two. they were expressive and composed well. the light was good, and the chemistry of it successful. a very good artist was staying in the neighbourhood, engaged on some commission. he called; saw the picture; was very much delighted with it, and so was i. before he left my house he looked at the picture again, and said it was 'marvellous,' but added, 'now, if i had drawn that, i should have introduced another figure between them, or some light object, to keep them together. you see, there is where you photographers are at fault. good morning!' i snapped my fingers after he left--but not at him--and exclaimed aloud, 'i can do it!' two days afterwards i called at my artist-friend's hotel as proud as--anybody. he looked at my picture and at me, and took snuff twice. he said, 'this is another picture.' 'no,' said i, 'it is the same, except with the addition you suggested.' 'never,' he exclaimed; 'and how is it possible? you should patent that!'" rejlander was too much of an artist to take anything to the patent office. when i first saw his celebrated composition picture, "the two ways of life," in the art treasures exhibition at manchester in , i wondered how he could have got so many men and women to become models, and be able to sit or stand in such varied and strained positions for the length of time then required by the wet collodion process; but my wonder ceased when i became acquainted with him in after years, and ascertained that he had the command of a celebrated troupe, who gave _tableaux vivants_ representations of statues and groups from paintings under the direction and name of "madame wharton's _pose plastique_ troupe." what became of the original "two ways of life" i do not know, but the late henry greenwood possessed it at the time of rejlander's death, for i remember endeavouring to induce mr. greenwood to allow it to be offered as a bait to the highest contributor to the rejlander fund; but mr. greenwood's characteristic reply was, "take my purse, but leave me my 'two ways of life.'" mr. rejlander kindly gave me a reduced copy of his "two ways of life," and many other examples of his works, both in the nude and semi-nude. fortunately rejlander did not confine himself to such productions, but made hundreds of draped studies, both comic and serious, such as "ginx's baby," "did she?," "beyond the bible," and "homeless." where are they all now? i fear most of them have faded away, for rejlander was a somewhat careless operator, and he died before the more permanent process of platinum printing was introduced. when rejlander died, his widow tried to make a living by printing from his negatives, but i fear they soon got scattered. rejlander was a genial soul and a pleasant companion, and he had many kind friends among members of the solar club, as well as other clubs with which he was associated. there is one more death in this year to be recorded, that of thomas sutton, b.a., the founder and for many years editor of _photographic notes_, and the inventor of a panoramic camera of a very clumsy character that bore his name, and that was all. mr. sutton was a very clever man with rather warped notions, and in the management of his _photographic notes_ he descended to the undignified position of a caricaturist, and published illustrations of an uncomplimentary description, some of which were offensive in the extreme, and created a great deal of irritation in some minds at the time. in carey lea gave his ferrous-oxalate developer to the world, but it was not welcomed by many english photographers for negative development, though it possessed many advantages over alkaline pyro. it was, however, generally employed by foreign photographers, and is now largely in use by english photographers, especially for the development of bromide paper, either for contact printing or enlargements. in the early part of this year, messrs. wratten and wainwright commenced to make gelatino-bromide dry plates, and during the hot summer months mr. wratten found it necessary to precipitate the gelatine emulsion with alcohol. this removed the necessity of dialysing, and helped to lessen the evils of decomposition and "frilling." the most noticeable death in the photographic world of this year was that of henry fox talbot. he was born on february the th, , and died september th, , thus attaining a ripe old age. i am not disposed to deny his claims to the honour of doing a great deal to forward the advancement of photography, but what strikes me very much is the mercenary spirit in which he did it, especially when i consider the position he occupied, and the pecuniary means at his command. in the first place, he rushed to the patent office with his gallo-nitrate developer, and then every little improvement or modification that he afterwards made was carefully protected by patent rights. with a churlishness of spirit and narrow-mindedness it is almost impossible to conceive or forgive, he tried his utmost to stop the formation of the london photographic society, and it was only after pressing solicitations from sir charles eastlake, president of the royal academy, and first president of the london photographic society, that he withdrew his objections. the late peter le neve foster, secretary of the society of arts, told me this years after, and when it was proposed to make fox talbot an honorary member of the photographic society, mr. foster was opposed to the proposition. then the action that he brought against sylvester laroche was unjustifiable, for there really was no resemblance between the collodion and calotype means of making a negative, except in the common use of the camera, and the means of making prints was the same as that employed by thomas wedgwood, while the fixing process with hyposulphite of soda was first resorted to by the rev. j. b. reade, on the published information of sir john herschel. on march th, , mr. charles bennett published his method of increasing the sensitiveness of gelatino-bromide plates. it may be briefly described as a prolonged cooking of the gelatine emulsion at a temperature of °, and, according to mr. bennett's experience, the longer it was cooked the more sensitive it became, with a corresponding reduction of density when the prepared plates were exposed and developed. april th of this year mr. j. a. spencer died, after a lingering illness, of cancer in the throat. mr. spencer was, at one period in the history of photography, the largest manufacturer of albumenized paper in this country, and carried on his business at shepherd's bush. in he told me that he broke about , eggs daily, merely to obtain the whites or albumen. the yolks being of no use to him, he sold them, when he could, to glove makers, leather dressers, and confectioners, but they could not consume all he offered for sale, and he buried the rest in his garden until his neighbours complained of the nuisance, so that it became ultimately a very difficult thing for him to dispose of his waste yolks in any manner. after the introduction of swan's improved carbon process, he turned his attention to the manufacture of carbon tissue, and in a short time he became one of the partners in the autotype company, and the name of the firm at that period was spencer, sawyer, and bird; but he ceased to be a partner some time before his death. at the south london technical meeting, held in the great hall of the society of arts, i exhibited my non-actinic developing tray, and developed a gelatine dry plate in the full blaze of gas-light. a short extract from a leader in the _photographic news_ of november th, , will be sufficient to satisfy all who are interested in the matter. "amongst the many ingenious appliances exhibited at the recent south london meeting, none excited greater interest than the developing tray of mr. werge, in which he developed in the full gas-light of the room a gelatine plate which had been exposed in the morning, and exhibited to the meeting the result in a clean transparency, without fog, or any trace of the abnormal action of light.... we can here simply record the fact, interesting to many, that the demonstration before the south london meeting was a perfect success." had a rather melancholy beginning, for on january the th, mr. george wharton simpson died suddenly, which was a great shock to every one that knew him. i had seen him only a few days before in his usual good health, and he looked far more like outliving me than i him; besides, he was a year my junior. the extract above quoted was the last time he honoured me by mentioning my name in his writings, though he had done so many times before, both pleasantly and in defending me against some ill-natured and unwarrantable attacks in the journal which he so ably conducted for twenty years. mungo ponton died august rd, . though his discovery did little or nothing towards the development of photography proper, it is impossible to allow him to pass out of this world without honourable mention, for his discovery led to the creation and development of numerous and important photo-mechanical industries, which give employment to numbers of men and women. when mungo ponton announced his discovery in the _edinburgh new philosophical journal_ in , he probably never dreamt that it would be of any commercial value, or he might have secured rights and royalties on all the patent processes that grew out of it; for poitevin's patent, , beauregard's, , pouncy's, and , j. w. swan's, , woodbury's, , all the autotype and lambertype and kindred patents, as well as all the forms of collotype printing, are based on ponton's discovery. but so it is: the originator of anything seldom seeks any advantage beyond the honour attached to the making of a great invention or discovery. it is generally the petty improvers that rush to the patent office to secure rights and emoluments, regardless of the claims of the founders of their patented processes. on march nd, , i delivered a lecture on "the origin, progress, and practice of photography" before the lewisham and blackheath scientific association, in which i reviewed the development of photography from its earliest inception up to date, exhibited examples, and gave demonstrations before a very attentive and apparently gratified audience. on the th may, , professor alfred swaine taylor died at his residence, , st. james's terrace, regent's park, in his seventy-fourth year. he was born on the th december, , at northfleet in kent, and in he entered as a student the united hospitals of guy's and st. thomas's, and became the pupil of sir astley cooper and mr. joseph henry green. his success as a student and eminence as a professor, lecturer, and author are too well-known to require any comment from me on those subjects, but it is not so generally known how much photography was indebted to him at the earliest period of its birth. in dr. taylor published his celebrated work, "the elements of medical jurisprudence," and in he published a pamphlet "on the art of photogenic drawing," in which he advocated the superiority of ammonia nitrate of silver over chloride of silver as a sensitiser, and hyposulphite of lime over hyposulphite of soda as a fixer, and the latter he advocated up to the year of his death, as the following letter will show:-- "_st. james's terrace, february th, ._ "mr. werge. "dear sir,--i have great pleasure in sending you for the purpose of your lecture some of my now ancient photographs. they show the early struggles which we had to make. the mounted drawings were all made with the _ammonia nitrate_ of silver; i send samples of the paper used. in general the paper selected contained chloride enough to form ammonia chloride. i send samples of unused paper, procured in --some salted afterwards. "all these drawings (which are dated) have been preserved by the hyposulphite of _lime_ (not soda). the hypo of lime does not form a definite compound with silver, like soda; hence it is easily washed away, and this is why the drawings are tolerably preserved after forty years. all are on plain paper. ammonia nitrate does not answer well on albumenized paper. the art of toning by gold was not known in those ancient days, but the faded drawings on _plain paper_, as you will see, admit of restoration, in dark purple, by placing them in a very dilute solution of chloride of gold, and putting them in the dark for twenty-four hours. the gold replaces the reduced silver and sulphide of silver. i send you the only copy i have of my photogenic drawing. five hundred were printed, and all were sold or given away. please take care of it. the loose photographs in red tape are scenes in egypt and greece, taken about from wax-paper negatives (camera views) made by mr. d. colnaghi, now english consul at florence. if you can call here i shall be glad to say more to you on the matter.--yours truly, "alfred s. taylor." the above was the last of many letters on photographic matters that i had received from dr. taylor, and the last time i had the pleasure of seeing him was when i returned the photographs and pamphlet alluded to therein, only a short time before his death. dr. taylor never lost his interest in photography, and was always both willing and pleased to enter into conversation on the subject. he had worked at photography through all its changes, despite his many professional engagements, from its dawn in , right up to the introduction of gelatino-bromide dry plates, and in he came and sat to me for his portrait on one of what he called "these wonderful dry plates," and watched the process of development with as much interest as any enthusiastic tyro would have done, and i am proud to say that i had the pleasure of taking the portrait and exhibiting the process of development of the latest aspect of photography to one of its most enthusiastic and talented pioneers. dr. taylor was a man of remarkable energy and versatility. he was a prolific writer and an admirable artist. on his walls were numerous beautiful drawings, and his windows were filled with charmingly illusive transparencies, all the work of his own hands; and once, when expressing my wonder that he could find time to do so many things, he remarked that "a man could always find time to do anything he wished if his heart was with his work." doubtless it is so, and his life and what he did in it were proofs of the truth and wisdom of his observation. hydroquinone as a developer was introduced this year by eder and toth, but it did not make much progress at first. it is more in use now, but i do not consider it equal to oxalate of iron. a considerable fillip was, this year, given to printing on gelatino-bromide paper by the issue of "the argentic gelatino-bromide worker's guide," published by w. t. morgan and co. the work was written by john burgess, who made and sold a bromide emulsion some years before, and it contained some excellent working instructions. in the book is a modification and simplification of j. m. burgess's eburneum process, though that process was the invention of mr. j. burgess, of norwich; but a recent application of the gelatino-bromide emulsion to celluloid slabs by mr. fitch has made the ivorytype process as simple and certain as the exposure and development of gelatino-bromide paper. on january th, , died mr. j. r. johnson, of pantascopic celebrity. mr. johnson was the inventor of many useful things, both photographic and otherwise. he was the chief promoter of the autotype company, in which the late mr. winsor was so deeply interested; and his double transfer process, published in , contributed greatly to the successful development and practice of the carbon process. the invention of the pantascopic camera, and what he did to forward the formation of the autotype company and simplify carbon printing, may be considered the sum total of his claim to photographic recognition. the chief photographic novelty of was mr. woodbury's stannotype process, a modification and simplification of what is best known as the woodburytype. instead of forcing the gelatine relief into a block of type-metal by immense pressure to make the matrix, he "faced" a reversed relief with tin-foil, thus obtaining a printing matrix in less time and at less expense. i have seen some very beautiful examples of this process, but somehow or other it is not much employed. the man who unquestionably made the first photographic portrait died on the th of january, , and i think it is impossible for me to notice that event without giving a brief description of the circumstance, even though i incur the risk of telling to some of my readers a tale twice told. when daguerre's success was first announced in the academy of science in , m. arago stated that daguerre had not yet succeeded in taking portraits, but that he hoped to do so soon. the details of the process were not published until july, and in the autumn of that year dr. draper succeeded in obtaining a portrait of his assistant, and that was the first likeness of a human being ever known to have been secured by photography. it would be interesting to know if that daguerreotype is in existence now. dr. draper was professor of chemistry in the university of new york, and as soon as the news of the discovery reached new york he fitted an ordinary spectacle lens into a cigar case, and commenced his experiments first by taking views out of a window, and afterwards by taking portraits. to shorten the time of exposure for the latter, he whitened the faces of his sitters. in april, , dr. draper and professor morse opened a portrait gallery on the top of the university buildings, new york, and did a splendid business among the very best people of the city at the minimum price of five dollars a portrait, and they would be very small even at that price. one more of the early workers in photography died this year on the th of march. louis alphonse poitevin was not a father of photography in a creative sense, but, like walter woodbury, an appropriater of photography in furthering the development of photo-mechanical printing. his first effort in that direction was to obtain copper plates, or moulds, from daguerreotype pictures by the aid of electrical deposits, and he discovered a method of photo-chemical engraving, for which he was awarded a silver medal by the société d'encouragement des arts, but the process was of no practical value. his chief and most valuable experiments were with gelatine and bichromates, and his labours in that direction were rewarded by the receipt of a considerable portion of the duc de luynes's prize for permanent photographic printing processes, which consisted of photo-lithography and collotype printing. born in , he was sixty-three years old when he died. a useful addition to the pyrogallic acid developer was this year given by mr. herbert b. berkeley. hitherto, nearly all pyro-developed gelatine plates were stained a deep yellow colour by the action of ammonia, but the use of sulphite of soda, as suggested by mr. berkeley, considerably lessened this evil. in , captain abney rendered a signal service to the members of the photographic society, and photographers in general, by publishing in the journal of the society a translation of captain pizzighelli and baron a. hubl's booklet on platinotype. after giving a _résumé_ of the early experiments with platinum by herschel, hunt, and others, the theory and practice of platinotype printing are clearly explained, and it was undoubtedly due to the publication of this translation that platinotype printing was very much popularised. in proof of the accuracy of this opinion, every following photographic exhibition showed an increasing number of exhibits in platinotype. no great novelty was brought into the world of photography in , but there were signs of a steady advance, and an increasing number of workers with dry plates. i should not, however, neglect allusion to the publication of dr. h. w. vogel's experiments with eosine, cyanocine, and other kindred bodies by which he increased the sensitiveness of both wet collodion and gelatine plates to the action of the yellow rays considerably (_vide_ journal of society, may th). the berlin society for the advancement of photography acquired and published these experiments for the general good, and yet tailfer and clayton obtained patent right monopolies for making eosine gelatine plates in france, austria, and england. this proceeding seems very much akin to the sharp practice displayed by mr. beard in securing a patent right monopoly in the daguerreotype process which was _given to the world_ by the french government in . germany very properly refused to grant a patent under these circumstances. on april th, , mr. walter bird read a paper at the meeting of the photographic society of great britain, "on the photographic reproductions of pictures in the national gallery," by a. braun et cie. i was present, and it appeared to me that the "effects" in some of the pictures exhibited were not produced by any chemical mode of translation of colour, but by some method of after-treatment of the negative which was more likely to be by skilled labour than by any chemical process. this belief induced me to read a paper at the next meeting--may th--"on the after-treatment of negatives," in which i showed what could be done both by chemical means and art-labour to assist photography in translating the monographic effects of colour more in accordance with the scale of luminosity adopted and adhered to by the most eminent engravers both in line and mezzotint. at the next meeting--june th--mr. j. r. sawyer reopened the discussion on the above subject by reading a paper and exhibiting examples of his own experiments, and mr. sawyer admitted that he was "bound to confess that while every effort should be made to discover chemical combinations which will give the utmost value that can be practicably obtained in the reproduction (?) of colours, yet that, in all probability, art--and art not inferior to that of a competent engraver--will be necessary to assist photography in rendering the very subtle combinations of colour that present themselves in a fine painting;" and colonel h. stuart wortley proved that the copy of turner's "old téméraire" was not only "retouched," but wrongly translated, as the various shades of yellow in the original picture were represented in the copy as if they had been all of the same tint. mr. sawyer made use of the phrase "reproduction of colours," but that was an error. he should have said--and undoubtedly meant--translation of colours, for photography is, unfortunately, incapable of reproducing colours. among mr. sawyer's examples was a curious and contradictory evidence that isochromatic plates translated yellow tints better than ordinary bromide plates, yet wrongly, for three different shades of yellow were translated as if they had been all one tint. i had noticed this myself when copying paintings and coloured prints, but in photographing the natural colours of fruits and flowers the result was different, and i attributed the mal-translation of pigment yellows to the amount of white with which they had been mixed by the painter. be that as it may, i always obtained the best translation from natural colours, and a group of flowers which contained a beautiful sulphur coloured dahlia illustrates and confirms this statement in a most remarkable and satisfactory manner. it is, therefore, the more to be regretted that there is any restriction placed upon the individual experiment and development of this interesting aspect of photography. this was the year of the international inventions exhibition, and the photographic feature of which was the historical collection exhibited by some of the members of the photographic society of great britain, and i think that collection was sufficiently interesting to justify my giving, in these pages, the entire list as published in the _photographic journal_:-- "we subjoin a full and complete statement of the whole of the exhibits, with the names of the contributors:-- "capt. abney, r.e., f.r.s.--papyrotype process, executed at the school of military engineering, chatham. "w. andrews--wet collodion negatives, intensified by the schlippes salt method. "t. and r. annan--calotype process (negative and print), taken by d. o. hill. "f. beasley, jun.--collodio-albumen negatives. "w. bedford--one of archer's first cameras for collodion process, stereoscopic arrangement by archer to fit a larger camera. "valentine blanchard--instantaneous views, wet collodion, - . illustrations of a method of enlargement, as proposed by v. blanchard, . modification of the brewster stereoscope by oliver wendell holmes. "bullock (bros.)--photo-lithography, (bullock's patent). "t. bolas, f.c.s.--detective camera, . negative photograph on bitumen, made insoluble by the action of light. carbon negatives stripped by wenderoth's process. "e. clifton--portrait of daguerre. crystallotype by j. r. whipple, . specimens from "pretsch" photo-galvano-graphic plates, . "t. s. davis, f.c.s.--a combined preparation and wash bottle for gelatine emulsion. adjustable gauge for cutting photographic glasses. "de la rue and co.--surface printing from blocks executed by paul pretsch, . "w. england--old daguerreotype developing box. old ditto sensitising box. old camera, , with rapid inside shutter. instantaneous views in paris, wet collodion, - . "edinburgh photographic society--archer's water lens. "james glaisher, f.r.s.--nature printing, taken over thirty years ago. "g. fowler jones--prints from negatives by le gray's ceroline process. "r. kennett--skaife's pistolgraph. globe lens. "dr. maddox--some of the earliest gelatino-bromide negatives, by the originator of the process, . "mudd and son--collodio-albumen negatives. "r. c. murray--early talbotype photographs, - . "h. neville--camera with sutton's patent panoramic lens. "mrs. h. baden pritchard--impressions from pewter plates of heliographic drawing, by nicéphore niépce, . original letter, by nicéphore niépce, sent to the royal society, . view of kew, taken by nicéphore niépce, . "h. p. robinson--heliographic picture, by nicéphore niépce, . photo-etched plate (from a print), by niépce in . heliograph (from a print), by niépce, . one of the earliest printing-frames, made for fox talbot's photogenic drawing, . the first nitrate of silver bath used by scott archer in his discovery of the collodion process, . "ross and co.--one of archer's earliest fluid lenses. the first photographic compound portrait lens, made by andrew ross, . photographic camera, believed to be the first made in england. "sands and hunter--old lens, with adjustable diaphragm, by archer, . old stereoscopic camera, with mechanical arrangement for transferring plates to and from the dark slide. "t. l. scowen--parallel bar stereoscopic camera. latimer clarke. "john spiller, f.c.s., f.i.c.--the first preserved plates (three to twenty-one days), . illustrations of the french pigeon post. "j. w. swan, f.c.s.--electro intaglios from carbon reliefs (thorwalsden's "night and morning"). photo-mezzotints were taken from these in gelatinous inks, , by j. w. swan, by the process now known as woodburytype. plaster cast from a carbon print of kenilworth, showing the relief, taken in , by j. w. swan. carbon prints twenty years old (photographed and printed in various colours by j. w. swan). old print (in red) by t. and r. annan, by swan's process. carbon print, twenty years old (printed in ) by double transfer. "b. b. turner--talbotype. negatives and prints from same. single lens made by andrew ross, . "j. werge--examples of printing with various metals on plain paper, - . the fathers of photography. examples and dates of the introduction of early photographs. daguerreotype, . collodion positive, . ambrotype, . ferrotype, . "w. willis, jun.--specimen of aniline process. historical illustrations of the development of the platinotype process. "w. b. woodbury--photo-relief printing process. woodbury mould and woodburytype print from same, . stannotype printing-press, with mould. machine for measuring reliefs. woodbury lantern slides. early daguerreotype on copper. positive photograph on glass. woodbury balloon camera. microscopical objects in plaster from gelatine reliefs. woodbury collographic process. woodbury photo-chromograph system, coloured from the back, . woodbury actinometer. despatch-box camera. watermark or photo-filigrain process. transparency on gelatine. the first specimen of woodbury printing exhibited, including the first mould printed from, and also proofs backed with luminous paint. "colonel h. stuart wortley--early photo-zincographs, - . experimental prints with uranium collodion, (modification of wothly's process). set of apparatus complete for making gelatine emulsion, and preparing gelatine plates, - . no. . apparatus for cutting gelatine plates either by hand-turning or treadle. no. . stove for keeping emulsion warm for any time at a fixed temperature in pure air, and for the final drying of the plates. no. . apparatus for squeezing emulsion out into water. no. . apparatus for mixing emulsion. instantaneous shutter, with horizontal motion by finger or pneumatic tube; adjustable wings for cutting off sky, and varying length of exposure." it is a very remarkable circumstance that none of the contributors to that historical collection could include among their interesting exhibits portraits of either nicéphore niépce or frederick scott archer. among my "fathers of photography" were portraits of daguerre, rev. j. b. reade, fox talbot, dr. alfred swaine taylor, and sir john herschel. it was suggested that those historical exhibits should be left at the close of the exhibition to form a nucleus to a permanent photographic exhibition in kensington museum. i readily contributed my exhibits towards such a laudable object. they were accepted, and these exhibits may be seen at any time in the west gallery of the science department of the south kensington museum. at the exhibition of the photographic society of great britain this year, i exhibited "wollaston's diaphragmatic shutter," in my opinion the best snap shutter that ever was invented, but it had two very serious drawbacks, for it was both _heavy_ and _expensive_. in more than usual interest was exhibited by photographers in what was misnamed as the isochromatic, or orthochromatic process, and this interest was probably created by the papers read and discussions that followed at the meetings of the photographic society in the previous year. messrs. dixon and gray--the latter a young man in the employ of messrs. dixon and son--commenced a series of experiments with certain dyes with the hope of obtaining a truer translation of colour when copying oil paintings or water-colour drawings, a class of work in which they were largely interested, and had obtained a considerable reputation for such reproductions as photography was then capable of rendering, and one of the results of these experiments was exhibited, and obtained a medal, at the exhibition of the photographic society in october. messrs. dixon and sons' exhibit was a very surprising one, and created quite a sensation, as nothing equal to it had ever been shown before. the subject was a drawing of a yellow flower and green leaves against a blue ground--the yellow the most luminous, the green next, and the blue the darkest. in ordinary wet or dry plate photography these effects would have been reversed, but by dixon and gray's process the relative luminosities of these three colours were almost perfectly translated. messrs. dixon and gray did not publish their process, but prepared existing gelatine dry plates by their method, and sold them at an enhanced price. they were not, however, permitted to supply anyone long, for b. j. edwards, who had obtained a monopoly of tailfer and clayton's patent rights in england, served them with an injunction, or threatened them with legal proceedings, so they discontinued preparing their orthochromatic plates for sale. by some special arrangement they were allowed to prepare plates for their own use, provided they used edwards' xl dry plates. it so happened, however, that this proviso was not a hardship, for mr. dixon told me himself that he had found edwards' plates the most suitable for their process. the hardship lay in not being able to apply their own discovery or preparation to any dry plates for sale for the public use and benefit. this prohibition was the more to be regretted because no other commercial isochromatic or orthochromatic plates had or have appeared to possess the same qualities of translation. the suppression of the dixon and gray preparation of plates is the more surprising when i find eosine is mentioned in the clayton and tailfer claim, whereas mr. dixon assured me that eosine was not employed by them. mr. edwards only acquired his monopoly and right to interfere with the commercial application of an independent discovery on nov. th, , and there is little to be gained in england by the publication of the experiments of such men as vogel, eder, ives, and abney, if one man can prevent all others making use of them. this year death removed from our midst one, and perhaps the greatest, of the martyrs of photography--sylvester laroche. this was the man that fought the battle for freedom from the shackles of monopoly. he won the fight, but lost his money, and the photographers of the day failed to make him a suitable recompense. there was one honourable exception, and mr. sylvester told me himself that mr. j. e. mayall gave him £ towards his legal expenses. laroche's surname was sylvester, but as there was a whole family of that name photographers, he added laroche to distinguish himself from his brothers. sylvester laroche was an artist, and worked very cleverly in pastel, but somehow or other he never appeared to prosper. nothing particular marked the photographic record of , but death was busy in removing men who had made their mark both in the early and later days of photography. first, on march th, robert hunt, the most copious writer on photography in its earlier period. as early as he published the first edition of his "researches on light," in which he was considerably assisted by sir john herschel, and it is astonishing to find what a mine of photographic information that early work contains. the next was colonel russell, better known, photographically, as major russell. he was born in , and died on may th, . he was best known for his tannin process and alkaline developer, with a bromide solution as a restrainer. for a long time his tannin process was very popular among collodion dry plate workers, and very beautiful pictures were taken on russell's tannin plates, but it is many years since they were ruthlessly brushed aside, like all other collodion dry plates, by the now universally employed gelatino-bromide plates or films. a revival of interest in pinhole photography was awakened this year, and several modes of constructing a pinhole camera were published; but i remember seeing a wonderful picture by a _keyhole_ camera long before i became a photographer. i had called to see an old lady who lived opposite a mill and farm. it was a bright, sunny afternoon, and, when i was leaving, i was astonished to see a beautiful picture of the mill and farm on the wall of the hall. "ah!" said the old lady; "that's my camera-obscura. when the sun shines on the mill at this time of day, i am sure to have a picture of the mill brought through the keyhole." it was something like this that suggested the camera-obscura to roger bacon and baptista porta. so it is not necessary to have such a small hole to obtain a picture, but it is necessary to have the smallest hole possible to obtain the _sharpest_ picture. pizzighelli's visible platinotype printing paper was introduced this year, and i welcomed it as a boon, for the double reasons of its simplicity and permanency. i had been longing for years for such a process, for i, like roger fenton, had come to the conclusion that there was no future for photography, in consequence of the instability of silver prints. they would be much more durable than they are if they were only washed in several changes of warm water, but few people will be at the trouble to do that, some because they don't know the efficacy of warm water, and others because it lowers the tone. an eminent photographer once asked me how to render silver prints permanent; but when i told him there was nothing equal to warm water washing, he exclaimed, "oh! but that spoils the tone." when a photographer sacrifices durability to tone, he is scarcely acting honestly towards his customers. admitted that there is nothing so beautiful in photography as a good silver print when it has its first bloom on it, neither is there anything so grievously disappointing as a silver print in its last stage of decay. it is quite time that the _durability_ of a photograph should be the first consideration of every photographer, as well as the amateur. years ago i proposed and published a plan of raising a fund to induce chemists and scientists to consider the subject, but not a single photographer responded by subscribing his guinea. a very simple and interesting means of making photographs at night was introduced this year by dr. piffard, an amateur photographer of new york, and the extreme simplicity and efficacy of his method was surprising. for good portraiture it is not equal to the electric light, but for family groups, at home occupations or amusements, it is superior, and i have taken such groups with piffard's magnesium flash-light, which no other means of lighting would have enabled me to produce. i have taken groups of people playing at cards, billiards, and other games in their own homes with the simplest of apparatus, the ordinary lens and camera, plus an old tea tray--but to obtain the best results, the quickest lens and the quickest dry plates should be employed, and i have always found the best position for the light to be on the top of the camera. is chiefly remarkable for the attempted revival of the stereoscope, and mr. w. f. donkin read an interesting and instructive paper on the subject, in which he endeavoured to account for its disappearance, explain its principles, and give an historical account of its early construction, and modern or subsequent improvements. as to its immense popularity thirty to thirty-five years ago, that was due to its novelty, and the marvellous effect of solidity the pictures assumed when viewed in the stereoscope; but it soon ceased to be popular when the views became stale, and people grew tired of looking at them; to keep up the interest they had to be continually buying fresh ones, and of this they soon got tired also; and when hosts saw that their guests were bored with sights so often seen, they put them out of sight altogether, and i fear that nothing will, for the same reasons, bring about a revival of the revolving or any other form of stereoscopes, for views. it is becoming much the same now with lantern slides--possessors and their friends grow weary of the subjects seen so frequently, and hiring instead of buying slides is becoming the practice of those who own an optical lantern. with stereoscopic portraits it was not so, for there was always a personal and family interest attached to them, and i made a great many stereoscopic portraits by the daguerreotype process; but even they were somewhat ruthlessly and precipitately displaced when the carte-de-visite mania took possession of the public mind. however, i see no reason why stereoscopic portraiture should not be revived if good pictures were produced on ivoryine, and it appears to me that substance is most suitable for the purpose, as the pictures can be examined either by reflected or transmitted light. everyone interested in stereoscopic photography should "read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest," the late mr. donkin's able and instructive paper on "stereoscopes and binocular vision," published in the journal of the photographic society, january th, . this was unhappily the last paper that mr. donkin read at the photographic society, for he was unfortunately lost in the caucasus the following autumn. w. f. donkin, m.a., f.c.s., f.i.c., was for several years honorary secretary of the photographic society and of the alpine club, and, at the november meeting of the photographic society, the president, james glaisher, f.r.s., made the following remarks on the melancholy event:--"there is, i am sure, but one feeling in regard to the fact that the gentleman who usually sits on my right is not here to-night. our secretary, w. f. donkin, is, i fear, irretrievably lost in the caucasus. the feeling of every member of this society is one of respect and esteem towards him. during the time he held the post of secretary, his uniform courtesy won him the respect of all. i fear we shall see him no more." this fear was afterwards confirmed by the search party, which was headed by mr. c. t. dent, president of the alpine club. the late mr. donkin was both an expert alpine climber and photographer, and many of his photographs of alpine scenery have been published and admired. every year compels me to record the death of some old and experienced photographer, or some artist associated with photography from its earliest introduction. among the latter was norman macbeth, r.s.a., an eminent portrait painter, who was quick to see and ready to avail himself of the invaluable services of a new art, or means of improving art, both in drawing and detail, and make the newly-discovered power a help in his own labours, and an economiser of the time of his sitters. the first time i had the pleasure of meeting him was in glasgow in , when he brought one of his sitters to me to be daguerreotyped, and he preferred a daguerreotype as long as he could get one, on account of its extreme delicacy and details in the shadows; but he could not obtain any more daguerreotypes after , for at that time i abandoned the daguerreotype for ever, and was the last to practise the process in glasgow, and probably throughout great britain. from the time that mr. macbeth commenced taking photographs himself, he took a keen interest in photography to the last, and only about a month before he died, he read an able, instructive, and interesting paper on the "construction and requirements of portrait art" before the members of the london and provincial photographic association; and that paper should be in the possession, and frequent perusal, of every student of photographic portraiture. although an artist in feeling and by profession, mr. macbeth was no niggard in his praises of artistic photography, and i have frequently heard him expatiate lovingly on the artistic productions of rejlander, robinson, and hubbard; but, like all artists, he abominated retouching, and denounced it in the strongest terms, and regretted its prevalence and practice as destructive of truth, and "truth in photography," he used to say, "was its greatest recommendation." the annals of --the jubilee year of published and commercial photography--commence with the record of death. on the st of january, mr. john robert sawyer died at naples in the st year of his age. mr. sawyer had been for many years a member of the autotype company, and his foresight and indefatigability were largely instrumental in making that company a commercial success. it was anything but a success from the time that it was commenced by the late mr. winsor and mr. j. r. johnson, but from the moment that mr. j. r. sawyer became "director of works," the company rapidly became a flourishing concern, and possesses now a world-wide reputation. mr. sawyer was one of the early workers in photography, and for several years conducted a photographic business in the city of norwich. it was there that circumstances induced him to give his attention to some form of permanent photography with the view of employing it to illustrate a work on the carving and sculpture in norwich cathedral, particularly the fine work in the roof of the nave. mr. sawyer naturally turned his attention, in the first place, to the autotype process, but it was then in its infancy, and the price prohibitory. the collotype process then became his hope and refuge, but that also was in its infancy, and not practised in england. mr. sawyer therefore started for berlin early in , and there met a certain herr ghémoser, a clever expert in the collotype process, from whom he obtained valuable information and working instructions. on his return home, mr. sawyer laboured at the collotype process until he overcame most of its difficulties, and on january st, , he entered into partnership with mr. walter bird, and removed to london with the intention of making the collotype process a feature in the business. messrs. sawyer and bird commenced their london experiences in regent street, but on january st, , they entered into an agreement with the autotype fine art company to work the collotype process as a branch of their business. meanwhile, another partner, mr. john spencer, had joined the firm, and at the end of that year messrs. spencer, sawyer, bird and co. purchased the autotype patents, plant, and stock at ealing dene, and all its interest in the wholesale trade; and, in , they bought up the whole of the fine art business, including the stock in rathbone place, and became the autotype company. the great photographic feature of this year was the convention held on august th in st. james's hall, regent street, london, in celebration of the jubilee of practical photography, which was inaugurated by the delivery of an address by the president, mr. andrew pringle. the address was a fairly good résumé of all that had been done for the advancement of photography during the past fifty years. the exhibition of photographs was somewhat of a failure; little was shown that possessed any historical interest, and that little was contributed by myself. there was a considerable display of apparatus of almost every description, but there was nothing that had not been seen, or could have been seen, in the shops of the exhibitors. the papers that were read were of considerable interest, and imparted no small amount of information, especially mr. thos. r. dallmeyer's on "false rendering of photographic images by the misapplication of lenses"; mr. c. h. bothamley's on "orthochromatic photography with gelatine plates"; mr. thomas bolas's on "the photo-mechanical printing methods as employed in the jubilee year of photography"; but by far the most popular, wonderful, and instructive, was professor e. muybridge's lecture, with illustrations, on "the movements of animals." the sight of the formidable batteries of lenses was startling enough, but when the actions of the horse, and other animals, were shown in the "zoopraxiscope," the effect on the sense of sight was both astounding and convincing, and i began to marvel how artists could have lived and laboured in the wrong direction for so many years, especially when the lecturer showed that a prehistoric artist had scratched on a bone a rude but truthful representation of an animal in motion. both the sight and intelligence of that prehistoric artist must have been keener than the senses of animal painters of the nineteenth century. taking it all in all, the jubilee convention was an immense success, and brought photographers and amateurs to london from the most distant parts of the country. looking round the hall on the opening night, and scanning the features of those present, i was coming to the conclusion that i was the oldest photographer present, when i espied mr. baynham jones, a man of eighty-three winters, and certainly the oldest amateur photographer living; so i willingly ceded the honour of seniority to him, and as soon as he espied me he clambered over the rails to come and sit at my side and talk over the past, and quite unknown to many present, aspects and difficulties of photography. mr. baynham jones was an enthusiastic photographer from the very first, for in , as soon as daguerre's process was published, he made himself a camera out of a cigar-box and the lens of his opera-glass, and, being unable to obtain a daguerreotype plate in the country, he cut up a silver salver and worked away on a solid silver plate until he succeeded in making a daguerreotype picture. mr. baynham jones was not the first photographer in this country, for the rev. j. b. reade preceded him by about two years; but i have not the slightest doubt of his being the first _daguerreotypist_ in england, and in that jubilee year of he was working with gelatine plates and films, and enthusiastic enough to come all the way from cheltenham to london to attend the meetings of the jubilee convention of photography. with this brief allusion to the doings and attractions of the jubilee convention, i fear i must bring my reminiscences of photography to a close; but before doing so i feel it incumbent on me to call attention to the fact that _two years_ after celebrating the jubilee of photography we should, paradoxical as it may appear, celebrate its centenary, for in the first photographic _picture_ that ever was made, seen, or heard tell of, was produced by thomas wedgwood, and though he was unable to fix it and enable us to look upon _that_ wonder _to-day_, the honour of being the first photographer, in its truest sense, is unquestionably due to an englishman. thomas wedgwood made photographic pictures on paper, and there they remained until light or time obliterated them; whereas j. h. schulze, a german physician, only obtained impressions of letters on a semi-liquid chloride of silver in a bottle, and at every shake of the hand the meagre impression was instantly destroyed. if we consider such men as niépce, reade, daguerre, and fox talbot the fathers of photography, we cannot but look upon thomas wedgwood as the grand father, and the centenary of his first achievement should be celebrated with becoming honour as the english centenary of photography. chronological record of inventions, discoveries, publications, and appliances, forming factors in the inception, discovery, and development of photography. b.c. iron said to have been first discovered. b.c. lenses made and used by the greeks. and a lens has been found in the ruins of nineveh. a.d. glass known and used by the romans. . glass brought to england. . alcohol first obtained by the alchemist, abucasis. . nitric acid first obtained by raymond lully. present properties made known by dr. priestley, . . camera-obscura constructed by roger bacon. . chloride of gold solution known to basil valentine. . camera-obscura improved by baptista porta. . chloride of silver blackening by the action of light. doubtless it was the knowledge of this that induced thomas wedgwood and sir humphry davy to make their experiments. . paper first made in england, at dartford, kent, by sir john speilman. it is said that the chinese made paper years b.c. . magic lantern invented by athanasius kircher. . sir isaac newton divided a sunbeam into its seven component parts, and re-constructed the camera-obscura. . salt mines of staffordshire discovered. . j. h. schulze, a german physician, observed that light blackened chalk impregnated with nitrate of silver solution and gold chloride. . solution of nitrate of silver applied to paper, by hellot. . chloride of mercury made by k. neumann. . platinum first known in europe: m. h. st. claire deville's new method of obtaining it from the ore, . . j. dolland, london, first made double achromatic compound lenses. . chloride of silver made by j. b. beccarius. . dr. priestly discovered ammonia to be composed of nitrogen and hydrogen; but ammonia is as old as the first decomposition of organic matter. . charles william scheele observed that the violet end of the spectrum blackened chloride of silver more rapidly than the red end. chlorine discovered. . oxalate of silver made by bergmann. . uranium obtained from pitch-blende by klaproth. . thomas wedgwood commenced experiments with a solution of nitrate of silver spread upon paper and white leather, and obtained impressions of semi-transparent objects and cast shadows. sir humphry davy joined him later. . nitrate of silver on silk by fulhame. . hyposulphite of soda discovered by m. chaussier. . john william ritter, of samitz, in silesia, observed that chloride of silver blackened beyond the violet end of the spectrum, thus discovering the action of the ultra violet ray. . potassium discovered by sir humphry davy. . examples of heliotypes, by wedgwood and davy, exhibited at the royal institution, and process published. . palladium discovered in platinum by dr. wollaston. . strontium obtained from carbonate of strontia by sir humphry davy. . iodine discovered by m. d. curtois, of paris. -- nitrate of silver and albumen employed by d. fischer. . ditto investigated by m. clement. . joseph nicéphore de niépce commenced experiments with the hope of securing the pictures as seen in the camera-obscura. -- iodide of silver made by sir h. davy. . sir john herschel published the fact that hyposulphite of soda dissolved chloride and other salts of silver. . niépce obtained pictures in the camera-obscura upon metal plates coated with asphaltum, or bitumen of judea. -- l. g. m. daguerre commenced his researches. -- permanganate of potash. fromenkerz. . bromine discovered in sea-water by m. balard. -- bromine of silver made. . niépce exhibited his pictures in england, and left one or more, now in the british museum. . niépce and daguerre entered into an alliance to pursue their researches mutually. . evidence of daguerre employing iodine. . rev. j. b. reade, of clapham, london, obtained a photograph in the solar microscope, and employed tannin as an accelerator and hyposulphite of soda as a fixer for the first time in photography. . reflecting stereoscope exhibited by charles wheatstone. -- mungo ponton observed that light altered and hardened bichromate of potash, and produced yellow photographs with that material. this discovery led to the invention of the autotype, woodburytype, collotype, and other methods of photo-mechanical printing. . daguerre's success communicated to the academy of science, paris, by m. arago, january th. -- electrotype process announced. -- professor faraday described fox talbot's new method of photogenic drawing to the members of the royal institution, january th. -- fox talbot read a paper, giving a full description of his process, before the royal society, january st. -- sir john herschel introduced hyposulphite of soda as a fixing agent, february th. -- dr. alfred swaine taylor employed ammonia nitrate of silver in preference to chloride of silver for making photogenic drawings, and employed hyposulphite of lime in preference to hyposulphite of soda for fixing. -- daguerre's process published in august, and patent, for england, granted to mr. beard, london, august th. -- "history and practice of photogenic drawing"; l. s. m. daguerre. published september. -- first photographic portrait taken on a daguerreotype plate by professor. j. w. draper, new york, u.s., in the autumn of this year. . "on the art of photogenic drawing," by alfred s. taylor, lecturer on chemistry, &c., at guy's hospital. published by jeffrey, george yard, lombard street, london. -- "the handbook of heliography, or the art of writing or drawing by the effect of sunlight, with the art of dioramic painting, as practised by m. daguerre." anon. -- wolcott's reflecting camera brought from america to england and secured by mr. beard, patentee of the daguerreotype process. -- the moon photographed for the first time by dr. j. w. draper, of new york, on a daguerreotype plate. -- john frederick goddard, of london, inventor of the polariscope and lecturer on chemistry, employed chlorine added to iodine, and afterwards bromine, as accelerators in the daguerreotype process. . antoine f. j. claudet, f.r.s., of london, employed chlorine for the same purpose. -- m. fizeau, of paris, deposited a film of gold over the daguerreotype picture after the removal of the iodine, which imparted increased brilliancy and permanency. -- chloride of platinum employed by herschel. -- fox talbot's developer published september th. . calotype process patented by fox talbot, september th. -- first photographic compound portrait lens made by andrew ross, london. -- towson, of liverpool, noted that chemical and visual foci did not coincide. defect corrected by j. petzval, of vienna, for voightlander. -- "a popular treatise on the art of photography, including daguerreotype and all the new methods of producing pictures by the chemical agency of light," by robert hunt, published by r. griffin, glasgow. -- daguerre announced an instantaneous process, but it was not successful. . sir john herschel exhibited blue, red, and purple photographs at the royal institution. -- "photography familiarly explained," by w. r. baxter, london. . "photogenic manipulation," by g. t. fisher knight, foster lane. -- treatise on photography by n. p. lerebours, translated by j. egerton. . fox talbot issued "the pencil of nature," a book of silver prints from calotype negatives. -- c. cundell, of london, employed and published the use of bromide of potassium in the calotype process. . "researches on light and its chemical relations," by robert hunt. first edition; second ditto, . -- robert hunt recommended proto-sulphate of iron as a developer for talbot's calotype negatives; also oxalate of iron and acetate of lead for other purposes. -- a. f. j. claudet patented a red light for "dark room," but at that date a red light was not necessary, so the old photographers continued the use of yellow lights. . "photogenic manipulations:" part , calotype, &c.; part , daguerreotype. by george thomas fisher, jun. published by george knight and sons, london. -- "manual of photography," including daguerreotype, calotype, &c., by jabez hogg. first edition. second ditto, including archer's collodion process, bichloride of mercury bleaching and intensifying, and gutta-percha transfer process, . . "practical hints on the daguerreotype; willats's scientific manuals." -- "plain directions for obtaining photographic pictures by the calotype and other processes, on paper; willats's scientific manuals." published by willats, , cheapside; and sherwood, gilbert, and piper, paternoster row. . gun-cotton made known by professor schönbein, of basel. . collodion made by dissolving gun-cotton in ether and alcohol, by mr. maynard, of boston, u.s. . "photogenic manipulation:" part ii., daguerreotype, by robert bingham. published by george knight and sons, london. -- albumen on glass plates first employed for making negatives by m. niépce de saint victor. process published june th. -- frederick scott archer experimented with paper pulp, tanno-gelatine, and iodised collodion, and made collodion negatives in the autumn. . collodion _positive_ of hever castle, kent, made by frederick scott archer _early_ in the year. -- m. gustave le gray _suggested_ the application of collodion to photography. . "a practical treatise on photography upon paper and glass," by gustave le gray. translated from the french by thomas cousins, and published by t. and r. willats. this book is said to contain the first printed notice of collodion being used in photography. -- r. j. bingham, london, suggested the use of collodion and gelatine in photography. -- m. poitevin's gelatine process, published january th. . frederick scott archer published his collodion process in the march number of _the chemist_, and introduced pyrogallic acid as a developer december th. -- fox talbot announced his instantaneous process, and obtained, at the royal institution, a copy of the _times_ newspaper, while revolving rapidly, by the light of an electric spark. -- niépce de st. victor's heliochromic process, published june nd. examples sent to the judges of the international exhibition of . see jurors' report thereon, pp. - . -- sir david brewster's improved stereoscope applied to photography. . "photography, a treatise on the chemical changes produced by solar radiation, and the production of pictures from nature, by the daguerreotype, calotype, and other photographic processes," by robert hunt. published by j. j. griffin and co., london and glasgow. . "archer's hand-book of collodion process." published may th. second edition, enlarged; published . -- "archer's collodion _positive_ process." published july th. -- fox talbot's photo-engraving on steel process; patented october th. . a manual of photography, by robert hunt, published. -- photographic society of london founded. sir charles eastlake, p.r.a., president; roger fenton, esq., secretary. first number of the society's journal published march rd. -- cutting's american patent for use of bromides in collodion obtained june th, and his ambrotype process introduced in america. -- "the waxed-paper process," by gustave le gray. translated from the french with a supplement, by james how. published by g. knight and co., foster lane, cheapside. -- frederick scott archer introduced a triple lens to shorten the focus of a double combination lens. . e. r., of tavistock, published directions for the use of isinglass as a substitute for collodion. -- first series of photographic views of kenilworth castle, &c., from collodion negatives, published by frederick scott archer. -- liverpool photographic journal, first published by henry greenwood, bi-monthly. -- first roller-slide patented by messrs. spencer and melhuish, may nd. -- fox talbot first applied albumen to paper to obtain a finer surface for photographic printing. -- photo-enamel process; first patent december th. -- dry collodion plates first introduced. . m. poitevin's helioplastic process patented february th. -- dr. j. m. taupenot's dry plate process introduced. -- photo-galvanic process patented june th. -- "hardwich's photographic chemistry." first edition, published march th. -- ferrotype process introduced in america by mr. j. w. griswold. . "photographic notes." edited by thomas sutton. commenced january st; bi-monthly. . sutton's calotype process, published march. . dr. hill norris's dry plate process. patented september st. . caranza published method of toning silver prints with chloride of platinum. . moule's photogene, artificial light for portraiture. patented february th. -- carte-de-visite portraits introduced by m. ferrier, of nice. -- kinnear camera introduced. made by bell, edinburgh. . pouncy's carbon process patented april th. -- skaife's pistolgraph camera introduced. . j. c. burnett exposed the back of the carbon paper and obtained half-tones. -- fox talbot's photo-etching process, patented april th. -- paul pretsch's photo-engraving process introduced. -- "sutton's dictionary of photography," published august th. -- _the photographic news_, founded, weekly. first number published september th, by cassell, petter, and galpin, london. -- "fothergill dry process," by alfred keene, published august. . sutton's panoramic camera patented, september th. -- photo-lithographic transfer process patented by osborne, in melbourne, australia. -- wm. blair, of perth, secured half-tone in carbon printing by allowing the light to pass through the back of the paper on which the pigment was spread. -- asser, of amsterdam, also invented a photo-lithographic transfer process about this time. . "principles and practice of photography," by jabez hughes. first edition published; fourteenth edition, . -- fargier coated carbon surface with collodion, exposed, and transferred to glass to develop. -- spectroscope invented by kertchoff and bunsen. . "year-book of photography," edited by g. wharton simpson, first published. -- improved kinnear camera with swing front and back by meagher. . captain dixon's iodide emulsion process patented, april th. -- m. gaudin, of paris, employed gelatine in his photogene, and published in _la lumière_ his collodio-iodide and collodio-chloride processes. -- h. anthony, new york, discovered that tannin dry plates could be developed by moisture and ammonia vapour. . "alkaline development," published by major russell. -- meagher's square bellows camera, with folding bottom board, exhibited at the international exhibition. noticed in jurors' report. -- parkesine, the forerunner of celluloid films, invented by alexander parkes, of birmingham. . pouncy's fatty ink process; patented january th. -- toovey's photo-lithographic process; patented june th. -- "tannin process," published by major russell. -- "popular treatise on photography," by d. van monckhoven. translated from the french by w. h. thornthwaite, london. . swan's improved carbon process; patented august th. -- "collodio-bromide emulsion," by messrs. b. j. sayce and w. b. bolton; published september th. -- "collodio-chloride emulsion," by george wharton simpson; published in _the photographic news_, october th. -- willis's aniline process; patented november th. -- obernetter's chromo-photo process; published. -- instantaneous dry collodion processes by thomas sutton, b.a. sampson, low, son, and marston, london. . paper read on "collodio-chloride emulsion," by george wharton simpson, at the photographic society, march th. . photography, a lecture, by the hon. j. w. strutt, now lord rayleigh, delivered april th; and afterwards published. -- eburneum process; published by j. burgess, norwich, in _the photographic news_, may th. -- bromide as a restrainer in the developer; published by major russell. . interior of pyramids of egypt, photographed by professor piazzi smyth with the magnesium light. -- w. h. smith patented a gelatino-bromide or gelatino-chloride of silver process for wood blocks, &c. . magic photographs revived and popularised. -- woodburytype process patented by walter bentley woodbury, of manchester, july th. -- photography reviewed, in _british quarterly review_, by george wharton simpson, october st. . m. poitevin obtained the balance of the duc de luynes's prize for permanent printing. -- cabinet portraits introduced by f. r. window, photographer, baker street, london. . w. h. harrison experimented with gelatino-bromide of silver and obtained results, though somewhat rough and unsatisfactory. . john robert johnson's carbon process double transfer patented. -- "pictorial effect in photography," by h. p. robinson, first edition. london: piper and carter. . thomas sutton described gaudin's gelatino-iodide process. -- jabez hughes toned collodion transfers with chloride of palladium. -- john robert johnson's single transfer process for carbon printing patented. . dr. r. l. maddox, of southampton, published his experiments with gelatino-bromide of silver in the _british journal of photography_, september th. . "Émaux photographiques" (photographic enamels), second edition, by geymet and alker, paris. . j. burgess, of peckham, advertised his gelatino-bromide of silver emulsion, but it would not keep, so had to be withdrawn. -- ostendo non ostento published a gelatino-bromide of silver formula with alcohol. -- platinotype process patented by w. willis, junior, june st. . r. kennett's gelatino-bromide of silver pellicle patented november th. -- "the ferrotypers' guide" published by scovill manufacturing company, new york. . r. kennett issued his gelatino-bromide of silver dry plates in march. -- gelatino-bromide of silver paper first announced by peter mawdsley, of liverpool dry plate company. -- "backgrounds by powder process" published by j. werge, london. -- flexible supports in carbon printing patented by john robert sawyer, of the autotype company. -- leon lambert's carbon printing process patented. . demonstrations in carbon printing by l. lambert given in london and elsewhere. -- eder and toth intensified collodion negatives and toned lantern slides with chloride of platinum. . "practical treatise on enamelling and retouching," by p. piquepé, piper and carter, london. . ferrous oxalate developer published june th. -- wratten precipitated the gelatine emulsion with alcohol, and so avoided the necessity of dialysing. . improvement in platinotype patented by w. willis, junior, july. -- abney's "treatise on photography" published. -- abney's "emulsion process" published. . j. werge's non-actinic developing tray introduced at the south london photographic society. . "principles and practice of photography," by jabez hughes, comprising instructions to make and manipulate gelatino dry plates, by j. werge. london: simpkin and marshall, and j. werge. -- gelatino-bromide of silver paper introduced by messrs. morgan and kidd. -- platinotype improvement patent granted. -- iodides added to gelatino-bromide of silver emulsions by captain w. de w. abney. . warnerke's sensitometer introduced. -- "the argentic gelatino-bromide workers' guide," by john burgess. w. t. morgan and co., greenwich. -- "photography; its origin, progress, and practice," by j. werge. london: simpkin, marshall, and co. -- hydroquinone developer introduced by dr. eder and captain toth. . stannotype process introduced by walter woodbury. -- photographers in great britain and ireland , as per census returns. -- "modern dry plates; or emulsion photography," by dr. j. m. eder, translated from the german by h. wilmer, edited by h. b. pritchard. london: piper and carter. -- "pictorial effect in photography," by h. p. robinson (cheap edition). piper and carter. -- "the art and practice of silver printing," by h. p. robinson and captain abney. piper and carter. . herbert b. berkeley recommended the use of sulphite of soda with pyrogallic acid to prevent discolouration of film. -- "recent advances in photography" (cantor lectures, society of arts), captain abney. london: piper and carter. . "the a b c of modern photography," comprising practical instructions for working gelatine dry plates, by w. k. burton. london: piper and carter. . "elementary treatise on photographic chemistry," by a. spiller. london: piper and carter. . translation of captain pizzighelli and baron a. hubl's booklet on "platinotype;" published in _the photographic journal_. -- orthochromatic dry plates; english patent granted to tailfer and clayton, january th. -- "the chemical effect of the spectrum," by dr. j. m. eder. (translated from the german by captain abney). london: harrison and sons. . "the chemistry of light and photography," by dr. h. vogel. london: kegan paul. . "recent improvements in photo-mechanical printing methods," by thomas bolas, society of arts, london. -- "picture-making by photography," by h. p. robinson. london: piper and carter. . "photography and the spectroscope," by capt. abney, society of arts. -- "the spectroscope and its relation to photography," by c. ray woods. london: piper and carter. -- "photo-micrography," by a. c. malley; second edition. london: h. k. lewis. . orthochromatic results exhibited by dixon and sons at the photographic exhibition in october. -- english patent rights of tailfer and clayton's orthochromatic process secured by b. j. edwards and co., nov. th. . platinotype improvements; two patents. . pizzighelli's visible platinotype printing paper put on the market in june. . eikonogen developer patented by dr. andresen, of berlin, germany, march th. -- wire frames and supports in camera extensions patented by thomas rudolph dallmeyer and francis beauchamp, november th. contributions to photographic literature. by john werge. _originally published in the "photographic news," "british journal of photography," photographic year-book, and photographic almanac._ pictures of niagara. taken with camera, pen, and pencil. many very beautiful and interesting photographic views of niagara falls, and other places of romantic and marvellous interest, have been taken and exhibited to the world. indeed, they are to be seen now in almost every print-seller's window; and in the albums, stereoscopes, or folios of almost every private collector. but i question very much if it ever occurred to the mind of anyone, while looking at those pictures, what an amount of labour, expense, and danger had to be endured and encountered to obtain them--"the many hairbreadth 'scapes by flood and field," of a very "positive" character, which had to be risked before some of the "negatives" could be "boxed." doubtless mr. england, mr. stephen thompson, and mr. wilson have many very vivid recollections of the critical situations they have been in while photographing the picturesque scenery of the alpine passes of switzerland, and the highlands and glens of scotland. mr. stephen thompson has narrated to me one or two of his "narrow escapes" while photographing his "swiss scenes," and i am sure mr. england did not procure his many and beautiful "points of view" of niagara falls without exposing himself to considerable risk. i had the good fortune to be one of the earlier pioneers, in company with a yankee friend, mr. easterly, in taking photographs of the falls; and my recollections of the manner in which we "went about," poised ourselves and cameras on "points of rock" and "ledges of bluffs," and felled trees, and lopped off branches overhanging precipices, to "gain a point," even at the distant date are somewhat thrilling. to take a photograph of what is called "visitors' view" is safe and easy enough. you might plant a dozen cameras on the open space at the brink of the "american fall," and photograph the scene, visitors and all, as they stand, "fixed" with wonder, gazing at the falls, american, centre, and horseshoe, goat island, and the shores of canada included, for this point embraces in one view all those subjects. but to get at the out-of-the-way places, to take the falls in detail, and obtain some of the grandest views of them, is a very different matter. i remember, when we started, taking a hatchet with us, like backwoodsmen, to take a view of prospect tower, on the american side of the great horseshoe fall, how we had to hew down the trees that obstructed the light; how we actually hung over the precipice, holding on to each other's hands, to lop off a branch still in sight where it was not wanted. the manner in which we accomplished this was what some bystanders pronounced "awful." i hugged a sapling of a silver birch, growing on the brink of the precipice, with my left arm, while friend easterly, holding my right hand with one of the masonic grips--i won't say which--_hung over_ the precipice, and stretching out as far as he could reach, lopped off the offending branch. yet in this perilous position my lively companion must crack his joke by punning upon my name, and a cockney weakness at the same time, for he "guessed he was below the _w_erge of the precipice." the branch down, and we had resumed our perpendicular positions, he simply remarked, if that was not holding on to a man's hand in _friendship_, he did not know what was. but the _work_ was not done yet; to get the view of the tower we wanted, we had to make a temporary platform over the precipice. this we managed by laying a piece of "lumber" across a fallen tree, and, unshipping the camera, shoved it along the plank until it was in position, balancing the shore end of the plank with heavy stones. when all was ready for exposure, i went round and stood on the point of a jutting rock to give some idea of the great depth of the fall, but i very nearly discovered, and just escaped being myself the plummet. in the excitement of the moment, and not thinking that the rock would be slimy and slippery with the everlasting spray, i went too rapidly forward, and the rock having a slight decline, i slipped, but was fortunately brought up by a juniper bush growing within a foot of the edge. for a second or two i lay on my back wondering if i could slide out of my difficulty as easily as i had slidden into it. in a moment i determined to go backwards on my back, hands, and feet, until i laid hold of another bush, and could safely assume a perpendicular position. after giving the signal that "all was right," the plate was exposed, and i _cautiously_ left a spot i have no desire to revisit. but it is astonishing how the majesty and grandeur of the scene divest the mind of all sense of fear, and to this feeling, to a great extent, is attributed the many accidents and terrible deaths that have befallen numerous visitors to the falls. the indians, the tribe of the iroquois, who were the aboriginal inhabitants of that part of the country, had a tradition that the "great spirit" of the "mighty waters" required the sacrifice of two human lives every year. to give rise to such a tradition, doubtless, many a red man, in his skiff, had gone over the falls, centuries before they were discovered by the jesuit missionary, father hennepin, in ; and, even in these days of christian civilization, and all but total extirpation of the aboriginals, the "great spirit" does not appear to be any less exacting. nearly every year one or more persons are swept over those awful cataracts, making an average of at least one per annum. many visitors and local residents have lost their lives under the most painful and afflicting circumstances, the most remarkable of which occurred just before my visit. one morning, at daylight, a man was discovered in the middle of the rapids, a little way above the brink of the american fall. he was perched upon a log which was jammed between two rocks. one end of the log was out of the water, and the poor fellow was comparatively dry, but with very little hope of being rescued from his dreadful situation. no one could possibly reach him in a boat. the foaming and leaping waters were rushing past him at the rate of eighteen or twenty miles an hour, and he knew as well as anyone that to attempt a rescue in a boat or skiff would be certain destruction, yet every effort was made to save him. rafts were made and let down, but they were either submerged, or the ropes got fast in the rocks. the life-boat was brought from buffalo, lake erie, and that was let down to him by ropes from the bridge, but they could not manage the boat in that rush of waters, and gave it up in despair. one of the thousands of agonized spectators, a southern planter, offered a thousand dollars reward to anyone that would save the "man on the log." another raft was let down to him, and this time was successfully guided to the spot. he got on it, but being weak from exposure and want, he was unable to make himself fast or retain his hold, and the doomed man was swept off the raft and over the falls almost instantly, before the eyes of thousands, who wished, but were powerless and unable, to rescue him from his frightful death. his name was avery. he and another man were taking a pleasure sail on the upper niagara river, their boat got into the current, was sucked into the rapids, and smashed against the log or the rock. the other man went over the falls at the time of the accident; but avery clung to the log, where he remained for about eighteen hours in such a state of mind as no one could possibly imagine. none could cheer him with a word of hope, for the roar of the rapids and thunder of the cataracts rendered all other sounds inaudible. mr. babbitt, a resident photographer, took several daguerreotypes of the "man on the log," one of which he kindly presented to me. few of the bodies are ever recovered. one or two that went over the great horse shoe fall were found, their bodies in a state of complete nudity. the weight or force of the water strips them of every particle of clothing; but that is not to be wondered at, considering the immense weight of water that rolls over every second, the distance it has to fall, and the depth of the foaming cauldron below. the fall of the horse shoe to the surface of the lower river is feet, and the depth of the cauldron into which the upper niagara leaps about feet, making a total of feet from the upper to the lower bed of the niagara river at the great horse shoe fall. it has been computed that one hundred million, two hundred thousand tons of water pass over the falls every hour. the depth of the american fall is feet; but that falls on to a mass of broken rocks a few feet above the level of the lower river. our next effort was to get a view of the centre fall, or "cave of the winds," from the south, looking at the centre and american falls, down the river as far as the suspension bridge, about two miles below, and the lower or long rapids, for there are rapids both above and below the falls. in this we succeeded tolerably well, and without any difficulty. then, descending the "biddle stairs" to the foot of the two american cataracts, we tried the "cave of the winds" itself; but, our process not being a "wet" one, had no sympathy with the blinding and drenching spray about us. however, i secured a pencil sketch of the scene we could not photograph, and afterwards took one of the most novel and fearful shower-baths to be had in the world. dressed--or, rather, undressed--for the purpose, and accompanied by a guide, i passed down by the foot of the precipice, under the centre fall, and along a wet and slippery pole laid across a chasm, straddling it by a process i cannot describe--for i was deaf with the roar and blind with the spray--we reached in safety a flat rock on the other side, and then stood erect between the two sheets of falling water. to say that i saw anything while there would be a mistake; but i know and felt by some demonstrations, other than ocular, that i was indulging in a bath of the wildest and grandest description. recrossing the chasm by the pole, we now entered the "cave of the winds," which is immediately under the centre fall. the height and width of the cave is one hundred feet, and the depth sixty feet. it takes its name from the great rush of wind into the cave, caused by the fall of the waters from above. standing in the cave, which is almost dry, you can view the white waters, like avalanches of snow, tumbling over and over in rapid succession. the force of the current of the rapids above shoots the water at least twenty feet from the rock, describing, as it were, the segment of a circle. by this circumstance only are you able to pass under the centre fall, and a portion of the horse shoe fall on the canadian side. to return, we ascended the "biddle stairs," a spiral staircase of steps, on the west side of goat island, crossed the latter, and by a small bridge passed to bath island, which we left by the grand bridge which crosses the rapids about yards above the american fall. reaching the american shore again in safety, after a hard day's work, we availed ourselves of mr. babbitt's kindness and hospitality to develop our plates in his dark room, and afterwards developed ourselves, sociably and agreeably, refreshing the inner man, and narrating our day's adventures. i shall now endeavour to describe our next trip, which was to the canadian side--how we got there, what we did, and what were the impressions produced while contemplating those wonderful works of nature. in the first place, to describe how we descended to the "ferry" and crossed the river. on the north side of the american fall a railway has been constructed by an enterprising american, where the "cars" are let down a steep decline by means of water-power, the proprietor of the railway having utilized the very smallest amount of the immense force so near at hand. placing our "traps" in the car, and seating ourselves therein, the lever was moved by the "operator," and away we went down the decline as if we were going plump into the river below; but at the proper time the water was turned off, and we were brought to a standstill close by the boat waiting to ferry us across. shifting our traps and selves into the boat and sitting down, the ferryman bent to the oars and off we dashed into the dancing and foaming waters, keeping her head well to the stream, and drawing slowly up until we came right abreast of the american fall; then letting her drop gently down the stream, still keeping her head to the current, we gained the canadian shore; our course on the river describing the figure of a cone, the apex towards the "horse shoe." ascending the banks by a rather uphill road, we reached the clifton hotel, where we took some refreshments, and then commenced our labours of photographing the grand rapids and the falls, from table rock, or what remained of it. on arriving at the spot, we set down our traps and looked about bewildered for the best point. to attempt to describe the scene now before us would be next to folly, nor could the camera, from the limited angle of our lens, possibly convey an adequate idea of the grandeur and terrific beauty of the grand rapids, as you see them rushing and foaming, white with rage, for about two and a half miles before they make their final plunge over the precipice. many years ago an indian was seen standing up in his canoe in the midst of these fearful rapids. nearing the brink of the terrible fall, and looking about him, he saw that all hope was lost, for he had passed gull island, his only chance of respite; waving his hand, he was seen to lie down in the bottom of his canoe, which shot like an arrow into the wild waters below, and he was lost for ever. neither he nor his canoe was ever seen again. in the ship _detroit_, loaded with a live buffalo, bear, deer, fox, &c., was sent over the falls. she was almost dashed to pieces in the rapids, but many persons saw the remains of the ship rolled over into the abyss of waters. no one knew what became of the animals on board. and in , during the canadian rebellion, the steamer _caroline_ was set fire to in the night and cast adrift. she was drawn into the rapids, but struck on gull island, and was much shattered by the collision. the bulk of the burning mass was swept over the falls, but few witnessed the sight. doubtless no fire on board a ship was ever extinguished so suddenly. the view from table rock is too extensive to be rendered on one plate by an ordinary camera; but the pantascopic camera would give the very best views that could possibly be obtained. taking table rock as the centre, the entire sweep of the fall is about degrees, and stretching from point to point for nearly three-quarters of a mile--from the north side of the american fall to the termination of the horse shoe fall on the west side. the american and centre falls present a nearly straight line running almost due north and south, while the great horse shoe fall presents a line or figure resembling a sickle laid down with the left hand, the convex part of the bow lying direct south, the handle lying due east and west, with the point or termination to the west; the waters of the two american falls rushing from east to west, and the waters of the canadian fall bounding towards the north. by this description it will be seen that but for the intervention of goat and luna islands the three sheets of water would embrace each other like mighty giants locked in a death struggle, before they fell into the lower river. the whole aspect of the falls from table rock is panoramic. turning to the left, you see the american rapids rushing down furiously under the bridge, between bath island and the american shore, with a force and velocity apparently great enough to sweep away the bridge and four small islands lying a little above the brink, and pitch them all down on to the rocks below. turning slowly to the right, you see the centre fall leaping madly down between luna and goat islands, covering the cave of the winds from view. a little more to the right, the rocky and precipitous face of goat or iris island, with the "biddle stairs" like a perpendicular line running down the precipice; and to the extreme right the immense sweeps of the great horse shoe. doubtless this fall took its name from its former resemblance to the shape of a horse shoe. it is, however, nothing like that now, but is exactly the figure of a sickle, as previously described. looking far up the river you observe the waters becoming broken and white, and so they continue to foam and rush and leap with increasing impetuosity, rushing madly past the "three sisters"--three islands on the left--and "gull island" in the middle of the rapids, on which it is supposed no man has ever trodden, until, with a roar of everlasting thunder, which shakes the earth, they fall headlong into the vortex beneath. at the foot of this fall, and for a considerable distance beyond, the river is as white as the eternal snows, and as troubled as an angry sea. indeed, i never but once saw the atlantic in such a state, and that was in a storm in which we had to "lay to" for four days in the gulf stream. the colours and beauty of niagara in sunlight are indescribable. you may convey _some_ idea of its form, power, and majesty, by describing lines and giving figures of quantity and proportion, but to give the faintest impression of its beauty and colours is almost hopeless. the rich, lovely green on the very brink of the horse shoe fall is beyond conception. all the emeralds in the world, clustered together and bathed in sunlight, would fall far short of the beauty and brilliancy of that pure and dazzling colour. it can only be compared to an immense, unknown brilliant of the emerald hue, in a stupendous setting of the purest frosted, yet sparkling silver. here, too, is to be seen the marvellous beauty of the prismatic colours almost daily. here you might think the "covenant" had been made, and set up to shine for ever and ever at the throne of the most mighty, and here only can be seen the complete _circle_ of the colours of the rainbow. i saw this but once, when on board the _maid of the mist_, and almost within the great vortex at the foot of the falls. a brilliant sun shining through the spray all round, placed us in a moment as it were in the very centre of that beautiful circle of colour, which, with the thunder of the cataract, and the sublimity of the scene, made the soul feel as if it were in the presence of the "great spirit," and this the sign and seal of an eternal compact. here, also, is to be seen the softer, but not the less beautiful lunar rainbow. whenever the moon is high enough in the heavens, the lunar bow can be seen, not fitful as elsewhere, but constant and beautiful as long as the moon is shedding her soft light upon the spray. on one occasion i saw two lunar bows at once, one on the spray from the american fall, and the other on the spray of the great horse shoe fall. this i believe is not usual, but an eddy of the wind brought the two clouds of spray under the moon's rays. yet these are not all the "beauties of the mist." one morning at sunrise i saw one of the most beautiful forms the spray could possibly assume. the night had been unusually calm, the morning was as still as it could be, and the mist from the horse shoe had risen in a straight column to a height of at least feet, and then spread out into a mass of huge rolling clouds, immediately above the cataracts. the rising sun shed a red lustre on the under edges of the cloud, which was truly wonderful. it more resembled one huge, solitary column supporting a canopy of silvery grey cloud, the edges of which were like burnished copper, and highly suggestive of the temple of the most high, where man must bow down and worship the great creator of all these wondrous works. it is not in a passing glance at niagara that all its marvellous beauties can be seen. you must stay there long enough to see it in all its aspects--in sunshine and in moonlight, in daylight and in darkness, in storm and in calm. no picture of language can possibly convey a just conception of the grandeur and vastness of these mighty cataracts. no poem has ever suggested a shadow of their majesty and sublimity. no painting has ever excited in the mind, of one that has not seen those marvellous works of god, the faintest idea of their dazzling beauties. descriptive writers, both in prose and verse, have failed to depict the glories of this "sovereign of the world of floods." painters have essayed with their most gorgeous colours, but have fallen far short of the intense beauty, transparency, and purity of the water, and the wonderful radiance and brilliancy of the "rainbow in the mist." and i fear the beauties of niagara in natural colours can never be obtained in the camera; but what a glorious triumph for photography if they were. mr. church's picture, painted a few years ago, is the most faithful exponent of nature's gorgeous colouring of niagara that has yet been produced. indeed, the brilliant and harmonious colouring of this grand picture can scarcely be surpassed by the hand and skill of man. after obtaining our views of the grand rapids and the falls from table rock, we put up our traps, and leaving them in charge of the courteous proprietor of the museum, we prepared to go _under_ the great horse shoe fall. clothing ourselves in india-rubber suits, furnished by our guide, we descended the stairs near table rock, eighty-seven steps, and, led by a negro, we went under the great sheet of water as far as we could go to termination rock, and standing there for a while in that vast cave of watery darkness, holding on to the negro's hand, we felt lost in wonder and amazement, but not fear. how long we might have remained in that bewildering situation it would be impossible to say, but being gently drawn back by our sable conductor, we returned to the light and consciousness of our position. the volume of water being much greater here than at the cave of the winds, and the spray being all around, we could not see anything but darkness visible below, and an immense moving mass before, which we knew by feeling to be water. there is some fascination about the place, for after coming out into the daylight i went back again alone, but the guide, hurrying after me, brought me back, and held my hand until we reached the stairs to return to the museum. on our way back our guide told us that more than "twice-told tale" of niagara and vesuvius. if i may be pardoned for mixing up the ridiculous with the sublime, i may as well repeat the story, for having just come from under the falls we were prepared to believe the truth of it, if the geographical difficulty could have been overcome. an italian visiting the falls and going under the horse shoe, was asked, on coming out, what he thought of the sight. the italian replied it was very grand and wonderful, but _nothing_ to the sight of mount vesuvius in a grand eruption. the guide's retort was, "i guess if you bring _your_ vesuvius here, _our_ niagara will soon put his fires out." i do not vouch for the truth of the story, but give it as nearly as possible as i was told. returning to the museum and making ourselves "as we were," and comforting ourselves with something inside after the wetting we had got out, we took up our traps, and wending our way back to the ferry, recrossed the river in much the same manner that we crossed over in the morning; and sending our "baggage" up in the cars we thought we would walk up the "long stairs," steps, by the side of the railway. on nearing the top, we felt as if we must "cave in," but having trodden so far the back of a "lion," we determined to see the end of his tail, and pushing on to the top, we had the satisfaction of having accomplished the task we had set ourselves. perhaps before abandoning the canadian side of niagara, i should have said something about table rock, which, as i have said, is on the canadian side, and very near to the horse shoe fall. it took its name from the table-like form it originally presented. it was formerly much larger than it is now, but has, from time to time, fallen away. at one time it was very extensive and projected over the precipice fifty or sixty feet, and was about feet long and feet thick. on the th of june, , this tremendous mass of rock, nearly half an acre, fell into the river with a crash and a noise like the sound of an earthquake. the whole of that immense mass of rock was buried in the depths of the river, and completely hidden from sight. no one was killed, which was a miracle, for several persons had been standing on the rock just a few minutes before it fell. the vicinity is still called table rock, though the projecting part that gave rise to the name is gone. it is, nevertheless, the best point on the canada side for obtaining a grand and comprehensive view of niagara falls. the next scenes of our photographic labours were suspension bridge, the long rapids, the whirlpool, and devil's hole. these subjects, though not so grand as niagara, are still interestingly and closely associated with the topographical history and legendary interest of the falls. and we thought a few "impressions" of the scenes, and a visit to the various places, would amply repay us for the amount of fatigue we should have to undergo on such a trip under the scorching sun of _august in america_. descending to the shore, and stepping on board the steamer _maid of the mist_, which plies up and down the river for about two miles, on the tranquil water between the falls and the lower rapids, we were "cast off," and in a little time reached the landing stage, a short distance above the long rapids. landing on the american side, we ascended the steep road, which has been cut out of the precipice, and arriving at suspension bridge, proceeded to examine that wonderful specimen of engineering skill. it was not then finished, but the lower level was complete, and foot passengers and carriages could go along. they were busy making the railway "track" overhead, so that, when finished (which it is now), it would be a bridge of two stories--the lower one for passengers on foot and carriages, the upper one for the "cars." i did not see a "snorting monster" going along that spider's-web-like structure, but can very well imagine what must be the sensations of "railway passengers" as they pass along the giddy height. the span of the bridge, from bank to bank, is feet, and it is feet from the river to the lower or carriage road. the estimated cost was two hundred thousand dollars, about £ , . a boy's toy carried the first wire across the river. when the wind was blowing straight across, a wire was attached to a kite, and thus the connecting thread between the two sides was secured, and afterwards by means of a running wheel, or traveller, wire after wire was sent across until each strand was made thick enough to carry the whole weight of the bridge, railway trains, and other traffic which now pass along. we went on to the bridge, and looked down on the rapids below, for the bridge spans the river at the narrowest point, and right over the commencement of the lower rapids. it was more of a test to my nerves to stand at the edge of the bridge and look down on those fearful rapids than it was to go under the falls. to us, it seemed a miracle of ingenuity and skill how, from so frail a connection, a mere wire, so stupendous a structure could have been formed; and yet, viewing it from below, or at a distance, it looked like a bridge of threads. during its erection several accidents occurred. on one occasion, when the workmen were just venturing on to the cables to lay the flooring, and before a plank was made fast, one of those sudden storms, so peculiar to america, came up and carried away all the flooring into the rapids. four of the men were left hanging to the wires, which were swaying backwards and forwards in the hurricane in the most frightful manner. their cries for help could scarcely be heard, from the noise of the rapids and the howling of the wind, but the workmen on shore, seeing the perilous condition of their comrades, sent a basket, with a man in it, down the wire to rescue them from death. thus, one by one, they were saved. leaving the bridge, and proceeding to the vicinity of the whirlpool, still keeping the american side of the river, we pitched the camera, not _over_ the precipice, as i heard of one brother photographer doing, but on it, and took a view of the bridge and the rapids looking up towards the falls, but a bend in the river prevented them being seen from this point. not very far above the angry flood we saw the _maid of the mist_ lying quietly at her moorings. we next turned our attention to the great whirlpool, which is about a mile below suspension bridge. photographically considered, this is not nearly of so much interest as the falls; but it is highly interesting, nevertheless, as a connecting link between their present and past history. it is supposed that ages ago--probably before the word went forth, "let there _be_ light, and there _was_ light"--the falls were as low down as the whirlpool, a distance of over three miles below where they now are, or even lower down the river still. geological observation almost proves this; and, that the present whirlpool was once the great basin into which the falls tumbled. in fact, that this was, in former ages, what the vortex at the foot of the great horse shoe fall is now. there seems to be no doubt whatever that the falls are gradually though slowly receding, and they were just as likely to have been at the foot of the long rapids before the deluge, as not; especially when it is considered that the general aspect of the falls has changed considerably, by gradual undermining of the soft shale and frequent falling and settling of the harder rocks during the last fifty years. looking at the high and precipitous boundaries of the long rapids, it is difficult to come to any other conclusion than that, ages before the red man ever saw the falls of niagara, they rolled over a precipice between these rocky barriers in a more compact, but not less majestic body. the same vast quantity of water had to force its way through this narrower outlet, and it doubtless had a much greater distance to fall, for the precipices on each side of the river at this point are nearly feet high, and the width of the gorge for a mile above and below the whirlpool is not more than feet. considering that the falls are now spread over an area of nearly three-quarters of a mile, and that this is the only outlet for all the superfluous waters of the great inland seas of canada and america--lakes superior, michigan, huron, and erie--and the hundreds of tributaries thereto, it may easily be conceived how great the rush of waters through so narrow a defile must necessarily be; their turbulence and impatience rather aptly reminding you of a spoilt child--not in size or form, but in behaviour. they have so long had their own way, and done as they liked on the upper river and at the falls, they seem as if they could not brook the restraint put upon them now by the giant rocks and lofty precipices that stand erect, on either side, hurling them back defiantly in tumultuous waves, seething, and hissing, and roaring in anger, lashing themselves into foam, and swelling with rage, higher in the middle, as if they sought an unpolluted way to the lake below, where they might calm their angry and resentful passions, and lay their chafed heads on the soft and gently heaving bosom of their lovely sister ontario. it is a remarkable circumstance that the waters of the rapids, both above and below the whirlpool, in this defile are actually higher in the middle, by eight or nine feet, than at the sides, as if the space afforded them by their stern sentinels on each side were not enough to allow them to pass through in order and on a level. they seem to come down the upper part of the gorge like a surging and panic-stricken multitude, until they are stopped for a time by the gigantic precipice forming the lower boundary of the whirlpool, which throws them back, and there they remain whirling and whirling about until they get away by an under current from the vortex; and, rising again in the lower part of the gorge, which runs off at right angles to the upper, they again show their angry heads, and rush madly and tumultuously away towards lake ontario. the bed of these rapids must be fearfully rugged, or the surface of the waters could not possibly be in such a broken state, for the water is at least feet deep, by measurement made above and below the rapids. but nobody has ventured to "heave the lead" either in the rapids themselves or in the whirlpool, the depth of which is not known. there is not much picturesque beauty at this point. indeed, the whirlpool itself is rather of a fearful and horrible character, with little to see but the mad torrent struggling and writhing in the most furious manner, to force its way down between its rocky boundaries. i saw logs of wood and other "wreck," probably portions of canal boats that had come down the river and been swept over the falls, whirling around but not coming to the centre. when they are seen to get to the vortex they are tipped up almost perpendicularly and then vanish from sight, at last released from their continually diminishing and circular imprisonment. it has sometimes happened that the dead bodies of people drowned in the upper part of the river have been seen whirling about in this frightful pool for many days. in , three soldiers, deserters from the british army, attempting to swim across the river above these rapids, were drowned. their bodies were carried down to the whirlpool, where they were seen whirling about for nearly a fortnight. leaving _this_ gloomy and soul-depressing locality we proceeded for about half a mile further down the river, and visited that frightful chasm called devil's hole, or bloody run. the former name it takes from a horrible deed of fiendish and savage ferocity that was committed there by the indians, and the latter name from the circumstance of that deed causing a stream of human blood to run through the ravine and mingle with the fierce water of the rapids. exactly one hundred years ago, during the french and canadian wars, a party of officers, men, women, and children, were retreating from fort schlosser, on the upper niagara river, and, being decoyed into an ambush, were driven over into this dreadful chasm, and fell to the bottom, a distance of nearly feet. only two escaped. a drummer was caught by one of the trees growing on the side of the precipice, and the other, a soldier named steadman, escaped during the conflict, at the commencement of the treacherous onslaught. he was mounted, and the indians surrounding him, seized the bridle, and were attempting to drag him off his horse; but, cutting the reins, and giving his charger the "rowels deep," the animal dashed forward, and carried him back in safety to fort schlosser. the indians afterwards gave him all the land he encircled in his flight, and he took up his abode among them. in after years he put the goats on goat island--hence its name--by dropping carefully down the middle of the upper stream in a boat. after landing the goats he returned to the mainland, pushing his boat up the stream where the rapids divide, until he reached safe water. the events of the foregoing episode occurred in , and it is to be hoped that the indians were the chief instigators and perpetrators of the massacre of bloody run. while we were looking about the chasm to see if there were any fossil remains in the place, an unlooked-for incident occurred. i saw two men coming up from the bottom of the ravine carrying _fish_--and the oddest fish and the whitest fish i ever saw. the idea of anyone fishing in those headlong rapids had never occurred to us; but probably these men knew some _fissures_ in the rocks where the waters were quiet, and where the fish put into as a place of refuge from the stormy waters into which they had been drawn. no wonder the poor finny creatures were white, for i should think they had been frightened almost out of their lives before they were seized by their captors. i don't think i should have liked to have partaken of the meal they furnished, for they were very "shy-an'-hide" looking fishes. but soon we were obliged to give up both our geological studies and piscatorial speculations, for black clouds were gathering overhead, shutting off the light, and making the dark ravine too gloomy to induce us to prolong our stay in that fearful chasm, with its melancholy associations of dark deeds of bloodshed and wholesale murder. before we gained the road the rain came down, the lightning flashed, and the thunder clapped, reverberating sharp and loud from the rocks above, and we hurried away from the dismal place. on reaching the landing stage, we took refuge from the storm and rain by again going on board the _maid of the mist_. she soon started on her last trip for the day, and we reached our hotel, glad to get out of a "positive bath," and indulge in a "toning mixture" of alcohol, sugar, and _warm_ water. we had no "_gold_" but our "paper" being _good_, we did not require any. after a delightful sojourn of three weeks at the falls, and visiting many other places of minor interest in their neighbourhood, i bade adieu to the kind friends i had made and met, with many pleasant recollections of their kindness, and a never-to-be-forgotten remembrance of the charms and beauties, mysteries and majesty, power and grandeur, and terror and sublimity of niagara.--_photographic news_, . pictures of the st. lawrence. taken in autumn. photographs of the river st. lawrence conveying an adequate idea of its extent and varied aspects, could not be taken in a week, a month, or a year. it is only possible in this sketch to call attention to the most novel and striking features of this great and interesting river, passing them hurriedly, as i did, in the "express boat," by which i sailed from the niagara river to montreal. lake ontario being the great head waters of the st. lawrence, and the natural connection between that river and niagara, i shall endeavour to illustrate, with pen and pencil, my sail down the niagara river, lake ontario, and the st. lawrence. stepping on board the steamer lying at lewiston, seven miles below niagara, and bound for montreal, i went to the "clerk's office," paid seven and a half dollars--about thirty shillings sterling--and secured my bed, board, and passage for the trip, the above small sum being all that is charged for a first-class passage on board those magnificent steamers. i don't remember the name of "our boat," but that is of very little consequence, though i dare say it was the _fulton_, that being in steamboat nomenclature what "washington" is to men, cities, and towns, and even territory, in america. but she was a splendid vessel, nevertheless, with a handsome dining saloon, a fine upper saloon running the whole length of the upper deck, about two hundred feet, an elegant "ladies' saloon," a stateroom cabin as well, and a powerful "walking engine." "all aboard," and "let go;" splash went the paddle-wheels, and we moved off majestically, going slowly down the river until we passed fort niagara on the american side, and fort george on the british, at the foot of the river, and near the entrance to the lake. on fort niagara the "star spangled banner" was floating, its bright blue field blending with the clear blue sky of an autumn afternoon, its starry representatives of each state shining like stars in the deep blue vault of heaven, its red and white bars, thirteen in number, as pure in colour as the white clouds and crimson streaks of the west. the mingled crosses of st. andrew and st. george were waving proudly over the fort opposite. brave old flag, long may you wave! these forts played their respective parts amidst the din of battle during the wars of and ; but with these we have neither time nor inclination to deal; we, like the waters of the niagara, are in a hurry to reach the bosom of lake ontario. passing the forts, we were soon on the expanse of waters, and being fairly "at sea," we began to settle ourselves and "take stock," as it were, of our fellow travellers. it is useless to describe the aspect of the lake; i might as well describe the german ocean, for i could not see much difference between that and lake ontario, except that i could not sniff the iodine from the weeds drying in the sun while we "hugged the shore," or taste salt air after we were out in mid ocean--"the land is no longer in view." to be at sea is to be at sea, no matter whether it is on a fresh water ocean or a salt one. the sights, the sensations, and consequences are much the same. there, a ship or two in full sail; here, a passenger or two, of both sexes, with the "wind taken out of their sails." the "old salts" or "old freshes" behave themselves much as usual, and so do the "green" ones of both atmospheres--the latter by preparing for a "bath" of perspiration and throwing everything down the "sink," or into the sea; and the former by picking out companions for the voyage. being myself an "old salt," and tumbling in with one or two of a "fellow feeling wondrous kind," we were soon on as good terms as if we had known each other for years. after "supper," a sumptuous repast at p.m., we went on to the "hurricane deck" to enjoy the calm and pleasant evening outside. there was a "gentle swell" on the lake--not much, but enough to upset a few. after dark, we went into the "ladies' cabin"--an elegant saloon, beautifully furnished, and not without a grand piano, where the "old freshes" of the softer sex--young and pretty ones too--were amusing themselves with playing and singing. an impromptu concert was soon formed, and a few very good pieces of music well played and sung. all went off very well while nothing but english, or, i should more properly say, american and canadian, were sung, but one young lady, unfortunately, essayed one of the sweetest and most plaintive of scotch songs--"annie laurie." now fancy the love-sick "callant" for the sake of annie laurie lying down to _die_; just fancy annie laurie without the scotch; only fancy annie laurie in a sort of mixture of canadianisms and americanisms; fancy "toddy" without the whisky, and you have some idea of "annie laurie" as sung on board the _fulton_ while splashing away on lake ontario, somewhere between america and canada. there being little more to induce us to remain there, and by the ship's regulations it was getting near the time for "all lights out" in the cabins, we took an early "turn in," with the view of making an early "turn-out," so as to be alive and about when we should enter the st. lawrence, which we did at o'clock a.m., on a fine bright morning, the sun just rising to light up and "heighten" all the glorious tints of the trees on the thousand and one islands, among which we were now sailing. it is impossible to form a correct idea of the width of the st. lawrence at the head of the river. the islands are so large and numerous, it is difficult to come to a conclusion whether you are on a river or on a lake. many of these islands are thickly wooded, so that they look more like the mainland on each side of you as the steamer glides down "mid channel" between them. the various and brilliant tints of the foliage of the trees of america in autumn are gorgeous, such as never can be seen in this country; and their "chromotones" present an insurmountable difficulty to a photographer with his double achromatic lens and camera. imagine our oaks clothed with leaves possessing all the varieties of red tints, from brilliant carmine down to burnt sienna--the brightest copper bays that grow in england are cool in tone compared with them; fancy our beeches, birches, and ashes thick with leaves of a bright yellow colour, from gamboge down to yellow ochre; our pines, firs, larches, and spruces, carrying all the varieties of green, from emerald down to terra verte; in fact, all the tints that are, can be seen on the trees when they are going into "the sere and yellow leaf" of autumn, excepting _blue_, and even that is supplied by the bluebirds (sialia wilsonii) flitting about among the leaves, and in the deep cool tint of the sky, repeated and blended with the reflection of the many-coloured trees in the calm, still water of the river. some of the trees--the maples, for instance--exhibit in themselves, most vividly, the brightest shades of red, green, and yellow; but when the wind blows these resplendent colours about, the atmosphere is like a mammoth kaleidoscope that is never allowed to rest long enough to present to the eye a symmetrical figure or pattern, a perfect chaos of the most vivid and brilliant colours too gorgeous to depict. long before this we had got clear of the islands at the foot of the lake and head of the river, and were steaming swiftly down the broad st. lawrence. it is difficult to say how broad, but it varied from three to five or six miles in width; indeed, the river very much resembles the balloch end, which is the broadest of lochlomond; and some of the passages between the islands are very similar to the straits between the "pass of balmaha" and the island of inchcailliach. the river is not hemmed in with such mountains as ben lomond and ben dhu, but, in many respects, the st. lawrence very much resembles parts of our widest lakes, lochlomond and windermere. having enjoyed the sight of the bright, beautiful scenery and the fresh morning air for a couple of hours, we were summoned to breakfast by the sound of the steward's "big ben." descending to the lower cabin, we seated ourselves at the breakfast table, and partook of a most hearty meal. all the meals on board these steamers are served in the most sumptuous style. during the repast some talked politics, some dollars and cents, others were speculating on how we should get down the rapids, and when we should make them. among the latter was myself, for i had seen rapids which i had not the slightest desire to be in or on; and, what sort of rapids we were coming to was of some importance to all who had not been on them. but everybody seemed anxious to be "on deck," and again "look out" for the quickening of the stream, or when the first "white lippers," should give indication of their whereabouts. my fellow passengers were from all parts of the union; the yankee "guessed," the southerner "reckoned," and the western man "calculated" we should soon be among the "jumpers." each one every now and then strained his eyes "ahead," down stream, to see if he could descry "broken water." at last an old river-man sung out, "there they are." there are the longue sault rapids, the first we reach. having plenty of "daylight," we did not feel much anxiety as we neared them, which we quickly did, for "the stream runs fast." we were soon among the jumping waters, and it is somewhat difficult to describe the sensation, somewhat difficult to find a comparison of a suitable character. it is not like being at sea in a ship in a "dead calm." the vessel does not "roll" with such solemn dignity, nor does she "pitch" and rise again so buoyantly as an atlantic steamer (strange enough, i once crossed the atlantic in the steamship _niagara_), as she ploughs her way westward or eastward in a "head wind," and through a head sea. she rather kicks and jerks, and is let "down a peg" or two, with a shake and a fling. did you ever ride a spavined horse down a hill? if so, you can form some idea of the manner in which we were let down the longue sault and cedar rapids and the st. louis cascades. one of our fellow passengers--a scotchman--told that somewhat _apropos_ and humorous story of the "hielandman's" first trip across the firth of forth in a "nasty sea." feeling a little uneasy about the stomach, and his bile being rather disturbed, the prostrate mountaineer cried out to the man at the "tiller" to "stop tickling the beast's tail--what was he making the animal kick that way for?" and so, telling our stories, and cracking our jokes, we spent the time until our swift vessel brought us to a landing, where we leave her and go on board a smaller boat, one more suitable for the descent of the more dangerous rapids, which we have yet to come to. "all aboard," and away we go again as fast as steam and a strong current can take us, passing an island here and there, a town or a village half french and english, with a sprinkling of the indian tribes, on the banks of the river now and then. but by this time it is necessary to go below again and dine. bed, board, and travelling, are all included in the fare, so everyone goes to dinner. there is, however, so much to see during this delightful trip, that nobody likes to be below any longer than can be avoided. immediately after dinner most are on deck again, anxious to see all that is to be seen on this magnificent river. the sights are various and highly interesting to the mind or "objectives" of either artist or photographer. perhaps one of the most novel subjects for the camera and a day's photographing would be "life on a raft," as you see them drifting down the st. lawrence. there is an immense raft--a long, low, flat, floating island, studded with twenty or thirty sails, and half a dozen huts, peopled with men, women, and children, the little ones playing about as if they were on a "plank road," or in a garden. it is "washing day," and the clean clothes are drying in the sun and breeze--indicative of the strictest domestic economy, and scrupulous cleanliness of those little huts, the many-coloured garments giving the raft quite a gay appearance, as if it were decked with the "flags of all nations." but what a life of tedious monotony it must be, drifting down the river in this way for hundreds of miles, from the upper part of lake ontario to montreal or quebec. how they get down the rapids of the st. lawrence i do not know, but i should think they run considerable risk of being washed off; the raft seems too low in the water, and if not extremely well fastened, might part and be broken up. we passed two or three of these rafts, one a very large one, made up of thousands of timbers laid across and across like warp and weft; yet the people seemed happy enough on these "timber islands;" we passed them near enough to see their faces and hear their voices, and i regretted i could not "catch their shadows," or stop and have an hour or two's work among them with the camera or the pencil; but we passed them by as if they were a fixture in the river, and they gave us a shout of "god speed," as if they did not envy our better pace in the least. there is abundance of work for the camera at all times of the year on the st. lawrence; i have seen it in summer and autumn, and have attempted to describe some of its attractions. and i was told that when the river--not the rapids--is ice-bound, the banks covered with snow, and the trees clad in icicles, they present a beautiful scene in the sunshine. and in the spring, when the ice is breaking up, and the floes piling high on one another, it is a splendid sight to see them coming down, hurled about and smashed in the rapids, showing that the water in its liquid state is by far the most powerful. but now we are coming to the most exciting part of our voyage. the steam is shut off, the engine motionless, the paddle-wheels are still, and we are gliding swiftly and noiselessly down with the current. yonder speck on the waters is the indian coming in his canoe to pilot us down the dangerous rapids. we near each other, and he can now be seen paddling swiftly, and his canoe shoots like an arrow towards us. now he is alongside, he leaps lightly on board, his canoe is drawn up after him, and he takes command of the "boat." everybody on board knows the critical moment is approaching. the passengers gather "forward," the ladies cling to the arms of their natural protectors, conversation is stopped, the countenances of everyone exhibit intense excitement and anxiety, and every eye is "fixed ahead," or oscillating between the pilot and the rushing waters which can now be seen from the prow of the vessel. the indian and three other men are at the wheel in the "pilot house," holding the helm "steady," and we are rushing down the stream unaided by any other propelling power than the force of the current, at a rate of twenty miles an hour. now we hear the rushing and plunging sound of the waters, and in a moment the keen eye of the indian catches sight of the land mark, which is the signal for putting the helm "hard a port;" the wheel flies round like lightning, and we are instantly dropped down a perpendicular fall of ten or twelve feet, the vessel careening almost on her "beam ends," in the midst of these wild, white waters, an immense rock or rocky island right ahead. but that is safely "rounded," and we are again in comparatively quiet water. the steam is turned into the cylinders, and we go on our course in a sober, sensible, and steamboat-like fashion. when we were safely past the rapids and round the rock, a gentleman remarked to me that "once in a lifetime was enough of that." it was interesting to watch the countenances of the passengers, and mark the difference of expression before and after the passage of the rapids. before, it was all excitement and anxiety, mingled with a wish-it-was-over sort of look; and all were silent. after, everybody laughed and talked, and seemed delighted at having passed the _lachine_ rapids in safety; yet most people are anxious to undergo the excitement and incur the risk and danger of the passage. you can, if you like, leave the boat above lachine and proceed to montreal by the cars, but i don't think any of our numerous passengers ever thought of doing such a thing. as long as ever this magnificent water way is free from ice, and the passage can be made, it is done. i don't know that more than one accident has ever occurred, but the risk seems considerable. there is a very great strain on the tiller ropes, and if one of them were to "give out" at the critical time, nothing could save the vessel from being dashed to pieces against the "rock ahead," and scarcely a life could be saved. no one can approach the spot except from above, and then there is no stopping to help others; you must go with the waters, rushing madly down over and among the rocks. the indians often took these rapids, in their canoes, to descend to the lower part of the st. lawrence; and one of them undertook to pilot the first steamer down in safety. his effort was successful, and he secured for his tribe (the iroquois) a charter endowing them with the privileges and emoluments in perpetuity. i wish i could have obtained photographic impressions of these scenes and groups, but the only lens i could draw a "focus" with was the eye, and the only "plate" i had ready for use was the _retina_. however, the impressions obtained on that were so "vigorous and well-defined," i can at any moment call them up, like "spirits from the vasty deep," and reproduce them in my mental camera. the remaining nine miles of the voyage were soon accomplished. passing the first abutment of the victoria bridge, which now crosses the st. lawrence, at this point two miles wide, we quickly reached the fine quay and canal locks at montreal, where we landed just as it was growing dark, after a delightful and exciting voyage of about thirty hours' duration, and a distance of more than four hundred miles. quick work; but it must be borne in mind how much our speed was accelerated by the velocity of the current, and that the return trip by the canal, past the rapids, cannot be performed in anything like the time. on reaching the quay i parted with my agreeable fellow travellers, and sought an hotel, where once more, after a long interval, i slept under a roof over which floated the flag which every englishman is proud of--the union jack. next morning i rose early, and, with a photographic eye, scanned the city of montreal. the streets are narrow, but clean, and well built of stone. most of the suburban streets and villa residences are "frame buildings," but there are many handsome villas of stone about the base of the "mountain." i visited the principal buildings and the cathedral of notre dame, ascended to the top of the bell tower, looked down upon the city, and had a fine view of its splendid quays and magnificent river frontage, and across the country southwards for a great distance, as far as the adirondack mountains, where the hudson river bubbles into existence at hendrick spring, whence it creeps and gathers strength as it glides and falls and rushes alternately until it enters the atlantic below new york, over three hundred miles south of its source. but the mountain at the back of montreal prevented my seeing anything beyond the city in that direction. i afterwards ascended the mountain, from the summit of which i could see an immense distance up the river, far beyond lachine, and across the st. lawrence, and southwards into the "states." being homeward bound, and having no desire at that time to prolong my stay in the western hemisphere, i did not wait to obtain any photographs of montreal or the neighbourhood; but, taking ship for old england, i leave the lower st. lawrence and its beauties; quebec, with its glorious associations of wolfe and the plains of abraham, its fortifications, which are now being so fully described and discussed in the house of commons, and the gulf of the st. lawrence, where vessels have sometimes to be navigated from the "masthead," in consequence of the low-lying sea fog which frequently prevails there. a man is sent up "aloft" where he can see over the fog, which lies like a stratum of white cloud on the gulf, and pilot the ship safely through the fleet of merchantmen which are constantly sailing up and down while the river is open. the fog may not be much above the "maintop," but is so dense it is impossible to see beyond the end of the "bowsprit" from the deck of the ship you are aboard; but from the "masthead" the "look-out" can see the highland and the masts and sails of the other ships, and avoid the danger of going "ashore" or coming into collision by crying out to the man at the wheel such sea phrases as "port," "starboard," "steady," &c.; and when "tacking" up or down the gulf, such as "luff," "higher," "let her off." indeed, the whole trip of the st. lawrence--from lake ontario to the atlantic--is intensely exciting. while off the coast of newfoundland, i witnessed one of those beautiful sights of nature in her sternest mood, which i think has yet to be rendered in the camera--icebergs in the sunlight. a great deal has been said about their beauty and colour, but nothing too much. anyone who saw church's picture of "the icebergs," exhibited in london last year, may accept that as a faithful reflection of all their beautiful colours and dreadful desolation. all sailors like to give them as wide a "berth" as possible, and never admire their beauty, but shun them for their treachery. sometimes their base extends far beyond their perpendicular lines, and many a good ship has struck on the shoal of ice under water, when the captain thought he was far enough away from it. the largest one i saw was above a hundred feet above the water-line, and as they never exhibit more than one-third of their ponderous mass of frozen particles, there would be over two hundred feet of it below water, probably shoaling far out in all directions. we had a quick run across the atlantic, and i landed in liverpool, in the month of november, amid fog, and smoke, and gloom. what a contrast in the light! here it was all fog and darkness, and photography impossible. there--on the other side of the waters--the light is always abundant both in winter and summer; and it is only during a snow or rain storm that our transatlantic brother photographers are brought to a standstill.--_photographic news_, . photographic impressions. the hudson, developed on the voyage. "we'll have a trip up the hudson," said a friend of mine, one of the best operators in new york; "we'll have a trip up the hudson, and go and spend a few days with the 'old folk' in vermont, and then you will see us 'yankees'--our homes and hospitalities--in a somewhat different light from what you see them in this gotham." so it was arranged, and on the day appointed we walked down broadway, turned down courtland street to the north river, and went on board the splendid river steamer _isaac newton_, named, in graceful compliment, after one of england's celebrities. two dollars (eight and fourpence) each secured us a first-class passage in one of those floating palaces, for a trip of miles up one of the most picturesque rivers in america. wishing for a thorough change of scene and occupation, and being tired of "posing and arranging lights" and "drawing a focus" on the faces of men, women, and children in a stifling and pent-up city, we left the camera with its "racks and pinions" behind, determined to revel in the beautiful and lovely only of nature, and breathe the fresh and exhilarating air as we steamed up the river, seated at the prow, and fanned by the breeze freshened by the speed of our swift-sailing boat. leaving new york, with its hundred piers jutting out into the broad stream, and its thousand masts and church spires on the one side, and jersey city on the other, we are soon abreast of hoboken and the "elysian fields," where the germans assemble to drink "lager beer" and spend their sundays and holidays. on the right or east side of the river is spuyten duyvil creek, which forms a junction with the waters of the sound or east river, and separates the tongue of land on which new york stands from the main, making the island of manhattan. this island is a little over thirteen miles long and two and a half miles wide. the dutch bought the whole of it for £ s., and that contemptible sum was not paid to the poor, ignorant, and confiding indians in hard cash, but in toys and trumpery articles not worth half the money. truly it may be said that the "empire city" of the united states did not cost a cent. an acre not more than two hundred and fifty years ago, and now some parts of it are worth a dollar a square foot. at spuyten duyvil creek henry hudson had a skirmish with the indians, while his ship, the _half moon_, was lying at anchor. now we come to the picturesque and the beautiful, subjects fit for the camera of the photographer, the pencil of the artist, and the pen of the historian. on the western side of the hudson, above hoboken, we catch the first glimpse of that singular and picturesque natural river wall called the "palisades," a series of bold and lofty escarpments, extending for about thirty-five miles up the river, and varying in an almost perpendicular height from four to over six hundred feet, portions of them presenting a very similar appearance to honister craig, facing the vale of buttermere and salisbury craigs, near edinburgh. about two and a half miles above manhattan island, on the east bank of the hudson, i noticed a castellated building of considerable pretensions, but somewhat resembling one of those stage scenes of dunsinane in _macbeth_, or the castle of ravenswood in the _bride of lammermoor_. on enquiring to whom this fortified-looking residence belonged, i was told it was fort hill, the retreat of edwin forest, the celebrated american tragedian. it is built of blue granite, and must have been a costly fancy. now we come to the pretty village of yonkers, where there are plenty of subjects for the camera, on sawmill river, and the hills behind the village. here, off yonkers, in , henry hudson came to the premature conclusion, from the strong tidal current, that he had discovered the north-west passage, which was the primary object of his voyage, and which led to the discovery of the river which now bears his name. at dobb's ferry there is not much to our liking; but passing that, and before reaching tarrytown, we are within the charming atmosphere of sunnyside, where washington irving lived and wrote many of his delightful works. tarrytown is the next place we make, and here, during the war for independence, the enthusiastic but unfortunate soldier, major andré, was captured; and at tappan, nearly opposite, he was hung as a spy on the nd of october, . all the world knows the unfortunate connection between benedict arnold, the american traitor, and major andré, the frank, gallant, and enterprising british officer; so i shall leave those subjects to the students of history, and pass on as fast as our boat will carry us to the next place of note on the east bank of the river, sing sing, which is the new york state prison, where the refractory and not over honest members of state society are sent to be "operated" upon by the salutary treatment of confinement and employment. some of them are "doing time" in _dark rooms_, which are very unsuitable for photographic operations, and where _a little more light_, no matter how yellow or non-actinic, would be gladly received. the "silent cell" system is not practised so much in this state as in some of the others; but the authorities do their best to _improve the negative_ or refractory character of the _subjects_ placed under their care. it is, however, very questionable whether their efforts are not entirely _negatived_, and the bad character of the subject more _fully developed_ and _intensified_ by contact with the more powerful _reducing agents_ by which they are surrounded. their prison is, however, very pleasantly situated on the banks of the hudson, about thirty-three miles above new york city. opposite sing sing is rockland lake, one hundred and fifty feet above the river, at the back of the palisades. this lake is celebrated for three things--leeches and water lilies in summer, and ice in winter. rockland lake ice is prized by the thirsty denizens of new york city in the sultry summer months, and even in this country it is becoming known as a cooler and "refresher." nearly opposite sing sing is the boldest and highest buttress of the palisades; it is called "vexatious point," and stands six hundred and sixty feet above the water. about eleven miles above sing sing we come to peekskill, which is at the foot of the peekskill mountains. backed up by those picturesque hills it has a pretty appearance from the river. this was also a very important place during the wars. at this point the americans set fire to a small fleet rather than let it fall into the hands of the british. a little higher up on the west side is the important military station of west point. this place, as well as being most charmingly situated, is also famous as the great military training school of the united states. probably you have noticed, in reading the accounts of the war now raging between north and south, that this or that general or officer was a "west point man." general george m'clellan received his military education at west point; but, whatever military knowledge he gained at this college, strengthened by experience and observation at the crimea, he was not allowed to make much use of while he held command of the army of the potomac. his great opponent, general lee, was also a "west point man," and it does not require much consideration to determine which of the "pointsmen" was the smarter. washington has also made west point famous in the time of the war for independence. benedict arnold held command of this point and other places in the neighbourhood, when he made overtures to sir henry clinton to hand over to the british, for a pecuniary consideration of £ , , west point and all its outposts. a little higher up is cold spring, on the east side of the hudson; but we will pass that by, and now we are off newburg on the west bank. this is a large and flourishing town also at the foot of high hills--indeed, we are now in the highlands of the hudson, and it would be difficult to find a town or a village that is not _backed up_ by hills. at the time i first visited these scenes there was a large photographic apparatus manufactory at newburg, where they made "coating boxes," "buff wheels," "pecks blocks," &c., on a very extensive scale, for the benefit of themselves and all who were interested in the "cleaning," "buffing," and "coating" of daguerreotype plates. opposite newburg is fishkill; but we shall pass rapidly up past poughkeepsie on the right, and other places right and left, until we come to hudson, on the east side of the river. opposite hudson are the catskill mountains, and here the river is hemmed in by mountains on all sides, resembling the head of ullswater lake, or the head of loch lomond or loch katrine; and here we have a photographic curiosity to descant upon. down through the gorges of these mountains came a blast like the sound from a brazen trumpet, which electrified the photographers of the day. among these hills resided the rev. levi hill, who lately died in new york, the so-called inventor or discoverer of the hillotype, or daguerreotypes in natural colours. so much were the "daguerreans" of new york startled by the announcement of this wonderful discovery, that they formed themselves into a sort of company to buy up the _highly coloured_ invention. a deputation of some of the most respectable and influential daguerreotypists of new york was appointed to wait upon the reverend discoverer, and offer him i don't remember how many thousand dollars for his discovery as it stood; and it is said that he showed them specimens of "coloured daguerreotypes,"--but refused to sell or impart to them the secret until he had completed his discovery, and made it perfect by working out the mode of producing the only lacking colour, chrome yellow. but in that he never succeeded, and so this wonderful discovery was neither given nor sold to the world. many believed the truth of the man's statements--whether he believed it himself or not, god only knows. one skilful daguerreotypist, in the state of new york, assured me he had seen the specimens, and had seen the rev. gentleman at work in his laboratory labouring and "buffing" away at a mass of something like a piece of lava, until by dint of hard rubbing and scrubbing the colours were said to "appear like spirits," one by one, until all but the stubborn chrome yellow showed themselves on the surface. i could not help laughing at my friend's statement and evident credulity, but after seeing "jumping quakers," disciples of joe smith, and believers in the doctrine of johanna southcote, i could not be much surprised at any creed either in art or religion, or that men should fall into error in the hillotype faith as easily as into errors of ethics or morality. i was assured by my friend (not my travelling companion) that they were beautiful specimens of colouring. granted; but that did not prove that they were not done by hand. indeed, a suspicion got abroad that the specimens shown by mr. hill were _hand-coloured_ pictures brought from europe. and from all that i could learn they were more like the beautifully coloured daguerreotypes of m. mansion, who was then colourist to mr. beard, than anything else i could see or hear of. being no mean hand myself at colouring a daguerreotype in those days, i was most anxious to see one of those wonderful specimens of "photography in natural colours," but i never could; and the inventor lived in such an out-of-the way place, among the catskills, that i had no opportunity of paying him a visit. i have every reason to believe that the hand-coloured pictures by m. mansion and myself were the only hillotypes that were ever exhibited in america. many of my coloured daguerreotypes were exhibited at the state fair in castle garden, and at the great exhibition at new york in . but perhaps the late rev. levi hill was desirous of securing a posthumous fame, and may have left something behind him after all; for surely, no man in his senses would have made such a noise about daguerreotypes in "natural colours" as he did if he had not some reason for doing so. if so, and if he has left anything behind him that will lead us into nature's hidden mine of natural colours, now is the time for the "heirs and administrators" of the deceased gentlemen to secure for their deceased relative a fame as enduring as the catskill mountains themselves. the katzbergs, as the dutch called the catskill mountains, on account of the number of wild cats they found among them, have more than a photographic interest. the late washington irving has imparted to them an attraction of a romantic character almost as bewitching as that conferred upon the mountains in the vicinity of loch lomond and loch katrine by sir walter scott. it is true that the delicate fancy of irving has not peopled the katzbergs with such "warriors true" as stood "along benledi's living side;" nor has he "sped the fiery cross" over "dale, glen, and valley;" neither has he tracked "the antler'd monarch of the waste" from hill to hill; but the war-whoop of the mohegans has startled the wild beasts from their lair, and the tawny hunters of the tribe have followed up the trail of the panther until with bow and arrow swift they have slain him in his mountain hiding place. and irving's quaint fancy has re-peopled the mountains again with the phantom figures of hendrick hudson and his crew, and put rip van winkle to sleep, like a big baby, in one of nature's huge cradles, where he slept for _twenty years_, and slept away the reign of good king george iii. over the colonies, and awoke to find himself a bewildered citizen of the united states of america. and the place where he slept, and the place where he saw the solemn, silent crew of the "half moon" playing at ninepins, will be sought for and pointed out in all time coming. and why should these scenes of natural beauty and charming romance not be photographed on the spot? it has not been done to my knowledge, yet they are well worthy the attention of photographers, either amateur or professional. we leave the catskill mountains with some regret, because of the disappointment of their not yielding us the promised triumph of chemistry, "photography in natural colours," and because of their beauty and varying effects of _chiaroscuro_ not having been sufficiently rendered in the monochromes we have so long had an opportunity of obtaining in the camera. passing coxsackie, on the west bank of the hudson, and many pleasant residences and places on each side of the river, we are soon at albany, the capital of the state of new york, and the termination of our voyage on board the _isaac newton_. and well had our splendid steamer performed her part of the contract. here we were, in ten hours, at albany, miles from new york city. what a contrast, in the rate of speed, between the _isaac newton_ and the first boat that steamed up the hudson! the _claremont_ took over thirty-six hours, wind and weather permitting, to perform the voyage between new york and albany; and we had done it in ten. what a contrast, too, in the size, style, and deportment of the two boats! the _claremont_ was a little, panting, puffing, half-clad, always-out-of-breath sort of thing, that splashed and struggled and groaned through the water, and threw its naked and diminutive paddle-wheels in and out of the river--like a man that can neither swim nor is willing to be drowned, throwing his arms in and out of the water in agony--and only reached her destination after a number of stoppings-to-breathe and spasmodic start-agains. the _isaac newton_ had glided swiftly and smoothly through the waters of the hudson, her gigantic paddle-wheels performing as many revolutions in a minute as the other's did in twenty. but these were the advanced strides and improvements brought about by the workings and experiences of half a century. if the marine steam engine be such a wonderfully-improved machine in that period of time, what may not photography be when the art-science is fifty years old? what have not the thousands of active brains devoted to its advancement done for it already? what have not been the improvements and wonderful workings of photography in a quarter of a century? what improvements have not been effected in the lifetime of any old daguerreotypist? when i first knew photography it was a ghostly thing--a shimmering phantom--that was flashed in and out of your eyes with the rapidity of lightning, as you tried to catch a sight of the image between the total darkness of the black polish of the silvered plate, and the blinding light of the sky, which was reflected as from a mirror into your eyes. but how these phantom figures vanished! how rapidly they changed from ghostly and almost invisible shadows to solid, visible, and all but tangible forms under the magical influence of goddard's and claudet's "bromine accelerator," and fizeau's "fixing" or gilding process! how mercury flew to the lovely and joint creations of chemistry and optics, and took kindly to the timid, hiding beauties of iodine, bromine, silver, and light, and brought them out, and showed them to the world, proudly, as "things of beauty," and "a joy for ever!" how mercury clung to these latent beauties, and "developed" their charms, and became "attached" to them, and almost immovable; and consented, at last, to be tinted like a gibson's venus to enhance the charms and witcheries of his protégés! anon was mercury driven from beauty's fair domain, and bright shining silver, in another form, took up with two fuming, puffy fellows, who styled themselves ether and alcohol, with a villainous taint of methyl and something very much akin to gunpowder running through their veins. a most abominable compound they were, and some of the vilest of the vile were among their progeny; indeed, they were all a "hard lot," for i don't know how many rods--i may say tons--of iron had to be used before they could be brought into the civilized world at all. but, happily, they had a short life. now they have almost passed away from off the face of the earth, and it is to be hoped that the place that knew them once will know them no more; for they were a dangerous set--fragile in substance, frightful abortions, and an incubus on the fair fame of photography. they bathed in the foulest of baths, and what served for one served for all. the poisonous and disgusting fluid was used over and over again. loathsome and pestiferous vapours hovered about them, and they took up their abode in the back slums of our cities, and herded with the multitude, and a vast majority of them were not worth the consideration of the most callous officer of the sanitary commission. everything that breathes the breath of life has its moments of agony, and these were the throes that agonised photography in that fell epoch of her history. from the ashes of this burning shame photography arose, phoenix-like, and with silver, seven times purified, took her ethereal form into the hearts and _ateliers_ of artists, who welcomed her sunny presence in their abodes of refinement and taste. they treated her kindly and considerately, and lovingly placed her in her proper sphere; and, by their kind and delicate treatment, made her forget the miseries of her degradation and the agonies of her travail. then art aided photography and photography aided art, and the happy, delightful reciprocity has brought down showers of golden rain amidst the sunshine of prosperity to thousands who follow with love and devotion the chastened and purified form of photography, accompanied in all her thoughts and doings by her elder sister--art. i must apologise for this seeming digression. however, as i have not entirely abandoned my photographic impressions, i take it for granted that i have not presumed too much on the good nature of my readers, and will now endeavour to further develop and redevelop the hudson, and point out the many phases of beauty that are fit subjects for the camera which may be seen on the waters and highland boundaries of that beautiful river in all seasons of the year. albany is the capital of the state. it is a large and flourishing city, and one of the oldest, being an early dutch settlement, which is sufficiently attested by the prevalence of such cognomens as "vanderdonck" and "onderdunk" over the doors of the traders. about six or eight miles above albany the hudson ceases to be navigable for steamers and sailing craft, and the influence of the tide becomes imperceptible. troy is on the east bank of the river; and about two miles above, the mohawk river joins the hudson, coming down from the western part of the state of new york. for about two hundred miles the hudson runs almost due north and south from a little below fort edward; but, from the adirondack mountains, where it takes its spring, it comes down in a north-westerly direction by rushing rapids, cascades, and falls innumerable for about two hundred miles more through some of the wildest country that can possibly be imagined. we did not proceed up the upper hudson, but i was told it would well repay a trip with the camera, as some of the wildest and most picturesque scenery would be found in tracking the hudson to its source among the adirondack mountains. i afterwards sailed up and down the navigable part of the hudson many times and at all periods of the year, except when it was ice-bound, by daylight and by moonlight, and a more beautiful moonlight sail cannot possibly be conceived. to be sailing up under the shadow of the palisades on a bright moonlight night, and see the eastern shore and bays bathed in the magnesium-like light of a bright western moon, is in itself enough to inspire the most ordinary mind with a love of all that is beautiful and poetical in nature. moonlight excursions are frequently made from new york to various points on the hudson, and sleepy hollow is one of the most favourite trips. i have been in that neighbourhood, but never saw the "headless horseman" that was said to haunt the place; but that may be accounted for by the circumstance of some superior officer having recently commanded the trooper without a head to do duty in texas. my next trip up the hudson was in winter, when the surface of the river was in the state of "glacial," solid at ° for two or three feet down, but the temperature was considerably lower, frequently ° and ° below zero--and that was nipping cold "and no mistake," making the very breath "glacial," plugging up the nostrils with "chunks" of ice, and binding the beard and moustache together, making a glacier on your face, which you had to break through every now and then to make a breathing hole. on this arctic trip the whole aspect of the river and its boundaries is marvellously changed, without losing any of its picturesque attractions. instead of the clear, deep river having its glassy surface broken by the splash of paddle-wheels, it is converted into a solid highway. instead of the sound of the "pilot's gong," and the cries of "a sail on the port bow," there is nothing to be heard but the jingling sound of the sleigh bells, and the merry laugh and prattle of the fair occupants of the sleighs, as they skim past on the smooth surface of the ice, wrapped cosily up in their gay buffalo robes. the great excitement of winter in canada or the states is to take a sleigh ride; and i think there is nothing more delightful, when the wind is still, than to skim along the ice in the bright, winter sunshine, behind a pair of spanking "trotters." the horses seem to enjoy it as much as the people, arching their necks a little more proudly than usual, and stepping lightly to the merry sound of the sleigh bells. at this time of the year large sleighs, holding fifteen to twenty people, and drawn by four horses, take the place of steamers, omnibuses, and ferry boats. the steam ferries are housed, except at new york, and there they keep grinding their way through the ice "all winter," as if they would not let winter reign over their destinies if they could help it. large sleighs cross and recross on the ice higher up the hudson, and thus keep up the connection between the various points and opposite shores. as the mercury falls the spirits of the people seem to rise, and they shout and halloo at each other as they pass or race on the ice. these are animated scenes for the skill of a blanchard or any other artist equally good in the production of instantaneous photographs. another of the scenes on the hudson worthy of the camera is "ploughing the ice." it is a singular sight to an englishman to see a man driving a team of horses on the ice, and see the white powder rising before the ice-plough like spray from the prow of a vessel as she rushes through the water, cutting the ice into blocks or squares, to stow away in "chunks," and afterwards, when the hot sultry weather of july and august is prostrating you, have them brought out to make those wonderful mixtures called "ice-creams," "sherry-cobblers," and "brandy-cocktails." the hudson is beautiful in winter as well as in summer, and i wonder its various and picturesque beauties have not been photographed more abundantly. but there it is. prophets are never honoured in their own country, and artists and photographers never see the beauties of their country at home. i am sure if the hudson were photographed from the sea to its source it would be one of the most valuable, interesting, and picturesque series of photographs that ever was published. its aspects in summer are lovely and charming, and the wet process can then be employed with success. and in winter, though the temperature is low, the river is perfectly dry on the surface, the hills and trees are glistening with snow and icicles, the people are on the very happiest terms with one another, and frequently exhibit an abundance of dry, good humour. this is the time to work the "dry process" most successfully, and, instead of the "ammonia developers," try the "hot and strong" ones. with these few hints to my photographic friends, i leave the beauties of the hudson to their kind consideration.--_british journal of photography_, . pictures of the potomac in peace and war. when first i visited that lovely region which has so recently been torn and trampled down--blackened and defaced by the ruthlessness of war--peace lay in the valleys of the potomac. nothing was borne on the calm, clear bosom of the broad and listless river but the produce of the rich and smiling valleys of virginia. its banks were peaceful, silent, and beautiful. the peach orchards were white with the blossoms that promised a rich harvest of their delicious fruit. the neat and pretty houses that studded the sloping boundaries of the river were almost blinding with their dazzling whiteness as the full blaze of the sun fell upon them. their inhabitants were happy, and dreamt not of the storm so soon to overtake them. the forts were occupied by only a few, very few soldiers. the guns were laid aside, all rusty and uncared for; and pilgrims to the tomb of washington, the good and great, stopped on their return at fort washington to examine the fortifications in idleness and peaceful curiosity. the capitol at washington echoed nothing but the sounds of peace and good will. the senators of both north and south sat in council together, and considered only the welfare and prosperity of their great confederation. the same harmonious fellowship influenced the appearance and actions of all; and at that happy conjuncture i made my first acquaintance with washington, the capital of the united states. i shall not attempt a description of its geographical position: everybody knows that it is in the district of columbia, and on the banks of the potomac. it is a city of vast and pretentious appearance, straggling over an unnecessary amount of ground, and is divided into avenues and streets. the avenues are named after the principal states, and take their spring from the capitol, running off in all directions in angular form, like the spokes of a wheel, the capitol being the "angular point." the streets running between and across the avenues rejoice in the euphonious names of first, second, and third, and a, b, and c streets, the straight lines of which are broken by trees of the most luxurious growth all along the side-walks. these trees form a delightful sun-shade in summer, and have a very novel and pleasing effect at night, when their green and leafy arches are illuminated by the gas lamps underneath. excepting the capitol, white house, court house, post office, patent office, and smithsonian institute, there is nothing in the city of photographic interest. the "united states," the "national," and "willards," are large and commodious hotels on pennsylvania avenue; but not worth a plate, photographically speaking, unless the landlords wish to illustrate their bar bills. the capitol is out of all proportion the largest and most imposing structure in washington--it may safely be said in the united states. situated on an elevated site, at the top of pennsylvania avenue, it forms a grand termination to that noble thoroughfare at its eastern extremity. the building consists of a grand centre of freestone painted white, surmounted by a vast dome of beautiful proportions. two large wings of white marble complete the grand façade. ascending the noble flight of marble steps to the principal entrance, the great portico is reached, which is supported by about eighteen corinthian columns. the pediment is ornamented with a statue of america in the centre, with the figures of faith on her left, and justice on her right. on each side of the entrance is a group of statuary. on one side an indian savage is about to massacre a mother and her child, but his arm is arrested by the figure of civilization. on the other side the group consists of a man holding up a globe, representing columbus and the figure of an indian girl looking up to it. the large rotunda, immediately underneath the dome, is divided into panels, which are filled with paintings, such as the "landing of the pilgrim fathers," "the baptism of the indian princess pocahontas," and other subjects illustrative of american history. on either side of the rotunda are passages leading to the house of representatives on the one side, and the senate chamber on the other. congress being assembled, i looked in to see the collective wisdom of the "states" during a morning sitting. in many respects the house of representatives very much resembled our own house of commons. there was a mr. speaker in the chair, and one gentleman had "the floor," and was addressing the house. other members were seated in their desk seats, making notes, or busying themselves with their own bills. in one essential point, however, i found a difference, and that was in the ease of access to this assembly. no "member's order" was required. strangers and "citizens" are at all times freely admitted. there is also a magnificent library, which is free to everyone. during the session there is divine service in the senate chamber on sunday mornings. on one occasion i attended, and heard a most excellent discourse by the appointed chaplain. the president and his family were there. in some side offices, connected with the capitol, i found a government photographer at work, copying plans, and photographing portions of the unfinished building, for the benefit of the architects and others whose duty it was to examine the progress of the works. from this gentleman i received much courteous attention, and was shown many large and excellent negatives, all of which were developed with the ordinary iron developer. i next visited the patent office, and the museum connected therewith, which contains a vast collection of models of all kinds of inventions that have received protection--among them several things, in apparatus and implements, connected with photography. the american patent laws require a model of every new invention to be lodged in this museum, which is of immense value to inventors and intending patentees; for they can there see what has already been protected; and as the patent office refuses to grant protection to anything of a similar form, use, or application, much litigation, expense, and annoyance are saved the patentees. our government would do well to take a leaf out of "brother jonathan's" book on this subject; for not only is there increased protection given to inventors, but the fees are considerably less than in this country. the presidential residence, called the white house, was the next interesting subject of observation. it is situated at the west end of pennsylvania avenue, and a good mile from the capitol. the building is of white marble, and of very unpretending size and architectural attractions, but in every respect sufficient for the simple wants of the chief magistrate of the united states, whose official salary is only twenty-five thousand dollars per annum. during congressional session the president holds weekly _levées_; and one of these i determined to attend, prompted as much by curiosity to see how such things were done, as desire to pay my respects. accordingly, on a certain night, at eight o'clock precisely, i went to the white house, and was admitted without hesitation. on reaching the door of the reception room, i gave my card to the district marshal, who conducted me to president pierce, to whom i was introduced. i was received with a hearty welcome, and a shake of the hand. indeed, i noticed that he had a kindly word of greeting for all who came. not having any very important communication to make that would be either startling or interesting to the president of the united states, i bowed, and retired to the promenade room, where i found numbers of people who had been "presented" walking about and chatting in groups on all sorts of subjects--political, foreign, and domestic, and anything they liked. some were in evening dress, others not; but all seemed perfectly easy and affable one with another. there was no restraint, and the only passport required to these _levées_ was decent behaviour and respectability. there was music also. a band was playing in the vestibule, and everyone evidently enjoyed the _reunion_, and felt perfectly at home. never having been presented at court, i am not able to make any comparison _pro_ or _con_. there is also an observatory at washington, which i visited; but not being fortunate enough to meet the--what shall i say? "astronomer-royal," comes readiest, but that is not correct: well, then, the--"astronomer republic," i did not see the large telescope and other astronomical instruments worked. the photographic galleries were all situated on pennsylvania avenue, and they were numerous enough. at that time they rejoiced in the name of "daguerrean galleries;" and the proprietor, or operator, was called a "daguerrean." their reception rooms were designated "saloons," which were invariably well furnished--some of them superbly--and filled with specimens. their "studios" and workshops behind the scenes were fitted with all sorts of ingenious contrivances for "buffing" and "coating" and expediting the work. although the greatest number of mechanical appliances were employed in the daguerreotype branch of photography, art was not altogether ignored in its practice. one house made a business feature of very beautifully coloured daguerreotypes, tinted with dry colours, quite equal to those done in europe. another house made a feature of "daguerreotypes painted in oil;" and the likeness was most admirably preserved. i saw one of the president, and several of the members of congress, which i knew to be unmistakable portraits. although the daguerreotype was most tenaciously adhered to as the best means of producing photographic portraits, the collodion process--or the "crystaltype," as they then called it--was not neglected. it was used by a few for portraits, but chiefly for views. having seen all that was worth seeing in the city, i made excursions into the country, in search of subjects for the camera or pencil. georgetown, a little way from washington, and its picturesque cemetery, offer several pretty bits for the camera. arlington heights, the long bridge, and many nooks about there, are sufficiently tempting; but of all the excursions about washington, mount vernon--a few miles down the potomac, on the virginia side--is by far the most interesting. mount vernon is the name of the place where general george washington lived and died, and is the "mecca" of the americans. nearly every day there are pilgrims from some or all parts of the states to the tomb of washington, which is in the grounds of mount vernon. they visit this place with a kind of religious awe and veneration, and come from far and wide to say they have seen it. for, in truth, there is little to see but the strangest-looking and ugliest brick building i ever beheld, with open iron gates that allow you to look into the darkness of the interior, and see nothing. i took a view of the tomb, and here it is:--a red brick building, squat and low, of the most unsightly design and proportions imaginable--resembling one of our country "deadhouses" more than anything else i could compare it to. it was stuck away from the house among trees and brushwood, and in an advanced state of dilapidation--a disgrace to the nation that had sprung from that great man's honest devotion! over the gothic entrance is a white slab, with the following inscription on it:-- "within this enclosure rest the remains of general george washington." the remains of "lady washington" lie there also; and there are several white obelisks about to the memory of other members of the family. the house itself is a "frame building" of two storeys, with a piazza running along the front of it, and is on the whole a mean-looking edifice; but was probably grand enough for the simple tastes of the man who dwelt in it, and has hallowed the place with the greatness and goodness of his life. the interior of the house looked as if it had once been a comfortable and cozy habitation. in the hall was put up a desk, with a "visitors' book," wherein they were expected to enter their names; and few failed to pay such a cheap tribute to the memory of the father of their country. the grounds, which were full of natural beauties, had been allowed to run into a state of wild tangle-wood; and i had some trouble to pick my way over broken paths down to the riverside again, where i took the "boat," and returned to the city, touching at fort washington on the way. the day had been remarkably fine; the evening was calm and lovely; the silence of the river disturbed only by the splash of our paddles, and the song of the fishermen on shore as they drew in their laden nets; and the moon shone as only she can shine in those latitudes. nothing could denote more peace and quietude as i sailed on the potomac on that lovely evening. there was such a perfect lull of the natural elements--such a happy combination of all that was beautiful and promising--it seemed impossible for such a hurricane of men's passions--such yells of strife and shouts of victory, such a swoop of death as afterwards rushed down those valleys--ever to come to pass. such sad reverse was, however, seen on my second visit to the potomac. the narration of the stirring scenes then presented will form a picture less peaceful and happy, but unfortunately intensely real and painfully true. my second visit to the potomac was paid after the lapse of several years, and under very different circumstances. when the capitol echoed loudly the fierce and deadly sentiments of the men of the north against the men of the south. when both had shouted-- "strike up the drums, and let the tongue of war plead for our int'rest." when the deliberations of the senators were "war estimates," arming of troops, and hurrying them to the "front" with all possible despatch. when the city of washington presented all the appearance of a place threatened with a siege. when every unoccupied building was turned into barracks, and every piece of unoccupied land was made a "camp ground." when the inhabitants were in terror and dismay, dreading the approach of an invading host. when hasty earth-works were thrown up in front of the city, and the heights were bristling with cannon. when the woods and peach orchards on the opposite side of the potomac were red with the glare of the camp fires at night, and the flashing of bayonets was almost blinding in the hot sun at noon. when the vessels sailing on the river were laden with armed men, shot, shell, and "villainous saltpetre." when the incessant roll of drums and rattle of musketry deadened almost every other sound. when sentinels guarded every road and access to the capital, and passports were required from the military authorities to enable you to move from one place to another. in short, when the whole atmosphere was filled with sounds of martial strife, and everything took the form of desolating war. in spite of all these untoward events, i found photography actively engaged in the city, in the camp, and on the field, fulfilling a mission of mercy and consolation in the midst of carnage and tumult--fulfilling such a mission of holy work as never before fell to the lot of any art or art-science to perform. for what aspect of life is photography not called upon to witness?--what phase of this world's weal or woe is photography not required to depict? photography has become a handmaiden to the present generation--a ministering angel to all conditions of life, from the cradle to the grave. an _aide-de-camp_ of the loveliest character to the great "light of the world," humanizing and elevating the minds of all, administering consolation to the sorrowing, increasing the joy of the joyous, lessening the pangs of separation caused by distance or death, strengthening the ties of immediate fellowship, helping the world to know its benefactors, and the world's benefactors to know the world. when grim death stalks into the gilded palaces of the great and powerful, or into the thatched cottages and miserable dwellings of the poor, photography is the assuager of the griefs of the sorrowing survivors, and the ameliorator of their miseries, by preserving to them so faithful a resemblance of the lost one. when the bride, in her youth and loveliness, is attired for the bridal, photography is the recorder of her trustful looks and april smiles, the fashion of her dress, the wreath and jewels that she wore; and, come what change in her appearance that may, the husband can look upon his bride whene'er he likes in after years, as vividly and as distinctly as on that day, connecting the present with the past with a kind of running chord of happy recollections. photography is now the historian of earth and animated nature, the biographer of man, the registrar of his growth from childhood to "man's estate," the delineator of his physical, moral, and social progress, the book of fashion, and the mirror of the times. the uses and applications of photography are almost indescribable; scarcely an art, or a science, or a trade or profession that does not enlist photography into its service. photography does not merely pander to the gratification of earthly vanity, but is an alleviator of human misery. photography enters our hospitals and registers faithfully the progress of disease, its growth and change from day to day, until it is cured, or ripe for the knife of the surgeon; its pictures are lessons to the professor, and a book of study for the students, charts for their guidance through the painful and tedious cases of others similarly afflicted, teaching them what to do and what to avoid, to relieve the suffering of other patients. photography is dragged into our criminal law courts, and sits on the right hand of justice, giving evidence of the most undeniable character, without being under oath, and free from the suspicion of perjury, convicting murderers and felons, and acquitting the innocent without prejudice; and in our courts of equity, cases are frequently decided by the truth-telling evidence of photography. astronomers, geographers, and electricians freely acknowledge how much they are indebted to photography in making their celestial and terrestrial observations. engineers, civil and military, employ photography largely in their plans and studies. art, also, has recourse to photography, and is the only one of the liberal professions that is half ashamed to admit the aid it gains from the camera. if art admits it at all, it is done grudgingly, apologetically, and thanklessly. but there it is the old, old story of family quarrels and family jealousies. old art might be likened to an old aunt that has grown withered and wrinkled, and peevish with disappointment, who, in spite of all her long-studied rules and principles of light and shade, harmony of colour, painting, "glazing," and "scumbling," has failed to win the first prize--that prize which a woman's ambition pants after from the moment she enters her teens until her dream is realized--that living model, moulded after god's own image, which, not having won in her mature age, she becomes jealous of the growing graces, the fresh and rollicking charms, the unstudied and ingenuous truthfulness of form exhibited by her niece. old art the aunt, photography the niece. readers, draw the moral for yourselves. i have digressed, but could not help it. photography is so young and lovely, so bewitchingly beautiful in all her moods, so fascinating and enslaving--and she has enslaved thousands since she first sprung from the source that gives her life. but to return to my theme. the practice of photography, like the aspects of the country and condition of the people, was changed. "old things had passed away, and all things had become new." the shining silver plates, buffing wheels, coating boxes, mercury pans, &c., of the old dispensation had given place to the baths, nitrate of silver solutions, and iron developers of the new. ambrotypes, or glass positives, and photographs on paper, had taken the place of the now antiquated daguerreotype. mammoth photographs were the ambition of all photographers. the first full-length life-sized photograph i ever saw was in washington, and was the work of mr. gardner, the manager of mr. brady's gallery. but a more republican idea of photography, which, strange to say, originated in an empire not remarkable for freedom of thought, soon became the dominant power. cartes-de-visite, the many, ruled over mammoth, the few. the price of mammoth photographs was beyond the reach of millions, but the prices of cartes-de-visite were within the grasp of all; and that, combined with their convenient size and prettiness of form, made them at once popular, and created a mania. the carte-de-visite form of picture became the "rage" in america about the time the civil war commenced, and as the young soldiers were proud of their new uniforms, and those who had been "in action" were prouder still of their stains and scars, the photographers did a good business among them, both in the city and in the camp. i saw a little of this "camp work" and "camp life" myself, and some of the havoc of war as well. photographers are adventurous, and frequently getting into odd kinds of "positions," as well as their "sitters." it was my destiny, under the guidance of the great source of light, to witness the results of the first great conflict between the opposing armies of the federals and confederates; to hear the thunder of their artillery, and see the clouds of smoke hovering over the battle field, without being in the battle itself. to see the rout and panic of the northern troops, who had so recently marched proudly on to fancied victory; to witness the disgraceful and disastrous stampede of the northern army from the field of bull run; to listen to the agonized groans of the "severely wounded" as they were hurried past to the temporary hospitals in washington and georgetown; to be an eye-witness to the demoralized condition of men who, naturally brave, were under the influence of a panic caused by the vague apprehension of a danger that did not exist; to hear the citizens exclaim, "what shall we do?" and "for god's sake don't tell your people at home what you have seen!" and comparing the reverse of their national arms to a "regular waterloo defeat," which was anything but a happy simile. to see the panic-stricken men themselves, when they discovered their error, and began to realize their shame, weeping like women at the folly they had committed. but they atoned for all this, afterwards, by deeds of glorious valour which were never surpassed, and which ended in restoring their country to peace and reunion. the st of july, , was a sunday, and as calm and beautiful a day as could be wished for. from its associations it ought to have been a day of rest and peace to all; but it was not. there was terrible slaughter among men that sunday in virginia. during the morning, i took advantage of an opportunity offered me to go down to alexandria, in virginia, about five or six miles below washington, which was then occupied by a portion of the federal army. everything in the place had the appearance of war. there were more soldiers than civilians about. hotels were turned into barracks and military storehouses. the hotel where colonel ellsworth, of the new york fire zouaves, was shot by the proprietor for hauling down the confederate flag--which the latter had hoisted over his house--had been taken possession of by the military authorities, and the whole place was under martial law. it was there i first heard rumours of a battle being fought in the neighbourhood of manassas junction. these rumours were soon confirmed by the roar of cannon in the distance, and the hurrying of fresh troops from washington to the field of battle. but they were not needed. before they could reach the field the "stampede" had commenced, and the retreating hosts came like a rushing tide upon the advancing few, and carried them back, absorbed in the unshapen mass of confusion. the night came, and little was known by the inhabitants of washington of the rout and rush of terrified men towards the city; but the next morning revealed the fact. wet and wretched was the morning after the battle. the heavens seemed to weep over the disgrace as the men poured into the city, singly and in groups, unofficered, and without their firearms, which many had lost, or thrown away in their flight. the citizens gathered round them, anxious to learn all about the defeat, and the whereabouts of the confederate army, and invited them into their houses to take refreshment and rest. several instances of this impromptu hospitality and sympathy i witnessed myself; and many of the weary and wounded soldiers i talked to. they that were only slightly wounded in the hands and arms had their wounds washed and dressed by the wives and daughters of many of the residents. the hotels were crowded, and the "bars" were besieged by the drenched and fatigued soldiers, whom the curious and sympathizing citizens invited to "liquor." the men all told wonderful stories of the fight and of their own escape, but none could tell satisfactorily what had created the panic. some said that a few "teamsters" took the alarm, and, riding to the rear in hot haste, conveyed the impression that an exterminating pursuit by the confederates had commenced. in a day or two the majority of the men were mustered together again, and occupied their old camping grounds, where i visited them, and heard many of their stories, and got some of the relics of the battle field. fresh troops were raised, and placed under the command of another general. but it was long before another "onward march to richmond" was attempted. the north had learned something of the strength and prowess of the south, and began to prepare for a longer and fiercer struggle with "secession." such are the two pictures of the potomac which i have endeavoured to reproduce, and which fell under my observation during my professional peregrinations in connection with the practice of photography. rambles among the studios of america. boston. my impressions of america, from a photographic point of observation, were taken at two distinct periods--which i might call the two epochs of photographic history--the dry and the wet; the first being the daguerreotype, and the second what may be termed the present era of photography, which includes the processes now known and practised. i take boston as my starting point for several reasons. first, because it was the first american city i visited; secondly, it was in boston that the change first came over photography which wrought such a revolution in the art all over the united states; thirdly and severally, in boston i noticed many things in connection with photography which differed widely from what i had known and practised in england. visiting the gallery of mr. whipple, then in washington street, the busiest thoroughfare in boston, i was struck with the very large collection of daguerreotype portraits there exhibited, but particularly with a large display of daguerreotypes of the moon in various aspects. i had heard of mr. whipple's success in daguerreotyping the moon before i left europe, but had no idea that so much had been achieved in lunar photography at that early date until i saw mr. whipple's case of photographs of the moon in many phases. those daguerreotypes were remarkable for their sharpness and delicacy, and the many trying conditions under which they were taken. they were all obtained at cambridge college under the superintendance of professor bond, but in what manner i had better allow mr. whipple to speak for himself, by making an extract from a letter of his, published in _the photographic art journal_ of america, july, . mr. whipple says: "my first attempt at daguerreotyping the moon was with a reflecting telescope; the mirror was five feet focus, and seven inches diameter. by putting the prepared plate directly in the focus of the reflector, and giving it an exposure of from three to five seconds, i obtained quite distinct impressions; but owing to the smallness of the image, which was only about five-eighths of an inch in diameter, and the want of clockwork to regulate the motion of the telescope, the results were very far from satisfactory. "having obtained permission of professor bond to use the large cambridge reflector for that purpose, i renewed my experiments with high hopes of success, but soon found it no easy matter to obtain a clear, well-defined, beautiful daguerreotype of the moon. nothing could be more interesting than its appearance through that _magnificent_ instrument: but to transfer it to the silver plate, to make something tangible of it, was quite a different thing. the "governor," that regulates the motion of the telescope, although sufficiently accurate for observing purposes, was entirely unsuitable for daguerreotyping; as when the plate is exposed to the moon's image, if the instrument does not follow exactly to counteract the earth's motion, even to the nicety of a hair's breadth, the beauty of the impression is much injured, or entirely spoiled. the governor had a tendency to move the instrument a little too fast, then to fall slightly behind. by closely noticing its motion, and by exposing my plates those few seconds that it exactly followed between the accelerated and retarded motion, i might obtain one or two perfect proofs in the trial of a dozen plates, other things being right. but a more serious obstacle to my success was the usual state of the atmosphere in the locality--the sea breeze, the hot and cold air commingling, although its effects were not visible to the eye; but when the moon was viewed through the telescope it had the same appearance as objects when seen through the heated air from a chimney, in a constant tremor, precluding the possibility of successful daguerreotyping. this state of the atmosphere often continued week after week in a greater or less degree, so that an evening of perfect quiet was hailed with the greatest delight. after oft-repeated failures, i finally obtained the daguerreotype from which the crystallotypes i send for your journal were copies; it was taken in march, . the object glass only of the telescope was used. it is fifteen inches in diameter, and about twenty-three feet focal length; the image it gives of the moon varies but little from three inches, and the prepared plate had an exposure of thirteen seconds." copies of several of these "crystallotypes" of the moon i afterwards obtained and exhibited at the photographic exhibition in connection with the british association which met in glasgow in . the "crystallotypes" were simply enlarged photographs, about eight or nine inches in diameter, and conveyed to the mind an excellent idea of the moon's surface. the orange-like form and the principal craters were distinctly marked. indeed, so much were they admired as portraits of the moon, that one of the _savans_ bought the set at the close of the exhibition. mr. whipple is still a successful practitioner of our delightful art in the "athens of the western world," and has reaped the reward of his continuity and devotion to his favourite art. the late decision of the american law courts on the validity of mr. cutting's patent for the use of bromides in collodion must have laid mr. whipple under serious liabilities, for he used bromo-iodized negative collodion for iron development as far back as . there were many other professional photographers in the chief city of massachusetts; but i have described the characteristics of the principal and oldest concerns. doubtless there are many new ones since i visited the city where benjamin franklin served his apprenticeship as a printer; where the "colonists" in , rather than pay the obnoxious "tea tax," pitched all the tea out of the ships into the waters of boston bay, and commenced that long struggle against oppression and unjust taxation which eventually ended in severing the north american colonies from the mother country. with the knowledge of all this, it is the more surprising that they should now so quietly submit to what must be an obnoxious and troublesome system of taxation; for, not only have photographers to pay an annual licence of about two guineas for carrying on their trade, but also to affix a government stamp on each picture sent out, which is a further tax of about one penny on each. surely the patience of our brother photographers on the other side of the atlantic must be sorely tried, what with the troubles of their business, the whims and eccentricities of their sitters, mr. cutting's unkind cut, and the prowling visitations of the tax-collector. new york. what a wonderful place new york is for photographic galleries! their number is legion, and their size is mammoth. everything is "mammoth." their "saloons" are mammoth. their "skylights" are mammoth. their "tubes," or lenses, are mammoth. their "boxes," or cameras, are mammoth; and _mammoth_ is the amount of business that is done in some of those "galleries." the "stores" of the dealers in photographic "stock" are mammoth; and the most mammoth of all is the "store" of messrs. e. & h. t. anthony, on broadway. this establishment is one of the many palaces of commerce on that splendid thoroughfare. the building is of iron, tall and graceful, of the corinthian order, with corinthian pilasters, pillars, and capitals. it is five storeys high, with a frontage of about thirty feet, and a depth of two hundred feet, running right through the "block" from broadway to the next street on the west side of it. this is the largest store of the kind in new york; i think i may safely say, in either of the two continents, east or west, containing a stock of all sorts of photographic goods, from "sixpenny slides" to "mammoth tubes," varying in aggregate value from one hundred and fifty thousand to two hundred thousand dollars. the heads of the firm are most enterprising, one taking the direction of the commercial department, and the other the scientific and experimental. nearly all novelties in apparatus and photographic requisites pass through this house into the hands of our american _confrères_ of the camera, and not unfrequently find their way to the realms of queen victoria on both sides of the atlantic. when the carte-de-visite pictures were introduced, the oldest and largest houses held aloof from them, and only reluctantly, and under pressure, took hold of them at last. why, it is difficult to say, unless their very small size was too violent a contrast to the mammoth pictures they were accustomed to handle. messrs. rockwood and co., of broadway, were the first to make a great feature of the carte-de-visite in new york. they also introduced the "funnygraph," but the latter had a very short life. in the daguerreotype days there was a "portrait factory" on broadway, where likenesses were turned out as fast as coining, for the small charge of twenty-five cents a head. the arrangements for such rapid work were very complete. i had a dollar's worth of these "factory" portraits. at the desk i paid my money, and received four tickets, which entitled me to as many sittings when my turn came. i was shown into a waiting room crowded with people. the customers were seated on forms placed round the room, sidling their way to the entrance of the operating room, and answering the cry of "the next" in much the same manner that people do at our public baths. i being "the next," at last went into the operating room, where i found the operator stationed at the camera, which he never left all day long, except occasionally to adjust a stupid sitter. he told the next to "sit down" and "look thar," focussed, and, putting his hand into a hole in the wall which communicated with the "coating room," he found a dark slide ready filled with a sensitised plate, and putting it into the camera, "exposed," and saying "that will dew," took the dark slide out of the camera, and shoved it through another hole in the wall communicating with the mercury or developing room. this was repeated as many times as i wanted sittings, which he knew by the number of tickets i had given to a boy in the room, whose duty it was to look out for "the next," and collect the tickets. the operator had nothing to do with the preparation of the plates, developing, fixing, or finishing of the picture. he was responsible only for the "pose" and "time," the "developer," checking and correcting the latter occasionally by crying out "short" or "long" as the case might be. having had my number of "sittings," i was requested to leave the operating room by another door which opened into a passage that led me to the "delivery desk," where, in a few minutes, i got all my four portraits fitted up in "matt, glass, and preserver,"--the pictures having been passed from the developing room to the "gilding" room, thence to the "fitting room" and the "delivery desk," where i received them. thus they were all finished and carried away without the camera operator ever having seen them. three of the four portraits were as fine daguerreotypes as could be produced anywhere. ambrotypes, or "daguerreotypes on glass" as some called them, were afterwards produced in much the same manufacturing manner. there were many other galleries on broadway: canal street; the bowery; the avenues, , , and ; a, b, and c, water street; hudson street, by the shipping, &c., the proprietors of which conducted their business in the style most suited to their "location" and the class of customers they had to deal with; but in no case was there any attempt at that "old clothesman"--that "petticoat lane"--style of touting and dragging customers in by the collar. all sorts of legitimate modes of advertising were resorted to--flags flying out of windows and from the roofs of houses; handsome show cases at the doors; glowing advertisements in the newspapers, in prose and verse; circulars freely distributed among the hotels, &c.; but none of that "have your picture taken," annoying, and disreputable style adopted by the cheap and common establishments in london. unhappily, "sunday trading" is practised more extensively in new york than in london. nearly all but the most respectable galleries are open on sundays, and evidently do a thriving trade. the authorities endeavoured to stop it frequently, by summoning parties and inflicting fines, but it was no use. the fines were paid, and sunday photography continued. the "glass houses" of america differ entirely from what we understand by the name here; indeed, i never saw such a thing there, either by chance, accident, or design--for chance has no "glass houses" in america, only an agency; there are no accidental glass houses, and the operating rooms built by design are not "glass houses" at all. the majority of the houses in new york and other american cities are built with nearly flat roofs, and many of them with lessening storeys from front to back, resembling a flight of two or three steps. in one of these roofs, according to circumstances, a large "skylight" is fixed, and pitched usually at an angle of °, and the rooms, as a rule, are large enough to allow the sitter to be placed anywhere within the radius of the light, so that any effect or any view of the face can easily be obtained. the light is not any more actinic there than here in good weather, but they have a very great deal more light of a good quality _all the year round_ than we have. the operators work generally with a highly bromized collodion, which, as a rule, they make themselves, but not throughout. they buy the gun-cotton of some good maker--mr. tomlinson, agent for mr. cutting, generally supplied the best--then dissolve, iodize, and bromize to suit their working. pyrogallic acid as an intensifier is very little used by the american operators, so little that it is not kept in stock by the dealers. requiring some once, i had quite a hunt for it, but found some at last, stowed away as "not wanted," in messrs. anthony's store. the general intensifier is what they laconically call "sulph.," which is sulphuret of potassium in a very dilute solution, either flowed over the plate, or the plate is immersed in a dipping bath, after fixing, which is by far the _pleasantest_ way to employ the "sulph. solution." throwing it about as some of them do is anything but agreeable. in such cases, "sulph." was the first thing that saluted my olfactories on putting my head inside one of their "dark rooms." up to the american photographic prints were all on plain paper, and obtained by the ammonia nitrate of silver bath, and toned and fixed with the hyposulphite of soda and gold. the introduction of the cartes-de-visite forced the operators to make use of albumenized paper; but even then they seemed determined to adhere to the ammonia process if possible, for they commenced all sorts of experiments with that volatile accelerator, both wet and dry, some by adding ammonia and ether to an -grain silver bath, others by fuming, and toning with an acetate and gold bath, and fixing with hypo afterwards. with the following "musings" on "wrappers" (not "spirit wrappers," nor railway wrappers, but "carte-de-visite wrappers"), i shall conclude my rambles among the galleries of new york. wrappers generally afford an excellent opportunity for ornamental display. many of the wrappers of our magazines are elegantly and artistically ornamented. nearly every pack of playing cards is done up in a beautiful wrapper. the french have given their attention to the subject of "carte-de-visite wrappers," and turned out a few unique patterns, which, however, never came much into use in this country. the americans, more alive to fanciful and tasteful objects of ornamentation, and close imitators of the french in these matters, have made more use of carte-de-visite wrappers than we have. many wrappers of an artistic and literary character are used by the photographers in america--some with ornamental designs; some with the address of the houses tastefully executed; others with poetical effusions, in which the cartes-de-visite are neatly wrapped up, and handed over to the sitter. surely a useful suggestion is here given, for wrappers are useful things in their way, and, if made up tastefully, would attract attention to the photographic establishments that issue them. photography is so closely allied to art that it is desirable to have everything in connection with it of an elegant and artistic description. the plain paper envelopes--gummed up at the ends, and difficult to get open again--are very inartistic, and anything but suitable to envelop such pretty little pictures as cartes-de-visite. let photography encourage art and art manufactures, and art will enter into a treaty of reciprocity for their mutual advancement.--_photographic news_, . to dublin and back, with a glance at the exhibition. the bell rings; a shrill shriek; puff, puff goes the engine, and we dart away from the station at euston square, provided with a return ticket to dublin, issued by the london and north western railway, available for one month, for the very reasonable charge of £ , first-class and cabin; £ s. d. second class and cabin; or forty shillings third class and steerage, via holyhead. these charges include steamboat fare and steward's fee. the exhibition committee have made arrangements with the railway companies to run excursion trains once a fortnight at still lower rates; twenty-one shillings from london to dublin and back, and from other places in proportion. this ticket will be good for a fortnight, and will entitle the holder to another ticket, giving him two admissions to the exhibition for one shilling. with the ordinary monthly ticket, which is issued daily, it is quite optional whether you go by the morning or evening train; but by all means take the morning train, so that you may pass through north wales and the island of anglesea in daylight. passing through england by rugby, stafford, crewe, and chester, nothing remarkable occurs during our rapid run through that part of the country. but an "irish gentleman," a fellow traveller, learning our destination, kindly volunteered to enlighten us how we could best see dublin and its lions in the shortest possible time, and advised us by all "manes" not to "lave" dublin without seeing "faynix park," and taking a car drive to howth and other places round the "bee of dublin." accordingly we agreed to take his advice; but as our primary object in visiting dublin is to see the exhibition, we will first attend to that on our arrival in the irish capital; and if, after that, time will permit, the extraneous lions will receive our attention. first of all, we must describe how we got there, what we saw on the way, and what were our impressions on entering dublin bay. as we said before, nothing particular occurred during our journey through england to excite our attention or curiosity; but on passing into wales--flintshire--our attention is at once arrested by the difference of the scenery through which we pass. soon after leaving chester, we get a sight of the river dee on our right, and continue to run down by its side past flint, bagillt, holywell, and mostyn, then we take a bend to the left and skirt a part of the irish channel past rhyl, abergele, and colwyn to conway, with its extensive ruins of a once vast and noble castle, through, under, and about the ruins of which the double lines of iron rails twist and twine and sinuously encoil themselves like a boa constrictor of civilization and demolisher of wrecks, ruins, and vestiges of the feudal ages and semi-barbarism. our iron charger dashes up to the very walls of the ancient stronghold, close past the base of a tower, and right under the hanging ruins of another, which is in truth a "baseless fabric," but no "vision," for there it is suspended in mid air, a fabric without a base, holding on to its surroundings by the cohesive power of their early attachments. we rush into the very bowels of the keep itself, snorting and puffing defiance to the memoried sternness of the grim warriors who once held the place against all intruders. anyone who has not had an opportunity before of visiting north wales should keep a sharp look-out right and left, and they will get a peep at most of the principal places on the route: the welsh mountains on the left, their summits illuminated by the sun sinking towards the west, and the mass of them thrown into shadow in fine contrast. now we are at penmænmawr, that pretty little watering place, with its neat-looking houses snugly nestling in the laps of the hills, and we pass along so close to the sea, we can feel the spray from the waves as they break on the shore. passing llanfairfechan and aber we are at bangor, and almost immediately afterwards make a dive into the long, dark chamber of the tubular bridge, with a shriek and rumbling rattle that is almost startling. in a few seconds we are out into the daylight again, and get a view of the straits of menai; and on the right-hand side, looking back, get an excellent sight of the tubular bridge. at the moment of our passing, a ship in full sail was running before the wind through the straits, which added considerably to the picturesque beauty of the scene. on the left a fine view of the "suspension bridge" is obtained. we are soon past llanfair, and across that bleak and desolate part of the island of anglesea between the menai straits and the valley. arriving at holyhead, we go on board the steamer which is to carry us across the channel to dublin. the boat not starting immediately, but giving us a little time to look around, we go on shore again, and saunter up and down the narrow hilly streets of holyhead, listening in vain for the sound of a word spoken in our mother tongue. not a word could we hear, not a word of english could we get without asking for it. the most of the people can speak english with a foreign-like accent, but you seldom hear it unless you address them in english. even the urchins in the streets carry on their games and play in the welsh and unintelligible sounds resembling language. we also had time to examine the stupendous breakwater which the government is building at holyhead to form a harbour of refuge. the wall is a mile and three-quarters in length, and of immense thickness, in the form of three terraces, the highest towards the sea. at one place we noticed that the solid slatey rocks were hewn and dressed into shape, and thus formed part of the wall itself, a mixture of nature's handiwork and the work of man. time to go on board again, and as the wind was blowing rather strong, we expected to have a rough voyage of it; and sure enough we had, for we were scarcely clear of the sheltering kindliness of the sea wall and the "north stack" till our vessel began to "pitch and toss," and roll and creak, and groan in agony; and so highly sympathetic were we that we did the same, and could not help it, do what we could. strong tea, brandy and water, were all no use. down we went, like prostrate sinners as we were, on our knees, with clasped hands, praying for the winds and the waves "to be still;" but they did not heed our prayer in the least, and kept up their inhumane howling, dancing, and jumbling until, by the time we reached the middle of the channel, we began to think that the captain had lost his course, and that we were somewhere between holyhead and purgatory, if not in purgatory itself, being purged of our sins, and becoming internally pure and externally foul. but we discovered that we, and not the captain, had lost the course and the even tenour of our way, for we fancied--perhaps it was only fancy--that we could hear him humming snatches of old song, among them "oh! steer my bark to erin's isle!" and soon the mountains of wicklow are in sight. as we near, and get under the lee of the land--for it was a stiff "sou'-wester" that bothered us--our sensations and feelings begin to improve, and we pick ourselves up out of the mire, and turn our eyes eagerly and hopefully towards the emerald isle, and dublin bay more particularly. as we approach the bay, the carlingford hills can be seen on the right, and a little more southwards lambay and ireland's eye. the latter island is rugged and precipitous, seaward, in the extreme--a barren and desolate-looking spot, possessing an unenviable notoriety on account of the murder of a lady by her husband having been committed there a few years ago: howth, the light-house, and the bailey rock, where the _queen victoria_ steamer was wrecked, now attract our attention. and, as nearly as we can remember, these are the most striking features on the north side of the bay. on the south the harbour of kingstown is distinctly visible, and we saw the mail steamer which crosses from holyhead to kingstown, a distance of sixty miles, in three and a half hours, blowing off her steam. by paying a little extra you can cross in the mail steamers, if you wish, but it is not worth while paying the difference, as the ordinary steamers cross from holyhead to dublin in about five and a half hours. all round the south side of the bay we could trace the kingstown and dublin railway, which is the oldest line but one in the united queendoms of great britain and ireland. an obelisk commemorates the visit of the last of the four georges to ireland in . right over kingstown the killinny hills are to be seen, and all along the water-line the bay is studded with pretty little villas, and the scene is truly beautiful. if possible, arrange your entrance into the bay of dublin in the early morning, for then the sun, rising in the east, lights up the subjects to the very best advantage, and throws a charm about them which they do not exhibit at any other time of the day. by waiting at holyhead for the early morning boat you can easily manage this. but now we are at the north wall, and on landing are besieged by carmen to have a "rowl," and jumping on to one of those light, odd-looking, jaunting cars which are one of the institutions of the country, we are "rowled" up the north wall for nearly a mile, past the docks, over the drawbridges, and past the custom house--a large stone building, too large for the business of the port--along carlisle bridge, down westmoreland street, past the bank of ireland--once the houses of parliament--and up dame street, leaving the college on our left, and passing king william's statue, representing a mounted roman with _gilded_ laurels and ornamental toga, we arrive at jury's hotel, a commercial and family house of superior arrangements which was well recommended to us before we left london; and here we rest. after breakfast, and having made ourselves internally and externally comfortable, we start for the exhibition, which is within easy walking distance of the hotel; but the car fares are so very moderate that we prefer a "rowl." the fare is sixpence a "set down;" that is, you may ride from one end of the city to the other for sixpence, but if you get off to post a letter, or buy an umbrella to keep the rain off--for the cars have no covering--that is a "set down;" and so every time you get down and get up again you have sixpence to pay, no matter how short the distance you are taken each time. so we hailed a car at the door of the hotel, determined to be "rowled" to the exhibition for sixpence each. we go down dame street, across college green, up grafton street, along the west and south sides of st. stephen's green or square to earlsfort terrace and the principal entrance to the dublin exhibition, which occupies the site of what was formerly coburg gardens. arriving at the entrance-hall, we pay our admission fee, and on passing the registering turnstiles we are at once in the sculpture hall on the ground floor, the contents of which we shall notice more particularly by-and-by. passing through the sculpture hall we are within the western transept, or winter garden portion of the exhibition. this transept is feet long and of lofty proportions, with galleries on each side, and tastefully hung with the banners and flags of the nations exhibiting. the northern court is about feet long, also of iron and glass, with galleries running round both sides similar to the western transept. the ground floor and part of the galleries of the northern court are devoted to the productions of the united kingdom. on the north side of the northern court is the machinery department, both at rest and in motion. here machines of the most delicate and ponderous nature are at work. there a forge-hammer daintily cracking nuts, or coming down with a crushing force at the will of the attendant. in another place a delicate curving-machine is at work; and another can be seen making steel pens. there are high pressure engines, sewing machines, and photographic rolling-presses. indeed, there is almost everything to be seen and everything going on that is instructive, edifying, and amusing. the exhibition building is small, but well arranged and compact, and partakes of the character of an art and industrial exhibition and place of amusement and recreation, like our crystal palace at sydenham, with ornamental gardens and archery grounds attached. the gardens are small--a little larger than the area of the building itself--but most tastefully laid out. and there are fountains and grottoes, and rockeries and cascades, with flowers growing about them, which give the whole place a pleasant, healthy, and delightful appearance. stepping out of the western transept into the gardens, we found the band of the th highlanders playing in the centre, and their pipers walking about the grounds ready to take up the strains of music in another key, for presently we saw them marching about, playing "hielan' skirls," and sounding the loud pibroch, with a five-bag power that was more stunning than the nocturnal wailings of a dozen or two kilkenny cats. the directors furnish music and offer other inducements to secure a good attendance, and their efforts ought to be successful, and it is to be hoped they will be so. on the first day of our visit there was a grand archery meeting, and the turn-out of dublin belles was double in numbers. there was a large attendance of bowmen, too, and belles and beaux were banging away at the targets most unmercifully in keen contest for the prize; whether it was a medal, a ring, or an heiress, we could not learn; but if nothing more than the privilege of entering the lists against such lovely competitors, the bowmen ought to have been satisfied; but we don't suppose they were, for men are both ambitious and avaricious, and probably some of them hoped to win a prize medal, kill a beauty, and catch an heiress all at once, with one swift arrow sent whizzing and quivering into the very heart and gilded centre of the gaily-painted target. perched up on the top of the cascades we noticed a double sliding-front stereoscopic camera, and doubtless mr. york was busy photographing the scene we have been describing--impressions of which the london stereoscopic company will probably issue ere long. we must, however, leave this gay scene and turn our attention to other things, certainly not more attractive; but duty calls us away from beauty, and we must submit. re-entering the exhibition building, we seek the photographic department, which we readily find on the ground floor, between the music hall and the first-class refreshment-room. entering from the belgian department in the western transept, we find three rooms in the main building devoted to the exhibition of photographs, and a lobby between the rooms pretty well filled with apparatus. to sir j. jocelyn coghill are photographers indebted for obtaining so much space for their works, and in such a get-at-able situation; but it is a pity the rooms are not better lighted. many of the pictures on the screens are very indistinctly seen, and some are in dark corners scarcely to be seen at all. the foreign department, which is the first room we enter, is mainly made up of reproductions of old and modern engravings, and copies of drawings and paintings. one very remarkable photograph on the wall of this room is an immense magnification of a flea, by a. duvette. what a subject for the camera!--one that suggests in sporting phraseology something more than the "find," the "chase," and the "death." a panoramic view of rome, by m. petagna, is a great achievement in panoramic photography. there are seven impressions from by plates, all carefully joined, and of equal tone. the point of view is "tasso's oak," and the panorama gives us an excellent idea of rome at the present day. the british part of the photographic exhibition in dublin might be very properly denominated an enlargement of the society's exhibition now open in conduit street, london. nearly all the principal exhibitors there have sent duplicates of their chief works to the dublin exhibition. there is robinson's beautiful picture of "brenda," his "may gatherers," "sunshine," "autumn," "somebody coming," "bringing home the may," &c., all old and familiar pictures, every one of which we have seen before. robinson himself in his study--a beautiful piece of photography, even to his black velvet coat. blanchard also repeats his "zealot," and other subjects, and sends a frame full of his exquisite stereographs. england also sends some of his charming stereoscopic pictures of switzerland and savoy. bedford's contribution is much the same as his pictures in the london exhibition. among them are his lovely warwickshire pictures. wet-plate photography is well represented, both in landscape, portraiture, and composition. among the latter, rejlander is most prominent. one frame containing some pictures showing the "expression" of the hands, illustrates rejlander's artistic knowledge and ability more than many of his other pictures. none but a thoughtful and accomplished artist could have disposed of those members in such a skilful manner. his pictures of "grief," "the mote," "the wayfarer," "'tis light within--dark without," and his "home, sweet home," reveal exquisite feeling in his treatment of such subjects. thurston thompson also exhibits some of his fine reproductions of turner. there is "crossing the brook," and "childe harold's pilgrimage;" but a much larger collection of these beautiful copies of turner's pictures are now on view at marion's, in soho square. dry plate photography is exemplified in all its phases, from the oldest form of albumen alone, to the latest modifications with collodion, collodio-albumen, fothergill, tannin, malt, &c. the most prominent and largest contributor to this department is mr. mudd. in addition to the duplicates in the london exhibition, he sends a few others, the most remarkable of which is a large view of "borrowdale," a noble picture, exquisitely treated, showing masses of light and shade and pleasing composition which stamp it at once as a work of art. mr. g. s. penny exhibits some very fine examples of the tannin and malt process. they are soft and delicate, and possess sufficient force to give powerful contrasts when necessary. mr. bull's tannin and malt pictures are also very good; his "menai bridge" particularly so. the amateur photographers, both wet and dry, make a good show. and among the irish followers of our delightful art are sir j. j. coghill, who exhibits twelve very pretty views of the neighbourhood of castletownsend. dr. hemphill, of clonmel, also exhibits a variety of subjects, many of them pretty compositions and excellent photography. dr. bailey, of monaghan, contributes both landscapes and portraits of very good quality. mr. t. m. brownrigg shows seventeen photographs all excellent examples of the wet collodion process. many of them are exquisite bits of photography, and evince an amount of thought and care in selecting the best point of view, arranging the lines of the subject, and catching the best effect of light so as to make them pictures, which is seldom attended to by professional photographers. amongst the irish professional photographers in landscape work, mr. f. mares, of dublin, stands pre-eminent. his pictures of killarney, and views in the county of wicklow, are very beautiful, and give evidence of a cultivated eye and artistic taste in the selection of his subjects and points of view. there are other excellent views and architectural subjects by irish photographers; but we are sorry to observe some that really ought not to have been admitted. they are not even average photography, being utterly destitute of manipulative skill, and as deficient in art-excellence as they can well be. one branch of landscape, or, we should say, marine photography, is without competition. we refer to those exquisite and charming transparencies by mr. c. s. breese. his moonlight effect is wonderfully managed; the water looks "alive," and the moonlight is dancing on the waves just as we have seen it far away upon the sea. his "breaking wave" is marvellous, coming to shore with its cavernous curl; we almost fancy we hear its angry howl as it dashes itself into foam on the beach. we have seen such a wave sweep the deck of a ship before now, and know well with what a ponderous weight and velocity it comes; and we wonder the more at mr. breese's success in catching the wave in such a position. we cannot, however, speak so highly of the "sunlight" effects by the same artist. the transparencies as photographs are inimitable; but there is colour introduced into the skies which ought to have been taken up by the rocks, and so carried into the foregrounds of the pictures, to be natural. such warm skies and cold middle distances and foregrounds are too antagonistic for the harmony of nature. in portraiture, our irish brethren of the camera contribute somewhat liberally. in that branch we noticed the works of messrs. robertson and co., s. lawrence, and g. schroeder, of grafton street; millard and robinson, nelson and marshall, and s. chancellor, of sackville street, dublin. t. cranfield, grafton street, also exhibits some photographs beautifully coloured in oil. the most eminent english photographers also show up well. we saw the well-known works of mayall, silvy, claudet, maull and co., and others, eminent in plain photography. messrs. lock and whitfield exhibit a royal case of exquisitely coloured photographs of the prince and princess of wales, and prince albert victor. mr. g. wharton simpson also exhibits a few specimens of his beautiful collodio-chloride of silver printing process. there are some lovely specimens of that process with such a frightfully ugly name, but which, in plain parlance, are pictures on opal glass, though mr. helsby has christened them "helioaristotypia miniatures." as a set-off to this, the next dry process that is discovered should be called "hydrophobiatypia." in amateur portraiture, mr. h. cooper, jun., exhibits a large number of his clever life studies, as well as those quiet and charming representations of his friends in their habits as they live. solar camera enlargements are very numerously contributed. mr. claudet sends some good pictures enlarged by solar camera, and developed with gallic acid. mr. salomon also has some very good examples of enlarging. dr. d. van monckhoven is an exhibitor of the capabilities of his direct printing camera. mr. mayall exhibits two series of very interesting enlargements by the monckhoven camera, printed direct on albumenized paper; one is tennyson, in eight different sizes, from a one-ninth to a life-size head on a whole sheet of paper; of the other, captain grant, there are seven similar pictures. these photographs are all bold and vigorous and uniform in colour, and come nearer to our idea of what an enlargement should be than anything we have yet seen. of the two, that of the poet-laureate is the best; the other is harsher, which is in all probability due to the difference in the subjects themselves. we can easily imagine that the face of captain grant, bronzed and weather-beaten as it must be, will present more obstacles to the obtaining of a soft negative than that of tennyson. specimens of photo-sculpture are also to be seen at the dublin exhibition, many of which are very pretty and life-like statuettes; but some of the figures seem much too large in the _busts_, and the plinths on which the figures of ladies stand are in very bad taste; being diminishing beads of a circular form, they suggest the idea of a huge crinoline just dropped. nearly all the denominations of photography have their representative forms and impressions in this exhibition; and the history of the art, from the early days of the daguerreotype to the latest vagary of the present day, may be traced in the collection of photographs spread before you on the walls and screens of the dublin international exhibition. there is the daguerreotype, the ambrotype, and the collodiotype, which ought to have been known as the archertype; for the wet collodion process, although it is the most important of all the discoveries in photography that have been made since the first pictures were obtained by wedgwood, is without a name conferring honour on the man who first applied collodion to photography. archer's name is generally associated with it, but without taking that definite and appellative form it ought to. we know that another claimant has been "cutting in" for the honour, but unless that claim can be "backed up" by data, we are not disposed to believe that it was anterior to --the year of the first exhibition; at that date we know that mr. archer took photographs on collodionized glass plates. then why should we not honour archer as the french honoured daguerre, and call the wet collodion process the archertype? in printing and toning, there are samples of nearly all the formulæ that have been discovered since the days of printing on plain salted paper and fixing in "hypo" only. there are prints on plain paper and on albumenized paper, toned and fixed in every conceivable way. there are prints on glass, porcelain, and ivory; prints in carbon, from the negative direct; and impressions in printer's ink from plates, blocks, and lithographic stones, which have had the subjects transferred to them by the aid of photography. there are wothlytypes, and simpsontypes, and tooveytypes, and all the other types that have sprung from a desire to introduce novelties into the art. in graphs and the various forms and fanciful applications of photography to portraiture, &c., there are stereographs and micrographs, and the old-fashioned "sit-on-a-chair" graphs, the "stand-not-at-ease" graphs, the "small carte" graph, the "large carte" graph, the "casket gem" graph, the "magnesium" graph, the "cameo" graph, the "double-stupid" graph, and the latest of all novelties, the "turn-me-round" graph. the latter is a great curiosity, and must have been suggested by a recollection of that "scientific toy" of ancient manufacture with which we used to awaken the wonder of our little brothers and sisters at christmas parties when we were boys, by twirling before their astonished eyes a piece of cardboard with a bird painted on one side and a cage on the other, both pictures being seen at the same time during the rapid revolution of the card. in apparatus there is not much to talk about, the pantascopic camera being the chief novelty. there are several of the manufacturers exhibiting in the photographic department, but we could not reconcile ourselves to the circumstance of mr. dallmeyer not exhibiting in the right place. his name is honoured by photographers, and he should have honoured photography by going in under her colours. if he must go to the "scientific department," he ought to have gone there with his scientific instruments alone, and shown his photographic apparatus in the place assigned for that purpose. true, he makes a handsome show, but that does not atone for his mistake. photographers are queer animals--jealous of their rights, and as sensitive to slight as their plates are to light; and we fear we are ourselves not much better. a large majority of photographers stand by mr. dallmeyer, and very justly believe in his and b's as shippers do in a 's at lloyd's; and _his_ stand should have been in the photographic department. in other parts of the exhibition building there are various subjects highly interesting to photographers. the chemical department has its attractions in samples of collodio-chloride of silver, prepared by messrs. mawson and swan, for the opal printing process and the simpsontype. specimens of each type are also to be seen there; and there are other chemicals used in photography, even to dextrine and starch: the purity of the latter is known by the size and length of its crystals. in metallurgy there is also something to interest photographers. messrs. johnson and sons exhibit some very fine samples of nitrate of silver, double and treble crystallized, silver dippers, chloride of gold, nitrate of uranium, and other scarce metals. messrs. johnson, matthey, and co. also exhibit some fine samples of nitrate of silver and chloride of gold; and some wonderful specimens of magnesium, in various forms, in wire and ribbon. one coil of ribbon is , feet long, and weighs ounces; and there is an obelisk of magnesium about inches high, and weighing ounces. there are many other things in this case of great value which have a photographic bearing--amongst these a platinum boiler, valued at £ , , for the concentration and rectification of sulphuric acid; a platinum alembic, value £ , for the separation and refining of gold and silver; also an ingot of platinum, weighing , ounces, and valued at £ , . the exhibitors say that "such a mass of fused platinum is never likely to be again produced." the whole of the contents of messrs. johnson, matthey, and co.'s case of precious metals, most of which have a direct or indirect application to photography, are estimated at the enormous value of £ , ! mining, too, has its attractions for us; and as we near the nova scotia division of the exhibition building the needle of our observation dips towards a bar of pure gold, weighing pounds, and valued at £ , sterling. by the gentlemanly courtesy of the rev. dr. honeyman, honorary secretary and commissioner in dublin, from the province of nova scotia, we were favoured with a "lift" of this valuable lump of gold, and we could not help exclaiming, "what a lot of chloride this would make!" but we had to "drop it" very quickly, for the muscles of our fingers could not bear the strain of holding it more than a few seconds. this bar of gold was obtained from very rich quartz, specimens of which are to be seen near it; and dr. honeyman informed us that the average daily remuneration from such quartz was thirty shillings sterling per man. it is not generally known that the province of nova scotia is so rich in gold; but, from statistics by the chief commissioner of mines for the province, we find that the average yield of the nova scotia quartz is over dwt. per ton, and richer than the quartz of australia; and the deeper the shafts are sunk the richer the quartz becomes. in the total yield from all the gold districts of nova scotia was , ounces, dwts., grs. gold dust and scales have also been found in the sands on the sea coast of the province, and in the sands of sable island, which is eighty miles distant, in the atlantic ocean. having in our own colonies such an abundance of one of the precious metals so extensively used in the practice of our art, photographers need not be under any apprehension of having their supplies cut off. continuing our general survey, we stumble upon many things of considerable interest. but, as our space will only allow us to particularize those articles which have a photographic attraction, direct or indirect, we must as far as possible imagine ourselves something like animated photometers for the time being, registering the aspects, changes, and remarkable phenomena connected with our art, and whatever can be applied to photography and the use of photographers; or whatever photography can be applied to, artistically or commercially considered. of some things non-photographic, but of interest to photographers as well as others, we may be induced to say a little; but of most subjects foreign to our profession we shall simply say to our readers, "we have seen such wondrous things, go ye and do likewise." we finished our last paper with a few comments on what was photographically interesting in the province of nova scotia. passing from that to the provinces of the lower and upper canadas, which are very properly placed next door to each other, we are struck with some very good and interesting photographs of canadian scenery, both plain and in colours, and a frame of portraits of the delegates of the british north american confederation. samples of all kinds of native and indian manufactures, and specimens of mineral ores, chiefly iron and copper, are also displayed here. pursuing our way southwards from the colonial division of the galleries, we come to china and japan. the geographical and relative positions of the countries exhibiting are not strictly adhered to in the plan of the exhibition, so we must, of necessity, make some "long legs," and experience some imaginary transitions of temperature during our journey of observation. in japan we stop to look at a life-size group of female figures, representing a princess at her toilette, attended by four female slaves, books illustrated with wood-cuts, plain and coloured, bronzes, and many other articles of art and manufacture, by the japanese, of much interest. in china, there is a state bedstead of great beauty, books of paintings upon rice-paper, and many beautiful bronzes, carvings, and other specimens of chinese art. we pass through turkey, and next come to siam, but the latter country does not exhibit much, except of a "seedy" character. we admit we are sometimes addicted to making puns, but the siamese send puns for exhibition. there is an article called "pun," which is "prepared lime, coloured pink with turmeric," but to what use it is applied we have not been enlightened. passing through france, austria, prussia, belgium, and holland, without stopping to notice anything particularly, and turning into the south corridor, we enter the water colour gallery, which we quickly leave, sighing, "how unlike that beautiful and attractive section of the art treasure exhibition at manchester in !" hastening into the central picture gallery, we are much struck with the different appearance it presents, and find numbers of ladies and gentlemen admiring the numerous productions by painters belonging to the various foreign schools. among these works are some grand subjects, both in historical and ideal composition, and landscape representations. this gallery has a particularly noble and handsome appearance. it is oblong, well-lighted, and open in the middle, by which means the sculpture hall, which is underneath, is lighted. the sides of the gallery next the open space are handsomely railed round, and pedestals, with marble busts and statuettes on them, are tastefully arranged at intervals, leaving room enough for you to look down into the sculpture hall below. what with the fine pictures on the walls and staircase, and the noble statues in marble about and below, you cannot but come to the conclusion that this is a noble temple of art. we next enter the east front room, which contains the works of the belgian artists. many of these paintings are very finely conceived and executed. the largest and most striking of them is the "defeat of the duke of alençon's troops by the citizens of antwerp," painted by a. dillens. now we enter the great picture gallery, which is devoted to the painters belonging to the british school. here we find many of the well-known works from the national gallery and kensington museum. there are examples of the works of callcott, collins, wilkie, wilson, turner, landseer, mulready, etty, egg, ward, leslie, and a host of others. her majesty the queen also sends several pictures from her private collection, as examples of the works of winterhalter, thomas, and stanfield. nearly all the british artists are creditably represented in the dublin international art exhibition. we next come to the collection of ancient masters in the north gallery, which we enter from the north corridor. to this part of the fine art exhibition the earl of portarlington is the most liberal contributor. he sends examples of titian, rubens, carlo dolci, tintoretto, canalette, claude, watteau, rembrandt, gerard dow, schneiders, vandevelde, sir joshua reynolds, sir peter lely, and others. the marquis of drogheda also sends several examples of the same masters, some of them very fine ones. sir charles coote sends a great many paintings; among them a murillo, a guido, and a gainsborough. thence we pass into the mediæval court, where we find nothing but croziers, sacramental cups and plates, carved panels for pulpits and clerks' desks, reminding us of "responses" and "amens." these we leave to churchmen, enthusiastic puseyites, and devotees of catholicism. and we wend our way round the galleries, passing through switzerland and italy into the united kingdom, where we stop to examine some of the art manufactures peculiar to ireland, and are particularly interested in the specimens of irish bog oak, carved most tastefully into various ornaments, such as brooches, pins, paper-knives, &c., and sculptured into humorous and characteristic statuettes. the most noticeable of that class of irish art and industry is a clever group, entitled, "where's the man that dare tread on my coat?" this really humorous and artistic statuette is one of a group of two. one is a rollicking irishman brandishing his shillelagh over his head and trailing his coat on the ground, which is the irishman's challenge for a fight at such places as donnybrook fair. the other irishman, who is equally ready for a "row," is in the act of treading on the coat, as an acceptance of the challenge. the story is so cleverly told, that we almost fancy we see the fight begin, and hear the shillelaghs cracking crowns in a genuine irish row. pushing on through india to the british colonies again, whence we started, we descend to the ground floor, and resume our survey of sweden, norway, italy, and rome, and turn into the music hall, which is on the south side of the entrance and statuary hall. here we find the organ builders at work on the grand organ, blowing up one pipe after another, and producing such volumes of inharmonious sounds that we are glad to leave them to the full and hearty enjoyment of their pipes, chords, discords, and bellows-blowing. the walls of the music hall are nearly covered with cartoons and paintings of a high-class, some of them so high that we require an opera-glass to bring them within the range of our visual organs. we next enter the sculpture hall with a view of examining the statues and describing them carefully. but they are so numerous that we can only find space to call attention to the most striking. there are over three hundred pieces of sculpture from various countries, comprising colossal and life-size figures, groups, busts, statuettes, and alto-relievos in marble and bronze. the most attractive of the marble statues are "michael angelo, when a child, sculpturing the head of a faun" (his first work), by emilio zocchi, of florence. the earnestness of purpose and devotion to his task are wonderfully expressed in the countenance of the boy-sculptor. plying the hammer and chisel actively and vigorously, every part of the figure betokens a thorough abandonment to his occupation. a very remarkable work by a lady sculptor--miss harriett hosmer--entitled "the sleeping faun," is the very opposite to the other, in its complete abandonment to repose. this fine statue has been purchased by mr. guiness, and we were told he had given a munificent sum for it. another piece of exquisite beauty and daring skill in marble working is "the swinging girl," by pietro magni, of milan, the sculptor of "the reading girl," which attracted so much attention in the international exhibition of . the figure of the girl swinging is beautifully modelled, and entirely free from contact with the base; and is supported only by the swing attached to the branch of a tree, and the hand of a boy giving action to the subject. "ophelia," by w. c. marshall, is perhaps the most poetic conception of the loveliest and most mournful of shakespeare's creations that has ever been sculptured. it is almost impossible to look at this touching representation of ophelia in her madness without exclaiming, in a modified quotation of her own description of hamlet-- "o, what a gentle mind is here o'erthrown." but we must stop. to go on in this way describing all the beautiful works of art in the dublin exhibition would fill a volume. already we have allowed our admiration to carry us beyond the limits we had assigned ourselves. we have been tempted to describe more than photographic works, but none that have not a value artistically or otherwise to photographers. we recommend all our readers that possibly can to go and see for themselves. the trip is a very pleasant one, and need not be expensive; nor need much time be spent unnecessarily. a week's absence from business will give you five clear days in dublin, the other two only being occupied in travelling. five days will be amply sufficient to see the exhibition and the "extraneous lions" of dublin also. if your time is limited, give a carman a job to "rowl" you to the principal places of interest. but "by all means" select a rough, ragged, red-headed, laughing-faced irishman for your jarvey, and depend upon it he will keep you in good humour during the whole of your trip. and every time you come to a public-house he will say his "horse wants a dthrink," and "won't yer honours have a dthrop?" as if he was going to stand treat; but of course you know what he means; besides, the idea of allowing a carman to treat his fare is not to be entertained for a moment, nor can you resist the good-humoured intimation of his desire to drink your health, for which honour, as a matter of course, you pay costs. having endeavoured to conduct our readers to dublin, and give them a glance at the exhibition, photographically and generally, we shall now take our leave of the capital of ireland, and return to town in much the same manner as we went. we leave the irish capital at . in the afternoon, and, after a pleasant and quiet run across the channel, enter holyhead harbour about seven o'clock. this arrangement gives you an opportunity of seeing the welsh coast to the best advantage as you approach. stepping into the train which is waiting our arrival, we are speedily on our way home. at rugby we have to change, and wait a little; but before leaving there we pass the sign which only old masons and travellers know, and are provided with a first-class bed and _board_, and so make ourselves comfortable for the night. we know nothing more of the remainder of the journey. old somnus has charge of us inside, and an old kind-hearted guard takes care of us outside, until we are aroused by the guard's "good morning, gentlemen!" about six o'clock, a.m., within a few miles of euston square. in conclusion, we sincerely recommend as many of our readers as can to take a trip "to dublin and back," and a glance at the dublin international exhibition. photography in the north. on a recent journey northwards, i was tempted to stop at york, take a look at the exhibition there, and see if there were anything worth notice in the photographic department. that part of the exhibition is exceedingly scanty, but the best yorkshire photographers are well represented, both in landscape and portraiture. among the contributors are the names of sarony, glaisby, holroyd, gowland, and other well-known names. mr. sarony exhibits a couple of frames containing several "new photo-crayons," cartes-de-visite vignettes, which are very sketchy and effective, exhibiting those free and "dashy lines" and "hatchings" so characteristic of the "softening off" of artistic crayon drawings. this effect may be produced by a process of double printing, but it is more likely to have been obtained direct in the camera from a screen, having the edges of the aperture "softened off" with some free touches, the screen, in all probability, being placed between the lens and the sitter. mr. sarony also exhibits some large photographs very beautifully finished in colours. messrs. gowland exhibit, in a revolving case, a very unique collection of medallions and vignettes, both plain and coloured, mounted on tinted grounds, which give the pictures a very chaste and delicate appearance. the photographs themselves are exquisite bits of artistic pose and careful manipulation. they also exhibit a charming vignette of twenty-nine young ladies, all cleverly arranged, each figure sharp and distinct, and evidently recognisable portraits. this picture reminds one of watteau, for the figures are in the woods, only, instead of semi-nude nymphs, the sitters are all properly and fashionably dressed young ladies. messrs. holroyd contribute some very excellent cartes-de-visite and enlargements. mr. e. c. walker, of liverpool, exhibits some very beautiful opalotypes, or "photographs on enamelled glass." mr. swan, charing cross, london, also sends specimens of his crystal cube portraits. mr. a. h. clarke, a deaf and dumb photographer, exhibits some very good groups of the princess of wales, lady wharncliffe, lady maud lascelles, countess granville, and the hon. mrs. hardinge, taken in the conservatory, when the princess and suite were on a visit to studley royal, yorkshire. amongst the landscape photographs are to be found some of bedford's finest views of egypt and jerusalem, devonshire and warwickshire, the beauties of which are so well-known to everyone interested in photography. some of the local views by local artists are very fine; w. p. glaisby's views of york minster are capital, especially the interiors. messrs. jackson brothers, of oldham, exhibit some very fine views, and show what atmospheric effects the camera is capable of rendering. that view of "birstall church" is a perfect master-piece of photo-aerial perspective. there are also a considerable number of photographic productions from the south kensington museum. mr. gregson, of halifax, exhibits some excellent photographs of machinery. in apparatus there is nothing novel or striking, there being but one case of cameras, &c., exhibited by a london maker. there is a "water agitator" in the machinery "annexe," for washing photographic prints, but the invention is more ingenious than effective, for the water is not agitated sufficiently, except in the immediate neighbourhood of the fan or "agitator," which moves backwards and forwards in the water, in a manner somewhat similar to the motion of the pendulum of a clock, and so laves the water to and fro; but the force is not sufficient to prevent the prints from lying close together at the extremities of the trough, and imperfect washing is sure to be the result. the motion is given to the "agitator" by the water falling on a small wheel, something like "williams's revolving print washing machine." to describe the exhibition itself: it is rather like a "compound mixture" of the church, the shop, and the show. the "great hall" is something like the nave of a wooden cathedral, with galleries running all round, and a grand organ at the end, peeling forth, at intervals, solemn strains of long measure. over the organ, in white letters on a red ground, is the quotation, "he hath made all things beautiful in his time." the show cases on the floor of the grand hall are arranged as indiscriminately as the shops in oxford street. in one case there are exhibited samples of colman's mustard, in that next to it samples of "elkington and co.'s plated goods," and in another close by are samples of saddlery, which give the place more the business aspect of a bazaar than the desirable and advantageous classification of an exhibition. then you are reminded of the show by the frequent ringing of a loud bell, and cries of "this way to the fairy fountain, just going to begin, only twopence." such things jar on the ears and nerves of quiet visitors, and are only expected in such a place as the polytechnic in london. the great features of the york exhibition are the picture galleries; and here a better order of things prevails. the collections are classified; one gallery, or part of it, being devoted to the works of the old masters, another to the modern, and another to the water-colours. among the old masters are some fine portraits by velasquez, tintoretto, rembrandt, vandyke, sir joshua reynolds, gainsborough, sir peter lely, and others. and some of those grand old landscapes by salvator rosa, rubens, claude, wilson, the english claude, and george morland, such pictures as are rarely seen out of private collections. the modern masters are abundantly represented by wilkie, etty, frith, westall, faed, cope, e. nicol, stanfield, linnell, and a host of others. amongst the water-colours are many fine examples of the works of turner, the richardsons (father and sons), birket foster, &c., &c. sculpture is very faintly represented, but there is a charming little canova, dirce, exhibited by lord wenlock; an antique bust of julius cæsar, which seems to have been found in fragments and carefully joined together. this bust is exhibited by the hon. p. downay, and was found in rome amongst some rubbish, while some excavations were being made. there is also an interesting series of marble busts of the twelve cæsars, exhibited by lord londesborough. the exhibition is open in the evening, and brilliantly lighted with gas till ten o'clock; and, taking it "all in all," it is a very creditable effort in the right direction, and does honour to york and yorkshiremen. further north still, at newcastle-on-tyne, there is another exhibition of "arts and manufactures," the chief photographic feature of which is a considerable display of "swan's carbon prints," from several well-known negatives by bedford and robinson. the promise of this process is very great, and its commercial advantages were singularly demonstrated to me when visiting the printing establishment of mr. swan, which i happened to do on a dark and unfavourable day--one totally unfit for silver printing; and yet i saw several very beautiful carbon prints that had been produced that day, the rate of production being about eight to one over silver printing. as a proof of the certainty and commercial application to which mr. swan has reduced his beautiful process, i need only mention that he has undertaken the printing of two thousand copies of the celebrated picture of "the first general assembly of the church of scotland," painted by d. o. hill. this historical picture contains four hundred and fifty portraits: the negatives were taken from the original painting by mr. annan, photographer, glasgow, and are by inches, and by inches; and mr. swan has to turn off one thousand copies of each within a given time. the publishers of the work give a guarantee to their subscribers that every print shall be of a high standard, for each one has to pass the examination of two competent judges. they also very justly pride themselves on being the very first to translate and multiply such noble works of art by a process "so beautiful, and, at the same time, _imperishable_." i saw several of the prints, both in process of development and complete; and anything more like rich, soft, and brilliant impressions of a fine mezzotint engraving i never saw, by any process of photography. mr. swan's arrangements for conducting the various parts of his process are very extensive and complete; and his mode of "developing and transferring" seems to be the very acme of perfection. but, as mr. swan is about to publish a work containing a full description of the process, with a beautiful specimen print as frontispiece, i will not anticipate him, or mar his own comprehensive account of the details of a process which he has brought to such a state of beauty and perfection, by an amount of patient perseverance and thoughtful application rarely exhibited or possessed by one individual. i also visited the photographic establishment of messrs. downey in newcastle, and there saw some _cabinet pictures_ of the princess of wales, taken recently at abergeldie castle. messrs. downey have just returned from balmoral with upwards of two hundred negatives, including whole-plate, half-plate, and _cabinet_ size, which will be published in one or all those sizes, as soon as the orders of her majesty have been executed. from the well-known reputation of the messrs. downey as photographers, it is, in all probability, a treat in store for the lovers of photography, to get a sight of their latest works at balmoral and abergeldie. mr. parry, another excellent photographer in newcastle, was also making arrangements to introduce the new cabinet size picture in a style that will insure its success. altogether, the movements of the best photographers in the north are highly commendable, and, with their notoriously practical minds, there is little doubt of their undertakings becoming a success. let us hope that the same elements of energy and "push" will speedily impregnate the minds of all photographers, and create a combination that will develop a new form of popular beauty, and result in forming a salt that will savour their labours, produce deposits of gold, and create innumerable orders of merit. errors in pictorial backgrounds. we have recently had a few papers on the necessity of art culture and art knowledge in relation to photography, but they have chiefly been of a theoretical and speculative character, few, if any, assuming a practical form. "apply the rod to teach the child" is an old saying, and our artist friends and teachers _have_ applied the rod and belaboured photography most unmercifully, but they have _not_ taught the child. they have contented themselves with abusing photographers for not doing what was right, instead of teaching them how to avoid what was wrong. it will be my endeavour to point out, in this paper, some errors that have crept into photographers' and artists' studios, and i hope to be able to suggest a remedy that will lessen these evils, and elevate photography in the scale of art. the faults in pictorial backgrounds that i invite your attention to, arise from the neglect of the principles of linear and aerial perspective. i do not speak of the errors in perspective that may exist in the backgrounds themselves, viewing them as pictures; but i refer to the manifest fault of depicting the sitter--the principal object--according to one condition of perspective, and the background that is placed behind him according to another. an unpardonable error in any work of art, whether photograph or painting, is to represent a natural object in an unnatural position. by this i do not mean an awkward and constrained attitude, but a false position of the principal subject in relation to the other objects by which it is surrounded. we frequently see portraits, both full-length and three-quarter size, with landscape backgrounds--or a bit of landscape to be seen through a painted or actual window--of the most unnatural proportions in relation to the figure itself. the head of the subject is stuck high in the heavens--sometimes so high that, in relation to the painted landscape, nothing shorter than a church steeple could attain such an altitude. the trees and castles of the pretty landscape, supposed to be behind the sitter, are like children's toys; the mountains are like footballs in size, and the "horizon" is not so much in relation to the figure as the width of a fishpond is to a man standing on one side of it. it must be admitted that artists themselves have set this bad example of departing from truth to give increased importance to their subjects by placing their figures against diminutive backgrounds; but that is a liberty taken with nature which photographers should neither imitate nor allow. photography is, in all other respects, so rigidly truthful that it cannot consistently sanction such a violation of natural laws. pictorial backgrounds have usually been painted on the same principle as a landscape picture, and one of the earliest things the painter has to determine is, where he shall represent that line where the sky and earth appear to meet--technically, the _horizontal line_. this settled, all the lines, not vertical or horizontal in the picture, below this are made to appear to rise up to it, and those above descend, and if all these are in due proportion the perspective is correct, no matter whether this governing line is assumed to be in the upper, lower, or middle part of the picture. a painter can suppose this imaginary line to be at any height he pleases in his picture, and paint accordingly. in photography it is invariable, and is always on a level with the lens of the camera. to illustrate the relation of the horizontal line to the human figure, when a pictorial background is to be introduced, let us imagine that we are taking a portrait out-of-doors, with a free and open country behind the person standing for his carte-de-visite. the camera and the model are, as a matter of course, on the same level. now focus the subject and observe the linear construction of the landscape background of nature. see how all the lines of the objects below the level of the lens run up to it, and the lines of the objects above run down to it. right across the lens is the horizontal line, and the centre is the point of sight, where all the lines will appear to converge. suppose the lens to be on a level with the face of the subject, the horizontal line of the picture produced on the ground glass will be as near as possible as high as the eyes of the subject. trees and hills in the distance will be above, and the whole picture will be in harmony. this applies to interior views as well, but the ocular demonstration is not so conclusive, for the converging lines will be cut or stopped by the perpendicular wall forming the background. nevertheless, all the converging lines that are visible will be seen to be on their way to the point of sight. whether a natural background consisted of an interior, or comprised both--such as a portion of the wall of a room and a peep through a window on one side of the figure--the conditions would be exactly the same. all the lines above the lens must come down, and all that are below must go up. the following diagrams will illustrate this principle still more clearly. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] fig. is a section of the linear construction of a picture, and will show how the lines converge from the point of observation to the point of sight. artists, in constructing a landscape of an ordinary form, allot to the sky generally about twice the space between the base and horizontal lines. but for portraits and groups, where the figures are of the greatest importance and nearer to the eye, the proportion of sky and earth is reversed, so as to give increased value to the principal figures, by making them apparently larger, and still preserving the proper relation between them and the horizontal line (see fig. ). this diagram represents the conditions of a full-length carte portrait, where the governing horizontal line is on a level with the camera. if a pictorial background, painted in the usual way, with the horizontal line low in the picture, is now placed behind the sitter, the resulting photograph will be incongruous and offensive. it will be seen, on referring to fig. , that all the lines below the horizon must of necessity run up to it, no matter how high the horizontal line may be, for it is impossible to have two horizons in one picture; that is, a visible horizon in the landscape background, and an imaginary one for the figure, with the horizontal line of the background far below the head of the figure, and the head far up in the sky. the head of a human figure can only be seen so far above the horizontal line under certain conditions; such as being elevated above the observer by being mounted on horseback, standing on higher ground, or otherwise placed considerably above the base line, none of which conditions are present in a studio. whenever the observed and observer are on the same level, as must be the case when a photographer is taking the portrait of a sitter in his studio, the head of the subject could not possibly be seen so high in the sky, if the lens included a natural background instead of a painted one. as, for convenience, the painted background is intended to take the place of a natural one, care should be taken that the linear and aerial perspectives should be as true to nature as possible, and in perfect harmony with the size of the figures. the lens registers, on the prepared plate, the relative proportions of natural objects as faithfully as the retina receives them through the eye, and if we wish to carry out the illusion of pictorial backgrounds correctly, we _must_ have the linear construction of the picture, which is intended to represent nature, as true in every respect as nature is herself. aerial perspective has not been sufficiently attended to by the painters of pictorial backgrounds. there are many other subjects in connection with art and photography that might be discussed with advantage--such as composition, arrangement of accessories, size, form, character, and fitness of the things employed; but i leave all these for another opportunity, or to someone more able to handle the subjects. for the present, i am content to point out those errors that arise from neglecting true perspective, and while showing the cause, distinctively supply a remedy. it is not the fault of perspective in the background where the lines are not in harmony with each other--these too frequently occur, and are easily detected--but it is the error of painting a pictorial background as if it were an independent picture, without reference to the conditions under which it is to be used. the conditions of perspective are determined by the situation of the lens and the sitter. if the actual objects existed behind the sitter, and were photographed simultaneously with the sitter, the same laws of perspective would govern the two. what i urge is, that if, instead of the objects, a representation of them be put behind the sitter, that representation be also a correct one. the laws of perspective teach how it may be made correctly, and the starting point is the position of the lens in relation to the sitter. some may say that these conditions of painting a background cannot be complied with, as the lens and sitter are never twice exactly in the same relation to each other. there is less force in this objection than at first appears. each photographer uses the same lens for all his _carte_ portraits--and pictorial backgrounds are very frequently used for these--and the height of his camera, as well as the distance from his sitter, are so nearly constant, that the small amount of errors thus caused need not be recognized. if the errors that exist were not far more grave, there would be no necessity for this paper. exceptional pictures should have corresponding backgrounds. when a "sitter" is photographed standing in front of a pictorial background, the photograph will represent him either standing in a natural scene, or before a badly-painted picture. nobody should wittingly punish his sitter by doing the latter when he could do the former, and the first step to form the desirable illusion is pictorial truth. there is no reason why the backgrounds should not be painted truthfully and according to correct principles, for the one is as easy as the other. i daresay the reason is that artists have not intentionally done wrong--it would be too bad to suppose that--but they have treated the backgrounds as independent pictures, and it is for photographers to make what use of them they think proper. the real principles are, however, now stated, by which they can be painted so as to be more photographically useful, and artists and photographers have alike the key to pictorial truth. in conclusion, i would suggest to photographers the necessity of studying nature more carefully--to observe her in their walks abroad, to notice the gradual decrease of objects both in size and distinctness, to remember that their lens is to their camera what their eye is to themselves, to give as faithful a transcript of nature as they possibly can, to watch the flow of nature's lines, as well as natural light and shade, and, by a constant study and exhibition of truth and beauty in their works, make photography eventually the teacher of art, instead of art, as is now the case, being the reviler of photography. perspective. _to the editors._ gentlemen,--at the end of mr. alfred h. wall's reply to mr. carey lea's letter on _artists and photographers_, i notice that he cautions your readers not to receive the very simple rules of perspective laid down in my paper, entitled _errors in pictorial backgrounds_, until they have acquired more information on the subject. allow me to state that all i said on perspective in that paper only went to show that there should be but one horizon in the same picture; that the lines of all objects _below_ that horizon should run up to it; that the lines of all objects _above_ should run down, no matter where that _one_ horizon was placed; and that the horizon of the landscape background should be in due relation to the sitter and on a level with the eye of the observer, the observer being either the lens or the painter. if your correspondent considers that i was in error by laying down such plain and common sense rules, which everyone can see and judge for himself by looking down a street, then i freely admit that your correspondent knows a great deal more about _false_ perspective than i do, or should like to do. again, if your correspondent cannot see why i "volunteered to instruct artists" or painters of backgrounds, perhaps he will allow me to inform him that i did so simply because background painters have hitherto supplied photographers with backgrounds totally unfit for use in the photographic studio. in spite of mr. wall's assumption of superior knowledge on subjects relating to art, i may still be able to give him a hint how to produce a pictorial background that will be much more natural, proportionate, and suitable for the use of photographers than any hitherto painted. let mr. wall, or any other background painter, go _out_ with the camera and take a _carte-de-visite_ portrait out-of-doors, placing the subject in any well-chosen and suitable natural scene, and photograph the "sitter" and the natural scene at the same time. then bring the picture so obtained into his studio and enlarge it up to "life-size," which he can easily do by the old-fashioned system of "squaring," or, better still, by the aid of a magic lantern, and with the help of a sketch of the scene as well, to enable him to fill in correctly that part of the landscape concealed by the figure taken on the spot; so that, when reproduced by the photographer in _his_ studio, he will have a representation of a natural scene, with everything seen in the background in correct perspective, and in natural proportions in relation to the "sitter." this will also show how _few_ objects can naturally be introduced into a landscape background; and if the distant scenery be misty and undefined, so much the better. it is the sharpness, hardness, and superabundance of subjects introduced into pictorial backgrounds generally that i object to, and endeavoured to point out in my paper; and i consider it no small compliment to have had my views on that part of my subject so emphatically endorsed by so good an authority as mr. wallis, in his remarks on backgrounds at the last meeting of the south london photographic society. i make no pretensions to the title of "artist," although i studied perspective, drawing from the flat and round, light and shade, and other things in connection with a branch of art which i abandoned many years ago for the more lucrative profession of a photographer. were i so disposed, i could quote reynolds, burnett, and ruskin as glibly as your correspondent; but i prefer putting my own views on any subject before my readers in language of my own. i endeavour to be in all my words and actions thoroughly independent and consistent, which is more than i can say for your correspondent "a. h. w." in proof of which, i should like to call the attention of your readers to a passage in his "practical art hints," in the last issue of _the british journal of photography_, where he says:--"it is perversion and degradation to an art like ours to make its truth and unity subservient to conventional tricks, shams, and mechanical dodges," while at the last meeting of the south london photographic society, when speaking of backgrounds, he admitted they were _all conventional_. now, that is just what we do not want, and which was the chief object i had in view when i wrote my paper. we have had too many of those art-conventional backgrounds, and want something more in accordance with natural truth and the requirements of photography. in conclusion, allow me to observe that i should be truly sorry were i to mislead anyone in the pursuit of knowledge relative to our profession, either artistically or photographically. but let it be borne in mind that it is admitted on all sides, and by the best authorities, that nearly all the pictorial backgrounds now in use are quite unnatural, and totally unsuited for the purposes for which they are intended. therefore the paper i read will have done the good i intended, and answered the purpose for which it was written, if it has been the means of calling attention to such glaring defects and absurdities as are now being perpetrated by background painters, and bringing in their place more natural, truthful, and photographically useful backgrounds into the studios of all photographers.--i am, yours, &c., j. werge. _february th, ._ perspective in backgrounds. _to the editors._ gentlemen,--i must beg of you to allow me to reply to mr. wall once more, and for the last time, on this subject, especially as that gentleman expects an answer from me. to put myself into a fair position with regard to mr. wall and your readers, i will reply to the latter part of his letter first, by stating that i endeavour to avoid all personality in this discussion, and should be sorry to descend to anything of the kind knowingly. when i spoke of "independency and consistency," i had not in view anything relative to his private character, but simply that kind of independence which enables a man to trust to his own powers of utterance for the expression of his ideas, instead of that incessant quoting the language of others, to which your correspondent, mr. wall, is so prone. as to his inconsistency, i mean that tendency which he exhibits to advocate a principle at one time, and denounce it at another. i shall prove that presently. towards mr. wall, personally, i have neither animosity nor pique, and would take him by the hand as freely and frankly as ever i did were i to meet him at this moment. with his actions as a private gentleman i have nothing to do. i look upon him now as a controvertist only. so far, i hope i have made myself clearly understood by mr. wall and all concerned. i also should like to have had so important a question discussed without introducing so much of that frivolous smartness of style generally adopted by mr. wall. but, as he has introduced two would-be-funny similes, i beg to dispose of them before going into more serious matter. taking the "butcher" first (see the fifth paragraph in mr. wall's last letter), i should say that, if i were _eating_ the meat, i should be able to judge of its quality, and know whether it was good or bad, in spite of all the butcher might say to the contrary; and surely, no man not an out-and-out vegetarian, or lacking one of the five senses--to say nothing of _common sense_--will admit that it is _necessary_ to be a "butcher" to enable him to be a judge of good meat. on the same ground, i contend that it is _not_ necessary for a man to be an artist to have a thorough knowledge of perspective; and i have known many artists who knew as little about perspective, practically, as their easel did. they had a vague and dreamy idea of some governing principles, but how to put those principles into practice they had not the slightest notion. i once met an artist who could not put a tesselated pavement into perspective, and yet he had some right to the title of artist, for he could draw and paint the human figure well. perspective is based on geometrical principles, and can be as easily mastered by any man not an artist as the first book of euclid, or the first four rules of arithmetic; and, for all that, it is astonishing how many artists know so little about the working rules of perspective. again: mr. wall is surely not prepared to advance the dictum that no one can know anything about art but a professional artist. if so, how does he reconcile that opinion with the fact of his great and oft-quoted authority, ruskin, not being an artist, but simply, in his public character, a voluminous writer on art, not always right, as many artists and photographers very well know. mr. wall objects to my use of the word "artist," but he seems to have overlooked the fact that i used the quotation marks to show that i meant to apply it to the class of self-styled artists, or men who arrogate to themselves a title they do not merit--not such men as landseer, maclise, faed, philips, millais, and others of, and not of, the "forty." mr. wall may be an artist. i do not say he is not. he also is, or was, a painter of backgrounds. so he can apply to himself whichever title he likes best; but whether he deserves either one or the other, depends on what he has done to merit the appellative. mr. wall questions the accuracy of the principles i advocated in my paper. i contend that i am perfectly correct, and am the more astonished at mr. wall when i refer to vol. v., page , of the _photographic news_. there i find, in an article bearing his own name, and entitled "the technology of art as applied to photography," that he says:-- "if you make use of a painted cloth to represent an interior or out-door view, the horizontal line must be at somewhere about the height which your lens is most generally placed at, and the vanishing point nearly opposite the spot occupied by the camera. * * * * i have just said that the horizon of a landscape background and the vanishing point should be opposite the lens; i may, perhaps, for the sake of such operators as are not acquainted with perspective, explain why. the figure and the background are supposed to be taken at one and the same time, and the camera has the place of the spectator by whom they are taken. now, suppose we have a real figure before a real landscape: if i look up at a figure i obtain one view of it, but if i look down on it, i get another and quite a different view, and the horizon of the natural landscape behind the figure is always exactly the height of _my_ eye. to prove this, you may sit down before a window, and mark on the glass the height of the horizon; then rise, and, as you do so, you will find the horizon also rises, and is again exactly opposite your eye. a picture, then, in which the horizontal line of the background represents the spectator as looking up at the figure from a position near the base line, while the figure itself indicates that the same spectator is at that identical time standing with his eyes on a level with the figure's breast or chin--such productions are evidently false to art, and untrue to nature. * * * * the general fault in the painted screens we see behind photographs arises from introducing too many objects." now, as i advanced neither more nor less in my paper, why does mr. wall turn round and caution your readers not to receive such simple truths uttered by me? i was not aware that mr. wall had forestalled me in laying down such rules; for at that date i was in america, and did not see the _news_; but, on turning over the volume for the other day, since this discussion began, i there saw and read, with surprise, the above in his article on backgrounds. i am perfectly aware that i did not say all that i might have said on perspective in my paper; but the little i did say was true in principle, and answered my purpose. when mr. wall (in the second paragraph of his last letter) speaks of the "principal visual ray going from the point of distance to the point of sight, and forming a right angle to the perspective plane," it seems to me that he is not quite sure of the difference between the points of _sight_, _distance_, and _observation_, or of the relation and application of one to the other. however, his coming articles on perspective will settle that. it also appears to me that he has overlooked the fact that my diagrams were _sections_, showing the perspective inclination and declination of the lines of a parallelogram towards the point of sight. in my paper i said nothing about the _point of distance_; with that i had nothing to do, as it was not my purpose to go into all the dry details of perspective. but i emphatically deny that anything like a "bird's eye view" of the figure could possibly be obtained by following any of the rules i laid down. in my paper i contended for the camera being placed on a level with the head of the sitter, and that would bring the line of the horizon in a pictorial background also as high as the head of the sitter. and if the horizon of the pictorial background were placed anywhere else, it would cause the apparent overlapping of _two_ conditions of perspective in the resulting photograph. these were the errors i endeavoured to point out. i maintain that my views are perfectly correct, and can be proved by geometrical demonstration, and the highest artistic and scientific testimony. i wish it to be clearly understood that i do not advocate the use of pictorial backgrounds, and think i pretty strongly denounced them; but if they _must_ be used by photographers, either to please themselves or their customers, let them, for the credit of our profession, be as true to nature as possible. i think i have now answered all the points worth considering in mr. wall's letter, and with this i beg to decline any further correspondence on the subject.--i am, yours, &c., j. werge. _march th, ._ notes on pictures in the national gallery. in the following notes on some of the pictures in the national gallery, it is not my intention to assume the character of an art-critic, but simply to record the impressions produced on the mind of a photographer while looking at the works of the great old masters, with the view of calling the attention of photographers and others interested in art-photography to a few of the pictures which exhibit, in a marked degree, the relation of the horizon to the principal figures. during an examination of those grand old pictures, two questions naturally arise in the mind: what is conventionality in art? and--in whose works do we see it? the first question is easily answered by stating that it is a mode of treating pictorial subjects by established rule or custom, so as to obtain certain pictorial effects without taking into consideration whether such effects can be produced by natural combinations or not. in answer to the second question, it may be boldly stated that there is very little of it to be seen in the works of the best masters; and one cannot help exclaiming, "what close imitators of nature those grand old masters were!" in their works we never see that photographic eye-sore which may be called a binographic combination of two conditions of perspective, or the whereabouts of two horizons in the same picture. the old masters were evidently content with natural combinations and effects for their backgrounds, and relied on the rendering of natural truths more than conventional falsehoods for the strength and beauty of their productions. perhaps the simplest mode of illustrating this would be to proceed to a kind of photographic analysis of the pictures of the old masters, and see how far the study of their works will enable the photographer to determine what he should employ and what he should reject as pictorial backgrounds in the practice of photography. as a photographer, then--for it is the photographic application of art we have to consider--i will proceed to give my notes on pictures in the national gallery, showing the importance of having the horizontal line in its proper relation to the sitter or figure. perhaps the most beautiful example is the fine picture by annibale carracci of "christ appearing to peter." this admirable work of art as nearly as possible contains the proportions of a carte-de-visite or whole-plate picture enlarged, and is well worthy the careful attention and study of every photographer; not only for its proportions and the amount of landscape background introduced, showing the proper position of the horizon and the small amount of sky visible, but it is a wonderful example of light and shade, foreshortening, variety and contrast of expression, purity of colour, simplicity of design, and truthfulness to nature. neither of the figures lose any of their force or dignity, although the horizontal line is as high as their heads, and the whole of the space between is filled in with the scene around them. in its linear perspective it is quite in keeping with the figures, and the scenery is in harmonious subjection, controlled and subdued by aerial perspective. the large picture of "erminia takes refuge with the shepherds," by the same artist, is also a fine example of a horizon high in the picture. the figure of erminia is separated from the other figures, and could be copied or reproduced alone without any loss of beauty and dignity, or any violation of natural laws. murillo's picture of "st. john and the lamb" suggests an admirable background for the use of the photographer. it consists of dark masses of rock and foliage. nothing distinct or painfully visible, the distant masses of foliage blend with the clouds, and there is nothing in the background but masses of light and shade to support or relieve the principal objects. in the picture of "christ appearing to mary magdalene," by titian, the water-line is above the head of christ, but if the figure were standing upright, the head of the saviour would break the horizontal line. titian's "bacchus and ariadne" also has the water-line breast high, almost to the neck of ariadne. the figure of bacchus springing from the car, as a matter of course, is much higher in the sky. this picture presents the perspective conditions of the painter having been seated while painting such figures from nature, or similar to the results and effects obtained by taking a group with the lens on a level with the breast or lower part of the necks of figures standing. in titian's portrait of ariosto there is a dark foliated background which gives great brilliancy to the picture, but no sky is visible. the "portrait of a lady," by paris bardone, has an architectural background in which no sky is to be seen. the picture is very brilliant, and the monotony of a plain background is skilfully overcome. the picture of "st. catharine of alexandria," by raphael, has a landscape background, with the horizon about as high as the breast, as if the artist had been seated and the model standing during the process of painting. raphael's picture of "the vision of a knight" is another example of the fearlessness of that artist in putting in or backing up his figures with a large amount of landscape background. the proportions of correggio's "venus, mercury, and cupid," are as nearly as possible those of a carte-de-visite enlarged; and that picture has no sky in the background, but a very suitable dark, cool, rocky scene, well subdued, for the rocks are quite near to the figures. this background gives wonderful brilliancy to the figures, and contrasts admirably with the warm and delicate flesh tints. correggio's "holy family" has a landscape and architectural background, with a very little sky visible in the right-hand corner. in the "judgment of paris," by rubens, the horizontal line of the background cuts the waist of the first female figure, showing that the artist was seated. the other two female figures are placed against a background of rocks and dark masses of foliage. rubens' picture of the "holy family and st. george" is also a good example of the kind of picture for the photographer to study as to the situation of the horizontal line. the picture of "the idle servant," by nicolaes maes, is also an excellent subject for study of this kind. it shows the due relation of the horizon of an interior in a very marked degree, and its shape and subject are very suitable to the size and form of a carte-de-visite. so are his pictures of "the cradle" and "a dutch housewife." the picture of "john arnolfini of lucca and his wife," painted by john van eyck in the fifteenth century, is an excellent specimen of an interior background, with a peep out of a window on one side of the room. this is a capital subject for the study of photographers who wish to use a background representing an interior. "the holy family at a fountain," a picture of the dutch school, painted by schoorel in the sixteenth century, has an elaborate landscape background with the horizon above the heads of the figures, as if the artist had been standing and the models sitting. for an example of a portrait less than half-length, with a landscape background, look at the portrait of "an italian gentleman," by andrea da solario. this picture shows how very conscientiously the old masters worked up to the truth of nature in representing the right amount of landscape in proportion to the figure; but the background is much too hard and carefully worked out to be pleasing. besides, it is very destructive to the force and power of the picture, which will be at once visible on going to the portraits by rembrandt, which have a marvellous power, and seem to stand right before the dark atmospheric backgrounds which that artist generally painted in his portraits. there are other examples of half-length portraits with landscape backgrounds, wherein the horizontal line passes right through the eyes of the principal figure, one of which i will mention. it is that of the "virgin and child," by lorenzo di credi. in this picture the horizontal line passes right through the eyes of the virgin without interfering with the interest of the chief object. several examples of an opposite character are to be seen in the national gallery, with the horizon of the landscape background much too low in the picture. it is needless to call special attention to them. after carefully examining the works already named, and comparing them with the natural effects to be observed daily, it will be quickly seen which is a truthful picture in this respect, and which is a false one. sharpness and softness _v._ hardness. the discussion on "sharpness: what is it?" at the meeting of the south london photographic society in may, , and the more recent discussion on "focussing" at the last meeting of the same society, seem to me to have lost much of their value and importance to photographers for want of a better definition of the term _hardness_ as applied to art, and as used by _artists_ in an _artistic sense_. webster, in his second definition of the word "hardness," gives it as "difficulty to be understood." in that sense mr. wall succeeded admirably when he gave the term _concentration_, in reply to mr. hughes, who asked mr. wall what he meant by _hardness_. fairholt gives the _art meaning_ of the word as "want of refinement; academic drawing, rather than artistic feeling." but even that definition would not have been sufficiently comprehensive to convey an adequate idea of the meaning of the term in contradistinction to the word _sharpness_, and i cannot but think that mr. wall failed in his object in both papers, and lost considerable ground in both discussions, by not giving more attention to the nice distinctions of the two terms as used in art, and explaining their artistic meanings more clearly. sharpness need not be hardness; on the contrary, sharpness and softness can be harmoniously combined in the representation of any object desired. on the other hand, a subject may possess abundance of detail, and yet convey to the mind an idea of _hardness_ which the artist did not intend. this kind of hardness i should attribute to a miscarriage of thought, or a failure, from want of manipulative skill, to produce the desired effect. for example: one artist will paint a head, model it carefully, and carry out all the gradations of light and shade, and for all that it will be _hard_--hard as stone, resembling the transcript of a painted statue more than flesh. with the same brushes and colours another artist will paint a head that may be no better in its drawing, nor any more correct in its light and shade, but it will resemble _flesh_, and convey to the mind of the observer a correct impression of the substance represented--its flexibility and elasticity--that it is something that would be warm and pleasant to the touch, and not make you recoil from it as if it were something cold, hard, and repulsive, as in the former case. again, two artists will paint a fabric or an article of furniture (say a table) with the same brushes, pigments, and mediums: the one artist will render it so faithfully in every respect that it would suggest to the mind the dull sound peculiar to wood when struck, and not the sharp, clear ring of metal which the work of the other artist would suggest. another example: one artist paints a feather, and it appears to have all the feathery lightness and characteristics of the natural object; the other will paint it the same size, form, and colour, and yet it will be more like a painted chip, wanting the downy texture and float-in-the-air suggestiveness of the other. thus it will be seen that both artists had similar ideas, had similar materials and means at their disposal to render on canvas the same or similar effects. the one succeeded, and the other failed, in giving a faithful rendering of the same subjects; but it was no fault in the materials with which they worked. the works of one artist will convey to the mind an idea of the thing itself; with its texture, properties, weight, and proportions; nothing undervalued; nothing overrated, nothing softer, nothing harder, than the thing in nature intended to be portrayed. the other gives the same idea of form and size, light and shade, and colour, but not the texture; it is something harder, as iron instead of wood, or hard wood instead of soft wood, or stone instead of flesh. this, then, is the artistic meaning of hardness (or concentration, as mr. wall said), and that is an apparent packing together, a compression or petrifaction of the atoms or fibre of which the natural materials are composed. this difference in the works of artists is simply the effects of _feeling_, of power over the materials employed, and ability to transfer to canvas effects that are almost illusions. and so it is with photographers in the production of the photographic image. there is the same difference in feeling and manipulative skill, the same difference of power over the materials employed, that enables one photographer to surpass another in rendering more truthfully the difference of texture. photographers may and do use the same lenses and chemicals, and yet produce widely different results. one, by judgment in lighting and superior manipulation, will transfer to his plates more texture and suggestiveness of the different substances represented than the other. it is a fact well known to old photographers that in the best days of the daguerreotype practice two widely different classes of pictures were produced by the most skilful _daguerreotypists_, both sharp and full of exquisite detail; yet the one was _hard_, in an artistic sense, not that it wanted half-tone to link the lights and shades together, but because it was of a bronzy hardness, unlike flesh from which it was taken, and suggested to the mind a picture taken from a bronze or iron statue of the individual, rather than a picture taken from the warm, soft flesh of the original. the other would be equally sharp as far as focussing and _sharp lenses_ could make it, and possess as much detail, but it would be different in colour and texture; the detail would be soft, downy, and fleshy, not irony, if i may use that word in such a sense; and this difference of effect arose entirely from a difference of feeling, lighting, preparation of the plate, and development of the pictures. they might all use the best of voightlander's or c. c. harrison's lenses, the favourite lenses of that day. they might all use the same make of plates, the same iodine, bromine, and mercury, yet there would be this difference in the character of the two classes of pictures. both would be sharp and possess abundance of detail, still one would be _soft_ and the other hard in an artistic acceptation of the word _hardness_. collodion positives exhibited a similar difference of character. the works of one photographer would be cold and metallic looking, while the works of another would be softer and less metallic, giving a better idea of the texture of flesh and the difference of fabrics, which many attributed to the superiority of the lens; but the difference was really due to manipulation, treatment, and intelligence. and so it is with the collodion negative. a tree, for instance, may be photographed, and its whole character changed by selecting a bad and unsuitable light, or by bad manipulation. the least over-development or "piling up" of a high light may give it a sparkling effect that would change it into the representation of a tree of cast iron, rather than a _growing tree_, covered with damp, soft, and moss-stained bark. every object and every fabric, natural or manufactured, has its own peculiar form of "high light" or mode of reflecting light, and care must be taken by both artist and photographer not to exceed the amount of light reflected by each particular object, else a _hardness_, foreign to the natural object, will be represented. but not only should the artist and photographer possess this feeling for nature in all her subtle beauties and modes of expressing herself, to prevent a miscarriage in the true rendering of any object, the photographic printer should also have a sympathy for the work in hand, or he will, by over-fixing, or in various other ways, mar the successful labours of the photographer, and make a negative that is full of softness, and tenderly expresses the truth of nature, yield prints that are crude, and convey to the mind a sense of _hardness_ which neither the natural objects nor the negative really possess. now, i think it will be seen that _hardness_ in a painting or a photograph does not mean sharpness; nor is the artistic meaning of the word _hardness_ confined to "rigid or severe drawing," but that it has a broader and more practical definition than concentration; and that the converse to the art meaning of _hardness_ is softness, tenderness, truthfulness in expressing the varied aspects of nature in all her forms, all of which are coincident with sharpness.--j. werge (_photographic news_). union of the north and south london photographic societies. _to the editors, british journal._ gentlemen,--allow me to express my opinion on the suggestion to unite the north and south london societies, and to point out a few of the advantages which, i think, would accrue from a more extensive amalgamation. though i am a member of all the three london photographic societies, i have long been of opinion that there are too many, and that the objects of all are considerably weakened by such a diffusion of interests. if the furtherance of the art and the free and mutual interchange of thought and experience among the members were the only things considered, there would be but one society in london; and with one society embodying all the members that now make the three, how much more good might be done! in the first place, the amounts now paid for rent by the three would, if united, secure an excellent meeting room or chambers, in a central position, for the _exclusive_ use of the society, where the ordinary and special meetings, annual exhibitions, and _soirées_ could be held much more independently than now, and at a cost little or no more than what is now paid for the privilege of holding the ordinary meetings alone. secondly: if such a place of meeting were secured, then that laudable scheme of an art library, so strenuously advocated by mr. wall and mr. blanchard at the south london photographic society, might be successfully carried into effect. then a library and a collection of works of art might be gradually gathered together, and one of the members could be chosen curator and librarian, to attend the rooms one evening in the week, or oftener, as circumstances might require, so as to give members access to the library to make exchanges, extracts from bulky books, &c. thirdly: if the union were effected, and the place of meeting more central, there would be a larger attendance of members, and more spirited and valuable proceedings would be the result. papers to be read at the regular meetings would be much more certain, and the discussions would be more comprehensive and complete. the members would become personally acquainted with each other, and a much better feeling would pervade the whole photographic community. these, gentlemen, are a few of the advantages which ought to accrue from a union of the three societies; but, if that cannot be effected, by all means let the triumvirate now existing be reduced to a biumvirate. if it be not possible for the "parent society" and her offspring to reunite their interests and affection for the common good, surely the other two can, and thereby strengthen themselves, and secure to their members a moiety of the advantages which would result from the triple alliance. but, before proceeding farther, let me ask--has such a thing as a triple alliance ever been considered? has it been ascertained that an amicable amalgamation with the photographic society of london is impossible? if so, what are the motives of the proposers of the union of the north and south london societies? do they wish to form a more powerful antagonism to the other society, or do they simply and purely wish to further the advancement of our art-science, and not to gratify personal pique or wounded pride? i do not wish to impute such unworthy motives to anyone; but it does seem singular that the proposition should come from the chairman of the north london photographic association almost simultaneously with the resignation of his seat at the council board of the parent society. if, however, the motives are pure, honest, and earnest, i heartily approve of the suggestion as a step in the right direction, although i candidly admit that i would much rather see all the societies united in one, and fully believe that that would be the most advantageous arrangement that could possibly be made for all concerned.--i am, yours, &c., union jack (j. werge). _london, february th, ._ union of the london photographic societies. _to the editors of the british journal._ gentlemen,--perhaps i am in courtesy bound to answer the questions of your correspondents, mr. homersham and "blue pendant," but in self-justification i do not think it necessary, for it turns out that my suspicions of antagonism to the parent society were well founded; and, from their remarks, and the observations of your contributor "d.," i learn that the disaffection is more widely spread than i at first thought it was. i may have been wrong in suspecting the chairman of the north london photographic association of unworthy motives; if so, i frankly beg that gentleman's pardon. but i am not wrong in suspecting that antagonism is mixed up with the movement. your contributor "d." chooses to construe my unwillingness to make a direct charge--my hope that there were no such unworthy motives--into timidity; but i beg to remind "d." that there is not much, if any, of that apparent in my putting the plain questions i did, which, by-the-by, have not yet been very satisfactorily answered. i flatter myself that i know when and how to do battle, and when to sue for peace, as well as any in the service under whose flag i have the honour to sail; and i, as much as anyone, admire the man that can fight courageously when in the right, or apologise gracefully when in the wrong; but, as the object of this correspondence is neither to make recriminations, nor indulge in personal abuse, i return to the primary consideration of the subject, and endeavour to sift the motives of the movers of the proposition to unite the north and south london societies, and ascertain, if possible, whether they have the good of those societies and the furtherance of photography really at heart or not. _imprimis_, then, let us consider the arguments of "d.," who cites the resignation of three gentlemen in proof of the management of the london photographic society being "out of joint." he might as well say, "because a man is sick, leave him and let him die." if there were anything they disliked in the government of the society, or any evil to be corrected, their most manly course was to have held on, and fought the evils down. they all had seats at the council board, and if they had wished well to the society, they would not have resigned them, but battled for the right, and brought their grievances, real or imagined, before the members. a special meeting has been called before now to consider personal grievances which affected the honour of the society, and i should think it could have been done again. i do not maintain that all is right in the society, but i do think that they were wrong in resigning their seats because an article appeared in the society's journal condemnatory of a process to which they happened to be devotedly attached. it can scarcely be supposed that the cause of reform, or the general good of the country, would have been forwarded had gladstone, bright, and earl russell resigned their seats as members of either house because they could not carry their ministerial bill of last session. from this i argue that men who have the object they advocate, and the "best interests" of the society, thoroughly at heart, will stick to it tenaciously, whether in or out of office, and, by their watchfulness, prevent bad becoming worse, in spite of captious opposition, fancied insults, or journalistic abuse. the next paragraph by "d." on which i shall comment contains that bold insinuation of timidity, which i have already noticed as much as i intend to do. but i wish to discuss the question of "absorption" a little more fully. i cannot at all agree with the sentiments of "d." on that subject. absorption is in many instances a direct and positive advantage to both the absorber and absorbed, as the absorption of sicily by italy, and frankfort and hanover by prussia. nitric acid absorbs silver, and how much more valuable and useful to the photographer is the product than either of the two in their isolated condition; and so, i hold, it would be with the society were the two other societies to join the old one, impart to it their chief characteristics, re-model the constitution, and elect the members of the council by ballot. we should then have a society far more powerful and useful than could ever be obtained by the formation of a new one. in the foregoing, i think i have also answered the question of mr. homersham, as well as that part of "blue pendant's" letter relating to the establishment of a _fourth_ society. on that point my views harmonise with those of your contributor, "d." on the subject of "members of council," i do not agree with either "d." or your correspondent "blue pendant." the council should be elected from and by the body of members, and the only qualifications necessary should be willingness and ability to do the work required. no consideration of class should ever be admitted. the members are all recommended by "personal knowledge," and elected by ballot, and that alone should be test sufficient on the score of respectability. concerning "papers written as puffs," i cordially agree with "blue pendant" as far as he goes; but i go further than that, and would insist on each paper being scrutinised, before it is read, by a committee appointed for the purpose, so as to prevent "trade advertisements" and such shamefully scurrilous papers as i have heard at the south london photographic society. with reference to the questions put by "blue pendant," i beg to decline answering his second, it not being pertinent; but i shall reply to his first more particularly. he seems to have forgotten or overlooked the fact that i thought the advantages i enumerated would result from a union of the _three_ societies--not from an alliance of the two only. that i still look upon suspiciously as antagonistic to the parent society; and "blue pendant's" antagonism is proved beyond doubt when he says it is "tottering to its fall," and he almost gloatingly looks forward to its dissolution coming, to use his own words, "sooner or later," and "perhaps the sooner the better." but i venture to think that "blue pendant" is not likely to be gratified by seeing the "aged parent" decently laid in the ground in his time. there is too much "life in the old dog yet"--even since the secession--for that to come to pass. it cannot be denied that the parent society has amongst its members some of the best speakers, thinkers, writers, and workers in the whole photographic community. while discussing this subject, allow me, gentlemen, to advert to an article in your contemporary of friday last. in the "echoes of the month," by an old photographer, the writer thinks that the advantages i pointed out as likely to accrue from a union of the societies are a "pleasant prospect that will not bear the test of figures." it is a fact that "figures" are subject to the rules of addition as well as of subtraction, and i wish to show by figures that my ideas are not so impracticable as he imagines. in addition to the eight guineas a year paid by the north and south london photographic societies for rent, i notice in the report of the london photographic society, published last month, two items in the "liabilities" which are worth considering. one is "king's college, rent and refreshment, £ s. d.," which, i presume, is for one year. the other is "king's college _soirée_ account, £ s. d.," part of which is undoubtedly for rent of rooms on that occasion. now there is a clear showing of over £ s. d. paid in one year by the three societies for rent and refreshment, the latter not being absolutely necessary. i may be mistaken in my estimate of the value of central property; but i do think a sum exceeding £ is sufficient to secure a room or chambers large enough for the purposes of meeting, and keeping a library, &c.; or, if not, would it not be worth while making a strain to pay a little more so as to secure the accommodation required? if the coventry street experiment were a failure from apathy or other causes, that is no proof that another attempt made by a more numerous, wealthy, and energetic body would also be abortive. in sea phraseology, "the old ship has made a long leg to-day!" but i hope, gentlemen, you will not grudge the space required for the full and careful consideration of this subject. the "developing dish" and the ordinary _modus operandi_ of photography can well afford to stand aside for awhile to have this question discussed to the end. i have not said all i can on the amalgamation project, and may return to it again with your kind permission, if necessary.--i am, yours, &c., union jack (j. werge). _london, march , ._ the society's exhibition. impressions and convictions of "lux graphicus." the brief and all but impromptu exhibition of the photographic society, recently held in the rooms of the architectural society, , conduit street, regent street, where the society's meetings are to be held in future, was one of the pleasantest and most useful expositions in connection with photography that has been consummated for many years. in the first place the idea of an exhibition evening free from the formalities of a _soirée_ was a happy one; the _locale_ was happily chosen; and the whole arrangements most happily successful. everybody seemed to be pleased; cordial expressions of agreeable surprise were freely exchanged; and there were abundance and variety enough of pictorial display to satisfy the most fastidious visitor. as might have been expected, the works of m. salomon, exhibited by mr. wharton simpson, were the chief objects of attraction, and during the whole of the evening an anxious group surrounded the collection; and it was curious to remark with what eagerness these pictures were scrutinized, so as to ascertain whether they were examples of photography "pure and undefiled," or helped by artistic labour afterwards. that they are the very finest specimens of art-photography--both in the broad and masterly treatment of light and shade, pose, manipulation, tone of print, and after finish--that have ever been exhibited, is unquestionable; but to suppose that they are photographs unaided by art-labour afterwards is, i think, a mistake. all of the heads, hands, and portions of the drapery bear unmistakable proofs of after-touching. some of them give evidence of most elaborate retouching on the hands and faces, on the surface of the print. i examined the pictures by daylight most minutely with the aid of a magnifying glass, and could detect the difference between the retouching on the negative, and, after printing, on the positive. the faces of nearly all the ladies present that appearance of dapple or "stipple" which nothing in the texture of natural flesh can give, unless the sitter were in the condition of "goose flesh" at the moment of sitting, which is a condition of things not at all likely. again, hatching is distinctly visible, which is not the photographic reproduction of the hatch-like line of the cuticle. in support of that i have two forms of evidence: first, _comparison_, as the hatchings visible on the surface of the print are too long to be a reproduction of the hatch-like markings of the skin, even on the hands, which generally show that kind of nature's handiwork the most. besides, the immense reduction would render that invisible even under a magnifying glass, no matter how delicate the deposit of silver might be on the negative; or even if it were so, the fibre of the paper would destroy the effect. again, the hatchings visible are not the form of nature's hatchings, but all partake of that art-technical form called "sectional hatchings." i could name several of the prints that showed most conclusive evidence of what i say, but that is not necessary, because others saw these effects as well as i did. but i wish it to be distinctly understood that i have not been at the pains to make these examinations and observations with the view of lessening the artistic merit of these pictures. i unhesitatingly pronounce them the most beautiful achievements of the camera that have ever been obtained by combining artistic knowledge and skill with the mechanical aid of the camera and ability to handle the compounds of photographic chemistry. there is unmistakable evidence of the keenest appreciation of art, and all that is beautiful in it in the production of the negative; and if the artist see or think that he can perfect his work by the aid of the brush, he has a most undoubted right to do it. this question of pure and simple photography has been mooted all the summer, ever since the opening of the french exhibition, and i am glad that i, as well as others, have had an opportunity of seeing these wonderful pictures, and judging for myself. photography is truth embodied, and every question raised about the purity of its productions should be discussed as freely and settled as quickly as possible. there was another picture in the exhibition very clever in its conception, but not so in its execution, and i am sorry to say i cannot endorse _all_ the good that has been said of it. i allude to mr. robinson's picture of "sleep." how that clever photographer, with such a keen eye to nature as he generally manifests in his composition pictures, should have committed such a mistake i am at a loss to know. his picture of "sleep" is so strangely untrue to nature, that he must have been quite overcome by the "sleep that knits up the ravell'd sleeve of _care_" when he composed it. in the centre of the picture he shows a stream of light entering a window--a ghost of a window, for it is so unsubstantial as not to allow a shadow to be cast from its _seemingly_ massive bars. now, if the moon shone through a window at all, it would cast shadows of everything that stood before it, and the shadows of the bars of the window would be cast upon the coverlet of the bed in broken lines, rising and falling with the undulations of the folds of the covering, and the forms of the figures of the children. in representing moonlight, or sunlight either, there is no departing from this truth. if the direct ray of either stream through a closed window and fall upon the bed, so will the shadows of the intervening bars. any picture, either painted or photographed, that does not render those shadows is simply untrue to nature; and if the difficulty could not have been overcome, the attempt should have been abandoned. then the beams are not sharp enough for moonlight, and the shadows on the coverlet and children are not deep enough, and the reflections on the shadow side of the children's faces are much too strong. in short, i do not know when mr. robinson more signally failed to carry out his first intentions. wanting in truth as the composition is, it proves another truth, and that is, the utter inability of photography to cope with such a subject. mr. robinson exhibited other pictures that would bear a very different kind of criticism; but as they have been noticed at other times i shall not touch upon them here. herr milster's picture bears the stamp of truth upon it, and is a beautiful little gem, convincing enough that the effect is perfectly natural. mr. ayling's pictures of the victoria tower and a portion of westminster abbey are really wonderful, and the bit of aerial perspective "across the water" in the former picture is truly beautiful. mrs. cameron persists in sticking to the out-of-the-way path she has chosen, but where it will lead her to at last is very difficult to determine. one of the heads of henry taylor which she exhibited was undoubtedly the best of her contributions. the pictures of yachts and interiors exhibited by mr. jabez hughes were quite equal to all that could be expected from the camera of that clever, earnest, and indefatigable photographer. the portrait enlargements exhibited by that gentleman were exquisite, and of a totally different character from any other exhibitor's. mr. england's dry plate pictures, by his modified albumen process, are undoubtedly the best of the kind that have been taken. they lack that appearance of the representation of _petrified_ scenes that most, if not all, previous dry processes exhibited, and look as "juicy" as "humid nature" can well be rendered with the wet process. mr. frank howard exhibited four little gems that would be perfect but for the unnatural effect of the artificial skies he has introduced. the "stranded vessels" is nicely chosen, and one of the wood scenes is like a bit of creswick uncoloured. messrs. locke and whitfield exhibited some very finely and sketchily coloured photographs, quite up to their usual standard of artistic excellence, with the new feature of being painted on a ground of carbon printed from the negative by the patent carbon process of mr. j. w. swan. mr. adolphus wing's cabinet pictures were very excellent specimens, and i think it a great pity that more of that very admirable style of portraiture was not exhibited. mr. henry dixon's copy of landseer's dog "pixie," from the original painting, was very carefully and beautifully rendered. mr. faulkner's portraits, though of a very different character, were quite equal in artistic excellence to m. salomon's. mr. bedford's landscapes presented their usual charm, and the tone of his prints seemed to surpass the general beauty of his every-day work. mr. blanchard also exhibited some excellent landscapes, and displayed his usual happy choice of subject and point of sight. an immense number of photographs by amateurs, mr. brownrigg, mr. beasley, and others, were exhibited in folios and distributed about the walls, but it is impossible for me to describe or criticise more. i have already drawn my yarn a good length, and shall conclude by repeating what i said at starting, that a pleasanter evening, or more useful and instructive exhibition, has never been got up by the photographic society of london, and it is to be hoped that the success and _éclat_ attending it will encourage them to go and do likewise next year, and every succeeding one of its natural life, which i doubt not will be long and prosperous, for the exhibition just closed has given unmistakable evidence of there being "life in the old dog yet." _photographic news, nov. nd, ._ the use of clouds in landscapes. the subject of printing skies and cloud effects from separate negatives having been again revived by the reading of papers on that subject at the south london photographic society, i think it will not be out of place now to call attention to some points that have not been commented upon--or, at any rate, very imperfectly--by either the readers of the papers or by the speakers at the meetings, when the subject was under discussion. the introduction of clouds in a landscape by an artist is not so much to fill up the blank space above the object represented on the lower part of the canvas or paper, as to assist in the composition of the picture, both as regards linear and aerial perspective, and in the arrangement of light and shade, so as to secure a just balance and harmony of the whole, according to artistic principles. clouds are sometimes employed to repeat certain lines in the landscape composition, so as to increase their strength and beauty, and to unite the terrestrial part of the picture with the celestial. at other times they are used to balance a composition, both in form and effect, to prevent the picture being divided into two distinct and diagonal portions, as evidenced in many of the pictures by cuyp; on other occasions they are introduced solely for chiaroscuro effects, so as to enable the artist to place masses of dark upon light, and _vice versa_. of that use i think the works of turner will afford the most familiar and beautiful examples. in the instances cited, i make no allusion to the employment of clouds as repeaters of colour, but merely confine my remarks to their use in assisting to carry out form and effect, either in linear composition, or in the arrangement of light and shade in simple monochrome, as evidenced in the engraved translations of the works of rembrandt, turner, birket foster, and others, the study of those works being most applicable to the practice of photography, and, therefore, offering the most valuable hints to both amateur and professional photographers in the management of their skies. before pursuing this part of my subject further, it may be as well, perhaps, to state my general opinions of the effects of so-called "natural skies," obtained by one exposure and one printing. admitting that they are a vast improvement on the white-sky style of the early ages of photography, they fall far short of what they should be in artistic effect and arrangement. in nearly all the "natural skies" that i have seen, their office appears to be no other than to use up the white paper above the terrestrial portion of the picture. the masses of clouds, if there, seem always in the wrong place, and never made use of for breadth of chiaroscuro. no better illustrations of this can be adduced than those large photographs of swiss and alpine scenery by braun of dornach, which nearly all contain "natural clouds;" but, on looking them over, it will be seen that few (if any) really exhibit that artistic use of clouds in the composition of the pictures which evidence artistic knowledge. the clouds are taken just as they happen to be, without reference to their employment to enhance the effects of any of the objects in the lower portion of the view, or as aids to the composition and general effect. for the most part, the clouds are small and spotty, ill-assorting with the grandeur of the landscapes, and never assisting the chiaroscuro in an artistic sense. the most noticeable example of the latter defect may be seen in the picture entitled "le mont pilate," wherein a bald and almost white mountain is placed against a light sky, much to the injury of its form, effect, and grandeur; indeed, the mountain is barely saved from being lost in the sky, although it is the principal object in the picture. had an artist attempted to paint such a subject, he would have relieved such a large mass of light against a dark cloud. an example of a different character is observable in another photograph, wherein a dark conical mount would have been much more artistically rendered had it been placed against a large mass of light clouds. there are two or three fleecy white clouds about the summit of the mountain, but, as far as pictorial effect goes, they would have been better away, for the mind is left in doubt whether they are really clouds, or the sulphurous puffs that float about the crater of a slumbering volcano. that photographs possessing all the effects required by the rules of art are difficult, and almost impossible to obtain at one exposure in the camera, i readily allow. i know full well that a man might wait for days and weeks before the clouds would arrange themselves so as to relieve his principal object most advantageously; and, even if the desirable effects of light and shade were obtained, the chances are that the forms would not harmonize with the leading lines of the landscape. this being the case, then, it must be self-evident that the best mode of procedure will be to _print in skies_ from separate negatives, either taken from nature or from drawings made for the purpose by an artist that thoroughly understands art in all its principles. by these means, especially the latter, skies may be introduced into the photographic picture that will not only be adapted to each individual scene, but will, in every instance where they are employed, increase the artistic merit and value of the composition. but to return to the subject chiefly under consideration. clouds in landscape pictures, like "man in his time," play many parts--"they have their exits and their entrances." and it is almost impossible to say enough in a short paper on a subject so important to all landscape photographers. i will, however, as briefly and lucidly as i can, endeavour to point out the chief uses of clouds in landscapes. referring to their use for effects in light and shade, i wrote, at the commencement of this paper, that the engraved translations of turner afford the most familiar and beautiful examples, which they undoubtedly do. but when i consider that turner's skies are nearly all sunsets, the study of them will not be so readily turned to practical account by the photographer as the works of others,--birket foster, for instance. his works are almost equal to turner's in light and shade; he has been largely employed in the illustration of books, and five shillings will procure more of his beautiful examples of sky effects than a guinea will of turner's. take, for example, sampson low and son's five shilling edition of bloomfield's "farmer's boy," or gray's "elegy in a churchyard," profusely illustrated almost entirely by birket foster; and in them will be seen such a varied and marvellous collection of beautiful sky effects as seem almost impossible to be the work of one man, and all of them profitable studies for both artist and photographer in the varied uses made of clouds in landscapes. in those works it will be observed that where the lower part of the picture is rich in variety of subject the sky is either quiet or void of form, partaking of one tint only slightly broken up. where the terrestrial part of the composition is tame, flat, and destitute of beautiful objects, the sky is full of beauty and grandeur, rich in form and masses of light and shade, and generally shedding a light on the insignificant object below, so as to invest it with interest in the picture, and connect it with the story being told. from both of these examples the photographer may obtain a suggestion, and slightly tint the sky of his picture, rich in objects of interest, so as to resemble the tint produced by the "ruled lines" representing a clear blue sky in an engraving. hitherto that kind of tinting has generally been overdone, giving it more the appearance of a heavy fog lifting than a calm blue sky. the darkest part of the tint should just be a little lower than the highest light on the principal object. this tint may either be obtained in the negative itself at the time of exposure, or produced by "masking" during the process of printing. on the other hand, when the subject has little to recommend it in itself, it may be greatly increased in pictorial power and interest by a judicious introduction of beautiful cloud effects, either obtained from nature, or furnished by the skill of an artist. if the aid of an artist be resorted to, i would not recommend painting on the negative, but let the artist be furnished with a plain white-sky print; let him wash in a sky, in sepia or india ink, that will most harmonise, both in form and effect, with the subject represented, take a negative from that sky alone, and put it into each of the pictures by double printing. this may seem a great deal of trouble and expense, and not appear to the minds of some as altogether legitimate, but i strenuously maintain that any means employed to increase the artistic merit and value of a photograph is strictly legitimate; and that wherever and however art can be resorted to, without doing violence to the truthfulness of nature, the status of our art-science will be elevated, and its professional disciples will cease to be the scorn of men who take pleasure in deriding the, sometimes--may i say too often?--lame and inartistic productions of the camera. the use of clouds as backgrounds in portraiture. there has long been in the world an aphorism that everything in nature is beautiful. collectively this is true, and so it is individually, so far as the adaptability and fitness of the object to its proper use are concerned; but there are many things which are truly beautiful in themselves, and in their natural uses, which cease to be so when they are pressed into services for which they are not intended by the great creator of the universe. for example, what can be more beautiful than that compound modification of cloud forms commonly called a "mackerel sky," which is sometimes seen on a summer evening? what can be more lovely, or more admirably adapted to the purposes of reflecting and conducting the last flickering rays of the setting sun into the very zenith, filling half the visible heavens with a fretwork of gorgeous crimson, reflecting a warm, mysterious light on everything below, and filling the mind with wonder and admiration at the marvellous beauties which the heavens are showing? yet, can anything be more unsuitable for forming the background to a portrait, where everything should be subdued, secondary, and subservient to the features of the individual represented--where everything should be lower in tone than the light on the face, where neither colour nor light should be introduced that would tend to distract the attention of the observer--where neither accessory nor effect should appear that does not help to concentrate the mind on the grand object of the picture--the likeness? still, how often do we see a photographic portrait stuck against a sky as spotty, flickering, and unsuitable as the one just described! how seriously are the importance and brilliancy of the head interfered with by the introduction of such an unsuitable background! how often is the interest of the spectator divided between the portrait and the "overdone" sky, so elaborately got up by the injudicious background painter! such backgrounds are all out of place, and ought to be abandoned--expelled from every studio. as the photographer does not possess the advantages of the painter, to produce his effects by contrast of colour, it behoves him to be much more particular in his treatment of light and shade; but most particularly in his choice of a background that will most harmonise with the dress, spirit, style, and condition in life of his sitter. it is always possible for a member of any class of the community to be surrounded or relieved by a plain, quiet background; but it is not possible, in nine cases out of ten, for some individuals who sit for their portraits ever to be dwellers in marble halls, loungers in the most gorgeous conservatories, or strollers in such delightful gardens. in addition to the unfitness of such scenes to the character and every-day life of the sitter, they are the most unsuitable for pictorial effect that can possibly be employed. for, instead of directing attention to the principal object, they disturb the mind, and set it wandering all over the picture, and interfere most seriously with that quiet contemplation of the features which is so necessary to enable the beholder to discover all the characteristic points in the portrait. when the likeness is a very bad one, this may be advantageous, on the principle of putting an ornamental border round a bad picture with the view of distracting the attention of the observer, and preventing the eye from resting long enough on any one spot to discover the defects. when clouds are introduced as backgrounds to portraits, they should not be of that small, flickering character previously alluded to, but broad, dark, and "massy," so as to impart by contrast more strength of light to the head; and the lighter parts of the clouds should be judiciously placed either above or below the head, so as to carry the light into other parts of the picture, and prevent the strongly-lighted head appearing a spot. the best examples of that character will be found in the engraved portraits by reynolds, lawrence, gainsborough, and others, many of which are easily obtained at the old print shops; some have appeared in the _art journal_. as guides for introducing cloud effects, accessories, and landscape bits into the backgrounds of carte-de-visite and cabinet pictures, no better examples can be cited than those exquisite little figure subjects by r. westall, r.a., illustrating sharpe's editions of the old poets. the engravings are about the size of cartes-de-visite, and are in themselves beautiful examples of composition, light, and shade, and appropriateness of accessory to the condition and situation of the figures, affording invaluable suggestions to the photographer in the arrangement of his sitter, or groups, and in the choice of suitable accessories and backgrounds. such examples are easily obtained. almost any old bookstall in london possesses one or more of those works, and each little volume contains at least half-a-dozen of these exquisite little gems of art. looking at those beautiful photographic cartes-de-visite by mr. edge, i am very strongly impressed with the idea that they were suggested by some such artistic little pictures as westall's illustrations of the poets. they are really charming little photographs, and show most admirably how much the interest and artistic merit of a photograph can be enhanced by the skilful and judicious introduction of a suitable background. i may as well observe, _en passant_, that i have examined these pictures very carefully, and have come to the conclusion that the effects are not produced by means of any of the ingeniously contrived appliances for poly-printing recently invented and suggested, but that the effects are produced simply by double printing, manipulated with consummate care and judgment, the figure or figures being produced on a plain or graduated middle tint background in one negative, and the landscape effect printed on from another negative after the first print has been taken out of the printing-frame; the figures protected by a mask nicely adjusted. my impressions on this subject are strengthened almost to conviction when i look at one of mr. edge's photographs, in particular a group of two ladies, the sitting figure sketching. in this picture, the lower part of the added landscape--trees--being darker than the normal tint of the ground, shows a _line_ round the black dress of the lady, as if the mask had overlapped it just a hair's breadth during the process of secondary printing. be that as it may, they are lovely little pictures, and afford ample evidence of what may be done by skill and taste to vary the modes of treating photography more artistically, by introducing natural scenery sufficiently subdued to harmonise with the portrait or group; and, by similar means, backgrounds of clouds and interiors may be added to a plain photograph, which would enrich its pictorial effect, and enable the photographer to impart to his work a greater interest and beauty, and, at the same time, be made the means of giving apparent occupation to his sitter. this mode of treatment would enable him, in a great measure, to carry out the practice of nearly all the most celebrated portrait painters, viz., that of considering the form, light, shade, and character of the background _after_ the portrait was finished, by adapting the light, shade, and composition of his background to the pose and condition of life of his sitter. i shall now conclude my remarks with a quotation from du fresnoy's "art of painting," bearing directly on my subject and that of light and shade:-- "permit not two conspicuous lights to shine with rival radiance in the same design; but yield to one alone the power to blaze, and spread th' extensive vigour of its rays; there where the noblest figures are displayed, thence gild the distant parts and lessening fade; as fade the beams which phoebus from the east flings vivid forth to light the distant west, gradual those vivid beams forget to shine, so gradual let thy pictured lights decline." * * * * * "lux graphicus" on the wing. dear mr. editor,--i have often troubled you with some of my ideas and opinions concerning the progress and status of photography, and you have pretty often transferred the same to the columns of the _photographic news_, and troubled your readers in much the same manner. this time, however, i am going to tell you a secret--a family secret. they are always more curious, interesting, and important than other secrets, state secrets and mr. mclachlan's photographic secret not excepted. but to my subject: "_the_ secret." well, dear mr. editor, you know that my vocations have been rather arduous for some time past, and i feel that a little relaxation from pressing cares and anxieties would be a great boon to me. you know, also, that i am a great lover of nature, almost a stickler for it, to the exclusion of _prejudicial art_. and now that the spring has come and winter has fled on the wings of the fieldfares and woodcocks--that's thomas hood's sentiment made seasonable--i fain would leave the pent-up city, where the colour of the sky can seldom be seen for the veil of yellow smoke which so constantly obscures it, and betake myself to the country, and inhale the fresh breezes of early spring; gladden my heart and eyes with a sight of the bright blue sky, the glistening snowdrops and glowing yellow crocuses, and regale my ears and soul with the rich notes of the thrush and blackbird, and the earliest song of the lark at the gates of heaven. it is a pleasant thing to be able to shake off the mud and gloom of a winter's sojourn in a town, in the bright, fresh fields of the country, and bathe your fevered and enfeebled body in the cool airs of spring, as they come gushing down from the hills, or across the rippling lake, or dancing sea. i always had such a keen relish for the country at all seasons of the year, it is often a matter of wonder to me that i ever could bring my mind to the necessity of living in a town. but bread and butter do not grow in hedgerows, though "bread and cheese" do; still the latter will not support animal life of a higher order than grub or caterpillars. "there's the rub." the mind is, after all, the slave of the body, for the mind must bend to the requirements of the body; and, as a man cannot live by gazing at a "colt's foot," and if he have no appetite for horseflesh, he is obliged to succumb to his fate, and abide in a dingy, foggy, slushy, and bewildering world of mud, bricks, and mortar, instead of revelling in the bright fields, fresh air, and gushing melodies which god created for man, and gave man senses to enjoy his glorious works. but, mr. editor, i am mentally wandering among "cowslips," daises, buttercups, and wild strawberry blossoms, and forgetting the stern necessity of confining my observations to a subject coming reasonably within the range of a class journal which you so ably conduct; but it is pardonable and advantageous to allow mind to run before matter sometimes, for the latter is more frequently inert than the former, and when the mind has gone _ahead_, the body is sure to follow. melancholy instances of that present themselves to our notice too frequently. for example, when a poor lady's or gentleman's wits are gone, _lettres des cachets_, and some kind or _un_kind friends, send the witless body to some retreat where the wits of all the inmates are gone. i must, however, in all sober earnestness, return to my subject, or i fear you will say: "he is going to hanwell." well, perhaps i am, for i know that photography is practised at that admirable institution; and now that i have struck a professional chord, i may as well play on it. lenses and cameras, like birds and flowers, reappear in spring, and, as the season advances and the sun attains a higher altitude, amateurs and professionals are quickened into a surprising activity. renewed life is imparted to them, and the gregarious habits of man are developed in another form, and somewhat in the manner that the swallows return to their old haunts. at first, a solitary scout or reconnoitering party makes his appearance, then another, and another, until a complete flock of amateur and professional photographers are abroad, seeking what food they can devour: some preferring the first green "bits of foliage" that begin to gem the woods with emeralds, others waiting till the leaf is fully out, and the trees are thickly clothed in their early summer loveliness: while others prefer a more advanced state of beauty, and like to depict nature in her russet hues, when the trees "are in their yellow leaf." some are contented with the old-fashioned homesteads and sweet green lanes of england for their subjects; others prefer the ruined abbeys and castles of the feudal ages, with their deeply interesting associations; others choose the more mythical monuments of superstition and the dark ages, such as king arthur's round tables, druidical circles, and remains of their rude temples of stone. some delight in pictorializing the lakes and mountains of the north, while others are not satisfied with anything short of the sublime beauty and terrific grandeur of the alps and pyrenees. truly, sir, i think it may be safely stated that photographers are lovers of nature, and, i think, they are also lovers of art. if some of them do not possess that art knowledge which is so necessary for them to pursue advantageously either branch of their profession, it is much to be regretted; but there is now no reason why they should continue in darkness any longer. i know that it requires years of study and practice to become an artist, but it does not require a very great amount of mental labour or sacrifice of time to become an artistic photographer. a little hard study of the subject as it appears in the columns of your journal and those of your contemporaries--for i notice that they have _all_ suddenly become alive to the necessity of imparting to photographers a knowledge of art principles--will soon take the scales off the eyes of a man that is blind in art, and enable him to comprehend the mysteries of lines, unity, and light and shade, and give him the power to compose his subject as readily as he could give a composing draught to an infant, and teach him to determine at a glance the light, shade, and atmospheric effects that would most harmonize with the scene to be represented. supposing that he is master of the mechanical manipulations of photography, he has acquired half the skill of the artist; and by studying and applying the rules of composition and light and shade to his mechanical skill, he is then equal to the artist in the treatment of his subject, so far as the means he employs will or can enable him to give an art rendering of nature, fixed and immovable. i do not profess to be a teacher, but i do think it is much more genial in spirit, and becoming the dignity of a man, to impart what little knowledge he has to others, than to scoff at those who do not know so much. if, therefore, mr. editor, in the course of my peregrinations, i see an opportunity of calling your attention, and, through you, the attention of others, to any glaring defects or absurdities in the practice of our dearly beloved art, i shall not hesitate to do so; not, however, with any desire to carp and cavil at them for cavilling's sake, but with the more laudable desire of pointing them out, that they may be avoided. during the coming summer i shall have, or hope to have, many opportunities of seeing and judging, and will endeavour to keep you duly advised of what is passing before me. my letters may come from all parts--n., e., w., and s.--so that they will, in that sense at least, harmonize with the nomenclature of your periodical. where i may be at the date of my writing, the post-mark will reveal to you. and now i must consider my signature: much is in a name, you know. i can hardly call myself your "special correspondent"--that would be too much _a la sala_; nor can i subscribe myself an "old photographer," for that would be taking possession of another man's property, and might lead to confusion, if not to difficulties; neither can i style myself a "peripatetic photographer"--though i am one--for that name sometimes appears in the columns of a contemporary; and my own name is such a long one, consisting of nearly half the letters of the alphabet. well, i think, all things considered, i cannot do better than retain my old _nom de plume_. and with many apologies for this long, roundabout paper, and every expression of regard, i beg to subscribe myself your obliged and humble servant, lux graphicus (j. werge). _march th, ._ * * * * * "lux graphicus" on the wing. oxford and cambridge--cabinet portraits--mr. mclachlan's secret. dear mr. editor,--do not let the above heading alarm you. i have no desire to convert the columns of your valuable journal into a kind of photographic _bell's life_ or _sporting chronicle_. although the great university boat race has just been decided for the eighth consecutive time in favour of oxford, it is not of that aquatic struggle that i am going to write, but of another matter in which the cantabs seem to be behind the oxonians in the race of life, or the pursuit of novelties. not only are the cantabs short in their stroke with the oars, and unable to obtain the first place in the contests on the thames, they are also slow in giving their orders for a certain article of commerce which is of very great importance to professional photographers, especially those in the neighbourhood of the university of cambridge. it is a remarkable fact, that while oxford has gone in with a rush for those very charming portraits technically named "cabinets," cambridge holds aloof. how is this, i wonder. there are as good photographers in cambridge--mr. mayland, to wit, whose work is all of the first class--as in oxford; the sun shines as brightly in the region of the cam as he does in that of the isis. have the cantabs made up their minds not to be _cabinet_ men in opposition to oxford? or is the fact due to the lukewarmness of the cambridge photographers themselves? it seems somewhat strange that two places likely to be so similar in tastes and a refined appreciation of the beautiful should so differ in this respect. are the men of the two great seats of learning in this country opposed in matters of photographic proportion as they are in other matters of minor importance--as in the proper pronunciation of either and neither, for instance? not having graduated at either, i do not know which is correct, neither do i care; but i am concerned in this question of photography. while at oxford the cabinet picture has taken deep root, and has grown into a strong and vigorous article of demand, it is a well-known fact that at cambridge it is "sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought," and languishes on in a state trembling between life and death. whether the producers or consumers are to blame for this langour in the demand for an article that is certainly worth being cultivated, is more than i can say. i know that the discrepancy exists, and the rest i leave to those most immediately interested. it cannot, however, be supposed that a demand for any particular size or style can spring up spontaneously; that must be created by the producer, by popularising the style in some attractive and judicious manner, and the cabinet size is well deserving of a very strenuous effort being made in its favour. of all the photographic sizes that have been introduced to the public, the cabinet is the most artistic in its proportions. as nearly as possible it falls under that art rule of producing an oblong or parallelogram of the most agreeable proportions, which is as the diagonal is to the square. the size of the cabinet is - / by , and if you measure the diagonal of the square of inches, you will find that the length of the cabinet, - / inches, is as near that as possible. doubtless mr. window had this in view when he introduced the size, and whether for upright or horizontal pictures, such proportions are decidedly the best. many of the sizes already in use are too long, others are too short and square. in addition to the beautiful proportions of the cabinet size, it gives the portrait photographer more room and opportunities to introduce harmonious forms and effects in the posing and arrangements of portraits and groups; and i have seen some very charming views on the cabinet size, - / by inches horizontally; as well as some very beautiful interiors of westminster abbey, by mr. v. blanchard, on the cabinet cards vertical, which proves pretty conclusively that the proportions of the diagonal to the square of any size will suit both vertical and horizontal pictures. i have not the least doubt but a much greater demand for those cabinet pictures, both portrait and landscape, could be created, if photographers would set about introducing them with a will: depend upon it if they will but put their heart into the matter, they would put money into their pockets. i know how much has been done by launching them fearlessly on the sea of public patronage in several localities, and i feel certain the demand would be much more general if the cabinet picture were judiciously introduced. mr. h. p. robinson and mr. nelson k. cherrill, having entered into partnership, are on the point of opening a photographic establishment at tunbridge wells, where they intend to incur considerable expense to introduce the cabinet portrait, and give it that prominence it so justly merits. since writing you last, i learn from a friend who is intimate with mr. mclachlan that there is every possibility of his secret being revealed ere long. that this secret formula will be an immense boon to all photographers, there can be little doubt. if an absolute immunity from streaks in the direction of the dip, brain-markings, and pinholes--which are the advantages said to be derived from the process--can be guaranteed, then will the manipulatory part of photography be at once made easy; and mr. mclachlan will have conferred a personal obligation on every photographic manipulator. not only will photographers be benefitted by mr. mclachlan's generous conduct, the whole world will participate in the advantages he intends to place as a gift in the hands of photographers; and even _art_, that is so afraid of a photographic amalgamation, will be _honoured_ by the revelation. but once let the mind of the operator be for ever free from the cares and anxieties of his negative being clean, spotless, and excellent in quality, he will then have more time and inclination to put his art knowledge, if he have any, into practice, by paying more attention to the pose of his sitters and the artistic choice and arrangement of accessories. if he be without art knowledge he will be obliged to acquire it and put it into practice, or be driven out of his field of operations. for, if the chemical difficulties and uncertainties are to be so summarily disposed of, and all the manipulations reduced to a certainty and dead level, a pre-eminence in the profession can only be maintained by him who exhibits a taste, feeling, and love for his labours superior to the desire to palm upon the public, for mere gain, works that are a disgrace and a scandal to the profession of which he is a member. that such a condition of things photographic may be quickly brought about is much to be desired, and if such be the result of mr. mclachlan's very noble willingness to give to the photographic community experiences that have cost him much time and money in acquiring by close observation and experiment, he will, at the least, be entitled to the sincere and hearty acknowledgments of all well-wishers and lovers of our art-science. _apropos_ of clean and easy development, i should like to know if any of your numerous readers have tried the effect of sulphate of zinc with the iron developer. i understand its use obviates the necessity of using acetic acid as a retardant; that the deposit of silver is much more delicate than that produced by iron alone; that the control over it is very great; that any amount of intensity can be obtained by one or more applications, without the aid of pyrogallic acid, and without producing harshness or hardness. with such recommendations it is certainly worth a trial. i have had no time to try it myself, but think it is of sufficient importance to give your readers an opportunity of experimenting with it, and judging for themselves. _photographic news, april th, ._ * * * * * "lux graphicus" on the wing. the late lord brougham--new fields for photography--natural objects coloured--the monochrome and autotype--mr. mclachlan again. death has just swept away one of the most gigantic intellects of the nineteenth century. for me to state what the late lord brougham was, or attempt to enumerate his vast attainments, or measure the strength of his colossal mind, would be a piece of intolerable presumption; but i think i may safely say that he was an enthusiastic admirer of photography. years ago, in the midst of his parliamentary and other pressing duties, whenever he could find time to enjoy the quiet of brougham hall, near penrith, his giant mind was not above indulging in the delightful relaxation it afforded; and many a pleasant hour he used to spend chatting with mr. jacob thompson, an artist of great ability, and also a very early amateur photographer, on the wonderful results obtained by the new art. the late lord brougham began his literary career by publishing a treatise on "light," before photography was known or thought to be practicable; in after life he interested himself in its marvellous productions, and his last literary labour was also about light. not only did the great statesman "know a little of everything," he did a little in everything. the deceased lord took a lively interest in the progress of photography during his lifetime, from its earliest introduction to within a short period of his death; and it would have been a graceful and fitting compliment to the memory of the great man of law, politics, literature, and science, if the english newspapers had embellished their memoirs of the late lord brougham with a photographic portrait of his lordship. such a thing is quite practicable, and has been done successfully by our more enterprising confrères in canada and the united states. the _montreal weekly herald_ of april th illustrates its memoir of the late mr. t. d'arcy mcghee with a very excellent carte-de-visite portrait of the lamented and unfortunate canadian minister, mounted on the upper corner of the front page, surrounded with a deep black border. what an appropriate accompaniment such a presentation would have been to the able articles and memoirs which appeared in the daily press on monday, may th, ! how much more interesting and valuable those clever biographical sketches of great men, as they pass away to their rest, which appear in the _daily telegraph_ and other daily and weekly papers, would appear if illustrated with a photograph from life! that it can be done the _montreal weekly herald_ has recently and satisfactorily shown; and surely there is enterprise, spirit, and wealth enough among the british newspaper proprietors to follow the very laudable example of our transatlantic cousins. negatives of great men are always attainable, and there need be no commercial difficulty between the photographer and newspaper proprietor on the score of supply. a multiplication of negatives or woodbury's process, would afford all the necessary facilities for producing the prints in large numbers. many new fields for the good of photography are opening up. pathological works have been photographically illustrated with some amount of success. but far pleasanter fields are open to enterprising photographers in the faithful representation of natural objects, such as flowers, fruits, ferns, grasses, shrubs, trees, shells, seaweeds, birds, butterflies, moths, and every variety of animal life, from the lowest orders to the highest. i believe the time is not far distant when the best works on all the physical sciences will be illustrated by coloured photographs. those very beautiful german photographs of flowers recently introduced show most conclusively of what photography is capable as a help to a study of the natural sciences. the flowers are not only photographed from nature, but exquisitely coloured after the same fountain of truth; and the sense of reality, roundness, and relief which they convey is truly wonderful. hitherto the colouring of natural objects photographed from nature has been a very difficult thing to accomplish; but now it is done, and with a marvellous success. the monochromatic process is also making great strides in advance. those very beautiful transparencies, cabinet size, of the queen and royal family are now to be seen in most of the photographic picture shop-windows in town and country. these transparencies are the productions of the disderi company, by woodbury's photo-relief process, and the results now obtained are really beautiful, both in effect and colour, and sold at a very low price. but the _chef d'oeuvre_ of all monochromatic effects has just been achieved by the triple labours of mr. macnee, the artist, and mr. annan, the photographer, of glasgow, and mr. j. w. swan, of newcastle. the subject in question is a work of art in every respect. the original is a full-length portrait of lord belhaven, painted by daniel macnee, and now in the royal academy exhibition. a photograph taken from the painting by mr. annan was worked up in monochrome by the eminent artist, from which another negative was taken by the same skilful photographer, and placed in the hands of mr. j. w. swan to be printed in carbon, which the latter gentleman has done in the most admirable manner. altogether, the result is the most satisfactory reproduction by photography that has ever been placed before the public, and is less like a photograph and more like a fine mezzotint engraving than anything i ever saw. mr. annan is now publishing the work on his own responsibility, and a specimen of it can be seen at the offices of "the autotype printing and publishing co.," , haymarket, london. mr. hill, of edinburgh, is also about to publish, in carbon, a photograph of that beautifully painted picture entitled "a fairy raid," which was exhibited last year in the rooms of the royal academy by sir noel paton. as in the former case, mr. annan copied the painting, sir noel worked on a print in monochrome, which was again photographed by mr. annan, and the negative passed to mr. j. w. swan to be printed in carbon. i understand that poynter's celebrated picture of "israel in egypt" is about to be published, in a similar manner, by the autotype company. it is therefore quite evident that photography is becoming, in reality, more and more "a foe to graphic art," and eclipsing the lights and deepening the shadows of the _unluxy_ engraver. mr. mclachlan has again spoken without giving any very materially new facts, or throwing much more light on his mysterious mode of working. the great point is, to throw light on the concentrated solution of nitrate of silver; and until that has been done it will be impossible for any one to say from experience and practice that there is nothing in the principle. mr. mclachlan attributes a chemical property to the action of light on the bath that has never been thought of before, and he seems to believe it so sincerely himself, and expresses his convictions so earnestly, that i think photographers are somewhat bound to wait patiently till time and light will enable them to comply with all the conditions he lays down, and make a series of careful experiments, before they can say whether they are under obligations to him or not. at any rate, natural justice suggests that they should not render a foregone verdict. _may th, ._ * * * * * the exhibition of national portraits--the tintype of america--the spirit of photography in canada--the "wise week," and the total eclipse of the sun. dear mr. editor,--from various causes i have been absent from your columns as a contributor for some time, but not as a reader. the chief reason for this was the weather, which of late has been so hot and prostrating as to dry up both my ink and my energies. now that the atmosphere is more cool, moist, and pleasant, my ink and my thoughts may flow together, and the resulting epistle may find a place on some page of the photographic news; if not, i shall not be angry. i know that the world--and photography is my world--is not always mindful of its atoms. the great and immortal cicero discovered that even he could be absent from rome, and all rome not know it. how much easier, then, for your readers not to discover my absence from your pages. but my inability to write and attend to other duties entailed more serious losses to myself. amongst others i missed seeing the royal academy exhibition, but found a compensating pleasure in going to see the exhibition of national portraits at south kensington. what a school it is for photographers! what a variety of pose, arrangement, management of light and shade, is to be seen in that glorious collection of vandykes, hogarths, gainsboroughs, reynolds, opies, wilkies, raeburns, northcotes, lawrences, phillips, shees, richmonds, grants, and many others of the present day! i hope many photographers have seen the collection. none ought to have missed the opportunity. all that saw must have profited by the sight. portraits of great men that have been familiar to me in black and white for years were there before me in the rich mellow colouring of vandyke, reynolds, wilkie, and lawrence, and the mind seemed carried back into the past while looking at the works of those great artists. the exhibition will soon close, and all that have not seen it should endeavour to do so at once. there may never again be seen such a gathering together of the great of england, painted by england's greatest portrait painters. the manchester art treasures exhibition was a great assemblage of the glory of england, but it was not so complete, nor so instructive, nor so comfortable to view as that now open at south kensington. in addition to the paintings there is a large and valuable collection of rare engravings, both in mezzotints and in line. the latter collection alone would make a visit highly pleasing, and, in a sense, remunerative to every photographer. art is beginning to take root in the minds of those who follow photography, either professionally or for amusement, and those exhibitions are the salt that "savoureth the earth," which in due time will bring forth rich fruits. the "tintype" is now being largely practised in america, and is fitted into an envelope or slip, carte-de-visite size. the slip is formed of paper, with an aperture to show the picture, and a flap to fall over it as a protector. i had some of these shown to me a short time ago. the tintype is only another name for the ferrotype or melainotype, which is a collodion positive picture taken on a piece of tin or iron, coated with black japan on the front, and a varnish on the back, to prevent the metal from acting on the bath. the carte-de-visite form of the tintype fitted in the envelope or holder is a very good and ready way of supplying all portraits wanted in a hurry, and its adoption might be found very serviceable to many photographers in england. the american examples that i have seen are very brilliant and beautiful, and, to my mind, next in delicacy of detail and richness of colour to the long discarded but ever beautiful daguerreotype. i must admit, _en passant_, that the americans always excelled in producing fine, brilliant daguerreotypes, and it is much the same with them in the production of glass positives, ferrotypes, or tintypes. the spirit of photography in america and canada is admirable. mr. notman, of montreal, has long been doing some excellent cabinet pictures representing out-of-door-life, pleasures, and pastimes. now mr. inglis, of montreal, also produces most beautiful carte-de-visite and cabinet pictures of indoor and out-of-door scenes, such as drawing-rooms, libraries, &c., with suitably arranged and occupied figures in the former, and boating, bathing, and fishing parties in the latter. some of these pictures have recently been shown to me. they are all very fine examples of photography. the tone and quality of some are beautiful. many of them are admirably arranged, and exhibit considerable knowledge of composition; but some of them, particularly the interiors, are sadly at fault in their chiaroscuro. they possess no dominant light, or, if they do, it is in the wrong place, leading the eye away from the principal object. in most cases the lights are too scattered, giving a spotty and flickering effect to the picture, which is painful to look at. with his out-of-door scenes mr. inglis is more happy, and probably, from his antecedents, more at home. for example, the "boating party" is very happily composed, embracing the double form of angular composition--the triangle and the lozenge--and just a little more skill or care would have made it perfect in its lines. the whole scene is well lighted and got up. the boat, foreground of pebbles, stones, shrubs, and trees are all real; the water is represented by tin-foil, wet black oilcloth, or something of the kind, which reflects the forms and colours of objects placed upon or above it. the reflections seem too sharp to be those of water. the plan adopted by mr. ross, of edinburgh, is the best. that gentleman has a large shallow trough fitted up in his studio with water in it. surely such pictures of groups of friends and families would take in london and the provinces if people only knew where to get them. at present i know there is not a place in london where photographic pictures possessing such a variety and interest can be obtained. mr. faulkner is the only photographer that has yet attempted to produce such rural subjects in london, but i am not aware that he has yet introduced "the boat" into his studio. this is the "wise week," and it is to be hoped that the gathering together of the wisdom of the world at norwich will in some way be beneficial to photography. you, mr. editor, i presume, will attend the meetings, and i shall look forward with considerable interest to your gleanings from the harvest of science that will this year be garnered in the transactions of the british association. as i think of the date to affix to my letter, i am reminded that this is the day of the great total eclipse, visible in india, and that several expeditions are engaged in taking observations. the photographic arrangements, i notice, are more than usually complete, and i most sincerely hope that the astronomical photographers are favoured with bright and calm weather, so that they may succeed in obtaining the best photographic representations of the phenomenon. in this i am not influenced by the mere photographic idea of getting a picture, but rather with the hope that photography may be the legitimate and honourable handmaiden to the savants, astronomers, and mathematicians in enabling them to ascertain the constitutional condition, mode of sustenance, and interminable length of life of the great source of all our labours and achievements. then would the sun write his autobiography, and his amanuensis would be his favoured child, photography. _august th, ._ * * * * * the harvest is over, the granaries are full, yet famine is in our midst--photographers' benevolent and provident societies--photography ennobled--revival of the eburneum process--the societies and the coming session--photographic apparatus _v._ personal luggage. dear mr. editor,--my quill is as restless as my wing, and, as i skim about like the swallows, many things fall under my observation that would otherwise not do so, some of which are noteworthy and of interest to the photographic profession, many are not; but harvest time is interesting to everyone, and it is of this i am going to make a few remarks. it is always a subject of grave importance and anxiety to a nation like ours, with a very limited area of cereal land, until it is known whether the harvest has been abundant or otherwise. it is also equally important that the harvest, however plentiful, should be carefully reaped and garnered, so that famine may not fall upon the people before another season of plenty shall come in its course. the cereal harvest is over, and has been wonderfully abundant, in spite of the unusually long, dry, and hot summer. the stack-yards are full, and the granaries are teeming with plenty, and there is bread enough for all that can afford to buy. there, that is the qualification that brings to my mind the most serious part of this subject. although the season has been wonderfully fine and favourable for a rich harvest of all things, "famine is in our midst." a cry of woe is mingled with our mirth. a glorious summer and autumn have, on the whole, yielded a rich reward to the labourers in the pleasant and profitable fields of photography; yet there is want among some of the workers. in the columns of your contemporary i observe a letter "begging alms" on behalf of a poor widow and her little orphans. it is a case of pure charity, and far be it from me to say to anyone, "do not help her;" "they have no claim on the sympathies of the photographic public;" "neither she nor her late husband did anything to forward the progress of the art nor advance the interests of photographers in general." i grant the latter hypothesis, and say, "he that giveth to the poor lendeth to the lord." nevertheless, i cannot refrain from expressing my opinion that such painful appeals should not be allowed to appear in the columns of the photographic journals; all such private cases could and should be provided for by any of the provident organisations so common to other trades. the subject has been frequently mooted in your own columns, but no action has been taken. very recently a lady correspondent called attention to the subject again, and now, in the pages of your contemporary, i notice an elaborate plan is laid down as the ground-work of a photographers' provident and benevolent society. that plan is open to some objections, but it is certainly desirable that such a society should be formed. it is rather late in the season for photographers to make any provision for cases and , as the correspondent in your contemporary suggests--this year, at least; but i think his other plan of making a provision, however small, for widows and orphans is highly to be commended, and, if only carried into effect, would undoubtedly mitigate the anguish and lessen the fear of want in the minds of many deserving women, and might prevent the recurrence of those painful appeals to which i have just alluded. it is just as important and imperative a duty for every man to make some sort of provision for those dependent upon him as it is for the husbandman to reap and carefully house his harvest. knowing the interest which you, mr. editor, personally take in this subject, i trust that you will exert your influence, and see if it be possible to found a society _at once_ that will grow in after years to be a monument to photography and to the goodness and forethought of the photographers of the present generation. photography, like the fine arts, is honoured with a title of nobility. a baronetcy has recently fallen to the lot of one who for years has followed photography as a profession, taking cartes-de-visite and other photographs in the usual business-like manner. of all the styles of distinction that are conferred upon men, i think baronetcies have been subject to the greatest number of vicissitudes, and spiced with the greatest amount of romance, from the romantic succession of sir robert innes to sir william don, "a poor player;" and now the photographic profession includes among its members one of the baronets of england. your description of the eburneum process, given recently in your "visits to noteworthy studios," has awakened quite a new interest in that beautiful form of photograph, introduced a few years ago by mr. burgess. several photographers whom i know have set about producing them. the specimens which i have seen are very beautiful as cards, but they are particularly suitable for lockets, brooches, studs, pins, rings, &c., being sharp, clear, and delicate, and easily cut to fit any size or shape. next month some of the london photographic societies will commence the session of - , and it might be asked, what are their prospects? it is to be hoped that the north london will do better than it did last session. there was more than one _nil_ meeting. the south london will doubtless keep up its character, and exhibit its usual vitality. the personal interest taken in the meetings by their kind, genial, and courteous president is almost sure to develop all the latent force of the members. it is also to be hoped that _the_ society will make as brilliant a start as it did at the commencement of the session last november. such an exhibition as that in conduit street may easily be repeated, though it may not be such a startling one. the question raised, whether photographic apparatus be or be not considered "personal luggage" by the railway companies, is one of very great importance to photographers, but particularly to amateurs, for if decided against them it will cause no end of inconvenience, vexation, and expense by delays and extra charges. on the other hand, it must be admitted that the view taken by the railway authorities is technically correct. the very word "personal" shows that they mean such articles as are really and absolutely necessary for the personal comfort and convenience of travellers, which can only rightly include wearing apparel, changes of linen, dressing-cases, ladies' work boxes, and writing desks. these are absolutely indispensable for the comfort and convenience of travellers. photographic apparatus, and particularly chemicals, do not come under that classification, and i think it is of great consequence to the railway companies and their passengers to know what should, or should not, be put into the "luggage van." i know a case where an amateur photographer was travelling by rail with a by bath full of nitrate of silver solution packed among his clothes in a box in the luggage van. the bath leaked, the solution spoiled all his shirts, and he was driven to the shift of papering the fronts. now, supposing the box containing the leaky bath had stood upon someone else's box--say a lady's--it might have run through and spoiled some valuable dresses; at the least, it would have spoiled the appearance of the box, to the great annoyance of the lady passenger, and the probable claim on the company for compensation. there are always two sides to a question, and though few men have travelled more with photographic apparatus in the luggage van than myself, i think, in this case, the best of the argument may be fairly ceded to the railway companies. _september th, ._ * * * * * "lux graphicus" on the wing. his flight to and from the exhibition of the photographic society. dear mr. editor,--on tuesday night last i took the liberty of looking into the rooms of the architectural society, to see the photographs, and listen to the gossip of the visitors at the _conversazione_ of the photographic society. to hear the complimentary remarks and the exclamations of pleasure was as delightful to my ear as the first song of the lark in spring. the assemblage--not brilliant, but genial, pleasant, and happy--was as refreshing to the eye as the first glimpse of the vernal flowers; and the pictures hung upon the walls and screens, and laid upon the tables, were, in more senses than one, a feast to the mind almost without alloy. for my own part, i felt so joyful, i could not help fluttering my wings, shaking my feathers, and flitting about from one place to another, chirping, chatting, and pecking lovingly about this pretty thing, and at that old friend, till long after my usual time of going to roost. and when i did at last tear myself away and fly home, i could not help exclaiming, well, there never was a pleasanter evening nor a nicer exhibition in the whole history of the society! but i could not sleep; i put my head under my wing, shook my feathers, and tried to settle into the most comfortable and cosy positions, but it was no use. the pretty landscapes and pleasing portraits i had seen shone brighter and brighter before me; i was compelled to mentally review them; and here follows the result of my incubations. my first thoughts were to work the pleasures of the evening by a kind of rule-of-three process, by considering the value of the landscapes and portraits exhibited, to arrive at the worth of the exhibition; but not so much in a money point of view, as in the merits of the works, and their probable influences on the workers. taking the landscape portion of the exhibition as first in the order into which i had mentally catalogued the pictures, it was an easy and delightful thing to skim over such a vast extent of this world's surface that evening. to journey to and from the glens of scotland, the dales of england and wales, the lakes of ireland, the mountains of the tyrol, to abyssinia and the famous heights of magdala, was but the work of a few minutes, thanks to the purveyors of that mental banquet. but to do full justice to the exhibitors i must endeavour to enumerate their principal works, and comment thereon with the utmost impartiality. most unquestionably the gems of the landscape portion of the exhibition were eight exquisite little pictures by mr. russell manners gordon, affording unmistakable proof of what the gum-gallico dry process is capable of yielding in his hands. it is almost, if not quite, equal to the wet process for detail and delicacy. this is particularly noticeable in the view of carnarvon castle. indeed, mr. bedford's picture of the same subject--which, i presume, is by the wet process--on the other side of the screen, contrasts rather unfavourably with it. mr. gordon's selection of his point of sight, and general treatment of that subject alone, are unmistakable proofs of his refined taste and feeling for the art capabilities of landscape photography. the wet collodion pictures by mr. gordon are also beautiful examples of the art. his cottages with sheep browsing in the foreground, which is an instantaneous picture, is remarkable for its beauty and arrangement. these pictures are beautifully printed, and possess a tone which harmonizes charmingly with the subjects. amongst the other landscape photographers mr. england and mr. bedford stand unrivalled in their peculiar branches. the views in the tyrol, lately taken by mr. england, are so excellent that they cannot but add to that gentleman's high reputation. mr. bedford's views are also quite equal, if not superior, to his previously-exhibited works. some pretty views of the lakes of killarney by mr. archibald irvine were well worthy of notice. mr. f. beasley, junr., exhibited some very excellent examples of the fothergill process; some printed in silver, and others in carbon, from the same negatives. i think the carbon prints were superior in colour, but the silver prints possess most detail and depth. views of wimbledon and other places by mr. vernon heath were also good examples of that gentleman's photography. some beautiful cloud effects by messrs. robinson and cherrill, of tunbridge wells, and mr. fox, of brighton, attracted considerable attention, and elicited great praise. the large composition picture, "returning home," by mr. robinson, was greatly admired by nearly everyone that looked at it. one or two ill-natured or ignorant remarks were made about that picture, but i candidly think it is the very best picture that mr. robinson has produced. the sunshine on the one side, and the rain storm sweeping over the other, are both cleverly and artistically managed. i am sorry i cannot say the same of the group of children which hung near the latter. the group, though perfect in its photographic details and tone, is too suggestive of scissors and paste to be a good picture, in my estimation. mr. wardley's large taupenot pictures were very excellent. the very interesting pictures of abyssinia by the th company of engineers were very attractive. groups of the captives--political, religious, and artisan, with their families--and the officers of the expedition, formed interesting pictures. the views of magdala, theodore's house, the mushroom fortifications, and other flimsy defences, as revealed by the truth-telling camera, seemed to lessen considerably the glory of the capture of magdala. having dismissed the landscape portion of the exhibition without mentioning all the many excellent contributions thereto, i next turn my thoughts again to the contributions of portraits. the examples of that branch of photography were nearly all of first-rate excellence, a large number of them being _à la salomon_, m. adam-salomon himself contributing no less than fifteen. with one or two remarkable exceptions, these pictures were not equal to those exhibited last year, and a general feeling prevailed that they were neither his later works, nor the best of his former; still, they were a very effective display, and attracted great and deserved attention. as i have, on a former occasion, expressed my opinion on the great excellence of m. salomon's works, i shall not comment further thereon at present, but proceed to notice those which most nearly approached them in photographic and artistic essentials. undoubtedly mr. valentine blanchard's contributions, both in number and quality, come nearer to m. salomon's works than any other contributor's. mr. blanchard exhibited ten portraits _à la salomon_, some of which are quite equal to the french artist's best works, without the elaborate working-up which the latter exhibit. mr. blanchard has not been at all times fortunate in his sitters, which is very much to be regretted, for we all know how much a beautiful subject helps a good photograph. hitherto, mr. blanchard has been an exhibitor chiefly as a landscape and figure-study photographer. now that he has taken more kindly to portraiture, and exhibits such capabilities for its successful practice, i hope he will find it sufficiently remunerative to induce him to be a steady and persevering disciple of m. salomon. messrs. robinson and cherrill also exhibited two beautiful and salomon-like portraits: one of m. salomon himself, and one of mr. hain friswell; the latter, i think, is decidedly the best. mr. mayland, of cambridge, sent six very excellent portraits in salomon's style, all very good but one; a gentleman in a velvet coat was particularly successful. the pictures exhibited by mr. briggs, of leamington, though extremely forcible and beautiful, were not exactly an imitation of the style of m. salomon. mr. leake, of cornhill, had a frame containing six very capital portraits in the style of the eminent french photographer, but a little overdone in after-touching--too much elaborated. in this respect he far outdid his great prototype. messrs. fradelle and leach also exhibited a number of whole-plate pictures _à la salomon_, which were very good indeed. messrs. slingsby, burgess, ashdown, dunmore, and s. fry, were also exhibitors of the same style of portraits, by size; but it is a pity the latter did himself the injustice of exhibiting so many, for there was only one--an old gentleman with a grey beard--that was really worthy of him. never did any man's joke recoil more forcibly on himself than that of mr. fry's. the faces of some of his female portraits--one in particular--were, in my estimation, as flat, white, and shadowless as a piece or knob of sal-ammoniac itself; but i must say that the portrait of the gentleman above referred to was all that could be desired as an artistic photograph. amongst the cabinet pictures exhibited by english photographers, i think those by mr. hubbard were decidedly the finest. one entitled "the toilet," and another of a lady seated at a window, which might be named "a sultry day in town," are charmingly artistic photographs. a composition picture by the same artist was also very skilfully treated; indeed, it was mistaken by many to be a copy of a picture, and might easily have been taken for a copy of a painting by t. faed. mr. briggs, mr. godbold (of hastings), mr. gillo, messrs. lucas and box, also exhibited some beautiful cabinet pictures. cartes-de-visite in their ordinary form were somewhat scarce, but dr. wallich, mr. charles heath, mr. bateman, and others, made a good show of vignettes. mrs. cameron exhibited some large pictures in her peculiar style; but my own opinion and that of others was, that she is improving. mr. ernest edwards exhibited a large collection of carbon pictures, in black and other colours; some mounted on chromo-tinted paper, and some excellent enlargements in carbon. the autotype company exhibited a fine copy of lord belhaven, which i noticed some time ago; also a very valuable and beautiful collection of copies from drawings by old masters, all bound together, making a handsome and very interesting collection. mr. rejlander had a large collection of his art photographs on view, all of which were clever, some facetious, and many very beautiful conceptions. a frame of coloured enamels by mr. bailey, and some in black-and-white by mr. henderson and mr. barnes, also attracted considerable notice. the eburneumtypes by mr. burgess, a coloured collodio-chloride portrait on ivory by mr. j. edwards, and other collodio-chloride and opalotype pictures, were very much admired. the cabinet vignettes by reutlinger, and the cabinet pictures by wenderoth, were both in request at the table, on account of their beauty and interest. i must not forget to mention a very interesting series of twenty-four stereoscopic pictures by mr. alfieri, illustrative of "the potter's art." mr. jabez hughes and mr. meagher were both exhibitors of very excellent and useful apparatus--cameras, camera-stands, and rolling-presses. now i think such an exhibition as i have but partially described cannot fail to have produced a pleasing and beneficial effect on the minds of all who saw it, and ought, on the whole, to have given infinite pleasure and satisfaction to both exhibitors and visitors. yet i think i heard one or two growls of discontent about the hanging from someone whose pictures or whose friend's pictures were not on the line; but i think i may safely say there never was a case of hanging yet that was not objected to by one individual at least. even the hangers of the royal academy do not escape censure, and they are supposed to have far more skill, taste, and experience in hanging than the volunteer hangers of the late photographic exhibition. i think, however, that the hangers performed their duties both conscientiously and creditably, especially when it is considered in how very short a time the work had to be done. anyone who felt aggrieved, and expressed himself churlishly on that point, must surely have been in that unenviable state which the french very adroitly designate _Être marqué au b_. after these reflections i felt too drowsy to reflect any more, and was barely awake enough to subscribe myself--yours very truly. _november th, ._ * * * * * the refunding of the balance of the goddard fund--the photographers' provident society--a ferocious doorsman--the south london dinner--a christmas carol. my dear sir,--now that the balance of the goddard fund is returned to the contributors, and all the trials and vexations the administration of the fund brought upon the chief promoters are known, i think the very best thanks of the whole body of subscribers to that fund are due to the committee for their firm and sensible determination to provide for the wants of the poor imbecile recipient in the manner they did, and for their withstanding the attempt made by a person who was not in the least related to the late mr. goddard to obtain possession of the balance in hand. i, for one, a subscriber to the fund, return them my most hearty acknowledgments, not for the money returned to me, but for the straightforwardness of their report, and the wise and judicious manner in which they dispensed the funds. while congratulating myself and confrères on seeing the money not required for the relief of the late mr. goddard returned to the subscribers instead of going into the possession of a person for whom it never was intended, i think it is to be regretted that no responsible party had foreseen that much of this returned money would have been gladly placed to the credit of some benevolent or provident institution connected with photography. the whole amount, or even the half of it, would have made a very handsome nucleus for the commencement of such a fund. i have heard several wishes to that effect expressed during the last few days. doubtless the committee did the very best thing they could have done for their own credit and the entire satisfaction of the whole of the subscribers; but i am afraid an opportunity has been lost in the interest of the incipient relief fund by not having had a receiver for these stray and unexpected sums appointed. the praiseworthy act of messrs. ross and pringle, as noticed in another journal, confirms this impression. while the subject of a photographers' provident or relief fund is before me, i may mention that in the report of the friendly societies recently issued by mr. tidd pratt, he speaks in the highest terms of those societies which are managed by the members themselves without salaries, and condemns the extravagance exhibited by the societies of a similar nature which are conducted by salaried officials. now, as it is a friendly society pure and simple that sick or needy photographers ought to look to for future help, in my opinion the former is the kind of society that should be established. the movement is not to be started as a business speculation, and there should be no salaries attached to any of the offices. each member joining the provident society should be prepared to submit to the tax on his time and energies, if elected to office, as part and parcel of the amount he subscribes for the general welfare of the body and relief of individual members. for my part, i object to the contemplated society taking the form of a relief fund depending upon donations, collections at dinners, &c., for its support. such means for raising the necessary funds to start the society may be allowable; but after it is commenced, every individual connected with it should be a subscribing member, and not allowed to receive any benefit, except under the most urgent necessities, until he has paid a certain number of subscriptions. during one of my peregrinations about town lately i stumbled upon a very ferocious doorsman. my attention was suddenly arrested, while passing one of those photographic establishments which keep a kind of two-legged hyena prowling up and down before their doors, by hearing the somewhat startling and cannibalistic exclamation of "i'll eat yer!" looking round, i saw that one of those prowling bipeds had fastened upon two quiet-looking young gentlemen, evidently strangers in town and to town ways, and had so importuned them to sit for "a correct likeness," until they turned upon him, and threatened to give him in charge if he did not desist; when he retaliated by threatening to eat them, and used a great deal of sanguinary and abusive language as a substitute for more palatable suavity. is such an "outsider" or hanger-on a fit and proper person to join a photographers' provident society, or be the recipient of a benevolent relief fund? the south london photographic society's annual dinner came off on saturday evening last at the "salutation tavern," newgate street. twenty-three members and friends, all told, sat down to dinner, and enjoyed a thoroughly english repast. after the cloth was removed, the pleasantest part of the evening commenced. the worthy and honoured president, the rev. f. f. statham, m.a., who occupied the chair, was all geniality, and gave the toast of the evening--"the south london photographic society"--in his usually felicitous style. to mr. jabez hughes was allotted the task of proposing the next important toast--"photography"--which he did in the most glowing and eloquent terms, dwelling on the rise and progress of the art in england, its position in a competitive point of view at the paris exhibition, interspersed with some racy and facetious remarks on the different modes and kinds of rewards, from the bronze, silver, and gold medals, to the paper certificates, which he considered the most honourable mentions that could be given by a discerning public. from that he soared into the higher aspirations of photographers and sublime regions of photography, giving, with thrilling effect, a description of the social joys, scientific pursuits, and human ameliorations to which photography administers. mr. baynham jones, being the oldest photographer present, had the honour of replying on behalf of the art. mr. g. wharton simpson, in very appropriate terms, gave the toast, "art photography," which was responded to by mr. o. g. rejlander. mr. johnson, of the autotype company, had the honour of proposing the toast "professional photography," which was responded to by mr. valentine blanchard, who occupied the vice-chair. other toasts of a professional and semi-professional character were given and responded to. the intervals were filled up with part and instrumental music by members of the society. mr. cooper contributed greatly to the evening's enjoyment by giving two charming performances on the cornet-a-piston, which were admirably accompanied by mr. henry cooper on the piano. taking it all in all, it was one of the pleasantest and merriest evenings i have ever enjoyed at the convivial meetings of the south london photographic society, and formed a delightful introduction to the season of universal festivity which is close at hand. christmas, all over the civilized world, is not only a period of festive reunion, but, according to the only rational interpretation of the word, a time of good will towards men, and peace upon earth. photographers, like other men, have had their little differences of opinion, which have produced partial estrangements during a portion of the year which will so soon expire; but let the approaching season, which is held in commemoration of the birth of the greatest peacemaker that ever came among men, be looked upon by all as the fittest time to forget and forgive all slights, injuries, or insults, real or imaginary; and let not the great festival of our common faith be clouded or eclipsed by an angry thought, nor the immeasurable charity of true christianity be dimmed by one unforgiving feeling. the light of the christian faith is a light that should penetrate to the dark cells of our hearts, and dispel all the gloomy and corrosive accumulations of controversy that may have lodged there, and unconsciously eaten away any part of our better nature. few of us--none but the most presumptuous--can lay his hand upon his heart and say, "mine is immaculate!" none of us are without sin, and charity and forgiveness are the greatest of the christian virtues; and they should be the more carefully studied and practised by all who live in and by the light of the world. _december th, ._ photography and the immured pompeiians. everyone must be sensible of the many and varied applications of photography. even photographers themselves, familiar as they are with the capabilities of the art they practise, must necessarily have their wonder excited occasionally at the scope of their art-science, especially when they consider that the process, as practised at the present day, is not more than seventeen years old. that it should be the historian of the life and manners of the present period more fully and faithfully than any written account, is not so much a matter of surprise. appealing, as it does, to the vanity and affections of the people, it is at once a recorder of the changes of fashion, a registrar of marriages, births, and deaths, and a truthful illustrator of the times in which we live; but that it should be brought to bear upon the past, and make the inhabitants of the world in the nineteenth century familiar with the forms, fashions, manners, life, and death of the people of the first century of the christian era, is something to be marvelled at, and at first seems an impossibility. yet such is the fact; and photography has been made the cheap and easy means of informing the present generation of the manner in which the ancients behaved, suffered, and died in the midst of one of the most appalling catastrophes that ever overtook the inhabitants of any part of the world, ancient or modern, as vividly and undeniably as if the calamity had occurred but yesterday. the foregoing reflections were excited by seeing very recently some photographs from plaster casts of the forms of human beings as they had fallen and died when pompeii and herculaneum were destroyed by the first known and terrible eruption of mount vesuvius. the photographs alluded to reveal with a fearful fidelity the dreadful agonies of some of those who perished at pompeii, and, while looking at the pictures, it is very difficult to divest the mind of the idea that they are not the works of some ancient photographer who plied his lens and camera immediately after the eruption had ceased, so forcibly do they carry the mind back to the time and place of the awful immurement of both a town and its people. that these photographs were not obtained from the lifeless forms of the pompeiians the reader will readily understand, for their bodies have not been preserved entire from that day to this. the question then naturally arises, "how could plaster casts be obtained from which the photographs were produced?" to answer that question i must briefly explain that pompeii was not, as is generally understood, destroyed by an overflow of red hot lava, which would have burnt up every particle of human flesh with which it came in contact almost instantly, without leaving a mould or impress of the form which it surrounded. the _black mud_ which flowed from vesuvius into the doomed town of pompeii entombed the houses and inhabitants--covered them up and formed a thick crust over them, which gradually hardened, and as the bodies crumbled away to dust a mould or matrix was left, from which plaster casts of great beauty and finish might have been obtained of almost everything that was destroyed. unfortunately, this was not discovered until very recently, after many of the beautiful moulds had been destroyed by the process of hurried, thoughtless, and unsystematic excavation. it was only a short time ago, since naples was united to italy, that careful and intelligent excavation secured to future generations impressions from those matrices made by the most terrible process of natural mould making. sig. fiorelli, who was appointed superintendent of excavations at pompeii, happily thought of obtaining casts from these natural moulds by pouring in soft plaster of paris, and thus secure more useful mementos than by preserving the moulds themselves. amongst the first casts thus obtained were the forms of four human beings, described as follows in the _quarterly review_ for :-- "these four persons had perished in the streets. driven from their homes, they sought to flee when it was too late. these victims of the eruption were not found together, and they do not appear to have belonged to the same family or household. the most interesting of the casts is that of two women, probably mother and daughter, lying feet to feet; they appear from their garb to have been people of poor condition. the elder seems to lie tranquilly on her side, overcome by the noxious gases. she probably fell and died without a struggle. her limbs are extended, and her left arm drops loosely. on one finger is still seen her coarse iron ring. her child was a girl of fifteen; she seems, poor thing, to have struggled hard for life. her legs are drawn up convulsively. her little hands are clenched in agony. in one she holds her veil, or part of her dress with which she had covered her head, burying her face in her arms to shield herself from the falling ashes and from the foul, sulphurous smoke. the form of her head is perfectly preserved. the texture of her coarse linen garments may be traced, and even the fashion of her dress, with its long sleeves reaching to her wrists. here and there it is torn, and the smooth young skin appears in the plaster like polished marble. on her tiny feet may still be seen her embroidered sandals. at some distance from this group lay a third woman, apparently about the age of twenty-five, and belonging to a better class. silver rings were on her fingers. she lay on her side, and had died in great agony. her garments had been gathered up on one side, leaving exposed a limb of the most beautiful form. she had fled with her little treasure, two silver cups, a few jewels, and some silver coins, and her keys, like a careful matron. the fourth cast is that of a man of the people, perhaps a common soldier. he is almost of colossal size. he lies on his back, his arms extended by his side, and his feet stretched out, as if, finding escape impossible, he had laid himself down to meet death like a brave man. his dress consists of a short coat or jerkin, and tight-fitting breeches of some coarse stuff, perhaps leather; heavy sandals, with soles studded with nails, are laced tightly round his ankles. on one finger is seen his iron ring. his features are strongly marked, his mouth open, as in death. some of his teeth still remain, and even part of the moustache adheres to the plaster." such is the description of the plaster casts; and the photographs which i possess of those casts convey to the mind at one glance all that is there written. wonderful photography! how eloquent in their silence are thy pictures! to what more dignified and sublime uses could any art be put? only a few can look upon those casts of the dead pompeiians in the museum of naples, but the whole world may view the photographs taken from them, and look upon the pompeiians in their forms and habits as they died, and read a page from the unwritten histories of those terrible death-struggles, when the strong man, the tender, placid mother, and the young and delicate maiden were all entombed in that fearful sea of mud, amidst darkness and horrors that can never be adequately described. such an awful catastrophe will never cease to interest the student of ancient history, and photography will now be the means of deepening his interest, and revealing to his mind with greater force and lucidity many scenes that actually occurred at the very moment of the appalling destruction of pompeii, on the th of august, a.d. . a simple mode of intensifying negatives. undoubtedly the best possible practice of photography is that which requires no after intensification in the production of a first-class negative. this, however, though a "consummation devoutly to be wished," is not always attained, even by the most experienced photographer. every operator knows that there is sometimes a condition of things that renders a simple and efficient process of intensifying afterwards indispensable. of all the modes of intensifying--and their name is legion--i think the readiest and most generally useful has been much neglected. the persulphate of uranium and ferridcyanide of potassium process gave wonderfully charming results. but what of that? it was completely impracticable, and a failure, in consequence of its tendency to go on increasing in intensity in the hands of the printer. the bichloride of mercury and iodine processes, unlimited in number, also went on increasing in an unlimited degree, and no amount of "roasting" could reduce the negatives so treated to the desirable degree of transparency that would enable any printer to obtain good impressions. there is, however, one of the bichloride of mercury processes, published some years ago, which i modified so as to give the most satisfactory results. it rendered the negative sufficiently intense, and preserved the most exquisite modelling, without changing afterwards; but the process was very troublesome, and not very agreeable. the simplest, cheapest, and most reliable process of intensifying negatives that i know of is with sulphuret of potassium (liver of sulphur) used in the following manner:-- make a very dilute solution of sulphuret of potassium, put it into any old gutta-percha or porcelain bath; and, after the negative is developed as far as is desirable with the ordinary iron developer, fixed, and washed in the usual way, immerse the plate in that state at once into the solution of sulphuret of potassium, in the same manner as in sensitising the plate in the nitrate bath, by using a dipper, and leave it there until sufficiently intense, which is generally in about the time required for coating and sensitising another plate, so that, if the operator be working single-handed, very little, if any, time is lost in the process of intensifying. the solution may also be flooded over the plate in the same manner as the developer, after fixing and washing as before. when sufficiently intense, rinse the plate with water, dry, and varnish in the ordinary way. but it is best to use the intensifier in the manner first described, which is by far the most cleanly and economical plan, both in the saving of time and solution. by using it with the "bath and dipper," it is not offensive, on account of its extreme dilution, and not being disturbed so much, or immediately under the olfactory nerves of the operator, it may be worked in the ordinary dark room with the greatest safety and convenience. a string of old beads. he is a rash man who announces "something new" in these days. i believe there is nothing new under the sun, and in photography especially. if any man be rash enough to rush into print with what he considers a new idea, some other man rushes into print also and says the idea is old, exploded, useless, worthless, or worse. i lay no claim to originality. i have lived so long in the atmosphere of photography, i don't know where or how i picked up my knowledge--such as it is. some of it i may have stumbled on, some of it i may have found, and some of it i may have stolen. if the latter, i forget from whom, when, or where, and in all such cases a bad memory is a good and convenient thing. but i will endeavour to atone for such sins by publicly restoring all i may have filched from other men's brains for the benefit of all whom it may concern. i shall not count the beads; that would be like running over a rosary, and i object to sub rosa revelations; neither shall i attend to the order of stringing the beads, but will put them on record just as they come to hand; and the first is-- _how to make vignette papers._--take a piece of sensitised paper, lay it under a piece of glass and let it blacken. then take a camels'-hair pencil dipped in a weak solution of cyanide of potassium, and paint the extreme size and shape of the desired aperture. let it dry, and with a little stronger solution of cyanide paint _within_ the size and shape, and then with a stronger solution paint the centre, which will be perfectly white and semi-transparent. the object of using the three strengths of solution and painting three separate times is to obtain gradation, and the edges will be yellow and softened like a vignette glass. these vignette papers can be attached to the back of the negative or to the outside of the printing-press, and can be used either in shade or sunshine without materially prolonging the time of printing. the cost of production is trifling, as any waste piece of paper and spare time can be employed in making them, and they do not occupy much time in making; in fact, one can be made in less time than will be spent in reading this description. i need not expatiate on the advantages of being able to make a special vignette quickly. every photographer must have experienced the difficulty of purchasing a special size and shape to suit a particular subject. _how to point a pencil._--rub the pencil to a point in the groove of a corundum file. this is a better and cheaper pointer than a yankee pencil-sharpener, and it puts a finer point to a blacklead pencil than anything else i know. retouchers, try it. _how to ease a tight stopper._--there is nothing more annoying in the practice of photography than to take up a bottle and find the stopper _fixed_. in many instances the bottle is broken and time wasted in trying to remove the fixed stopper. when such an obstinate stopper gets into your hands, run a little glycerine round the top of the bottle. set the bottle down, and in a few minutes the stopper will be free. prevention is better than cure. keep a little glycerine on all your stoppers. glycerine agrees with every chemical in photographic use, and prevents stoppers and bottles coming to grief. in a thousand and one ways a little glycerine is beyond all price. _how to prepare albumenized prints for colouring._--pour over them a little matt varnish. this removes the greasiness, and gives a fine tooth and ivory-like surface for the artist to work upon. _how to remove silver stains from the white ground of a vignette._--touch it with a solution of cyanide of potassium, and wash off immediately. the other parts of the picture will not be injured. _how to stipple a window white or yellow._--for white, mix a little dextrine and kaolin in water. dab the mixture on the glass with a piece of cotton. for the purpose of obscuration that is quite enough; but if sightliness be essential, finish by stippling with the ends of a hog's-hair brush. for yellow, mix a little dextrine and deep orange chrome in powder together in water, and apply it to the window in the same manner. dabbing once or twice with a piece of cotton will exclude white light and make a luminous dark room. the same mixture makes an excellent backing for dry plates to prevent halation. lights and lighting. a great deal has been written and said about lights and lighting--a great deal too much; yet more must be said and written. light is to the photographer what the sickle is to the shearer--a good reaper can cut well with an indifferent sickle, but an indifferent reaper never gets a good sickle in his hand. a good photographer, who also understands light and shade, can produce good pictures in an ordinary studio. it is the indifferent photographer who runs after "fancy lights," and is, like a benighted traveller in pursuit of a will-o'-the-wisp, eventually left floundering in a bog. it is folly to construct powerful concentrators if powerful reflectors have to be employed to counteract their defects. if a limited amount of diffused light be absolutely necessary it is best to retain it and use it in its simplest and least expensive form. when i commenced photography glass houses were scarcer in england than comets in the heavens, and the few that were in existence were all constructed on false principles. it was not until i visited america that i saw a _properly_-constructed studio. the americans were, and are, prone to give stupid names to sensible things; and the names they gave to their studios were no exceptions. this, that, and the other photographer advertised his "mammoth skylight." i went to sit, see, and be satisfied that their mode of lighting was very superior to ours. i was convinced _instanter_ that the perpendicular sides and sloping roofs of our miserable little hothouses were mistakes and things to be abhorred, while their spacious rooms and "mammoth skylights" were things to be admired and adopted. in one of these rooms, and almost without blinds or reflectors, the sitter could be "worked" on a semi-circle or half oval, and "lighted" either in front or on either side at pleasure, and with the greatest facility. i determined, there and then, to build my next studio on similar principles; but until recently i have had no opportunity of carrying out my intentions. to get what i required and to make the best of my situation i had to "fence and fiddle" the district surveyor: but i gained my point, and the victory was worth the foils and the fiddlestick. my studio can be lighted from either side; but the "light of lights" is the north one, and that is a large fixed window by feet with a single slope of two and a half feet in the height; that is, two and a half feet out of the perpendicular at the top, with no other top light and no perpendicular side light. with this light i do all ordinary work. i can work round the light from one side of the room to the other, as under a mammoth skylight, without using either blind or reflector. if i want rembrandt effects i have only to open a shutter on the south side, and let in subdued sunlight. that at once becomes the dominant light, and the north light illumines the shadows. the bottom of the north light is three feet from the floor. the advantages of this form of studio are these. it is cool, because no more light is admitted than is absolutely necessary. it is neat, because no rag-like curtains are hanging about. it is clean, because there is nothing to collect dirt. it is dry, because the pitch of the roof renders leakage impossible. it is pleasant to the sitter, because of these desirabilities, and that the light is not distressing. it is agreeable to the operator, because the work is easy and everything is comfortable. printed by piper & carter, , furnival street, holborn, london, e.c. seven new sizes, all with transparent film. [illustration: kodak film camera] no apparatus connected with photography has ever excited so much interest as the kodak. the no. , making a round picture, was only the entering wedge, and served its purpose admirably, in introducing to the public the vast advantages of a camera using films over any form of camera using glass. this year we beg to call your attention to seven new sizes, viz.:-- no. , - / inch circular picture, one finder. no. , regular, - / × - / , square picture, two finders. no. , junior, " no, , regular, × , no. , junior, " no. , folding, " no. , " × , " " " _send for the new kodak primer, fully describing all sizes and styles._ the eastman photographic materials company, limited, , oxford street, london, w. it is admitted by every competent authority that wratten's 'london' plates are the universal standard of excellence and comparison. this high reputation has been sustained against a host of competitors for twelve years:--a fact without parallel in the annals of the gelatine process. messrs. wratten & wainwright's complete illustrated catalogue contains full particulars and prices of a large and varied stock of photographic requirements, together with specially-written instructions for developing the "london" plates, printing, toning, and other operations, and will be forwarded free upon application to wratten & wainwright, photographic chemists and apparatus makers, and sole proprietors and manufacturers of the "london" dry plates, , great queen street, long acre, london, w.c. the autotype company manufactures autotype tissues, transfer papers, & materials for permanent photographic printing. =autotype enlargements.=--portraits and views produced of any dimensions up to ft. by ft. in.; their grandeur, beauty, and unalterability secure public favour. =autotype dry plates=, manufactured with burton's coating machine, are rich in silver, very rapid, yielding clear vigorous negatives, of uniform quality. the plates are of superior glass, and packed in strong metal-grooved boxes up to by inches. to be obtained only of the autotype company. =book illustrations=, by sawyer's =collotype process=, employed by the trustees of the british museum, by the royal, palæographical, hellenic, numismatical, and other learned societies, and by the leading publishers. prints direct on the paper with suitable margins. =auto-gravure.=--the autotype process as applied to photographic engraving on copper is of wide application in the reproduction of works of art, and is highly appreciated by the disciples of naturalistic photography as efficiently rendering the qualities of negatives direct from nature. examples of auto-gravure, in the reproduction of paintings by holman hunt, the late frank holl, r.a., w. ouless, r.a., val. prinsep, a.r.a., of drawings by hy. rylands, of a frieze, "spring," by herbert draper, of a group from the frieze of the parthenon, &c., &c., can be seen at , new oxford street. * * * * * the autotype fine art gallery, _ , new oxford street, london_, is remarkable for its display of copies of celebrated works by "the great masters" from the louvre, vatican, hermitage, and the national galleries of italy, spain, holland, and london, including h.m. collections at buckingham palace and windsor castle. albums of reference to the various galleries are provided, are easily looked over, and of great interest to lovers of art. send for the new pamphlet, "autotype: a decorative and educational art," per post to any address. the autotype fine art catalogue, pp., free per post for d. the autotype company, london. offices: , new oxford street, w. c. -- works: ealing dene, middlesex. =grand prix & gold medal, paris exhibition, .= council medal and highest award, great exhibition, london, . gold medal, paris exposition, . medal and highest award, exhibition, london, . medal and diploma, antwerp. . medal and diploma, centennial exhibition, philadelphia, . two gold medals, paris exposition, . medal and diploma, sydney, . gold medal, highest award, inventions exhibition, . ross' lenses and apparatus. important announcement. in consequence of the greatly increased demand for their photographic cameras and apparatus, ross & co. have fitted up the first floor of , new bond street, as special show rooms for exhibiting the newest and most improved forms of cameras and accessories of all descriptions. for the convenience of purchasers, they have also constructed _a fully equipped dark room,_ where the apparatus may be practically tested, and useful instructions given to beginners. amateurs are invited to inspect ross' complete outfits. ross' improved cameras. extra light and portable; double extension. new form double slide, =less costly than the ordinary form of dark slide.= absolutely light-proof. smaller than ordinary. no superfluous openings. no risk of plates being broken by pressure. certainty of register. lighter than ordinary. no hinges or clips to get out of order. no chance of warping. special small & light cameras, =for use with the new form double slide.= _catalogues and full particulars, with estimates, on application to_ ross & co., , new bond street, london. works: clapham common, s.w. h. moorse, photographic apparatus manufacturer to the government (established over years), , high holborn, london, w.c. (near new oxford street and museum street.) square camera. light camera. both one price. cash with order, per cent. off. [illustration: bellows cameras] - / × - / - / × - / - / × - / £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. camera and three double backs. rectilinear lens with iris diaphragm travelling bag. brown canvas with spring lock. solid leather spring lock. rotating turn table with tripod stand. brass binding camera and slide. × × × × × £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. £ s. d. camera and three double backs. rectilinear lens with iris diaphragm ( cases) travelling bag. brown canvas with spring lock. solid leather spring lock. rotating turn table with tripod stand. brass binding camera and slide. camera bellows. outside size. length. leather. black cloth. × / / × / /- - / × - / /- /- - / × - / /- / × /- /- × /- /- × /- /- × /- /- × /- /- pocket or hand cameras, with three double backs. - / × - / , £ s. - / × - / , £ s. marion & co.'s plates. _manufactured at their works, southgate._ britannia ordinary plates (yellow label.) britannia extra rapid " (white label.) instantaneous " (brown label.) prepared specially for extremely rapid work. academy landscape plates (cream label.) specially prepared for landscape work; very thickly coated and rich in silver. * * * * * marion's argentic-bromide opals. principally used for enlargements and contact printing. very effective. cowan's gelatino-chloride plates (green label). for lantern slide work. cowan's chloro-bromide plates (violet label). for making transparencies in the camera. cowan's gelatino-chloride transparency plates. on ground glass. cowan's organic chloride opals (red label). printed and toned like ordinary sensitised paper. very artistic. they must be used fresh. marion & co., and , soho square, london. for photographic goods and prompt attention go to j. werge, photographic stores, a, berners street, oxford street, london. w. werge's "sans ammonia developer" is used by numerous expert amateurs. a /- bottle will develop quarter-plates, any make. werge's dry plate varnish dries without heat, and protects the negatives from silver and platinum stains, /- per bottle and upwards. werge's retouching medium, /- per bottle. werge's sensitised paper is the best. / per quire; sample sheet d. post free. werge's borax toning solution gives the best tones, and is simplest and most economical. /- per pint. werge's ferro-prussiate paper gives the best results with least trouble. /- per sheet. werge's shilling lantern is the best ever introduced. werge's dry plate instructions are the best ever published. / - / post free, including jabez hughes's "principles and practice of photography." wet plate process, printing, &c., &c. j. h. dallmeyer, optician, , newman street, london, w. has obtained the highest awards for his lenses wherever exhibited, and at all the great international exhibitions. * * * * * cash prices of the principal portrait and view lenses: extra rapid (c). in. in. c, for children, - / dia. - / f. £ c " - / " f. quick acting (b). in. distance. b, for c.d.v. dia. ft. £ b long, " - / " ft. b, " - / " ft. b patent, " - / " ft. b " cabts. and - / " ft. b " larger - / " ft. new rapid rectilinear portrait lenses. see descriptive catalogue. ordinary intensity (a)--patent. a, for cabinets, in short rooms. dia. - / in., distance ft. £ a, for cabinets up to - / × - / , dia. - / in., distance feet a, for cabinets up to × , dia. in., distance feet a, for imperial portraits and × dia. - / in., focus in. a, for plates × and under, dia. in., focus in. a, for plates × and under, dia. in., focus in. portrait and group (d)--patent. d, portraits - / × - / , views × , dia. - / in., focus - / in. d, portraits × , views × , dia. - / in., focus in. d, portraits × , views × , dia. - / in., focus in. d, portraits × , view. × , dia. in., focus - / in. d, portraits × , views × , dia. in., focus in. d, portraits × , views × , dia. in., focus in. stereoscopic lenses. patent stereographic lens, - / -in. f. ditto, with rack-and-pinion no. , quick-acting single combination landscape lens, - / in. focus no. , ditto ditto in. focus rect. stereo. lenses, in. & - / in. focus new rectilinear landscape lens (patent). largest dimensions diameter equiv. no. of plate. of lenses. focus. price. -- -------------------- ----------- ---------- -------- - / by - / in. - / in. - / in. £ - / " - / " - / " - / " " " " - / " " " - / " - / " " " - / " " " " " " " " - / " " optical lantern lenses only (patent). no. lens, - / in. and - / in. dia. with rack motion £ no. do. - / in. and in. do. do. _condensers_-- - / in. dia. mounted, ea. £ _do._ in. do. do. do. rapid rectilinear (patent). the best lens for general use out-of-doors, and for copying. price, size of view size of group equiv. rigid or landscape. or portrait. focus. setting. -------------------- ------------------- ----------- -------- - / by - / in. - / by - / in. in. £ " " - / " - / " " " " " " - / " - / " - / " " " " " " - / " - / " " " " " " " " " french size - / " " " by in. - / " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " wide angle rectilinear (patent). for views in confined situations. largest dimensions back equiv. no. of plate. focus. focus. price --- ---------------- ---------- ----------- -------- [a]aa - / by - / - / in. in. £ a - / " - / - / " - / " " - / " " " - / " - / " " " " " " - / " " " " [a] to be had in pairs for stereoscopic views. wide angle landscape lens (patent), for landscapes, pure and simple. size of equivalent no. plate. focus. price. --- ---------------- ---------- -------- a by - / in. £ - / " - / " - / " - / - / " " " " " " " a " " " " " " " " new rapid landscape lens. for distant objects and views. largest dimensions diameter equiv. price. no. of plate. of lenses. focus. --- -------------------- ---------- ------ -------- - / by - / in. · in. in. £ - / " - / " · " " " " · " " " " · " " " " " " " " · " " " " · " " _dallmeyer "on the choice and use of photographic lenses."_ eighth thousand (greatly enlarged), s. descriptive catalogue on application. , newman street, oxford street, london, w. * * * * * transcriber's note: obvious typographical errors were corrected. the spelling of french words has been made consistent. also made consistent were those words which appear as hyphenated, joined or as two individual words (for example, first class to first-class and some one to someone). other corrections were made where inconsistent or incorrect spellings were used in the publication. where the inconsistencies occur in publication titles or quoted text passages, they were left as published. all "oe" ligatures in the printed text were converted to the letters "oe". some of the entries in the index appear to be missorted alphabetically. they were left as printed. on page , one line ends with "modifica-" and it is assumed "tion" was left off the next line. typographical corrections page correction ==== ======================= modifica- => modification willat's => willats's intotroduced => introduced frith => firth coxackie => coxsackie pearce => pierce nicolas maas => nicolaes maes photographic amusements including a description of a number of novel effects obtainable with the camera by walter e. woodbury formerly editor of "the photographic times," author of "the encyclopedic dictionary of photography," "aristotypes and how to make them," etc., etc. revised and enlarged by frank r. fraprie, s. m., f. r. p. s. editor of "american photography" ninth edition american photographic publishing co. boston , mass. copyright by the scovill & adams co., of new york. copyright , , by the photographic times publishing association, new york. copyright by american photographic publishing co. printed in the u. s. a. the plimpton press · norwood · mass · contents. introduction the mirror and the camera the photo-anamorphosis statuette portraits magic photographs spirit photography photography for household decoration leaf prints to make a pen and ink sketch from a photograph photographs on silk photographing a catastrophe photographs on various fabrics silhouettes photographing the invisible how to make a photograph inside a bottle photographs in any color the disappearing photograph freak pictures with a black background how to copy drawings sympathetic photographs dry plates that will develop with water caricature photographs photographing seaweeds stamp portraits luminous photographs floral photography distorted images photographs without light electric photographs magic vignettes a simple method of enlarging moonlight effects photographing snow and ice crystals photographing ink crystals pinhole photography freak pictures by successive exposures wide-angle studies conical portraits making direct positives in the camera instantaneous photography artificial mirages by photography the photo-chromoscope composite photography tele-photo pictures lightning photographs photographing fireworks doubles double exposures comical portraits the two-headed man duplicators and triplicators pictures with eyes which open and close photographic bookplates landscapes and groups on the dining-room table night photography photographs on apples and eggs introduction as mr. woodbury stated in his introduction to the original edition of this book, in order to avoid misunderstanding, it would be well to explain at the outset that it is not intended as an instruction book in the art of photography in any sense of the word. it is assumed that the reader has already mastered the technical difficulties of photographic practice and is able to make a good negative or print. it was the purpose of the author to describe a number of novel and curious effects that can be obtained by the aid of the camera, together with some instructive and interesting photographic experiments. the contents of the work were compiled from various sources, chiefly from "the photographic times," "the scientific american," "the american annual of photography," "la nature," "photographischer zeitvertreib," by herman schnauss, and "les recreations photographiques," by a. bergeret et f. drewin; and the illustrations were likewise taken from various sources. in conclusion the author or compiler modestly lays claim to very little himself, quoting the words of montaigne, who said:-- "_i have gathered me a posie of other men's flowers, of which nothing but the thread that binds them is mine own._" and yet so popular did the book prove that in the course of its first ten years of life, it ran through edition after edition. the publishers of "the photographic times" later acquired the copyright of the popular volume and published three editions. the publishers of american photography acquired the book during the great war through their purchase of "the photographic times," but in spite of a steady demand for the book after the limited stock had been sold out, did not find it advisable to reprint it until now. in putting the book to press at this time, most of the original plates have been used. a number of the old pictures have been replaced by more modern examples and pages have been added to the book, including several new topics. the publishers would be glad to receive manuscripts and pictures describing and illustrating novel and interesting photographic effects not mentioned in this volume, to be published in american photography and incorporated in the next edition of photographic amusements. they also request that photographers who make photographs illustrating any of the topics treated in the book, and especially those illustrated by wood cuts, may submit them for consideration, as they are prepared to purchase such as may seem available for the next edition. frank roy fraprie. boston, january, . photographic amusements the mirror and the camera. [illustration: fig. .--effect obtained with parallel mirrors.] quite a number of novel effects can be obtained by the aid of one or more mirrors. if two mirrors are taken and placed parallel to one another, and a person placed between, the effect obtained is as shown in fig. , where one soldier appears as a whole regiment drawn up into line. to make this experiment we require two large-sized mirrors, and they must be so arranged that they do not reflect the camera and the photographer, but give only multiple images of the sitter. this will be found quite possible; all that is necessary is to make a few preliminary experiments, adjusting the mirrors at different angles until the desired effect is obtained. a process of multiphotography which was at one time quite popular consisted in posing the sitter with his back to the camera as shown in figs. and . in front of him are arranged two mirrors, set at the desired angle to each other, their inner edges touching. in the illustrations here given the mirrors are inclined at an angle of deg., and five reflected images are produced. when an exposure is made and the negative developed, we not only have the back view of the sitter but the full reflected images in profile and three-quarter positions as well. [illustration: fig. .--diagram of the production of five views of one subject by multiphotography.] in the diagram, fig. , reproduced from "the scientific american" the course taken by the rays of light, determined by the law that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection, is plainly marked out. we see here their passage from the sitter to the mirror and back to the camera. provided the mirror be large enough, images of the full length figure can be made as shown in fig. . for photographing articles where it is of advantage to secure a number of different views of the same object this method of photographing with mirrors opens up quite a wide field of possibilities. in france it is used for photographing criminals, and thus obtaining a number of different portraits with one exposure. [illustration: fig. .--gallery arranged for multiphotography.] the use of an ordinary mirror in portrait work has enabled photographers to produce very pleasing results. there is often a very striking difference between the full and side views of a person's face, and by means of such a combination as this, one is enabled to secure a perfect representation of both at the same time. in making reflection portraits it has often been noted that the reflection has a more pleasing effect than the direct portrait. the reason of this is that it is softer and the facial blemishes are not so distinctly brought out. there is naturally a slight loss of detail, but this is by no means a drawback. the worst fault of the camera in portrait photography is the tendency to include every little detail which the artist would suppress. it not only includes all the detail, but often exaggerates it to a painful extent. by making a portrait by reflection this defect is avoided. of course the image is reversed, but this is in most cases of little consequence; in fact, the sitter himself would be more likely to consider it a far more truthful likeness, for when we look into a mirror we do not see ourselves as others see us, but a reversed image. with some faces the difference is quite striking. [illustration: fig. .--multiphotograph of a full-length figure.] [illustration: by h. l. bostwick. fig. .--multiphotograph of cissy fitzgerald] [illustration: fig. .--elongated reflection in a spoon.] very many amusing effects can be obtained by the use of a convex mirror. even an ordinary, well-polished spoon may be made to give some curious results. (see fig. .) the thin man becomes an elongated mass of humanity to whom barnum would have given a big salary, while the fat man may be reduced to the proportions of a walking-stick. convex mirrors for producing these ludicrous effects can be purchased at any mirror manufacturer's store. the advantage of the camera lies in the ability to secure permanently the curious images produced. even more ridiculous-looking images can be secured by the use of a piece of uneven glass silvered. for a method of silvering glass we are indebted to the kindness of dr. james h. stebbins, jr., the well-known analytical chemist. dissolve pure nitrate of silver in distilled water in the proportion of grains to ounce, and add carefully, drop by drop, sufficient strong ammonia solution to just dissolve the brown precipitate at first formed, stirring constantly during the addition. make a solution of rochelle salt, grain to the ounce of distilled water. clean the plate of glass thoroughly with a little wet rouge and polish dry with a piece of chamois leather. warm it before the fire or in the sun to about to deg. fahr., and lay it on a perfectly level surface. then mix ounce of the silver solution with half an ounce of the rochelle salt solution and pour the mixture on the glass so that every part of the surface will be evenly covered with it. [illustration: fig. .--curious effect obtained with a convex mirror.] allow this to stand in the warm sunshine from half to one hour, when the reduced silver will be deposited as a fine film over the surface of the glass. when this is done wash off the glass with distilled water and wipe the entire surface very gently with a little wet wadding, which will take off the roughness and render it easier to polish. when perfectly dry the silver should be polished by rubbing with some smooth, hard surface. the plate is then varnished by pouring over it a suitable varnish and is ready for use. the photo-anamorphosis. the name anamorphosis has been given to two kinds of pictures distorted according to a certain law, and which are of such a grotesque appearance that it is often impossible to recognize the subject of them; while viewed with proper apparatus they appear as perfectly correct images. one kind is designed to be viewed by reflection and the other is reconstituted by means of a special rotary apparatus. [illustration: fig. .--anamorphosis viewed in convex cylindrical mirror.[ ]] [ ] from "experimental science." published by munn & co., new york. until quite recently, these pictures were drawn approximately from the reflection of the object as seen in a convex mirror, the position of which was indicated on the drawing and which restored it to its real form. m. fenant conceived the idea of employing photography for obtaining these pictures. fig. reproduces a photo-anamorphosis from a negative by m. fenant. if a cylindrical mirror be placed on the black circle shown in the reproduction the photograph will appear in its original form. our illustration represents a portrait, although the features are barely recognizable. similar pictures may be obtained by photographing the drawing or subject reflected in a cylindrical concave mirror placed perpendicularly. [illustration: fig. .--a photo-anamorphosis.] the second kind of anamorphosis is produced by the distortion of the picture in the sense of one of its dimensions. to reconstruct it, it is caused to rotate rapidly, at the same time that a disc, perforated with a slit through which the picture is viewed, is rotated in front of it at a slightly different speed. the apparatus invented by m. linde for producing the anamorphosis is shown in figs. and . _g_ is a camera provided with a revolving plate-holder, _t h_ are revolving discs the movement of which is made to bear a certain relation to that of the plate-holder by means of the band f and the pulleys _d d_. the whole is set in operation by a piece of clockwork and the cord _f_. _a_ is the axis of the camera, _b_ that of the plate-holder, and _c_ that of the revolving disc. on this disc is fixed the picture from which it is desired to make an anamorphosis. the relative motions are so regulated that when the plate-holder has made a complete revolution the disc has turned through an angle of to degrees in the opposite direction. between the plate-holder and the lens is a diaphragm pierced with a slit about millimetres wide. the action of the light on the plate takes place through this slit. the negative obtained, prints are made upon plain salted paper and rendered transparent with wax or vaseline. these pictures can be viewed in the ordinary apparatus used for showing anamorphoses of this kind. the print is fastened to a revolving apparatus and in front of it is another disc painted black and provided with a number of slits. the latter revolves at one-fourth the speed of the picture, and the image when viewed through the slit resumes its normal proportions. [illustration: figs. and .--linde's apparatus for photo-anamorphosis.] statuette portraits. these were at one time quite popular, and if properly managed can be rendered very effective. there are several methods of making this kind of picture. if the photographer possesses a pedestal large enough, all that is necessary is to place this on a stand and the person to be photographed is arranged behind. [illustration: fig. .] the breast is uncovered and some white soft material artistically arranged in folds over the shoulders and in such a way as to appear connected with the pedestal. a black background is placed behind and the exposure made. to give a more realistic effect the hair, face, and all other parts showing should be liberally powdered over with a white powder or rice flour. the negative produced will have a clear glass background, but the body of the figure will still be visible. this is removed by cutting away the film round the pedestal and to the arms on each side, leaving only those parts remaining that are required to produce the statuette. in printing we get a white statuette portrait on a dark background. if the photographer does not possess a pedestal, the next best means to produce these pictures is to get a large sheet of cardboard and cut it out to the shape shown in the figure beneath, and with white paint make the picture of a pedestal, shading with a little gray to give rotundity. the figure is stationed behind it, and a black background used. a third method involves still less trouble. this is to purchase a ready made pedestal negative. these are film negatives of a pedestal that can be adjusted to the negative of the subject desired to be produced as a statue. after the negative is taken and varnished the film is scraped off round the figure, cutting off the body as shown in the first illustration, after which the pedestal negative is adjusted, fastened, and then printed. the negative is reversible and can also be used for different subjects. the picture shown in fig. was made by mr. g. b. bradshaw, of beach house, altrincham, england, by means of one of his pedestal negatives. [illustration: by g. b. bradshaw. fig. .--statuette portrait.] magic photographs. [illustration: fig. .--cigarette tube for magic photographs.] take an ordinary silver print and fix it without toning. thoroughly well wash it to remove all traces of the fixing solution and then immerse it in a saturated solution of bichloride of mercury, when the image will disappear. the bichloride of mercury changes the photograph into white chloride of silver and chloride of mercury which is also white. the image when on white paper is thus rendered invisible. next soak some strong bibulous paper in a saturated solution of sodium hyposulphite, and, when dry, paste a piece of the paper to the back of the invisible print with a little starch paste, attaching it by the edges only. of course the image can also be made to appear by soaking the invisible print, without the bibulous paper attached, in a solution of sodium sulphite, hypo, or water with a little ammonia added. [illustration: fig. .--developing the image.] magic photographs made in the manner above described can also be developed by smoke. a novelty, introduced in paris some time ago, consisted of a cigarette or cigar holder, shown in fig. , containing in its stem a little chamber for the insertion of a small piece of apparently plain paper, but in reality an invisible photograph produced in the manner already described. the ammonia vapor in the smoke passing through the chamber attacked the print and developed the image. by blowing the smoke on the latent image it may be made to appear, but the operation is rather tedious, and anyone with a little ingenuity can easily construct a cigarette holder with an arrangement to hold small pictures and allow the smoke to pass through. the chamber of the cigarette or cigar holder must of course be sufficiently large to allow of the print being inserted in such a manner that the smoke can readily attack its surface, otherwise uneven development of the image will take place. spirit photography. [illustration: fig. .--a "spirit" photograph.] many years ago, in the old wet-collodion days, a well-known photographer was one day surprised by the visitation of a spirit. the apparition did not make its appearance during the nocturnal hours, as is, we have been given to understand, the custom of these ladies and gentlemen from the other world, but, strangely enough, in broad daylight; and not by his bedside to disturb his peaceful slumber, but upon the photograph he was in the act of producing. had this gentleman been of that soft-brained kind, so easily gulled by the professional spiritualist, it is possible that he would not have done what he did, which was to make a thorough and scientific examination as to the probable cause of the phenomenon. the case was this: a gentleman sitter had been taken in the usual manner upon a collodion plate. upon taking a positive print from the negative, he was surprised to find a dim white figure of a lady apparently hovering over the unconscious sitter. upon examination of the negative, the image of the figure was also visible, but not so plainly as in the positive. the explanation of the whole matter was soon discovered. in those days glass was not so cheap as at present, and all old or spoilt negatives were cleaned off and freshly prepared with collodion for further use. in this case the glass had previously supported the negative image of a lady dressed in white. some chemical action had evidently taken place between the image and the glass itself, turning the latter slightly yellow in some parts. this faint yellow image, although hardly visible in the negative, had, being of a non-actinic color, given quite a distinct image in the positive. the case was not an isolated one, as these spirit photographs, as they were called, often made their appearance when old negatives were cleaned and the glass used again. the precise action producing the image has never, we think, been satisfactorily explained. it could often be made more distinct by breathing on the glass. we do not know if any enterprising humbug ever took advantage of this method of producing spirit photographs to extort money from the unwary, but about ten years ago a work was published, entitled "chronicles of the photographs of spiritual beings and phenomena invisible to the material eye," by a miss houghton. in this a number of reproductions of photographs of "spirits" were given with a detailed explanation of how they were obtained and the difficulties attending their production, the "spirits" being apparently of very independent natures, only making their appearance when they felt so inclined. it is quite possible that a person entirely ignorant of photographic methods might be led into the belief that they were actually photographic images of the dead, but we fear that the book is hardly well enough written to deceive the experienced photographer. at certain and most unfortunate periods in the process employed, some of the plates had a convenient habit of slipping into the washing tank and there, according to the author, becoming utterly ruined; also we learn that many were ruined by being accidentally smudged by the photographer's finger. we should not, we fear, have a very high opinion of an operator who was in the constant habit of "smudging" negatives with his fingers so as to entirely spoil them, nor can we quite understand what brand of plates was used that "got spoiled by falling into the water." [illustration: from la nature. fig. .--spirit picture.] [illustration: from la nature. fig. .--spirit picture.] it is not difficult to explain how these pictures were produced. there are quite a number of methods. with a weak-minded sitter, over whom the operator had complete control, the matter would be in no wise a difficult one. it would then only be necessary for the spirit, suitably attired for the occasion, to appear for a few seconds behind the sitter during the exposure and be taken slightly out of focus, so as not to appear too corporeal. if, however, the sitter be of another kind, anxious to discover how it was done and on the alert for any deceptive practices, the method described would be rather a risky one, as he might turn round suddenly at an inconvenient moment and detect the _modus operandi_. in such a case it becomes necessary to find some other method where it would not be requisite for the "spirit" to make its appearance during the presence of the sitter. [illustration: fig. .--spirit picture disturbed slumber] the ghostly image can be prepared upon the plate, either before or after the exposure of the sitter. the method is this: in a darkened room the draped figure to represent the spirit is posed in a spirit-like attitude (whatever that may be) in front of a dark background with a suitable magnesium or other artificial light thrown upon the figure, which is then focused in the "fuzzy-type" style; or, better still, a fine piece of muslin gauze is placed close to the lens which gives a hazy, indistinct appearance to the image. the exposure is made and the latent image remains upon the sensitive plate, which is again used to photograph the sitter. upon developing we get the two images, the "spirit" mixed up with the figure. the spirit should be as indistinct as possible, as it will then be less easy for the subject to dispute the statement that it is the spirit-form of his dead and gone relative. some amount of discretion in this part of the performance must be used, we fancy, otherwise the same disaster might happen as did to a spiritualist some little time ago. an elderly gentleman had come for a _seance_, and, after some mysterious maneuvers, the gentleman was informed that the spirit of his mother was there. "indeed!" replied the old gentleman, somewhat astonished. "what does she say?" "she says she will see you soon," informed the medium. "you are getting old now and must soon join her." "quite right," replied the old gentleman; "i am going round to her house to tea to-night."--total collapse of spiritualist. [illustration: fig. .--photograph of "spirits."] fluorescent substances, such as bisulphate of quinine, can also be employed. this compound, although almost invisible to the eye, photographs nearly black. if a white piece of paper be painted with the substance, except on certain parts, the latter only will appear white in the picture. [illustration: fig. .-painting by n. sichel. from which the "spirit" photograph opposite was made.] we hope that it will not be inferred that we desire to explain how to deceive persons with regard to photographs of spirits, for this is not so; we only hope that they will be made merely for amusement, and if possible to expose persons who practice on the gullibility of inexperienced persons. fig. is a reproduction of a "spirit" photograph made by a photographer, claiming to be a "spirit photographer," and to have the power to call these ladies and gentlemen from the "vasty deep" and make them impress their image upon the sensitive plate by the side of the portraits of their living relatives. fortunately, however, we were in this case able to expose this fraud. mr. w. m. murray, a prominent member of the society of amateur photographers of new york, called our attention to the similarity between one of the "spirit" images and a portrait painting by sichel, the artist. a reproduction of the picture is given herewith, fig. , and it will be seen at once that the spirit image is copied from it. in a recent number of _the australian photographic journal_ we read of the following novel method of making so-called spirit photographs: "take a negative of any supposed spirit that is to be represented, put it in the printing frame with the film side out; lay on the glass side a piece of platinotype paper with the sensitive side up; clamp in place the back of the printing frame and expose to the sun for half a minute. now place in the printing frame the negative of another person to whom the spirit is to appear, and over it put the previously exposed sheet film side down; expose to the sun for two minutes until the image is faintly seen, then develop in the usual way and the blurred spirit photograph will appear faintly to one side or directly behind the distinct image. sheets of paper with different ghost exposures can be prepared beforehand." spirit photographs might easily be made by means of prof. roentgen's well-known x-ray process of impressing an image upon a photographic dry-plate without uncovering the shutter. the process would however entail considerable expense and would necessitate the use of so much costly apparatus that we will content ourselves with the simple mention of the possibility. photography for household decoration how few amateur photographers there are who thoroughly enter into the enjoyment of the art-science as a pastime. many of these, perhaps, must be excused for the reason that they are ignorant of its capabilities. indeed, how many there are who imagine that the art of photography consists in making negatives and, from these, prints--good, bad and indifferent. all the friends and relations are called into requisition "to be taken." at first they do not mind, thinking it a fine thing to have a portrait made for nothing; but when they see the result they very naturally object to be caricatured, and the amateur loses many a friend, and the maiden aunt leaves all her money to the home for stray cats. if he is a married man and delights in a happy, cosy home, neatly and artistically decorated, photography can be of very great assistance to him--how much, few realize. there are a thousand different ways in which it can be of use, and the photographer has always before him some permanent record of his travels and skill. [illustration: fig. .] let us take, for instance, the making of transparencies. these are very simply made. any moderately rapid dry plate can be used for the purpose. every amateur becomes possessed after a time of a large number of negatives, good, bad, and indifferent. let him carefully go through these, selecting all the printable ones and the pictures that he most admires. from these, transparencies can be made, either by contact, or enlarged or reduced in the camera. persons residing in cities often have a nicely furnished room utterly marred by an unsightly outlook. perhaps a view of chimney pots and dirty back yards. in such a case all that is necessary is to fit in place of the lower panes some neat photographs on glass, backed with thin ground-glass. these can be puttied in or they can be fitted in neat brass frames and hung up against the windows. the craze of the present day appears to be in the direction of bright and gaudy colors, except with the more highly cultivated, who recognize the artistic value of unobtrusive colors and delicate tints. a photograph, provided it is a good one, is always to be preferred to colored pictures unless the latter are by good artists. we once constructed with a half dozen of transparencies a very neat lamp shade. some idea of it can be obtained from fig. . [illustration: fig. .] a brass frame is first constructed, and any wire worker will execute this so as to hold the six or eight pictures. the transparencies are made, cut down to the size and shape required and fitted in; then ground glass of the same size and shape is fitted, small brass tabs at the back being used to keep them in their places behind the transparency. the glasses should not fit too tightly in the brass frames or, on expanding by the heat, they will crack. a hall lamp can be treated in the same way, the colored glass removed and photographic transparencies substituted. photos on glass can in the same way be used for a variety of other purposes, such as fire screens, candle shades, etc. next look up your stock of prints, scraps, waste prints, etc. [illustration: fig. .] often from a large, spoilt picture you can get a neat little bit about a couple of inches square or less; look up all these and from them a photographic chess-board can be made. our illustration in fig. is intended to show what is meant, although our artist has not been happy in the selection of his material to represent photographic views and portraits. first mark out a square the size you wish the chess-board to be. divide it into sixty-four squares and draw a neat border round it. thirty-two of the squares are then neatly pasted over with selected photographs as varied as possible in subjects. sixteen are fitted one way and sixteen the other. our illustration is incorrect in this respect. the sixteen pictures should be placed the right way on the sixteen squares nearest to each player. when the photographs have all been pasted on and dried the whole is sized and varnished. if, however, it is desired to preserve this photographic chess-board, and at the same time to use it frequently, a better plan is to cover over with a glass plate and bind all round the edges to prevent dust from entering. in a similar way a neat card table can be manufactured. fig. is intended to illustrate the top of the table covered with photographs and protected by a glass plate. a little consideration will no doubt give various other similar ideas to the reader. those who can work the carbon process successfully have it in their power to transfer photographs in various colors to all kinds of supports, to wood for instance. the panels of a door can be very considerably improved by the insertion of photographs on fine grain wood, varnished. [illustration: fig. .] pictures can in this manner be transferred to plates, china and ornaments of every description. various methods of printing on silk and various fabrics have from time to time been given. perhaps the best for our purpose is the primuline process, as various colored images can be produced, with but little trouble, on all kinds of material. a description of the process will be found in another part of this work. (see page .) these the amateur can hand over to his better half or female relations, who with the natural feminine abilities will produce all sorts of pretty artistic articles for decorating the room. we are well aware that we have by no means enumerated one half of the various means in which photography can be employed for decorating the house, but hope at least to have given the reader some idea of what its capabilities are. leaf prints. [illustration: fig. .--leaf print. by t. gaffield.] nothing can exceed the beauty of form and structure of the leaves of different plants. ruskin observes: "leaves take all kinds of strange shapes, as if to invite us to examine them. star-shaped, heart-shaped, spear-shaped, fretted, fringed, cleft, furrowed, serrated, sinuated; in whirls, in tufts, in spires, in wreaths; endlessly expressive, deceptive, fantastic, never the same, from footstalk to blossom, they seem perpetually to tempt our watchfulness and take delight in outstripping our wonder." photography has placed in our hands a simple method of preserving facsimiles of their ever varying shapes that will last long after the leaf has died and crumbled to dust. although the discovery of the darkening action of silver chloride when exposed to light was discovered by scheele as far back as , little was apparently known of the possibilities attending the discovery until , when fox talbot read a paper on "a method of photogenic drawing," in which he described various experiments that could be made with paper coated with this substance, and showed many pictures of leaves, ferns, and pieces of lace which he had obtained. [illustration: fig. .--leaf print. by t. gaffield.] the illustrations which we reproduce herewith are reproductions from leaf prints made by mr. thomas gaffield, who has made quite a study of this fascinating pastime. in a little work entitled "photographic leaf prints," published in , he describes his method. the leaves and ferns are first selected and pressed between the leaves of a book. they must not be dried, as in that state they do not so readily permit the light to pass through and the delicate structure of the leaf would not be reproduced. they should therefore only be pressed sufficiently to allow the excess of moisture to be extracted. a sheet of glass is put into the printing frame and the leaves artistically arranged. when the arrangement is satisfactory the leaves are attached to the glass with a little mucilage to prevent them from slipping out of their places. a sheet of sensitive paper, albumen, gaslight, or platinum is then inserted, the frame closed up and exposed to the light until a very dark print is obtained. the time required in printing must be found by practice; it will, of course, differ according to the intensity of the light. it is a good plan to employ an actinometer to judge the correct exposure. it is not possible to open the frame, as a double or blurred picture would result. the halves should be exposed sufficiently long to enable the light to penetrate through them and give a distinct image of the veins and structure. when the printing is completed the paper is removed and toned and fixed in the usual manner. if platinotype or gaslight paper is used, this, of course, requires development. the resulting picture gives us a light impression of the leaves on a dark background, but if so desired, the print thus obtained can be used as a negative. it can be made transparent with wax or vaseline, and prints obtained from it giving a dark image on a white ground. it is difficult to say which picture is the more beautiful. we give illustrations of pictures of both kinds. (figs. and .) naturally enough, the beauty of these pictures lies in the careful selection and arrangement of the leaves. those which are too thick should not be used. delicate ones, showing all the veins by transmitted light, are the most suitable. they can be arranged artistically, in any shape or form. we prefer, however, a life-like arrangement to the construction of various shapes and designs. to make a pen and ink sketch from a photograph. by the following method anyone can, without any knowledge of drawing, produce from a photograph a pen and ink sketch suitable for reproduction as an illustration. from the negative a silver print is made on albumen or gelatine or collodion paper. this is fixed without toning in a solution of hyposulphite of soda. it must then be thoroughly washed to remove all traces of hypo, and when dry, the outlines of the photograph are traced over with a fine pen and a waterproof ink, obtainable at any artist's material store. if the photographer possesses a little knowledge of drawing, some of the shading can also be attempted. when the ink is dry the picture is immersed in a saturated solution of bichloride of mercury (poison) when the photograph will disappear, leaving the outline sketch intact. the picture is again well washed and dried. newspaper sketches are often made from photographs in this manner, a zincotype being quickly produced from the drawing. gaslight paper can also be used. photographs on silk. photographs can be very effectively printed upon silk, satin, or other fabrics. there are several methods of accomplishing this. a simple one is the following:[ ] the silk best suited for the purpose is that known as chinese silk, and this is first washed in warm water with plentiful lather of soap, then rinse in hot water, and gradually cool until the final washing water is quite cold. next prepare the following solutions: tannin, parts; distilled water, parts. sodium chloride, parts; arrowroot, parts; acetic acid, parts; distilled water, parts. [ ] from the "encyclopaedic dictionary of photography," by the author. the arrowroot is mixed up into a paste with a little of the distilled water, and the remainder added boiling hot, with the acid and the salt previously dissolved in it. when the solution is quite clear the tannin solution is added, and the whole allowed to get fairly cool. the silk is then immersed for about three minutes, being kept under without air in the folds, and then hung up to dry, or stretched out with pins on a flat board. the material is then sensitized by brushing over with the following solution: silver nitrate, parts; distilled water, parts; nitric acid, drops to every ounces. other methods of sensitizing are by immersing in or floating on the silver solution. after sensitizing, the material is dried by pinning on to a board to keep flat. it is then cut up as required, and printed behind the negative. every care must be taken in printing to keep the material flat, and without wrinkles or folds. it must also be kept quite straight; otherwise, the image will be distorted. printing is carried on in the same manner as with printing-out paper. it is then washed and toned in any toning bath. the sulphocyanide gives the best action. fix in a per cent. solution of hyposulphite of soda for ten minutes; wash and dry spontaneously. when just damp, it is ironed out flat with a not over-heated iron. black tones can be obtained with a platinum toning bath, or with the uranium and gold toning bath, made up as follows: gold chloride, part; uranium nitrate, part. dissolved and neutralized with sodium carbonate, and then added to sodium chloride, parts; sodium acetate, parts; sodium phosphate, parts; distilled water, , parts. very effective results may be made by printing with wide white margins, obtained by exposing with a non-actinic mask. another method is the following: ammonium chloride, grains; iceland moss, grains; water (boiling), ounces. when nearly cold this is filtered, and the silk immersed in it for about fifteen minutes. to sensitize, immerse the silk in a grain solution of silver nitrate for about sixteen minutes. the silver solution should be rather acid. or immerse the silk in water, ounce; sodium chloride, grains; gelatine, grains. when dry, float for thirty seconds on a grain solution of silver nitrate. dry, slightly overprint and tone in the following bath: gold chloride, grains; sodium acetate, drachms; water, ounces. keep twenty-four hours before using. fix for twenty minutes in hypo, ounces to the pint of water. photographing a catastrophe. on this page we reproduce a curious photograph by m. bracq, which appeared some time ago in the _photo gazette_. [illustration: by m. bracq. from photo gazette. fig. .--a catastrophe.] despite all the terrible catastrophe which it represents, carrying pictures along with him in his fall, the subject has not experienced the least uneasiness, not even so much as will certainly be felt by our readers at the sight of the tumble represented. the mode of operating in this case is very simple and we are indebted to _la nature_ for the description of the method employed by m. bracq. the photographic apparatus being suspended at a few yards from the floor of the room, in such a way as to render the ground-glass horizontal (say between the two sides of a double ladder--a combination that permits of easy focusing and putting the plates in place), there is spread upon the floor a piece of wall paper, about feet in length by feet in width, at the bottom of which a wainscot has been drawn. a ladder, a few pictures, a statuette, and a bottle are so arranged as to give an observer the illusion of the wall of a room, that of a dining room for instance. a hammer, some nails, etc., are placed at the proper points. finally, a feet by - / feet board, to which a piece of carpet, a cardboard plate, etc., have been attached, is placed under the foot of a chair, which then seems to rest upon this false floor at right angles with that of the room. [illustration: fig. .] everything being ready, the operator lies down quietly in the midst of these objects, assumes a frightened expression, and waits until the shutter announces to him that he can leave his not very painful position. this evidently is merely an example that our readers will be able to modify and vary at their will. photographs on various fabrics. by means of a dye process known as the "primuline process," very pretty images in various colored dyes can be made upon silks, satins, cotton goods, etc. the material is first dyed in a hot solution of primuline, made by adding about to grains of the dye to a gallon of hot water; a little common salt should also be added. on immersing the fabric, and stirring it about in the solution, it becomes of a primrose yellow color, when it is removed and washed under a cold-water tap. the next process is to diazotize it by immersion for half a minute or so in a cold solution of sodium nitrate, one-quarter per cent., which has been sharply acidified with hydrochloric or other acid. the material is again washed in cold water, but it must be kept in a weak light. it can be hung up to dry, in the dark, or exposed while wet beneath the object of which it is required to produce a positive reproduction. this process gives a positive from a positive, so that any ordinary picture on a sufficiently translucent material--flowers, ferns, etc.--can be reproduced. printing requires about half a minute in the direct sunlight to half an hour or more in dull weather, or if the material to be printed through is not very transparent. the high lights become of a pale yellow, so that a faint image is perceptible; but this is made visible in almost any color by development in a weak solution (about one-fourth per cent.) of a suitable phenol or amine. the following have been found suitable: _for red._--an alkaline solution of [greek: b]-napthol. _for maroon._--an alkaline solution of [greek: b]-napthol-disulphonic acid. _for yellow._--an alkaline solution of phenol. _for orange._--an alkaline solution of resorcin. _brown._--a slightly alkaline solution of pyrogallol, or a solution of phenylene-diamine-hydrochloride. _for purple._--a solution of [greek: a]-napthylamine hydrochloride. _for blue._--a slightly acid solution of amido-[greek: b]-napthol-sulphonate of sodium, now better known as "eikonogen." if the design is to be made in several colors, this can be done by painting on the different developers, suitably thickened with starch. after developing, the material is well washed and dried. with the purple and blue developers it is necessary to wash the material finally in a weak solution of tartaric acid. wool and silk require a longer exposure to light than other fabrics, and cannot be successfully developed with the maroon or blue developer. silhouettes [illustration: aa. the sky and side light. bb. two dark backgrounds. c. the white screen in oblique position. d. the subject. e. the camera. fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] silhouette portraits were at one time very popular. they are simply made, and if the effect is well carried out will afford considerable amusement. the best description of their manufacture was given some time ago by herr e. sturmann, in _die photographische korrespondenz_. his method is as follows: place two dark backgrounds in parallel position about feet from the sky and side light of the studio and distant from each other about six feet. improvise a dark tunnel by drawing a black cloth, of non-reflecting material, over the two dark grounds, and arrange a white screen, somewhat larger than the distance between the two dark grounds, in an oblique position so as to be fully illuminated. the subject to be silhouetted must be placed in the centre of the tunnel, one side of the face turned towards one ground, but comparatively nearer to the white screen so that the side of the face turned towards the camera is as much as possible in the shade. [illustration: fig. .] focus must be taken accurately, so that the outlines of the figure are perfectly sharp. as it is the object to obtain a perfectly transparent, glass-clear silhouette upon an absolutely opaque ground, but a very short time of exposure is required. develop as usual and to secure perfect opacity intensify more than usual. plates of lower sensitiveness invariably give the best results. a slow plate or one made particularly for reproduction is well adapted for this kind of work. with ferrous oxalate or hydrochinon developer there is scarcely any need of intensifying. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] to obviate the shadows cast upon the floor by the lower parts of the figure, place it upon a thick, large plate-glass, supported by props of five or six inches in height, and spread upon the floor under the glass a piece of white muslin. the muslin must be free of folds or wrinkles, and be so connected with the white screen, that the division line between is not reproduced upon the plate. the very feeble shadows of the feet can be easily touched away with pencil. single persons or groups of two or three figures can be photographed in this peculiar style with very good effect. for heads and busts expose in the usual manner, but to obtain silhouettes similar to those our grandmothers had cut in black paper, and long before photography was thought of, cut an appropriate mask of black paper to cover the part not wanted during printing. [illustration: fig. .] it should be borne in mind that in this class of work the white background only is the object to be photographed, hence the necessity of but very short exposures. with longer exposures absolute blacks and whites are impossible. photographing the invisible. the following is a curious and interesting experiment, based upon the peculiar property possessed by fluorescent substances of altering the refrangibility of the chemical light rays. take a colorless solution of bisulphate of quinine, and write or draw with it on a piece of white paper. when dry the writing or design will be invisible, but a photograph made of it will show them very nearly black. how to make a photograph inside a bottle. get a glass-blower to make an ordinary shaped wine-bottle of very thin and clear glass, and clean it well. next take the white of two eggs and add to it grains of ammonium chloride dissolved in drachm of spirits of wine, and one-half ounce of water. beat this mixture into a thick froth and then allow it to stand and settle. filter through a tuft of cotton-wool, and pour into the specially made bottle. by twisting the bottle round, an even layer of the solution will deposit itself on the sides. pour off the remaining solution, allow the film in the bottle to dry, and again repeat the operation. the next operation is to sensitize the film with a solution of nitrate of silver, grains to ounce of water. pour this in and turn the bottle round for a few minutes, then pour off the superfluous solution and again dry. hold the neck of the bottle for a few seconds over another bottle containing ammonia, so as to allow the fumes to enter it. printing is the next operation; this is accomplished by tying a film negative round the bottle, and covering up all the other parts from the light. print very deeply, keeping the bottle turning round all the time. toning, fixing, and washing can be done in the ordinary way by filling the bottle up with the different solutions. the effect is very curious, and can be improved by coating the inside of the bottle with white enamel. photographs in any color. these can be produced by what is known as the powder or dusting-on process. the principle of the process is this: an organic, tacky substance is sensitized with potassium bichromate, and exposed under a reversed positive to the action of light. all the parts acted upon become hard, the stickiness disappearing according to the strength of the light action, while those parts protected by the darker parts of the positive retain their adhesiveness. if a colored powder be dusted over, it will be understood that it will adhere to the sticky parts only, forming a complete reproduction of the positive printed form. prepare--dextrine, one-half ounce; grape sugar, one-half ounce; bichromate of potash, one-half ounce; water, one-half pint: or saturated solution bichromate of ammonia, drachms; honey, drachms; albumen, drachms; distilled water, to drachms. filter, and coat clean glass plates with this solution, and dry with a gentle heat over a spirit lamp. while still warm the plate is exposed under a positive transparency for from two to five minutes in sunlight, or from ten to twenty minutes in diffused light. on removing from the printing frame, the plate is laid for a few minutes in the dark in a damp place to absorb a little moisture. the next process is the dusting on. for a black image siberian graphite is used, spread over with a soft flat brush. any colored powder can be used, giving images in different colors. when fully developed the excess of powder is dusted off and the film coated with collodion. it is then well washed to remove the bichromate salt. the film can, if desired, be detached and transferred to ivory, wood, or any other support. if a black support be used, a ferrotype plate on japanned wood, for instance, pictures can be made from a negative, but in this case a light colored powder must be used. the japanese have lately succeeded in making some very beautiful pictures in this manner. wood is coated over with that black enamel for which they are so famous, and pictures made upon it in this manner. they use a gold or silver powder. with this process an almost endless variety of effects can be obtained. for instance, luminous powder can be employed and an image produced which is visible in the dark. some time ago we suggested a plan of making what might be termed "post-mortem" photographs of cremated friends and relations. a plate is prepared from a negative of the dead person in the manner described, and the ashes dusted over. they will adhere to the parts unexposed to light, and a portrait is obtained composed entirely of the person it represents, or rather what is left of him. the idea is not particularly a brilliant one, nor do we desire to claim any credit for it, but we give it here for the benefit of those morbid individuals who delight in sensationalism, and who purchase and treasure up pieces of the rope used by the hangman. the disappearing photograph. a method of making a photograph which can be made to appear at will is thus described in _les recreations photographiques_. take a convex watch crystal, v, or any similar larger glass if desired--for instance, those used for colored photographs; clean the glass well, place it perfectly level, convex side down, and fill it even full with a mixture of white wax and hog's lard. when it has solidified, apply to the back a flat glass plate, p, cut exactly to the largest dimensions of the convex glass, secure the glasses together with a strip, b, of gold-beater's skin, fastened by strong glue as shown in the figure. now mount a portrait, with the front towards the convex glass, on the plate p. the combination is now ready; by heating it the wax between the two glasses melts and becomes transparent, allowing the portrait to be seen; on cooling it will lose its transparence and the portrait will disappear. [illustration: fig. .] freak pictures with a black background. if an object be placed against a non-actinic background and an exposure made, the black parts surrounding it will not have any effect upon the plate, and the object can be shifted to another part and another exposure made. in a recent article published in _la nature_, and translated in the _scientific american_, a number of curious effects obtained by photography by m. r. riccart, of sainte-foix-les-lyons, are described and illustrated. [illustration: fig. .--a decapitation.] the system employed by the author of these photographs is that of the natural black background obtained through the open door of a dark room, combined with diaphragms skillfully arranged in the interior of the apparatus, between the objective and sensitized plate. this is the surest method of obtaining the desired effect with the greatest precision, without the junctions being visible, and with perfect sharpness in the cutting of the parts removed. for this effect, it is necessary to place the diaphragm at three or four centimeters from the ground glass, in the last folds of the bellows of the camera. [illustration: fig. .--another decapitation.] the following are a few data as to the manner in which the scenes that we reproduce were obtained. the first, representing a decapitation by means of a saber (fig. ), was taken by means of an exposure in which the head was placed upon the block, the subject inclining forward upon his knees, and a diaphragm, occupying about two-thirds of the plate, completely masking the body up to the neck. then, without changing the position of the apparatus, the diaphragm was placed on the other side in order to conceal the head, and the body was photographed in the second position along with the person representing the executioner. it would have been possible, by a third exposure, to so arrange things as to make the executioner the decapitated person. it was by the same process that the three following scenes were obtained: a person with his head placed before him in a plate (fig. ); a man carrying his head in a wheelbarrow (fig. ); and a person to whom his own head is served in a plate (fig. ). such scenes may be varied to any extent. fig. is a photograph of a decapitation, while fig. is made by two exposures of an individual at different distances but so combined as to give the appearance of one exposure. fig. is that of a person in a bottle. the individual represented was first photographed on a sufficiently reduced scale to allow him to enter the bottle. this exposure was by using a screen containing an aperture, as for the russian background. but this precaution was taken merely to conceal the floor, and yet it would perhaps be preferable in such a case to have the subject stand upon a stool covered with a very black fabric. however this may be, when once the first impression has been made, there is nothing more to be done than to photograph the bottle on a larger scale and the result is obtained. [illustration: fig. .--the head in the wheelbarrow] [illustration: fig. .--the head upon a plate.] how to copy drawings. there are three principal methods of copying mechanical drawings, tracings, sketches, etc. these are: ( ) a process to obtain white lines upon a blue ground; ( ) a process by which blue lines upon a white ground are obtained; and ( ) a process giving black or violet-black lines upon a white ground. [illustration: fig. .--the sawed-off head.] the first process is undoubtedly the simplest, as after printing upon the paper it is developed and fixed by simple immersion in cold water; but, at the same time, the white lines on the blue ground are not so clear and effective as the other processes. the cyanotype paper, as it is called, can be obtained ready for use at any draughtsman's stores, but if you prefer to make it yourself, here is the recipe: two solutions are made-- parts of red prussiate of potash are dissolved in parts of water, and parts of ammonio-citrate of iron in parts of water. these two solutions should be mixed together immediately before using, and the operation must be performed in the dark. paper is floated on this solution, or applied with a broad camels-hair brush, and hung up to dry. if it is well dried and carefully preserved from light, moisture and air, this paper will keep for some time. after printing--which, when sufficient, should show the lines copied of a yellow color upon a blue ground--the prints should be washed in several waters, and if a few drops of chlorine water or dilute hydrochloric acid be added to the washing water, the blue ground will appear much darker and the lines rendered clearer and whiter. the commercial paper sold is generally prepared by this method. [illustration: fig. .--the reduction.] [illustration: fig. .--man in a bottle.] blue prints may be given a black tone by plunging them into a solution of parts of caustic potash in parts of water; then, when the blue color has entirely disappeared under the action of the potash, and a yellowish color has taken its place, they are immersed in a solution of parts of tannin in parts of water; then washing them again, we obtain prints whose tone may be assimilated to that of pale writing ink. in the process giving blue lines upon a white ground, it is necessary that the action of the light shall be to convert the iron compound into one that can be discharged from instead of being fixed on the paper, so that we obtain a positive from a positive. abney describes the process as follows: thirty volumes of gum solution (water parts, gum part) are mixed with volumes of a citrate of iron and ammonia solution (water parts, double citrate part), and to this is added volumes of a solution of ferric chloride (water parts, ferric chloride part). this solution thus formed is limpid at first, but will gradually become thicker, and should be used soon after mixing. it is then applied with a brush to the paper (which should be well sized) and dried in the dark. exposure is accomplished in a few minutes, the paper being placed under the drawing in the printing frame. it is then developed with potassium ferrocyanide, grains, water ounce, applied with a brush until all the details appear of a dark-blue color. the print is then rapidly rinsed, and placed in a dish containing the clearing solution, made of ounce of hydrochloric acid and ounces of water. the third process, which gives violet-black lines on a white ground, is the following: make up the sensitive solution with water, ounces; gelatine, drachms; perchloride of iron (in a syrup condition), ounce; tartaric acid, ounce; sulphate of iron, drachms. the paper is floated on or brushed over with this and dried. the exposure is about the same as with the last process. when sufficient, the greenish-yellow color will turn white, except the lines, which should be somewhat dark. the developing solution is composed of part of gallic acid in parts of alcohol and of water. when immersed in this solution the lines will turn blacker. the finish is then made by thoroughly washing in water. sympathetic photographs. these are obtained as follows: a sheet of paper is coated with a ten per cent solution of gelatine, and when dry this is floated on a ten per cent solution of bichromate of potash. again dry and expose beneath a positive transparency. the print thus obtained is then immersed in a ten per cent solution of chloride of cobalt. the parts unacted upon by light will absorb the solution. wash and dry. we then have a faint image which will alter its color according to the state of the atmosphere. in damp weather it will be almost if not entirely invisible, but when the weather is fine and dry, or if the image be heated before a fire it will turn to a bright blue color. dry-plates that will develop with water. some time ago dry-plates were placed on the market which would develop, apparently, with water and a little ammonia only. the secret of the method was that the backs of the plates were coated with a soluble gum, containing the developing agents, and, of course, when the plate was immersed in the water, they instantly dissolved and formed the developer. plates thus prepared are useful in traveling where it is not always possible to get the necessary developing solutions. to prepare them the backs are coated with the following mixture: pyrogallic acid grains salicylic acid grains gum or dextrine grains alcohol fluid dr. water fluid dr. this is allowed to dry at an ordinary temperature. after exposure, all that is necessary to develop is to immerse the plates in water containing a small quantity of ammonia. caricature photographs. there are quite a number of different methods of making caricature portraits. a simple one is to make two photographs of an individual, one of the head alone and another of the entire body on a much smaller scale. from these two negatives prints are made, and the larger head is cut out and pasted on the shoulders of the full length figure. any signs of the cutting out are removed by the use of a brush and a little coloring matter. from this combined print another negative is made so that any number of these caricature prints can be made without extra trouble. the effect is shown in fig. . [illustration: from tissandier's handbook. fig. .--caricature portrait.] foregrounds for making caricature portraits are sold in this country. the method of using them is shown in fig. . the card containing the grotesque drawing is held by the sitter on his knees and arranged by the photographer in such a way that his head rests just above the neck of the painted body. a white background is arranged behind and when the negative is made all traces of the edges of the foreground are removed by careful re-touching. [illustration: fig. .--caricature] [illustration: fig. .--making the caricature portrait.] another method of obtaining grotesque caricature portraits has been devised by m. ducos du hauron. his apparatus, which he calls "la photographie transformiste," is thus described by schnauss in his "photographic pastimes." a, fig. , is the front of the box, which is furnished with an exposing shutter formed of a simple sliding piece fitting into the grooves r r, r r. b p are two screens pierced with slits _a a_, _c c_. c is the rear end of the box where the dark slide is placed. d is the lid of the box, which is lifted either for placing the slotted screens or for putting in the sensitive plate. when not working direct from nature, the transparency is placed in the grooves r r, r r, at a. [illustration: fig. .--the hauron "transformiste."] [illustration: fig. .--photograph and distortions with the "transformiste."] according to the arrangement of the slits, the caricatures obtained will be different. if, for instance, the first slit be a vertical one, and the other, _i.e._, the one nearest the picture, a horizontal one, the picture, in comparison with the original, will be distorted lengthwise. if, however, one of the slits forms no straight line, but a curved one, the transformed picture will show either lengthwise or sideways curved lines, according to the slit being a vertical or a horizontal one. the form of the resulting picture will also be different according to which one of the slotted plates is placed more or less obliquely in the box. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the slits must be made very exactly; above all, their edges must be absolutely sharp, every incorrectness being transferred to the picture. they may be made about one-third of a millimeter wide; if they are too narrow the picture will not turn out sharp. in making the slits it is a good plan to cut them in thin black paper, and to mount the latter on glass plates. [illustration: fig. .] in a later description of the apparatus we learn that the discs containing the slits are often made circular in shape and so arranged that they can be revolved as shown in fig. . this, of course, allows of a still greater variety of positions of the two apertures in relation to each other and an increasing number of grotesque effects. reproductions of some of the pictures obtained are given.[ ] see figs. to . [ ] reprinted from _la science en famille_. photographing seaweeds. [illustration: fig. .--seaweed photograph.] of all the glorious creations of nature few are more beautiful than the delicate sea mosses to be found by the sea shore. many delight in preserving them in a dry state, mounted on cards, but unfortunately they are usually so fragile that after a little while they fall to pieces. the photographer, however, is able to reproduce these beautiful formations and preserve them in a more permanent form by means of his camera. it is true that he cannot reproduce their delicate colorings, but the photographs can, if so desired, be lightly printed on platinum paper and colored as well as possible by hand. stamp portraits. a special camera is sold for making these little pictures. [illustration: fig. .--stamp camera.] it contains a number of lenses all of the same focus. in front is an easel where the portrait is attached, surrounded by a suitable border. the images given are about the size of postage stamps (see fig. ), and when the negative is printed on a printing out or developing paper, toned or developed, they can be perforated and gummed at the back. they are very useful for sticking to letters, envelopes, and for business purposes. [illustration: fig. . stamp photo.] luminous photographs. there are several different ways of making these. obtain some balmain's luminous paint, and coat a piece of cardboard with it. place this in the dark until it is no longer luminous; place this behind a glass transparency and expose to light, either daylight or, if at night-time, burn a small piece of magnesium wire. return to the dark, remove the transparency, and a luminous photograph is obtained on the prepared card. a simple plan is to merely expose a piece of the prepared cardboard to the light and place it behind a transparency; then retire to a darkened room. the luminous paint, showing through it, will have a very pretty effect. if no glass transparency is at hand, a silver print can be used, if previously oiled and rendered translucent by vaseline or any other means. floral photography. perhaps the beauties of nature are nowhere better exemplified than in flowers, and nothing can be prettier than photographs of them carefully arranged. when we say carefully arranged we mean, of course, artistically. the secret of arranging flowers--an art in itself--is to hide the fact that they have been arranged. among the best pictures of flowers which have appeared in print, are those by john carpenter, an english gentleman, who has made this particular branch of photography his chief study, and has been awarded many prizes and medals for flower studies. some time ago we wrote to him asking for a few particulars of his method adopted, and he has been so very kind as to send the following valuable notes: _suitable flowers._--i find that the best colors to photograph are pale pink, yellow, white or variegated colors. reds, browns, and dark colors generally, do _not_ answer well. flowers of irregular form are most suitable, such, for example, as chrysanthemums, lilies, poppies, etc. these give beautiful gradations of light and shade. _grouping._--there is great scope here for artistic feeling. all appearance of formal arrangement must be avoided and a natural grouping should be aimed at. this becomes more difficult as the flowers must be somewhat on one plane to get them in proper focus. a round bunch of flowers which may appear very pretty to the eye would probably be utterly wrong to make a picture of. [illustration: fannie cassidy. fig. .--a bowl of roses.] _lighting._--i have never worked in a studio, but have a small lean-to glass house in which i work. the top light is softened down by light shades so that the strongest light comes from the side. this gives solidity to the subject and is more pleasing than a flat lighting. of course, the sun should never shine on the subject. _plates and exposure._--if colored flowers are being photographed, orthochromatic plates are a necessity, but for white flowers and light-green foliage ordinary plates may be employed. i generally use a medium isochromatic, stop the lens to _f_: and give exposure of from thirty to sixty seconds in summer and vary according to the season; sometimes twenty _minutes_ is not too much. _development._--my usual and favorite developer is pyro-ammonia, and in careful hands it cannot be beaten. i commence development with a minimum of pyro and work tentatively. using such a solution, for ounces of developer i should commence with - / grains pyro, grain bromide, and grains ammonia. if the image does not gain sufficient density add more pyro and bromide, but unless very fully exposed it is difficult to avoid too much density, especially if white flowers are being photographed. i find a plain gray or dark background most useful, and to avoid flatness it may be set at an angle and not too near the subject. flowers should be photographed as soon as gathered, and if possible be placed in water. i have often found a plate spoiled by movement of the leaves or flowers, even with short exposures, although the movement was not perceptible to the eye. this is more especially the case in hot weather. distorted images. take a portrait negative that is no longer of any use, and immerse it in a weak solution of hydrofluoric acid. the film will leave the glass. it is then washed and returned to the glass support. by stretching the film one way or the other, and allowing it to dry in this position, the most amusing prints can be made. keep your fingers out of the acid! photographs without light. a curious experiment showing that a photographic dry-plate can be otherwise affected than by light, so as to form an image upon it, is the following: an image of copper in relief is necessary--a penny will do for this purpose. place an unexposed dry-plate in a normal pyro developer, and on it lay the copper coin. after about five minutes or so, remove the penny, fix and wash the plate, when a perfect image of the penny will be found on it. electric photographs. similar experiments to that described above have been carried out by prof. fernando sanford. he placed a coin on a dry-plate and connected it with the terminal of a small induction coil, capable of giving a spark of three or four millimeters, while a piece of tin foil upon the opposite side of the plate was connected with the other terminal of the coil. several negatives were made in this way, the accompanying photograph, fig. , being from one of them. with one exception, they all show a fringe around them, due to the escape of the charge from the edge of the coin, which accounts for the formation of the dark ring observed around the breath figures made upon glass. later on he undertook to photograph in the same way objects insulated from the photographic plate, and has since made negatives of coins separated from the plate by paraffine, shellac, mica, and gutta percha. the accompanying photograph, fig. , was made with the coin insulated from the photographic plate by a sheet of mica about . mm. thick. the mica was laid directly upon the film side of the plate, and the coin was placed upon it and connected to one terminal of the small induction coil already mentioned. a circular piece of tin foil of the circumference of the coin was placed upon the glass side of the plate directly opposite the coin, and was connected to the other terminal of the induction coil. the little condenser thus made was clamped between two boards, and was covered up in a dark room. two small discharging knobs were also attached to the terminals of the induction coil, and were separated by a space of less than a millimeter, so that, when a single cell was connected with the primary coil, the spark between the knobs seemed continuous. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the plate was exposed to the action of the waves set up in this condenser for one hour, when it was taken out and the negative image developed upon it by the usual process. magic vignettes. these are reversed vignettes, that is to say, the margins round the portrait instead of being white as in the ordinary vignette are black. a method of making them was recently described by "teinte" in _the photogram_. this was as follows: two methods can be adopted. the first of these about to be detailed, though entailing, perhaps, in the first place a trifle more trouble, produces the best results. we require a black background, preferably of black velveteen, large enough for a head and shoulders. as the material is not usually obtainable of a width greater than twenty inches or so, there will have to be a seam, and this must be very neatly done. the seamed velveteen is then stretched taut on a frame, which should preferably be covered first with calico, to prevent "sagging." always, before use, dust the velveteen with a soft brush--say, a hat brush--to remove any adhering dust or fluff. instead of velveteen, a good paper background can be used, only it must be seen that the surface is smooth and free from cracks or creases, and is _dead black_. [illustration: fig. .--magic vignetter.] we require also a vignetting mask suitable to the subject, with a serrated edge. this has to be fixed inside the camera between the lens and plate.[ ] the proper position can be found by trial; the further the card is away from the plate the softer and more gradual the vignetting. no special arrangement for holding this is required beyond what can be prepared by any one who can use his fingers. we take a piece of stout card, the outside of which will just fit into the folds of the camera's bellows, and by a little twisting it can be sprung in between the folds which will hold it. there is an opening in the center, square in shape, about quarter plate size. this acts as a frame to hold the vignetting mask, which has the opening of proper size and shape. by using a frame as described the vignetter can be moved about up and down and from side to side, and when the correct position is found fixed by drawing pins. the frame and vignetter should be blacked all over. for this purpose take some lampblack ground in turps, and mix with it a little gold size sufficient (found by trial) to prevent the lampblack from rubbing off when dry, but not enough to cause the paint to dry shiny. [ ] a vignetter for the purpose, as shown in fig. , has been placed on the market. a good distance to fix the vignetter is about one-third the extension of the camera when the object is in focus, measuring from the lens. we adjust the camera so that the image of the figure falls in the correct position on the screen, and the vignette is made of such a size and shape as to give the amount required. the shadow of the mask protects the edges of the plate surrounding the image, and in development we obtain a negative in which the image is vignetted into clear glass, and on printing from such the margins print dark. the printing of such a negative should be prolonged until the margins of the picture are quite lost, or they are apt to show after toning. the sketch shows the arrangement of vignetter inside camera. the other plan consists in making an ordinary negative, using preferably a dark background. from this is made a vignette in the ordinary manner. when this comes from the frame it is placed on a piece of clean glass--face up--and another piece of glass free from flaws placed over it. now cut a piece of card to the size and shape of the vignetted portion of the print, and fix this with glue to a piece of cork. this piece of cork must vary in thickness with various pictures. now place the cork on the glass so that the mask covers the picture and fix with glue to prevent slipping. place the whole out in diffused light, and allow the darkening of the margins to go on until sufficiently deep. the print is then toned. the height of the card from the print must be such that no abrupt line is produced between the first printing and the darkened margin, but that one will shade into the other without break. a simple method of enlarging. if we have an ordinary gelatine negative, say, of half-plate size, and require to enlarge it to a whole plate, the simplest plan is to thoroughly wash it and immerse in a solution composed of citric acid, ounces; hydrofluoric acid, ounce; acetic acid (glacial), ounce; glycerine, / ounce; water, ounces. the action of the hydrofluoric acid will be to detach the film from the glass, while the other acids will cause the film to spread out considerably; the action being even all over, the image is completely enlarged. it is then carefully removed and washed in plenty of clean water, after which it can be transferred to a larger piece of glass. the action is sometimes to weaken the negative in density; it is therefore occasionally necessary to intensify it. moonlight effects. curious as it sounds, very good moonlight effects can be procured on a bright sunshiny day. a photograph is made of a landscape in dazzling sunlight, a small stop and rapid exposure being given. the plate should, if possible, be backed with any of the substances recommended to prevent halation. choose a landscape, with the reflection of the sun's rays in water, and include this and the sun itself on the plate. it is best to wait, however, until the sun just disappears behind a cloud. shade the lens so that the rays do not shine on it direct, and expose rapidly. use an old or weak developer. the sun and its reflection will, of course, make their appearance first. continue the development until the detail in the under-exposed parts is just visible, and fix. print very darkly, and slightly over tone. if printing is done upon green developing paper, and a little re-touching with chinese white, the effect is very good. [illustration: photographed from nature by fred. graf. fig. .--moonlight photograph.] photographing snow and ice crystals. there are few photographers who appear to be aware of the many beautiful phenomena of nature that can be studied by the aid of photography. under the title of "schnee crystalle," dr. g. hellmann has published[ ] a book on this subject profusely illustrated with engravings and photo-micrographic collotypes from direct photographs by dr. r. neuhaus. [ ] rudolph muckenberger, berlin. [illustration: fig. .--snow crystals. photo by dr. neuhaus.] dr. neuhaus describes his method of photographing snowflakes in dr. eder's jarbuch, from which article we extract the most important and interesting paragraphs: were we to attempt to photograph snow crystals in a perfectly cold room, the temperature is still higher than that out of doors; moisture at once precipitates upon the carrier of the object; the crystals would melt and evaporate after a short time. the work must be done in the open, and perfect success can be expected only when the temperature is near zero. [illustration: fig. .--snow crystals. photo by dr. neuhaus.] snow crystals evaporate rapidly even in low temperature, and the work requires to be done rapidly and with caution. freshly fallen snow only will give a good photograph, and as we are compelled to work in the midst of the snow storm, the task becomes still more complicated and difficult. snow crystals but a short time after falling break, the broken pieces freeze together and crystallization is destroyed. for the illumination of snow crystals, transmitted light only can be used; reflected light destroys the shadows, and injures the high lights, and the result is necessarily but a very imperfect picture of the object. [illustration: photo by martin. fig. .--a natural phenomenon in ice.] diffused light, especially that of a dark winter's day, and during a snow storm, is not fit for this kind of photo-micrographic work, and we must resort to artificial light, preferably to that of a petroleum lamp. to prevent heat action emanating from the illuminating ray cone, an absorptive cell of alum solution should be interposed. as alum solution freezes at about ° fahr., chloride of sodium is added. with hartnark's projection system, at mm. focus distance, from to seconds upon an erythrosine plate is ample. [illustration: fig. .--photograph of frost crystals. by jas. leadbeater.] dr. neuhaus has made photographs of more than different ice and snow specimens. the pictures of ice crystals much resemble those of hoar frost, deposited after a cold winter's night. of snow crystals, the doublets are highly interesting, two crystals merged into one, and those having passed through a moist stratum of air, when microscopic drops of water will freeze into the hexagonal form, giving the picture an appearance very much resembling cauliflower. [illustration: fig. .--photograph of frost. by jas. leadbeater.] the most difficult question of all remains, the cause of the various forms of the hexagonal crystals, which frequently change in the same snowfall. instead of advancing a new hypothesis, says hellmann, it is better to acknowledge that we know nothing positively in regard to this. in our knowledge of the form and structure of the snow we have made great advance since the time of kepler, but after nearly four hundred years, we cannot give a satisfactory answer to his question, "_cur autem sexangula? why six-sided?_" we do not know the special conditions which determine the formation of one or the other form of snow crystals. we have found that a low temperature favors the formation of tabular crystals; a higher temperature the star shaped crystals; these groups show such multifarious forms that it is necessary to seek for other causes which influence the formation of snow figures. there is offered here a broad field for new investigation and study. we give a reproduction (fig. ) of a photograph of a curious group of crystals. some water had been left in a × dish on a winter day, and a film of ice was seen floating on the surface. the formation of the crystals and the floral design were so beautiful that it was taken out and photographed. the delicate lace-like edging of the glacial tracery is the result of the deposition of hoar frost while draining off the water from the ice leaves and flowers and fixing the image in the camera. quite recently mr. jas. leadbeater has favored us with some account of his beautiful work in this fascinating branch of photography, some samples of which are here given. he first makes his windows perfectly clear and waits for a keen frost. the camera is inside the room and a dark cloth-covered board is placed on the outside, leaning against a low balcony of wood. the exposure varies with the thickness of the crystals, from two to ten seconds, principally with a very small stop. two reproductions of his pictures will be found on pp. - . photographing ink crystals. the study of crystallization is undoubtedly an interesting and fascinating one, and photography may be made to play an important part in securing permanent records of these curious formations. if a drop of water containing a salt be allowed to drop upon a glass plate, it will, upon evaporation, deposite crystals of various kinds. in a recent article in _la nature_, by dr. e. trouessart, a description is given of the beautiful crystallic forms deposited by a drop of ink on evaporation. the article is translated in the _literary digest_, from which we make extracts: "take a sheet of glass, deposit on it a drop of ink and spread the drop a little, uniformly; let it dry for a few minutes; then examine with a microscope, magnifying from to diameters, and you will be able to see the flowers of ink in process of formation under your eyes; that is to say, regular white crystal particles which detach themselves from the black or violet medium, and arrange themselves so as to form regular figures. "if you are pressed for time, this beautiful result will easily be obtained by passing the sheet of glass over a spirit lamp or a candle to evaporate the moisture. the crystals will then be smaller and more numerous, presenting the appearance of a dark firmament densely sprinkled with bright silvery stars. but if you have patience to wait for evaporation without heat, you will obtain larger crystals of more varied forms, arranging themselves as crosses, flowers, etc. "these crystals may be varied indefinitely by modifying the compositions of evaporation, adding more ink, etc. but it is quite possible that different inks will give different results. the inks i use, like all the other inks in use, have a basis of sulphate of iron and gallic acid. [illustration: from "the literary digest." fig. .--ink-crystals, as seen through a microscope.] "by allowing the evaporation to proceed slowly, it is quite easy to watch the formation of the crystals. the geometrical figures are more or less perfect cubes, pyramids, lozenges, crosses, needles, etc., the pyramids being formed by cubes superposed one on the other, as in the pyramids of egypt. the _flowers_ in our illustration are formed by the union of crystals, each of which represents the petals or sepals of a flower. the maltese cross--the crucifer or four-leafed flower--is the normal regular form, but multiples of four frequently occur, by the formation of new crystals in the intervals; and also by the accidents of crystallization, we get flowers of three and five petals, resembling _rubiaceae_, lilies, orchids, violets, etc." pinhole photography. although a lens is the most important part of the photographer's apparatus, it is not absolutely necessary for the production of photographs. very good pictures can be made by means of a pinhole. remove the lens from the camera, and insert in its place a sheet of thin, hard cardboard. in the centre make a tiny hole with a fine-pointed needle made red-hot. another method is to make a large hole in the cardboard, and paste over it a piece of tinfoil and make the pinhole in this. the essential point is that the hole be perfectly round without any burring at the edges. the most perfect arrangement can be obtained by getting a watchmaker to drill a fine hole through a piece of sheet metal. the diameter of the hole should not be greater than one-fiftieth of an inch. whatever is used, cardboard or metal, it should be blackened all over to prevent the reflection of light in the camera. the focusing glass should be brought within about inches of the hole. owing to the small amount of light admitted, focusing is very difficult. it can be done by pointing the camera towards the sun and focusing its image. for the same reason the exposure is very long, ranging from ten minutes to half an hour; it is, in fact, difficult to overexpose. [illustration: negative by f. c. lambert. from anthony's international annual, . fig. .--pinhole photography.] [illustration: (photograph made through a slit without a lens.) by roland briant. fig. .--the white robe of nature.] it is usually stated that no focusing is required, the larger the plate the wider the angle, but according to prof. pickering, inches is the maximum distance for sharp work. peculiar diffused effects can be obtained by using a fine slit in place of the pinhole. the picture shown on page is an example. freak pictures by successive exposures. we have already described the various remarkable photographic pictures which may be taken by successive exposures with the same individual in different positions against a perfectly black and non-actinic background. this, however, is not easily obtained, and a french photographer, m. bracq, has invented an ingenious attachment to a camera by which the same effects may be obtained with any background and under the ordinary conditions of amateur photography. the following description is from _la nature_ translated in the _popular science news_. [illustration: fig. .] the apparatus, fig. , is attached to the back of the camera, and consists of a frame suitable for holding the usual ground glass, or plate holder. directly in front of the plate holder is placed an opaque screen perforated with a horizontal slit the width of the photographic plate used. by means of a screw and a crank the screen with its opening may be made to move up and down before the plate, thus allowing all parts of it to be successively exposed. a pointer connected with the screen shows the position of the slit at any time when it is covered by the plate holder. the operation of the apparatus is evident from the above description. to take the picture illustrated in fig. , for instance, the table with the boy upon it is placed in the proper position and supported by planks, another table, or in any convenient way. after properly focusing it on the ground glass, the screen is screwed down till the opening is at the bottom of the camera, and the plate holder being placed in position, the slide is drawn and the handle turned till the indicator shows that the opening has reached a point corresponding to the image of the bottom of the table on the plate. the slide is then replaced in the plate holder, the table and its support removed, and the boy placed in the second position, and the exposure continued by screwing up the screen until the entire plate has been impressed with the double image, which, upon development, appears as shown in the illustration. [illustration: fig. .] the perforated screen may also be made to move horizontally as well as vertically across the plate, and by a combination of the two directions the same individual may be taken four or more times in different positions in the same photograph. many amusing and astonishing effects may be obtained by the simple means which will readily suggest themselves to any practical photographer. wide-angle studies. [illustration: copyright, , by w. j. demorest. fig. .--a photographic feat.] by the use, or rather the abuse, of a lens having a very wide angle, say, degrees, some very amusing effects can be obtained by apparent exaggeration of perspective. we say apparent advisedly, for if a view made with one of these lenses, say of inches focus, be viewed by the observer at a distance of inches from the eye, the perspective will appear correct; but, of course, this is never done under ordinary circumstances. every person, unless extremely short-sighted, will hold a photograph at a distance from the eye of about or inches. [illustration: fig. .--a wide-angle study.] the effect of using a wide-angle lens under ordinary conditions is to make objects in the foreground appear ridiculously large, while those in the background have a diminished appearance. fig. is an example of this; it is hardly necessary to observe that the gentleman's pedal extremities were not so gigantic as represented in the photograph. fig. is another and scarcely less painful example of this exaggeration. in the _practical photographer_, some time ago, it was humorously suggested that sportsmen could, by means of the camera, bring home apparently indisputable evidence as to their skill or prowess. thus, for instance, you and your friend jones have been out fishing together, and realized the truth of the old saying about anglers--_i.e._, "a worm at one end of a rod and a fool at the other." you have, however, managed to catch a fish (any sort will do) about the dimensions of a good-sized sprat. it is the usual custom of anglers, i believe, to view their captures through magnifying-glasses before discoursing upon them. a better plan, however, is to photograph your fish, and then there can be no dispute whatever, because it is the popular belief that photography cannot lie. however, all that is necessary is to hang the fish in front of the camera to the bough of a tree, we will say, with a piece of black thread. you then retire several paces behind it, holding up your arm as if you were holding up the fish. your friend will then adjust the camera so that the fish just comes under your hand, focuses, places a very small stop on, so as to get everything sharply defined, and makes the necessary exposure. thus it is possible, with a little trouble, to obtain everlasting records of your marvelous day's sport, for you can easily make yourself appear to be holding a fish of gigantic proportions--say, ft. long, or so. fig. , . [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] our illustrations are from "photographic pastimes" by herman schauss. with a very wide-angle lens it is also possible to make a photograph of a little suburban garden, and it will appear to resemble a park or palace grounds. this is a trick often adopted by auctioneers and estate agents, so that in viewing photographs of property, it is really impossible to form any safe idea regarding the place itself. conical portraits. amusing caricatures may be obtained by deforming the sensitive surface of the negative. the accompanying conical portrait is one.[ ] [ ] from "les recreations photographiques." [illustration: fig. .] to depict the features of a person on a paper cone is not an easy matter; whilst to obtain them by photography is a tolerably simple operation. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] having glued on the interior face of a plate-holder (the slide being drawn), in the place of a sensitive plate, a cone made of strong cardboard, superpose on it an unexposed film which has been cut to the form of the development of the cone (as shown in fig. ). the film is secured by means of two or three pins. having focused on a point of the subject in a middle plane, the ground glass is afterwards drawn back a distance equal to half the height of the cone, taking care not to derange either the subject or the objective. to obtain a sharp image a very small diaphragm must necessarily be used, but with a rapid plate and good light that is of little moment. the camera should be placed in the dark room, the lens being inserted in a hole in the partition just its size, and the subject in the adjoining apartment opposite the lens--this because the cone will not allow the plate-holder to be closed by the slide. fig. shows the arrangement of the camera and holder. the exposure made, the film is developed, as usual. the negative gives a print deformed as shown in fig. . the original, if not grotesque appearance of the head disappears when the print is rolled into a conical form and the observer places his eye in the prolongation of the axis of the cone. fig. shows the head as seen under these conditions. making direct positives in the camera. prepare a saturated solution in water of the crystals of thiosinamine, and add from two to eight minims of it to an ordinary pyro or eikonogen developer. expose rather less than usual. the effect of this addition to the developing agent is an entire reversal of the image, a positive instead of a negative being obtained. ammonia will assist the reversal. colonel waterhouse, the discoverer of this process, recommends in some cases the plates being subjected to a bath of per cent nitric acid and per cent potassium bichromate before exposure, followed by a thorough washing. instantaneous photography. in the very earliest days of photography this term was applied to what would now be considered very slow work indeed. we now usually apply this term when the exposure does not exceed one second. in some cases this only amounts to the one-thousandth part of a second. this exceedingly brief exposure is usually given to the plate by means of a suitably constructed shutter. the immense strides that have recently been made in instantaneous photography, owing chiefly to the advent of the dry-plate process, have caused photography to become useful to almost every branch of science. to muybridge and anschutz we are greatly indebted for the strides made in instantaneous photography. these gentlemen have succeeded in photographing moving objects hitherto considered impossible to be photographed. galloping horses, swift-flying birds, and even bullets and cannon balls projected from guns have been successfully photographed, showing even the little head of air driven along in front of the bullet. [illustration: fig. .] both muybridge and anschutz also succeeded in making series of twenty-four or more photographs of a horse during the time it makes a single leap, and thus illustrated its every movement. the value of these and other possibilities with the camera for artists cannot be overestimated. its aid to meteorologists in photographing the lightning, to astronomers in stellar, lunar and solar photography, and to all other sciences would require a work as large as this to describe. [illustration: by lt. joachim steiner. fig. .--instantaneous studies.] for the making of instantaneous pictures a large number of suitable cameras have been devised. in most of these the lens is a very rapid one, and in some cases so arranged that all objects beyond a certain distance are in focus. with an instantaneous camera a secondary image is necessary, so that the right second can be judged for making the exposure. this is usually produced by a finder. in making instantaneous exposures the following tables may be useful: approximate distance feet per second a man walking miles per hour moves - / a man walking miles per hour moves a vessel traveling at knots per hour moves a vessel traveling at knots per hour moves a vessel traveling at knots per hour moves a torpedo boat traveling at knots per hour moves a trotting horse a galloping horse ( , yards per minute) an express train traveling at miles an hour flight of a pigeon or falcon waves during a storm express train ( miles an hour) flight of the swiftest birds a cannon ball , an object moving-- mile per hour moves - / feet per second. " " " " " " - / " " " " " " " " - / " " " " " " " " " " " " - / " " " " " " " " - / " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " with these tables it will be very easy to find the distance that the image of the object will move on the ground-glass screen of the camera. to do this, multiply the focus of the lens in inches by the distance moved by the object in the second, and divide the result by the distance of the object in inches. [illustration: fig. .--"a rise in the world." by the marquis de alfarras.] example, find the movement of the image of an object moving miles per hour at a distance of yards with a lens of -inch focus. × = , ÷ , = - / inches per second. we must also find out the speed of the shutter required to take the object in motion, so that it will appear as sharply defined as possible under the circumstances. to do this the circle of confusion must not exceed / th of an inch in diameter. we therefore divide the distance of the object by the focus of the lens multiplied by , and then divide the rapidity of the object in inches per second by the result obtained. this will give the longest exposure permissible in the fraction of a second. for example, we require to know the speed of a shutter required to photograph an express train travelling at the rate of miles per hour at a distance of yards with an - / -inch focus lens. the train moves inches per second. , distance in inches ÷ ( - / × ) = , ÷ = / . speed of object per second ÷ / = ( × )/ = = / second. given the rapidity of the shutter, and the speed of the moving object, we require to find the distance from the object the camera should be placed to give a circle of confusion less than / th of an inch. multiply times the focus of the lens by the space through which the object would pass during the exposure, and the result obtained will be the nearest possible distance between the object and the camera. for example, we have a shutter working at one-fiftieth of a second, and the object to be photographed moves at the rate of miles per hour. how near can a camera fitted with a lens of - / -inch focus be placed to the moving object? object moving miles per hour moves per second inches, and in the one-fiftieth part of a second it moves . inches, so that-- - / × . = . × × . = , inches = yards. instantaneous photography can only be successfully performed in very bright and actinic light, and should never be attempted on dull days, as underexposure will be the inevitable result. in developing it is necessary to employ a strong developer to bring up the detail. some operators make use of an accelerator for this purpose, but it is not to be recommended; the simplest is a few drops of hyposulphite solution added to about ounces of water. in this the plate is bathed for a few seconds previous to development. the following is a table by h. e. tolman showing displacement on ground glass of objects in motion: ============================================================== | | distance on | | | |ground glass | | | | in inches | same with | same with miles per |feet per |with object |object feet| object hour. | second. | feet away. | away. | feet away. ----------+---------+--------------+--------------+----------- | - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . | | . | . | . ----------+---------+--------------+--------------+----------- [illustration: fig. .--artificial reproduction and photographing of a mirage] artificial mirages by photography. some time ago a photographer made quite a sensation by the publication of a fine photograph of a mirage, a phenomenon frequently observed on the plains of egypt. the wily photographer had, however, never traveled away from this country. he had simply produced the effect by artificial means. a method of making these pictures was given some time ago in the _scientific american_. a very even plate of sheet iron is taken and placed horizontally on two supports. the plate is heated uniformly and sprinkled with sand. then a small egyptian landscape is arranged at one end of the plate, and the photographic instrument is so placed that the visual ray shall properly graze the plate. a sketch of the arrangement is shown in fig. . the photo-chromoscope. this instrument was devised by m. paul nadar, the celebrated french photographer, but anyone can construct a similar apparatus. the arrangement is shown in fig. . the slides a and b b are adjustable so that any sized picture can be inserted and the sides closed round it to shut out the light from behind. a silver print unmounted is made transparent with vaseline and placed on the glass. pieces of paper of various colors are placed in the reflector, c, and by this means all kinds of effects can be obtained. a landscape can be viewed as though under the pale reflected light of the rising sun behind the mountains, which may be changed gradually to the full light of day. [illustration: fig. .--nadar's photo-chromoscope.] composite photography. this is a process of combining a number of images in such a way that the result obtained is an aggregate of its components. francis galton was one of the first to employ this system. in the appendix to his "inquiries into human faculty," galton has described the very elaborate and perfect form of apparatus which he has used in his studies; but entirely satisfactory results may be obtained with much more simple contrivances. the instrument used by prof. bowditch[ ] is merely an old-fashioned box camera, with a hole cut in the top for the reception of the ground-glass plate upon which the image is to be reflected for purposes of adjustment. the reflection is effected by a mirror set at an angle of degrees in the axis of the camera, and pivoted on its upper border so that, after the adjustment of the image, the mirror can be turned against the upper side of the box, and the image allowed to fall on the sensitive plate at the back of the camera. the original negatives are used as components, and are placed in succession in a small wooden frame which is pressed by elliptical springs against a sheet of glass fastened vertically in front of the camera. by means of this arrangement it is possible to place each negative in succession in any desired position in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the camera, and thus to adjust it so that the eyes and the mouth of its optical image shall fall upon the fiducial lines drawn upon the ground-glass plate at the top of the camera. an argand gas burner with a condensing lens furnishes the necessary illumination. [ ] from _mcclure's magazine_, september, . "for our amateur photographers," writes prof. bowditch, "who are constantly seeking new worlds to conquer, the opportunity of doing useful work in developing the possibilities of composite photography ought to be very welcome. not only will the science of ethnology profit by their labors, but by making composites of persons nearly related to each other, a new and very interesting kind of family portrait may be produced. the effect of occupation on the physiognomy may also be studied in this way. by comparing, for instance, the composite of a group of doctors with that of a group of lawyers, we may hope to ascertain whether there is such a thing as a distinct legal or medical physiognomy." [illustration: by prof. bowditch. fig. .--composite portraits of boston physicians and saxon soldiers.] telephoto pictures. [illustration: fig. .--camera with opera glass attached.] during the last few years many so-called telephotographic lenses have been placed upon the market. these instruments enable one to photograph objects in the distance and obtain images very much larger than those given by the ordinary photographic lens. these lenses are, however, very costly. in an article by mr. o. g. mason, published in _the photographic times_ for june, , that gentleman described a simple method of obtaining telephoto pictures by replacing the ordinary lens with an opera glass. he says: "several devices have been brought forward with a view of decreasing the expense of telephoto lenses, but i have seen no others so satisfactory, cheap and simple, as the utilization of the ordinary opera glass for the camera objective, which was described, figured and finally constructed for me about a year ago by mr. alvin lawrence, the horologist of lowell, mass. an opera or field glass is a convenient and useful instrument in the kit of any touring photographer; and when he can easily and quickly attach it to his camera-box as an objective its great value is at once made apparent. mr. lawrence's method of doing this at little cost is a good illustration of yankee ingenuity. it is not claimed that such a device will do all or as well as a telephotographic lens costing ten times as much; but it will do far more than most people could or would expect. of course the field is quite limited, which, in fact, is the case with the most expensive telephotographic objective, and the sharpness of the image depends much upon the quality of the opera or field glass used. the accompanying views show the relative size and character of image by a forty-five dollar rapid rectilinear view lens and a four-dollar opera glass attached to the same camera and used at the same point. the other illustrations show the camera as used and the method of opera glass attachment to the lens-board. it will be seen that the eye end of the opera glass is placed against the lens-board, one eye-piece in a slight depression around the hole through the centre, and by a quarter turn the brace between the two barrels passes behind a projecting arm on the board, the focusing barrel resting in a slot in this arm, where it is firmly held in position by friction alone. [illustration: fig. .--camera showing arrangement for opera glass.] [illustration: fig. .--view taken with opera glass.] [illustration: fig. .--view taken from same spot with an ordinary view lens.] as opera glasses are usually constructed for vision only, no attempt is made by the optician to make correction for securing coincidence of foci of the visual and chemical rays of light as in the well-made photographic objective. hence, it is often found that the actinic focus falls within, or is shorter than, the visual. when this is the case, the proper allowance is easily made after a few trials. lightning photographs. [illustration: fig. .--photograph of lightning made at blue hill.] the method of making photographs of lightning flashes is very simple. the camera is focused for distant objects. during a thunderstorm the camera is pointed in the direction of the flashes, a plate is inserted, the cap is removed from the lens, and as soon as a flash takes place the lens is covered up and the plate is ready for development. to avoid halation a backed or non-halation plate should be used. photographing fireworks. photographs of pyrotechnical displays can also be made at night. the method of procedure is the same as described for photographs of lightning. the camera is focused for distant objects and the lens pointed towards the place where the discharge takes place. fig. . doubles. [illustration: fig. .--a double. by h. g. reading.] some very amusing pictures can be made by double exposure. for instance, fig. represents a man playing cards with himself. a method of making these is thus described by w. j. hickmott in "the american annual of photography for ": [illustration: by leonard m. davis. fig. .--farewell reception to the prince of wales.] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] fit an open square box into the back of the camera, having it fully as large as, or a little larger than, the negatives you wish to make. my attachment is made for × plates and under, and fits into the back of a × camera. in shape it is like fig. , and i will designate it as a. the box is about inches deep. when put into the camera it appears as in fig. . now have a plain strip of wood just one-half the size of the opening in a like b, fig. . have b fit very nicely in a, at the opening toward the lens, and so that it can be moved freely from one side to the other. it is very convenient to have a rabbet on the top and bottom of a so that b can be moved from side to side and maintained in any position. [illustration: fig. .] to make a "double," attach a to the camera as shown, put b into its place in the opening in a, say on the right-hand side as you stand back of your camera, thus covering up the right-hand side of the plate when exposure is made. pose your subject on the left hand side, which will give you an image on the right-hand side of your ground glass and plate, draw the slide and expose, immediately returning the slide. this finishes one half of the operation. shift b over to the left-hand side of a, which will cover up that portion of the plate just exposed, pose your subject again, but on the left-hand side, which will give you the image on the right-hand side of the ground glass and plate, draw the slide and expose out for the exact length of time as at first. on development, if the exposure on both sides has been correct, and of equal length, a perfect negative will be the result. the camera must on no account be moved between the exposures, nor the focus changed. after making the first exposure the correct focus for the second is obtained by moving the subject backward or forward until an exact focus is secured, and not by moving the camera or ground glass. the whole apparatus should be painted a dead black. when the attachment is in place it will be noted on the ground glass that while the strip b is just one-half the size of the opening in a, it does not cut off just one-half of the ground glass, a line drawn through the center of which shows that a space in the center of the plate about one-half an inch in width receives a double exposure, but this is not apparent in the finished negative. the figure should be posed as near the center of the plate as possible in each instance. this apparatus, as described, is only available for making two figures. by making b narrower, or one-third of the width of the opening in a, three figures may be made, using each time a separate piece to cover up that portion of the plate exposed, and by changing the form of b to that shown in fig. , four positions can be secured. [illustration: fig. .] val starnes describes[ ] another and still simpler method. he says: take a light card, mount and carefully cut from it a disc that will fit snugly inside the rim of the hood of your lens, resting against the circular interior shoulder (fig. ). cut from this, in a straight, true line, a small segment (fig. ). the exact amount to cut off you can determine by slowly thrusting with one hand a card with a straight edge across the lens hood, looking the while at the ground glass; when the shadow has crept _almost_ to the center of the focusing screen, hold the card firmly in place and notice how much of the circle of the hood is covered by it: cut from your disc a segment corresponding to the amount _left uncovered_. don't let the shadow creep _quite_ to the center of the ground glass, for you might go the least bit beyond, and an unexposed strip would result. now paint your disc a dull black; loosen the hood of your lens on its threads, so that it will revolve easily and freely, and you are ready for business. [ ] "american annual for ." [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] get your focus and then place disc in hood of lens, straight edge perpendicular (fig. ). cover lens with cap or shutter; insert plate-holder and draw slide; pose your figure _directly in front of uncovered portion of lens_; expose. next, without touching disc, slide, or anything but the hood, gently revolve the hood on its threads one-half turn (fig. ), and pose your figure on opposite side; expose. the trick's accomplished. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] another arrangement devised by mr. frank a. gilmore, of auburn, r. i., is shown in fig. . a black-lined box is fitted to the front of a camera. the front of the box is closed by two doors. on opening one door a picture may be taken on one side of the plate; on closing this door and opening the other, the other half of the plate is ready for exposure. [illustration: fig. .--camera fitted with arrangement for duplex photography.] the subject poses in one position and is photographed with one door open, care being taken to bring the figure within the proper area of the negative. the finder enables this detail to be attended to. then the door is closed, the other is opened and the second exposure for the other half of the plate is made with the subject in the other position. it is not necessary to touch the plate-holder between the exposures. the cover is withdrawn, the one door is opened and the shutter is sprung. the doors are then changed and the shutter is sprung a second time. time exposures are rather risky, as involving danger of shaking. a picture made by mr. gilmore will be found on the next page. [illustration: by f. a. gilmore. from _scientific american_. fig. .--sparring with himself] double exposures. [illustration: by c. a. bates. fig. .--results of a double exposure.] [illustration: copyright, , by w. j. demorest. fig. .--result of a double exposure.] amateurs often obtain unexpected results from carelessness in exposing their plates. some very amusing pictures can, however, be obtained by making two different exposures on one plate. the subject should, of course, be of a very different nature. our illustrations, figs. - , are examples. in making these it is necessary to give a very short exposure in each case, about one-half the amount that would be ordinarily required. the negative must be carefully developed, using plenty of restrainer. similar effects can, of course, be obtained by printing from two different negatives, but the results are, as a rule, inferior. comical portraits. if the photographer be skilled in drawing he can make some laughable pictures that will amuse his friends by drawing a sketch of a comical body without a head, as shown in fig. ; a photograph of anyone is then cut out and the head pasted on. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--the two-headed man. by ivan sokoloff.] the two-headed man. this picture shows a variation of the theme illustrated in fig. , and is a type of doublet usually avoided by amateurs, who prefer to have one figure complete and shown in two positions. the monster is an amusing variation and will be new to most people. the subject sits in the same spot for both exposures, except that he bends his head and shoulders first to one side and then to the other. it is advisable to keep the background very simple, otherwise objects on the wall may show through the head, as in some of the spirit photography methods given on previous pages. duplicators and triplicators. [illustration: fig. .--mountings for triplicators.] while doubles are well known to many amateurs, the making of three exposures of one subject on a single plate is not so common. mr. chas. a. barnard has furnished particulars of his method of making the pictures shown in figs. and . fig. shows two methods of mounting the attachment in front of the camera lens, one being designed to slip over, while the other screws into the lens barrel, the front of which is often fitted with a screw thread. fig. shows the stops which slide in this mounting; in making them, first mark on each the position of the center of the lens by measuring up from the stud which holds the stop in place. draw your circles for stops with this as a centre, and as large as diameter of lens. leaf a is used for the sides of the triplicator, reversing between the exposures. with an inch circle, the width of this is . inch. the edges should be filed down as thin as possible without nicking. leaf b is for the centre exposure of the triplicator, and the slot is . inch wide and inch long. leaf c is the duplicator stop, its width being . inch. leaves d and d are for top and bottom exposures of a vertical double, and are the same size as c. the proportions might have to be slightly varied for some other lens, in all these cases. a triplicate exposure is made as follows. first focus, using the whole lens, at any stop, and determine the limits of your picture spaces. as the leeway is small, do not get the figures too large. pose the model in the centre, stop down till properly lighted, and note the stop and mark edges of view on ground glass. focus on model at one side, stop down till edge blends into edge of previous view, and note stop. do the same in third position. this may take some time, and a chair may be used instead of a model. finally, put in the plate and make the three exposures, giving four times the exposures ordinarily required for the same stops. the order is immaterial. stops recommended for a - / × - / camera are as follows: for a horizontal doublet, leaf c, u. s. ; for a vertical doublet, leaf d , u. s. , leaf d , u. s. ; for a horizontal triplet, leaf a, u. s. , leaf b, u. s. ; for a vertical triplet (leaves not shown in drawing), leaf a for top, u. s. ; for bottom, u. s. , leaf b, u. s. . vertical pictures are extremely difficult to figure. [illustration: fig. .--triplicate exposure. by charles a. barnard.] [illustration: fig. .--farm work (triplicate exposure). by charles a. barnard.] [illustration: fig. .--stops for duplicators and triplicator.] pictures with eyes which open and close. to make a photograph with this peculiarity, it is necessary to make two exposures of a head in exactly the same position, one with the eyes closed and the other with them open. two positives are made from the two negatives and bound in contact by means of lantern slide binders, so that the outlines coincide. if they are now held in front of a flickering lamp or match flame, the combined portrait will be seen to rapidly open and close its eyes, giving a very weird effect. this effect depends upon the fact that the human eye receives impressions slowly and has a tendency to judge that a motion is uniform, when rapidly varying phases of it are seen. the flickering flame, moving sideways, shows first one and then the other of the two images, which are separated by the thickness of the glass. the same effect can be produced by sliding the pictures slightly sideways on each other, but the perfection of the illusion will depend somewhat on the regularity of the movement, and the flame method is better. if the two pictures are printed on one piece of paper, the combined image may show the same illusion. photographic bookplates. we have all of us seen and many of us have made collections of those attractive little bits of paper so frequently stuck on the front cover of a book to designate its ownership. invented almost contemporaneously with the first printed books, they have been designed and engraved by artists of the highest standing and used by the world's greatest men and women. who would not be proud to own a book containing a bookplate made by albrecht durer or paul revere, or one whose bookplate proved it had belonged to george washington or theodore roosevelt, irrespective of the great money value of such items? the bookplate is an intensely personal possession. the first were heraldic, identifying the possessors by their coats of arms. modern bookplates usually reflect some personal taste of the owner, his hobby, his house, his portrait, or the type of books he collects. nothing could be more fitting than one made from a photograph taken by its possessor, and yet in the writer's collection of many thousand bookplates covering several centuries and many countries, there are less than a dozen photographic examples. they are easily made. the most usual method is to choose a suitable photograph, a view of the home or library interior, a loved landscape or view, a symbolical figure with a book, a genre which may be a pun on the owner's name, or a picture relating to his chief hobby, and draw a more or less ornamental frame containing the words "ex libris" or "his book," together with the name, about it. there are other wordings, but the above are the commonest. the whole is then photographed down to the proper size, usually three or four inches high, and prints made either by photography or from a halftone block. the nude female figure is a frequent motive in bookplates, whether photographic, or etched or engraved. the example we show is the work of two artists, one of whom made the photograph while the other designed the framework. [illustration: by a. e. goetting and will ransom. fig. .--a photographic bookplate.] landscapes and groups on the dining-room table did you ever try building landscapes on the dining-room table? if not, learn how easy it is and try it out some evening or rainy sunday, when you don't feel like tramping across country with muddy roads and flat lightings. the easiest kind of pictures to make in this way is an imitation of snow scenes. any white material may be used, as snow, i.e., fine salt, powdered sugar, flour, or whatever the kitchen closet or the chemical shelf may produce. a range of mountains may easily be made by merely heaping up the material and then modeling ravines and broken slopes with a sharp pencil. a brilliant side lighting should be used to give the effect of sunrise or sunset, and clouds may be printed in from a cloud negative or obtained by means of a roughly painted background. perhaps mountains are more naturally represented by the use of a few sharp-angled pieces of coal from the cellar, or fragments of broken stone from the nearest quarry or monument maker. on these, after arranging, the white powder may be sifted, lodging in a close imitation of nature. if a highly polished table is used, reflections may be obtained as in a lake, or a sheet of glass with a dark cloth under it may be used for the same purpose. more complicated landscapes may be made by using twigs as leafless trees, fence posts, etc., and children's toy houses may be introduced, particularly if well screened by brush and half buried in snow. only the merest hint of the possibilities can be given, for they are endless. the introduction of figures, in the shape of dolls, china and metal animals, carts, autos, railroad trains, etc., greatly widens the scope of such landscape work, but of recent years these figures have been more frequently used for tableaux, such as the one shown opposite. extremely comical pictures have been made with kewpies, billikens and other queer creatures and their animal friends, and with grotesque figures made of vegetables, fruit and eggs. [illustration: by clark h. rutter. fig. .--friend or foe.] night photography. the night photographer has to be more or less immune to criticism, and willing to endure all kinds of conversational interruptions, from friendly questions to unmannerly jeers and imputations of insanity. the general public knows from personal experience with hand cameras provided with slow lenses and small stops that picture taking can be done only by sunlight and in the middle of the day, and does not understand the setting up of a camera in a poorly-lighted place at night for the taking of a picture. nevertheless, this branch of photography is very interesting and results are possible even in villages and the open fields, wherever the least artificial illumination or glimpse of moonlight is present. naturally, much light means shorter exposures than are possible with very sparing illumination, but too many light sources do not tend to artistic results. one of the finest night pictures we ever saw was that of an old farmhouse, nearly buried in snow, with one or two windows showing the light of a kerosene lamp. the snow was illuminated by the light of the full moon, and only two or three minutes' exposure was given. as a matter of fact, to minutes' exposure on any landscape at _f_: by the light of the full moon high in the sky will give a picture hardly to be distinguished from one made in daylight except by the softness of the shadows, and such pictures sometimes have a softness and wealth of detail in ordinarily shadowed parts which cannot be obtained by exposures in daylight. the best night pictures are perhaps those taken in city streets brilliantly illuminated by arc lights, especially when the pavements are wet. care must be taken not to have brilliant lights shining directly into the lens, for even double-coated plates will not prevent halation and reversal of the image under such circumstances. ghosts, or wheel-shaped images of the lights, in other parts of the plate, are sure to occur with all double lenses in such cases. the night picture shown opposite shows how interesting a simple subject, poorly illuminated, may turn out in the print. this shows typical star radiation about the single visible light, caused by the blades of the iris diaphragm, and also a slight ghost from this light on the face of the tower, caused by a double reflection within the lens. [illustration: by f. a. northrup. fig. .--a glimpse of the exposition.] other forms of night photographs, treated elsewhere in this book, are photographs of fireworks and lightning. very interesting and scientifically valuable pictures of the latter phenomenon have been made by swinging the camera during the exposure, thus getting a dozen or more paths of the same flash parallel to each other. photographs on apples and eggs. to make a photograph in green on the red skin of an apple is a wonderful but simple feat. tie up the selected fruit on a sunny bough in a thick yellow or black paper bag for about three weeks before harvest time. immediately after taking off the bag, paste a black paper stencil or a very contrasty negative to the apple with white of egg. it should be small, to fit the curved surface quite closely. clear away leaves, so the sun gets clear access to the fruit, and leave on the tree till it becomes red. if not then ripe, put it back into the opaque bag for a day or two till ready to pick. the negative may then be soaked off. don't use a valuable negative, but make a duplicate for this experiment. a paper stencil is better, anyway. to put a photograph on an egg, take one which is perfectly clean, sponge it over several times with to solution of table salt, dry, then sponge over with to solution of silver nitrate. keep your fingers out of this, or they will turn fast black. then take a black paper stencil or a small contrasty film negative, cut a hole in a piece of black flannel somewhat smaller than the negative, and tie around the egg to hold the negative. then bring into light, print out, wash and tone and fix like any printing-out paper. and don't eat the egg, for chemicals will go through the shell. [illustration: by a. h. blake. fig. .--the embankment, london.] * * * * * books on photography optics for photographers, by hans harting, ph.d. translated by frank r. fraprie, s.m., f.r.p.s. pages. cloth, $ . . chemistry for photographers, by william r. flint. nd edition. pages. cloth, $ . . pictorial composition in photography, by arthur hammond. pages, illustrations. cloth, $ . . photo-engraving primer, by stephen h. horgan. cloth, $ . . cash from your camera. edited by frank r. fraprie, s.m., f.r.p.s. paper, $ . . pictorial landscape photography, by the photo pictorialists of buffalo. pages, illustrations. cloth, $ . . photographic amusements, by walter e. woodbury. th edition. pages, illustrations. cloth, $ . . practical color photography by e. j. wall, f.c.s., f.r.p.s. cloth, $ . . practical photography series edited by frank r. fraprie, s.m., f.r.p.s. editor of _american photography_ . the secret of exposure. . beginners' troubles. . how to choose and use a lens. . how to make prints in color. . how to make enlargements. . how to make portraits. . how to make lantern slides. . the elements of photography. . practical retouching. _each volume sold separately._ cloth, $ . ; paper, cents. american photography exposure tables, st thousand. cloth, cents. thermo development chart. cents. _american photography_, a monthly magazine, representing all that its name implies. cents a copy. $ . a year. published by american photographic publishing co. newbury st., boston , massachusetts * * * * * transcriber's note: . figure .--composite portraits of boston physicians and saxon soldiers was corrected to figure . . figure .--a double. by h. g. reading. is out of sequence. another figure comes later in the text. . mismatched quotation marks are as they were in the original book. this etext was created by gregory walker, in austin, texas, for the digital daguerreian archive project--electronic texts from the dawn of photography. internet: gwalker@netcom.com compuserve: , the location of the illustrations in the text are marked by "[hipho_##.gif]" on a separate line. i hope this etext inspires a wider interest in the origins of photography and in the modern practice of the daguerreian art. the history and practice of the art of photography; or the production of pictures through the agency of light. containing all the instructions necessary for the complete practice of the daguerrean and photogenic art, both on metallic plates and on paper. by henry h. snelling. illustrated with wood cuts. new york: published by g. p. putnam, broadway, . entered according to act of congress in the year , by h. h. snelling, in the clerk's office, of the district court of the southern district of new york. new york: printed by busteed & mccoy, fulton street. to edward anthony, esq., an esteemed friend. whose gentlemanly deportment, liberal feelings, and strict integrity have secured him a large circle of friends, this work is respectfully dedicated by the author. preface. the object of this little work is to fill a void much complained of by daguerreotypists--particularly young beginners. the author has waited a long time in hopes that some more able pen would be devoted to the subject, but the wants of the numerous, and constantly increasing, class, just mentioned, induces him to wait no longer. all the english works on the subject--particularly on the practical application, of photogenic drawing--are deficient in many minute details, which are essential to a complete understanding of the art. many of their methods of operating are entirely different from, and much inferior to, those practised in the united states: their apparatus, also, cannot compare with ours for completeness, utility or simplicity. i shall, therefore, confine myself principally--so far as photogenic drawing upon metalic plates is concerned--to the methods practised by the most celebrated and experienced operators, drawing upon french and english authority only in cases where i find it essential to the purpose for which i design my work, namely: furnishing a complete system of photography; such an one as will enable any gentleman, or lady, who may wish to practise the art, for profit or amusement, to do so without the trouble and expense of seeking instruction from professors, which in many cases within my own knowledge has prevented persons from embracing the profession. to english authors i am principally indebted for that portion of my work relating to photogenic drawing on paper. to them we owe nearly all the most important improvements in that branch of the art. besides, it has been but seldom attempted in the united states, and then without any decided success. of these attempts i shall speak further in the historical portion of this volume. every thing essential, therefore, to a complete knowledge of the whole art, comprising all the most recent discoveries and improvements down to the day of publication will be found herein laid down. contents i. a brief history of the art. ii. the theory on light.--the photographic principle iii. synopsis of mr. hunt's treatise on "the influence of the solar rays on compound bodies, with especial reference to their photographic application." iv. a few hints and suggestions to daguerreotypists. v. daguerreotype apparatus. vi. the daguerreotype process. vii. paper daguerreotypes.--etching daguerreotypes. viii. photogenic drawing on paper. ix. calotype and chrysotype. x. cyanotype--energiatype--chromatype--anthotype--amphitype and "crayon daguerreotype." xi. on the probability of producing colored pictures by the solar radiations--photographic deviations--lunar pictures--drummond light. xii. on coloring daguerreotypes. xiii. the photographometer. index. introduction new york, january , . e. anthony, esq. dear sir,--in submitting the accompanying "history and practice of photography" to your perusal, and for your approbation, i do so with the utmost confidence in your ability as a practical man, long engaged in the science of which it treats, as well as your knowledge of the sciences generally; as well as your regard for candor. to you, therefore, i leave the decision whether or no i have accomplished my purpose, and produced a work which may not only be of practical benefit to the daguerrean artist, but of general interest to the reading public, and your decision will influence me in offering it for, or withholding it from, publication. if it meets your approbation, i would most respectfully ask permission to dedicate it to you, subscribing myself, with esteem, ever truly yours, henry h. snelling new york, february st, . mr. h. h. snelling. dear sir--your note of january th, requesting permission to dedicate to me your "history and practice of photography," i esteem a high compliment, particularly since i have read the manuscript of your work. such a treatise has long been needed, and the manner in which you have handled the subject will make the book as interesting to the reading public as it is valuable to the daguerrean artist, or the amateur dabbler in photography. i have read nearly all of the many works upon this art that have emanated from the london and paris presses, and i think the reader will find in yours the pith of them all, with much practical and useful information that i do not remember to have seen communicated elsewhere. there is much in it to arouse the reflective and inventive faculties of our daguerreotypists. they have heretofore stumbled along with very little knowledge of the true theory of their art, and yet the quality of their productions is far in advance of those of the french and english artists, most of whose establishments i have had the pleasure of visiting i feel therefore, that when a sufficient amount of theoretic knowledge shall have been added to this practical skill on the part of our operators, and when they shall have been made fully acquainted with what has been attained or attempted by others, a still greater advance in the art will be manifested. a good daguerreotypist is by no means a mere machine following a certain set of fixed rules. success in this art requires personal skill and artistic taste to a much greater degree than the unthinking public generally imagine; in fact more than is imagined by nine-tenths of the daguerreotypists themselves. and we see as a natural result, that while the business numbers its thousands of votaries, but few rise to any degree of eminence. it is because they look upon their business as a mere mechanical operation, and having no aim or pride beyond the earning of their daily bread, they calculate what will be a fair per centage on the cost of their plate, case, and chemicals, leaving mind, which is as much capital as anything else (where it is exercised,) entirely out of the question. the art of taking photographs on paper, of which your work treats at considerable length, has as yet attracted but little attention in this country, though destined, as i fully believe, to attain an importance far superior to that to which the daguerreotype has risen. the american mind needs a waking up upon the subject, and i think your book will give a powerful impulse in this direction. in germany a high degree of perfection has been reached, and i hope your countrymen will not be slow to follow. your interesting account of the experiments of mr. wattles was entirely new to me, and is another among the many evidences that when the age is fully ripe for any great discovery, it is rare that it does not occur to more than a single mind. trusting that your work will meet with the encouragement which your trouble in preparing it deserves, and with gratitude for the undeserved compliment paid to me in its dedication, i remain, very sincerely, your friend and well wisher, e. anthony. photography. chap. i. a brief history of the art. as in all cases of great and valuable inventions in science and art the english lay claim to the honor of having first discovered that of photogenic drawing. but we shall see in the progress of this history, that like many other assumptions of their authors, priority in this is no more due them, then the invention of steamboats, or the cotton gin. this claim is founded upon the fact that in mr. wedgwood recorded an experiment in the journal of the royal institution of the following nature. "a piece of paper, or other convenient material, was placed upon a frame and sponged over with a solution of nitrate of silver; it was then placed behind a painting on glass and the light traversing the painting produced a kind of copy upon the prepared paper, those parts in which the rays were least intercepted being of the darkest hues. here, however, terminated the experiment; for although both mr. wedgwood and sir humphry davey experimented carefully, for the purpose of endeavoring to fix the drawings thus obtained, yet the object could not be accomplished, and the whole ended in failure." this, by their own showing, was the earliest attempt of the english savans. but this much of the principle was known to the alchemists at an early date--although practically produced in another way--as the following experiment, to be found in old books, amply proves. "dissolve chalk in aquafortis to the consistence of milk, and add to it a strong solution of silver; keep this liquor in a glass bottle well stopped; then cutting out from a piece of paper the letters you would have appear, paste it on the decanter, and lay it in the sun's rays in such a manner that the rays may pass through the spaces cut out of the paper and fall on the surface of the liquor the part of the glass through which the rays pass will be turned black, while that under the paper remains white; but particular care must be observed that the bottle be not moved during the operation." had not the alchemists been so intent upon the desire to discover the far famed philosopher's stone, as to make them unmindful of the accidental dawnings of more valuable discoveries, this little experiment in chemistry might have induced them to prosecute a more thorough search into the principle, and photogenic art would not now, as it is, be a new one. it is even asserted that the jugglers of india were for many ages in possession of a secret by which they were enabled, in a brief space, to copy the likeness of any individual by the action of light. this fact, if fact it be, may account for the celebrated magic mirrors said to be possessed by these jugglers, and probable cause of their power over the people. however, as early as the fact was established that a combination of chloride and silver, called, from its appearance, horn silver, was blackened by the sun's rays; and in the latter part of the last century mrs. fulhame published an experiment by which a change of color was effected in the chloride of gold by the agency of light; and gave it as her opinion that words might be written in this way. these incidents are considered as the first steps towards the discovery of the photogenic art. mr. wedgwood's experiments can scarcely be said to be any improvement on them since he failed to bring them to practical usefulness, and his countrymen will have to be satisfied with awarding the honor of its complete adaptation to practical purposes, to mm. niepce and daguerre of france, and to professors draper, and morse of new-york. these gentlemen--mm. niepce and daguerre--pursued the subject simultaneously, without either, however being aware of the experiments of his colleague in science. for several years, each pursued his researches individually until chance made them acquainted, when they entered into co-partnership, and conjointly brought the art almost to perfection. m. niepce presented his first paper on the subject to the royal society in , naming his discovery heliography. what led him to the study of the principles of the art i have no means, at present, of knowing, but it was probably owing to the facts recorded by the alchemists, mrs. fulhame and others, already mentioned. but m. daguerre, who is a celebrated dioramic painter, being desirous of employing some of the singularly changeable salts of silver to produce a peculiar class of effects in his paintings, was led to pursue an investigation which resulted in the discovery of the daguerreotype, or photogenic drawing on plates of copper coated with silver. to this gentleman--to his liberality--are we americans indebted for the free use of his invention; and the large and increasing class of daguerrean artists of this country should hold him in the most profound respect for it. he was not willing that it should be confined to a few individuals who might monopolise the benefits to be derived from its practice, and shut out all chance of improvement. like a true, noble hearted french gentleman he desired that his invention should spread freely throughout the whole world. with these views he opened negociations with the french government which were concluded most favorably to both the inventors, and france has the "glory of endowing the whole world of science and art with one of the most surprising discoveries that honor the land." notwithstanding this, it has been patented in england and the result is what might have been expected: english pictures are far below the standard of excellence of those taken by american artists. i have seen some medium portraits, for which a guinea each had been paid, and taken too, by a celebrated artist, that our poorest daguerreotypists would be ashamed to show to a second person, much less suffer to leave their rooms. calotype, the name given to one of the methods of photogenic drawing on paper, discovered, and perfected by mr. fox talbot of england, is precisely in the same predicament, not only in that country but in the united states, mr. talbot being patentee in both. he is a man of some wealth, i believe, but he demands so high a price for a single right in this country, that none can be found who have the temerity to purchase. the execution of his pictures is also inferior to those taken by the german artists, and i would remark en passant, that the messrs. mead exhibited at the last fair of the american institute, (of ,) four calotypes, which one of the firm brought from germany last spring, that for beauty, depth of tone and excellence of execution surpass the finest steel engraving. when mr. talbot's patent for the united states expires and our ingenious yankee boys have the opportunity, i have not the slightest doubt of the calotype, in their hands, entirely superceding the daguerreotype. let them, therefore, study the principles of the art as laid down in this little work, experiment, practice and perfect themselves in it, and when that time does arrive be prepared to produce that degree of excellence in calotype they have already obtained in daguerreotype. it is to professor samuel f. b. morse, the distinguished inventor of the magnetic telegraph, of new york, that we are indebted for the application of photography, to portrait taking. he was in paris, for the purpose of presenting to the scientific world his electro-magnetic telegraph, at the time, ( ,) m. daguerre announced his splendid discovery, and its astounding results having an important bearing on the arts of design arrested his attention. in his letter to me on the subject, the professor gives the following interesting facts. "the process was a secret, and negociations were then in progress, for the disclosure of it to the public between the french government and the distinguished discoverer. m. daguerre had shown his results to the king, and to a few only of the distinguished savans, and by the advice of m. arago, had determined to wait the action of the french chambers, before showing them to any other persons. i was exceedingly desirous of seeing them, but knew not how to approach m. daguerre who was a stranger to me. on mentioning my desire to robert walsh, esq., our worthy consul, he said to me; 'state that you are an american, the inventor of the telegraph, request to see them, and invite him in turn to see the telegraph, and i know enough of the urbanity and liberal feelings of the french, to insure you an invitation.' i was successfull in my application, and with a young friend, since deceased, the promising son of edward delevan, esq., i passed a most delightful hour with m. daguerre, and his enchanting sun-pictures. my letter containing an account of this visit, and these pictures, was the first announcement in this country of this splendid discovery." "i may here add the singular sequel to this visit. on the succeeding day m. daguerre paid me a visit to see the telegraph and witness its operations. he seemed much gratified and remained with me perhaps two hours; two melancholy hours to him, as they afterwards proved; or while he was with me, his buildings, including his diorama, his studio, his laboratory, with all the beautiful pictures i had seen the day before, were consumed by fire. fortunately for mankind, matter only was consumed, the soul and mind of the genius, and the process were still in existence." on his return home, professor morse waited with impatience for the revelation of m. daguerre's process, and no sooner was it published than he procured a copy of the work containing it, and at once commenced taking daguerreotype pictures. at first his object was solely to furnish his studio with studies from nature; but his experiments led him into a belief of the practicability of procuring portraits by the process, and he was undoubtedly the first whose attempts were attended with success. thinking, at that time, that it was necessary to place the sitters in a very strong light, they were all taken with their eyes closed. others were experimenting at the same time, among them mr. wolcott and prof. draper, and mr. morse, with his accustomed modesty, thinks that it would be difficult to say to whom is due the credit of the first daguerreotype portrait. at all events, so far as my knowledge serves me, professor morse deserves the laurel wreath, as from him originated the first of our inumerable class of daguerreotypists; and many of his pupils have carried the manipulation to very great perfection. in connection with this matter i will give the concluding paragraph of a private letter from the professor to me; he says. "if mine were the first, other experimenters soon made better results, and if there are any who dispute that i was first, i shall have no argument with them; for i was not so anxious to be the first to produce the result, as to produce it in any way. i esteem it but the natural carrying out of the wonderful discovery, and that the credit was after all due to daguerre. i lay no claim to any improvements." since i commenced the compilation of this work, i have had the pleasure of making the acquaintance of an american gentleman--james m. wattles esq.--who as early as --and it will be seen, by what i have already stated, that this is about the same date of m. niepce's discovery--had his attention attracted to the subject of photography, or as he termed it "solar picture drawing," while taking landscape views by means of the camera-obscura. when we reflect upon all the circumstances connected with his experiments, the great disadvantages under which he labored, and his extreme youthfullness, we cannot but feel a national pride--yet wonder--that a mere yankee boy, surrounded by the deepest forests, hundred of miles from the populous portion of our country, without the necessary materials, or resources for procuring them, should by the force of his natural genius make a discovery, and put it in practical use, to accomplish which, the most learned philosophers of europe, with every requisite apparatus, and a profound knowledge of chemistry--spent years of toil to accomplish. how much more latent talent may now be slumbering from the very same cause which kept mr. wattles from publicly revealing his discoveries, viz; want of encouragement--ridicule! at the time when the idea of taking pictures permanently on paper by means of the camera-obscura first occurred to him, he was but sixteen years of age, and under the instructions of mr. charles le seuer, (a talented artist from paris) at the new harmony school, indiana. drawing and painting being the natural bent of his mind, he was frequently employed by the professors to make landscape sketches in the manner mentioned. the beauty of the image of these landscapes produced on the paper in the camera-obscura, caused him to pause and admire them with all the ardor of a young artist, and wish that by some means, he could fix them there in all their beauty. from wishing he brought himself to think that it was not only possible but actually capable of accomplishment and from thinking it could, he resolved it should be done. he was, however, wholly ignorant of even the first principles of chemistry, and natural philosophy, and all the knowledge he was enabled to obtain from his teachers was of very little service to him. to add to this, whenever he mentioned his hopes to his parents, they laughed at him, and bade him attend to his studies and let such moonshine thoughts alone--still he persevered, though secretly, and he met with the success his perseverance deserved. for the truth of his statement, mr. wattles refers to some of our most respectable citizens residing at the west, and i am in hopes that i shall be enabled to receive in time for this publication, a confirmation from one or more of these gentlemen. be that as it may, i feel confident in the integrity of mr. wattles, and can give his statement to the world without a doubt of its truth. the following sketch of his experiments and their results will, undoubtedly, be interesting to every american reader and although some of the profound philosophers of europe may smile at his method of proceeding, it will in some measure show the innate genius of american minds, and prove that we are not far behind our trans-atlantic brethren in the arts and sciences. mr. wattles says: "in my first efforts to effect the desired object, they were feeble indeed, and owing to my limited knowledge of chemistry--wholly acquired by questioning my teachers--i met with repeated failures but following them up with a determined spirit, i at last produced, what i thought very fair samples--but to proceed to my experiments." "i first dipped a quarter sheet of thin white writing paper in a weak solution of caustic (as i then called it) and dried it in an empty box, to keep it in the dark; when dry, i placed it in the camera and watched it with great patience for nearly half an hour, without producing any visible result; evidently from the solution being to weak. i then soaked the same piece of paper in a solution of common potash, and then again in caustic water a little stronger than the first, and when dry placed it in the camera. in about forty-five minutes i plainly percieved the effect, in the gradual darkening of various parts of the view, which was the old stone fort in the rear of the school garden, with the trees, fence, &c. i then became convinced of the practicability of producing beautiful solar pictures in this way; but, alas! my picture vanished and with it, all--no not all--my hopes. with renewed determination i began again by studying the nature of the preparation, and came to the conclusion, that if i could destroy the part not acted upon by the light without injuring that which was so acted upon, i could save my pictures. i then made a strong solution of sal. soda i had in the house, and soaked my paper in it, and then washed it off in hot water, which perfectly fixed the view upon the paper. this paper was very poor with thick spots, more absorbent than other parts, and consequently made dark shades in the picture where they should not have been; but it was enough to convince me that i had succeeded, and that at some future time, when i had the means and a more extensive knowledge of chemistry, i could apply myself to it again. i have done so since, at various times, with perfect success; but in every instance laboring under adverse circumstances." i have very recently learned, that, under the present patent laws of the united states, every foreign patentee is required to put his invention, or discovery, into practical use within eighteen months after taking out his papers, or otherwise forfeit his patent. with regard to mr. talbot's calotype patent, this time has nearly, if not quite expired, and my countrymen are now at perfect liberty to appropriate the art if they feel disposed. from the statement of mr. wattles, it will be perceived that this can be done without dishonor, as in the first instance mr. talbot had no positive right to his patent. photography; or sun-painting is divided, according to the methods adopted for producing pictures, into daguerreotype, chromatype, calotype, energiatype, chrysotype, anthotype and cyanotype, amphitype. chap. ii. the theory on light.--the photographic principle some philosophers contend that to the existence of light alone we owe the beautiful effects produced by the photogenic art, while others give sufficient reasons for doubting the correctness of the assumption. that the results are effected by a principle associated with light and not by the luminous principle itself, is the most probable conclusion. the importance of a knowledge of this fact becomes most essential in practice, as will presently be seen. to this principle mr. hunt gives the name of energia. the nature of light is not wholly known, but it is generally believed to be matter, as in its motions it obeys the laws regulating matter. so closely is it connected with heat and electricity that there can be little doubt of their all being but different modifications of the same substance. i will not, however, enter into a statement of the various theories of philosophers on this head, but content myself with that of sir isaac newton; who supposed rays of light to consist of minute particles of matter, which are constantly emanating from luminous bodies and cause vision, as odoriferous particles, proceeding from certain bodies, cause smelling. the effects of light upon other bodies, and how light is effected by them, involve some of the most important principles, which if properly understood by daguerreotypists would enable them to improve and correct many of the practical operations in their art. these effects we shall exhibit in this and the following chapters. before we enter on this subject it will be necessary to become familiar with the definitions of some of the terms used in the science of optics. luminous bodies are of two kinds; those which shine by their own light, and those which shine by reflected light. transparent bodies are such as permit rays of light to pass through them. translucent bodies permit light to pass faintly, but without representing the figure of objects seen through them. opaque bodies permit no light to pass through them, but reflect light. a ray is a line of light. a beam is a collection of parallel rays. a pencil is a collection of converging, or diverging rays. a medium is any space through which light passes. incident rays are those which fall upon the surface of a body. reflected rays are those which are thrown off from a body. parallel rays are such as proceed equally distant from each other through their whole course. converging rays are such as approach and tend to unite at any one point, as at b. fig. . diverging rays are those which continue to recede from each other, as at e. fig. . a focus is that point at which converging rays meet. motion of light--rays of light are thrown off from luminous bodies in every direction, but always in straight lines, which cross each other at every point; but the particles of which each ray consists are so minute that the rays do not appear to be impeded by each other. a ray of light passing through an aperture into a dark room, proceeds in a straight line; a fact of which any one may be convinced by going into a darkened room and admitting light only through a small aperture. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] light also moves with great velocity, but becomes fainter as it recedes from the source from which it eminates; in other words, diverging rays of light diminish in intensity as the square of the distance increases. for instance let a fig. , represent the luminous body from which light proceeds, and suppose three square boards, b. c. d. severally one, four and sixteen square inches in size be placed; b one foot, c two feet, and d four feet from a, it will be perceived that the smallest board b will throw c into shadow; that is, obstruct all rays of light that would otherwise fall on c, and if b were removed c would in like manner hide the light from d--now, if b recieve as much light as would fall on c whose surface is four times as large, the light must be four times as powerful and sixteen times as powerful as that which would fall on the second and third boards, because the same quantity of light is diffused over a space four and sixteen times greater. these same rays may be collected and their intensity again increased. rays of light are reflected from one surface to another; refracted, or bent, as they pass from the surface of one transparent medium to another; and inflected, or turned from their course, by the attraction of opaque bodies. from the first we derive the principles on which mirrors are constructed; to the second we are indebted for the power of the lenses, and the blessings of sight,--for the light acts upon the retina of the eye in the same manner as on the lens of a camera. the latter has no important bearing upon our subject. when a ray of light falls perpendicularly upon an opaque body, it is reflected bark in the same line in which it proceeds; in this case the reflected ray returns in the same path the incident ray traversed; but when a ray falls obliquely, it is reflected obliquely, that is, it is thrown off in opposite direction, and as far from the perpendicular as was the incident ray, as shown at fig. ; a representing the incident ray and b the reflected. the point, or angle c made by the incident ray, at the surface of the reflector e f, with a line c d, perpendicular to that surface, is called the angle of incidence, while the angle formed by the reflected ray b and the perpendicular line d is called the angle of reflection, and these angles are always equal. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] it is by this reflection of light that objects are made visible; but unless light falls directly upon the eye they are invisible, and are not sensibly felt until after a certain series of operations upon the various coverings and humors of the eye. smooth and polished surfaces reflect light most powerfully, and send to the eye the images of the objects from which the light proceeded before reflection. glass, which is transparent--transmitting light--would be of no use to us as a mirror, were it not first coated on one side with a metalic amalgam, which interrupts the rays in their passage from the glass into the air, and throws them either directly in the incident line, or in an oblique direction. the reason why trees, rocks and animals are not all mirrors, reflecting other forms instead of their own, is, that their surfaces are uneven, and rays of light reflected from an uneven surface are diffused in all directions. parallel rays falling obliquely upon a plane mirror are reflected parallel; converging rays, with the same degree of convergence; and diverging rays equally divergent. stand before a mirror and your image is formed therein, and appears to be as far behind the glass as you are before it, making the angle of reflection equal to that of incidence, as before stated. the incident ray and the reflected ray form, together, what is called the passage of reflection, and this will therefore make the actual distance of an image to appear as far again from the eye as it really is. any object which reflects light is called a radiant. the point behind a reflecting surface, from which they appear to diverge, is called the virtual focus. rays of light being reflected at the same angle at which they fall upon a mirror, two persons can stand in such a position that each can see the image of the other without seeing his own. again; you may see your whole figure in a mirror half your length, but if you stand before one a few inches shorter the whole cannot be reflected, as the incident ray which passes from your feet into the mirror in the former case, will in the latter fall under it. images are always reversed in mirrors. convex mirrors reflect light from a rounded surface and disperse the rays in every direction, causing parallel rays to diverge, diverging rays to diverge more, and converging rays to converge less--they represent objects smaller than they really are--because the angle formed by the reflected ray is rendered more acute by a convex than by a plane surface, and it is the diminishing of the visual angle, by causing rays of light to be farther extended before they meet in a point, which produces the image of convex mirrors. the greater the convexity of a mirror, the more will the images of the objects be diminished, and the nearer will they appear to the surface. these mirrors furnish science with many curious and pleasing facts. concave mirrors are the reverse of convex; the latter being rounded outwards, the former hollowed inwards--they render rays of light more converging--collect rays instead of dispersing them, and magnify objects while the convex diminishes them. rays of light may be collected in the focus of a mirror to such intensity as to melt metals. the ordinary burning glass is an illustration of this fact; although the rays of light are refracted, or passed through the glass and concentrated into a focus beneath. when incident rays are parallel, the reflected rays converge to a focus, but when the incident rays proceed from a focus, or are divergent, they are reflected parallel. it is only when an object is nearer to a concave mirror than its centre of concavity, that its image is magnified; for when the object is farther from the mirror, this centre will appear less than the object, and in an inverted position. the centre of concavity in a concave mirror, is an imaginary point placed in the centre of a circle formed by continuing the boundary of the concavity of the mirror from any one point of the edge to another parallel to and beneath it. refraction of light:--i now pass to the consideration of the passage of light through bodies. a ray of light failing perpendicularly through the air upon a surface of glass or water passes on in a straight line through the body; but if it, in passing from one medium to another of different density, fall obliquely, it is bent from its direct course and recedes from it, either towards the right or left, and this bending is called refraction; (see fig. , b.) if a ray of light passes from a rarer into a denser medium it is refracted towards a perpendicular in that medium; but if it passes from a denser into rarer it is bent further from a perpendicular in that medium. owing to this bending of the rays of light the angles of refraction and incidence are never equal. transparent bodies differ in their power of bending light--as a general rule, the refractive power is proportioned to the density--but the chemical constitution of bodies as well as their density, is found to effect their refracting power. inflammable bodies possess this power to a great degree. the sines of the angle of incidence and refraction (that is, the perpendicular drawn from the extremity of an arc to the diameter of a circle,) are always in the same ratio; viz: from air into water, the sine of the angle of refraction is nearly as four to three, whatever be the position of the ray with respect to the refracting surface. from air into sulphur, the sine of the angle of refraction is as two to one--therefore the rays of light cannot be refracted whenever the sine of the angle of refraction becomes equal to the radius* of a circle, and light falling very obliquely upon a transparent medium ceases to be refracted; this is termed total reflection. * the radius of a circle is a straight line passing from the centre to the circumference. since the brightness of a reflected image depends upon the quantity of light, it is quite evident that those images which arise from total reflection are by far the most vivid, as in ordinary cases of reflection a portion of light is absorbed. i should be pleased to enter more fully into this branch of the science of optics, but the bounds to which i am necessarily limited in a work of this kind will not admit of it. in the next chapter, however, i shall give a synopsis of mr. hunt's treatise on the "influence of the solar rays on compound bodies, with especial reference to their photographic application"--a work which should be in the hands of every daguerreotypist, and which i hope soon to see republished in this country. i will conclude this chapter with a brief statement of the principles upon which the photographic art is founded. solar and stellar light contains three kinds of rays, viz: . colorific, or rays of color. . calorific, or rays of heat. . chemical rays, or those which produce chemical effects. on the first and third the photographic principle depends. in explaining this principle the accompanying wood cuts, (figs. and ) will render it more intelligible. if a pencil of the sun's rays fall upon a prism, it is bent in passing through the transparent medium; and some rays being more refracted than others, we procure an elongated image of the luminous beam, exhibiting three distinct colors, red, yellow and blue, which are to be regarded as primitives--and from their interblending, seven, as recorded by newton, and shown in the accompanying wood cut. these rays being absorbed, or reflected differently by various bodies, give to nature the charm of color. thus to the eve is given the pleasure we derive in looking upon the green fields and forests, the enumerable varieties of flowers, the glowing ruby, jasper, topaz, amethist, and emerald, the brilliant diamond, and all the rich and varied hues of nature, both animate and inanimate. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] now, if we allow this prismatic spectrum (b. fig. .) to fall upon any surface (as at c.) prepared with a sensitive photographic compound, we shall find that the chemical effect produced bears no relation to the intensity of the light of any particular colored ray, but that, on the contrary, it is dispersed over the largest portion of the spectrum, being most energetic in the least luminous rays, and ever active over an extensive space, where no traces of light can be detected. fig. , will give the student a better idea of this principle. it is a copy of the kind of impression which the spectrum, spoken of, would make on a piece of paper covered with a very sensitive photographic preparation. the white space a. corresponds with the most luminous, or yellow ray, ( , fig. ) over limits of which all chemical change is prevented. a similar action is also produced by the lower end of the red ray c; but in the upper portion, however we find a decided change (as at d). the most active chemical change, you will perceive, is produced by the rays above the yellow a; viz. , , and (as at b) the green ( ) being the least active, and the blue ( ) and violet ( ) rays the most so, the action still continuing far beyond the point b which is the end of the luminous image. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] suppose we wish to copy by the daguerreotype, or calotype process, any objects highly colored--blue, red and yellow, for instance predominating--the last of course reflects the most light, the blue the least; but the rays from the blue surface will make the most intense impression, whilst the red radiations are working very slowly, and the yellow remains entirely inactive. this accounts for the difficulty experienced in copying bright green foliage, or warmly colored portraits; a large portion of the yellow and red rays entering into the composition of both--and the imperfections of a daguerreotype portrait of a person with a freckled face depends upon the same cause. a yellow, hazy atmosphere, even when the light is very bright, will effectually prevent any good photographic result--and in the height of summer, with the most sensative process, it not unfrequently happens that the most annoying failures arise from this agency of a yellow medium. a building painted of a yellow color, which may reflect the sun's rays directly into the operator's room will have the same effect. daguerreotypists, being ignorant of these facts, are very apt to charge their want of success to the plates, or chemicals, or any thing but the real cause; and it would be well to bear these facts constantly in mind and as far as possible avoid them. this, may be accomplished, in a measure, by a choice of location or by having the glass of your windows tinged with blue; or a screen of thin blue paper may be interposed between the light and sitter. in selecting subjects, all striking contrasts in color should be avoided, and sitters for portraits should be cautioned not to wear anything that may produce the effect spoken of--dark dresses always being the best. the action of light both combines and decomposes bodies. for instance, chlorine and hydrogen will remain in a glass vessel without alteration if kept in the dark; but if exposed to the rays of the sun, they immediately enter into combination, and produce hydrochloric acid. on the other hand, if colorless nitric acid be exposed to the sun, it becomes yellow, then changes to red, and oxygen is liberated by the partial decomposition effected by the solar rays. of the organic substances none are more readily acted upon by light than the various combinations of silver. of these some are more, and others less sensitive. if chloride of silver, which is a white precipitate formed by adding chloride of sodium (common salt) to a solution of nitrate of silver, be exposed to diffused light, it speedily assumes a violet tint, and ultimately becomes nearly black. with iodide of silver, bromide of silver, ammonio-nitrate of silver, and other salts of this metal, the result will be much the same. some bodies, which under the influence of light, undergo chemical changes, have the power of restoring themselves to their original condition in the dark. this is more remarkably displayed in the iodide of platinum, which readily recieves a photogenic image by darkening over the exposed surfaces, but speedily loses it by bleaching in the dark. the ioduret of daguerre's plate, and some other iodides, exhibit the same peculiarity--this leads us to the striking fact, that bodies which have undergone a change of estate under the influence of day-light have some latent power by which they can renovate themselves. possibly the hours of night are as necessary to inanimate nature as they are to the animate. during the day, an excitement which we do not heed, unless in a state of disease, is maintained by the influence of light and the hours of repose, during which the equilibrium is restored, are absolutely necessary to the continuance of health. instead of a few chemical compounds of gold and silver, which at first were alone supposed to be photographic, we are now aware that copper, platinum, lead, nickel, and indeed, probably all the elements, are equally liably to change under the sun's influence. this fact may be of benefit to engravers, for if steel can be made to take photographic impressions, the more laborious process of etching may be dispensed with. in fact, in the latter part of this work, a process is described for etching and taking printed impressions from daguerreotype plates. as yet this process has produced no decided beneficial results--but future experiments may accomplish some practical discovery of intrinsic value to the art of engraving. a very simple experiment will prove how essential light is to the coloring of the various species comprising the vegetable and animal kingdoms. if we transplant any shrub from the light of day into a dark cellar, we will soon see it lose its bright green color, and become perfectly white. another effect of light is that it appears to impart to bodies some power by which they more readily enter into chemical combination with others. we have already said that chlorine and hydrogen, if kept in the dark, will remain unaltered; but if the chlorine alone be previously exposed to the sun, the chlorine thus solarised will unite with the hydrogen in the dark. sulphate of iron will throw down gold or silver from their solutions slowly in the dark; but if either solution be first exposed to sunshine, and the mixture be then made, in the dark, the precipitation takes place instantly. here is again, evidence of either an absorption of some material agent from the sunbeam, or an alteration in the chemical constitution of the body. it was from understanding these principles and applying them that philosophers were enabled to produce the calotype, daguerreotype, &c. for the effects and action of light on the camera, see chapter v. some advances have been made towards producing photographic impressions in color--the impossibility of which some of our best and oldest artists have most pertinaciously maintained. the colored image of the spectrum has been most faithfully copied, ray for ray, on paper spread with the juice of the cochorus japonica, (a species of plant) and the fluoride of silver; and on silver plate covered with a thin film of chloride. the day may be still remote when this much to be desired desideratum shall be accomplished in portrait taking; but i am led to hope that future experiments may master the secret which now causes it to be looked upon, by many, as an impossibility. that great advantages have resulted, and that greater still will result from the discovery of the photographic art, few will deny. the faithful manner in which it copies nature, even to the most minute details, renders it of much value to the painter; but a few minutes sufficing to take a view that formerly would have occupied several days. its superiority in portraits, over miniature or oil painting has been tacitly acknowledged by the thousands who employ it to secure their own, or a friends likeness, and by the steady increase in the number of artists who are weekly, aye daily springing up in every town and village in the land. chap. iii. synopsis of mr. hunt's treatise on "the influence of the solar rays on compound bodies, with especial reference to their photographic application." oxide of silver exposed for a few hours to good sunshine, passes into a more decided olive color, than characterises it when first prepared by precipitation from nitrate of silver. longer exposure renders this color very much lighter, and the covered parts, are found much darker, than those on which the light has acted directly. in some instances where the oxide of silver has been spread on the paper a decided whitening process in some parts, after a few days exposure, is noticed. oxide of silver dissolved in ammonia is a valuable photographic fluid; one application of a strong solution forming an exceedingly sensitive surface. the pictures on this paper are easily fixed by salt or weak ammonia. nitrate of silver.--this salt in a state of purity, does not appear to be sensibly affected by light, but the presence of the smallest portion of organic matter renders it exceedingly liable to change under luminous influence. if a piece of nitrated paper is placed upon hot iron, or held near the fire, it will be found that at a heat just below that at which the paper chars, the salt is decomposed. where the heat is greatest, the silver is revived, and immediately around it, the paper becomes a deep blue; beyond this a pretty decided green color results, and beyond the green, a yellow or yellow brown stain is made. this exhibits a remarkable analogy between heat and light,--before spoken of in chap. ii--and is of some practical importance in the preparation of the paper. prismatic analysis.--the method of accomplishing the prismatic decomposition of rays of light by the spectrum has already been described on pages and . the color of the impressed spectrum, on paper washed with nitrate of silver, is at first, a pale brown, which passes slowly into a deeper shade; that portion corresponding with the blue rays becoming a blue brown; and under the violet of a peculiar pinkey shade, a very decided green tint, on the point which corresponds with the least refrangible blue rays, may be observed, its limits of action being near the centre of the yellow ray, and its maximum about the centre of the blue, although the action up to the edge of the violet ray is continued with very little diminution of effect; beyond this point the action is very feeble. when the spectrum is made to act on paper which has been previously darkened, by exposure to sunshine under cupro-sulphate of ammonia, the phenomena are materially different. the photographic spectrum is lengthened out on the red or negative side by a faint but very visible red portion, which extends fully up to the end of the red rays, as seen by the naked eye. the tint of the general spectrum, too, instead of brown is dark grey, passing, however, at its most refracted or positive end into a ruddy brown. in its photographic application, the nitrate of silver is the most valuable of the salts of that metal, as from it most of the other argentine compounds can be prepared, although it is not of itself sufficiently sensible to light to render it of much use. chloride of silver.--this salt of silver, whether in its precipitated state, or when fused, changes its color to a fine bluish grey by a very short exposure to the sun's rays. if combined with a small quantity of nitrate, the change is more rapid, it attains a deep brown, then slowly passes into a fine olive, and eventually, after a few weeks, the metalic silver is seen to be revived on the surface of the salt. great differences of color are produced on chlorides of silver precipitated by different muriates. nearly every variety in combination with the nitrate, becomes at last of the same olive color, the following examples, therefore, have reference to a few minutes exposure, only, to good sunshine; it must also be recollected that the chloride of silver in these cases is contaminated with the precipitant. muriate of ammonia precipitates chloride to darken to a fine chocolate brown, whilst muriate of lime produces a brick-red color. muriates of potash and soda afford a precipitate, which darkens speedily to a pure dark brown, and muriatic acid, or aqueous chlorine, do not appear to increase the darkening power beyond the lilac to which the pure chloride of silver changes by exposure. this difference of color appears to be owing to the admixture of the earth or alkali used with the silver salt. the prismatic impression on paper spread with the chloride of silver is often very beautifully tinted, the intensity of color varying with the kind of muriate used. spread paper with muriate of ammonia or baryta and you obtain a range of colors nearly corresponding with the natural hues of the prismatic spectrum. under favorable circumstances the mean red ray, leaves a red impression, which passes into a green over the space occupied by the yellow rays. above this a leaden hue is observed, and about the mean blue ray, where the action is greatest, it rapidly passes through brown into black, and through the most refrangible rays it gradually declines into a bluish brown, which tint is continued throughout the invisible rays. at the least refrangible end of the spectrum, the very remarkable phenomenon has been observed, of the extreme red rays exerting a protecting influence, and preserving the paper from that change, which it would otherwise undergo, under the influence of the dispersed light which always surrounds the spectrum. not only the extreme red ray exerts this very peculiar property, but the ordinary red ray through nearly its whole length. in photographic drawing this salt is of the utmost importance. mr. talbot's application of it will be given hereafter in another portion of this work. iodide of silver--perfectly pure, undergoes very little change under the influence of light or heat; but if a very slight excess of the nitrate of silver be added it becomes infinitely more sensitive than the chloride. the spectrum impressed upon paper prepared with a weak solution of the hydriodate of potash presents some very remarkable peculiarities. the maximum of intensity is found at the edge of the most refrangible violet rays, or a little beyond it, varying slightly according to the kind of paper used, and the quantity of free nitrate of silver present. the action commences at a point nearly coincident with the mean red of the luminous spectrum, where it gives a dull ash or lead color, while the most refrangible rays impress a ruddy snuff-brown, the change of tint coming on rather suddenly about the end of the blue or beginning of the violet rays of the luminous spectrum. beyond the extreme violet rays, the action rapidly diminishes, but the darkening produced by these invisible rays, extends a very small space beyond the point at which they cease to act on the chloride of silver. in its photographic application, it is, alone, of very little use; but in combination with other reagents it becomes exquisitely sensitive. with gallic acid and the ferrocyanate of potash it forms two of the most sensitive photographic solutions with which we are acquainted. these are used in the calotype process. ioduret of silver.--if upon a plate of polished silver we place a small piece of iodine, and apply the heat of a lamp beneath the plate for a moment, a system of rings is speedily formed. the first ring, which spreading constantly forms the exterior of the circle, is of a bright yellow color; within this, there arises, successively, rings of green, red and blue colors, and then again a fine yellow circle, centred by a greyish spot on the place occupied by the iodine. on exposing these to the light, the outer yellow circle almost instantly changes color, the others slowly, in the order of their position, the interior yellow circle resisting for a long time the solar influence. these rings must be regarded as films of the ioduret of silver, varying, not only in thickness, but in the more or less perfect states of combination in which the iodine and metal are. the exterior circle is an ioduret in a very loose state of chemical agregation; the attractive forces increase as we proceed towards the centre, where a well formed ioduret, or probably a true iodide of silver, is formed, which is acted upon by sunlight with difficulty. the exterior and most sensitive film constitutes the surface of daguerreotype plates. the changes which these colored rings undergo are remarkable; by a few minutes exposure to sunlight, an inversion of nearly all the colors takes place, the two first rings becoming a deep olive green; and a deep blue inclining to black. the nature of the change which the ioduret of silver undergoes on daguerreotype plates, through the action of light, mr. hunt considers to be a decided case of decomposition, and cites several circumstances in proof of his position. these with other facts given by mr. hunt in his great work on the photographic art, but to voluminous to include in a volume of the size to which i am obliged to confine myself, should be thoroughly studied by all daguerreotypists. prismatic analysis.--the most refrangible portion of the spectrum, (on a daguerreotype plate) appears, after the plate has been exposed to the vapor of mercury, to have impressed its colors; the light and delicate film of mercury, which covers that portion, assuming a fine blue tint about the central parts, which are gradually shaded off into a pale grey; and this is again surrounded by a very delicate rose hue, which is lost in a band of pure white. beyond this a protecting influence is powerfully exerted; and notwithstanding the action of the dispersed light, which is very evident over the plate, a line is left, perfectly free from mercurial vapor, and which, consequently, when viewed by a side light, appears quite dark. the green rays are represented by a line of a corresponding tint, considerably less in size than the luminous green rays. the yellow rays appear to be without action, or to act negatively, the space upon which they fall being protected from the mercurial vapor; and it consequently is seen as a dark band. a white line of vapor marks the place of the orange rays. the red rays effect the sensitive surface in a peculiar manner; and we have the mercurial vapor, assuming a molecular arrangement which gives to it a fine rose hue; this tint is surrounded by a line of white vapor, shaded at the lowest extremity with a very soft green. over the space occupied by the extreme red rays, a protecting influence is again exerted; the space is retained free from mercurial vapor and the band is found to surround the whole of the least refrangible rays, and to unite itself with the band which surrounds the rays of greatest refrangibility. this band is not equally well defined throughout its whole extent. it is most evident from the extreme red to the green; it fades in passing through the blue, and increases again, as it leaves the indigo, until beyond the invisible chemical rays it is nearly as strong as it is at the calorific end of the spectrum. images on daguerreotype plates which have been completely obliterated by rubbing may be restored, by placing it in a tolerably strong solution of iodine in water. bromide of silver.--this salt, like the iodide, does not appear to be readily changed by the action of light; but when combined with the nitrate of silver it forms a very sensitive photographic preparation. paper prepared with this salt, blackens over its whole extent with nearly equal intensity, when submitted to the prismatic spectrum. the most characteristic peculiarity of the spectrum is its extravagant length. instead of terminating at the mean yellow ray, the darkened portion extends down to the very extremity of the visible red rays. in tint it is pretty uniformly of a grey-black over its whole extent, except that a slight fringe of redness is perceptible at the least refracted end. beyond the red ray, an extended space is protected from the agency of the dispersed light, and its whiteness maintained; thus confirming the evidence of some chemical power in action, over a space beyond the luminous spectrum, which corresponds with the rays of the least refrangibility. this salt is extensively used in photographic drawing. preparations of gold.--chloride of gold, freed from an excess of acid is slowly changed under the action of light; a regularly increasing darkness taking place until it becomes purple, the first action of the light being to whiten the paper, which, if removed from the light at this stage, will gradually darken and eventually develope the picture. this process may be quickened by placing the paper in cold water. chloride of gold with nitrate of silver gives a precipitate of a yellow brown color. paper impregnated with the acetate of lead, when washed with perfectly neutral chloride of gold, acquires a brownish-yellow hue. the first impression of light seems rather to whiten than darken the paper, by discharging the original color, and substituting for it a pale greyish tint, which by slow degrees increases to a dark slate color; but if arrested, while yet, not more than a moderate ash grey, and held in a current of steam, the color of the parts acted upon by light--and of that only--darkens immediately to a deep purple. here i must leave the subject of the action of light upon metalic compounds--referring to mr. hunts work for any further information the student may desire on the other metals--as i find myself going beyond my limits. i cannot, however, entirely dismiss the subject without giving a few examples of the action of light on the juices of plants, some of which produce very good photographic effect. corchorus japonica--the juice of the flowers of this plant impart a fine yellow color to paper, and, so far as ascertained, is the most sensitive of any vegetable preparation; but owing to its continuing to change color even in the dark, photographic images taken on paper prepared with it soon fade out. wall flower.--this flower yields a juice, when expressed with alcohol, from which subsides, on standing, a bright yellow finely divided faecula, leaving a greenish-yellow transparent liquid, only slightly colored supernatant. the faecula spreads well on paper, and is very sensitive to light, but appears at the same time to undergo a sort of chromatic analysis, and to comport itself as if composed of two very distinct coloring principles, very differently affected. the one on which the intensity and sub-orange tint of the color depends, is speedily destroyed, but the paper is not thereby fully whitened. a paler yellow remains as a residual tint, and this on continued exposure to the light, slowly darkens to brown. exposed to the spectrum, the paper is first reduced nearly to whiteness in the region of the blue and violet rays. more slowly, an insulated solar image is whitened in the less refrangible portion of the red. continue the exposure, and a brown impression begins to be percieved in the midst of the white streak, which darkens slowly over the region between the lower blue and extreme violet rays. the red poppy yields a very beautiful red color, which is entirely destroyed by light. when perfectly dried on paper the color becomes blue. this blue color is speedily discharged by exposure to the sun's rays, and papers prepared with it afford very interesting photographs.-- future experiments will undoubtedly more fully develope the photogenic properties of flowers, and practically apply them. certain precautions are necessary in extracting the coloring matter of flowers. the petals of fresh flowers, carefully selected, are crushed to a pulp in a mortar, either alone or with the addition of a little alcohol, and the juice expressed by squeezing the pulp in a clean linen or cotton cloth. it is then to be spread upon paper with a flat brush, and dried in the air. if alcohol be not added, it must be applied immediately, as the air changes or destroys the color instantly. most flowers give out their coloring matter to alcohol or water--but the former is found to weaken, and in some cases to discharge altogether these colors; but they are in most cases restored in drying. paper tinged with vegetable colors must be kept perfectly dry and in darkness. to secure an eveness of tint on paper it should be first moistened on the back by sponging, and blotting off with bibulous paper. it should then be pinned on a board, the moist side downwards, so that two of its edges--the right and lower ones--project a little over those of the board. incline the board twenty or thirty degrees to the horizon, and apply the tincture with a brush in strokes from right to left, taking care not to go over the edges which rests on the board, but to pass clearly over those that project; and also observing to carry the tint from below upwards by quick sweeping strokes, leaving no dry spaces between them. cross these with other strokes from above downwards, leaving no floating liquid on the paper. dry as quickly as possible, avoiding, however, such heat as may injure the tint. chap. iv. a few hints and suggestions to daguerreotypists. there are very few who may not be capable of practising the photographic art, either on paper, or metalic plates--but, like all other professions, some are more clever in its various processes than others. impatience is a great drawback to perfect success, and combined with laziness is a decided enemy. besides this, no one can excel in photography who does not possess a natural taste for the fine arts, who is not quick in discerning grace and beauty--is regardless of the principles of perspective, foreshortening and other rules of drawing, and who sets about it merely for the sake of gain--without the least ambition to rise to the first rank, both in its practice and theory. there is no profession or trade in which a slovenly manner will not show itself, and none where its effects will be more apparent than this. in order to be great in any pursuit, we must be ourselves, and keep all things, in order. in your show and reception rooms, let neatness prevail; have your specimens so placed--leaning slightly forward--as to obtain the strongest light upon them, and at the same time prevent that glassiness of appearance which detracts so materially from the effect they are intended to produce. if possible, let the light be of a north-western aspect, mellowed by curtains of a semitransparent hue. your show-cases, at the door, should be kept well cleaned. i have often been disgusted while attempting to examine portraits in the cases of our artists, at the greasy coating and marks of dirty fingers upon the glass and frame enclosing them. believe it, many a good customer is lost for no other reason. in your operating room, dust should be carefully excluded. it should be furnished with nothing apt to collect and retain dust; a carpet is therefore not only a useless article, but very improper. a bare floor is to be prefered; but if you must cover it use matting. there is no place about your establishment where greater care should be taken to have order and cleanliness; for it will prevent many failures often attributed to other causes. "a place for every thing, and every thing in its place," should be an absolute maxim with all artists. do not oblige the ladies, on going away from your rooms, to say--"that h. is a slovenly man; see how my dress is ruined by sitting down in a chair that looked as if it had just come out of a porter house kitchen and had not been cleaned for six months." in choosing your operating room, obtain one with a north-western aspect, if possible; and either with, or capable of having attached, a large skylight. good pictures may be taken without the sky-light, but not the most pleasing or effective. a very important point to be observed, is to keep the camera perfectly free from dust. the operator should be careful to see that the slightest particle be removed, for the act of inserting the plate-holder will set it in motion, if left, and cause those little black spots on the plate, by which an otherwise good picture is spoiled. the camera should be so placed as to prevent the sun shining into the lenses. in taking portraits, the conformation of the sitter should be minutely studied to enable you to place her or him in a position the most graceful and easy to be obtained. the eyes should be fixed on some object a little above the camera, and to one side--but never into, or on the instrument, as some direct; the latter generally gives a fixed, silly, staring, scowling or painful expression to the face. care should also be taken, that the hands and feet, in whatever position, are not too forward or back ward from the face when that is in good focus. if any large surface of white is present, such as the shirt front, or lady's handkerchief, a piece of dark cloth (a temporary bosom of nankeen is best,) may be put over it, but quickly withdrawn when the process is about two thirds finished. a very pleasing effect is given to portraits, by introducing, behind the sitter, an engraving or other picture--if a painting, avoid those in which warm and glowing tints predominate. the subject of these pictures may be applicable to the taste or occupation of the person whose portrait you are taking. this adds much to the interest of the picture, which is otherwise frequently dull, cold and inanimate. mr. j. h. whitehurst of richmond, va., has introduced a revolving background, which is set in motion during the operation, and produces a distinctness and boldness in the image not otherwise to be obtained. the effect upon the background of the plate is equally pleasing; it having the appearance of a beautifully clouded sky. in practising photographic drawing on paper, the student must bear in mind that it is positively essential, to secure success in the various processes, to use the utmost precaution in spreading the solutions, and washes from the combination of which the sensitive surfaces result. the same brush should always be used for the same solution, and never used for any other, and always washed in clean water after having been employed. any metalic mounting on the brushes should be avoided, as the metal precipitates the silver from its solution. the brushes should be made of camels or badger's hair and sufficiently broad and large to cover the paper in two or three sweeps; for if small ones be employed, many strokes must be given, which leave corresponding streaks that will become visible when submitted to light, and spoil the picture. these few preliminary hints and suggestions, will, i trust, be of some service to all who adopt this pleasing art as a profession; and will, with a due attention to the directions given in the practical working of the daguerreotype, calotype, etc., ensure a corresponding measure of success. chap. v. daguerreotype apparatus. the entire daguerreotype process is comprised in seven distinct operations; viz: .--cleaning and polishing the plate. .--applying the sensitive coating. --submitting the plate to the action of light in the camera. .--bringing out the picture; in other words rendering it visible. .--fixing the image, or making it permanent--so that the light may no longer act upon it. .--gilding: or covering the picture with a thin film of gold--which not only protects it, but greatly improves its distinctness and tone of color. .--coloring the picture. for these various operations the following articles--which make up the entire apparatus of a daguerrean artist--must be procured .--the camera.--(fig. .). the camera obscura of the italian philosophers, although highly appreciated, on account of the magical character of the pictures it produced, remained little other than a scientific toy, until the discovery of m. daguerre. the value of this instrument is now great, and the interest of the process which it so essentially aids, universally admitted. a full description of it will therefore be interesting. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] the camera is a dark box (a), having a tube with lenses (b) placed in one end of it, through which the radiations from external objects pass, and form a diminished picture upon the ground glass (g) placed at the proper distance in the box to receive it; the cap c covering the lenses at b until the plate is ready to receive the image of the object to be copied. thus a (fig. .) representing the lens, and b the object desired to be represented, the rays (c, c) proceeding from it fall upon the lens, and are transmitted to a point, which varies with the curvature of the glass, where an inverted image (d) of b is very accurately formed. at this point, termed the focus, the sensitive photographic material is placed for the purpose of obtaining the required picture. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] the great desideratum in a photographic camera is perfect lenses. they should be achromatic, and the utmost transparency should be obtained; and under the closest inspection of the glass not the slightest wavy appearance, or dark spot should be detected; and a curvature which as much as possible prevents spherical aberration should be secured. the effect produced by this last defect is a convergence of perpendiculars, as for instance; two towers of any building, would be represented as leaning towards each other; and in a portrait the features would seem contracted, distorted and mingled together, so as to throw the picture out of drawing and make it look more like a caricature than a likeness. if the lens be not achromatic, a chromatic aberration takes place, which produces an indistinct, hazy appearance around the edges of the picture, arising from the blending of the rays. the diameter and focal length of a lens must depend in a great measure on the distance of the object, and also on the superficies of the plate or paper to be covered. for portraits one of / inches diameter, and from / to / inches focus may be used; but for distant views, one from inches to inches diameter, and from to inches focal length will answer much better. for single lenses, the aperture in front should be placed at a distance from it, corresponding to the diameter, and of a size not more than one third of the same. a variety of movable diaphragms or caps, to cover the aperture in front, are very useful, as the intensity of the light may be modified by them and more or less distinctness and clearness of delineation obtained. these caps alway come with voitlander instruments and should be secured by the purchaser. though the single acromatic lens answers very well for copying engravings; taking views from nature or art, for portraits the double should always be used. the extensive manufacture of the most approved cameras, both in europe and in this country, obviates all necessity for any one attempting to construct one for their own use. lenses are now made so perfect by some artisans that, what is called the "quick working camera" will take a picture in one second, while the ordinary cameras require from eight to sixty. the camera in most general use is that manufactured by voitlander and son of germany. their small size consists of two seperate acromatic lenses; the first, or external one, has a free aperture of / inches; the second, or internal, / inches; and both have the same focus, viz: / inches. the larger size differs from the smaller. the inner lens is an achromatic / inches diameter, its focal length being inches. the outer lens is a meniscus--that is bounded by a concave and convex spherical surface which meet--having a focal length of inches. for every distant view, the aperture in front is contracted by a diaphram to / of an inch. by this means the light is reflected with considerable intensity and the clearness and correctness of the pictures are truly surprising. the america instruments are constructed on the same principle and many of them are equally perfect. mr. edward anthony of broadway, new york city, has constructed, and sold cameras fully equal to the german and for which voitlander instruments have been refused in exchange by the purchaser. the ordinary camera box (see fig. , a) varies in size to suit the tube, and is termed medium, half, or whole. within the box is a slide to assist in regulating the focus, and in enlarging or diminishing the picture. in one end of this slide is a springed groove into which the ground-glass spectrum (g fig. ) is slid, for the purpose of more conveniently arranging the focus. after the plate is prepared it is placed in the holder--partly seen at e, fig. , and covered with the dark slide f, fig. ; the spectrum is then withdrawn and the holder takes its place, and the lids d, d, are closed after removing the dark slide f. the plate is now ready to receive the image, and the cap c may be removed to admit the light into the box. a camera constructed by voitlander is thus described by mr. fisher. "it is made entirely of brass, so that variations of climate has no effect upon it. it is very portable and when packed in its box, with all the necessary apparatus and materials for practising the daguerreotype art, occupies but very little space. it is not, however, well adapted for the calotype process." [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] "the brass foot a (fig. .), is placed on a table, or other firm support, and the pillar b. screwed into it; the body of the camera, c, c is laid into the double forked bearing d. d. the instrument is now properly adjusted by means of the set screws, e, e, e, in the brass foot, or it may be raised, lowered, or moved, by the telescope stand, and when correct, fixed by the screw b. the landscape to be delineated is viewed either through the small lens, g, or with the naked eye on the ground glass plate h, the focus being adjusted by the screw i. the optical part of the instrument consist of the small set of achromatic lenses already described. when the portrait or view is deliniated on the ground glass to the entire satisfaction of the operator, the brass cap l is placed over the lens, and the entire body is removed away into the dark, taking care not to disturb the position of the stand. the body is now detached at the part h, and the prepared paper or plate enclosed in the brass frame work introduced in its place; the whole is again placed upon the pedestal, the brass cap l is removed, by which the paper or plate is exposed to the full influence of the light, after which the cap is again replaced. mr. woodbridge, of this city, has constructed an instrument for taking full length portraits on plates by inches, which is worthy of some notice. it is a double camera, consisting of two boxes, placed in a frame, one above the other, and so arranged as to slide easily up and down. after the focus has been adjusted, on the object, in both cameras, the plate is put into the upper box, in the manner already described, until the superior portion of the figure is complete; it is then placed in the second box and the lower extremities obtained. the adjustment of the instrument is so complete that a perfect union of the parts is effected in the picture without the least possible line of demarkation being visible. fig. gives a front view of this instrument. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] fig. represents talbot's calotype camera,--a very beautiful instrument. the copying camera box has an extra slide in the back end, by which it may be considerably lengthened at pleasure. ii.--camera stand.--the best constructed stands are made of maple or black walnut wood, having a cast iron socket (a, fig. ,) through which the sliding rod b passes, and into which the legs c, c, with iron screw ferules are inserted. the platform d is made of two pieces, hinged together, as at e, and having a thumb screw for the purpose of elevating or depressing the instrument. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] iii. mercury bath.--fig. gives a front view of the mercury bath now in general use in this country for mercurializing and bringing out the picture. it is quite an improvement on those first used. to make it more portable it is in three pieces, a b and c; having a groove e on one side to receive the thermometre tube and scale by which the proper degree of heating the mercury is ascertained. into the top are nicely fitted two or three iron frames, with shoulders, for the plate to rest in, suitable for the different sizes of plates. the bath is heated by means of a spirit lamp placed under it. from two to four ounces of highly purified mercury are put into the bath at a time. iv. plate blocks and vices.--there are several kinds of this article in use; i shall describe the two best only. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] fig. gives an idea of the improvement on the english hand block. the top a is perfectly flat and smooth--a little smaller than the plate, so as to permit the latter to project a very little all around--having at opposite angles c c two clasps, one fixed the other moveable, but capable of being fastened by the thumb screw d, so as to secure the plate tightly upon the block. this block turns upon a swivle, b, which is attached to the table by the screw c, this block is only used for holding the plate while undergoing the first operation in cleaning. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] fig. , shows the form of lewis' newly patented plate vice, which for durability, simplicity and utility is preferable to all others. it consists of a simple platform and arm of cast iron, the former, a, having a groove, d, in the centre for fixing the different sizes of plate beds, e--and the latter supporting the leaves, e f. on this vice which is secured to a table, or bench, the plate receives its finishing polish with rouge, or prepared lampblack. mr. lewis gives the following directions for its use. "as the cam wears tighten it with the adjusting screw (g) so as to allow the lever (f) to fall back into a horizontal position; the plate being in its place at the time. oil the wearing parts occasionally." some daguerreotypists, however, use a foot lathe with buff wheels of various forms; but this vice is sufficient for all ordinary purposes. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] v. coating boxes.--the usual form for iodine and bromine boxes is see, at figs. and . they are far superior to those in use with the english operators. each consists of a wooden box (a,) having firmly embeded within it a stout glass jar (c), the edges of which are ground. over this is placed the sliding cover b, double the length of the box, one half occupied by a piece of ground glass (e), tightly pressed upon the glass pot by a spring (i) beneath the cross bar g, and fits the pot so accurately that it effectually prevents the escape of the vapor of the iodine, bromine or other accelerating liquid contained therein. the other half of the lid is cut through, shoulders being left at the four angles for the different sizes of frames, designed to recieve the plate while undergoing the coating process. when the plate is put into the frame, the cover b is shoved under the second lid h and when coated to the proper degree, it resumes its former position and the plate is placed in the holder of the camera box. to test the tightness of the box, light a piece of paper, put it into the pot and cover it with the sliding lid. the burning paper expels the air from the pot, and if it be perfectly tight you may raise the whole box by the lid. vi. glass funnels.--are a necessary article to the daguerreotypist, for filtering water, solutions, &c. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] vii. gilding stand.--for nervous persons the gilding stand is a useful article. it is adjusted to a perfect level by thumb screws placed in its base. viii. spirit lamps.--the most useful and economical of those made are the britania, as they are less liable to break; and the tube for the wick being fastened to the body by a screw renders it less liable to get out of order or explode. glass is the cheapest, and for an amateur will do very well, but for a professed artist the britania should always be obtained. ix. color box.--these are generally found on sale at the shops, and usually contain eight colors, four brushes and a gold cup. the artist would, however, do well to obtain, all the colors mentioned in the last chapter of this work, and be sure to get the very best, as there are various qualities of the same color, particularly carmine, which is very expensive, and the cupidity of some may induce them to sell a poor article for the sake of larger profits. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] still.--daguerreotypists should always use distilled water for solutions, and washing the plate, as common water holds various substances in solution which detract very materially from the excellence of a photograph, and often gives much trouble, quite unaccountable to many. for the purpose of distilling water the apparatus represented at fig. is both convenient and economical. it may be either wholly of good stout tin, or of sheet iron tinned on the inside, and may be used over a common fire, or on a stove. a is the body, which may be made to hold from one to four gallons of water, which is introduced at the opening b, which is then stopped by a cork. the tube d connects the neck a of the still with the worm tub, or refrigerator b, at e, which is kept filled with cold water by means of the funnel c, and drawn off as fast as it becomes warm by the cock f. the distilled water is condensed in the worm--and passes off at the cock b, under which a bottle, or other vessel, should be placed to receive it. the different joints are rendered tight by lute, or in its absence, some stiff paste spread upon a piece of linen and wrapped around them will answer very well; an addition of sealing wax over all will make them doubly secure. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] hygrometer.--this is an instrument never to be found, i believe, in the rooms of our operators, although it would be of much use to them, for ascertaining the quantity of moisture floating about the room; and as it is necessary to have the atmosphere as dry as possible to prevent an undue absorption of this watery vapor by the iodine &c., and to procure good pictures,--its detection becomes a matter of importance. mason's hygrometer, manufactured by mr. roach and sold by mr. anthony, broadway, new york is the best in use. it consists of two thermometre tubes placed, side by side, on a metalic scale, which is graduated equally to both tubes. the bulb of one of these tubes communicates, by means of a net-work of cotton, with a glass reservoir of water attached to the back of the scale. fig. and represent a front and back view of this instrument. fig. is the front view, showing the tubes with their respective scales; the bulb b being covered with the network of cotton communicating with the reservoir c fig. , at d. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] the evaporation of the water from this bulb decreases the temperature of the mercury in the tube b in proportion to the dryness of the atmosphere, and the number of degrees the tube b indicates below that of the other, shows the real state of the atmosphere in the room; for instance, if b stands at forty and a at sixty-one the room is in a state of extreme dryness, the difference of twenty-one degrees between the thermometers--let a stand at any one point--gives this result. if they do not differ, or there is only four or five degrees variation, the atmosphere of the room is very moist and means should be taken to expel the superfluous quantity. head rests.--the button head rest with chair back clip, a fig. --is much the best for travelling artists, as it can be taken apart, into several pieces and closely packed; is easily and firmly fixed to the back of a chair by the clamp and screw a and b, and is readily adjusted to the head, as the buttons c, c and arms d, d are movable. sometimes the button rest is fixed to a pole, which is screwed to the chair; but this method is not so secure and solid as the clip and occupies more room in packing. both the pole and clip, are furnished in some cases with brass band rests instead of the button; but the only recommendation these can possibly possess in the eyes of any artist, is their cheapness. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] for a daguerreotypist permanently located the independent iron head-rest, b fig. , is the most preferable, principally on account of its solidity. it is entirely of iron, is supported by a tripod (a) of the same metal and can be elevated by means of a rod (b) passing through the body of the tripod, to a height sufficient for a person, standing, to rest against. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] galvanic battery.--this article is used for the purpose of giving to imperfectly coated plates a thicker covering of silver. the form of battery now most universally employed for electrotype, and other galvanic purposes, is smee's--fig. . it consists of a piece of platinized silver, a, on the top of which is fixed a beam of wood, b, to prevent contact with the silver. a binding screw c is soldered on to the silver plate to connect it with any desired object, by means of the copper wire, e. a plate of amalgamated zinc, d, varying with the fancy of the operator from one half to the entire width of the silver is placed on each side of the wood. this is set into a glass vessel, p,--the extreme ends of the wood resting upon its edge--on which the acid with which it is charged has no effect. the jar is charged with sulphuric acid, (common oil of vitriol) diluted in eight parts its bulk of water. the zinc plates of the battery have been amalgamated with quicksilver, and when the battery is set into the jar of acid there should be no action percieved upon them when the poles f, g, are not in contact. should any action be percieved, it indicates imperfect amalgamation; this can be easily remedied by pouring a little mercury upon them immediately after removing them from the acid, taking care to get none upon the centre plate a. directions for use.--a sheet of silver must be attached to the wire connected with the centre plate a of the battery, and placed in the silver solution--prepared as directed below. the plate to be silvered is first cleaned with diluted sulphuric acid, and then attached to the wire, g, proceeding from the zinc plates d, d, and placed in the silver solution, opposite the silver plate attached to the pole f, and about half an inch from it. a slight effervescence will now be percieved from the battery, and the silver will be deposited upon the daguerreotype plate, while at the same time a portion of the silver plate is dissolved. to prepare the solution of silver.--dissolve one ounce of chloride of silver in a solution of two ounces of cyanide of potassium, previously dissolved in one quart of water. the oxide of silver may be used instead of the chloride. this solution is put into a tumbler, or other vessel. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] this battery with the necessary articles for using it may be obtained of e. anthony, broadway, new york city. the other articles required by every operator may be simply enumerated, viz: sticking, or sealing paper. a pair of pliers, or forceps. porcelain pans or dishes, for applying the hyposulphite of soda and washing after the imagine is fixed, something in form like fig. . a support for holding the plate while being washed, like fig. . [updater's note: figures and were missing from the image set.] [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] buff sticks.--fig. .--these are usually from one to three feet in length, and about three inches wide--some think two and a half sufficient. the underside, which is convex, is covered with a strip of finely prepared buckskin, or velvet, well padded with cotton or tow. all the articles enumerated in this chapter may be obtained, of the very best quality and at the most reasonable rates, of mr. e. anthony, , broadway, new york. chap. vi. the daguerreotype process. the process of taking daguerreotype pictures differs very materially from all others of the photographic art, inasmuch as the production of the image is effected upon plates of copper coated with silver. the silver employed should be as pure as possible; the thickness of the plate is of little consequence, provided there be sufficient silver to bear the cleaning and polishing--is free from copper spots, is susceptible of a high polish, an exquisitely sensitive coating and a pleasing tone. these qualities are possessed to an eminent degree by the french plates. having already enumerated the various processes--and the apparatus necessary for the manipulation, i will here give a list of the chemicals to be used, and then proceed to explain them more fully. the requisite chemicals are-- nitric acid, rouge, dry iodine, mercury, drying powder, hyposulphite of soda, cyanide of potassium, chloride of gold; or rottenstone, hyposulphite of gold. tripoli, chloride of silver. chloride of iodine, } their compounds, or other bromine } accelerating mixtures. first operation.--cleaning and polishing the plate.--for this purpose the operator will require the-- plate blocks, plate vice spirit lamp, polishing buffs, nitric acid, diluted in fifteen times its bulk of water galvanic battery, to galvanize the plate, if it is too imperfect to be used without, previous cleaning it, as directed in the last chapter. rottenstone, tripoli, which is too often dispensed with. rouge, or lampblack--the first being most preferable. the english operators mix the two together. prepared cotton wool, or canton flannel. if the first is used, it should be excluded from the dust, as it is not so easily cleansed as the latter. the plate is secured, with its silver side upward, to the block, by the means described on page --having previously turned the edges backward all around. the amount of cleaning a plate requires, depends upon the state it is in. we will suppose one in the worst condition; dirty, scratched, and full of mercury spots, all of which imperfections are more or less to be encountered. the mercury spots are to be removed by burning the plate. to do this hold the plate over the flame of a spirit lamp, more particularly under the mercury spots, until they, assume a dull appearance, when the lamp is to be removed, and the plate allowed to cool, after which it is attached to the block. place the block upon the swivle, and hold it firmly with the left hand; take a small knot or pellet of cotton, or, if you like it better, a small piece of canton flannel--wet it with a little diluted nitric acid; then sift some finely prepared rottenstone--davie's,* if you can get it--upon it, and rub it over the plate with a continual circular motion, till all traces of the dirt and scratches are removed; then wipe off the rottenstone with a clean piece of cotton, adopting, as before, a slight circular motion, at the same time wiping the edges of the plate. even the back should not be neglected, but throughly cleansed from any dirt or greasy film it may have received from handling. * sold by e. anthony. when this is thoroughly accomplished, mix a portion of your tripoli with the dilute nitric acid, to the consistence of thick cream. then take a pellet of cotton and well polish the plate with this mixture, in the same manner as with the rottenstone. continue the process till, on removing the tripoli with a clean pellet, the plate exhibits a clear, smooth, bright surface, free from all spots, or scratches. any remains of the acid on the plate may be entirely removed by sifting on it a little drying powder, and then wiping it carefully off with a fine camels hair brush, or duster. the finishing polish is now to be given. for this purpose the rouge--or a mixture of rouge and lamp-black, in the proportion of one part of the former to seven of the latter--is used. it should be kept either in a muslin bag, or wide mouth bottle, over which a piece of muslin is tied--in fact, both the rottenstone and tripoli should be preserved from the dust in the same manner. with a little of this powder spread over the buff--described on page --the plate recieves its final polish; the circular motion is changed for a straight one across the plate, which, if intended for a portrait, should be buffed the narrow way; but if, for a landscape or view of a house, the length way of the plate. the operation of cleaning the plate at first appears difficult and tedious, and many have been deterred from attempting this interesting art on that account; but, in reality, it is more simple in practice than in description, and with a little patience and observation, all difficulties are easily overcome. great care must be taken to keep the buff free from all extraneous matter, and perfectly dry, and when not in use it should be wrapped up in tissue paper, or placed in a tight box. the plate should be buffed immediately before the sensitive coating is given; particles of dust are thus effectually removed; the temperature of the plate is also increased by the friction, and the required tint more readily obtained. second operation.--applying the sensative coating.--the apparatus and chemicals required, are an iodine box--see fig. page . bromine box--similar to the iodine box but a trifle deeper. dry iodine. bromine, or a compound of bromine and chloride of iodine, or other sensitive mixture. most of our best operators use the compound bromine and chloride of iodine. in the early days of the daguerreotype, iodine alone was used in preparing the plate, and although it still plays a very important part, other preparations, called accelerating liquids, quickstuff, &c., are used, and the discovery of which has alone ensured the application of the daguerreotype successfully to portrait taking--for when first introduced among us it took from five to ten minutes to produce a tolerable good view, while now but the fraction of a minute is required to obtain an accurate likeness. to iodize the plate perfectly it must be placed over the iodine vapor immediately after buffing. scatter from a sixteenth to the eighth of an ounce of dry iodine over the bottom of your coating box, and slightly cover it with cotton wool. the plate is then dropped into the frame b, fig. , with its silvered surface downward, and thrust under the lid h. the bright surface of the plate is soon coated with a film of iodine of a fine yellow color; it is then removed and placed over the accelerating solution. it is not absolutely necessary to perform this operation in the dark, although a bright light should be avoided. not so the next part of the process, viz; giving the plate its extreme sensitiveness, or coating with the accelerating liquids. in this great caution should be used to prevent the slightest ray of light impringing directly on the plate, and in examining the color reflected light should always be used. a convenient method of examining the plate, is to make a small hole in the partition of the closet in which you coat, and cover it with a piece of tissue paper; by quickly turning the plate so that the paper is reflected upon it the color is very distinctly shown. most of our operators are not so particular in this respect as they should be. accelerating liquid.--of these there are several kinds, which differ both in composition and action--some acting very quickly, others giving a finer tone to the picture although they are not so expeditious in there operations; or in other words, not so sensitive to the action of light. these are adopted by daguerreotypists according to their tastes and prejudices. they are all applied in the same way as the coating of iodine. the following are the best. bromine water--this solution is much used in france, and, i shall therefore give its preparation, and the method of using it, in the words of m. figeau. "put into a bottle of pure water, a large excess of bromine; shake the mixture well, and before using it, let all the bromine be taken up. an ascertained quantity of this saturated water is then diluted in a given quantity of distilled water, which gives a solution of bromine that is always identical." m. figeau recommends one part of the saturated solution to thirty parts its bulk of water; but m. lesebour finds it more manageable if diluted with forty times. in case pure distilled, or rain water cannot be procured, a few drops of nitric acid--say six to the quart--should be added to the common water. put into the bromine box a given quantity of this solution, sufficient to well cover the bottom; the plate, having been iodized to a deep yellow, is placed over it; the time the plate should be exposed must be ascertained by making a few trials; it averages from twelve to forty seconds. when once ascertained, it is the same for any number of plates, as the solution, which of course would become weaker and weaker, is changed after every operation, the same quantity being always put into the pot. chloride of iodine.--this is prepared by introducing chlorine gass into a glass vessel containing iodine; the iodine is liquified, and the above named compound is the result. operators need not, however, be at the trouble and expense of preparing it, as it can be obtained perfectly pure of mr. anthony, broadway, n. y., as also all of the chemicals herein enumerated. the compound is diluted with distilled water, and the plate submitted to its action till it is of a rose color. chloride of iodine alone, is seldom if ever used now by american operators, as it does not sufficiently come up to their locomotive principle of progression. the next is also eschewed by the majority, although many of our best artists use no other, on account of the very fine tone it gives to pictures. bromide of iodine.--this is a compound of bromine and chloride of iodine. in mixing it, much depends upon the strength of the ingredients; an equal portion of each being generally used. perhaps the best method of preparing it, is to make a solution in alcohol of half an ounce of chloride of iodine, and add the bromine drop by drop, until the mixture becomes of a dark red color; then dilute with distilled water, till it assumes a bright yellow. put about half an ounce of this compound into the pot, and coat over it to a violet color, change the solution when it becomes too weak to produce the desired effect. another.--mix half an ounce of bromine with one ounce of chloride of iodine, add two quarts pure distilled water, shake it well and let it stand for twelve hours then add twenty-five drops of muriatic acid, and let it stand another twelve hours, occasionally shaking it up well. dilute six parts of this solution in sixteen of water. coat over dry iodine to a deep yellow, then over the sensitive to a deep rose color--approaching purple--then back, over dry iodine from four to eight seconds. roach's tripple compound.--this is one of the very best sensitive solutions, and is very popular among daguerreotypists. to use this, take one part in weight, say one drachm, of the compound and dilute it with twelve of water; coat over dry iodine to yellow, then over the compound to a rosy red. the effect in the camera is quick, and produces a picture of a fine white tone. gurney's sensitive.--this is another preparation of bromine, and gives a fine tone. to two parts of water add one of the sensitive, and put just sufficient in the box to cover the bottom, or enable you to coat in from eight to ten seconds. coat over dry iodine to a dark yellow, and over the quick till you see a good change, then back over the dry iodine from two to three seconds. bromide of lime, or dry sensitive.--this is a compound but recently introduced, and is becoming somewhat of it favorite, owing principally to the slight trouble it gives in its preparation, and the tone it imparts to the picture. to prepare it, fill your jar about half or quarter full of dry slacked lime, then drop into it bromine, till it becomes a bright orange red. the plate is generally coated over this compound, after the iodine coating to yellow, to a violet, or plum color; but it will work well under any circumstances, the color being of little consequence, if coated from thirty to ninety seconds, according to its strength. mead's accelerator.--i merely mention this as being in the market, not knowing any thing in regard to its merits. the directions given for its use are as follows: mix one-third of a bottle with a wine glass full of water, coat the plate over dry iodine to a dark gold color, then over the accelerator to a violet, then back over dry iodine, or chloride of iodine, from three to five seconds. chloride of bromine.--m. bissou, a french experimentalist, has found that bromine associated with chlorine, prepared in a similar manner to chloride of iodine, already described, a solution of bromine being substituted for the iodine, is a very sensitive solution; by means of it daguerreotype proofs are obtained in half a second, and, thus very fugitive subjects are represented, making it the very best compound for taking children. so quick is its operation, that even persons or animals may be taken in the act of walking. hungarian liquid.--this, i believe, has never been used here, or imported into this country, and the composition of it is not generally known, even in europe, where it has taken precedence of all others. it acts quickly and with considerable certainty. it is used by diluting it with from ten to fifteen times its bulk of water, putting a sufficient quantity into the jar to cover the bottom. the plate being previously iodized to a light yellow, is submitted to this mixture till it assumes a light rose tint. bromine and fluoric acid, in combination, are used by some daguerrean artists as a sensitive, but any of the above compounds are better; besides this, the fluoric acid is a dangerous poison, and the quick made from it will not repay the risk to the health in using it. as i have before said, great caution should be observed in examining the color of the plate, even by the feeble light allowed, which, when attained, must be immediately placed in the holder belonging to the camera and covered with the dark slide. you then pass to the third operation.--submitting the plate to the action of light in the camera.--experience alone must guide the operator as to the time the plate should be exposed to the influence of the light; this being dependent on a variety of circumstances, as clearness of the atmosphere--and here, a reference to the hygrometer will be of advantage--time of day, object to be taken, and the degree of sensitiveness imparted to the plate by the quickstuff. as i have before said, the artist should be careful to see that the interior of the camera is clean and free from dust, as the small particles flying about, or set in motion by the sliding of the holder into the box, attach themselves to the plate, and cause the little black spots, by which an otherwise good picture is frequently spoiled. care should also be taken in withdrawing the dark slide, in front of the plate, from the holder, as the same effect may be produced by a too hasty movement. the lens is the last thing to be uncovered, by withdrawing the cap c. fig. ., which should not be done until you have placed the sitter in the most desirable position. when, according to the judgment and experience of the operator, the plate has remained long enough to receive a good impression, the cap is replaced over the lens, and the dark slide over the plate, which is then removed from the camera. daguerreotypists generally mark time by their watches, arriving at the nearest possible period for producing a good picture by making several trials. as a ready method of marking short intervals of time is, however, a very important consideration, and as any instrument which will enable an artist to arrive at the exact period, must be an improvement, and worthy of universal adoption, i will here describe one invented by mr. constable of england, which he calls a sand clock, or time keeper.--"it consists of a glass tube, about twelve inches long, by one in diameter, half filled with fine sand, similar to that used for the ordinary minute glasses, and, like them, it has a diaphram, with a small hole in the centre through which the sand runs. the tube is attached to a board which revolves on a centre pin; on the side is a graduated scale, divided into half seconds; the tube is also provided with a moveable index. this instrument is attached, in a conspicuous place, to the wall. the glass tube being revolved on its centre, the index is set to the number of half seconds required, and the sand running down, the required time is marked without the possibility of error. in practice it will be found to be a far more convenient instrument for the purpose than either a clock or a seconds watch, and is applicable both for the camera and mercury box." if the artist finds it desirable or necessary to take the object to be copied in its right position, that is reverse the image on the spectrum, he can do so by attaching a mirror (which may be had of mr. anthony, or mr. roach) to the camera tube, at an angle of forty-five degrees. if, after taking the plate from the camera, it be examined, no picture will yet be visible, but this is brought about by the fourth process.--bringing out the picture, or rendering it visible.--we now come to the use of the mercury bath, fig. . to the bath a thermometer is attached, to indicate the proper degree of beat required, which should never be raised above deg. fahrenheit. the plate maybe put into one of the frames (see fig. ,) over the mercury, face downwards, and examined from time to time, by simply raising it with the fingers, or a pair of plyers. this operation, as well as the others, should take place in the dark closet. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] [updater's note: hipho_ .gif and hipho .gif are both captioned figure .] sometimes, to prevent the necessity of raising the plate, an additional cover or top is made use of. it consists of a box fitted closely to the inner rim of the bath, and having an inclined top (a, fig. .) the top is cut through and fitted with frames for each size of plate, like those already described, and in the back is a piece of glass (b,) through which to view the progress of mercurialization, and an additional piece (c,) on one side, colored yellow, to admit the light. the outline only of the top is here given, in order to show every portion of it at one view. the picture, being fully developed, is now taken out and examined; it must not, however, be exposed to too strong a light. if any glaring defects be perceived, it is better not to proceed with it, but place it on one side to be re-polished; if, on the contrary, it appears perfect, you may advance to the fifth operation.--fixing the image so that the light can no longer act upon it.--the following articles are required for this purpose: two or three porcelain or glass dishes, in form, something like fig. . a plate support, fig. . few, i believe, now make use of this, although it is a very convenient article. hyposulphite of soda, a pair of plyers. in europe, they also use a drying apparatus, fig. , but this, like the plate support, is a matter of little consequence, and may be dispensed with. i will, however, describe it, for the benefit of those who may wish to use it. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] [updater's note: hipho_ .gif and hipho .gif are both captioned figure .] a vessel made of copper or brass, tinned inside, and large enough to take in the largest plate, but not more than half an inch wide, is the most convenient. it must be kept perfectly clean. hot distilled water is poured into it, and the temperature kept up by a spirit lamp. hyposulphite of soda.--having made a solution of hyposulphite of soda, and well filtered it--the strength is immaterial; about half an ounce of the salt to a pint of distilled water is sufficient--pour it into one of the porcelain dishes, put into another plain, and into a third distilled water. immerse the plate with its face downwards into the hyposulphite, and the whole of the sensitive is removed, and the light has no farther action upon it; it is then to be removed from the hyposulphite and plunged into the plain water, or placed upon the support, fig. , and the water poured over it. it is then washed in a similar manner with the distilled water and well examined, to see that not the slightest particle of dust rests on the surface. the next step is to dry it. this may be readily accomplished by holding the plate with your plyers, and pouring distilled water over it--if it is hot, so much the better. apply the spirit lamp to the back, at the corner held by the plyers, at the same time facilitating the operation with the breath; pass the lamp gradually downwards, finishing at the extreme corner. the last drop may now be removed by a little bibulous paper. a single drop, even, of distilled water allowed to dry on any part of the surface, is certain to leave a stain which no after process can remove. to illustrate the necessity for having perfectly clean water, and free from all foreign matter--only to be avoided by using that which is distilled--in these processes, i will relate a little anecdote. an operator in this city (new york) frequently made complaint to me, that his plates were occasionally very bad; coming out all over in little black and white spots and spoiling many very good pictures, regretting at the same time that perfect plates were not made, for he had lost many customers in consequence of these defects. these complaints being somewhat periodical, i suggested that the fault might be in the hyposulphite, or chloride of gold solutions, or particles of dust floating about in the room, and not in the plate. a few days after he stated, that his plates having served him again in the same way, he procured a fresh supply of hyposulphite of soda and chloride of gold, but after applying them the result was no better. he then, by my advice, thoroughly cleaned his wash dishes, bottles and water pail, made fresh solutions and had no further trouble, becoming satisfied that the plates suffered an undue share of censure. sixth process.--gilding the picture.--this is an improvement the honor of which is due to m. figeau, and may take place either before the drying process, or at any subsequent period; but it improves the picture so materially that it should never be neglected. the articles necessary for gilding are-- a pair of plyers; or a gilding stand (see fig. ) and chloride of gold; or hyposulphite of gold. the latter is imported by mr. e. anthony, broadway, new york, and is decidedly the best article for the purpose. one bottle simply dissolved in a quart of water will make a very strong solution, and gives a richness to the picture impossible to be obtained from the chloride of gold. the process is precisely similar to that described below for chloride of gold, taking care to cease the moment the bubbles are well defined over the surface of the plate. many daguerreotypists, after a superficial trial, discard the hyposulphite of gold as inferior; but i have no hesitation in asserting that the fault lies with themselves; for in every case within my knowledge, where its use has been persisted in until the correct method has been ascertained and the nature of the gilding has become familiar, it is always preferred. in illustration of this fact i will relate an anecdote: a gentleman to whom it had been recommended, purchased a bottle, and after making one or two trials of it, wrote to his correspondent--"send me two bottles of chloride of gold, for i want no more of the hyposulphite; it is good for nothing." a few weeks after he sent for three bottles of the condemned article, confessing that he had found fault unnecessarily; for, that since he had become familiar to its use, he must acknowledge its superiority, and would use no other gilding. the solution of chloride of gold is prepared by dissolving in a pint of distilled water, fifteen grains of chrystalized chloride of gold. this solution will be of a yellow tint. in another pint of distilled water dissolve fifty-five grains of hyposulphite of soda; pour gradually, in very small quantities, the gold into the hyposulphite of soda, stirring the solution at intervals; when finished the mixture should be nearly colorless. place the plate on its stand, or hold it in the plyers, in a perfectly horizontal position--silver surface upward--having previously slightly turned up the edges, so that it may hold the solution. wet the surface with alcohol, letting any superfluous quantity drain off. the alcohol is of no farther use than to facilitate the flowing of the gold mixture over the surface. now pour on, carefully, as much of the preparation of gold as will remain on the plate. the under part of the plate is then to be heated as uniformly as possible with the spirit lamp; small bubbles will arise, and the appearance of the portrait or view very sensibly improved. the process must not be carried too far, but as soon as the bubbles disappear the lamp should be removed, and the plate immersed in distilled water, and dried as before directed. th. coloring the picture.--i very much doubt the propriety of coloring the daguerreotypes, as i am of opinion, that they are little, if any, improved by the operation, at least as it is now generally practised. there are several things requisite in an artist to enable him to color a head, or even a landscape effectively, and correctly, and i must say that very few of these are possessed by our operators as a class. these requirements are, a talent for drawing--taste--due discrimination of effect--strict observance of the characteristic points in the features of the subject--quick perception of the beautiful, and a knowledge of the art of mixing colors, and blending tints. the method now pursued, i do not hesitate to say, and have no fears of being contradicted by those capable of critisizing is on the whole ruinous to any daguerreotype, and to a perfect one absolutely disgusting. the day may come when accurate coloring may be obtained in the camera. until that day, if we cannot lead taste into the right channel, we will endeavor to give such instructions that daguerreotypists may proceed with this part of his work with a better understanding of the principles involved. for this purpose i have prepared a short chapter on the art of coloring, which may be found in the latter part of this volume. to preserve daguerreotypes they must be well sealed and secured in a case, or frame. these, of course, are selected according to the taste of the customer, the principal requisite being good glass. most daguerreotypists prefer the white french plate glass--and many think, very erroneously, that none is good unless it is thick--but the great desideratum is clearness and freedom from blisters; even glass a little tinged with green or yellow is to be preferred to the french plate when cloudy or blistered and there is very little of it comes to this market that is not so. it is to be hoped that some of our glass factories will manage to manufacture an article expressly for daguerreotypes; and i would recommend them to do so, for they would find it quite an item of profit annually. before enclosing the picture in the case you should be careful to wipe the glass perfectly clean, and blow from the picture any particles of dust which may have fallen upon it. then take strips of sticking paper, about half or three quarters of an inch wide, and firmly and neatly secure it to the glass, having first placed a "mat" between them to prevent the plate being scratched by the glass. to make sealing paper.--dissolve one ounce of gum arabic, and a quarter of an ounce of gum tragicanth in a pint of water; then add a teaspoonful of benzoin. spread this evenly on one side of good stout tissue paper; let it dry, and then cut it up in stripes, about half or three quarters of an inch wide, for use. if it becomes too soft for summer use, add gum arabic; if too hard and cracking, add benzoin or gum tragicanth; if it gets too thick, add water. colored daguerreotypes on copper.--to effect this, take a polished plate of copper and expose it to the vapor of iodine, or bromine, or the two substances combined; or either of them in combination with chlorine. this gives a sensitive coating to the surface of the plate, which may then be submitted to the action of light in the camera. after remaining a sufficient time in the camera, the plate is taken out and exposed to the vapor of sulphuretted hydrogen. this vapor produces various colors on the plate, according to the intensity with which the light has acted on the different parts; consequently a colored photographic picture is obtained. no further process is necessary as exposure to light does not effect the picture. by this process we have an advantage over the silvered plate, both in economy, and in the production of the picture in colors. instantaneous pictures by means of galvanism.--it will be seen by the following valuable communication that galvanism can be successfully applied in producing pictures instantly; a process of great importance in securing the likeness of a child, or in taking views of animated nature. colonel whitney informs me that he once took a view of the steeple of the st. louis court house after sundown by this means, and also secured the image of a man in the act of stepping into a store, and before he had time to place his foot, raised for that purpose, on the door step. mr. whitney is well known as the talented editor of the sunday morning news. new york, january , . mr. h. h. snelling. dear sir,--as you are about publishing a history of the daguerreotype, and request a description of my mode of taking pictures instantaneously by the aid of galvanism, i comply with great pleasure. in the year , while practicing the art in st. louis, mo., i was at times, during the summer, much troubled with the electric influence of the atmosphere, especially on the approach of a thunder-storm. at such times i found the coating of my plates much more sensitive than when the atmosphere was comparatively free from the electric fluid, and the effect was so irregular that no calculation could counteract the difficulty. this satisfied me that electricity was in some measure an important agent in the chemical process, and it occurred to me that the element might be turned to advantage. i determined, therefore, to enter on a series of experiments to test my theory. finding it impossible to obtain an electric machine, and unwilling to abandon the examination, it occurred to me, that the galvanic influence might answer the same purpose. i therefore proceeded to make a galvanic battery in the following simple manner. i obtained a piece of zinc about two inches long, one inch wide, and an eighth of an inch thick. on this i soldered a narrow strip of copper, about six inches long, the soldered end laid on one side of the zinc, and extending its whole length. the battery was completed by placing the zinc in a glass tumbler, two-thirds full of dilute sulphuric acid, strong enough to produce a free action of the metals. the upper end of the copper slip extending above the tumbler was sharpened to a point, and bent a little over the glass. the method of using, was thus:--after preparing the plate in the usual manner and placing it in the camera, in such manner as to expose the back of the plate to view, the battery was prepared by placing the zinc in the acid, and as soon as the galvanic fluid began to traverse (as could be known by the effervescence of the acid, operating on the zinc and copper) the cap of the camera was removed, and the plate exposed to the sitter; at the same instant the point of the battery was brought quickly against the back of the plate, and the cap replaced instantly. if the plate is exposed more than an instant after the contact the picture will generally be found solarized. by this process i have taken pictures of persons in the act of walking, and in taking the pictures of infants and young children i found it very useful. very respectfully yours, thomas r. whitney. chap. vii paper daguerreotypes.--etching daguerreotypes. mr. hunt describes a process, discovered by himself by which the daguerrean art may be applied to paper. his description is as follows:-- "placing the paper on some hard body, wash it over on one side--by means of a very soft camel's hair pencil--with a solution of sixty grains of bromide of potassium, in two fluid ounces of distilled water, and then dry it quickly by the fire. being dry, it is again washed over with the same solution, and dried as before. a solution of nitrate of silver--one hundred grains to an ounce of distilled water--is to be applied over the same surface, and the paper quickly dried in the dark. in this state the papers may be kept for use. "when they are required, the above solution of silver is to be plentifully applied, and the paper placed wet in the camera, the greatest care being taken that no day light--not even the faintest gleam--falls upon it until the moment when you are prepared, by removing the dark slide, to permit the light, radiating from the object you wish to copy, to act in producing the picture. after a few seconds the light must be again shut off, and the camera removed into a dark room." the necessity of removing the camera is now avoided by the use of the dark slide, already described, covering the picture in the holder, which alone may be removed.--amer. aut. "it will be found by taking the paper from the holder, that there is but a very faint outline--if any--yet visible. place it aside, in perfect darkness until quite dry; then place it in the mercurial vapor box (meaning bath) and apply a very gentle heat to the bottom. the moment the mercury vaporizes, the picture will begin to develope itself. the spirit lamp must now be removed for a short time, and when the action of the mercury appears to cease, it is to be very carefully applied again, until a well defined picture is visible. the vaporization must then be suddenly stopped, and the photograph removed from the box. the drawing will then be very beautiful and distinct; but much detail is still clouded, for the developement of which it is only necessary to place it in the dark and suffer it to remain undisturbed for some hours. there is now an inexpressible charm about the pictures, equaling the delicate beauty of the daguerreotype; but being very susceptible of change, it must be viewed by the light of a taper only. the nitrate of silver must now be removed from the paper, by well washing it in soft water, to which a small quantity of salt has been added, and it should afterwards be soaked in water only. when the picture has been dried, wash it quickly over with a soft brush dipped in a warm solution of hyposulphite of soda, and then wash it for some time in distilled water, in order that all the hyposulphite may be removed. the drawing is now fixed and we may use it to procure positive copies, (the original being termed a negative,) many of which may be taken from one original." "the action of light on this preparation, does indeed appear to be instantaneous. the exquisite delicacy of this preparation may be imagined, when i state that in five seconds in the camera, i have, during sunshine, obtained perfect pictures, and that when the sky is overcast, one minute is quite sufficient to produce a most decided effect." "this very beautiful process is not without its difficulties; and the author cannot promise that, even with the closest attention to the above directions, annoying failures will not occur. it often happens that some accidental circumstance--generally a projecting film or a little dust--will occasion the mercurial vapor to act with great energy on one part of the paper, and blacken it before the other portions are at all effected. again, the mercury will sometimes accumulate along the lines made by the brush, and give a streaky appearance to the picture, although these lines are not at all evident before the mercurial vapor was applied. (a brush sufficiently large--and they may be easily obtained--will, in a measure, prevent this difficulty.--amer au.) i have stated that the paper should be placed wet in the camera; the same paper may be used dry, which often is a great convenience. when in the dry state a little longer exposure is required; and instead of taking a picture in four or five seconds, two or three minutes are necessary." the durability of daguerreotypes has been, and is still, doubted by many, but experiment has proved that they are more permanent than oil paintings or engravings. etching daguerreotypes.--there are several methods of accomplishing this object; discovered and applied by different individuals. the first process was published at vienna by dr. berres, and consisted in covering the plate with the mucilage of gum arabic, and then immersing the plate in nitric acid of different strengths. mr. figeau, of whom i have already spoken, likewise discovered a process for the engraving of daguerreotypes; and founded on the belief that the lights of a daguerreotype plate consists of unaltered silver, while the dark or shadows consists of mercury or an amalgam of mercury with silver. he finds that a compound acid, consisting of a mixture of nitric, nitrous, and muriatic acids, or of nitric mixed with nitrate of potass and common salt, has the property of attaching the silver in presence of the mercury without acting upon the latter. bi-chloride of copper answers the purpose also, but less completely. "when the clean surface of a daguerreotype plate is exposed to the action of this menstruum, particularly if warm, the white parts, or lights are not altered, but the dark parts are attacked, and chloride of silver is formed, of which an insoluble coating is soon deposited, and the action of the acid soon ceases. this coat of chloride of silver is removed by a solution of ammonia, and then the acid applied again, and so on, until the depth of biting in is sufficient. however, it is not possible, by repeating this process, to get a sufficient force of impression; a second operation is required, in order to obtain such a depth as will hold the ink, to give a dark impression; for this purpose the whole plate is covered with drying oil; this is cleared off with the hand, exactly in the way a copper plate printer cleans his plate. the oil is thus left in the sinkings, or dark bitten in parts only. the whole plate is now placed in a suitable apparatus, and the lights or prominent parts of the face are gilt by the electrotype process. the whole surface is now touched with what the french engravers call the "resin grain," (grain de resine), a species of partial stopping out, and it is at once bitten in to a sufficient depth with nitric acid, the gilding preserving the lights from all action of the acid. the resin grain gives a surface to the corroded parts suitable for holding the ink, and the plate is now finished and fit to give impressions resembling aquatint. but as silver is so soft a metal that the surface of the plate might be expected to wear rapidly, the discoverer proposes to shield it by depositing over its whole surface a very thin coat of copper by the electrotype process; which when worn may be removed at pleasure down to the surface of the noble metal beneath, and again a fresh coat of copper deposited; and so an unlimited number of impressions obtained without injuring the plate itself." if, as has been asserted, steel may be rendered sufficiently sensitive, to take photographic impressions, to what a revolution will the art of engraving be subject by the discovery of this process. chap. viii. photogenic drawing on paper. we shall now proceed to describe the various processes for photogenic drawing on paper; first, however, impressing on the mind of the experimenter, the necessity which exists for extreme care in every stage of the manipulation. in this portion of my work i am entirely indebted to the works of professors hunt, fisher and others. i. apparatus and materials.--paper.--the principal difficulty to be contended with in using paper, is the different power of imbibition which we often find possessed in the same sheet, owing to trifling inequalities in its texture. this is, to a certain extent, to be overcome by a careful examination of each sheet, by the light of a candle or lamp at night, or in the dark. by extending each sheet between the light and the eye, and slowly moving it up and down, and from left to right, the variations in its texture will be seen by the different quantities of light which pass through it in different parts; and it is always the safest course to reject every sheet in which inequalities exist. paper sometimes contains minute portions of thread, black or brown specks, and other imperfections, all of which materially interfere with the process. some paper has an artificial substance given to it by sulphate of lime (plaster of paris); this defect only exists, however, in the cheaper sorts of demy, and therefore can be easily avoided. in all cases such paper should be rejected, as no really sensitive material can be obtained with it. paper-makers, as is well known, often affix their name to one half the sheet; this moiety should also be placed aside, as the letters must frequently come out with annoying distinctness. well sized paper is by no means objectionable, indeed, is rather to be preferred, since the size tends to exalt the sensitive powers of the silver. the principal thing to be avoided, is the absorption of the sensitive solution into the pores; and it must be evident that this desideratum cannot be obtained by unsized paper. taking all things into consideration, the paper known as satin post would appear to be preferable, although the precautions already recommended should be taken in its selection. brushes.--the necessary solutions are to be laid upon the paper by brushes. some persons pass the paper over the surface of the solutions, thus licking up, as it were, a portion of the fluid; but this method is apt to give an uneven surface; it also rapidly spoils the solutions. at all events, the brush is the most ready and the most effectual means. distilled water.--all the water used, both for mixing the solutions, washing the paper, or cleaning the brushes, must be distilled, to obtain good results, for reasons before specified. blotting paper.--in many instances, the prepared paper requires to be lightly dried with bibulous paper. the best description is the white sort. in each stage of the preparation distinct portions of bibulous paper must be used. if these be kept seperate and marked, they can be again employed for the same stage; but it would not do, for example, to dry the finished picture in the same folds in which the sensitive paper had been pressed. a very convenient method is to have two or three quarto size books of bibulous paper, one for each seperate process. nitrate of silver.--in the practice of the photographic art, much depends on the nitrate of silver. care should be taken to procure the best; the crystalized salt is most suitable for the purpose. while in the form of crystal it is not injured by exposure to light, but the bottles containing the solutions of this salt should at all times be kept wrapped in dark paper, and excluded from daylight. ii. different methods of preparing the paper.--preparation of the paper.--dip the paper to be prepared into a weak solution of common salt. the solution should not be saturated, but six or eight times diluted with water. when perfectly moistened, wipe it dry with a towel, or press it between bibulous paper, by which operation the salt is uniformly dispersed through its substance. then brush over it, on one side only, a solution of nitrate of silver. the strength of this solution must vary according to the color and sensitiveness required. mr. talbot recommends about fifty grains of the salt to an ounce of distilled water. some advise twenty grains only, while others say eighty grains to the ounce. when dried in a dark room, the paper is fit for use. to render this paper still more sensitive, it must again be washed with salt and water, and afterwards with the same solution of nitrate of silver, drying it between times. this paper, if carefully made, is very useful for all ordinary photographic purposes. for example, nothing can be more perfect than the images it gives of leaves and flowers, especially with a summer's sun; the light, passing through the leaves, delineates every ramification of their fibres. in conducting this operation, however, it will be found that the results are sometimes more and sometimes less satisfactory, in consequence of small and accidental variations in the proportions employed. it happens sometimes that the chloride of silver formed on the surface of the paper is disposed to blacken of itself, without any exposure to light. this shows that the attempt to give it sensibility has been carried too far. the object is, to approach as nearly to this condition as possible without reaching it; so that the preparation may be in a state ready to yield to the slightest extraneous force, such as the feeblest effect of light. cooper's method.--soak the paper in a boiling hot solution of chlorate of potash (the strength matters not) for a few minutes; then take it out, dry it, and wet it with a brush, on one side only, dipped in a solution of nitrate of silver, sixty grains to an ounce of distilled water, or, if not required to be so sensitive, thirty grains to the ounce will do. this paper possesses a great advantage over any other, for the image can be fixed by mere washing. it is, however, very apt to become discolored even in the washing, or shortly afterwards, and is, besides, not so sensitive, nor does it become so dark as that made according to mr. talbot's method. daguerre's method.--immerse the paper in hydrochloric (or as it is more commonly called, muriatic) ether, which has been kept sufficiently long to become acid; the paper is then carefully and completely dried, as this is essential to its proper preparation. it is then dipped into a solution of nitrate of silver, and dried without artificial heat in a room from which every ray of light is carefully excluded. by this process it acquires a very remarkable facility in being blackened on a very slight exposure to light, even when the latter is by no means intense. the paper, however, rapidly loses its extreme sensitiveness to light, and finally becomes no more impressionable by the solar beams than common nitrate paper. bromide paper.--of all common photographic paper, the best, because the least troublesome in making, and the most satisfactory in result, is that which is termed bromine paper, and which is thus prepared:--dissolve one hundred grains of bromide of potassium in one ounce of distilled water, and soak the paper in this solution. take off the superfluous moisture, by means of your bibulous paper, and when nearly dry, brush it over on one side only, with a solution of one hundred grains of nitrate of silver to an ounce of distilled water. the paper should then be dried in a dark room, and, if required to be very sensitive, should a second time be brushed over with the nitrate of silver solution. in preparing the papers mentioned above, there are two circumstances which require particular attention. in the first place, it is necessary to mark the paper on the side spread with the solutions of nitrate of silver, near one of the extreme corners. this answers two purposes: in the first place it serves to inform the experimentalist of the sensitive surface; and secondly, it will be a guide as to which portion of the papers has been handled during the application of the solution, as the impress of the fingers will probably come out upon the photograph. the second caution is, that the application of the sensitive solution (nitrate of silver,) and the subsequent drying of the paper, must be always conducted in a perfectly dark room, the light of a candle alone being used. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] iii. photogenic process on paper.--method.--the simplest mode is to procure a flat board and a square of glass, larger in size than the object intended to be copied. on the board place the photographic paper with the prepared side upwards, and upon it the object to be copied; over both lay the glass and secure them so that they are in close connection by means of binding screws or clamps, similar to g. g. fig. . should the object to be copied be of unequal thickness, such as a leaf, grass, &c., it will be necessary to place on the board, first, a soft cushion, which may be made of a piece of fine flannel and cotton wool. by this means the object is brought into closer contact with the paper, which is of great consequence, and adds materially to the clearness of the copy. the paper is now exposed to diffused daylight, or, still better, to the direct rays of the sun, when that part of the paper not covered by the object will become tinged with a violet color, and if the paper be well prepared, it will in a short time pass to a deep brown or bronze color. it must then be removed, as no advantage will be obtained by keeping it longer exposed; on the contrary, the delicate parts yet uncolored will become in some degree affected. the photogenic paper will now show a more or less white and distinct representation of the object. the apparatus figured at consists of a wooden frame similar to a picture frame; a piece of plate glass is fixed in front; and it is provided with a sliding cover of wood, c., which is removed when the paper is ready to be exposed to the action of the light. the back, d., which is furnished with a cushion, as just described, is made to remove for the purpose of introducing the object to be copied, and upon it the prepared paper; the back is then replaced, and, by aid of the cross piece and screw, e., the whole is brought into close contact with the glass. the objects best delineated on these photographic papers, are lace, feathers, dried plants, particularly the ferns, sea-weeds and the light grasses, impressions of copper plate and wood engravings, particularly if they have considerable contrast of light and shade--(these should be placed with the face downwards, having been previously prepared as hereafter directed)--paintings on glass, etchings, &c. to fix the drawings.--mr. talbot recommends that the drawings should be dipped in salt and water, and in many instances this method will succeed, but at times it is equally unsuccessful. iodide of potassium, or, as it is frequently called, hydriodate of potash, dissolved in water, and very much diluted, (twenty-five grains to one ounce of water,) is a more useful preparation to wash the drawings with; it must be used very weak or it will not dissolve the unchanged muriate only, as is intended but the black oxide also, and the drawing be thereby spoiled. but the most certain material to be used is the hyposulphite of soda. one ounce of this salt should be dissolved in about a pint of distilled water. having previously washed the drawing in a little lukewarm water, which of itself removes a large portion of the muriate of silver which is to be got rid of, it should be dipped once or twice in the hyposulphite solution. by this operation the muriate which lies upon the lighter parts will become so altered in its nature as to be unchanged by light, while the rest remains dark as before. it will be evident from the nature of the process, that the lights and shadows of an object are reversed. that which is originally opaque will intercept the light, and consequently those parts of the photogenic paper will be least influenced by light, while any part of the object which is transparent, by admitting the light through it, will suffer the effect to be greater or less in exact proportion to its degree of transparency. the object wholly intercepting the light will show a white impression; in selecting, for example, a butterfly for an object, the insect, being more or less transparent, leaves a proportionate gradation of light and shade, the most opaque parts showing the whitest. it may be said, therefore, that this is not natural, and in order to obtain a true picture--or, as it is termed, a positive picture--we must place our first acquired photograph upon a second piece of photogenic paper. before we do this, however, we must render our photograph transparent, otherwise the opacity of the paper will mar our efforts. to accomplish this object, the back of the paper containing the negative, or first acquired photograph, should be covered with white or virgin wax. this may be done by scraping the wax upon the paper, and then, after placing it between two other pieces of paper, passing a heated iron over it. the picture, being thus rendered transparent, should now be applied to a second piece of photogenic paper, and exposed, in the manner before directed, either to diffused day-light or to the direct rays of the sun. the light will now penetrate the white parts, and the second photograph be the reverse of the first, or a true picture of the original. instead of wax, boiled linseed oil--it must be the best and most transparent kind--may be used. the back of the negative photograph should be smeared with the oil, and then placed between sheets of bibulous paper. when dry the paper is highly transparent. iv. application of photogenic drawing.--this method of photogenic drawing may be applied to useful purposes, such as the copying of paintings on glass by the light thrown through them on the prepared paper--imitations of etchings, which may be accomplished by covering a piece of glass with a thick coat of white oil paint; when dry, with the point of a needle, lines or scratches are to be made through the white lead ground, so as to lay the glass bare; then place the glass upon a piece of prepared paper, and expose it to the light. of course every line will be represented beneath of a black color, and thus an imitation etching will be produced. it is also applicable to the delineation of microscopic objects, architecture, sculpture, landscapes and external nature. a novel application of this art has been recently suggested, which would doubtless prove useful in very many instances. by rendering the wood used for engravings sensitive to light, impressions may be at once made thereon, without the aid of the artist's pencil. the preparation of the wood is simply as follows:--place its face or smooth side downwards, in a plate containing twenty grains of common salt dissolved in an ounce of water; here let it remain for five minutes, take it out and dry it; then place it again face downwards in another plate containing sixty grains of nitrate of silver to an ounce of water; here let it rest one minute, when taken out and dried in the dark it will be fit for use, and will become, on exposure to the light, of a fine brown color. should it be required more sensitive, it must be immersed in each solution a second time, for a few seconds only. it will now be very soon effected by a very diffused light. this process may be useful to carvers and wood engravers not only to those who cut the fine objects of artistical design, but still more to those who cut patterns and blocks for lace, muslin, calico-printing, paper hangings, etc., as by this means the errors, expense and time of the draughtsman may be wholly saved, and in a minute or two the most elaborate picture or design, or the most complicated machinery, be delineated with the utmost truth and clearness. chap. ix. calotype and chrysotype. the materials and apparatus necessary for the calotype process are-- two or three shallow dishes, for holding distilled water, iodide, potassium, &c.--the same water never being used for two different operations. white bibulous paper. photogenic camera--fig. . pressure frame--fig . paper, of the very best quality--directions for the choice of which have been already given. a screen of yellow glass. camels' or badgers' hair brushes:--a seperate one being kept for each wash and solution, and which should be thoroughly cleansed immediately after using in distilled water. that used for the gallo-nitrate is soon destroyed, owing to the rapid decomposition of that preparation. a graduated measure. three or four flat boards, to which the paper may be fixed with drawing pins. a hot water drying apparatus, for drying the paper will also be found useful. in preparing the calotype paper, it is necessary to be extremely careful, not only to prevent the daylight from impringing upon it, but also to exclude, if possible, the strong glare of the candle or lamp. this may be effected by using a shade of yellow glass or gauze, which must be placed around the light. light passing through such a medium will scarcely affect the sensitive compounds, the yellow glass intercepting the chemical rays. preparation of the iodized paper.--dissolve one hundred grains of crystalized nitrate of silver in six ounces of distilled water, and having fixed the paper to one of the boards, brush it over with a soft brush on one side only with this solution, a mark being placed on that side whereby it may be known. when nearly dry dip it into a solution of iodide of potassium, containing five hundred grains of that salt dissolved in a pint of water. when perfectly saturated with this solution, it should be washed in distilled water, drained and allowed to dry. this is the first part of the process, and the paper so prepared is called iodized paper. it should be kept in a port-folio or drawer until required: with this care it may be preserved for any length of time without spoiling or undergoing any change. mr. cundell finds a stronger solution of nitrate of silver preferable, and employs thirty grains to the ounce of distilled water: he also adds fifty grains of common salt to the iodide of potassium, which he applies to the marked side of the paper only. this is the first process. preparation of the paper for the camera.--the second process consists in applying to the above a solution which has been named by mr. talbot the "gallo-nitrate of silver;" it is prepared in the following manner: dissolve one hundred grains of crystalized nitrate of silver in two ounces of distilled water, to which is added two and two-third drachms of strong acetic acid. this solution should be kept in a bottle carefully excluded from the light. now, make a solution of gallic acid in cold distilled water: the quantity dissolved is very small. when it is required to take a picture, the two liquids above described should be mixed together in equal quantities; but as it speedily undergoes decomposition, and will not keep good for many minutes, only just sufficient for the time should be prepared, and that used without delay. it is also well not to make much of the gallic acid solution, as it will not keep for more than a few days without spoiling. a sheet of the iodized paper should be washed over with a brush with this mixed solution, care being taken that it be applied to the marked side. this operation must be performed by candle light. let the paper rest half a minute, then dip it into one of the dishes of water, passing it beneath the surface several times; it is now allowed to drain, and dried by placing its marked side upwards, on the drying apparatus. it is better not to touch the surface with bibulous paper. it is now highly sensitive, and ready to receive the impression. in practice it is found better and more economical not to mix the nitrate of silver and gallic acid, but only to brush the paper with the solution of the nitrate. mr. talbot has recently proposed some modifications in his method of preparing the calotype paper. the paper is first iodized in the usual way; it is then washed over with a saturated solution of gallic acid in distilled water and dried. thus prepared he calls it the io-gallic paper: it will remain good for a considerable time if kept in a press or portfolio. when required for use, it is washed with a solution of nitrate of silver (fifty grains to the ounce of distilled water), and it is then fit for the camera. exposure in the camera.--the calotype paper thus prepared possesses a very high degree of sensibility when exposed to light, and we are thus provided with a medium by which, with the aid of the photogenic camera, we may effectually copy views from nature, figures, buildings, and even take portraits from the shadows thrown on the paper by the living face. the paper may be used somewhat damp. the best plan for fixing it in the camera is to place it between a piece of plate glass and some other material with a flat surface, as a piece of smooth slate or an iron plate, which latter, if made warm, renders the paper more sensitive, and consequently the picture is obtained more rapidly. time of exposure.--with regard to the time which should be allowed for the paper to remain in the camera, no direct rules can be laid down; this will depend altogether upon the nature of the object to be copied, and the light which prevails. all that can be said is, that the time necessary for forming a good picture varies from thirty seconds to five minutes, and it will be naturally the first object of the operator to gain by experience this important knowledge. bringing out the picture.--the paper when taken from the camera, which should be done so as to exclude every ray of light--and here the dark slide of the camera plate holder becomes of great use--bears no resemblance to the picture which in reality is formed. the impression is latent and invisible, and its existence would not be suspected by any one not acquainted with the process by previous experiment. the method of bringing out the image is very simple. it consists in washing the paper with the gallo-nitrate of silver, prepared in the way already described, and then warming it gently, being careful at the same time not to let any portion become perfectly dry. in a few seconds the part of the paper upon which the light has acted will begin to darken, and finally grow entirely black, while the other parts retain their original color. even a weak impression may be brought out by again washing the paper in the gallo-nitrate, and once more gently warming it. when the paper is quite black, as is generally the case, it is a highly curious and beautiful phenomenon to witness the commencement of the picture, first tracing out the stronger outlines, and then gradually filling up all the numerous and complicated details. the artist should watch the picture as it developes itself, and when in his judgment it has attained the greatest degree of strength and clearness, he shall stop further proceedings by washing it with the fixing liquid. here again the mixed solution need not be used, but the picture simply brushed over with the gallic acid. the fixing process.--in order to fix the picture thus obtained, first dip it into water; then partly dry it with bibulous paper, and wash it with a solution of bromide of potassium--containing one hundred grains of that salt dissolved in eight or ten ounces of distilled water. the picture is again washed with distilled water, and then finally dried. instead of bromide of potassium, a solution of hyposulphite of soda, as before directed, may be used with equal advantage. the original calotype picture, like the photographic one described in the last chapter, is negative, that is to say, it has its lights and shades reversed, giving the whole an appearance not conformable to nature. but it is easy from this picture to obtain another which shall be conformable to nature; viz., in which the lights shall be represented by lights, and the shades by shades. it is only necessary to take a sheet of photographic paper (the bromide paper is the best), and place it in contact with a calotype picture previously rendered transparent by wax or oil as before directed. fix it in the frame, fig. , expose it in the sunshine for a short time, and an image or copy will be formed on the photogenic paper. the calotype paper itself may be used to take the second, or positive, picture, but this mr. talbot does not recommend, for although it takes a much longer time to take a copy on the photogenic paper, yet the tints of such copy are generally more harmonious and agreeable. after a calotype picture has furnished a number of copies it sometimes grows faint, and the subsequent copies are inferior. this may be prevented by means of a process which revives the strength of the calotype pictures. in order to do this, it is only necessary to wash them by candlelight with gallo-nitrate of silver, and then warm them. this causes all the shades of the picture to darken considerably, while the white parts are unaffected. after this the picture is of course to be fixed a second time. it will then yield a second series of copies, and, in this way, a great number may frequently be made. the calotype pictures when prepared as we have stated, possess a yellowish tint, which impedes the process of taking copies from them. in order to remedy this defect, mr. talbot has devised the following method. the calotype picture is plunged into a solution consisting of hyposulphite of soda dissolved in about ten times its weight of water, and heated nearly to the boiling point. the picture should remain in about ten minutes; it must then be removed, washed and dried. by this process the picture is rendered more transparent, and its lights become whiter. it is also rendered exceedingly permanent. after this process the picture may be waxed, and thus its transparency increased. this process is applicable to all photographic papers prepared with solutions of silver. having thus fully, and it is hoped clearly, considered the process, it may be necessary before dismissing the calotype from notice, to add one or two remarks from the observations and labors of some who have experimented in this art. dr. ryan in his lectures before the royal polytechnic institution, has observed, that in the iodizing process the sensitiveness of the paper is materially injured by keeping it too long in the solution of iodide of potassium, owing to the newly formed iodide of silver being so exceedingly solvable in excess of iodide of potassium as in a few minutes to be completely removed. the paper should be dipped in the solution and instantly removed. there is another point, too, in the preparation of the iodized paper in which suggestions for a slight deviation from mr. talbot's plan have been made. in the first instance, it is recommended that the paper be brushed over with the iodide of potassium, instead of the nitrate of silver, transposing, in fact, the application of the first two solutions. the paper, having been brushed over with the iodide of potassium in solution, is washed in distilled water and dried. it is then brushed over with nitrate of silver, and after drying is dipped for, a moment in a fresh solution of iodide of potassium of only one-fourth the strength of the first, that is to say, one hundred and twenty-five grains of the salt to a pint of water. after this it is again washed and dried. the advantage derived from this method, is a more sensitive paper, and a more even distribution of the compounds over the surface. another deviation from mr. talbot's method has been suggested, as follows: brush the paper over with a solution of one hundred grains of nitrate of silver to an ounce of water. when nearly, but not quite, dry, dip it into a solution of twenty-five grains of iodide of potassium to one ounce of distilled water, drain it, wash it in distilled water and again drain it. now brush it over with aceto-nitrate of silver, made by dissolving fifty grains of nitrate of silver in one ounce of distilled water, to which is added one sixth of its volume of strong acetic acid. dry it with bibulous paper, and it is ready for receiving the image. when the impression has been received, which will require from one to five minutes according to the state of the weather, it must be washed with a saturated solution of gallic acid to which a few drops of the aceto-nitrate of silver, made as above, have been added. the image will thus be gradually brought out, and may be fixed with hyposulphite of soda. to obtain the positive picture, paper must be used brushed over with an ammonio-nitrate of silver, made thus: forty grains of nitrate of silver is to be dissolved in one ounce of distilled water, and liquid ammonia cautiously added till it re-dissolves the precipitate. a pleasing effect may be given to calotype, or indeed to all photographic pictures, by waxing them at the back, and mounting them on white paper, or if colored paper be used, various beautiful tones of color are produced. positive calotype. at a meeting of the british association, professor grove described a process by which positive calotype pictures could be directly obtained; and thus the necessity to transfer by which the imperfections of the paper are shown, and which is moreover a troublesome and tedious process, is avoided. as light favors most chemical actions, mr. grove was led to believe that a paper darkened by the sun (which darkening is supposed to result from the precipitation of silver) might be bleached by using a solvent which would not attack the silver in the dark, but would do so in the light. the plan found to be the most successful is as follows: ordinary calotype paper is darkened till it assumes a deep brown color, almost amounting to black; it is then redipped into the ordinary solution of iodide of potassium, and dried. when required for use it is drawn over dilute nitric acid--one part acid to two and a half parts water. in this state, those parts exposed to the light are rapidly bleached, while the parts not exposed remain unchanged. it is fixed by washing in water, and subsequently in hyposulphite of soda, or bromide of potassium. mr. grove also describes a process for converting a negative calotype into a positive one, which promises, when carried out, to be of great utility. let an ordinary calotype image or portrait be taken in the camera, and developed by gallic acid; then drawn over iodide of potassium and dilute nitric acid and exposed to full sunshine; while bleaching the dark parts, the light is redarkening the newly precipitated iodide in the lighter portions and thus the negative picture is converted into a positive one. the calotype process has been applied to the art of printing, in england, but it possesses no advantages whatever over the method, with type, now so gloriously brought to perfection; and i can hardly think it will ever be made of any utility. for the benefit of the curious, however, i will give mr. talbot's method. some pages of letter-press are taken printed on one side only; and waxed, to render them more transparent; the letters are then cut out and sorted. to compose a new page lines are ruled on a sheet of white paper, and the words are formed by fixing the seperate letters in their proper order. the page being ready, a negative photograph is produced from it, from which the requisite number of positive photogenic copies may be obtained. another method, which requires the use of the camera, consists in employing large letters painted on rectangular pieces of wood, colored white. these are arranged in lines on a tablet or board, by slipping them into grooves which keep them steady and upright, thus forming a page on an enlarged scale. it is now placed before a camera, and a reduced image of it of the required size is thrown upon the sensitive paper. the adjustments must be kept invariable, so that the consecutive pages may not vary from one another in the size of the type. mr. talbot has patented his process, but what benefit he expects to derive from it, i am at a loss to determine. enlarged copies of calotype or daguerreotype portraits may be obtained by throwing magnified images of them, by means of lenses, upon calotype paper. the chrysotype. a modification of mr. talbot's process, to which the name of chrysotype was given by its discoverer, sir john herschel, was communicated in june to the royal society, by that distinguished philosopher. this modification would appear to unite the simplicity of photography with all the distinctness and clearness of calotype. this preparation is as follows. the paper is to be washed in a solution of ammonio-citrate of iron; it must then be dried, and subsequently brushed over with a solution of the ferro-sesquicyanuret of potassium. this paper, when dried in a perfectly dark room, is ready for use in the same manner as if otherwise prepared, the image being subsequently brought out by any neutral solution of gold. such was the first declaration of his discovery, but he has since found that a neutral solution of silver is equally useful in bringing out the picture. photographic pictures taken on this paper are distinguished by a clearness of outline foreign to all other methods. chap. x. cyanotype--energiatype--chromatype--anthotype--amphitype and "crayon daguerreotype." the several processes enumerated at the head of this chapter, are all discoveries of english philosophers, with the exception of the third and last named. anthotype was first attempted by m. ponton a french savan, although it was reserved to mr. hunt to bring the process to its present state. the "crayon daguerreotype" is an improvement made by j. a whipple, esq., of boston. i. cyanotype. so called from the circumstance of cyanogen in its combinations with iron performing a leading part in the process. it was discovered by sir john herschel. the process is a simple one, and the resulting pictures are blue. brush the paper over with a solution of the ammonio-citrate of iron. this solution should be sufficiently strong to resemble sherry wine in color. expose the paper in the usual way, and pass over it very sparingly and evenly a wash of the common yellow ferro-cyanate of potass. as soon as the liquid is applied, the negative picture vanishes, and is replaced by a positive one, of a violet blue color, on a greenish yellow ground, which at a certain time possesses a high degree of sharpness, and singular beauty of tint. a curious process was discovered by sir john herschel, by which dormant pictures are produced capable of developement by the breath, or by keeping in a moist atmosphere. it is as follows. if nitrate of silver, specific gravity . be added to ferro-tartaric acid, specific gravity . , a precipitate falls, which is in a great measure redissolved by a gentle heat, leaving a black sediment, which, being cleared by subsidence, a liquid of a pale yellow color is obtained, in which the further addition of the nitrate causes no turbidness. when the total quantity of the nitrated solution added amounts to about half the bulk of the ferro-tartaric acid, it is enough. the liquid so prepared does not alter if kept in the dark. spread on paper, and exposed wet to the sunshine (partly shaded) for a few seconds, no impression seems to be made, but by degrees, although withdrawn from the action of light, it developes itself spontaneously, and at length becomes very intense. but if the paper be thoroughly dried in the dark, (in which state it is of a very pale greenish yellow color,) it possesses the singular property of receiving a dormant or invisible picture, to produce which from thirty to sixty seconds' exposure to sunshine is requisite. it should not be exposed too long, as not only is the ultimate effect less striking, but a picture begins to be visibly produced, which darkens spontaneously after it is withdrawn. but if the exposure be discontinued before this effect comes on, an invisible impression is the result, to develope which all that is necessary is to breathe upon it, when it immediately appears, and very speedily acquires an extraordinary intensity and sharpness, as if by magic. instead of the breath, it may be subject to the regular action of aqueous vapor, by laying it in a blotting paper book, of which some of the outer leaves on both sides have been dampened, or by holding over warm water. ii. energiatype. under this title a process has been brought forward by mr. hunt. it consists of the application of a solution of succinic acid to paper, which is subsequently washed over with nitrate of silver. the image is then to be taken either in the camera or otherwise, as required, and is brought out by the application of the sulphate of iron in solution. although this process has not come into general use, its exact description may be interesting to the general reader, and we therefore subjoin it. the solution with which the paper is first washed is to be prepared as follows: succinic acid, two drachms; common salt, five grains; mucilage of gum arabic, half a fluid drachm; distilled water, one fluid drachm and a half. when the paper is nearly dry, it is to be brushed over with a solution of nitrate of silver, containing a drachm of the salt, to an ounce of distilled water. it is now ready for exposure in the camera. to bring out the dormant picture it is necessary to wash it with a mixture of a drachm of concentrated solution of the green sulphate of iron and two drachms and a half of mucilage of gum arabic. subsequently, however, it has been found that the sulphate of iron produces upon all the salts of silver effects quite as beautiful as in the succinate. on the iodide, bromide, acetate, and benzoate, the effects are far more pleasing and striking. when pictures are produced, or the dormant camera image brought out, by the agency of sulphate of iron, it is remarkable how rapidly the effect takes place. engravings can be thus copied almost instantaneously, and camera views obtained in one or two minutes on almost any preparation of silver. the common sulphate of copper solution has the same property. iii. chromatype. many efforts have been made to render chromatic acid an active agent in the production of photographs. m. ponton used a paper saturated with bichromate of potash, and this was one of the earliest photogenic processes. m. becquerel improved upon this process by sizing the paper with starch previous to the application of the bichromate of potash solution, which enabled him to convert the negative picture into a positive one, by the use of a solution of iodine, which combined with that portion of the starch on which the light had not acted. but by neither of these processes could clear and distinct pictures be formed. mr. hunt has, however, discovered a process which is so exceedingly simple, and the resulting pictures of so pleasing a character, that, although it is not sufficiently sensitive for use in the camera, it will be found of the greatest value for copying botanical specimens, engravings, or the like. the paper to be prepared is washed over with a solution of sulphate of copper--about one drachm to an ounce of water--and partially dried; it is then washed with a moderately strong solution of bichromate of potash, and dried at a little distance from the fire. paper thus prepared may be kept any length of time, in a portfolio, and are always ready for use. when exposed to the sunshine for a time, varying with the intensity of the light, from five to fifteen or twenty minutes, the result is generally a negative picture. it is now to be washed over with a solution of nitrate of silver, which immediately produces a very beautiful deep orange picture upon a light dim colored, or sometimes perfectly white ground. this picture must be quickly fixed, by being washed in pure water, and dried. with regard to the strength of the solutions, it is a remarkable fact, that, if saturated solutions be employed, a negative picture is first produced, but if the solutions be three or four times their bulk of water, the first action of the sun's rays darkens the picture, and then a very bleaching effect follows, giving an exceedingly faint positive picture, which is brought out with great delicacy by the silver solution. it is necessary that pure water should be used for the fixing, as the presence of any muriate damages the picture, and here arises another pleasing variation of the chromatype. if the positive picture be placed in a very weak solution of common salt the image slowly fades out, leaving a faint negative outline. if it now be removed from the saline solution, dried, and again exposed to sunshine, a positive picture of a lilac color will be produced by a few minutes exposure. several other of the chromates may be used in this process, but none is so successful as the chromate of copper. iv. anthotype. the expressed juice, alcoholic, or watery infusion of flowers, or vegetable substances, may be made the media of photogenic action. this fact was first discovered by sir john herschel. we have already given a few examples of this in the third chapter. certain precautions are necessary in extracting the coloring matter of flowers. the petals of fresh flowers are carefully selected, and crushed to a pulp in a marble mortar, either alone or with the addition of a little alcohol, and the juice expressed by squeezing the pulp in a clean linen or cotton cloth. it is then to be spread upon paper with a flat brush, and dried in the air without artificial heat. if alcohol be not added, the application on paper must be performed immediately, as the air (even in a few minutes), irrecoverably changes or destroys their color. if alcohol be present this change is much retarded, and in some cases is entirely prevented. most flowers give out their coloring matter to alcohol or water. some, however, refuse to do so, and require the addition of alkalies, others of acid, &c. alcohol has, however, been found to enfeeble, and in many cases to discharge altogether these colors; but they are, in most cases, restored upon drying, when spread over paper. papers tinged with vegetable colors must always be kept in the dark, and perfectly dry. the color of a flower is by no means always, or usually, that which its expressed juice imparts to white paper. sir john herschel attributes these changes to the escape of carbonic acid in some cases; to a chemical alteration, depending upon the absorption of oxygen, in others; and again in others, especially where the expressed juice coagulates on standing, to a loss of vitality, or disorganization of the molecules. to secure an eveness of tint on paper, the following manipulation is recommended:--the paper should be moistened on the back by sponging and blotting off. it should then be pinned on a board, the moist side downwards, so that two of its edges (suppose the right-hand and lower ones) shall project a little beyond those of the board. the board then being inclined twenty or thirty degrees to the horizon, the alcoholic tincture (mixed with a very little water, if the petals themselves be not very juicy) is to be applied with a brush in strokes from left to right, taking care not to go over the edges which rest on the board; but to pass clearly over those that project; and observing also to carry the tint from below upwards by quick sweeping strokes, leaving no dry spaces between them, but keeping up a continuity of wet spaces. when all is wet, cross them by another set of strokes from above downwards, so managing the brush as to leave no floating liquid on the paper. it must then be dried as quickly as possible over a stove, or in a warm current of air, avoiding, however, such heat as may injure the tint. in addition to the flowers already mentioned in my third chapter, the following are among those experimented upon and found to give tolerable good photographic sensitives. i can only enumerate them, referring the student, for any further information he may desire on the subject, to mr. hunt's work; although what i have said above is sufficient for all practical purposes; and any one, with the ambition, can readily experiment upon them, without further research, on any other flower he may choose. viola odorata--or sweet sented violet, yields to alcohol a rich blue color, which it imparts in high perfection to paper senecio splendens--or double purple groundsel, yields a beautiful color to paper. the leaves of the laurel, common cabbage, and the grasses, are found sufficiently sensitive. common merrigold yields an invaluable faecula, which appears identical with that produced by the wall-flower, and cochorus japonica mentioned before, and is very sensitive, but photographs procured upon it cannot be preserved, the color is so fugitive. from an examination of the researches of sir john herschel on the coloring matter of plants, it will be seen that the action of the sun's rays is to destroy the color, effecting a sort of chromatic analysis, in which two distinct elements of color are separated, by destroying the one and leaving the other outstanding. the action is confined within the visible spectrum, and thus a broad distinction is exhibited between the action of the sun's rays on vegetable juices and on argentine compounds, the latter being most sensibly affected by the invisible rays beyond the violet. it may also be observed, that the rays effective in destroying a given tint, are in a great many cases, those whose union produces a color complementary to the tint destroyed, or, at least, one belonging to that class of colors to which such complementary tint may be preferred. for instance, yellows tending towards orange are destroyed with more energy by the blue rays; blues by the red, orange and yellow rays; purples and pinks by yellow and green rays. v. amphitype. this process is a discovery of sir john herschel and receives its name from the fact that both negative and positive photographs can be produced by one process. the positive pictures obtained by it have a perfect resemblance to impressions of engravings with common printer's ink. the process, although not yet fully carried out, promises to be of vast utility. paper proper for producing an amphitype picture may be prepared either with the ferro-tartrate or the ferro-citrate of the protoxide, or the peroxide of mercury, or of the protoxide of lead, by using creams of these salts, or by successive applications of the nitrates of the respective oxides, singly or in mixture, to the paper, alternating with solutions of the ammonia-tartrate or the ammonia-citrate of iron, the latter solution being last applied, and in more or less excess. i purposely avoid stating proportions, as i have not yet been able to fix upon any which certainly succeed. paper so prepared and dried takes a negative picture, in a time varying from half an hour to five or six hours, according to the intensity of the light; and the impression produced varies in apparent force from a faint and hardly perceptible picture to one of the highest conceivable fulness and richness both of tint and detail, the color being in this case a superb velvety brown. this extreme richness of effect is not produced unless lead be present, either in the ingredients used, or in the paper itself. it is not, as i originally supposed, due to the presence of free tartaric acid. the pictures in this state are not permanent. they fade in the dark, though with very different degrees of rapidity, some (especially if free tartaric or citric acid be present) in a few days, while others remain for weeks unimpaired, and require whole years for their total obliteration. but though entirely faded out in appearance, the picture is only rendered dormant, and may be restored, changing its character from negative to positive, and its colors from brown to black, (in the shadows), by the following process:--a bath being prepared by pouring a small quantity of solution of pernitrate of mercury into a large quantity of water, and letting the subnitrated precipitates subside, the picture may be immersed in it, (carefully and repeatedly clearing off all air bubbles,) and allowed to remain till the picture (if any where visible,) is entirely destroyed; or if faded, till it is judged sufficient from previous experience; a term which is often marked by the appearance of a feeble positive picture, of a bright yellow hue, on the pale yellow ground of the paper. a long time (several weeks) is often required for this, but heat accelerates the action, and it is often completed in a few hours. in this state the picture is to be very thoroughly rinsed and soaked in pure warm water, and then dried. it is then to be well ironed with a smooth iron, heated so as barely not to injure the paper, placing it, for greater security against scorching, between clean smooth paper. if then the process have been successful, a perfectly black positive picture is at once developed. at first it most commonly happens that the whole picture is sooty or dingy to such a degree that it is condemned as spoiled, but on keeping it between the leaves of a book, especially in a moist atmosphere, by extremely slow degrees this dinginess disappears, and the picture disengages itself with continually increasing sharpness and clearness, and acquires the exact effect of a copper-plate engraving on a paper more or less tinted with a pale yellow. i ought to observe, that the best and most uniform specimens which i have procured have been on paper previously washed with certain preparations of uric acid, which is a very remarkable and powerful photographic element. the intensity of the original negative picture is no criterion of what may be expected in the positive. it is from the production by one and the same action of light, of either a positive or negative picture according to the subsequent manipulations, that i have designated the process, thus generally sketched out, by the term amphitype,--a name suggested by mr. talbot, to whom i communicated this singular result; and to this process or class of processes (which i cannot doubt when pursued will lead to some very beautiful results,) i propose to restrict the name in question, though it applies even more appropriately to the following exceedingly curious and remarkable one, in which silver is concerned: at the last meeting i announced a mode of producing, by means of a solution of silver, in conjunction with ferro-tartaric acid, a dormant picture brought into a forcible negative impression by the breath or moist air. (see cyanotype.) the solution then described, and which had at that time been prepared some weeks, i may here incidentally remark, has retained its limpidity and photogenic properties, quite unimpaired during the whole year since elapsed, and is now as sensitive as ever,--a property of no small value. now, when a picture (for example an impression from an engraving) is taken on paper washed with this solution, it shows no sign of a picture on its back, whether that on its face is developed or not; but if, while the actinic influence is still fresh upon the face, (i.e., as soon as it is removed from the light), the back be exposed for a very few seconds to the sunshine, and then removed to a gloomy place, a positive picture, the exact complement of the negative one on the other side, though wanting of course in sharpness if the paper be thick, slowly and gradually makes its appearance there, and in half an hour or an hour acquires a considerable intensity. i ought to mention that the "ferro-tartaric acid" in question is prepared by precipitating the ferro-tartrate of ammonia (ammonia-tartrate of iron) by acetate of lead, and decomposing the precipitate by dilute sulphuric acid. when lead is used in the preparation of amphitype paper, the parts upon which the light has acted are found to be in a very high degree rendered water proof.--sir j. herschel. this process is a new invention of our countryman, j. a. whipple, esq., of boston, and has been patented by m. a. root, esq., of philadelphia. it will be seen, however, from the previous pages of my work that mr. root is mistaken in regard to his being the first improvement patented in this country, although it is unquestionably the first by an american. of this improvement mr. root says: vi. "crayon daguerreotype." "the improvement to which you refer is denominated "the crayon daguerreotype." this invention made by mr. j. a. whipple, is the only improvement in daguerreotyping, i believe, for which letters patent for the united states were ever issued. the pictures produced by this process--which is of the simplest description imaginable--have the appearance and effect of very fine "crayon drawings," from which the improvement takes its name. some of our most distinguished artists have given it their unqualified admiration. among them, our mezzotinto engravers, especially john sartain, esq., who, from his rich embellishments to most of the leading magazines and annuals of the country, as well as from the celebrity of the superb magazine which bears his name, is so well known and so well qualified to judge of its merits. as an auxiliary to the artist, in furnishing heads to the magazines, or other works, it is invaluable; the great object which it accomplishes being to give a finer effect and more distinct expression to all the features--the whole power of the instrument being directed to, and confined to the head." "the late hour at which this subject has been brought to our notice prevents so full a description as we would otherwise have been glad to furnish. the new england states have been disposed of; negotiations for any of the others can be made through m. a. root, chestnut street, philadelphia." "a series of beautiful portraits are about being prepared by the "crayton process" for the express purpose of being placed on the exhibition at the "art union," when amateurs, artists, and the public generally will have an opportunity of witnessing its effect. we are especially gratified with this striking improvement, from the advantages which it promises to the daguerrean art." "it is admirably designed to excite a new interest on the subject through the community, and in this way--and from its tendency to render the art more generally useful, and to elevate and distinguish it--to make it to all a matter of more general importance." "yours respectfully, "m. a. root." in our second edition, we hope--with mr. root's permission--to lay the whole process before the public, although our artists must bear in mind that mr. root's patent secures to him the exclusive right of its application. chap. xi. on the probability of producing colored pictures by the solar radiations--photographic deviations--lunar pictures--drummond light. having before noticed the fact that some advances had been made towards taking daguerreotypes in color, by means of solar rays, and expressed the hope that the day was not far distant when this might be accomplished, i here subjoin mr. hunt's remarks on this subject. mr. biot, in , speaking of mr. fox talbot's beautiful calotype pictures, considers as an illusion "the hope to reconcile, not only the intensity but the tints of the chemical impressions produced by radiations, with the colors of the object from which these radiations emanated." it is true that three years have passed away, and we have not yet produced colored images; yet i am not inclined to consider the hope as entirely illusive. it must be remembered that the color of bodies depends entirely upon the arrangement of their molecules. we have numerous very beautiful experiments in proof of this. the bi-niodide of mercury is a fine scarlet when precipitated. if this precipitate is heated between plates of glass, it is converted into crystals of a fine sulphur yellow, which remain of that color if undisturbed, but which becomes very speedily scarlet if touched with any pointed instrument. this very curious optical phenomena has been investigated by mr. talbot and by mr. warrington. perfectly dry sulphate of copper is white; the slightest moisture turns it blue. muriate of cobalt is of a pale pink color; a very slight heat, by removing a little moisture, changes it to a green. these are a few instances selected from many which might be given. if we receive a prismatic spectrum on some papers, we have evidence that the molecular or chemical disturbance bears some relation to the color of each ray, or, in other words, that colored light so modifies the action of energia that the impression it makes is in proportion to the color of the light it accompanies, and hence there results a molecular arrangement capable of reflecting colors differently. some instances have been given in which the rays impressed correspond with the colors of the luminous rays in a very remarkable manner.* one of the most decided cases is that of the paper prepared with the fluoride of soda and nitrate of silver. sir john herschel was, however, the first to obtain any good specimens of photographically impressed prismatic colorations. * see mr. hunt's "researches on light." it was noticed by daguerre that a red house gave a reddish image on his iodized silver plate in the camera obscura; and mr. talbot observed, very early in his researches, that the red of a colored print was copied of a red color, on paper spread with the chloride of silver.** ** in , i had shown me a picture of a house in the bowery, which had been repaired a few days previous, and in the wall a red brick left. this brick was brought out on the daguerreotype plate of precisely the same color as the brick itself. the same artist also exhibited to me, the full length portrait of a gentleman who were a pair of pantaloons having a blue striped figure. this blue stripe was fully brought out, of the same color, in the picture.--amer. ed. "in i communicated to sir john herschel some very curious results obtained by the use of colored media, which he did me the honor of publishing in one of his memoirs on the subject from which i again copy it." "a paper prepared with muriate of barytes and nitrate of silver, allowed to darken whilst wet in the sunshine to a chocolate color, was placed under a frame containing a red, a yellow, a green, and a blue glass. after a week's exposure to diffused light, it became red under the red glass, a dirty yellow under the yellow glass, a dark green under the green, and a light olive under the blue. "the above paper washed with a solution of salt of iodine, is very sensitive to light, and gives a beautiful picture. a picture thus taken was placed beneath the above glasses, and another beneath four flat bottles containing colored fluids. in a few days, under the red glass and fluid, the picture became a dark blue, under the yellow a light blue, under the green it remained unchanged, whilst under the blue it became a rose red, which in about three weeks changed into green. many other experiments of a similar nature have been tried since that time with like results. "in the summer of , when engaged in some experiments on papers prepared according to the principles of mr. talbot's calotype, i had placed in a camera obscura a paper prepared with the bromide of silver and gallic acid. the camera embraced a picture of a clear blue sky, stucco-fronted houses, and a green field. the paper was unavoidably exposed for a longer period than was intended--about fifteen minutes,--a very beautiful picture was impressed, which, when held between the eye and the light, exhibited a curious order of colors. the sky was of a crimson hue, the houses of a slaty blue, and the green fields of a brick red tint. surely these results appear to encourage the hope, that we may eventually arrive at a process by which external nature may be made to impress its images on prepared surfaces, in all the beauty of their native coloration." photographic deviations. before taking leave of the subject of photogenic drawing, i must mention one or two facts, which may be of essential service to operators. it has been observed by daguerre, and others, in europe, and probably by some of our own artists, that the sun two hours after it has passed the meridian, is much less effective in the photographic process, than it is two hours previous to its having reached that point. this may depend upon an absorptive power of the air, which may reasonably be supposed to be more charged with vapor two hours before noon. the fuse of the hygrometer may possibly establish the truth or falsity of this supposition. the fact, however, of a better result being produced before noon being established, persons wishing their portraits taken, will see the advantage of obtaining an early sitting, if they wish good pictures. on the other hand, if the supposition above mentioned prove true, a too early sitting must be avoided. if we take a considerable thickness of a dense purple fluid, as, for instance, a solution of the ammonia-sulphate of copper, we shall find that the quantity of light is considerably diminished, at least four-fifths of the luminous rays being absorbed, while the chemical rays permeate it with the greatest facility, and sensitive preparations are affected by its influence, notwithstanding the deficiency of light, nearly as powerfully as if exposed to the undecomposed sunbeams. it was first imagined that under the brilliant sun and clear skies of the south, photographic pictures would be produced with much greater quickness than they could be in the atmosphere of paris. it is found, however, that a much longer time is required. even in the clear and beautiful light of the higher alps, it has been proved that the production of the photographic picture requires many minutes more, even with the most sensitive preparations, than it does in london. it has also been found that under the brilliant light of mexico, twenty minutes, and half an hour, are required to produce effects which in england would occupy but a minute; and travellers engaged in copying the antiquities of yucatan have on several occasions abandoned the use of the photographic camera, and taken to their sketch books. dr. draper* has observed a similar difference between the chemical action of light in new york and virginia. this can be only explained by the supposition that the intensity of the light and heat of these climes interferes with the action of the energic rays on those sensitive preparations which are employed. * i would here take occasion to remark that our country man, dr. draper, is very frequently quoted by mr. hunt in his "researches." lunar pictures--drummond light. the roman astronomers state that they have procured daguerreotype impressions of the nebula of the sword of orion. signor rondini has a secret method of receiving photographic images on lithographic stone; on such a prepared stone they have succeeded in impressing an image of the nebula and its stars; "and from that stone they have been enabled to take impressions on paper, unlimited in number, of singular beauty, and of perfect precision." experiments have, however, proved that "no heating power exists in the moon's rays, and that lunar light will not act chemically upon the iduret of silver." it was at one time supposed that terrestrial or artificial light possessed no chemical rays, but this is incorrect--mr. brande discovered that although the concentrated light of the moon, or the light even of olefiant gas, however intense, had no effect on chloride of silver, or on a mixture of chloride and hydrogen, yet the light emitted by electerized charcoal blackens the salt. at the royal polytechnic institution pictures have been taken by means of sensitive paper acted upon by the drummond light; but it must of course be distinctly understood, that they are inferior to those taken by the light of the sun, or diffused daylight. if our operators could manage to produce good pictures in this way they would put money in their pockets, as many who cannot find time during the day would resort to their rooms at night. i throw out the hint in hopes some one will make the experiment. i have learned, since the above was written, that an operator in boston succeeded a short time since in procuring very good pictures by the aid of the drummond light; but that the intensity of the light falling directly upon the sitter's face caused great difficulty, and he abandoned it. this may, probably, be remedied by interposing a screen of very thin tissue paper tinged slightly of a bluish color. chap. xii. on coloring daguerreotypes. nearly, if not quite all the various colors used in painting may be made from the five primitive colors, black, white, blue, red and yellow, but for the daguerrean artist it would be the best policy to obtain such as are required by their art already prepared. in a majority of cases, the following will be found sufficient, viz. carmine. prussian blue. white. chrome yellow, gamboge, yellow ochre; or all three.* *gamboge is best for drapery; ochre for the face. light red. indigo. burnt sienna. bistre, or burnt umber. if, in coloring any part of a lady's or gentleman's apparel, it is found necessary to produce other tints and shades, the following combinations may be used: orange--mix yellow with red, making it darker or lighter by using more or less red. purple--this is made with prussian blue, or indigo and red. carmine and prussian blue producing the richest color, which may be deepened in the shadows by a slight addition of indigo or brown. greens--prussian blue and gamboge makes a very fine green, which may be varied to suit the taste of the sitter or operator, by larger portions of either, or by adding white, burnt sienna, indigo, and red, as the case may require. these combinations, under different modifications, give almost endless varieties of green. brown--may be made of different shades of umber, carmine and lamp-black. neutral tint--is composed of indigo and lamp-black. crimson--mix carmine and white, deepening the shaded parts of the picture with additional carmine. flesh color--the best representative of flesh color is light red, brightened in the more glowing or warmer parts, with carmine, softened off in the lighter portions with white, and shaded with purple and burnt sienna. lead color--mix indigo and white in proportions to suit. scarlet--carmine and light red. for jewelry cups of gold and silver preparations accompany each box for daguerreotypists, or may be procured separately. the method of laying colors on daguerreotypes is one of considerable difficulty, inasmuch as they are used in the form of perfectly dry impalpable powder. the author of this little work is now experimenting, in order, if possible, to discover some more easy, artistic and unexceptionable method. if successful, the result will be published in a future edition. the rules we shall give for coloring daguerreotypes depends, and are founded, upon those observed in miniature painting, and are intended more as hints to daguerrean artists, in hopes of leading them to attempt improvements, than as instructions wholly to be observed. the writer is confident that some compound or ingredient may yet be discovered which, when mixed with the colors, will give a more delicate, pleasing, and natural appearance to the picture than is derived from the present mode of laying them on, which in his estimation is more like plastering than coloring. in coloring daguerreotypes, the principal shades of the head are to be made with bistre, mixed with burnt sienna, touching some places with a mixture of carmine and indigo. the flesh tints are produced by the use of light red, deepened towards the shaded parts with yellow ochre, blue and carmine mixed with indigo, while the warmer, or more highly colored parts have a slight excess of carmine or lake. color the shades about the mouth and neck with yellow ochre, blue, and a very little carmine, heightening the color of the lips with carmine and light red, letting the light red predominate on the upper, and the carmine on the lower lip; the shades in the corner of the mouth being touched slightly with burnt sienna, mixed with carmine. in coloring the eyes, the artist will of course be guided by nature, observing a very delicate touch in laying on the colors, so as to preserve as much transparency as possible. a slight touch of blue--ultramarine would be best if it would adhere to the daguerreotype plate--in the whites of the eye near the iris, will produce a good effect. in coloring the heads of men it will be necessary to use the darker tints with more freedom, according to the complexion of the sitter. for women, the warmer tints should predominate, and in order to give that transparency so universal with the softer sex--and which gives so much loveliness and beauty to the face--a little white may be judiciously intermingled with the red tints about the lighter portions of the face. in taking a picture of a lady with light or auburn hair, by the daguerrean process, much of the beauty of the face is destroyed, on account of the imperfect manner in which light conveys the image of light objects to the spectrum of the camera. this may be obviated in some measure by proper coloring. to do this, touch the shaded parts with burnt sienna and bistre, filling up the lighter portions with yellow ochre, delicate touches of burnt sienna, and in those parts which naturally have a bluish tint, add very delicate touches of purple--so delicate in fact as hardly to be perceived. the roots of the hair at the forehead should also be touched with blue, and the eyebrows near the temples made of a pinkish tint. the chin of a woman is nearly of the same color as the cheeks in the most glowing parts. in men it is stronger, and of a bluish tint, in order to produce the effect given by the beard. in portraits of women--the middle tints on the side of the light, which are perceived on the bosom and arms, are made of a slight mixture of ochre, blue and lake, (or carmine), to which add, on the shaded sides, ochre, bistre and purple, the latter in the darker parts. the tints of the hands should be the same as the other parts of the flesh, the ends of the fingers being a little pinkish and the nails of a violet hue. if any portion of the fleshy parts is shaded by portions of the dress, or by the position of the hand, this shade should be colored with umber mixed with purple. to color the drapery.--violet velvet--use purple made of prussian blue and carmine, touching up the shaded parts with indigo blue. green velvet--mix prussian blue and red-orpiment, shade with purple, and touch up the lights with a little white. red velvet--mix a very little brown with carmine, shading with purple, marking the lights in the strongest parts with pure carmine, and touch the most brilliant slightly with white. white feathers--may be improved by delicately touching the shaded parts with a little blue mixed with white. white muslin, linen, lace, satin, silk, etc., may also be colored in the same way, being careful not to lay the color on too heavily. furs--red furs may be imitated by using light red and a little masticot, shaded with umber. gray furs--black and white mixed and shaded with bistre. sable--white shaded lightly with yellow ochre. these few directions are quite sufficient for the art, and it is quite unnecessary for me to pursue the subject further. i would, however, remark that the daguerreotypists would find it greatly to their advantage to visit the studies of our best artists, our public galleries of paintings, and statuary, and wherever else they can obtain a sight of fine paintings, and study the various styles of coloring, attitudes, folds of drapery and other points of the art. in coloring daguerreotypes, artists will find the magnifying glass of much advantage in detecting any imperfections in the plate or in the image, which may be remedied by the brush. in selecting brushes choose those most susceptible of a fine point, which may be ascertained by wetting them between the lips, or in a glass of water. chap. xiii. the photographometer. the last number (for march, ) of the london art-journal, gives the following description of a recent improvement in photographic manipulation, and as i am desirous of furnishing everything new in the art, i stop the press to add it, entire, to my work. "since the photographic power of the solar rays bears no direct relation to their luminous influence, it becomes a question of considerable importance to those who practice the beautiful art of photography, to have the means of readily measuring the ever changing activity of this force. several plans more or less successful, have been devised by sir john herschel, messrs. jordan, shaw and hunt. the instrument, however, which is now brought forward by mr. claudet, who is well known as one of our most successful daguerreotypists, appears admirably suited to all those purposes which the practical man requires. the great difficulty which continually annoys the photographic amateur and artist, is the determination of the sensibility of each tablet employed, relatively to the amount of radiation, luminous and chemical, with which he is working. with the photographometer of mr. claudet this is easily ascertained. the following woodcuts and concise description will sufficiently indicate this useful and simple apparatus. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] "for an instrument of this kind it is important in the first place to have a motion always uniform, without complicated or expensive mechanism. this is obtained by means founded upon the principle of the fall of bodies sliding down an inclined plane. the sensitive surface is exposed to the light by the rapid and uniform passage of a metal plate, a, b, (fig. ,) having openings of different length, which follow a geometric progression. it is evident that the exposure to light will be the same for each experiment, because the plate furnished with the proportional openings falls always with the same rapidity, the height of the fall being constant, and the angle of the inclined plane the same. each opening of this moveable plate allows the light to pass during the same space of time, and the effect upon the sensitive surface indicates exactly the intensity of the chemical rays. the rapidity of the fall may be augmented or diminished by altering the inclination of the plane by means of a graduated arc, c, d, (fig. ,) furnished with a screw, e, by which it may be fixed at any angle. the same result may be obtained by modifying the height of the fall or the weight of the moveable plate. the photogenic surface, whether it be the daguerreotype plate, the talbotype paper, or any other preparation sensitive to light, is placed near the bottom of the inclined plane, f. it is covered by a thin plate of metal, pierced with circular holes, which correspond to the openings of the moveable plate at the moment of the passage of the latter, during which the sensitive surface receives the light wherever the circular holes leave it exposed. [illustration: fig. (hipho_ .gif)] "the part of the apparatus which contains the sensitive surface is an independent frame, and it slides from a dark box into an opening on the side of the inclined plane. "a covering of black cloth impermeable to light is, attached to the sides of the moveable plate, enveloping the whole inclined plane, rolling freely over two rollers, r, r, placed the one at the upper and the other at the lower part of the inclined plane. this cloth prevents the light striking the sensitive surface before and after the passage of the moveable plate. "it will be seen that this apparatus enables the experimentalist to ascertain with great precision the exact length of time which is required to produce a given amount of actinic change upon any sensitive photographic surface, whether on metal or paper. although at present some calculation is necessary to determine the difference between the time which is necessary for exposure in direct radiation, and to the action of the secondary radiations of the camera obscura; this is, however, a very simple matter, and it appears to us exceedingly easy to adapt an instrument of this description to the camera itself. "by this instrument mr. claudet has already determined many very important points. among others, he has proved that on the most sensitive daguerreotype plate an exposure of . part of a second is sufficient to produce a decided effect. "regarding photography as an auxiliary aid to the artist of no mean value, we are pleased to record a description of an instrument which, without being complicated, promises to be exceedingly useful. in this opinion we are not singular; at a recent meeting of the photographic club, to which this instrument was exhibited, it was with much real satisfaction that we learned that several of our most eminent artists were now eager and most successful students in photography. the beautiful productions of the more prominent members of this club excited the admiration of all, particularly the copies of architectural beauties, and small bits of landscape, by messrs. cundell and owen. we think that now the artist sees the advantage he may derive from the aid of science, that both will gain by the union." i hope the above description will induce our townsman, mr. roach, to successfully produce an instrument that will meet the wants of our artists in that part of the daguerrean process referred to. finis. index. accelerating liquids. amphitype. anthotype. apparatus. daguerreotype. calotype photogenic application of photogenic drawing. applying the sensitive. bringing out the picture. bromine box. chloride of roach's tripple compound of water. bromide of iodine. of lime. paper. of silver. brushes. buff sticks. calotype process. paper. exposure in camera of pictures. bringing out ib. fixing camera. description of the stand. woodbridge's ib. calotype. voigtlander chloride of bromine. of gold. to make a solution of of iodine. of silver. chromatype. chrysotype. cleaning and polishing the plate. coating boxes. color boxes. colored daguerreotypes on copper. coloring the picture. daguerreotypes. concave mirrors. convex mirrors corchorus japonica. crayon daguerreotypes. cyanotype daguerreotype apparatus. process. plates. daguerreotypes. crayon on paper dedication. iii definitions of terms used in optics, different methods of preparing photogenic paper. directions for use of galvanic battery. distilled water drummond light. dry sensitive. drying apparatus. effects of light on bodies energiatype etching daguerreotypes. fifth operation. fixing the picture. first operation. cleaning the plate fluoric acid. fourth operation-bringing out the picture. funnels. galvanic battery. solution for use of gilding stand. the picture. gold. chloride of to make solution of hyposulphite; or salt of preparation of. gurney's sensitive. head rests. hints and suggestions. history of photography. hungarian liquid. hygrometers. hyposulphite of gold. of soda. instantaneous pictures by means of galvanism. introduction. i iodine, dry chloride of bromide of box. iodide of silver. ioduret of silver. iodize the plate. to iodized paper for calotypes. to prepare to prepare for the camera ib. lamps, spirit light. theory on motion of reflection of refraction of on bodies. effects of prismatic analysis of lime, bromide of lunar pictures. mead's accelerator. mercury bath nitrate of silver. oxide of silver. on coloring daguerreotypes on the probability of producing colored photographs. paper. blotting; or bibulous, daguerreotypes. preparation of suitable for photographs. photogenic drawing on ib photographic principle, the photographic process on paper. drawing. application of to fix the deviations. photographometer, the plate support. blocks. vice. poppy, the red porcelain dishes. positive calotype preface. v preparation of iodized paper. of gold. prismatic spectrum. analysis of light. ib reflection of light. refraction of light. roach's tripple compound of bromine. sand clock. sealing paper. to make second operation. sensitive. ib silver. bromide of chloride of iodide of ioduret of nitrate of oxide of solution of chloride of sixth operation. soda hyposulphite of solar and stellar light. still for purifying water, submitting the plate to the action of light synopsis of mr. hunt's treatise on light, talbotype camera. theory on light. third operation. wall flower. premo cameras _ _ canadian kodak co., limited toronto, canada for tourists premo cameras and premo film packs may be obtained of practically every photographic dealer in this country. they may be had also in any part of the world in most photographic establishments, and always at the following agencies: london--kodak, limited, kingsway. w. c.; cheapside. e. c.; oxford street, w.; - regent street, w.; brompton road, s. w.; strand, w. c.; and gracechurch st., e. c. liverpool--kodak, limited, bold street. birmingham--kodak, limited, corporation street. newcastle--kodak, limited, grainger street. dublin--kodak, limited, grafton street. glasgow--kodak, limited, - buchanan street. paris--kodak, société anonyme francaise, avenue de l'opera ; place vendôme ; boulevard des italiens . lyons--kodak, société anonyme francaise, rue de la republique . lausanne--kodak, société anonyme, avenue du tribunal federal . madrid--kodak sociedad anonima. puerta del sol. nice--kodak, société anonyme francaise, avenue de la gare . berlin--kodak gesellschaft, m. b. h., leipzigerstrasse - ; unter den linden ; tauentzienstrasse . brussels--kodak, limited, rue de l'ecuyer . copenhagen--kodak aktieselskab, ostergade . vienna--kodak gesellschaft, m. b. h., kärntnerstrasse . st. petersburg--kodak, limited. bolschaia konnuschenaia . moscow--kodak limited, petrovka, . . milan--kodak societa anonima. corso vittorio emanule . rome--kodak societa anonima. corso umberto i. . naples--kodak societa anonima, via roma . venice--kodak societa anonima, piazza s. marco . budapest--kodak társaság k. f. , vaci-utca . alexandria--kodak (egypt) societe anonyme rue chérif pacha . cairo--kodak (egypt) s. a. opera square. capetown--kodak (s. africa) limited, - st. georges st. melbourne--kodak (australasia) ltd., collins street. sydney--kodak (australasia) ltd., george street. brisbane--kodak (australasia) ltd., queen street. adelaide--kodak (australasia) ltd., rundle street. wellington--kodak (australasia) ltd., mercer street. bombay--kodak, limited, cook's building, hornby road. all you could wish for ease of operation and convenience in carrying, lens and shutter equipment, quality of results and price--these, together with unquestioned reliability, are the factors which logically should determine the selection of a camera in every case. anyone who contemplates the purchase of a camera, and who will make his selection upon this basis will find in the premo line all that he could wish for. the perfection of the daylight loading premo film pack system has made the premo the simplest of all cameras to load and operate. (see description, page ). and the film pack takes up so little room that it is possible to make the premo film cameras remarkably light and compact. there are some that will go into even a boy's pocket or a lady's hand-bag. every premo is fitted with a shutter of the most efficient type in its particular grade, and all lenses, from the meniscus to the anastigmat, are carefully tested by the highest standard and promptly rejected if they fail to come to that standard. with these selected optical equipments and the fact that premo film pack film is taken from the same stock as the eastman n. c. there can be no question of the quality of results. premos are so simple in construction and so compact in form that they can be furnished at very moderate prices, considering the quality which is built into every premo camera. for those who wish to invest very little in a photographic outfit, there are thoroughly practical premos at as small a price as $ . . on the other hand, for those who want the very best to the last detail, there are premos up to $ . . as for reliability, premos are backed, not only by over thirty years of manufacturing experience, but also by the kodak policy of allowing nothing to be placed on the market which will not do all that is claimed for it. step into the dealer's, examine these cameras for yourself and you will find it very easy to make a selection of a premo that will be all that you could wish for in a camera. canadian kodak co., limited toronto, canada the premo film pack in our advertising, we often refer to premos as being the smallest and lightest, the easiest to load and operate of all cameras. this is true, because the premo film pack, with which most of our cameras are loaded, requires very little space when in use and itself is constructed upon such a simple, convenient principle. [illustration] packed flat, the premo film pack can be loaded in premo film cameras by two operations. just open back of camera and drop in pack--then close back and it's done. this is the easiest and quickest method of loading any camera. to prepare for the first exposure, simply pull out from the pack the paper tab marked "safety cover." then to change films for successive exposures, merely pull out successive tabs. upon pulling out the twelfth tab the pack is rendered light-tight, so that it may be safely removed in any light. with these advantages of easy loading and operating, the premo film pack has another most important one--the removal of one or more films for development at any time. [illustration: easy to load.] this feature is found in no other film system, and obviates the necessity of exposing all the films before any can be developed. and development has been made very simple. as we have said, anyone who follows directions in our instruction books can make good exposures, and if the exposures are right, development, heretofore, a bugbear to many amateurs, is certain with the premo film pack tank. all one has to do is to dissolve the developing powders in the tank, bring the solution to the proper temperature and put in the films. see pages - . the premo adapter with the introduction of the premo film pack it was found that a simple film pack holder or adapter, modeled upon the ordinary plate holder, would make it a simple matter to load any premo plate camera with film packs. [illustration: premo film pack adapter.] the premo film pack adapter has the general size and appearance of a plate holder. but it has a hinged back which can be easily opened, the film pack dropped in place, back closed, and the adapter then loaded into the plate camera just as an ordinary plate holder is. to make exposures, the slide is withdrawn, the "safety cover" pulled out and the film pack operated for successive exposures just as in film cameras. then at any time the slide may be reinserted, the adapter removed and the subject sharply focused on the ground glass by precisely the same method you would follow in using glass plates. thus a premo plate camera will take films or plates with equal facility; it offers the daylight loading and other features of the premo film pack, as well as every advantage of the ordinary focusing camera; and many of these premos are as compact as purely film cameras. with the premo film pack adapter, also, it is an easy matter to make multiple pictures (two or more exposures) on one film. [illustration: the adapter is loaded just like a plate holder.] this is done by manipulating the slide in connection with the film pack tab, and the procedure is fully explained in the premo manuals. for prices on premo film packs and adapters, see page . kodak ball bearing shutters this shutter works automatically and operates with remarkable smoothness and precision. the leaves are made in five segments, mounted entirely on ball bearings, and open and close in the form of a star, admitting a much greater amount of light in the same space of time than any other type of shutter. all except the no. have variable indicated speeds of / , / and / second, operate for bulb or time exposures, and are fitted with indicator for registering each exposure as made. the no. is graduated for speeds of / and / , has no registering device and operates with finger release only. [illustration] the kodak ball bearing shutter is supplied with the premoette jr. no. a, film premo no. , pocket premo c and premo no. ; the no. size with premoette jr. no. . compound shutter the compound shutter is an automatic and setting shutter combined. automatically, either time or bulb exposures may be made, while it may be set for speeds of from to / , / and / second, according to size of shutter. the shutter leaves are formed of segments opening in star shape, giving even illumination over the entire plate the instant the exposure is started, and it has an iris diaphragm. case is made of aluminum, and accurate adjustments can be made with shutter in any position. it may be operated by either bulb or finger release. [illustration] the compound shutter is regularly supplied on the premoette jr. specials nos. and a, filmplate premo special and six-three premo cameras. kodak automatic shutter and kodak autotime scale the kodak automatic shutter is carefully adjusted for time, bulb and instantaneous exposures. it is also graduated for fractional parts of a second, and is unusually accurate. this shutter is regularly fitted with the kodak autotime scale and is supplied on the filmplate and premos nos. and . the kodak autotime scale greatly reduces the liability of error in exposure, as it automatically indicates the proper time and stop opening for subjects under any condition of outdoor photography. it is exceedingly simple to use. the speed indicator is merely set at the point on the scale indicating the kind of light prevailing and the diaphragm indicator at the point indicating the character of the subject. [illustration] these scales are also supplied for the following shutters when fitted with double lenses only. they can be readily attached by any amateur. in ordering always designate by style letter as below. style a. for use with kodak ball bearing shutter. - / × - / and - / × - / . style aa. for use with kodak ball bearing shutter, × - / , - / × - / and × . style b. for use with f. p. k. automatic, - / × - / and - / × - / , no. s. v. automatic, or no. b. & l. s. v. automatic shutters. style bb. for use with f. p. k. automatic, - / × - / and × , no. s. v. automatic, or no. b. & l. s. v. automatic shutters. style c. for use with kodak automatic shutter, - / × - / . style cc. for use with kodak automatic shutter, - / × - / and × . style d. for use with b. & l. automatic and century automatic shutters, - / × - / . style dd. for use with b. & l. automatic and century automatic shutters, - / × - / and × . style ddd. for use with b. & l. automatic shutter, - / × - / . style h. for use with no. compound shutter, - / × - / and - / × - / . style hh. for use with no. compound shutter, - / × - / and × . style hhh. for use with no. compound shutter, - / × - / and × . _prices._ any style up to h $ . styles h, hh and hhh . premo junior cameras [illustration] the very simplest camera for making pictures is a camera of the fixed focus type. such cameras require no focusing or estimating of distances, and as they do not have to be opened, are always ready for immediate action. the premo juniors are cameras of this kind and they are even easier in operation than the usual camera of this type, possessing, as they do, the remarkable simplicity of loading and operating provided by the premo film pack. to make a picture with one of these cameras is a matter of seconds only. the first step is to load the camera, and this is effected in any light by opening the back, dropping in premo film pack and then closing the back. second, set the shutter for time or instantaneous exposure as required by the subject. this is accomplished by merely moving a lever up or down. then glance at the finder, which reflects the image on a reduced scale, just as it will appear in the finished picture, press a lever and the exposure is made. to change films for successive exposures, pull out successive film pack tabs as explained on page . the premo juniors are particularly well adapted for the use of boys and girls, by reason of their low cost, substantial construction and simple operation. this does not mean that the camera is not suitable for older people, for there are many grown up amateurs who prefer cameras of this simple type, and are using premo juniors with marked success. for all ordinary work, such as portraiture, snap shots in good light and average landscapes, they are capable of producing very good results. these cameras are all fitted with tested lenses, automatic shutters and horizontal and vertical finders. they are substantially made to withstand hard knocks, covered with imitation leather and attractive in appearance. the negatives made with these cameras are of such quality as to yield very good enlargements and any amateur can make his own enlargements by use of the brownie enlarging camera described on page . the nos. , a, and are precisely alike, as shown in illustration, in practically all details excepting size. the no. is somewhat different in construction, but works upon the same principle and makes equally good pictures in its size. _specifications._ capacity, exposures without reloading. size of camera. no. . - / × - / × - / in.; no. . - / × - / × - / in.; no. a, - / × - / × - / in.; no. , × - / × - / in.; no. , - / × - / × - / in. weight, no. , ounces; no. , ounces; no. a, ounces; no. , ounces; no. , ounces. shutters, rotary automatic, all excepting no. , with diaphragm stops. lens no. and no. meniscus; no. a, and , meniscus achromatic. finders, two. tripod sockets, no. . none; nos. , a, and , two. [illustration: premo jr. no. .] _prices._ no. no. no. a no. no. - / × - / × - / × - / × × - / - / - / - / premo junior, meniscus lens, automatic shutter $ . $ . ditto with meniscus achromatic lens $ . $ . $ . carrying case . . . . . premo film pack, ( exposures) . . . . . kodak portrait attachment . . . . premoette junior [illustration] to see this little camera is to be instantly attracted by it. made largely of aluminum it is just a trifle larger than the picture it makes. it is extremely light in weight. it inspires confidence by its appearance and fulfills it in its results. it will go into even a boy's pocket or a lady's hand-bag. and while these cameras are so very small in dimensions, they make good size pictures--two of the most popular of amateur sizes. the no. is for - / × - / and the no. a for - / × - / pictures. the greatest of care is taken in the selection of lenses for these cameras. for the single lens fitting only meniscus achromatic lenses which have stood rigid tests are used, and the same is true of the double lens equipment where our standard planatograph lenses are fitted in each case. thus these cameras will produce sharp, clearly defined pictures under ordinarily favorable conditions. and the negatives are of such quality that good enlargements up to almost any desirable size can be easily obtained from them. for this reason many amateurs who already have larger cameras are adding these inexpensive little cameras to their photographic outfits. they can be easily carried where oftentimes the larger cameras might be inconvenient, and where larger pictures are wanted it is an easy matter to secure them by the simple process of enlargement. any amateur can enlarge his own negatives by use of the inexpensive enlarging camera described on page or his finisher will gladly do it for him. the premoette jr. is fitted with the smoothly working, precise kodak ball bearing shutter, the camera is covered with genuine grain leather and is handsomely finished in every detail. and with its compact, substantial construction and capabilities for high grade work is combined that simplicity of loading and operating possible only in a premo film pack camera. see page . in addition to these advantages any premoette jr. will make an excellent outfit for home portrait work when fitted with the inexpensive kodak portrait attachment. for one who desires to make a present at the holidays, or on any occasion, the premoette jr. makes an ideal gift. it is suitable alike for a boy or girl, a man or woman of any age. _specifications._ _premoette jr. no. ._ capacity film pack exposures without reloading. dimensions, - / × × - / in. weight, ozs. lens, meniscus achromatic. shutter, kodak ball bearing no. (see page ). finder, collapsible, reversible, brilliant. tripod socket, one. _premoette jr. no. a._ capacity film pack exposures without reloading. dimensions, - / × - / × - / in. weight, ozs. lens, meniscus achromatic. shutter, kodak ball bearing (see page ), but has no bulb, operating with finger release only. finder brilliant, reversible, collapsible. tripod sockets, two. [illustration] _prices._ no. no. a - / × - / - / × - / premoette jr. with meniscus achromatic lens and kodak ball bearing shutter $ . $ . ditto, with planatograph lens . . carrying case . . premo film pack ( exposures) . . kodak portrait attachment, . . premoette jr. _special_ [illustration] so compact, so generally desirable is the premoette jr. that there are many amateurs among the more serious, particular workers, who have wished for a camera of the same type with the very maximum of photographic efficiency. for the average amateur the regular premoette junior will be found eminently satisfactory, but for those who insist upon the best to be had, who demand a camera capable of making good pictures under all conditions where pictures could possibly be made, the premoette jr. special is a revelation. here is a camera with the light weight and compactness, the ease of loading and operating of the original premoette jr., but with an equipment which places it on a par in capabilities, with the largest, most expensive amateur cameras made. it is fitted with the compound shutter with cable release, attaining a maximum speed of / of a second in the no. and / in the no. a size and the zeiss kodak anastigmat lens f. . . this lens was made expressly for hand camera work and combines depth, definition and speed to a remarkable degree. this equipment enables one to work under adverse conditions that the ordinarily equipped camera could not meet as, for instance snap shot work in dull lights, fast indoor portraiture, and the like. and the remarkable sharpness and depth of the negatives make them suitable for enlarging up to any size desired. either size can be carried in any pocket or in a lady's hand-bag. thus, however cramped for room, one may be certain he can take along a premoette jr., and make as good pictures of anything he cares about, as can be made with any camera. aside from the difference in size, the two models are practically identical. focusing is provided for by a series of three focusing slots in which the standard is inserted as occasion requires. the focusing block on the no. folds over to permit closing the camera; in the no. a this is not necessary. in keeping with its high grade equipment, we have finished this camera in the best possible manner. it is covered with genuine persian morocco, and the bellows is of the finest quality black leather, giving it a rich, attractive appearance. in a word, this is the finest, most capable, handsomest small camera you ever saw--a marvel of compactness and efficiency. _specifications._ _premoette jr. no. special._ capacity - / × - / film pack exposures without reloading. dimensions, - / × × - / in. weight, ozs. lens, zeiss kodak anastigmat f. . . shutter, compound with cable release, highest speed / second. finder, brilliant, reversible, collapsible. tripod socket, one. _premoette jr. no. a special._ capacity - / × - / premo film pack exposures without reloading. dimensions, - / × - / × - / in. weight, ozs. lens, zeiss kodak anastigmat f. . . shutter, compound with cable release, highest speed / second. finder, reversible, brilliant, collapsible. tripod sockets, two. [illustration] _prices._ no. no. a - / × - / - / × - / premoette jr. special with zeiss kodak anastigmat lens f. . and compound shutter $ . $ . grain leather carrying case . . premo film pack ( exposures) . . kodak portrait attachment . . film premo no. [illustration] the film premos are designed for those who want reliable, simply operated cameras for all-around amateur photographic work. they are designed to be as convenient and easy of manipulation as possible, and without reference to the requirements of the specialists, are fitted only with the simple adjustments sufficient to enable the average photographer, whether experienced or not, to secure good pictures under all ordinary conditions. working with this idea in mind, we are able to offer these cameras not only at moderate prices, but for compactness and light weight, for ease of loading and unloading, the film premos have a considerable margin over any other type of cameras. this fact may be easily verified by comparative weights and dimensions and investigation of the premo film pack system used in this camera. (see page ). as convenient and low priced as these cameras are however, the very first consideration in their construction has been the quality of results which must be produced. and the lens and shutter equipment and the film used in this camera offer the assurance that the film premos will produce as good pictures as any camera that can be purchased, aside from those fitted with anastigmat lenses. the shutter of the film premo no. is the kodak ball bearing with bulb release--the finest type of the single valve shutter, and the regular lens is our celebrated planatograph, each one thoroughly tested. this equipment is the best to be had outside of the anastigmats and is amply efficient for the general run of amateur photography. the film used in the premo film pack is from the same stock as the eastman n. c.--the best in the world. in addition to the double lens fittings these cameras are also offered with single meniscus achromatic lenses for those who prefer compact folding cameras requiring but little adjustment of focus for objects at different distances. film premos no. are very attractive in appearance; they are made of seasoned wood, with bed and back panel of aluminum, covered with seal grain leather, and metal parts are beautifully nickeled. _specifications._ capacity, film exposures. box, seasoned wood. bed, aluminum. dimensions, - / × - / , - / × × - / in.; a ( - / × - / ), - / × - / × - / in. weight, - / × - / , ounces; a ( - / × - / ), ounces. lens, planatograph. shutter, kodak ball bearing with bulb release (see page ). tripod sockets, two. finder, reversible, brilliant, collapsible. automatic standard clamp. [illustration] _prices._ a - / × - / - / × - / film premo no. , with planatograph lens and kodak ball bearing shutter $ . $ . ditto with meniscus achromatic lens and kodak ball bearing shutter, . . sole leather carrying case . . kodak autotime scale . . premo film pack ( exposures) . . kodak portrait attachment . . pocket premo c [illustration] in choosing his photographic outfit the amateur is often undecided as to whether he should select a film or a plate camera. he knows that the film camera is more convenient, that it will load and unload in daylight, and as the films are much lighter and occupy less space than dry plates, he knows that the film camera is especially desirable for use at vacation time, when traveling, and on other occasions where light weight and the greatest convenience are necessary. on the other hand, he knows that the plate camera offers the advantage of ground glass focusing between each exposure--a very desirable feature to many as it insures absolutely sharp focus and does away with the estimating of distances. the pocket premo c will settle such a question for anyone. this camera will take plates or daylight loading films just as the user chooses. one can be used just as easily as the other--plates by means of an ordinary double plate holder, and films in the premo film pack adapter. (see page ). thus in this camera are offered the daylight loading feature and all the other conveniences of films, together with the ground glass focusing feature of the plate camera. and the ground glass may be used for focusing before each exposure just as well _when using films_ as when using plates. the camera is equipped with an accurate focusing scale, so that it may be focused by scale if desired. you do not have to use the ground glass. but when you want it, it is always there. a rack and pinion attachment is supplied for ease in focusing. these advantages are offered in a camera which is even lighter and more compact than the average purely film camera and which is so easy to operate that anyone can make good pictures with a pocket premo c from the start, without any previous experience. the pocket premo c is fitted with our planatograph, the best rapid rectilinear lens that can be obtained, and the new kodak ball bearing shutter with bulb release. with this lens working at f. and shutter with star-shaped leaves, the camera is very effective for general "snap-shot" work. for the popular post card size, the a pocket premo c makes an outfit of unusual scope and capabilities at a moderate price. the camera is handsomely finished, covering is genuine leather, bellows is of red leather and metal parts are nickeled. _specifications._ capacity, film or plate exposures. box, mahogany. bed, mahogany with rack and pinion for focusing. finder, reversible, collapsible, brilliant. tripod sockets, two. lens, planatograph. shutter, kodak ball bearing with bulb release (see page ). dimensions, - / × - / , - / × - / × - / in.; a ( - / × - / ), - / × × - / in. weight, - / × - / , ozs.; a ( - / × - / ), ozs. automatic standard clamp. [illustration] _prices._ a - / × - / - / × - / pocket premo c with planatograph lens, kodak ball bearing shutter and plate holder $ . $ . double plate holder . . sole leather carrying case . . kodak autotime scale . . premo film pack adapter . . premo film pack ( exposures) . . kodak portrait attachment . . filmplate premo [illustration] all that we have just said of the pocket premo c is equally true of the filmplate premo, but this model has even greater capabilities. like the pocket premo c it takes films or plates with equal facility, but it is fully equipped for more serious and more particular work. it has a rack and pinion for focusing, rising and sliding front and swing bed. these latter features are of great importance in making pictures of high buildings, mountains, and the like, for they enable the user to decrease his foreground without tipping the camera proper, which causes an untrue convergence of lines toward the top of the picture. the shutter is the kodak automatic, which works with bulb or finger release for time, bulb, instantaneous and retarded speeds of from second to / second. it is also supplied with kodak autotime scale. under every possible outdoor light condition this scale shows at a glance just where to set diaphragm and speed lever to get properly timed exposures. the lens is the planatograph, the best obtainable aside from the anastigmats, and each lens is carefully tested before and after being fitted to the camera. with accurate focusing scale and brilliant finder, the filmplate premo is a splendid snap shot instrument. whereas, for particular work, the ground glass is instantly available for composition or focusing, whether films or plates are being used. with all these advantages there is nothing bulky or cumbersome or complicated about the filmplate premo. it is as compact and as easily carried as the average camera for films alone. it is so simple to understand and operate that anyone who can read the instructions which come with the camera can at once start in to make good pictures, without any trouble at all. the a size is especially suitable for post card work, for bust and full length portraiture and for artistic landscape compositions. the filmplate premo is made in the most careful manner of the best of materials. the box is made of thoroughly seasoned wood, front bed of aluminum, all covered with selected leather of beautiful seal grain. all metal parts are highly nickeled, the bellows is of black leather, and the general appearance of the cameras is most striking. these cameras are especially suitable for home portraiture with kodak portrait attachment on account of the ground glass focusing feature. _specifications._ capacity, film or plate exposures. box, cherry. bed, aluminum. rack and pinion for fine focusing. front, rising and sliding. finder, reversible, brilliant, collapsible. tripod sockets, two. lens, planatograph. shutter, kodak automatic with autotime scale (see page ). dimensions. - / × - / , - / × - / × - / in.; a ( - / × - / ). - / × - / × - / in.; × , - / × - / × - / in.; × , - / × × - / in. weight, - / × - / . ozs.; a ( - / × - / ), ozs.: × , ozs.; × . ozs. automatic standard clamp. [illustration] _prices._ a - / × - / - / × - / × × filmplate premo with planatograph lens, kodak auto. shutter, autotime scale, plate holder and film pack adapter $ . $ . $ . $ . carrying case . . . . premo film pack . . . . kodak portrait attachment . . . . filmplate premo _special_ [illustration] for those who want the highest possible efficiency in a hand camera, combined with compactness and convenience, the filmplate premo special is truly the ideal camera. it is thoroughly equipped to make good pictures under all conditions of amateur photography where good pictures could possibly be made, aside from ultra rapid focal plane photography. it is fitted with every desirable mechanical convenience. it has a fast, fully corrected lens,--the zeiss kodak anastigmat, _f_. . , specially designed for hand camera work, and a high speed shutter, the compound, that works with great precision. this shutter attains a speed of / second in the - / × - / size, / in the - / × - / and × sizes and / second in the × size. this equipment cannot be surpassed. it not only provides a very high speed for rapidly moving objects, but it enables the operator to make pictures on dark days, indoors, and under generally unfavorable light conditions, where absolute failure would result from the use of the ordinarily equipped camera. these advantages are offered in a camera that takes films or plates with equal facility, and is as compact and easy to carry, as convenient to operate, as the average hand camera for films only. in addition this camera is provided with a ground glass which may be used for sharp focusing and accurate composing between each exposure, and this can be done with equal ease whether films or plates are used. this is an advantage which will appeal strongly to many, as it enables one to utilize to the fullest extent the microscopic definition of his anastigmat lens. in keeping with the high grade of work for which this camera is designed, we have constructed and finished it in the best possible manner. the covering is a rich black morocco, the bellows black leather, and metal parts are handsomely nickeled, producing a most attractive combination. particular attention is called to the a size for its all-around popularity, and to the × for its unusual compactness for a × camera of its great capabilities. _specifications._ capacity, film or plate exposures. box, seasoned wood. bed. aluminum. rack and pinion for fine focusing. front, rising and sliding. finder, brilliant, reversible, collapsible. tripod sockets, two. lens. zeiss kodak anastigmat _f_. . . shutter, compound. dimensions, - / × - / , - / × - / × - / in.; - / × - / . - / × - / × - / in.; × , - / × - / × - / in.; × . - / × × - / in. weight, - / × - / . ozs.; - / × - / , ozs.; × , - / ozs.; × , ozs. [illustration] _prices._ a - / × - / - / × - / × × filmplate premo special with zeiss kodak anastigmat, _f_. . and compound shutter, film pack adapter and plate holder $ . $ . $ . $ . ditto, cooke ser. iii a. _f_. . lens . . . . ditto, b. & l. zeiss tessar ser. ii b. _f_. . lens . . . . case, velvet lined . . . . kodak autotime scale . . . . premo film pack . . . . premo number [illustration] in the plate camera field premos have always been pre-eminent in quality and dependability from the very beginning of amateur photography. they have been manufactured for over thirty years, upon the idea of giving the customer the very best possible values for money expended. the premo no. is an excellent illustration of the application of this idea. designed for the amateur who wants a convenient, dependable plate camera at a moderate price, it is so carefully made and so simple to operate that it will produce remarkably good results for so inexpensive a camera. it is equipped with our regular planatograph lens, each one carefully tested, and the shutter is of the kodak ball bearing type but supplied with bulb and tube instead of cable release. this shutter is graduated for speeds of / , / and / seconds, and works also, of course, for bulb and time exposures. the leaves operate on ball bearings and open in the shape of a star, admitting the greatest possible amount of light for any given exposure. with this equipment the camera is suitable for general amateur work of all kinds--snap shots, landscapes and portraiture, especially in connection with the kodak portrait attachment. it is made of seasoned wood, with front bed of aluminum and metal runways, making an instrument of unusual compactness for a plate camera. the bed and box of the premo no. are covered with black leather, the bellows is black and the metal parts being finished in nickel, give the camera a neat, attractive appearance. the standard is made of metal and is very rigid, a rising and falling front is supplied and the finder is of the new premo collapsible type. this model, of course, is provided with a ground glass for sharp focusing, and while it is intended primarily for plates, it can be loaded with films just as easily. by the use of a premo film pack adapter it can be converted into a compact, daylight loading film camera, perfectly suitable for the vacationist or for any occasion where the light weight and greater convenience of films would be desirable. it is really one camera which offers the advantage of two. _specifications._ capacity, film or plate exposures. box, kiln-dried wood, covered with leather. standard, made of metal, with rising and falling front. carrying case, imitation leather, with compartments for holders. finder, reversible brilliant, collapsible. tripod sockets, two. lens, planatograph. shutter, kodak ball bearing with bulb and tube (see page ). dimensions, - / × - / , × × - / in.; × , × - / × - / in.; × . - / × - / × - / in. weight, - / × - / , ozs.; × , ozs.; × , ozs. [illustration] _prices._ a × - / × - / × premo no. , with planatograph lens, kodak ball bearing shutter. carrying case and plate holder $ . $ . $ . kodak autotime scale . . . premo film pack adapter . . . premo film pack ( exposures) . . . kodak portrait attachment . . . premo number [illustration] this efficient camera is designed for the amateur who wishes an instrument of very wide scope. with its complete equipment and accurate, convenient mechanical adjustments, it is a camera never before approached at the price. the premo no. is fitted with the new premo reversible back. this is the simplest back to reverse ever offered, for with its patented spring lug construction, it may be instantly removed and reversed without any tendency to stick or bind. the bellows is of black leather and has sufficient draw to permit the use of the single lens combination or a telephoto attachment of several magnifications. the extension plate is actuated by rack and pinion working with exceptional smoothness and provided with a simple locking device. the standard is constructed of metal, it is very rigid, and incorporates a rising and falling front of great latitude. this in connection with the swing bed construction makes it an easy matter to take pictures of tall buildings, and the like, without tipping the camera, with its attendant distortion. the lens board is removable and the finder is the new premo collapsible brilliant. the instrument is of the most substantial construction, it is covered with selected leather of beautiful grain and is finished in the most careful manner. the covering is of black leather, specially selected for its beautiful grain, the bed is finished in black and the metal parts are heavily nickeled. the regular lens and shutter equipment comprises the kodak automatic shutter and autotime scale and the planatograph lens--a perfectly satisfactory equipment for everyday amateur photography. the single combination of the lens will produce sharp, clear pictures of objects at a distance double the size made with the complete lens. like the premo no. , this model is primarily intended for plates, but it can be easily converted into a daylight loading film camera by use of the premo film pack adapter. it offers the advantage of ground glass focusing with either medium, but is fitted with a focusing scale for snap shot work or for any occasion when one does not care to use the ground glass. _specifications._ capacity. film or plate exposures. box. kiln-dried wood, covered with fine grain leather. bed, hand polished wood, finished in black, and supplied with rack and pinion for fine focusing, and swing arrangement. back, spring catch, reversible. standard, made of metal, with rising and falling front. finder, brilliant reversible, collapsible. tripod socket, one. lens, planatograph. shutter, kodak automatic (see page ). carrying case, sole leather, with compartments for holders. bellows, black leather; draw - / × - / , in.; × , in.: × , - / in. dimensions, - / × - / , × × in.; × , × × in.; × , - / × - / × - / in. weight, - / × - / , ozs.; × , ozs.; × , ozs. [illustration] _prices._ a × - / × - / × premo no. , with planatograph lens. kodak automatic shutter with kodak autotime scale, case and holder $ . $ . $ . ditto, with zeiss kodak anastigmat lens _f_. . and compound shutter . . . premo film pack adapter . . . premo film pack ( exposures) . . . kodak portrait attachment, . . . premo number [illustration] designed to meet the requirements of the most advanced photographer and of the specialist in photographic work, the premo no. is equipped with every known adjustment desirable in a hand camera for making pictures under all conditions. the bellows is of such length as to readily accommodate the single combinations of any lens system, and also to meet the capacity requirements of telephoto lenses of the highest magnifications. this feature is also a valuable one in the processes of enlarging, copying and portraiture. provision is made for the use of lenses of the widest angle. for this purpose, it is necessary only to unclasp the two supplementary side arms, which drop the beds down on a hinge, removing it from the path of the shortest focus lens. then a short supplementary bed, carried conveniently at the top of the camera when not in use, is substituted for the regular bed, affording easy focusing facilities. the movable extensions are constructed entirely of metal, are actuated by a single pinion and attached to the wooden bed by metal angle pieces, making the operation impervious to changing atmospheric conditions. the swing back is actuated by rack and pinion, with locking device, as is also the rising and falling front. the standard clamp is automatic. the camera is regularly fitted with the planatograph lens--the best obtainable aside from the anastigmats, but it is constructed with the view of accommodating anastigmat lenses of any kind when desired. the regular shutter is the reliable kodak automatic fitted with kodak autotime scale. this scale automatically indicates the proper time and stop opening for all outdoor exposures. (see page ). the finish and general workmanship of the instrument must be seen to be appreciated. the shutter and all metal parts are highly nickeled and the covering is of the best leather, especially selected for its beautiful grain. the wood is mahogany with hand polished black finish. the carrying case is of sole leather, lined with purple velvet. with all these advantages the premo no. can be successfully used even by the beginner. its special features do not have to be reckoned with excepting when needed, and the premo adapter will convert it at any time into a daylight loading film camera. the camera is made in the × size only. _specifications._ capacity, film or plate exposures. box, mahogany, leather covered. bed, mahogany, with highly polished black finish and with triple extension runway. back, spring catch, reversible. swing, vertical; rack and pinion actuated, with locking device. front, rising and falling; rack and pinion actuated, with locking device. lens board, removable; size - / × - / in. finder, brilliant, reversible. tripod sockets, two. lens, planatograph. shutter, kodak automatic with autotime scale (see page ). carrying case, sole leather, plush lined, with compartment for holders. bellows, black leather; draw, in. dimensions. × - / × - / in. weight, × , - / lbs. automatic standard clamp. [illustration] _prices._ × premo no. , with planatograph lens and kodak auto. shutter with autotime scale, carrying case and plate holder $ . with zeiss kodak anastigmat lens f. . and compound shutter . with b. & l. zeiss protar vila lens and compound shutter . premo film pack adapter . premo film pack . kodak autotime scale for compound shutter . six-three premos [illustration] the six-three premos are designed to supply absolutely reliable cameras with every anastigmat advantage, at the very minimum of expense. taking as a basis the regular premo models suitable for this purpose, we have simply replaced the r. r. lens and automatic shutter with the compound shutter and a new anastigmat lens, called the cooke kodak anastigmat. this lens has been specially designed for this particular use by the makers of the well-known cooke anastigmat lenses. it is an anastigmat of the very first quality, fully corrected for definition and flatness of field, and working at a speed of _f_. . . the shutter is the regular compound, but operated with cable release instead of bulb and tube. for details merely refer to detailed specifications of the regular models. the illustration shows the six-three filmplate premo. _prices._ six-three premoette jr. no. a. cooke kodak anastigmat lens _f_. . , and compound shutter $ . six-three filmplate premo, - / × - / , equipped as above . ditto, a ( - / × - / ) or × . six-three premo no. , a ( - / × - / ) or × , equipped as above . for prices on carrying cases, films, etc., see price list of corresponding regular models. the r. o. c. view [illustration] an inexpensive, reliable view camera for those who do not require extra long bellows capacity. it is especially adapted for interior work as it focuses from the rear only, and the back may be moved as close to the front as desired so that extreme wide angle lenses may be used. the front board is so wide that stereoscopic lenses may be used, and the standard is strong and rigid, affording a safe support for the heaviest lenses. the back is supplied with horizontal and vertical cut out boards, so that four pictures may be made on one plate if desired. vertical and horizontal swings, rising and falling front and reversible back are provided. the camera is strongly built for service and will last indefinitely. _specifications._ bellows draw, × , in.; - / × - / , - / in.; × , in. weight, × , - / lbs.; - / × - / , lbs.; × , - / lbs. size of lens board, × , - / × - / in.; - / × - / , - / × - / in.; × , × in. carrying case, square style canvas. _prices._ × - / × - / × r. o. c. view with case and holder $ . $ . $ . extra carrying case, regular . . . eastman view no. improved model of empire state [illustration] for years there has been no radical change in view cameras. the empire state camera had seemed to meet all requirements, and it certainly gave good value and satisfaction. however we started an investigation of the view camera situation some time ago, and it was found that improvements could be made, and by the perfection of our factory organization and the running through of large lots, a camera fully equal to the old empire state, from the standpoint of service and efficiency, could be supplied to advantage. as a result we now offer the eastman view no. , an improved model of empire state, and anyone who is in the market for a substantial, reliable view camera at low cost, will find this of exceptional value for the money. the appearance of this camera is quite novel. it is finished in mission style with metal parts oxidized, and black bellows. it has no complications, but is built for practical service, and its various adjustments are such as to work conveniently and easily. it has double extensions and both front and back are actuated by rack and pinion, so that the camera may be focused from either end, and the back can be racked up as close to the front as desired. this provides for the use of lenses of the widest angle. the camera has rising and falling front, actuated by rack and pinion, and this can be locked solidly at any point by merely pushing in the pinion. the front board is removable and is large enough to accomodate any lens. both horizontal and vertical swings are provided, and the back is reversible and furnished with a vertical cut-off board, so that two negatives may be made on one plate, if desired. a strap handle and plumb level are supplied and an automatic bellows support which prevents sagging of the bellows at any time. _specifications._ bellows draw, × , - / in.; - / × - / in., in.; × , in. weight, × , lbs.; - / × - / , lbs.; × , - / lbs. size of lens board, × , - / × - / in.; - / × - / , - / × - / in.; × , - / × - / in. carrying case, long style canvas, combination style, with compartment for camera, holders and tripod. _prices._ × - / × - / × eastman view no. (improved model of empire state) with case and holder $ . $ . $ . extra carrying case . . . extra lens boards . . . eastman view no. improved model of empire state [illustration] all our experience in view camera making, all the information that we have been able to collect, of the needs of the view camera worker, have been put into the proposition of providing in this new model a view camera as near to perfection as human ingenuity can devise. it has all the good points of the famous old empire state, with important additional features which leave nothing to be desired in view camera work, however exacting it may be. the camera is constructed with the idea of providing the greatest possible solidity and strength throughout. the extensions are extra thick, the standard is very large and will furnish an absolutely rigid support for the heaviest lenses. corners are dovetailed and reinforced by brass angle pieces, and the metal parts are all made of the best quality of brass, fully lacquered. the front board is removable and very large. the rising and falling front is actuated by rack and pinion, as are both the horizontal and vertical swings. the camera can be focused from both front and rear by rack and pinion, so that the back can be racked up as close to the front as desired. thus lenses of the widest angle can be used. a sliding tripod block is provided so that the camera can always be supported directly above the tripod or the weight distributed, as the operator may wish. the back is reversible, a plumb level and strap handle are supplied and both horizontal and vertical cut-off boards are furnished so that four different negatives can be made on one plate if desired. the bellows of this camera is made of genuine leather and a spring arrangement working automatically prevents it from sagging at any time. [illustration] the method of locking extensions is very convenient, not by means of the old-fashioned, long threaded screw, but by a specially constructed device which locks firmly by merely being pushed in and given a quarter turn. the back extension, which is detachable, in addition to this device is further strengthened by two clamp catches which hold it absolutely rigid. the camera is made of hand-polished mahogany, with exception of the extensions, which are of cherry on account of its greater strength. _specifications._ bellows draw, × , in.; - / × - / , - / in.; × , - / in. weight, × , lbs.; - / × - / , - / lbs.; × , - / lbs. size of lens board, × , - / × - / in.; - / × - / , × in.; × , × in. carrying case, canvas, combination style, with compartments for camera, holders and tripod. all operating nuts on the right side, binding nuts on the left hand side. _prices._ × - / × - / × eastman view no. (improved model of empire state) with case and holder $ . $ . $ . extra carrying case . . . extra lens boards . . . premo film pack tank [illustration] those who use the premo film pack need never give a thought to development, for if they will use the premo film pack tank, they can absolutely know that every pack they expose is certain to be perfectly developed, provided they follow the simple directions for use of the tank. this means that the merest beginner, without any need of skill or help, can get as good results in development as the most expert photographer. for the tank is simplicity itself. it requires no experience, no lengthy manipulation in a close dark-room. and we recommend the tank system to the most careful workers as being infinitely simpler than the older method and producing results superior to those which can be obtained by the most painstaking tray development. the premo film pack tank consists of two pieces--a metal receiver or cage for the films, and a tank with cover for the developing fluid. the entire outfit is self-contained and can be easily carried in a corner of a suitcase. the cage is divided into twelve compartments--in the × size, six--each accommodating one film. as the film is taken from the pack it is held between the thumb and fingers, slightly bent from top to bottom, and slipped into its respective compartment. when all the compartments are filled, the cage is placed in tank, which has been previously filled with developer, the top replaced and the films left to develop for a certain specified time. no further attention is necessary except to turn the tank end for end, several times during the progress of development. at the expiration of the full time, open the tank, take out the cage, remove films, place them in a tray of water for a moment, then transfer to the fixing bath. development is completed. rinse out cage and tank and set them aside. the operation of removing films from the pack and loading the cage is done, of course, in a darkened room by the light of a ruby lamp. during the day any darkened closet will suffice, at night any dark room in which the shades are drawn will answer. to load the films in cage will take only two or three minutes, and as soon as the top is placed on tank it may be brought out into any light and left until development is completed. and night is really an ideal time to develop films, as they can be fixed and washed in a short time and will dry over night, being all ready to print from in the morning. if it is desired to develop less than a dozen films, one merely removes from his pack as many films as have been exposed, places them in the cage, and proceeds in the same manner as described above. the cage of the no. tank is slightly different from that shown in the illustration, but the method of loading is the same and, of course, the results are just as dependable. _prices._ premo film pack tank no. , for - / × - / or - / × - / films $ . do., no. , for - / × - / , - / × - / , × - / , - / × - / or × films . do., no. , for × films . premo tank developing powders, in packages of , no. . premo tank developing powders, in packages of , no. . premo tank developing powders, in packages of , no. . kodak acid fixing powder, per pound package . do., per / pound package . do., per / pound package . eastman plate tank in the eastman plate tank, plates may be developed in the same manner and with the same assurance of excellent results as may films developed in the premo film pack tank. the theory of construction is precisely the same, with of course such differences as are necessary because of the physical differences between films and plates. [illustration] it consists of a metal solution cup, a cage for holding twelve (or less) plates and a loading fixture for loading plates into the cage. in the - / × - / , - / × - / and × sizes, the cage of plates may be developed in a premo film pack tank, so that one using a premo that takes films or plates and having a premo film pack tank needs only to purchase the cage and loading fixture of the plate tank for the development of his plates, an advantage in economy. it is thus apparent that the owner of a premo plate camera can not only use films or plates in his camera with equal facility, but he can also avail himself of the advantages of tank development with either medium. _prices._ eastman plate tank for × , - / × - / or smaller plates, includes solution cup, plate cage, loading fixture and adjustable kit $ . ditto, × , without kit . ditto, × , with adjustable kit . adjustable kit for × or - / × - / tank to take smaller plates . kits for × tank, to take - / × - / , - / × - / or - / × - / plates, each . extra adjustable kit for × plate tank . plate cage and loading fixture for × and - / × - / plates (can be used in a × premo film pack tank) . eastman plate tank powders, for × tank, per pk'e / doz. . ditto for × tank, per package, / dozen . ditto for × tank, per package, / dozen . kodak acid fixing powder, per -pound package . brownie enlarging camera [illustration] those who use premo cameras up to and including the × size will find that with one of these cameras it's just as easy to make first-class enlargements as it is to print on velox paper. in fact, the two processes are very much the same excepting that, in ordinary printing, the negative and paper are in contact, while in enlarging, the paper is at some distance from the negative, with a lens in between. the improved brownie enlarging camera consists of a light-tight cone with attachments to hold a negative at the small end, and a sheet of bromide or velox paper at the other. they are collapsible and made in two sections the lens support holding them firmly together when in use. no. brownie enlarging camera, for × enlargements from - / × - / negatives $ . no. ditto, for - / × - / enlargements from - / × - / negatives . no. ditto, for × enlargements from × negatives (will also take - / × - / negatives) . brownie illuminator a very convenient device, providing a strong, even light by which to print with the brownie enlarging camera. it is collapsible, but when set up, has the form of a half-round, light-proof box with socket through which is inserted an electric light bulb. [illustration] the inner walls of this box are white and act as a reflector when the light is turned on. at the end is a ground glass, which diffuses the light, so that by placing negative end of the enlarging camera in contact with this glass and turning on the electricity, an excellent steady printing light is obtained. brownie enlarging camera illuminator $ . premo lenses for those who wish lenses in barrel for view cameras or other use, we list below several desirable types. prices on any others will be supplied on demand. zeiss kodak anastigmat lens _f_. . size of plate covered no. with full aperture. equivalent focus. price. - / × - / - / inches $ . - / × - / inches . × - / inches . × - / inches . × - / inches . - / × - / inches . b. & l.-zeiss protar lens--series vii a size of plate focus of focus of combined no. covered with front lens. back lens. focus. speed. price. full aperture. - / × - / - / in. - / in. - / in. _f_: $ . × - / in. - / in. in. _f_: - . - / × - / - / in. - / in. - / in. _f_: . × - / in. - / in. in. _f_: . × - / in. - / in. - / in. _f_: - . - / × - / - / in. - / in. - / in. _f_: . - / × - / - / in. - / in. - / in. _f_: - . × - / in. - / in. - / in. _f_: . b. & l.-zeiss protar lens--series v, _f_: the b. & l.-zeiss protar. series v, is designed for extreme wide-angle work. this lens embraces a field of degrees. no. size. equivalent focus. price. - / × - / - / inches $ . × - / inches . - / × - / - / inches . × - / inches . symmetrical wide-angle lens this is an excellent wide-angle lens at a moderate price, having an angle of about degrees. it is furnished in cells to interchange with the various lenses supplied on premo cameras. price in no. size. equivalent focus. cells only. × - / inches $ . × inches . - / × - / - / inches . × inches . premo accessories the kodak portrait attachment this attachment simply fits on in front of the regular lens and in no way affects the operation of the camera, excepting to so change the focus as to permit working close to the subject, thereby giving good sized head and shoulder portraits. not supplied for cameras larger than × . please order by number. no. . for premo jrs. no. and no. a $ . no. . for - / × - / film premo no. ; - / × - / pocket premo c; premoette jr. no. a, both single and double lens; premo jrs. nos. and . no. . for all × , a and × premos nos. , and ; all sizes of filmplate premos; a pocket premo c; a and × film premo no. . no. . for premoette jr. no. a special . no. . for a filmplate premo special . no. . for premoette jr. no. , with both single and double lens . [illustration: made with filmplate premo and kodak portrait attachment (reduced)] [illustration] kodak color screens these are mounted in the same manner as the kodak portrait attachment. please order by number. no. . for premo jrs. nos. and a $ . no. . for - / × - / film premo no. ; - / × - / pocket premo c; premoette jr. no. a, both single and double lens; premo jrs. nos. and . no. . for all × , a and × premos nos. , and ; all sizes of filmplate premos; a pocket c; a and × film premo no. . no. . for premoette jr. no. a special . no. . for a filmplate premo special . no. . for premoette jr. no. , with both single and double lens . premo tripods crown tripod [illustration] made in four sections. very rigid. style. folded. extended. weight. price. no. - / inches - / feet ozs. $ . no. - / inches - / feet ozs. . no. inches - / feet ozs. . combination tripod [illustration] this tripod is made on the sliding and folding principle. the wood parts are of ash and the finish is of the very best. style. size of camera. weight. price. no. - / - / × - / and smaller lbs. $ . no. × and × lbs. . no. × and × lbs. . no. × and × lbs. . sliding tripod [illustration] a perfectly rigid tripod for the heaviest cameras. style. size of camera. weight. price. no. × and smaller lbs. $ . no. × and - / × - / lbs. ozs. . no. × and × lbs. ozs. . no. × and × lbs. ozs. . r. o. c. tripod [illustration] the r. o. c. tripod is of the combination type and is for use with any camera up to and including the × size. weight, ounces. length, to inches price, $ . flexo tripod [illustration] for cameras up to and including the × size this is a very satisfactory tripod at small expense. weight, ounces length, to inches price, $ . metal tripods these tripods have the qualities that make for service as well as good appearance. light and very compact, they are yet rigid when extended because of their special construction. the principle is that of a telescope, each section sliding into the one above it, till the whole length is reduced to a single section and the sections are securely fastened to one another. nos. , , and fold up flat, the first three being supplied in neat cases. nos. and have the additional advantage of being fitted with a patent top, which provides a broad firm table for supporting the camera, but folds to the side when tripod is not in use. upper or outer sections are all black enameled, lower sections brass. no. . sections, length closed - / inches $ . no. . sections, length closed - / inches . no. . sections, length closed - / inches . no. . sections, length closed - / inches . no. . sections, length closed - / inches . no. . sections, length closed inches . no. . sections, length closed inches . adjustable heads (extra) fitted with ball and socket joint, suitable for any of above tripods. no. $ . no. . no. . premo accessories eastman tripod brace [illustration] out of doors, or indoors when the r. o. c. tripod truck is not used, this is an excellent attachment for holding tripod legs in position. made entirely of metal, it can be instantly attached, and even when tripod is lifted the legs cannot collapse or change their position. eastman tripod brace $ . r. o. c. tripod truck [illustration] for flash-light work, home portraiture, in fact any branch of indoor photography, this truck is a very great convenience. it holds the tripod legs firmly in place and there is no danger of slipping nor of tripod spikes marring floors or rugs. can be easily moved on its castors to any part of room, and folds up compactly when not in use. no. , for average tripods $ . ; no. for very heavy tripods, $ . the universal clamp [illustration] the universal clamp is a small, convenient article which takes the place of a tripod, and which may be attached to any camera. it can be carried readily in the pocket, is very light, and may be attached to a chair, fence, the front board of an automobile, or other object which may be at hand. the clamp jaws are padded with felt. price $ . premo plate holder premo holders are made absolutely light-tight by a fully patented light-lock. this device is shown in cut and is constructed of finely tempered, non-corrosive metal with independently operating spring fingers overlaid with a closely woven, specially prepared fabric. a slide can be inserted cornerwise without admitting light to the plate. fitted with lacquered press-board slides that will not electrify, collect dust, crack or split. [illustration] - / × - / $ . - / × - / . × . × . - / × - / . eastman view holder these holders are made with bottom flap, avoiding all danger of plates falling out. they are strongly constructed, have patented spring finger light-lock, and made to fit both models of the eastman view. slides are of lacquered press-board. × $ . - / × - / . × . universal plate holder constructed in the same manner as the eastman view holder but made to fit empire state and premo view cameras. × $ . - / × - / . × . × . × . r. o. c. plate holder this holder is of good construction and is adapted for use in the r. o. c. view camera only. it has pressboard slides. × $ . - / × - / . × . plate holder and adapter slides lacquered pressboard - / × - / $ . - / × - / . × . × . - / × - / . × . × . hard rubber. × $ . - / × - / . × . plate holder kits size outside. size of opening for plate. price. × - / × , - / × - / $ . × - / × , - / × - / , - / × - / , × , - / × - / . - / × - / - / × - / , × , - / × - / , - / × - / , - / × - / , × . × - / × - / , - / × - / , × , - / × - / . × - / × - / , × , × . × × , × . premo film pack adapters adapters are regularly carried in stock for all premo and poco cameras up to and including the × size. size. price. - / × - / $ . × - / . a ( - / × - / ) . × . × . premo film packs twelve exposures in each pack. size. price. - / × - / $ . - / × - / . - / × - / . - / × - / . × - / . a ( - / × - / ) . × . × . glass dry plates. seed, royal or stanley. size. price per dozen. - / × - / $ . - / × - / . × . - / × - / . × . × . - / × - / . × . velox paper the very best developing paper for amateur use. single weight. double weight. size. doz. / gross. gross. doz. / gross. gross. - / × - / $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . - / × - / . . . . . . - / × - / . . . . . . - / × - / . . . . . . × . . . . . . × . . . . . . velox post cards . . . kodak candle lamp this lamp is well made, collapsible, of special tested ruby fabric, bound in metal frames. [illustration] kodak candle lamp $ . extra candles for same, per dozen . kodak dark room lamp the kodak-dark room lamp is oil burning and is fitted with both orange and ruby glass. no. kodak dark room lamp $ . developing trays bulls-eye, × or × $ . bulls-eye, × . enameled, × . enameled, × . enameled, - / × - / . developing and printing outfits eastman a outfit includes every requisite for developing by the dark room method, printing and finishing twenty-four - / × - / or smaller pictures. kodak candle lamp, c; printing frame, c; glass for frame, c; -ounce graduate, c; stirring rod, c; developing trays, c; tubes eastman's special developer, c; / pound kodak acid fixing powder, c; package bromide potassium, c; dozen velox paper. c; kodak m. q. powders for developing velox, c; instruction book, c; these articles if purchased separately would cost $ . . price, complete, neatly packed, $ . . a b c outfit, similar to above, but for × negatives, $ . . developing and printing size. developing and developing printing only, printing per pack. only, per each exposure. mounted. unmounted. pack. mounted. unmounted. - / × - / , exp. $ . $ . $ . $ . $ . - / - / × - / , " . . . . . - / × - / , " . . . . . - / × - / , " . . . . . - / × - / , " . . . . . × , " . . . . . × , " . . . . - / . unmounted velox prints are furnished unless otherwise specified. "double weight" prints will be billed at mounted rates. no orders executed for less than cents. the kodak flash sheet holder the safest and most convenient method of flashlight photography is in the use of eastman flash sheets with the kodak flash sheet holder. [illustration] the sheet is held in place by a saw tooth in the center, and the holder may be held always between the sheet and the operator, either with hand or on a tripod, a tripod socket being provided for this purpose. when all is ready the flash is set off by touching a match from the back to the sheet through the small aperture in the center. kodak flash sheet holder $ . eastman flash sheets, no. , per pkg. / doz. sheets, × . eastman flash sheets. no. , per pkg. / doz. sheets. × . eastman flash sheets, no. , per pkg. / doz. sheets, × . premo negative rack this rack accommodates negatives of all sizes. it folds flat when not in use. [illustration] no. , for negatives $ . no. , for negatives . kodak trimming board a thoroughly reliable trimming board at a moderate price, constructed of hard wood with natural finish. the blade is of the best steel and a rule is fitted to the board. [illustration] no. , × in. $ . no. , × in. . transparent trimming gauge for either (extra) . the kodak album made on a new principle, which does away with mounting prints by paste or otherwise. they are merely slipped into pocket strips at top and bottom, and will not come out unless removed by hand. has handsome grain leather cover and black leaves with linen finish. a, - / × - / , leaves, on $ . b, - / × - / , leaves, on . c, - / × - / , leaves, on . d, - / × - / , leaves, on . e, - / × - / , leaves, on . f, × , leaves, on . g, - / × - / , leaves, on . h, × , leaves, on . the forum album flexible, black leather embossed cloth cover. a, black leaves, or n, sepia leaves, - / × $ . b, black leaves, or o, sepia leaves, × . c, black leaves, or p, sepia leaves, × . d, black leaves, or r, sepia leaves, × . e, black leaves, - / × . f, black leaves, × . g, black leaves, × . h, black leaves, × . card mounts view carbon black and scotch gray for prints size outside per per - / × - / × $ . $ . - / × - / - / × . . - / × - / × . . - / × - / - / × . . × - / × - / . . × × . . riverview london brown and ash gray for prints size outside per per - / × - / × $ . $ . - / × - / - / × - / . . - / × - / × . . - / × - / × . . - / × - / × . . × - / × - / . . no orders accepted for less than fifty of one kind and size. eastman film negative albums [illustration] for negatives, - / × - / , or smaller $ . for negatives, - / × - / , or × . for negatives, - / × - / , or smaller . for negatives, × or smaller . miscellaneous cable release $ . bulbs and tubes, no. . bulbs and tubes, no. . focus cloth, rubber . kodak print roller × inch rubber roller, nickled frame . flexo print roller, inch rubber roller, black enameled frame . photo paste, oz. tube . photo paste, oz. tube . thermometer stirring rod . graduates, moulded, ozs. . ditto, ounces . ditto, ounces . ground glass: × . × . - / × - / . × . eastman printing frames: - / × - / , opens two-thirds . - / × - / , for films, opens two-thirds . - / × - / , for plates, opens two-thirds . × , opens two-thirds . × , opens two-thirds . reversible backs: for view cameras, × . for view cameras, - / × - / . for view cameras, × . premo view finder . screws for tripod head: nos. , and . nos. and . screws for tripod leg: nos. , and . nos. and . milled head screws for cameras: / inch and smaller . larger than / inch . shoulder straps, black: / × inch with snaps and buckles . / × inch with snaps and buckles . / × inch, with buckle . / × inch, with buckle . tan straps for view cases with buckle. specify style and size of camera when ordering: , and inches . , and inches . tubing per foot . terms prices included in this catalogue are net, excepting to dealers. when ordering, give shipping directions, whether by freight, express or otherwise. if not stated, we use our discretion. mail orders must be accompanied with remittance for full amount of purchase, including postage, or we will ship by express. all goods are carefully packed and we cannot be held responsible for any damage during transit. orders for special parts or for goods not listed in this catalogue will be filled on customers responsibility only. under no circumstances can we permit the return of such goods for credit. all prices are f. o. b. at toronto, ont. canadian kodak co., limited toronto, canada transcriber's notes: passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. punctuation has been corrected without note. the following misprints have been corrected: "hav-" corrected to "having" (page ) "light tight" standardized to "light-tight" (page ) other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation usage have been retained. images generously made available by the internet archive/american libraries.) the barnet book of photography. the barnet book of photography. a collection of practical articles by capt. w. de w. abney, c.b., f.r.s., etc. charles h. bothamley, f.c.s., f.i.c. chapman jones, f.c.s., f.i.c. harold baker a. horsley hinton john h. avery w. thomas andrew pringle john a. hodges, f.r.p.s. rev. f. c. lambert, m.a. w. ethelbert henry, c.e. james packham, f.r.p.s. tho's. s. skelton [illustration] third edition. published by elliott & son, barnet, herts. percy lund, humphries & co., ltd., , amen corner, london, e.c. . [illustration] contents of the book. page. alpine photography. _w. de w. abney, c.b., f.r.s._ negative making. _c. h. bothamley, f.c.s., f.i.c._ lenses. _chapman jones, f.c.s., f.i.c._ portraiture. _harold baker_ pictorial photography. _a. horsley hinton_ architectural photography. _john h. avery_ the hand camera and its use. _w. thomas_ lantern slides. _andrew pringle_ how to make enlargements. _john a. hodges, f.r.p.s._ p.o.p. _rev. f. c. lambert, m.a._ platinotype printing. _a. horsley hinton_ contact printing on bromide paper. _w. ethelbert henry, c.e._ the gum-bichromate process. _jas. packham, f.r.p.s._ an introduction to carbon printing for beginners the carbon process. _thomas s. skelton_ illustrations. homewards. karl greger among the alps. w. de w. abney winter time on the alps. w. de w. abney melton meadows. a. horsley hinton miss lily hanbury--a portrait. harold baker gather the roses while ye may. alex. keighley birch and bracken. w. thomas drifting storm clouds. w. thomas streonsalch. w. j. warren cupboard love. t. lee syms at the fountain. j. w. wade preface. [illustration: the barnet book of photography.] _the purpose of this book is to place in the hands of every photographer instructive articles on essential processes and manipulations, by eminent writers who have given such subjects their especial study, and who have borne in mind that whilst the experienced amateur and the professional may each find much to learn from a comparatively elementary description of methods and means, it is the beginner who stands in greatest need of help._ _in the mind of every photographer the name of barnet is inseparable from a great photographic industry, and now it is intended that the name shall be associated with a good and useful book, which is called the_ barnet book of photography, _and it is left to the reader to say if the fulfilment of its purpose and the manner of its doing are such as to justify its existence._ _to all who are interested in photography, who love it for itself and for its productions, and who desire to improve their own practice of its many processes and applications, this book is respectfully dedicated._ _barnet, herts._ _april, ._ _elliott & son._ [illustration: copyright. negative by w. l. f. wastell. a famous pike stream. contact print on barnet platino-matt bromide paper.] _alpine photography._ [illustration] writing in london on a day in winter with a murky sky and sloshy streets, the title of alpine photography is verily refreshing. it brings back days of sunlight and joyous experiment, and as we write the soul stirring scenery is before us called up by photographs taken under varying conditions of comfort and discomfort. that there is something different in alpine photography to photography in our own country, we are bound to believe, since a special article is demanded for it. the first question invariably asked is as to the nature of the outfit required. we should here like to divide our reply into two divisions. the one concerning the mountaineer, and the other the ordinary tourist. for the former we have no doubt in our minds that a hand camera to take / plate or × pictures is the most convenient form of camera to take. it is not our business to advertise any person's wares and we shall content ourselves by saying that personally we prefer a camera which has separate slides and does not possess a magazine, more particularly when glass plates are to be used, though a form of kodak is not to be despised. but perhaps we are prejudiced in favour of glass plates, for they are simple to manipulate and have no cockles nor other drawbacks which the careless photographer may have to encounter. probably the most useful lens to employ is a doublet of which the focal length is about a quarter more than the width of the plate, since it includes a fair angle and the margins of the photographs are not likely to be markedly different in general density to the centre, as is the case when wide-angle lenses are employed. in england a lens which will cover with a large stop, say _f_/ , is a desideratum, but in the alps it is very rarely that such a large ratio of aperture to focal length is required. as a rule for ordinary plates a lens has to be stopped down to _f_/ to give a negative in say / th of a second. nevertheless where orthochromatic plates are to be employed it is very necessary to have a lens which will cover a plate satisfactorily with _f_/ in order to use a colour screen for producing orthochromatic effects, since the loss of photographic light caused by the screen can only be compensated for by such an aperture even when the shutter is slowed down. the reader is therefore recommended on the whole to furnish himself with one of the modern lenses which work at _f_/ , though he must remember that the larger the aperture employed the more the margins and centre of the picture will suffer from unequal exposure. with some hand cameras there is a means of attachment to a stand, but a stand on a mountain is difficult to use and moreover has on more than one occasion been proved dangerous to carry. the mountaineer if he desires to give a time--and not an instantaneous--exposure on his excursion, would do well to have a small clip ready to attach to the head of his ice axe. the axe will form a sufficiently stable stand for the more prolonged, but still short, exposure that he may be required to give on some particular subjects such as a photograph at sunrise or near sunset. photographers in england are rarely afflicted with breathlessness through exertion, but it is different in mountaineering. a mountaineer may keep his wind, but it would be rare to find that his heart was beating equably after some spurt of exertion, such as rock climbing. it is often after some such exertion that he comes upon some view which he may wish to record on his photographic plate. the usual method of holding the hand camera would under such circumstances prove a failure so far as sharpness of image is concerned. pressed against his "middle" or "upper" chest, the beatings of the heart will record themselves on the photograph. under such circumstances resort must be had to some form of support on which to rest his camera. after many years' experience, the writer has come to the conclusion that there is no support superior to the ice axe. it is not necessary to cause it to stand upright in the ground, ice, or snow, though this should be done if possible. it will suffice to rest the point on the rock, and place the camera on the axe head, with the pick parallel to the body. we then have a firm support in one direction, and the hands, which are not affected by the automatic motion of the heart, can be trusted to keep it steady in the other direction. photographs taken with a good lens, and with such a stand, will bear enlarging up to inches, at least. it is because these photographs will bear enlarging that a small plate is recommended to the mountaineer. there is not a large proportion of alpine views taken on the mountain side of which one would care to have anything but a memorandum, and it is such a size as that recommended which gives such a memento, and which, if desired, allows a more formidable size to be acquired at home, where we may suppose there are all the conveniences that a photographic laboratory affords. the writer has had experience on mountains with cameras varying from × to the / plate size. when younger and more inclined to waste a few valuable minutes of daylight in putting up a camera stand, the × gave pictures which we often lamented having taken, whilst in his more mature years, a snap-shot has never been regretted. the cameras which require stands, require one porter at least to carry them, for although the late mr. donkin carried his own - / × camera up the highest peaks, it is few men, who, even if they had the energy or the physique that he had, would imitate his example. a porter means an extra expense in fees, and an extra mouth to feed, and very likely entails slowness in a climb through having an additional man upon the rope. a quarter plate or a × camera the owner, however, can himself carry; but the best form of attaching it to his body has been a difficult task to evolve. many and many different attachments have been tried. one thing is quite certain, and that is, the camera should be in a stout case, but it cannot be carried over the shoulders by a strap as we can do in comparatively level countries. let anyone try to come down a rock with the camera slung over his shoulders, and he will soon find it dangling in front of his stomach, or swinging like a pendulum, and threatening to displace him from what at best may be a treacherous handhold. the method of attachment we adopt now, will be readily seen from the diagram. [illustration] the shoulder strap is utilized, but a ring is attached to the back of the case as shown, and a strap or piece of whipcord comes over the strap as shown. the two shoulders are in aa and the case is carried as a knapsack. the length of the cord or strap bb is so adjusted, as is also the length of the shoulder strap, that the camera lies against the small of the back, and that it will not swing away from the body. at one time the ring was placed in front of the case, but the result was merely to cause the top of the case to rest against the back. the plan shown above has answered under almost every variety of circumstances, and the weight is inconsiderable. (a friend has his camera attached to the bottom of a small "rücksac" and this answers, but as the writer does not carry his own provisions or change of garments he has not adopted this plan). a long day's march may be undertaken if this contrivance be employed, and the weight is scarcely felt. for those who have not had extensive practice with hand cameras, a view finder is, if not a necessity, at all events, a great help. on the whole, perhaps the best form is that in which a miniature view falls on a ground glass. it must be recollected, however, that each view finder is adapted for some particular focal length of lens. the view in the finder and on the plate should be compared, and if the former is more extensive, the surplus ground glass should be covered up with a black mask. if it be determined to take a camera with its stand, very few directions are required beyond those which apply to ordinary view work on the plains. it may perhaps be as well to mention that a camera stand placed on ice or snow, is not immovable until the iron shoes of the legs attain the temperature of the surrounding snow or ice. an exposure of a few seconds will often show an image which has moved on the plate. the next point that we may call attention to is the plate to be employed. with a hand camera there is no absolute necessity to have the most rapid plate, as far as exposure is concerned, but in mountain work it must be recollected that there are very great contrasts to represent on the print. "the slower the plate the steeper the gradation" is almost axiomatic, and it must be recollected that only a certain amount of opacity will print if the deepest shadows only are to be kept of the greatest black obtainable in a print. it is evident that the greater the range of light and shade that is obtained of a printable density, the more true to nature the picture will be. for this reason a quick plate with a moderate gradation is to be preferred--as being most generally useful--but it should be a plate which is absolutely free from fog, and it should also be of as fine a grain as possible, the size of which has something to do with development. this is still more true when a camera stand and hand exposures are made. with a slow plate with feebler intensities of light, which must be the case when the lens is stopped down to admit of hand exposures, the gradation becomes more steep than if a fairly bright light be employed. a quick plate does not suffer in the same way, however small the stop may be. it has already been stated that isochromatic plates may be employed with a hand camera. for ice and snow views there is not much to commend their employment, unless to give a deeper shade to the sky and to the vast crevasses which so often form part of the foreground. the darker sky allows faint clouds to be visible in a print when they otherwise would be absent. pictorially thus the isochromatic plate has something to recommend it. celluloid films have often been substituted for plates by the writer, and excellent photographs have been obtained on them when they were fairly rapid. there is not much to be said in their favour as regards weight, for in most cameras the support for them weighs nearly as much as the glass plate. there is also a disadvantage in developing them, for they are not so easily manipulated as a rigid body. for convenience in travelling, however, they are to be highly commended. a gross of cut films do not weigh so much as a dozen plates and occupy much less space in the baggage. the question of the use of a kodak camera with its roller slide, has not been brought forward, not because excellent results cannot be obtained with it, but simply because the writer prefers to use plates and films which can be got at any time for the purpose of development. for travelling on the continent, and to one's mountain destination, experience has shown that a small hamper is the safest receptacle of all the necessary kit. a hamper which will contain two camera cases side by side is really sufficient; but it should be a little greater in depth. it may be thought that two cameras are to be taken, but such is not the intention. if a zinc trough be made of the size of one camera case it will contain all the developing apparatus necessary, the lantern, and the plates or films, and all the few etceteras which go to make one happy. (a screwdriver, a file, and some extra screws, and gummed paper and white blotting paper cut to the size of the plates should be enough for the etceteras). the hamper may be arranged so that the camera and view finder may be taken out without any derangement of the rest of the articles in it. the developing bottles and cups, with the dishes, may be similarly extracted. this prevents undue trouble in unpacking and packing. one grand thing to remember is, pack well but not distressingly tightly, in other words don't employ an expert packer if you wish for comfort. have the hamper a size too large rather than a size too small. also be it remembered that it is useless to stopper the bottles with all sorts of devices at home, and have to pack in an ordinary manner when once the contents of the hamper have been brought into use. have your bottles covered with an indiarubber cap which can easily be removed and replaced; of course we are assuming that development is to take place during one's travels, and not to be left over for home. personally we think that a speedy development after a view is taken will give the best picture. it may often happen that an undeveloped sensitive plate or film will suffer by its travels. there will or may be scratches and what not, which would be absent if the negative is finished at the time. the outfit for development which need only be taken is as follows: four developing dishes, bottles or cartridges of the dry developer, ammonia diluted to half its strength in a glass stoppered bottle (if in a wooden case, as for medicine bottles, it will be a further protection), a couple of tins of hyposulphite _pounded up_ before the journey, carried in small tins (such tins as the half-plate platinum paper comes in are very convenient), two or three empty six ounce medicine bottles with good corks, a two or four ounce measure, a washing rack with a trough (there is a folding rack in the market which answers admirably; it has =v= shaped grooves which never damage the edges of the film, and one rack will take twenty-two glasses back to back). a zinc trough can be made to cover the plates with water when in the rack, a lantern (by preference a paper folding one), a dusting brush, a couple of dusters, and blotting paper cut into squares the size of the plates, with which to pack them--it is useful also to have spare pieces of blotting paper to place beneath the plates when drying, also a piece of mackintosh to place on the wash stand during developing operations--an empty pint wine bottle will be got at any hotel and in this the hyposulphite can be dissolved. the list looks formidable but the whole can be readily packed in the hamper of the size given. it will be seen that no intensifying solutions are enumerated amongst the requisites. a negative is better strengthened in the quiet of one's dark-room at home. [illustration: homewards. karl greger.] now we must give a hint or two as to the exposures required. we will suppose that on the plates to be used a satisfactory negative of an open english landscape, on a bright june day with fleecy clouds in the sky, can be secured with an aperture of _f_/ in / th of a second. if that be so, then on an equally fine day in july or august, at an altitude of about feet, the same kind of view should theoretically be secured in / th second, and a stop of _f_/ --that is, the photographic light is about four times as strong. it must, however, be recollected that at this altitude, and particularly near mid-day, the shadows are not illuminated to the same degree from the sky. the darker blue sky shows that the light which at a low altitude goes to make a pale blue sky is to be found in the direct rays of the sun, and not scattered to give a luminous sky. as the shadows are principally illuminated by the light from the sky, it follows that the shadows will be darker at a high than at a low altitude, for this reason amongst others, the exposure should not be curtailed to the amount given above. if the aperture be reduced to _f_/ it is probable that the exposure of / th second will be not more than sufficient to give. for our own part we prefer to give longer and to expose well for the deep shadows, trusting to development to give us properly "gradated" pictures. as the sun goes down toward the horizon, the shadows get more illumined from local reflection, and it is scarcely necessary to alter the exposure until considerably nearer sunset than at home, when the exposure must be considerably prolonged. for views in which there is little but ice and snow, the exposure should be very much curtailed. there is so little contrast that if the exposure be at all prolonged the picture will be inevitably flat. the shadows are illumined by an immense quantity of light reflected from the white surface, and the difficulty is to get sufficient contrast. the writer well remembers one set of beautiful views, taken from the top of a mountain some , feet high, where the eye could see nothing but snow-fields and ice and swirling masses of clouds. the day was not bright, but to get a satisfactory picture a stop of _f_/ was necessary with only an exposure of / th of a second. plates given an exposure of / th second with a stop _f_/ showed little besides a plain white mass. it would be difficult to give hints for every kind of view. the judgment of the operator must be brought into play and no actinometer will be of much use under the varied conditions which are the rule, not the exception. now as to development. the "one-solution" given by the metol and amidol cartridges are the most readily prepared, and in five times out of six will scarcely be bettered, but for the sixth time may fail, because of their "rigidity." for these exceptional negatives, solutions of an oxidizing agent such as pyrogallol, of a restrainer (bromide), and of an accelerator are to be recommended. for the latter, the carbonate (not the bicarbonate) of potash is much to be recommended, though some prefer ammonia. two formulæ are given, either of which will be found extremely useful. when the exposure has been prolonged enough for details in deep shadows to be brought out, it will generally happen that over-exposure has been given to the high-lights, and it is to keep these in the printing state that care is required. in the old collodion dry plate days, it was very usual to bring out a complete phantom image of a subject before any density was given to it. when this was properly out, the intensifier of silver nitrate and pyrogallol was applied, and the picture gradually brought up to printing density. it was usually full of detail in the high-lights and shadows, all of which would be found in the finished print. such is the same procedure which we recommend, strive to get out an image of feeble density but full of detail, and then give the density. the plate should first of all be thoroughly soaked in a solution of the alkali which can be used, and then a few drops of the pyrogallol solution be dropped into the developing cup with an equal number of drops of the restrainer. the alkaline solution is then returned to the cup and again poured into the dish and over the plate. by degrees the required phantom image will make its appearance, and now bromide and pyrogallol are added until it is evidently complete. the plate is then washed in water, a final wash being given in a very weak solution of acetic acid or citric and water. after a final rinse with water the plate is treated with the pyrogallol solution and restrainer in the proportion recommended for the ordinary development of the plate, omitting the alkali. the density will begin to appear, and when it flags, a little alkali is added (a few drops at a time) to the solution. keep the image fairly feeble at above half the proper printing density, and fix. the plate should then be kept for intensification, preferably by mr. chapman jones's, when a mercury solution is applied, and then a ferrous oxalate to reduce the latter to the metallic state. it will be found if this procedure is adopted, that the negative is built up with a greater range of light gradation than by bringing it out by a one-solution method of development. if one wishes to exercise artistic treatment, then in the preliminary stage more importance can be given to any desired part by applying a camel's hair brush soaked in normal pyrogallol solution with its restrainer. the prominence thus gained will be kept in the subsequent operations. when applying the brush care must be taken that the image blends as it were with the rest of the picture. no abrupt increase of density must be permitted, as if it be, the result will be anything but satisfactory. the following is an ammonia-pyro developer, with which the writer usually works. a ammonia part. water parts. (of course, should the ammonia be taken half strength allowance must be made for the dilution.) b potassium bromide grains. water ounce. (when travelling it is very convenient to have the bromide weighed out into grain packets.) p pyrogallol dry. s saturated solution of sulphite of soda. when the view has strong contrasts and the plate has been exposed for the shadows take of a minims and ounces of water and soak the plate in it as given above. then add to the cup, of b drams, of s dram, and about quarter grain of p. pour back the solution of ammonia from the dish, and then apply the mixture till all detail appears, and proceed as indicated above. a saturated solution of potassium carbonate may be substituted for the ammonia solution. before closing this chapter it may be of use to the reader to tabulate the number of thicknesses of atmospheres through which light has to travel at different altitudes of the sun at sea level. altitude. atmosphere. ° . ° . ° . ° . ° . ° . ° . ° . ° . ° . ° . ° . ° . ° . if sunlight outside the atmosphere be represented by and say / th be cut off by atmosphere, then after transmission through atmospheres only . will reach the spectator, and if through only . . for any atmosphere the diminution will be / th, that is, it will be . ^_x_ where _x_ is the number of atmospheres. if we ascend the factor varies, there are less thicknesses of atmosphere to go through and we get the following table. photographically visual transmission actinic light barometer (sunlight outside transmitted in inches. the atmospheric (sunlight outside being ). the atmospheric being ). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . this table and the preceding one will enable a calculation to be made as to the exposure to be given. thus at sea level with a photographic brightness of sun of , candles when nearly overhead, it will at ° above the horizon only have a photographic brightness of about . at about feet high the photographic brightness would when the sun is overhead be about , candles, and at ° it would have a value of , , showing the greater penetration through the thinner atmosphere. _w. de w. abney, c.b., f.r.s., etc., etc._ negative making. development, intensification, reducing, etc. [illustration] when a sensitive plate has been properly exposed under ordinary conditions, there is no visible change. the action of light produces what is known as a _latent image_ or _developable image_, and in order to convert this into a visible image with sufficient opacity to be useful for printing purposes, it must be _developed_. in the operation of development, the plate is treated with some solution that will act on the exposed parts of the sensitive film and reduce the silver salts contained therein to metallic silver, in quantity proportional to the amount of light-action, whilst at the same time it produces no appreciable change in those parts of the film on which light has acted the least or not at all, and which correspond to the darkest shadows of the object that has been photographed. the solution used for this purpose is called the _developer_. developers--general. the substances that can be employed as photographic developers are now somewhat numerous, but the most useful for negative making are pyrogallic acid (also known as pyrogallol, or for brevity as pyro.), ortol, metol, and hydroquinone (also known as quinol). ferrous oxalate is likewise used in special circumstances, but not for general work. an ordinary developer as mixed for use contains:-- .--one of the above-mentioned substances (pyrogallic acid, ortol, metol, quinol) which is the actual developing constituent, and is known as _the reducer_, but requires the addition of the next constituent before it can work. .--an alkali, which may be sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, caustic soda, caustic potash, or, if pyrogallic acid is used, ammonia. the alkali sets the reducer in action and is called _the accelerator_. .--a soluble bromide, which must be potassium bromide except when ammonia is used as the alkali, and then it may be ammonium bromide. the chief use of the bromide is to retard the action of the developer, and in particular to prevent its affecting those parts of the film that have not been acted on by light. for this reason the bromide is called _the restrainer_ or, sometimes, _the retarder_. .--a sulphite, the function of which is to prevent the solution from becoming strongly discoloured and consequently staining the film. it also affects the colour of the reduced silver that forms the developed image, this colour being browner, and consequently of higher printing opacity, the lower the proportion of sulphite present. sodium sulphite and potassium metabisulphite are the most commonly used. the composition of a developer has to be so arranged that, whilst reasonably rapid in its action, it is not so rapid as to be beyond control, and does not produce "general fog" by acting on those parts of the film that have not been acted on by light. [illustration: among the alps. capt. w. de w. abney, c.b., f.r.s. etc.] development--general operations and phenomena. a developer is usually compounded immediately before use by mixing two or more solutions, and in order to ensure uniform action it is essential that the constituents should be thoroughly mixed before the liquid is applied to the plate. if the measuring or mixing vessel is large enough, this can be done by agitating the liquid; if not, the liquid may be poured once or twice from one vessel to another. the quantity of developer necessary for a plate of a given size depends in some degree upon the size and character of the dish that is used, and is smallest when the bottom of the dish is quite flat and has no ridges or grooves. it is false economy to use too small a quantity, and it may be taken that for a quarter plate - / oz., for a half plate - / or oz., and for a whole plate oz. of developer should be used. ebonite, xylonite, or papier maché dishes are the best for all operations connected with negative making, since they are not so liable as porcelain or earthenware to break a plate if it is allowed to drop into them. when applying the developer to the plate it is important to cover the whole surface of the plate rapidly and in such a manner as to avoid the formation of air bubbles, and the best way is to begin to pour on the developer at one corner of the developing dish and whilst pouring somewhat quickly move the vessel rapidly but steadily along the edge of the dish to the other corner. if there should be any froth or air bubbles on the surface of the developer, the last portions should not be poured out of the vessel into the dish, and then the risk of air bubbles forming on the surface of the plate will be lessened. sometimes after the developer has been poured on and the plate seems to be uniformly wetted, the liquid will recede from one corner or one edge of the plate and the part thus left uncovered will appear as a patch of lower opacity when the negative is finished. this happens either because the dish is not standing level on the table or because the bottom of the dish is not flat; sometimes it happens because too small a quantity of developer has been used. after the plate has been covered by the developer the dish should be carefully rocked from time to time, and, for reasons that will be explained presently, the time required for the first appearance of the image and the manner in which the different parts of the image follow one another, should be carefully observed. if the plate has been correctly exposed, the brightest parts of the image will appear (as black, of course,) in about a minute, more or less, according to the temperature, composition of the developer, and character of the plate, and the other parts will follow steadily in the order of their brightness, after which the image as a whole will continue to gain vigour or opacity up to a certain limit. the essential point is that the principal details in the deepest shadows of the subject shall appear and acquire a distinct printable opacity, before the highest lights become so opaque that the details in them are no longer distinguishable. whether this condition is realisable or not depends very largely on the exposure that the plate has received. if the image appears in considerably less than a minute and the different parts follow one another very quickly, the plate has been _over-exposed_, and the degree of over-exposure is indicated by the rapidity with which the image appears. in this connection it ought, however, to be stated that with metol and certain other developers, even when the plate has been correctly exposed, the different parts of the image appear almost simultaneously, though the first appearance may not begin until about a minute after the developer has been applied to the plate. it follows that with these developers it is difficult to recognise over-exposure, but it so happens that they are not suitable developers to use when there is any probability that the plates have been over-exposed. on the other hand, if the image is slow in appearing and the brightest parts of the subject are not followed in due course by the middle tones, the plate has been _under-exposed_, and there is considerable danger that the high-lights may become quite opaque before any details have appeared in the shadows, or even, in extreme cases, in the lower middle tones, that is to say, in those parts that are next in darkness to the shadows. when it is desired, as it frequently is, to alter the composition of the developer during development, the substance or substances to be added should be put into the measuring or mixing glass, the developer poured out of the dish into the glass, and the well-mixed liquid poured over the plate as before. any attempt to add substances to the developer whilst it is in contact with the plate will probably result in uneven action. it should be borne in mind that temperature has an important influence on development, the time required for the first appearance of the image and for the completion of development being, as a rule, less the higher the temperature. further, if the developing solutions are very cold, it is often almost impossible to obtain sufficient opacity. perhaps the most difficult thing in connection with development is to know when to stop the process, that is to say, when the image has acquired sufficient opacity, or "density," as it is often called. after all the required detail has become visible, the plate from time to time is lifted carefully out of the developer, allowed to drain for a moment or two, and then held between the developing lamp and the eye; the opacity of the image, especially in the highest lights and deepest shadows, being carefully scrutinised. the appearance of the image as seen when looking at the back of the plate, is also carefully observed. for this purpose it is very much better that the light of the developing lamp should pass through transparent glass (ruby or deep orange) so that the flame itself is distinctly visible, instead of through ground glass or a coloured translucent fabric. further, the flame of the lamp, whether gas or oil, should always be turned up to the same height, for it is clear that if the brightness of the flame used for making the examination is not fairly constant, all sorts of variable results will be obtained. for this reason it is much better to judge the opacity of negatives by artificial light than by daylight, the intensity of the latter being so variable. a paraffin lamp with a circular wick and a deep ruby chimney with a metal cap at the top, answers admirably. no general rules can be laid down; the appearance of the properly developed image depends on the thickness of the film, the granularity of the silver salt, the presence or absence of silver iodide, and the composition of the emulsion used. experience only is of value, and the best way to secure uniformly satisfactory results, is to keep as far as possible to one brand of plates. with some plates, for example, very little of the image should appear at the back of the plate, with others the greater part of the image must be distinctly visible there. sometimes, especially when using small sizes of plates, it is not easy to tell whether all the necessary detail in the shadows has been brought out, and this is an important matter, for if the small negatives are to be used for making enlarged negatives or prints, or lantern slides, there should be very little clear glass indeed even in the deepest shadows of the subject. as a rule it may be said that when every part of the image is at least gray the maximum possible amount of detail has been brought out. if the greyness begins to spread to the margins of the plate where it has been protected by the rebate of the dark slide, general fog is being produced, and, as a rule, little will be gained, but much may be lost, by continuing the development for any considerable time after this is observed. when development is completed the developer is poured off, the plate is well rinsed under the tap or in two or three changes of water, and is then ready for fixing. development with pyro-ammonia. this method of development has the advantage that the constituents can be kept in concentrated solutions, considerable modifications in the composition of the developer can be made very readily and the negatives obtained are of excellent printing quality. on the other hand it cannot be satisfactorily employed with certain brands of rapid plates, because with them it has a tendency to produce general fog, and with some other plates, especially when they are old, it has a tendency to produce what is known as green fog. three solutions are prepared:-- reducer. pyrogallic acid oz. or parts potassium metabisulphite[ ] oz. or parts water, to make up to oz. or parts accelerator. ammonia oz. or parts water, to make up to oz. or parts restrainer. ammonium bromide oz. or parts water, to make up to oz. or parts [ ] the metabisulphite is dissolved in about oz. ( parts) of water with the aid of heat, and the pyrogallic acid is then added. when the liquid has cooled it is made up to oz. ( parts) by addition of water, the whole being well mixed by shaking. for each ounce of developer, take minims of reducer, minims of restrainer and minims of accelerator, and make up to oz. with water. with some plates minims of accelerator and minims of restrainer may be used, but any greater proportion of accelerator has considerable tendency to produce general fog. on the other hand the proportion of restrainer can often be increased with advantage since, unless the amount added is very large, its chief effect is to prevent general fog; minims of restrainer to minims of accelerator, or minims of accelerator to minims of restrainer are proportions that can be recommended. too low a proportion of bromide should be carefully avoided. it is very important to ascertain, by careful trial with each brand of plates that is to be used, what is the maximum proportion of ammonia that can safely be added, and what proportion of bromide to ammonia is necessary in order to prevent general fog. as a rule, the more rapid the plates the smaller is the quantity of ammonia that can be used with safety. by far the best plan is to keep development well under control by adding only part of the accelerator at the beginning of development and adding the rest as circumstances require. for each ounce of developer take minims of pyro solution and make up to the required bulk with water. in another measure mix for each ounce of developer minims of bromide solution and minims of ammonia solution, and regard this as the maximum quantity that can be added with that bulk of developer. now to the diluted pyro solution add about a quarter or one-third of the ammonia and bromide solution, pour this mixture on the plate and observe what happens. if the mode of appearance of the image indicates that the plate has been correctly exposed, about half the remaining ammonia and bromide mixture may be added to the developer at once, and the action allowed to continue, with occasional rocking of the dish. if development proceeds satisfactorily and, in particular, if the chief details in the shadows begin to appear before the highest lights have become too opaque, it is not necessary nor advisable to add the last portion of the ammonia and bromide mixture, since the tendency to general fog and green fog is reduced when the proportion of ammonia is kept as low as possible. on the other hand, if the development flags and the appearance of shadow detail is a little tardy, the rest of the ammonia and bromide mixture must be added. if the plate seems to be over-exposed, no more of the ammonia and bromide mixture should be added for some time, until it is seen whether the quantity already in the developer will suffice to complete development. if it seems that the over-exposure has been considerable, a further quantity of pyro solution ( to minims per oz.) and also of bromide solution ( , , or minims per oz.) may be added with advantage. development is then allowed to continue and the negative is examined from time to time; if it is seen that the opacity does not increase, or if sufficient detail in the deep shadows does not appear, further small quantities of the ammonia and bromide mixture may be added _cautiously_ until the required result is obtained, waiting a little while to see the result of each small addition before adding more. when the plate behaves as if under-exposed, dilute the developer at once with half the quantity or an equal quantity of water, according to the degree of under-exposure indicated, and add the whole of the ammonia and bromide mixture. these modifications should check the rate at which the high-lights of the subject gain opacity, whilst accelerating the appearance of the middle tones and shadows. should this effect not be produced, further quantities of ammonia and bromide mixture may be added or, in extreme cases, ammonia alone, and the developer may be still more diluted with water. if any considerable parts of the image still show no detail, local development with a brush may be tried as a last resource. a soft camel's hair brush, preferably mounted in quill, is used. some of the ammonia and bromide mixture is placed in a vessel and diluted with two or three times its volume of water. one corner or edge of the plate is raised so that the part to be treated is lifted out of the developer, the diluted ammonia and bromide mixture is applied rapidly with the brush, and the plate is allowed to drop gently back into the developer. the treatment may be repeated if necessary. should all these devices fail, the plate is hopelessly under-exposed. sometimes, when working with a diluted developer as just described, it happens that although all the necessary detail has been brought out, the image gains in opacity very slowly. provided that all the required detail is visible, small quantities of pyro solution may be added in order to gain opacity more quickly. [illustration: teasels by carine cadby.] pyro-soda development. when sodium carbonate is used as the alkali in place of ammonia the developer acts somewhat more slowly and is less liable to produce fog, especially with very rapid plates, and there is very little tendency to produce green fog. on the other hand, variations are not so easily made in the composition of the developer. some people find the absence of the smell of ammonia a decided advantage. stock pyro solution. the same as for pyro-ammonia. dilute pyro solution.[ ] stock pyro-solution oz. or parts water oz. or parts soda solution. sodium carbonate, crystallised. oz. or parts sodium sulphite oz. or parts potassium bromide grains or . part water to make up to[ ] oz. or parts [ ] no more of the dilute pyro solution should be made up than is likely to be used during the same day, but it will keep well enough for a day or two. [ ] the sodium sulphite and carbonate are dissolved, with the aid of heat, in about oz. ( parts) of water, the bromide added, and the liquid when cold made up to oz. by adding water. for use mix equal parts of dilute pyro solution and soda solution and pour over the plate. if the exposure has been correct the image will begin to appear in about a minute, and development is then allowed to go on with occasional rocking of the dish, until the negative is sufficiently opaque. if the plate behaves as if it were under-exposed, _at once_ dilute the developer with an equal bulk of water and pour it back over the plate. if the high-lights continue to increase in opacity, but the rest of the image does not appear, add some more of the soda solution with or without some more water. should parts of the plate still remain blank, apply some of the soda solution to them with the aid of a brush as described under pyro-ammonia (page ). if the rapid appearance of the image indicates that the plate is over-exposed, at once pour off the developer into a measure or mixing glass and rinse the plate well with water. add to the developer a small quantity of potassium bromide solution ( in of water) which should be kept at hand for this purpose. a small quantity of pyro stock solution may also be added. the developer is then poured over the plate again. when the over-exposure seems to have been considerable, the amount of potassium bromide added may amount to grains (or minims of the in solution) per ounce of the developer, but this proportion should not be exceeded; even small quantities of bromide in the pyro-soda developer have a marked influence in retarding development. when there is reason to suspect over-exposure, not more than half the soda solution should be added at the beginning of development, and the rest may be added or not, as the case may require. development with ortol. ortol solution. ortol grains or . parts potassium metabisulphite[ ] grains or . part water to make up to ounces or parts soda solution. the same as for pyro-soda. [ ] see foot-note to page . mix equal parts of ortol solution and soda solution. this developer behaves in much the same way as pyro-soda and gives very similar results. it has the advantage, however, that it does not stain the fingers, and has practically no tendency to produce either fog or stain on the plates. moreover the same quantity of solution can be used for several plates; when the action becomes perceptibly slower or weaker, part of the old solution is poured away and an equal quantity of freshly mixed ortol and soda solutions is added. the chief differences to be observed are ( ) that the different parts of the image follow one another more rapidly than with pyro-soda, even though the plate may have been correctly exposed, and ( ) the colour of the reduced silver is somewhat bluer than with pyro-soda, and therefore in order to obtain the same degree of _printing_ opacity, as distinct from visual opacity, development must be carried a little further. apart from these differences, what has been said of pyro-soda holds good for ortol soda and need not be repeated. development with hydroquinone (quinol). quinol solution. hydroquinone grains or parts sodium sulphite oz. or parts water to make up to oz. or parts alkali solution. potassium carbonate (dry) oz. or parts potassium bromide grains or . parts water to make up to oz. or parts mix two parts of hydroquinone solution with one part of alkali solution and one part of water, or, if a more energetic developer is wanted, mix equal volumes of the hydroquinone and alkali solutions. hydroquinone is not an advantageous developer for general purposes, but it is useful when negatives are required showing strong contrast between the highest lights and the deepest shadows, and especially when it is important that there should be no deposit at all in the deepest shadows. this is the case, for example, when copying line engravings, pen and ink drawings and similar subjects. development with ferrous oxalate. this method of development also is not well adapted for general work, but it is invaluable for certain purposes. the reduced silver has a pure grey-black colour and there is exceedingly little tendency to produce fog of any kind. on the other hand, the developer admits of little modification in its composition and therefore the exposure must be fairly correct. it is also important to avoid contamination with even minute quantities of hypo, since this substance very readily causes stains. ferrous sulphate solution. ferrous sulphate - / oz. or parts sulphuric acid small quantity water to make up to oz. or parts about three-quarters of the total quantity of water is mixed with a small quantity (not more than minims per ozs., or one part per ) of sulphuric acid, and the ferrous sulphate (proto-sulphate of iron) which must be in clear pale green crystals without any yellowish incrustation, is dissolved in it with the aid of a gentle heat. after the solution has cooled, it is made up to the specified volume with water. this solution alters when exposed to air, and should, therefore, be kept in small ( oz.) bottles, filled up to the neck and tightly corked. oxalate solution. potassium oxalate oz. or parts potassium bromide grains or . part water to make up to oz. or parts for use take four parts of oxalate solution and one part of ferrous sulphate solution, pouring the latter into the former and _not vice versa_. in order to obtain slower action with a rather softer image and a slightly browner deposit, the developer may be diluted with an equal volume of water. slower action, with slightly increased printing contrasts, and clearer shadows, results from an increase in the proportion of bromide. fixing. after development is finished, the dark-coloured reduced silver that forms the image remains mixed with a considerable quantity of semi-opaque, yellowish unaltered silver bromide, which would not only interfere with the printing, but would also gradually darken when exposed to light. the negative must therefore be "fixed" by dissolving out the unaltered silver bromide, and this is accomplished by immersing the plate in a fairly strong solution of sodium thiosulphate (formerly called sodium hyposulphite) commonly known as "hypo." the usual strength of the fixing is as follows: fixing bath. hypo (sodium thiosulphate) oz. or parts water to make up to oz. or parts a solution of double this strength is, however, not unfrequently used, and acts more rapidly, especially in cold weather. the developed plate, after being well rinsed with water, is placed in the fixing bath and allowed to remain in it with frequent rocking until the silver bromide has all been dissolved out of the film. this is ascertained by lifting the plate out of the dish and looking at the back by reflected light, the plate being held in front of something dark. it is not difficult to see whether the silver bromide has all disappeared or not, but in order to ensure complete fixing the plate must not be taken out of the bath as soon as this has happened, but should be left in for a few minutes longer, the dish being rocked so that the dissolved silver salt may diffuse out of the film into the fixing bath. when removed from the fixing bath the plate should be allowed to drain into the bath for a few moments and should then be washed for five or ten minutes in running water under the tap. it is best to put the plate in a dish standing on the sink and have a piece of flexible indiarubber tubing reaching from the tap to within a couple of inches or so of the top of the dish, so that the water may not splash too much. after washing in this way, the plate is placed in a grooved zinc rack, which is immersed in a tank (preferably of zinc), containing sufficient water to completely cover the plates, and here it remains until the whole batch of plates in hand has been developed and they can all receive their final washing together. the plates stand upright in the rack, and the entrance and exit of the water must be so arranged that the water enters at the bottom and overflows at the top, or, what is perhaps better, enters at the top and is drawn off from the bottom, the waste pipe opening at the bottom of the tank and being bent and carried upwards until its mouth is at the level at which the water is to stand in the tank. when running water is not available the plates may be washed in dishes. after being well rinsed to remove the adhering hypo solution, the plate is covered with water (about - / oz. for a half plate or oz. for a whole plate) and allowed to remain with frequent rocking for five or six minutes. the water is then well drained off, a second quantity added and allowed to remain for the same time as before, with frequent rocking, when it is poured off in its turn. treatment in this way with six successive quantities of water will remove all the hypo, provided that the film has not been treated with alum. another plan, rather less troublesome, but also less expeditious, is to place the rack containing the plates in a tank not much more than big enough to hold it, taking care that there is not less than two inches between the lower edges of the plates and the bottom of the tank. after standing for some time the rack and the plates are slowly and carefully lifted out and allowed to drain, the tank emptied and filled with fresh water, and the rack and plates then replaced. eight or ten successive quantities of water applied in this way should remove all the hypo, but if there is any doubt on this point the plates, after they are supposed to be washed and have been removed from the tank, should be allowed to drain into a measuring glass or into a dish, the contents of which are afterwards transferred to a measuring glass and mixed with a small quantity of a solution of silver nitrate. if the plates are really completely washed nothing will happen, or at most a white precipitate will be produced which _will remain white_ if not exposed to daylight. if, on the other hand, the plates still retain hypo, the silver nitrate will produce a precipitate which will gradually become orange and eventually dark brown. should this happen, the washing must be continued. [illustration] drying.--if the negatives are allowed to dry in the rack in which they were washed, the process is slow, and sometimes if the washing has not been complete, the middle portions of the negatives, which dry last, are less opaque than the rest. an excellent method of drying negatives rapidly and in such a way that no dust can fall on the film, is to drive nails (preferably of copper) into a wall or a board fixed against the wall, at distances apart depending on the size of the plates. each plate then rests, with the film downwards, between a pair of nails, the lower corner of the plate resting against the wall, as shown on previous page. [illustration: winter time on the alps. capt. w. de w. abney, c.b., f.r.s., etc.] alum bath.--it is frequently recommended that all plates should be immersed in a strong solution of alum, for the purpose of preventing "frilling" by hardening the film. its use is, however, attended with the great disadvantage that liquids diffuse into and out of a film so treated with much greater difficulty than in the case of an ordinary film, and consequently if the film is alumed between development and fixing, the fixing is not only much slower, but the washing after fixing requires a very much longer time. if, therefore, the alum bath is used at all, it should not be applied until after the film has been well washed after fixing. the following solution may be used:-- alum bath. alum oz. or parts water oz. or parts if a strong solution of alum is applied to the plate for a long time, the film may become so thoroughly hardened that it partially loses its adhesiveness, and there is a possibility that it will begin to peel from the glass after the negatives have been stored for some time in a dry place. the solution given above is quite strong enough and plates need not be immersed in it for more than five minutes, after which they must, of course, be again well washed. the hardening of the film, if not carried too far, no doubt makes it less liable to be injured by abrasion and the like. frilling.--it sometimes happens that during the various operations of development, fixing and washing, the film begins to leave the plate and rise in puckers along the edges. this is known as "frilling," and in bad cases it may spread until a large part of the film has detached itself from the glass. it is due to excessive or irregular absorption of water by the gelatine, and at one time was commonly met with, but it rarely occurs with the dry plates of the present day. it is most likely to arise if there is any considerable difference of temperature between the various liquids and the wash-water, or during very hot weather when all the liquids are much warmer than usual. when frilling does occur, the plate must be treated carefully, so as to avoid tearing the film, but unless it is very bad and shows a tendency to spread, all the operations, including washing after fixing, should be completed before any special measures are taken to remedy the defect. on the other hand, if the frilling spreads rapidly, the plate should be carefully rinsed two or three times with water and placed for five minutes in the alum bath, with occasional gentle rocking, after which it is again well washed to remove the alum, and the various operations are completed. there is one exception to the procedure just indicated; if the frilling becomes bad while the plate is being fixed or during washing after fixing, the alum must not be applied until the fixing and the washing after fixing are completed. if something must be done in these circumstances, the plate, after draining, but without any previous washing, may be placed for about ten minutes in a saturated solution of common salt. it can afterwards be put back into the fixing bath, also without any intermediate washing, and the remainder of the process carried through. although the methods just described will check the frilling, they will not remove its effects. for this purpose the plate after its final washing is allowed to drain thoroughly and is then immersed in methylated alcohol, preferably of the old kind, though the new kind can be made to do. the alcohol abstracts water from the film, which consequently shrinks to its original size and can be pressed back with the fingers into its proper position on the plate. should the film be opalescent it should be removed from the first quantity of alcohol and placed in a second quantity, after which it should be set up to dry. the plates should not remain too long in the alcohol or the gelatine will contract too much. defects in negatives. a perfect negative presupposes a perfect plate, correct exposure, and correct development stopped at exactly the right time. it is almost unnecessary to say that all these conditions are rarely satisfied, and consequently most negatives fall more or less short of perfection. the defects may be broadly grouped under two heads, namely, those due to imperfections existing in the film before exposure, and those due to defects or errors in the way in which the plate has been treated. it will be more convenient to deal with the latter, and larger, group first, but there is really no hard and fast division between them. the negative is thin, or in other words, whilst showing good gradation, and sufficient relative contrast between the different parts, is as a whole lacking in opacity or printing strength, and gives prints that are deficient in vigour and contrasts. the plate has been removed from the developer too soon, and the remedy is to intensify the image (see p. ). sometimes the want of opacity is due to the fact that the developer was too cold. the negative is too dense or opaque and consequently although showing good contrasts and gradations, takes a long time to print, especially on dull days. the developer has been too energetic, or development has been continued too long; the remedy is to reduce the image (see p. ). the image is "flat," or shows comparatively little contrast between the highest lights and the deepest shadows. this may, of course, be due to the absence of contrasts in the subject photographed; it is commonly due to over-exposure; it may be caused by using a developer containing too little reducer, or restrainer, or both, and too much alkali; sometimes it arises from a defect in the quality of the emulsion, or from the fact that the plate has been coated with an abnormally thin film of emulsion. the image is "hard," or shows excessive contrasts between lights and shadows, and is defective in the range of its half-tones. this is probably due to under-exposure, but may have been aggravated by the use of a developer containing too much bromide or too little alkali. local reduction (see p. ) may partially remedy the defect. fog.--a more or less marked grey deposit of reduced silver extends over the whole surface of the image. it may be due to over-exposure, in which case the edges of the plate that have been protected by the rebate of the dark slide usually remain clear. it may also be caused by using a developer containing too much alkali, or too little restrainer, or both, or by the plate having been exposed to actinic light outside the camera, including the light from the dark-room lamp if the glass or coloured fabric used as the screening material is not efficient. in any of these cases the defect would be observable up to the extreme edges of the film. the character of the dark-room light should be tested by exposing one half of a plate to it at a distance of say nine or twelve inches for five or ten minutes, the other half of the plate being protected by some opaque substance. the best plan is to put the plate into a dark slide and draw out the shutter half-way. after exposure the plate is treated with a developer in the usual manner, and it can then be seen whether or no the light has exerted any action on the plate. slight general fog may as a rule be neglected, but if the amount of fog is at all considerable the plate should be treated with a reducer, and afterwards the image can, if necessary, be intensified. green fog.--the surface of the film shows a peculiar brilliant green or yellowish-green lustrous appearance, generally in patches, when examined by reflected light, but is more or less distinctly pink when the plate is looked through. this effect is rarely observed except when pyro-ammonia has been used as the developer, and it most frequently occurs with old plates, especially if development has been long continued or has been forced by the addition of comparatively large quantities of ammonia. if the green fog is only slight it does not affect the prints made from the negative, but in bad cases the prints have a patchy appearance and are less deeply printed at those points where the green fog is worst. two methods are available for the removal of green fog. in one of these the plate, after being fixed and washed, is placed in a hypo solution of half the strength of the ordinary fixing bath, and to this hypo solution is added a very small quantity of a solution of potassium ferricyanide, and the mixture is allowed to act on the plate for some time, the dish being rocked occasionally. the green fog will gradually disappear and some more of the ferricyanide may be added, if necessary, to secure this end, but it is important to keep the proportion of ferricyanide as low as possible, otherwise the image itself will be reduced. for this reason, if it is seen or suspected that the green fog is likely to be bad, development should be carried a little farther than usual in order to allow for the slight reduction that accompanies the removal of the green fog. the other plan is to immerse the plate in a dilute solution of ferric chloride (perchloride of iron) until the green fog has been completely bleached, then wash, first in a dilute solution of oxalic acid and afterwards in water, and finally treat with a developer, preferably ferrous oxalate. the green fog is converted into a very fine grey deposit which is almost invisible and has no appreciable effect on the printing qualities of the negative. black spots may be due to particles of dirt that have been allowed to lodge on the film during one or other of the operations, or during drying. they may also be due to particles in the emulsion, and in the latter case are generally round and sharply defined. black marks of the nature of irregular streaks, looking, so to speak, like black scratches, are generally due to mechanical abrasion of the film. pressure produces a developable image similar to that produced by the action of light. black bands, indistinct or nebulous at the edges, are sometimes caused during the coating of the plate with the emulsion, in which case they, as a rule, extend all the way along or across the plate. more commonly they are due to defects in the hinges of the dark slides, which may produce the bands either by allowing light to pass through, or by giving off exhalations that affect the plates if they are allowed to remain in the dark slide for a long time. if the bands are due to the hinges, they will, of course, correspond with them in position, and if the hinge is double, in the distance between them. transparent bands, or bands showing less opacity than the rest of the image, are sometimes caused by exhalations from the material forming the hinges of the dark slides. transparent spots if small ("pinholes"), are generally due to the presence of particles of dust on the surface of the plate when it was exposed. prevention lies, of course, in carefully dusting the plate and the dark slide with a soft, clean, dry camel's hair brush, before putting the former into the latter. if the spots are larger and circular, they are due either to the formation of air bubbles on the surface of the plate during development, or to the presence in the film of insensitive particles. uneven opacity or density, varying gradually from one end or side of the plate to the opposite end or side, is due to uneven coating of the plate. if there is a distinctly defined patch, less opaque than the rest, the plate was not properly covered by the developing solution. stains.--a uniform stain, of a yellowish or brown colour, is produced when the pyro developer contains too small a proportion of sulphite or is allowed to act for a very long time. such a stain is rarely observed with the other developers mentioned above. the pyro stain can be more or less completely removed by immersing the plate for some time, with repeated rocking, in the alum solution given above, drachm of sulphuric acid being added to every ounces. the plate must afterwards be well washed in soft water. similar stains in patches may be caused by using dirty dishes or a developer that has become turbid by being frequently used. deep yellow-orange or brown stains, appearing gradually in patches or all over the negative, some time after it has been fixed, and washed, and dried, are due either to imperfect fixing or to incomplete washing after fixing. there is no practicable remedy. [illustration: dock by carine cadby.] halation.--when the subject photographed includes some part much more brightly lighted than the rest, such as a window in an interior subject, the details of the bright part are not only lost, but the image of it seems to spread in all directions, obliterating the details of the surrounding portions. the effect is especially noticeable when the subject includes dark parts which necessitate a somewhat long exposure. a window at the end of a long dimly lighted interior, or dark trees against a bright sky are cases in point. the effect is really due to the fact that the sensitive film is not perfectly opaque, and some of the incident light passes through the film and is reflected from the back surface of the glass on to the under side of the film, producing a blurred image superposed, as it were, on the normal image formed at the surface of the film by the action of the direct light. the effect is known as "halation." it is prevented by having a perfectly opaque film, which is a condition difficult to realize in practice, and which, moreover, introduces certain other disadvantages. it is also prevented by coating the back of the plate with some substance that will absorb the rays that have passed through the film, and so prevent their being reflected back against the under side of the film. the substance used must either be opaque or must have a deep orange, brown, or red colour, and it must have the same refractive index as the glass, otherwise the reflection will not be prevented. for practical convenience it must also be easily applied and easily removed. many substances have been recommended but nothing is so good as caramel, prepared by the action of heat on sugar. in order to get the mixture to dry completely after it has been applied, a somewhat troublesome process of purification is necessary, but caramel specially prepared for the purpose can now be obtained from dealers in photographic materials. the caramel (which is a solid substance) is dissolved in just enough water to make a thick syrup, which is carefully applied to the back of the plates in a thin layer by means of a flat brush. if the caramel does not dry properly the solution may be thoroughly mixed with about one quarter (or more) of its weight of very finely powdered burnt sienna or burnt umber, "ground in water." after being coated, the plates require some time to dry, and must, of course, be carefully protected from light. if the dark-room is thoroughly dark, the plates may be put up to dry in the same manner as negatives (see page ), but if the dark-room is not suitable, some sort of drying box must be used. after exposure and before development the backing is removed with a damp sponge; if caramel only is used in a form completely soluble in water, it need not be removed unless a developer is being used that is to be applied to several plates in succession. reduction. when a negative is too opaque or dense it must be reduced by dissolving away part of the silver that forms the image. the same process is also applied for the removal of general fog, sometimes with a view to subsequent intensification. the simplest solution to use for this purpose is known as the howard farmer reducer and is a solution of hypo mixed with a small quantity of potassium ferricyanide (red prussiate of potash). ferricyanide solution. potassium ferricyanide oz. or parts water to make up oz. or parts this solution must be protected from light if it is to be kept for any length of time. the negative which, if it has been previously dried, must be soaked in water for some time until it is thoroughly and uniformly wetted, is placed in some fresh hypo solution (the ordinary fixing-bath solution diluted with an equal volume of water) to which a small quantity of the ferricyanide solution has been added, and the dish is rocked repeatedly to ensure uniform action. the rapidity of the reducing action depends on the proportion of ferricyanide solution added, and it is very important not to add too much, otherwise the process gets out of control and reduction goes too far. the image should be carefully watched and the plate removed from the solution and rapidly washed before the apparent reduction is quite as great as it is intended to be. it is much better to stop too soon than too late, because if it is found that a little further reduction is necessary, the plate can be again immersed in the hypo and ferricyanide. the ferricyanide reducer can be applied locally for reducing high-lights, halated windows, etc., and this is often very valuable, especially in the case of under-exposed negatives. a small quantity of hypo and ferricyanide solution is mixed in a measuring glass or some other suitable vessel. the plate is immersed in plain hypo solution in a white dish for a short time and is then raised by one corner or one edge until the part to be reduced is above the solution. the mixture of hypo and ferricyanide is carefully applied with a camel's hair brush to the parts that are too opaque, and after a few moments the plate is allowed to slip back into the hypo solution and the dish is rocked. if the reduction is not sufficient, the same proceeding is gone through as often as necessary. the reducer should not be allowed to act too long before putting the plate back into the hypo, otherwise the reduction may spread further than is desired. further, the reducer must not be too strong (_i.e._, contain too much ferricyanide), otherwise it will produce brownish stains and the action may be too energetic. the other reducer is known as belitzski's reducer, and is made up as follows:-- ferric potassium oxalate oz. or parts[ ] sodium sulphite oz. or parts oxalic acid / oz. or part hypo solution ( in ) oz. or parts water oz. or parts [ ] the formula in "parts" does not strictly correspond with that in ounces, but the difference is immaterial. the constituents must be dissolved in water in the order given. the solution can be used at once and it keeps fairly well if protected from light, in well corked bottles filled up to the neck. intensification. intensification is a process in which the opacity of the image is increased by adding some fresh matter, metallic or otherwise, to the reduced silver that constitutes the developed image. the usual plan is to bleach the image by means of a solution of mercuric chloride (mercury perchloride or corrosive sublimate), which converts the dark-coloured silver into a white mixture of silver chloride and mercurous chloride, and this is subsequently treated with some re-agent which will reconvert the image into a dark product of greater opacity than the original. it is absolutely essential to successful intensification that the negative be completely fixed and completely washed after fixing, for any trace of hypo left in the film will give rise to brown stains. it is also important, in order to prevent stains of another sort and to secure uniform action, that the mercuric chloride solution be mixed with a small quantity of hydrochloric acid. too much acid will cause frilling. if the negative has been dried it must be immersed in water for, as a rule, not less than half-an-hour, in order that it may be thoroughly and uniformly wetted. mercuric chloride solution. mercuric chloride oz. or parts hydrochloric acid - / drachms or part water to make up to oz. or parts when uniform intensification is required the negative is allowed to remain in this solution until it is completely bleached. if, however, it is desired to intensify the shadows more than the high-lights, the plate should be removed from the solution as soon as the shadows have bleached, and should be rapidly washed in order to stop the action on the more opaque parts of the image. in either case the negative must be thoroughly washed after bleaching, and the water used must be soft water. hard water tends to produce a precipitate of the mercury salt in the film, which may subsequently lead to stain or fog. perhaps the best plan of all, when constant results are desired, is to treat the bleached negative with the ferrous oxalate developer, which will gradually convert the white image into a black one, after which the plate is thoroughly washed and dried. it is recommended that the first water used for washing should be slightly acidified with oxalic acid. instead of using ferrous oxalate the bleached plate may be treated with a weak solution of ortol or metol to which some sodium carbonate (soda crystals) solution has been added, but _no sulphite_. after the image has blackened completely the plate is washed. with any of these methods if the first intensification is not sufficient, the plate may be again bleached with the mercury solution and the process repeated. an old method, frequently used, is to treat the bleached plate with dilute ammonia, which converts the white image into a dark brown one of very considerable printing opacity. the results are often very good, but are somewhat uncertain, since the precise effect obtained depends on the strength of the ammonia solution and the time during which it is allowed to act. with somewhat strong ammonia, allowed to act for a fairly long time, part of the intensification first produced is removed. this affects the shadows more strongly than the lights and the result is to increase the contrast of the negative, which is very useful for certain purposes. the negatives intensified with mercury solution followed by ammonia are more liable to spontaneous change and deterioration than those intensified with mercury solution followed by one of the developers. the latter, in fact, if properly washed, may safely be regarded as permanent. uranium intensifier.--a very considerable degree of intensification can be obtained by the use of the uranium intensifier, which is very different in its mode of action, and is a little uncertain in its results. a solution containing potassium ferricyanide and a uranium salt, generally the nitrate, is applied to the negative, and a deposit of a deep orange-red colour is formed upon the silver image and very greatly increases its printing opacity. the great difficulty is to prevent this deposit forming on the whole of the film, and it is absolutely necessary that every trace of hypo should be washed out of the film. the addition of acetic acid to the solution not only promotes uniformity of action, but also helps to keep the shadows of the image clear. ferricyanide solution. the same as for the ferricyanide reducer. uranium solution. uranium nitrate oz. or parts water to make up to oz. or parts the intensifier. uranium solution ( : ) drachm or parts ferricyanide solution ( : ) drachm or parts acetic acid (glacial) drachms or parts water to make up to -½ oz. or parts the negative is placed in this solution and allowed to remain with occasional rocking until the degree of intensification is sufficient, which can only be learnt by experience. if it is seen that the deposit is beginning to form on the clear parts of the negative, the plate should be at once removed. after intensification the plates are well washed. if the water is "hard" the intensification will be slightly reduced during washing, and this is often useful in removing a slight stain over the whole of the plate. treatment with water containing a small quantity of ammonia or sodium carbonate removes the whole of the deposit, but leaves the original image slightly reduced and also partially altered in composition. varnishing. a negative after been thoroughly dried may be used for printing without any further treatment, especially if only a few prints are required and the ordinary ready sensitized papers or emulsion papers are used. it is, however, better to protect the negative from mechanical as well as chemical injury by means of a film of hard varnish or collodion. many excellent negative varnishes can now be purchased, and the general mode of application is the same. the negative must be thoroughly dry, and in order to secure this and to make the varnish flow more easily, the negative is very carefully heated in front of a fire or over a small stove until it is just warm, but not hot. the negative is best supported by means of a pneumatic holder held in the left hand, and a fairly large pool of varnish (the exact amount can only be learnt by experience) is poured on the plate somewhat towards the right-hand top corner, and by carefully tilting the plate it is made to run first to the nearest corner, then along the edge to the further left-hand corner down to the nearer left-hand corner, and back to the right-hand bottom corner, from which it is poured into a bottle. the plate is gently rocked whilst it drains into the bottle, and as soon as the varnish ceases to drop the plate is again carefully warmed until the back of it is just too hot for the back of the hand to bear, after which it is placed in a rack to cool. it is necessary that the varnish should be quite clear and free from any solid particles, and if necessary it must be filtered through a plug of cotton wool moistened with alcohol and placed in the apex of a glass funnel which is resting in the neck of a clean and dry bottle. since dust may fall into the varnish whilst it is on the negative, it is the best plan to pour the excess of varnish off the negative into a second bottle instead of back into the first, out of which it was poured. to put it in another way, one bottle should be kept for the clear varnish, and a second bottle for the varnish poured off the plate. when the second bottle is full, its contents are filtered into the first bottle for use again. instead of varnish, a film of collodion, toughened by the addition of a few drops of castor oil, and known as "leather" collodion, may be used. the collodion is applied to the plate in the same way as varnish except that the plate is not warmed. _c. h. bothamley._ [illustration] _lenses._ [illustration] photographs of flat objects such as leaves, lace, drawings, etc., can be made by simply putting the object on the sensitive surface and exposing the arrangement to light. but this method will not serve if the photograph is wanted of any other size than the original, nor with solid objects of any size, except perhaps in the production of full-size profiles of faces. it is therefore quite the exception in photography to "print" directly from the object itself, and the only alternative is to produce an image on the sensitive surface. all illuminated objects reflect light and so become for practical purposes sources of light, just as the moon shines, as we say, although it only shines because it is shone upon by the sun. the simplest source of light to consider is a point of light, and if we can get a dot of light on a white surface from a point of light we have at once an image of that point of light. the smaller the dot the sharper or more perfect is the image, the larger the dot the more diffused or fuzzy is the image. it is impossible by any known means to get the dot so small that it is an actual point, that would be absolute perfection, and on the other hand there is no size of the dot at which it can be definitely said that it ceases to be an image. every point of an illuminated object is a point of light, and fine definition consists in keeping these points separate in the image. so far as the dots overlap they are confused. confusion, or diffusion, or fuzziness is sometimes desirable, as for example in a portrait, which may be excellent although it is impossible to distinguish in the picture the individual hairs on the person's head. [illustration: fig. .] the simplest means for getting an image is a small hole in an opaque screen. in fig. , two points of light, a and b, shine through the hole in the screen s and produce two dots of light, _a_ and _b_, on the surface t. the two pencils of light do not practically interfere with each other although they pass through the same small hole, nor would any greater number; so that an illuminated object, which may be regarded as consisting of an infinite number of points of light, would give an image on the surface t. the disadvantages of a small hole, or "pinhole," for the production of images are ( ) it must be so small that it lets very little light through and therefore gives a very feeble image, ( ) that it can never give a sharp image. the first disadvantage is obvious. with regard to the second, a little consideration will show that the image of a point must be larger than the hole itself, it is always larger though it may have a central brighter part that is smaller. if the hole is reduced in size beyond a certain limit, it gives an increased spreading of light on the surface, so that a sharp image can never be produced. [illustration: fig. .] now the function of a lens is to obviate these drawbacks as far as possible; namely, to let more light through and form a brighter image, and to give sharper definition. in figure , the lens l collects all the light that falls upon it from the point b, and condenses it to the point _b_ on the surface t. the light from the point a that falls on the lens is also condensed and would be brought to a point or "focus" at _a_ beyond the surface t, but on the surface the light forms a patch of considerable size. suppose that the lens is thirty times the diameter of the pinhole its area is times as large, and the light that falls upon it is times as much as the light that passes through the hole. such an enormous gain of light is worth so much that photographers willingly put up with the very many imperfections of lenses for the sake of it, and if to this gain there is added the superior definition that is possible, it will be seen that lenses are indispensable to the photographer. to take a daguerreotype portrait with a pinhole might have required several days if not weeks exposure of the plate and therefore would have been impossible, so that the gain in brightness of image is a great deal more than a mere convenience. it will be observed in figure that both points of light, a and b produce images on the surface t, although they are at different distances from it, but in fig. , although the effect of the lens is to concentrate the light from both points to two other points, one of these is beyond the surface t. this is a disadvantage inherent in lenses. they have so many other imperfections or "aberrations" that it is desirable to consider these separately. the reader should bear in mind that the one aim of opticians in perfecting lenses is to concentrate as much light as possible from each point in the object to a corresponding point, or as small as possible a dot, in the image, and the image should be flat because the plates used in photography are flat. [illustration: fig. .] _spherical aberration._--the surfaces of lenses are always ground to spherical curves, and this fact makes it impossible for a single lens, such as that shown in figure , to bring to a point all the light that falls upon it from a point. if a pencil of light passes through a piece of glass with sloping sides it is bent or "refracted" towards the thicker part of the glass, and the greater the angle of inclination of the two sides the more is it refracted from its original path. in figure it is clear that the two sides of the lens shown in section are inclined to each other at a continually increasing angle as they approach each other at the edges of the lens. the refracting effect of the lens increases from the centre outwards, and it increases to a greater extent than is necessary to bring the incident light to a point. the focus of the pencils of light that pass through the edges of the lens is nearer to the lens than the focus of the pencils that pass through its central part. in the figure two foci are shown, _a_ and _b_, but of course, in fact, intermediate parts of the lens produce intermediate foci, and what should be a point in the image, is spread out into a line on the axis of the lens, and all along this line is surrounded with the light that either is coming to a focus or that has come to a focus and has spread out again. on a screen placed at _b_ there would be a point of light surrounded by a halo, while at _a_, nearer the lens, the central focus or point is surrounded by a brighter or more condensed light, and the appearance is of a circular patch of light with a brighter boundary. this is positive spherical aberration. negative spherical aberration is due to over correction, the focus of the light passing through the margins being furthest from the lens, and the appearances on a screen are of course reversed. _chromatic aberration._--when light is refracted, that is bent out of its original path by a single piece of glass, it is not refracted as a whole, but each constituent behaves as if none other were present. ordinary white light or daylight is a mixture of many coloured lights as seen in the rainbow, and when refracted, the blue is bent more than the green, the green more than the yellow, and the yellow more than the red. so that using a single lens the focus of the blue light is nearer the lens than the focus of the red light and the others come in between. in figure this is represented in an exaggerated degree to make it more distinct. it will be observed that a screen placed at the focus of the blue light will show a reddish margin and if removed further from the lens the margin or halo will be bluish. [illustration: fig. .] these two aberrations, spherical and chromatic _were_ the principal faults that opticians had to deal with, because they affect the whole of the image, even the very central parts. but in photography it is necessary to get an image of a very large size as compared with the focal length of the lens, and there are some faults that only begin to show themselves at a little distance from the centre of the image and increase as the distance from the centre is greater. these aberrations were, practically speaking, incurable until a few years ago, but as recent optical advances have provided kinds of glass by the use of which they may be eliminated, or nearly so, they have become of practical importance. they are astigmatism and curvature of field. _astigmatism and curvature of field._--if a diagram of suitable size is made with a series of concentric circles and radial lines upon it, and the centre of it is arranged exactly opposite the centre of the lens, and in a line with the centre of the focussing screen, the screen and diagram being parallel, then if the lens suffers from astigmatism it will be found impossible to get the outer circles and the radial lines where they cross them simultaneously focussed. where this difficulty begins the astigmatism begins, and the greater the difference there is between the focal planes of the radial lines and the circles, the greater is the astigmatism. it will probably be found with any of the older types of lenses that neither is in focus at the same time that the centre of the diagram is, but that the screen must be racked in; this is due to curvature of field, and the difference between the curvature of field for the circles and the radial lines is due to astigmatism. in the older lenses a flatter field could only be obtained by the introduction of astigmatism, but now by the employment of the new glasses made at jena, it is possible to practically eliminate astigmatism, and still keep the field flat. [illustration: fig. .] _the development of photographic lenses._--when photography was first practised the best lenses available were those made for use as telescope objectives, and they had to be used with a small diaphragm to get good definition over a sufficient field. with the slow processes then in vogue a more rapid lens was much desired, and voigtlander introduced a "portrait" lens constructed according to the results of the calculations of professor petzval. this portrait lens is still very largely used, and figure will serve to show its general character and will be a guide to the putting of one together correctly if it has been taken to pieces for cleaning. a rapid lens such as this could not cover a sufficiently large field for landscape work, so that single lenses were still used for work in which rapidity was not of very great importance. single lenses were improved, and other kinds of lenses were introduced from time to time, but it was not till that the "rapid rectilinears" or "rapid aplanats," called later "rapid symmetricals," and by innumerable other names according to the fancies of the makers, were introduced. probably no lens has been made in such large numbers as this. at about the same time, dallmeyer introduced his portrait lens in which the position of the convex and concave elements of the back combination is reversed, the concave lens being outside, and this gives the photographer the opportunity of screwing it back a little, and so introducing a measurable amount of spherical aberration which has the effect of modifying the otherwise exceedingly fine definition at the centre of the field, and giving a greater depth of definition. in , messrs. abbe & schott began a series of experiments in the manufacture of optical glasses, and they were so successful in making new and useful varieties, that an optical glass factory was eventually established at jena, by schott & co. by the use of these newer glasses the limitations that had previously restricted opticians were removed, and it became possible to correct astigmatism and secure a flat field at the same time. zeiss of jena, towards the end of , introduced his first series of "anastigmats." the "concentric" lens of ross was introduced in , a lens which probably remains unsurpassed for flatness of field and freedom from astigmatism; but as spherical aberration is present to a notable degree, an aperture of about _f_/ is the largest that gives sharp definition. the "double anastigmat" of goerz of berlin was put on the market in . it is a symmetrical lens, and in this different from the zeiss anastigmats that preceded it. it consists of two similar combinations, each of three lenses cemented together. the unsurpassed qualities of this lens stimulated other opticians to seek to rival it, and there appeared similar lenses with four and even five lenses in each combination, besides other lenses that are more or less a copy of the double anastigmat. one of the most notable of these is the "satz-anastigmat" of zeiss, each combination consisting of four lenses cemented together and forming an excellent single lens. these combinations are interchangeable in the same mount so that with, for example, one mount and three lenses, six different focal lengths can be obtained, as the lenses may be used singly or any two together as a doublet. the "cooke" lens is remarkable for the simple means by which the various corrections are made, consisting as it does of only three single lenses separated from each other. obviously it must be used entire. these lenses do not cover so large a plate in proportion to their focal lengths as most of the other anastigmats, but perform excellently over the plates for which they are constructed. the "stigmatic" of dallmeyer is the latest lens of general utility. it gives good definition to the margin of the circle of light that it transmits, reduction of aperture being necessary, when its full field is employed, to get equality of illumination rather than to improve the marginal definition. its two combinations are different, and either may be used alone as a single lens, giving focal lengths of approximately one-and-a-half and twice the focal length of the whole lens. the "planar" of zeiss introduced just as we write, is a symmetrical doublet characterized by a very large aperture, from _f_/ . to _f_/ up to inches in focal length, and a little smaller above that. it is therefore comparable with portrait lenses. although it is symmetrical, a single combination cannot with advantage be used alone as a single lens. telephotographic lenses are subsequently referred to. the one aim of opticians in improving photographic lenses has been to get good definition all over a comparatively large flat surface without having to use small apertures. a defining power on the axis of the lens, that is, at the centre of the field, far exceeding what can be taken practical advantage of in ordinary photography, has long been possible. but until recently, the defining power always rapidly deteriorated as the distance from the centre was increased. but to judge of the quality of a lens, or to compare one lens with another, there are other matters that must be understood, and these we shall proceed to consider. focal length, aperture and image angle are the chief details concerning lenses, granting that the aberrations referred to above are satisfactorily corrected. _focal length._--the focal length or focal distance of a thin lens is the distance between it and the point to which it converges parallel rays. the rays of light are parallel when they issue from an object at an infinite distance. for ordinary practical purposes, any object, that is not nearer than a thousand focal lengths of the lens may be regarded as at an infinite distance, that is the image of an object so far off, and the image of the sun or stars (which are situated at the nearest approach to an infinitely great distance that we know of) would if separately focussed give an inappreciably small difference of position of the focussing screen. but no photographic lens is very thin. the measurement from the back surface of the lens to the screen, when focussed on a distant object, is called the "back focus," but this is of no use whatever except as to the determining of the camera length necessary. the "equivalent focal length" is the focal length (or focal distance) of a thin lens that would give the same effect, so far as focal length is concerned, as the lens in question. when the simple expression "focal length" is used, it always refers to the equivalent focal length. the single word "focus" is sometimes used erroneously instead of "focal length." the focal length of all lenses (except to a very small extent, with single or so-called "landscape" lenses) is proportional to the linear dimension of the image that it gives under similar conditions. for example, a lens of inches focal length will give just the same amount of subject on a quarter plate that a lens of inches focal length will give on a whole plate, because the linear measurement of the whole plate is exactly double that of the quarter plate. the easiest way to compare the focal lengths of two lenses, is to focus both on a fairly distant object or view, and to measure in the image the distance between two fixed points in both cases. the proportion between these measurements is the proportion between the focal lengths of the lenses. by this method the focal length of any lens can easily be determined if one has a lens of known focal length. if a lens is first focussed on a distant object, and the focussing screen is then moved back until the image of any object is of the same size as the object, the distance travelled by the focussing screen is exactly the focal length of the lens. it is however exceedingly difficult to get at the same time an image of an exactly predetermined size, and to secure the very best definition, so that it is more convenient to get the image as near as it happens to come to the size of the object and then to allow for the difference, as then nothing interferes with the operation of focussing. the best near object to use is an accurately divided scale, and the details wanted in addition to those mentioned above are the comparative lengths of the image and the object. to get these, two fine marks are made on the focussing screen, and the distance between these is the length of the image. the scale is focussed with critical exactness and so that it falls over these marks, then the amount of the scale represented between the marks can be measured, and the divisions counted for the length of the object. the distance over which the focussing screen was moved between the two focussings is to be multiplied by the length of the object and divided by the length of the image, and the result is the focal length of the lens. _aperture._--the "aperture" of a lens is the diameter of the cylinder of light that it can receive and transmit. if the diaphragm is in front of the lens, the hole in the diaphragm is the aperture, but if the diaphragm is behind a part of the lens, so that the incident light passes through a lens first, the hole in the diaphragm is not the "aperture," the "aperture" is larger because the lens condenses the light before it gets to the diaphragm. the aperture of any lens can be measured by focussing a distant object, then replacing the focussing screen by a sheet of cardboard with a pinhole in the middle of it. in a dark-room a light must be placed behind the pinhole, and a bit of ground glass held in front of the lens. a disc of light will be seen on the ground glass and the diameter of this is the diameter of the aperture, or simply, the "aperture," with the diaphragm employed. _rapidity._--the rapidity of a lens depends almost wholly on its focal length and aperture. the thickness of the glass makes a little difference, and at every surface in contact with air there is loss by reflection, but these and analogous matters are of comparatively little importance, and as they are uncertain and cannot be determined it is customary to refer rapidity to the focal length and aperture only. the aperture found, that is, the diameter of the effective incident cylinder of parallel rays, should be divided into the focal length, and the diaphragm corresponding to the aperture should then be marked with a fractional expression indicating the proportion of aperture to focal length. thus if the aperture is one eighth the focal length, it is marked _f_/ , if a sixteenth _f_/ , and so on. all lenses with the same aperture as so marked may be regarded as of equal rapidity whatever their focal lengths may be. now the more rapid a lens is the shorter the exposure that it is necessary to give for any subject, and the exposure required is proportional to the square of the figure in the expressions as given above. namely and squared give and which are as one to four, the proportional exposures required. or we may say that to are as to and square these and get to the proportional exposures. [illustration: fig. .] the best way to mark stops is, for example, _f_/ and _f_/ , as these expressions are universally understood, but some persons think that the relative rapidities or intensities are better, others prefer to express the relative exposure necessary, and every system of numbering on these plans has a unit which is merely empirical, not one of them adopting the only true or scientific unit of _f_/ . zeiss has recently changed his unit from _f_/ to _f_/ . dallmeyer marks some of his lenses now with the practical expression. the following table may be of service to those who happen to have lenses with their diaphragms marked on any of these empirical systems. ------------------------------------------------------------------- | royal | | | | | | photographic | | paris | zeiss | zeiss | _f_/ | society. | dallmeyer. | congress.| (old). | (new). | ------------------------------------------------------------------- . | | | / | | | . | | | | | | | | | | | | | | . | / | | | . | | | | | | . | | | | | | . | | | / | | | . | | | / | | | | | | | | | . | | . | / | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | . | | | | | | . | | | . | | | . | | | | | | . | | | | | | . | | | . | | | | | | | | | . | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | . | | | | | | . | | | | | | | | | | | | . | | | . | | | . | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | . | | | | | | . | | | | | | . | | | | | | | | | | | | . | | | | | | . | | | | | | | | | | | | . | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------- _image angle._--the image angle represents what is called covering power. it may be expressed in terms of the focal length, and doubtless this is the best method, but it is not customary. it may be expressed as an angle, the angle formed when a line is drawn from each extremity of a line equal to the diameter of the circle covered, and caused to meet at a point distant from the base line equal to the focal length of the lens. the angle where the two lines meet is the image angle. but generally the covering power is expressed more roughly, as the ordinary size of the plate that sufficiently good definition can be obtained on. _tele-photographic lenses._--if a negative (or dispersing or concave) lens is introduced between the ordinary lens and the plate, the equivalent focal length of the arrangement is greater than that of the ordinary lens alone, but the length of camera necessary is not proportionately great. it is possible therefore to obtain an image of a size that would otherwise require a lens of long focal length and a corresponding and perhaps impossible length of camera. but this is not the only advantage, for if the ordinary lens and the negative lens are separable to a variable extent, the amount of magnification of the image, or increase in the equivalent focal length of the optical system, is adjustable at will. for further details concerning tele-photographic lenses and their use, reference should be made to mr. dallmeyer's pamphlet on the subject. there are two other subjects connected with the production of images by photographic lenses that must be referred to, though neither of them is of great importance if we exclude the use of hand cameras (which are separately treated of) and bear in mind the ordinary practice of to-day. these are depth of definition and the distortion due to the use of single lenses. _depth of definition._--it has already been shown that the action of the lens is to bring to a point in the image all the light that falls upon it from the corresponding point of the object. now it is clear from fig. that, if different parts of the object are at different distances from the lens, and this must be the case with solid objects, these different parts cannot be in focus at the same time. still it is possible to get them so nearly in focus that the result is serviceable, and the ordinary method of doing this is to examine the image on the ground glass, and if the whole subject is not sharp enough, to reduce the size of the aperture. depth of definition is increased by using a lens of shorter focal length or by reducing the aperture. if a large aperture has to be used, the focal length must be short if much depth of definition is wanted, or conversely, if the focal length must be long the aperture must be small. it follows that very rapid lenses that have a very long focus are of no use, for in portraiture, for example, this combination of properties would lead to the ear in the image being fuzzy if the eye was sharp. if a lens were perfect and had a flat field, the depth of definition would depend only on the aperture and focal length. but if the lens gives inferior definition towards the edges of the field, it is quite obvious that there must be less depth of definition there, if a minimum of defining power is accepted. the definition at its best may be inferior to the minimum accepted and then obviously there is no depth. depth of definition therefore at the centre of the plate depends entirely on the focal length and aperture, but away from the centre it depends also on the quality of the lens, and is much greater in a flat field anastigmat than in a lens of an older type. but depth of definition is not a quality apart, it depends entirely upon other factors, and it is better in examining a lens to determine these factors separately rather than to lump them together as depth. _distortion_ produced by single lenses is due to the fact that the diaphragm is either in front of or behind them. if the diaphragm is in front, the image is drawn towards the centre of the plate to an extent that increases as the margin of the field is approached. a line along one side of the plate has its ends drawn in to a greater amount than its centre, because they are further from the middle of the plate, and therefore it becomes curved like the side of a barrel, and this effect is called barrel-shaped distortion. if the diaphragm is behind the lens, the displacement is outwards, also increasing towards the edges of the field, and a straight line at the edge of the plate becomes curved so that it is convex towards the centre of the plate. this is known as hour-glass distortion. both these effects are illustrated (and exaggerated for clearness' sake) in fig. , the central square representing the true figure. this "curvilinear distortion" is absent in all cases in the middle of the plate and generally for a considerable area, and if single lenses of only long focal length are used, say of a focal length equal to at least one and a half times the length of the largest side of the plate, it may be neglected. wide-angle single lenses should never be used except on a suitably small plate, so that the above conditions hold. the nearer the diaphragm is to the lens the less is the distortion, and some of the most modern single lenses have the diaphragm so near that the photographer is even more safe in the use of them. [illustration: melton meadows. a. horsley hinton.] _the comparison and use of lenses._--the optician when he tests lenses looks for each fault individually, but this the ordinary photographer is hardly able to do, nor is it particularly desirable for him, because if a lens is inferior it matters little to him why it is so. on the other hand occasion may arise when he wants to identify a fault, then the information already given will probably be sufficient to enable him to do so, if to it is added that a small pinhole with a flame behind it is a convenient point of light, and that if the image of this luminous point is examined with a good eyepiece, without the focussing screen, at various parts of the field, the character of the defect may be discovered. the main things that the photographer needs to look to in judging of a lens or comparing it with another, are ( ) that it works to focus, ( ) the quality of its defining power especially towards the edges of the plate. there must also be taken into account the focal length and aperture, and if both these are not the same in the lenses to be compared they should be nearly the same, and the proportion that the aperture bears to the focal length should be exactly the same. a special diaphragm may have to be cut out of card for one of them. the best test object that is always at hand is a newspaper pinned flat against a flat wall. the camera must not be moved during the work. each lens is very carefully focussed and a negative made, using the same aperture, time of development, and in all ways similar treatment for both. if the focal lengths are different, the images will be of correspondingly different sizes, and then the same detail must be compared, not the definition at the same distance from the centre. all good lenses work to focus, but some of the cheaper ones do not. to test this, any series of small objects arranged side by side, but at distances varying by intervals of say two inches from the camera, is photographed after carefully focussing on the middle one. if any other than the middle one is the best defined, the lens is at fault. but in this, as in all similar tests, it must be remembered that ordinary dry plates are not quite flat, and the error of the plate may make an appreciable difference. the use of lenses comprises the whole art of working with the camera, it is therefore not our province to say much about it. but so far as lenses themselves are concerned it may be remarked that, if a lens has a round field, it may be advantageous to tip up the lens with regard to the plate when only a part of the plate is being used, as for example sometimes in taking a landscape. but in using the modern flat field lenses special care should be taken to keep the lens and plate exactly true to each other, the plate exactly at right angles to the lens axis. the image and plate must coincide or definition will suffer. if the image is rounded and the plate flat, then in any case the result is only a compromise, but to take full advantage of the larger apertures when the field is flat, much more care than has been usual must be devoted to this matter. _simple uncorrected lenses_ such as _spectacle lenses_ or "_monocles_," suffer from the defects that have already been described, and are valued on this account by some workers because they give blurred or "soft" images. with a small enough diaphragm they will give good definition, and generally it may be stated that reducing the aperture lessens the effect of any fault that a lens may possess. to get the best definition that a simple lens will give, the plate must be brought nearer the lens after focussing by about one-fiftieth of the focal length of the lens, so that it may be brought from the best focus of visual light into the best focus of the photographically active light. if the object photographed is nearer to the lens than about one hundred times its focal length, the amount of movement after focussing must be increased. if four focal lengths distant, the correction is nearly one-thirtieth of the focal length, at three focal lengths distant, nearly one-twentieth, and at two focal lengths, about a thirteenth. _pinholes_ give an image that for all practical purposes may be said to be equally blurred or "soft" over the whole plate. much has been written about pinholes and their use, but it is not definitely known yet whether the exposure should be longer or shorter than the exposure required when a lens is used, allowing, of course, for the smallness of the aperture. the following short table and exposure rules from the writer's "science and practice of photography," will probably prove useful:-- +----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+ | pinholes--diameters | / | / | / | / | / | +----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+ | distance from plate for | | | | | | | sharpest image ... | | | | | | +----------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+ all the above figures are in inches. whatever pinhole and at whatever distance, estimate the exposure for a lens at _f_/ , _f_/ , _f_/ , _f_/ , or _f_/ , as the case may be, and multiply it by the _square_ of the number of inches that the plate is distant from the pinhole. but if the distance is as given above for any hole, it is sufficient to expose for as many minutes as the plate is inches distant from the hole, for a subject that would require one second with an aperture of _f_/ . _chapman jones._ _portraiture._ [illustration] the photographer who may be expert at landscape or architectural work, will find himself at a loss when he essays portraiture. for apart from the art of managing the sitter (a most important element in producing a successful result), he will soon find that the kind of plate that is suitable for outdoor work does not answer well for portraits, unless the developer is greatly modified, for quite a different kind of negative is required. as a general rule it is advisable to use very rapid plates for portrait work; and in this respect, at the present day we are much better supplied than even five or six years ago, and with an extra-rapid plate it is possible to secure a fully exposed negative in half a second, in weather and under lighting that was quite impossible ten years ago. the best expression and pose are generally secured when the sitter is unaware of the actual moment of exposure; and for this purpose a silent shutter working inside the camera is best. the sitter should never be _asked_ to keep still unless, in groups, and when circumstances necessitate a long exposure; and nowadays an exposure of five or six seconds is a long one. every effort should be made to put the sitter quite at ease. a head-rest should not be used unless absolutely necessary, and few photographers are aware how easily it can be dispensed with, and fail to realize how strong an objection nearly every sitter has to it. it is far better to have an occasional plate spoilt by working without the rest than to make every sitter uncomfortable by its use. in fact some portrait negatives are actually improved by a slight movement. in a special kind of lighting when the face is in _shadow_ relieved against a light background, a slight movement which produces the effect of diffusion of focus greatly improves the result. great care must be exercised in choosing the background even when it is only plain or graduated, and it is well worth exposing three or four plates on the same sitter, in the same position and lighting, and with the same exposure, but with different backgrounds, and then carefully comparing the resulting prints. even if only one background is at hand its depth can be varied by placing it nearer or farther from the source of light. the background must also be selected to suit the lighting of the sitter, as a background of medium tint suitable for what is called "ordinary lighting" would be quite unsuitable for "rembrandt" effects, or where strong contrasts of light and shade are used, when part of the face is in dark shadow. for such effects a dark background is usually best, as it gives luminosity to the shadow side of the face. but such dark grounds are not suitable for "ordinary lighting" where the face should be full of delicate half-tone, all of which would be killed by the strength of the dark background. for the rembrandt effects a much longer exposure is necessary as less light is reflected from the face on to the sensitive plate; they will often need twice or three times as much as for ordinary portraits. when pictorial backgrounds or accessories are used it must be remembered that the object of the photograph is to secure a portrait of the _sitter_, not to show what a large stock of accessories the photographer possesses. it is best to use as few accessories as possible; i have heard a lady complain bitterly of a well-known photographer, who having posed her in a very difficult position, kept her waiting for five minutes while he arranged a screen, a palm, a footstool, a tiger-skin, etc., so that she felt positively ill before the exposure was made. the sitter should not be kept waiting in the pose to be photographed any longer than is absolutely necessary. if accessories must be used they should be simple and suitable. when portraits have to be taken in ordinary rooms it is advisable to get a friend or assistant to experiment upon, if possible beforehand. even a few minutes spent in studying the possibilities of light and arrangement of furniture will save a great deal of worry when making the actual exposures, and nothing upsets nervous sitters more than having all kinds of experiments and arrangements made with them. but it is sometimes well worth wasting a few plates on exposures which the photographer thinks will be useless, in order to give the sitter time to get accustomed to the room; it must not be done in a fussy, irritating way, but rather to show that it is not such a very dreadful operation and really "doesn't hurt." this plan often works well with nervous children, who soon become accustomed to the room and the photographer. there is a great deal to be said in favour of the maxim "leave your sitters alone." the photographer must cultivate quick observation so that he sees at once a good pose, and secures it; and here again quick plates are essential, as many of the most charming poses are caught unexpectedly. it has been well said that the best poses the photographer secures are those he _observes_, not those he _creates_. but a spontaneous pose may not be quite perfect and a slight alteration may be easily made without disturbing the rest of the figure. it will generally be found that a pose that takes a great deal of arranging is not a success. when taking portraits in an ordinary room it is usual to place the sitter near the window, so that one side of the face is strongly lighted and the other in deep shadow, and then use a white reflector to light up the shadow side. it is often better, when the window is a large one, to place the sitter farther back in the room almost facing the window, and put the camera near the middle of the window looking into the room; a softer lighting will then be secured. for outdoor portraits a shady corner is best, and if possible, one where the side light is much subdued on one side; a light head-shade may be used with advantage. a large grey rug out of focus makes a good background; a blanket is too light. a portrait lens is best for the work; but if the photographer does not possess one, he need not despair of producing good work. a rapid rectilinear lens used at a large aperture will answer the purpose well; it should always be used at full aperture, partly for the sake of quickness in exposure, and partly to prevent accessories and parts of the dress appearing too sharp and competing in importance with the face. subordination of parts is one of the essentials of a picture; and if we examine a _good_ portrait we shall find that probably no part of the photograph is quite sharp except the eyes and face. otherwise the less important details are apt to obtrude themselves on our notice. a stop will generally be necessary, however, with a portrait lens if a full or three-quarter length is to be taken, and it will be found that heads only (as a rule) can be taken at full aperture. just as good work, however, can be done with a rapid rectilinear as with a lens specially made for portraits, except where rapid exposures are to be made; but it is necessary to use one of fairly long focus. a rapid rectilinear lens used for landscape work on a half plate would be much too short in focus for giving good portraits on the same sized plate, for in order to get the figure large enough it is necessary to place the camera so near the sitter as to produce distortion. for portraits on a half plate a lens of at least nine inches focus should be used and for a whole plate not less than sixteen or eighteen inches, and longer if possible. the swing back of the camera will be found useful in portrait work for getting parts of the figures into focus that are either too far behind or too far in front of the plane of the face. for instance, a full-length figure leaning back in a chair will have the feet out of focus when the face is sharp if the back of the camera is vertical, and this applies with even greater force to groups. a side swing too is useful, but is not absolutely necessary. even in bust portraits the swing back is useful in getting the shoulders in focus when using a large aperture, for although it is well not to have the whole of the figure in _perfect_ focus all over, it is not advisable to have the face sharp and the rest so out of focus as to be blurred. the development of a portrait plate should be different from that of a landscape, because a different kind of negative is required. a rapid plate developed so as to give a soft delicate image is best; and a developer containing more alkali and less density giver is good, and it may be considerably diluted with advantage. the image should appear within ten seconds of pouring on the developer, and the negative will generally be developed to sufficient density in from two to three minutes. with a good average rapid plate the image should show fairly well on the back of the plate, but this and the time of development will vary so much with different developers, and with the taste of each photographer that no hard and fast rule can be laid down. developers that give a brown deposit, or that stain the film will require shorter development than those of the newer developing agents that give a cold black colour to the negative; another fact to be borne in mind is that the image formed by these latter appears to lose more density in fixing than when pyrogallic acid is used. a perfect portrait negative should have no clear glass shadows, and no part should be so dense as to give white in the finished print, and some negatives which give the best results may have a decided veiled appearance in the shadows. the temperature of the developer is another important point; in very cold weather the developer should be kept warm, or if in concentrated solutions may be diluted with warm water. in cases of known under-exposure the developer may be used quite hot with advantage. a convincing experiment can be made by cutting an exposed plate in two and developing one half with icy cold developer and the other half with warm. the difference is really remarkable. if the developer has been used hot enough to make the gelatine of the plate feel "slimy" an alum bath is necessary, unless the fixing bath contains chrome alum. metol. . water parts or ozs. metol part or grains sodium sulphite parts or oz. . water parts or ozs. potassium carbonate parts or oz. . potassium bromide part or oz. water parts or ozs. for normal exposures take parts no. and part no. ; to each ounce of mixed developer add minims of no. . pyro and soda. . pyro oz. water ozs. nitric acid drops . sodium sulphite ozs. sodium carbonate (pure) ozs. water ozs. equal parts of each, for soft negatives dilute with water. to restrain for over-exposure use potassium, not ammonium bromide. unless an acid fixing bath is used the negatives are rather green in colour. rodinal and hydrokinone. a. sodium sulphite oz. water ozs. citric acid crystal potassium bromide dram hydrokinone drams b. potassium carbonate ozs. water ozs. rodinal fluid oz. use part a, part b, and part of water. the question of retouching is a difficult one. there is no doubt that a certain amount of it is necessary on nearly all portrait negatives and even on those of children. but it is equally certain that the great majority of portrait negatives are over-retouched, so much so that their value both as portraits and pictures is nearly destroyed. yet a certain amount is necessary even for pictorial effect, and perhaps still more when the question of likeness is considered. for as a rule the untouched negative is no more a true likeness than the over-retouched one. the truth lies somewhere between the two. even if isochromatic plates are used the little differences of colour in the face, and the incipient wrinkles are exaggerated in an unpleasant way. under-exposed negatives will show these defects in a very marked manner, full exposure will greatly reduce them. large heavy patches of shadow may be lightened by coating the back of the negative with matt varnish, and when it is quite hard "hatching" upon it with a soft lead. harsh lights may be reduced by scraping away the matt varnish with the point of a knife. in some cases the matt varnish may be stained with a little aurine or uranine. exaggerated lines and small shadows must be worked upon from the front and a retouching desk is necessary. the film of the negative will not take the pencil without some preparation. the best surface is obtained by spreading a little retouching medium with the tip of the finger on the part to be touched. a thin film of soft resin is left upon the plate which takes pencil marks readily. a hard lead, no. faber or hardtmuth, should be used. the loose leads used in what are called the "ever-pointed holders" are most convenient. the point must be very long and fine, like a large darning needle, and is best made by rubbing the lead on a piece of fine glass-paper. the pencil must be held very lightly and the lines touched away with short _light_ strokes, a heavy stroke only rubs the medium up. the little shadow at the end of the mouth often has to be reduced, often at the risk of spoiling the shape of the lips, but sitters _will_ insist upon it being done, and say "you have made my mouth much too large." freckled faces are perhaps the most difficult to retouch, as it is well nigh impossible to remove the black patches caused by the freckles without at the same time destroying the modelling of the face. yet it must be done, for probably the most severe stickler for truth would not insist on the black blotches that freckles produce in a photograph. a great deal can be done to improve a hard negative as soon as it leaves the fixing bath, by applying a mixture of hypo solution and a solution of ferricyanide (not ferro) of potash with a piece of cotton wool to the dense parts. the proportions for this reducing bath are as follows:--to each ounce of the ordinary hyposulphite of soda fixing bath add a few drops of a % solution of ferricyanide of potassium or red prussiate of potash, making the whole about the colour of pale brandy. by adding more of the ferricyanide solution the reducing action is quicker, but there is a greater liability to stain the film. the work should be done over a sink with a tap of running water at hand. the solution should be of a deep lemon colour (it is almost impossible to give exact quantities), and after a short application must be washed off under the tap, and the negative may then be examined, and the reducer applied again and again till the desired reduction is obtained. it is advisable to make a few trials on spoilt plates. for if any really good work is to be done there will be plenty of rejected negatives. probably, of all the plates exposed on portraits by first-rate professional photographers, not more than one-fourth ever get as far as the printing-frame. moral: do not be chary of exposing plates, they are cheap enough now. don't feel, "oh! this will be good enough. i won't do another." on the other hand don't expose carelessly and recklessly and say, "it will all come right in developing." good work is not done that way. use every opportunity of seeing good work. study the work of great portrait painters, but don't neglect the photographers. go to all the exhibitions of pictures and photographs within reach. don't be satisfied with what you have done, but make a resolve to do something better next time. remember, what is worth doing at all is worth doing well. _harold baker._ [illustration: off boulogne. by a. horsley hinton.] _pictorial photography._ [illustration] unlike the subjects of the other articles in this book, in pictorial photography we are not brought to consider one of the many processes which go to make up the photographic craft, but merely a special and exceptional application of any and all means known to the photographer. the particular end to which this application is made will be explained as far as the limits of space will permit, and some of the methods of such application will be described. beyond this i have no intention of going. i do not present pictorial photography as a branch of photography especially worthy of study--i am not concerned in making converts. it is for the photographer who has already formed a desire to give his attention to the pictorial side of photography and who is seeking help, that this chapter is designed. first let us come to a mutual understanding as to the term pictorial photography. picture-making by photography would perhaps be a simpler phrase, but that to my mind the word "picture-making" is too similar in idea to boot-making, lace-making, etc., all of which imply a mechanical manufacturing, whereas a picture--a real picture--like a musical composition, a poem or a beautiful thought, grows or is evolved rather than made to order. art photography would be a better term, but that in photography the word "art" has been so often coupled with things the very antithesis of artistic and might hence be misleading, moreover the photographer will show discretion rather than weakness if he be not too hasty to claim for photography a position among the arts, and whilst its claims to that dignity remain as yet in dispute, we may be content with "pictorial photography" as a less assuming title, yet one which will sufficiently differentiate between what we may call the ordinary photographic production and---- well, what? that is the first thing i have to try and explain. look at the illustrations in this book on pages , , and , and, making due allowance for some loss of quality due to reproduction by a "half-tone" block, try to imagine what the originals were like. then say if they please you. if you say no, you do not care for them, they do not appeal to you, you do not mind if you never saw anything of the kind again from this day henceforth; very well, doubtless there are other things in the world in which you can find pleasure, but so far as my present subject is concerned, here you and i part company. these illustrations are more or less successful reproductions of pictorial work, and if you do not like them, making as i have said due allowance for their being reproduced and reduced, then it is certain you do not want to hear anything about them, and it is not my intention to persuade you, so please pass on and make room for those who do care for these things and wish to learn all they can concerning them, or at most stand aside and peradventure some stray word dropped unintentionally may quicken your interest and discover in you a sympathy of which you were previously unconscious. [illustration: miss lily hanbury--a portrait. harold baker.] referring now again to the illustrations which in the absence of anything else we take as fairly typical of pictorial photographs and assuming that one or the other, if not all, do please some of my readers, i will ask them to endeavour to analyse their feelings when confronting such productions. take now an ordinary commercial photographic view such as one may purchase from any sea-side stationer, and compare the sensations awakened by each. in the case of the topographical view we feel some satisfaction at being able to recognise a familiar spot, or the view reminds us of some other place, or it may be quaint buildings, or rugged mountains, or miles of foliage, or what not inspire curiosity or interest because we know the photograph to be a true record of facts, that is to say we accept the photograph in lieu of the actual presence of the objects represented, and experience nearly the same feelings as we should were we to visit the spot represented. we know that the wonderful, curious, or unusual things portrayed have an existence, otherwise we could not have a photograph of them. in all such cases our interest and value of the photograph would vastly diminish, were it possible for a photograph of this kind to be made simply by the photographer's hand and imagination without any original at all. you look at a photograph of this or that sea-side place and remark, "ah, yes, that's dear old yarmouth, many a time, etc., etc.," or else, "dear me, i wonder what place that is, it's so like----" such and such a town, or it may be you enquire "where's that?" and you express or think to yourself you would like to go and visit the spot. these and kindred sensations are those kindled by the average photograph, but there is yet another, for you may be impelled to exclaim, "how wonderfully clear and bright that photograph is," "what a good photograph." in this case you are interested purely in the execution as an example of clever manipulation and skilful craftsmanship. now, compare such feelings as these with those stirred by an example of good pictorial work. in the first place your esteem for it, if you value it at all, is quite as great whether you know the place where it was made or not. if it pleases you, that pleasure is not dependent upon the fact that it does represent some place. in the case of paintings and drawings as often as not they do not pretend to represent any place at all, but are pure fiction, yet we do not value them the less. to what then is the pleasure we feel when looking at a good picture due? is it not that a picture stirs up, that is, _creates_ pleasant or beautiful thoughts and ideas--by pleasant i do not mean necessarily merry or joyous ones, for some hearts feel profounder pleasure in the grandeur of storm or the majesty of the mountain than in the sweet wilderness of flowery wastes, but notice that such beautiful ideas are _created_ by the picture. you were thinking of something totally different before you came upon the landscape picture which instantly made you feel the glowing light, the stirring breeze, and hear the rustling corn and noisy brook, and yet it cannot be said it is because we _recognise_ these things in the picture that we receive these impressions, at least it is not the kind of recognition which takes place when we see a photograph of brighton pier or haddon hall. notice, it is not the exact and faithful portrayal of objects that creates the emotions instanced, for if you closely observe the manner in which a good painting is done you will find that rude splashes of paint, broad brush strokes, and the like stand for foliage or water, or corn stalks as the case may be, when we know that had the painter desired he _could_ have produced his likeness of nature with a good deal more of the precise detail and fidelity to outlines which photography excels in, _had he wished_. but if the painter or other pictorial artist needs not to trouble about accuracy to details to secure the effect aimed at he must be faithful to general facts. there is a great difference between not recognising things or having no particular wish to do so, and feeling conscious that a portrayal is so utterly unlike anything in our past experience of nature that we should not recognise the objects even if we _were_ acquainted with them. to take an extreme case--our enjoyment of the effect and sentiment of a beautiful landscape picture is not enhanced by our being able to recognise whether the trees are oaks or elms, but it would be distinctly disturbed if the palm trees were represented as growing on the slopes of a welsh mountain. innumerable examples and instances might be given to show that the artist, whatsoever his medium, be it colour or monochrome, may depart from truth, or may be indifferent to precise details, _only so far as he avoids palpable untruth_. why is this? when we look at a powerful and impressive picture we feel at once the sentiment, our emotions are at once stirred, subsequently we recognise objects and facts portrayed, but only when we begin to look for them or think about them; but a gross exaggeration or a very obvious error strikes us at once before we begin to receive sentiments and ideas, and that error or exaggeration once seen is never lost sight of, and whole enjoyment of the picture is hopelessly marred. now, from the foregoing (for want of space i am aware that the argument is incomplete, and must therefore ask the student to think the matter out and grasp the side issues by reading between the lines) we may formulate the broad definition that a picture does not depend for its excellence on the faithful representation of objects, and is not chiefly valuable on account of our immediate recognition of things portrayed, yet on the other hand it must not let us feel that there is obvious inaccuracy. here then we have two opposite positions in both of which the mere objects employed to build up the picture are subordinated to the effect or impression of the picture. in one case the spectator must not be allowed to feel that the representation is _wrong_, in the other success will not directly depend on the representation being very _right_, neither startling rightness or truth nor the obvious wrongness or untruth should thrust the objects composing the picture upon the beholder's attention, he should be left free to receive the expression or sentiment of it. i hope the reader is following me in this line of thought closely. i am aware that it may seem dry and uninteresting, but i see no other way of placing the student in a proper position at the outset than by explaining the essential elements of pictorial work, and i will make this introductory part as brief as possible. reverting now to our argument, i have in other words suggested that obvious violation of truth will prevent the sentiment or effect of the picture from being paramount, and now i will submit that an excess of accuracy to detail is equally detrimental to the success of a picture as a picture. if by now the reader is prepared to admit that the chief purpose of a picture is the feelings, emotions, ideas which it suggests or creates, and not the facts it portrays, he will be able to go further and perceive that in a landscape, for instance, cottages, trees, or what not are introduced, not for their own intrinsic interest but as vehicles of light and shade, which go to express the picture's sentiments. if we stand before a good picture with closed eyes and suddenly open them, our first impression (precluding any question of colour) is that of masses of light and shade pleasingly and harmoniously arranged; if we retreat to such a distance that the objects constituting those lights and shades are unrecognisable the balance and pleasing arrangement should still be felt, and our æsthetic sense is satisfied, although we do not see fully of what the picture is composed. this is the quality which is termed breadth and which is admittedly of very great value. if on the other hand the shadow masses are filled with innumerable details, and are thus broken up into tiny lights and shadows they no longer exist as broad masses of dark, but if before retreating as proposed from the picture, the lights or shadows appear so blank as to prompt particular investigation, and upon examination we find detail absent which we know must have been present, then we encounter an instance of untruth and exaggeration which is obvious and which disturbs our appreciation of other fine qualities. thus we require _sufficient detail to avoid giving the idea that detail is left out_. the delineation of sharp outlines and redundance of detail is not wrong in itself, but it is usually inexpedient when considered with respect to the effect to be produced, similarly the suppression of sharp focus both as regards outlines and details has no artistic merit of itself except as it assists the picture to impress the beholder first with the general effect. the painter and photographer start from two opposite standpoints. the painter, or draughtsman, starts with nothing but blank paper, and having built up his picture and produced his desired effect he elaborates no further; the photographer with his more or less mechanically produced _facsimile_ starts from the opposite extreme with a transcendentally elaborate image, from which he will require to eliminate all such excess of truth as is likely to force the mere facts of the view upon the beholder's attention. photography, so faultlessly complete in its delineation, gives us _more than the pictorial worker needs for the expression of an idea_, and this is why i would remind the student that pictorial photography is not photography in the full sense of the word, but the application of some of its powers, just as much as we need and no more, to a definite end. as just hinted the purpose of a picture is to express ideas, hence i will fall back on a kind of definition which i have used on a previous occasion that a picture is the portrayal of visible concrete things for the expression of abstract ideas. to give an example by way of exposition we may look upon a picture and be made to feel by it the calm and luminous atmosphere of evening; we feel at once the restfulness, and almost feel the warmth of the humid air, giving place to the chill gathering mists of night; but the same objects, the same tangible materials, paper, pigment, metallic salts, etc., in another picture give us the sense of angry turbulent storm or perhaps bright joyous sunshine frolicking with the fresh breezes on the hill-tops. these are abstract ideas expressed or created by the manner in which concrete things, commonplace facts, are portrayed and rendered. finally, let me enunciate that a very excellent photograph may not necessarily be a good picture, because it may contain more than is required for the expression of its idea, and the surplus will overwhelm it; again, a good pictorial photograph may be but a poor photograph, because if we claim the right to apply photographic means to pictorial ends, we may find it convenient to leave out the very qualities which the scientific or technical expert considers most precious. and now i think we may proceed to more practical matters. composition and selection. in all matters from which the eye expects to derive pleasure, symmetry of design seems essential. in the formation of the letters that we write, in personal attire, in the decoration of our homes, in buildings, and practically in everything which is not of a purely utilitarian character, a sense of proportion and a symmetrical disposition of parts is observed. hence it is no source of surprise that in a picture which as much as anything should aim at pleasing the eye, design, otherwise composition, is with expression a co-essential. in a purely decorative production this natural desire of design is the only thing to be observed, but in a picture which _may_ be decorative, but _must_ be something more, we have expression as well to consider. if decoration alone were to be regarded, something like fixed rules might perhaps be tyrannically laid down, but in a picture the implicit observance of rules of composition would be certain to make itself seen in the result, and the undue obtrusiveness of a code of rules would be as inimical to the supremacy of ideas and feelings, as the excessive prominence of fact would be, which has already been described. hence the difficulty in prescribing any definite course for the beginner, because whilst to most instinctive artistic temperaments a certain knowledge of or feeling for composition is natural, so soon as this is reduced to definite rule and given to another, the, as it were, secondhand use, is nearly certain to betray itself by its misapplication. i would ask therefore that any suggestions given here on the subject of composition should be taken as one takes lessons in the rudiments of a language, which rudiments we violate and forget so soon as we have become proficient enough to speak it. _such rules in composition should be observed only so far as to avoid the appearance of having infringed or ignored them._ the rules of composition which may be found to apply in one of the pictorial arts must necessarily apply equally in the others, and so therefore to pictorial photography which at least aspires to be considered an art. if on a sheet of paper a rectangular space is given us wherein to draw the likeness of anything, the most natural course to pursue would be to draw that figure in the centre or thereabouts, and if then we are asked to add the likeness of two or three more objects we should naturally place these near the first object. thus should we compose a group of objects which draw the attention to the middle of the picture or space. suppose we are asked to draw the picture of a church tower we should probably comply with the request somewhat as shown in fig. . next we will suppose we are asked to add a cottage, some trees, and a path to the church, we should, if possessed of some sense of symmetry and order, coupled with average intelligence, make the additions somewhat as in fig. . it would surely be an unusual thing to follow instead the course suggested by figs. and . in figs. and we have instinctively placed the primary object in or near the centre, and the others near and around it, and the result strikes one at once as being better composed, that is, more symmetrical, than in fig. , in which amongst other things one is not sure which object to regard as the principal one, and one also feels that but for the boundaries of the picture left and right we might have seen a good deal more beyond, which would have added to the interest of the picture. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] in this we have one of the first rules in composition, namely, that the principal object should be near the centre, and the next important near to, and as it were supporting it, and no object likely to attract the eye should be so near the edge of the picture as to make us instantly conscious of the boundaries and wish to see more beyond. but now if in compliance with the supposed request we had made our drawing as in fig. , might it not at once be felt by the observer that we had put the objects in a central position _intentionally_, which is equivalent to saying that we had allowed our endeavour to observe the rule just laid down to betray itself. fig. is preferable as being only just sufficiently symmetrical to avoid being unsymmetrical, which is an example of what has already been said about the necessity of observing rules of composition just so far as to escape the appearance of having broken them. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] if this rule is right as regards voluntarily drawing a picture, it is equally so in the case of a photograph, but instead of deliberately placing things in such and such positions, we attain the same end by moving the camera and selecting our point of view so that the objects come into the positions desired. now suppose then, we have done this, but in doing it we are quite unable to prevent other objects coming into the field of view and occupying undesirable places near the margins of the picture, as for instance in fig. . here we are brought to consider another rule or principle in composition, namely, that there must be one and only one chief object in the picture, whereas in fig. , apart from the gate and tree on the one side and the windmill on the other attracting attention to the margins of the picture, these same objects arrest the attention quite as much as the church, and we feel the eye wandering about from one to the other and missing the sensation of centralization and rest which fig. gives. if we were drawing or painting we should put in what we want and then stop, we should omit or ignore what we did not require, but in photography our powers in this direction are limited, and hence we must as far as possible select those views, and only accept such, as comply with what we feel to be right. the angle of view included by different lenses is an auxiliary not to be neglected, for by substituting a narrower angle lens, that is, one of longer focus, we may cut off or leave out undesirable objects which the shorter focus lens might include. then again, when the print is finished we can after careful consideration cut off what would have been better left out, for it will be better to have a picture half the size well composed, than double the number of inches with a distracting and unsatisfactory arrangement of objects, hence with many most successful workers it is no uncommon thing to take quite a small portion of a negative, and either print it as it is or else enlarge it up to the desired size, but mere size will reckon as nothing as compared with pleasing composition. if it is inexpedient to let the principal object or group of objects occupy the exact centre of the picture, measured from left to right, it is equally so if the centre be measured from top to bottom, and hence we may formulate the rule (to be broken perhaps later when we are strong enough to be independent of guiding) that the horizon should not be allowed to come midway between the top and the base of the picture. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] remembering now that, as set forth in the earlier part of this article, a picture should appeal to our feelings and stir our emotions, it may be pointed out that in most ordinary things, and certainly in the arts, the most powerful things are those which possess _one_ dominant idea or feature, as in a piece of music the refrain keeps recurring, a preacher takes a text, in a story there is _one_ hero, and so forth, and in point of composition fig. is better than fig. , although the view is less comprehensive. [illustration: fig. .] it may not, however, always be easy for the beginner to determine what is the chief object which should occupy the central position, or which object or group to choose in a landscape. [illustration: fig. .] this brings us to speak of another important matter, and that is the right disposition of lines which form the view or the selection of view so that the lines formed by the component parts shall fall in a desirable manner. the various objects in any view tend to form or suggest lines, thus in fig. the outline of the trees, the bank along the shore, the clouds, and the boats suggest the lines shown in the diagram, fig. , which lines all run the same way, but in fig. we have a similar view in which the lines suggested counterbalance each other, and not only so, but by their convergence they carry the eye to a spot near the centre, and so make the boat, although not very large nor conspicuous, the one and principal object (see diagram fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] for the sake of training one's perceptions look at any good pictures, and in your mind resolve them into line diagrams and see how these lines fall, and in considering any landscape or other subject to be photographed make up your mind as to what lines are suggested, and then select your point of view so that these lines balance or are symmetrical in arrangement, and also that they converge towards some point well within the picture, and near the centre of it. [illustration: fig. .] but in fig. we have a subject in part well composed, but the composition is spoilt because of the line formed by the road and fence, which seem to cut the picture in two, whereas could we have chosen the same subject from a point of view giving such an arrangement as fig. , a difference is at once felt and a more pleasing effect gained. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] lines which seem to separate us from the picture and cut off one part from another must be carefully avoided, and an endeavour to find something which will, as it were, lead the eye into the picture, should be diligently sought for, and indeed a subject, however it may interest us, must often be abandoned if it lacks those things which go to make pleasing composition, remembering as we should always do that in pictorial work the fact that objects are curious, or interesting, or pretty, has nothing to do with the case, but that they are only to be valued according as they act as media for expressing pleasing ideas, beautiful thoughts and sentiments, which they will not do if some part creates a feeling of unpleasing arrangement or design. if a scene does not compose well, we should as pictorial workers feel no desire to reproduce it. but you may say "cannot we often by changing our point of view get an otherwise ill-composed subject to compose well?" most decidedly, that is precisely what we should do, but it is no longer the same subject or view. and now let me say that it is often surprising how much alteration may be made by changing our position. figs. and are together an instance of this, the outline here given being made from a pencil sketch made on the spot, whilst figs. and are examples of the desirable change brought about by watching and waiting for a change in the position of light and the condition of the river's tide. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] where the beginner most often fails is in taking things as they are without pausing to consider whether they might not be improved, and if so in what way, and then patiently searching to see if such better way can be found. pictorial success will as often as not depend on the exercise of fastidious taste, which is satisfied with nothing but the very best, and not quite content even then. a great deal more might usefully be said with reference to the composition of lines if space would permit, but this general reference may be given as a sort of summing up. if the disposition of the lines constitutes such a perfectly symmetrical design that it is at once recognised as symmetrical, then it is wrong, because the artifice by which pleasing composition is attained is betrayed, and we feel the thing to be artificial. if, on the other hand, the lines fall so as to make the beholder conscious of their presence, as, for instance, cutting off a portion of the subject or presenting a one-sided appearance, again it is wrong. _in neither case should the lines or the objects suggesting them be felt at all until sought for, neither as being very right or very wrong._ in art it is a maxim that the means by which the thing is done should not proclaim itself, and hence it must apply to pictorial photography, which is an effort after the artistic. a composition should please without our quite knowing why, and without our being able to see the machinery, as it were, by which our pleasurable sensations are set in motion. but whilst it is convenient to speak of _lines_ in the landscape, it is only a manner of speaking, for, as we know very well, photography, unlike pen drawing, has to do with "tones," that is, _masses_ of light and shade. now the general rules suggested as regards the arrangement of lines, apply in much the same way if we regard a picture (as we should do) as consisting of masses of light and shade. if when standing before a picture we close the eyes and then suddenly open them, our attention is certain to be drawn to the highest light or the deepest shadow, and hence, as a general rule, whichever of these is the strongest to attract attention, that should be in or near the principal object (indeed it will make of itself the principal object), and should therefore be well removed from the margins of the picture. refer back to fig. , in which the light patch of sky, the light in the water and the two clusters of light rushes, all form competing points of attraction, and if these are too near the margins, they remind us of those margins, hence the improvement in effect when these are cut away or left out. but disposing of the highest light and deepest dark does not finish the matter. there is a certain relative degree of lightness and darkness between everything in nature. moreover, colours have to be interpreted by certain degrees of light and shade according to the distance objects are away from us, and according to the amount of light falling on them. such relative lightness and darkness is called "_tone_." the word used in this sense has nothing to do with "tone" as applied to the colour of a print, which colour we change by a process we call "toning," and upon the correct rendering of relative tones so much of the effect of a picture depends, and so much of its emotional qualities. generally speaking, although there are often exceptions, the further an object is from us the grayer it seems. white becomes less white, and dark objects grow less dark, until in the distance both, under ordinary circumstances, come almost to the same "tone," and we see the distance only as a gray hazy mass. if for a subject we have a figure of a woman by a stream of water and we make an under-exposed negative of it, or develop the negative to too great a density, we shall very likely have a print in which the water and the woman's apron and cap come very much whiter with regard to the rest of the subject than ever they appear in nature, whilst the distance will very likely come too dark. here we show a disregard for the correct rendering of relative tones and the effect is hard and harsh, unlike nature. we must therefore endeavour, both in exposure and development and printing, to preserve relative tones exactly as they are in nature, and constant study and observation of nature should be carried on in order that the eye may be trained to know how things come relatively in nature, and so be able to decide at a glance if the photograph is good. ultimate success, by the way, often depends less on knowing what to take and how to take it than on a well-trained judgment which knows what is good or bad when we have taken it. whilst the mere lines or forms of objects may impart some amount of feeling and sentiment to a scene, inasmuch as there is restfulness and repose in the long horizontal lines of the river-side pastures, something rhythmical in the sinuous curves of the winding stream, or vigour and variety in the irregular forms of the rugged cliffs and so on, yet the ideas and feelings which the picture will promote depend more on the lights and shades, and the masses contrasting or merging each with each. but nature does not always present herself in pleasingly arranged masses, and is consequently at such times commonplace and unpicturesque in the literal sense of the word. at such times she will not attract the pictorial worker any more than she will when perchance the lines and groupings are unsuitable. the landscape which basks under the full blaze of sun, glittering throughout every inch with a myriad twinkling lights and sharp details, awakens no feeling akin to those which probably everyone feels when in the twilight of evening plane after plane recedes as one broad flat tint behind the other. under the bright light of day we may wonder at the richness and plenty upon the earth, we may rejoice in that there are so many curious and pretty things to look at, but these are like the feelings inspired by reading a book on natural history, rather than the emotions created by the perusal of a poem, or listening to sweet music. [illustration: fig. .] compare for a moment the two photographs, fig. and fig. . the first is by no means an extreme case of the ordinary photograph, and notice that although the composition is fairly good as far as grouping goes, there is an absence of any quality which might make one feel anything outside the bare recognition of the facts depicted, but the second, if it be good at all, must depend for admiration on a certain amount of sentiment which it suggests or creates. you will notice that in the first there is no sense of distance, and although a church tower, behind the masts of the boats, is half a mile or so away it does not possess the "tone" and veiling of atmosphere which would make it appear distant. every part of the view seems equally near, or nearly so; the eye wanders over the whole, alighting on details here and there which interest and amuse, yet there is an absence of just that breadth which is noticeably present in the second example. [illustration: fig. .] now let it be distinctly understood that detail, its omission or suppression, and its introduction or sharp delineation, is not a question of lens focus only, or even chiefly, but it is largely a question of light. imagine the photograph, fig. , with the greater part of the detail taken out so that the quay, the houses, the shore, etc. were just broad masses of lighter or darker tone, should we not then get a composition which would be less disturbing, more compact, more concentrated in interest? is not this the case in fig. , in which detail is almost entirely absent? and yet detail could not have been truthfully introduced in this photograph, because with the light in the position it is, and in the misty evening air, _no detail was there to reproduce_; it was the fact that objects ranged themselves in masses one against the other, leaving room for imagination and creating ideas that determined its selection and its consequent portrayal. in many cases a clear and sharp delineation of details will perhaps be desirable, not, however, for the sake of showing detail, but just so far as the production of the effect may require; on the other hand, just the full amount of detail that a lens will give is by no means always wanted. _lenses were not invented for pictorial purposes_, and therefore there is no reason for concluding that what the lens gives is necessarily right, for remember that we started with the distinct understanding that we were merely _applying_ to a certain purpose just so much of the photographic process as we considered we needed; because i have the means of travelling at sixty miles an hour there is no reason why i should not apply the same means of locomotion to coaching a pedestrian at a tenth of that speed if i choose. it may be said that in the two photographs referred to the comparison is not a fair one, because so much depends on the sky. granted that much in the second example does depend on the sky, which is an essential part of the picture, and indeed one cause of its very existence, but in the other (fig. ) the presence of clouds would not improve the pictorial faults to which reference has been made. as a mere record or portrayal of old woodbridge quay, the absence of clouds is as much a characteristic of its particular species, as the clouds in the second one are inseparable from its existence. so, but little more than half hinting at the principles involved in the due suppression of unnecessary details, and the elimination of undesirable objects in order to obtain breadth, and having said but little as to the preservation of correct relative values or tones, i must pass on. every corner of nature's broad expanse is, as it were, enveloped in atmosphere, and invisible as we are commonly in the habit of considering it to be, it affects to a greater or less degree everything we see, and the visible atmosphere is often responsible for some of nature's most beautiful and most appealing aspects. obviously then we cannot afford to leave out so important a contributory to picturesque effect, and it is on this account rather than on account of sharp or un-sharp detail that the question of stops and lens apertures comes in. look at the image of a landscape on a moderately hazy day, as it appears on the ground-glass focussing screen of your camera, using the lens at full aperture--then quickly insert _f_/ , and notice the difference. not alone have objects near at hand and more remote become more sharply or more equally defined, but you may also notice that objects are _more brilliant_, and that a sense of atmosphere has been cut out. compare if you will two photographs, the one made respectively with full aperture of _f_/ or _f_/ and the other made with _f_/ or _f_/ , and provided that in the first case we have not actual blurring to the extent of destroying form and structure, does not the first remind you more of nature? i do not say it is so instructive, so surprising, so dainty, or of such exquisite finish, but is it not more reminiscent of the _effects_ we remember to have seen and _felt_ in nature. it is not the function of this article to say to what optical laws this difference is due, and yet the student may expect to receive something by way of practical working instructions. my recommendation is then to use a single landscape lens or the single combination of a doublet, and in starting to use the full aperture. with this it may be that when the foreground is moderately sharp, trees more remote are so ill defined as to appear as a collection of little blots and irregular patches. whilst sharp detail in all places may not be productive of pictorial effect, yet the extreme opposite will be displeasing in another way, and it will be best to secure just _so much definition and no more_ as shall save the representation from appearing to have been wilfully put out of focus--once let the destruction of detail be obvious and we betray the artifice by which we are working, which is just what we should avoid. in the case just supposed then, we may now introduce the first stop, simultaneously racking the lens in a little until we get middle distance without unpleasantly obvious blurring. the foreground may be a little out of focus, and in practice i find it is rather helpful to general effect if detail is sacrificed more in the foreground than in the middle distance. this i believe is contrary to the teaching of many, but my feeling is that with a sharply defined foreground the eye is attracted and the interest so far arrested, that it is difficult to travel further and enter into the poetry and sentiment of the scene beyond. wide-angle lenses have a double disadvantage, shared in part by so-called rapid rectilinear doublet lenses. in the first place they flatten the view, bringing distant planes to appear as near as the nearer ones, and by including a comparatively wide angle they bring into the plane of the foreground, objects so near that they appear out of proportion, and hence proportions are false when judged as the observer must judge by the standard of visual perspective. a long-focus, narrow-angle lens necessitates a camera which racks out to a considerable length, and probably a greater extension than any camera in the ordinary way can give, would be an advantage on some occasions. passing reference has been made to the interpretation of colours in nature in their true relative value of black and white. if we have a subject in which brilliant orange-coloured rushes in autumn are seen as glowing bright against a background of dark blue water, and the rushes made still more golden of hue by the ruddy rays of a sinking sun, a difficult case is before us. such a case i remember very well in the south of devonshire, close to what is known as slapton ley. it was late afternoon in november, and from over the rounded hills behind me to the westward, the declining sun sent warm red rays on to the belt of faded reeds which stretched out into the expanse of the still land-locked water of the ley--a great sheet of fresh water which placidly lay under the shelter of the bank of shingle which alone separated it from the ever-restless sea--placidly listening to the ceaseless voices of sea music, and at this particular hour reflecting the sky deep blue and of almost leaden hue--just above the bank rose the full moon, orange in tint, on a background of blue-green sky--the yellow reeds, kindled into glowing amber tints by the sun's rays, flamed out from the deep blue water--yellow the shingle bank against the blue water and green-blue sky, deeper yellow the moon as it rose from out the sea. so grand a scheme of colour that by its side the essays of the most daring painter might well seem feeble, so exquisite a poem that the intrusion of the photographer, analysing the values and tones and calculating his powers of reproduction seemed like sacrilege. in the main it was yellow, orange-yellow, and red standing out as luminous against the deep blue of water and only a little less blue sky. it was gorgeous non-actinic colour appearing as _light_ against a highly actinic but _darker_ colour. the consequence of an indiscreet exposure with an ordinary plate might be anticipated to produce _dark_ rushes against a _pale grey_ background of water, and so probably the very effect we were minded to secure, reversed and dissipated. this is an extreme case, perhaps, but throughout the whole range of nature the contrasting and blending of adjacent colours is so subtle a thing that i should feel one were throwing away at least a possible advantage by not using colour-corrected or isochromatic plates on nearly every occasion, and in order to get the full advantage of isochromatic plates, i should consider the addition of a yellow screen an essential. the rapidity of one's plates, isochromatic or otherwise, must be governed entirely by the nature of the subject, as also to some degree must be development and subsequent printing. in every case i would endeavour to get a comparatively thin negative, with even the portions representing deepest shadows slightly veiled. "clear glass shadows" is an enormity and an outrage both of science and art; equally are solid high-lights to be shunned. with modern printing methods it needs much less than actual opacity in the negative to produce white paper, and if the picture requires any part of it at all to appear as quite white, no subject will need more than the very smallest region to be so. a general softness and very subtle gradation, with a total absence of "sparkle" and brilliancy in the negative, will yield by at least most processes the most suggestive print, bearing in mind that delicate gradations suggest atmosphere, and atmosphere is one of nature's most precious qualities. whilst plain salted papers sensitized with silver present possibilities not yet sufficiently exploited, yet until such time that something more entirely satisfactory in all respects is given us in silver papers, platinotype and carbon, and perhaps also gum bichromate will be the processes most suitable for our purpose. personally, platinotype has been the favoured medium, being, as i believe, more ductile and more amenable to various methods of control than is generally recognised. and leaving much more of importance unsaid than space limits admit of my saying, i must leave it. _a. horsley hinton._ _architectural photography._ [illustration] to the majority amateurs, the photographing of architectural subjects presents considerable, and in many cases apparently insurmountable difficulties. undoubtedly there are difficulties to be grappled with, but they are neither so formidable nor so numerous, but that any ordinary photographer with the average amount of common sense can master them be he so minded. unfortunately there are a great many who take up photography as an amusement to whom the slightest departure from the ordinary routine presents a difficulty. it is however to the amateur photographer who desires to be able to portray architecture, be it either of our cathedrals, churches, historic mansions, or places of personal interest, and at the same time wishes to be able to do the subjects fair justice, that it is hoped the following particulars may be of some service. to the beginner taking up this or indeed any branch of photography, size is of course a great consideration either from the weight carrying or pecuniary point of view. another reason is the fact that young photographic workers have an idea that the smaller the plate, the easier the working. sound though this reasoning may appear, nevertheless it is not entirely correct. as a matter of fact all things being taken into consideration the larger the plate up to × or × employed the more rapidly will the worker progress. large plates, especially in architectural work, tend to make the operator more careful and conscientious when out with the camera; and even more so when in the developing room. so much more can be done with a large plate than with a small one; the use of a large plate moreover checks the common failing so prevalent among amateurs of rushing work and recklessly using plates. taking all things into consideration, i would strongly recommend the whole plate or × camera to the student taking up this branch of our art. in selecting a camera purchase a front extending one with bellows only slightly tapering. see that it has both rising and cross movement to the front, and also that the amount of movement in each case is a not too restricted one. makers, unfortunately, do not give sufficient attention to this matter, the usual rise allowed being very slight whereas it should be at least equal to one-third of the longest way of the plate; even more than this is advantageous if it can be obtained. by the rise i mean the amount of upward movement that can be obtained, the lens being in the centre before starting. the cross-front should have a movement of about one-quarter of the length of the plate each way. it may be useful to know that a little more rise can be obtained by the placing of the lens above the centre of the cross-front; reference to the photograph of camera will explain this matter more fully. the swing-back should be a practical one, working from the centre, and capable of being swung either to or from the lens. in many of the cheaper front extension cameras it is not possible to use the swing-back when tilting the camera down, only when tilting upwards. the swing-front, although not an absolute necessity, is undoubtedly a movement possessing great advantages, especially when the front is raised rather high, and one is using a lens of limited covering power. this movement should be acquired if possible. the camera should possess double extension, focussing by rackwork, and having a reversing back so made that it will fit on all ways; it is then possible to draw the slide shutter out in any position. in selecting a tripod stand purchase one of the kind known as the sliding leg variety, two-fold is better than three, giving greater sliding power. the top of stand should be as large as possible; this is preferable to a turntable, as this piece of workmanship is seldom rigid after a little use, and some difficulty is experienced when trying to spread the legs out rather wide. a two-fold ashford stand is as good as any on the market. the blocks herewith illustrate the kind of camera used by myself, and with the exception of the turntable, which is not a great success, it answers all requirements. in the selecting of suitable lenses a great deal will depend upon the inclination of the purchaser and the depth of his pocket. there is such a great variety upon the market at the present time, that to the young photographer the buying of the right lenses is somewhat a difficult problem. [illustration] [illustration] the zeiss series are undoubtedly the finest obtainable and for architectural work are unrivalled, possessing great covering power, good marginal definition, and in fact very fine definition all over the plate. the lenses of this series, although quite new, have met with great favour amongst architectural workers. they work at an aperture of _f_/ , but i understand that they can be opened to _f_/ and numbered on the _f_ system. as regards their relative working capabilities they give about the same picture at _f_/ that the majority of wide-angle lenses give at _f_/ . the goerz anastigmats are also another very fine series but do not give anything like the covering power of the last mentioned, and moreover are nearly double the price. their special merit is that one can work at _f_/ or _f_/ , and get a picture sharp up to the edges. taylor, taylor & hobson also make a good wide-angle lens, possessing great covering power and at a moderately low price. with one of their nine inch lenses i have covered a plate × inches. [illustration: "gather the roses while ye may, old time is still a-flying." alex. keighley.] for a whole-plate camera, a useful battery would be a inches, - / inches, inches and inches; for × , inches, inches, - / inches and inches. the three last in each case are the most useful. having selected the lenses, another very important point and one not to be decided hastily is the question of levels. four are required, two circular and two ordinary. they are placed as follows: fix the circular levels, one on the baseboard near the front of the camera, the other on the top of the back part of camera. the other two should be placed one on the side of the back part and the other on the back of camera just under the reversing back. care must be taken to purchase slow moving levels as some work so quickly that it is next to impossible to level the camera with them, and as this is one of the most important points in the whole business, too much care cannot be taken in selecting and fixing the right kind of level. [illustration] the focussing screen should be ruled as accompanying diagram. this will divide the screen into inch squares, working from the centre, and will considerably assist the photographer in "sizing his subject up." one other thing required is a set of clamps for binding the tripod legs together. these are, i believe, made by george mason, of glasgow, but any dealer will procure them for you. the use of the right kind of plate constitutes a very important factor in the production of a satisfactory negative, particularly in this branch. owing to the greater difficulty experienced in developing extra rapid plates, one generally sees the slower variety recommended. no hard and fast rule can however be laid down. to gain the best result, the plate must be suited to the subject. for instance, in a very dark interior in which heavy black shadows predominate, many of them appearing much darker than they really are owing to their close proximity to a strong light, the quicker the plate used the better. this tends to break down the harsh contrasts, and at the same time the shadow detail is considerably better rendered. on the other hand, working in a light interior or one which is flat owing possibly to the large amount of light present, a slower plate can be used with advantage, and, providing the exposure is sufficient the result will be all that is wished for. exteriors, particularly those in sunshine, should be photographed on a fairly quick plate. slow plates, although good, do not yield nearly such good negatives, and unless very fully exposed give excessive hardness. taking this class of work all round, the quick plate is the more useful of the two and is undoubtedly the best for interior work, particularly such interiors as one meets in our english cathedrals. for all subjects possessing strong high-lights, such as windows, stained or otherwise, rapid plates combined with a suitable backing composition yield the best results, and i would impress upon the reader the fact that no plate should ever be placed in a dark slide without being covered at the back with a suitable composition for the prevention of halation. [illustration] the value of this agent is distinctly demonstrated by the accompanying illustrations, and i would point out the fact that the negatives were both developed with the utmost care. the unbacked plate was so developed as to prevent the appearance of halation as much as possible, and it will be noticed that all portions of the photograph, other than that where halation has occurred, are nearly as good in the unbacked as in the backed one. having obtained all the apparatus and materials, a very good subject to begin on and one giving good opportunities for the exercise of the various movements connected with the camera, etc., is a general view of the choir in some cathedral or church near at hand. having erected the camera, the next thing is to decide upon the most pleasing point of view. speaking from my own experience i would advise the shifting of the camera either to the right or left, so that the centre aisle is thrown slightly in perspective. this tends to give a much better and decidedly more pleasing effect to the resulting photograph. of the two sides, moving to the right seems to be the best. the next item is the fixing of your ground line, this must be so arranged that it is quite clear, not obstructed by the backs of chairs, etc., which look very badly if left standing. personally, i have generally found it necessary to move one or two rows of chairs so as to make the ground line myself. in adjusting the height of the camera from the ground it is well never to exceed six feet. five feet to five feet six inches is the most useful height. this will give a photograph in which the point of sight is the same as that of the person actually viewing the subject. the placing of the camera on step ladders, chairs, or other supports, so as to overlook objects in the immediate foreground is a practice to be condemned, giving results very rarely pleasing and always bad from the sightseer's point of view. having settled upon the point of view and the lens to be used, the student should then roughly focus the image. notice the amount of subject on the plate and how much rise is required. if having a camera such as described, the rise is easily accomplished and the camera can then be truly levelled up. care should be taken over this as unless you have the camera exactly level you cannot expect a true picture. the bubbles of the levels should be _exactly_ in the centre, _a little bit out will not do_. [illustration] if it is found that the rising front fails to give the amount of subject required, recourse must be made to the swings, and it is here that the swing front triumphs over the swing back. to swing the back necessitates the shifting of the camera and tripod stand, and at once throws all the levels out of gear. then comes re-focussing, etc. sometimes this will have to be gone through five or six times before the desired amount of swing has been achieved. owing to the re-focussing required every time the camera is moved it is very difficult, especially for the beginner, to rightly estimate the amount of rise required. with the swing front the desired amount of rise is attained easily and quickly, and it can be worked with the head still under the focussing cloth, which is a great convenience. at the same time the baseboard and back of camera always remain level. after gaining the correct amount of rise the sides of the subject should be considered. a golden rule to remember in this class of work is when you show a column, show the base of it, and always start the sides of plate with either half or three-quarters of a column. it looks very queer to see the bend of an arch wandering away out of the side of the picture without any apparent support. in arranging the sides it is usual to have a preponderance of subject on the opposite side to which the camera is, and to start that side with a column. sometimes the subject fails to fit the plate nicely, in that case it is better to trim the print than to have uninteresting features present. of course a great deal depends upon the personal taste of the worker, what one man considers right another will rebel against; so although i advocate the use of columns to fill the sides of the plate it does not follow that that is the one and only method of photographing these subjects. the student having carefully gone into these matters and arranged the subjects to suit his own satisfaction the question of what point to focus for arises, and indeed in very dark interiors the question of focussing anything at all comes in. a method i use myself is to roughly divide the distance from the camera to the farthest object in half, and then to focus midway between the camera and the middle of the subject. then stop down the lens until the most distant object is sharp. in practice i have found this rule so good that i can recommend its adoption for all subjects, and if carried out correctly will always result in the production of crisp negatives. exposure is not a very difficult thing to overcome. arrange the focussing cloth well over the head, open the lens out to its largest aperture and remain under the cloth until you can see the image distinctly all over the plate. then without uncovering the head proceed to slowly stop down until you can only just see the image all over the plate. now using a plate of the rapidity of barnet extra rapid, an exposure of ten minutes will yield a satisfactory fully exposed negative. the varying exposures for other plates and stops are easily obtained. for instance you find the image can just be seen all over at _f_/ and you wish to use _f_/ the exposure will be forty minutes. after having used this method for over seven years, and having invariably found it correct, i can unhesitatingly recommend its adoption, and if used with a little common sense the worker will seldom suffer from his plates being either badly under or over-exposed. in photographing side aisles, transepts, or long rows of pillars, the worker is often troubled by the unnatural way in which the floor runs up. this is more especially noticeable when there are no prominent objects in the immediate foreground. a considerable amount of this can however be overcome by the lowering of the camera to about three feet from the ground. it is here where the sliding legs of the tripod stand become of service. i would ask the student always to use the longest focus lens possible, consistent with the effect desired. the use of extreme wide-angle lenses has had a disastrous effect upon the public taste in respect to architectural photography due principally to the abortions one sees exposed for sale in the shop windows of our cathedral cities. it should be seldom necessary for the amateur to use very wide-angle lenses. of course, when it is a question of getting a detailed photograph in a confined situation a wide-angle lens is of great service. but it is when you see the whole length of a cathedral photographed on a whole plate with a five inch lens that the fault is so noticeable. in photographing exteriors great care should be taken in the placing of the camera in a suitable spot. try and so arrange it that the short side of the building does not run off too violently, indeed, it is often much better to leave out a portion of the subject rather than to cram the whole subject upon the plate. general views are much better if photographed when there is a little sunlight. this gives to the subject a sharp, clean-cut appearance. details on the other hand are better if photographed in a subdued light and slightly over-exposed. in focussing very high subjects some difficulty will be found in getting bottom and top in focus at the same time, especially if the lens be strained by either altering the back or front of the camera. the best place to focus is a little way above the centre of the screen, so that when stopped down the bottom of the building is quite sharp. a slight softness towards the top of the subject is scarcely noticeable in the final print. the exposure of exteriors varies between three seconds at _f_/ to ten minutes, and no correct guide can possibly be given. to the beginner a watkins' exposure meter will here be of some service. if people are continually passing and repassing stop the lens down to _f_/ and give as long an exposure as is possible; this will as a rule completely obliterate them. i have found that an exposure of from ten to twenty seconds entirely destroys all trace of moving objects. another method of making an exposure where there is much traffic past the building, and perhaps people standing about whom you cannot very well ask to move, is, to break the exposure as many times as possible. expose for two seconds, then wait until the traffic has somewhat altered; then give another two seconds and so on until finished. by this means i have been able to photograph buildings in the centre of a crowded street or thoroughfare without a trace of anybody showing. it is often interesting for the student to be able to successfully tackle the photographing of drawing-room, ball-room, or other apartments either of his own or friends' houses. this work is considerably more difficult than it seems; and it is in such subjects that the taste of the operator becomes manifest. a great deal depends upon the point of view chosen and also upon the arrangement of the furniture. if a long room, the camera should be placed at one end at about a quarter of the width of room away from one side and from the end wall. keep the camera parallel with the sides of the room and use the sliding front so as to obtain more of the opposite side of the room. this will give the ceiling a true square appearance and the side of the ceiling will not run off with an unpleasing effect. in some subjects it is perhaps necessary to include one or more windows. this can of course be accomplished by the aid of backed plates, but it is always better to block those particular windows out. this is usually done by covering the outside with black cloth or brown paper or pulling the sun blinds down. to get the effect of the windows you must remove the paper or cloth at the end of the exposure for a few minutes, three minutes being generally sufficient. by this means it is possible to show the landscape as seen from the window. do not place your camera too high. four feet to four feet six inches is quite sufficient. if the camera is higher you look over the immediate foreground objects, touching the ground past them, which is undesirable. in arranging the furniture be careful that round or oval objects are not placed so that they appear on the edges of the plate which gives them an exaggerated appearance. in exposing on all such interiors i would strongly recommend a very full exposure, the object being to flatten the subject. a great thing to study in this branch of work is the careful lighting of your subject. this can be largely varied by the use of the inside blinds, also by the sun blinds found outside many windows. it is _not_ advisable to draw the blinds up to their fullest extent. by so doing you accentuate your cast shadows thrown by tables, chairs, etc. in fact, the softer the light in the room coupled with a corresponding exposure, the better the result. another point to notice is that a comparatively dull day is often the best for interior work, the light being much softer and subdued. as a slight guide to exposure i would suggest that an additional twenty-five per cent. be added to that recommended for church work. _john h. avery._ _the hand camera and its use._ [illustration] what is the best form of hand camera? how often this question is asked, and yet how impossible to give any definite reply, the conditions of use, and requirements of each worker being so widely different. one, desires a form of apparatus, capable of being closed up into the smallest space, weighing but the least possible number of ounces, the necessary movements, confined to touching a spring, or pressing a button, and the total cost not to exceed two or three pounds, while others do not care so much as to its possessing these qualities, if by a little increase in bulk, weight, and cost, it is capable of use in a less restricted manner, on subjects of wide variety, and under such conditions of light, and atmospheric effects, as, when shutter exposures are being given, call for the _maximum light passage_ to the plate. assuming the camera to be intended exclusively for use without a tripod, then it becomes not a difficult matter to point out its essential features. first and foremost, it should be characterized by simplicity in construction, and every part be easily accessible, complicated movements being rarely found necessary, except perhaps, to raise the price of the instrument. when being employed in the field, the camera and its working parts ought not to need the slightest consideration, each movement, whether they be few, or many, being made, without requiring troublesome attention at the moment when every thought should be devoted to the subject. the component parts of an instrument, complete and effective for this class of work, may be taken to be a good lens capable of covering at _f_/ , a shutter, some simple means of focussing, adequate finders, and the means of carrying plates either in some form of magazine, or ordinary dark slides. each system of holder for plates possesses its own distinctive advantages, which are preferable, depending entirely on individual needs, or tastes. some admire one method, and some the other. when plates are carried in one of the many forms of magazine which cameras are nowadays fitted with, it is _important when re-charging it_, that care be taken to see _each sheath and plate is laid true_ in its place, as the slightest irregularity at this point, means certain trouble when changing a plate after exposure, indeed, perhaps fifty per cent. of the misfortunes which occur when out at work, from failure to act of the changing arrangements, _are directly caused by carelessness when laying the plates in the magazine_. given reasonable care in this matter, almost any of the modern automatic changing methods, may be relied on to answer satisfactorily. when however the slight additional bulk, weight, and it may be increase of cost is not objected to, then there can be no denying separate dark slides possess many and important advantages. no need to fear a wasted day, caused by some plate sticking, and rendering further work impossible, without having recourse to a dark-room, which probably is miles away; and again, one must not overlook the opportunity they give of carrying plates of different degrees of sensitiveness, a matter of service, when subjects to be dealt with are varied, such as, say, clouds and water, landscapes and figures. in the first case, when light is fairly good, the ordinary speed plate will be found amply quick enough during the daytime, and fifty per cent cheaper in price. when open landscapes are being taken, during summer time, medium rapid plates generally will be quick enough, but many opportunities, for pictorial work, arise under conditions of atmosphere and light, in which to obtain fully exposed negatives with a shutter, demands a plate of extreme sensitiveness, and if for no other reason than that they offer this opportunity of carrying a varied assortment of plates, many workers prefer dark slides, to any form of magazine. there are advantages, and disadvantages, with both systems, and it becomes simply a question for each worker to consider which fulfills his requirements best. _the lens._--good work can be, and is done, with cheap single lenses, but the opportunities offered are considerably restricted, what is needed, being such a lens as may be used at full aperture of _f_/ or _f_/ , and will then cover the plate from corner to corner, sharply. this is necessary not only because the actinic quality of light is not always over good, but that moving subjects demand the shutter should be working with rapidity, sometimes indeed with considerable speed: under which conditions two factors are absolutely essential, a large working lens aperture, and a rapid plate. it is well, therefore, to _buy the best lens you can afford_, it more than pays in every way. for / -plate work, a _rectilinear_ of , or - / in. focus, working say at _f_/ . , and with iris diaphragm, by one of the best makers, will allow work being done under any condition of weather, or other circumstances, when shutter work is possible. _finders._--years ago, the question of whether finders were necessary, or not, in a camera of this kind, was a matter on which some at least expressed very different opinions, from those now held by most workers. further experience has shown that when certainty in working is desired, some kind of finder is an absolute necessity as part of the working mechanism. it usually takes the form of a small camera obscura, what is required being, that it should not be too small, should give a perfectly discernible image, and be so adjusted, that only so much of it is shown, as will be projected on to the sensitive plate, when the exposure is made. the reason of its importance is that it _enables the subject being arranged_ tastefully, as well as ensuring that the whole of it is on the plate. where no attempt at pictorial work is intended, and the important matter is simply that the object being photographed should be in the _centre of the plate_, then it is only necessary that the finder should show as wide an angle of vision, or a little wider than the lens being employed inside the camera. but when something more is aimed at, _viz._: _tasteful composition over the whole plate_, then it is necessary to block out on the finder all excess of view, beyond what will be received on the sensitive plate. _the shutter._--what particular form may be best is a matter of doubt, but whatever it be, exposure must be possible without vibration, it should give greater exposure to the foreground than the sky, and ought to allow of being regulated for exposures ranging from / th of a second up to perhaps / th for ordinary work. where shutter work has to be done, which demands anything less than / th of a second, then special shutters for the purpose are needed, but after having used hand cameras of one form or another for the last nine or ten years on such classes of subjects as are ordinarily dealt with, the occasions on which any greater speed than / th of a second has been called for have been extremely rare. it may be said this would not allow of taking subjects such as a close finish of a cycle race and such like, which is quite true; did occasion arise for so doing, then a shutter such as the focal plane would be employed as a matter of course. but by far the greater amount of work done with hand cameras would be the better for receiving a longer exposure, better because light action on the sensitive plate would be more thorough, and far better because when slowly moving objects, such as waves rolling shoreward, are given / th instead of / th of a second, we get less of "_petrified naturo_," and a more natural appearance in the resulting photographs. as a general rule it is well to give the _slowest exposure possible_. _the focussing arrangements._--these need be only very simple, and generally are done by scale to distances. as a rule with the lens working at _f_/ , and the scale set at feet, it will be found that the depth of focus is sufficient for most ordinary work, and any alteration in the focussing seldom necessary, when dealing with subjects where figures are included, that are not required to be approached much closer than the distance mentioned. so far as may be necessary for _hand-camera work_ simply, the instrument should be without complications, is better for having a _good rectilinear lens_, needs a shutter easily adjusted for exposures ranging if possible, from a / th of a second, up to say / th, properly adjusted finders, some means of quickly altering the focus of lens, one or other method of carrying the plates or films, and for _purely hand-camera_ work, there is _no need_ for any other addition to it. passing away from the camera to its use, one is faced immediately with the fact, that in spite of the multitude of such instruments now in use, the _general average of results_ produced by its means are, in quality, unmistakably below those done with a camera and tripod, nor is the reason for this far to seek. in the latter case, a plate of medium rapidity is generally employed, such an exposure given, as makes no serious _strain_ on the developer used to bring the latent image fully out; the action of light having been ample, and the plate not so easily spoiled, as one of higher sensitiveness, there is not that call for such skilful treatment, as where light action on a highly delicate emulsion, has been but brief, and needs to receive careful handling, before good, well-graded negatives may be produced. to use a hand camera is the simplest matter imaginable, to properly employ it the most difficult--simple, because of the facility with which plates may be exposed, difficult, because to succeed, demands careful practice, and a thorough understanding of photographic manipulation. we must have _learnt to see_, and that quickly, must have gained coolness and self-restraint, and perhaps not the _least qualification necessary is that of being a good photographer_. whether content to produce good straightforward representations of such scenes as come before you, or more ambitious attempts at pictorial work be made, they can both be done with the hand camera quite as well, nay indeed, given sufficient technical skill, and trained perception to see the beauty presented in line and mass, it is by no means clear this form of implement does not offer greater facilities for successful working, than the more complicated form used with a tripod. [illustration: birch and bracken. w. thomas.] the choice of subject is only bounded by the limits of exposure, speed of plate and actinic action of light available. the first has already been touched upon, when the lens, and shutter, were dealt with. plates have recently been so increased in speed, that it becomes necessary to somewhat modify advice, which a year or two ago, might have been perfectly correct, _viz._, to work with the fastest plate procurable. but there is this advantage now, as then, that if some convenient form of actinometer be used to test the light, we are able to judge at once, what speed of plate will be necessary to deal with each subject as it arises. there are several forms available, amongst which, the one introduced by watkins, made so that it becomes a permanent part of the camera, answers remarkably well, especially as it cannot be left at home, without being noticed. in developing shutter-exposed plates, if full exposure has been obtained, then the ordinary modes of procedure suffice, so also when over-exposure occurs, but by far the greater proportion of failures one sees in this class of work, arise simply _from under-exposure_. there seems so much charm in driving a shutter at its highest speed, and at the same time using the lens stopped down, to secure sharp definition, the wonder is, not that failures flourish, but that any good work is done at all. with regard to particular developers there is only this to be said. whatever agent be employed, so arrange that before density is obtained, _all the detail you require_ is first brought out; this simply means, if pyro is being used, it is kept low, until the plate is ready to be treated for density, then a further addition of pyro and bromide will generally suffice to rapidly finish off the work. when a batch of exposed plates is being dealt with, a most certain method of negative making, will be found in employing in one dish, either one or other of the following one-solution developers:-- no. formula. amidol grains sodium sulphite / oz. water " no. formula. dissolve in water oz. metol grains then add sodium sulphite - / oz. carbonate of soda (crystals) - / " bromide of potassium grains no. formula. sodium sulphite - / oz. carbonate of potassium / " eikonogen / " boiling water " any of the above developers will be found to rapidly bring out all there is in the plate, and if over-exposure is feared, they may all with advantage be diluted, with an equal quantity of water, in order to slow down their action. in another dish, it is advisable to have the following _re-developer_, to impart density to the plates, as they become ready for that operation, or to successfully deal with any, which are found to have been considerably over-exposed, and upon which, the first developer is acting too vigorously. re-developer. no. . hydroquinone / ounce sodium sulphite " potassium bromide / " boiling water " no. . washing soda ounces sodium sulphite " water to make " for use mix equal quantities. by employing two different developers in the manner suggested, it becomes a simple matter to produce good negatives, from plates having had all kinds of exposures, some under, some over, and it may be some which have had about the right exposure; in this way one of the most fruitful causes of failure in the production of hand-camera pictures, _error in exposure and development_, is minimized, if not altogether done away with. there are sometimes occasions when out with a hand camera, when subjects present themselves, offering exceedingly good opportunities for securing pleasing little pictures, but which require one, or two seconds' exposure, to render them successfully. at such times it may generally be arranged to rest the camera on a stone, wall, or gate, or to hold it pressed against a tree, or some other rigid support. as an example, the illustration of a woodside with birch trees, facing page , may be pointed to. in this instance, when out cycling, the place and lighting on the tree trunks, struck us as pleasing, and worth trying to secure a record of, even though but a hand camera was being carried at the time. having dismounted, and found a point from where it might be attempted, and where conveniently grew a single tree, the lens was opened to (if recollection does not deceive) _f_/ . then the camera jammed close to the tree trunk, and two seconds' exposure given, taking especial care that no movement took place. the plate being in due time carefully developed, and as far as possible contrasts kept down, the result proved satisfactory enough. it could more conveniently have been photographed, of course, if a camera and tripod had been available, but it is one of many such instances, where, when shutter exposures only had been prepared for, occasions arose, demanding longer exposures than were possible, unless, some such temporary support be pressed into use, as in this instance. for successful work, see that the camera is simple, its parts, of the best your pocket can afford. give the slowest exposures your subject will allow. develop for softly modelled negatives first, getting what density is required afterwards. see that the camera is held perfectly steady, during exposure, and don't forget it is simply a camera, and lens, and will require _you behind it_, just the same as any other employed with a tripod, and in conclusion bear always in mind, _it is the simplest form of camera work and the most difficult_, making the utmost demands on your skill, if high-class results are to be the outcome of its use. _w. thomas._ _lantern slides._ [illustration] a lantern slide is a transparent positive on glass or other transparent support, usually - / inches square, and is placed in the lantern in such a way that by suitable illumination and optical arrangements the image on the slide is made to intercept some of the light given off by the illuminant from a screen, which without the screen would be wholly and evenly illuminated by the light. in viewing a paper print we are really observing the paper by reflected light, part of our view being intercepted by the image formed of pigment or reduced metal; the amount of light not being very great a very thin layer of pigment is required to produce the appearance of a sufficiently robust image. if the image alone or with its vehicle be stripped from a good print on paper this image viewed by transmitted light will be found to be extremely faint, far too faint to be of any use as a "transparency," and also too thin to be of any use as a lantern slide. on the other hand, what we know as a "transparency," such as is often used for window decoration, backed, perhaps, with ground glass, would be found much too dense or robust for use as a lantern slide. in density, then, a "slide," as it shall hereafter be called, comes between the image on a paper print and that on a "transparency." in "gradation," or gamut of tones, the slide ought to be superior to either the paper print with its almost absolute clearness over large areas, or the transparency with its dense shadows and its comparatively heavy lights. in fact, in a good slide we have every grade of deposit from perfect transparency to nearly complete opacity. but the extremes must be very sparingly present, and the transition from one tone to another must be gradual, all intermediate notes between highest and lowest should be represented. other qualities go to make the perfect slide; the metallic or other deposit forming the image must be in the utmost degree fine, no approach to "grain" must be perceptible even under the highest magnification. the colour, or "tone," must be not only pleasant but appropriate. the loss of light in its journey from the illuminant to our eyes is enormous; the disc on the screen is simply a greatly magnified image of the light, and here is great loss; add to this the interception of some light by the opacity of the slide, and the fact that much more is lost in reflection from the screen, and absorption by the screen, and it is easy to realize that the image from the screen reaching our eyes is vastly less bright than that reaching the eye when, for instance, we examine a slide in the hand by transmitted light. and loss of light means increase of contrast, so that a slide which would seem about right in gradation in the hand would be altogether soot-and-chalk as a screen-image. so too if we have in the slide already shut out much light, by making the slide foggy, or over dense, it is easy to see that when the image reaches our eyes from the screen this vicious opacity will be immensely increased in its mischievous properties. the first style of slide gives screen-images sometimes called "midsummer snow-scenes"; the other slide is simply called "foggy." both must be assiduously avoided. it need hardly be said that the plates prepared by some processes are more likely to yield good slides, such as are described above, than plates prepared by other processes; no one process can claim to possess in itself superiority in all respects. collodion, for instance, is less apt to give foggy slides, and it is easier to intensify than gelatine, but it is also more prone to give "hard" images. collodion is at its finest in the form of collodio-bromide emulsion, which gives slides remarkable for fineness of grain, for clearness, and for richness of tones; but when we have to copy in the camera, the operation with collodion emulsion is protracted, unless we have bright daylight or a condensing arrangement, which with large negatives is often out of the question. on the whole it may be taken that gelatine-bromide emulsion is the process to be recommended, not only on account of its convenience and celerity, but in view of the many inherent points of excellence that it possesses. in any case, want of space will cause us to confine attention here to that process, and any one mastering the use of gelatine-bromide slide-plates will have nothing to fear from competition with other processes in all-round work. the writer has a leaning towards slide-plates as slow as he can procure them, because slowness almost always goes hand in hand with fineness of grain and freedom from fog. there is one point of importance that should be noted in working with gelatine for this purpose. distilled water should be used if possible for all solutions. tap water--especially hard water--is apt to produce with the gelatine a certain amount of scum which, if present in any appreciable degree, cannot fail to affect the quality of the slides; but treatment with an acid alum bath as described later has a very salutary effect in removing any scum that may have formed during the "liquid" operations. in the mechanics of making a slide from a negative we have only two methods to consider. if the slide-image is to be the same size as the negative, or a part of the negative, we print by _contact_, that is, we put the negative and the slide-plate face to face in contact, and we expose to light, the negative being next to the light; this corresponds with making a print on paper. but when we desire to make a slide including all the subject of a negative larger than a slide-plate, or, in fact, when we desire to alter the size of the image at all, we copy the negative "in the camera." the simplest method of doing this is to fix up the negative so that it is evenly lighted and make a photograph of it in a camera; but the adjustments necessary for such an operation would be found awkward, and so a "reducing camera" of some kind is generally used. many such cameras are on the market, and consist of devices for holding the negative in a suitable position with regard to a small camera furnished with a lens and a dark slide holding a lantern plate. either the negative-holder or the camera should have possible movement in all directions vertical to the optical axis of the whole, and in addition it is often desirable to have a certain amount of movement in other planes, in order to correct certain optical defects that are sometimes found in negatives. the writer has for many years used a small camera with its front stuck into the front of a large camera, one or other of these cameras has every necessary movement. the device is figured here. [illustration] whatever arrangement is used the end of the apparatus bearing the negative is directed towards a good and even light; and it is well to place about two inches in front of the negative towards the light a piece of finely ground glass for ordinary negatives; this glass is with advantage omitted with extra dense negatives. it goes without saying that the exposure, whether we are working by contact or in the camera is of the utmost importance; but it is not possible in an article such as this to give even an approximate idea of the exposure suitable under any concatenation of conditions. the best clue to exposure is to be found in development, and in results. it is necessary to know what happens after normal exposure with a given developer, and then if any variation is noticed to alter the exposure. if a plate develops more rapidly than the normal, it may fairly be deduced that the exposure has been too long; but if we are dealing with a specially contrasted negative it is better so. on the other hand, when we are dealing with a thin negative, especially if the scale of gradation is short, we require an exposure less than what would under normal conditions lead to complete development in the normal time. and again some plates require to be developed to a greater point of apparent density than others; this is a matter of experience. briefly put, there is no royal road to good slide-making, experience is necessary. in actually making the exposures certain points must be kept in mind. if we are copying in the camera with daylight as illuminant it is very important to use the light from the north; if we use other light we shall be much put out on most occasions by awkward variations of the brightness. a very large number of operations are rendered nugatory by carelessness in this matter. even the most experienced worker will find it impossible to expose plates with anything like accuracy when he has to deal with direct sunshine at one time, thin white clouds at another, and dark clouds at a third. and in making exposures by contact the beginner must be fairly accurate in judging the time of exposure and the distance from the radiant. a good plan is to tie to the gas jet a piece of cord having knots at convenient intervals, such as at , , and inches, and in making an exposure to use these knots as guides to the distance; moreover, the law of "squares of distance" must be remembered; the intensity of light varies inversely as the square of distance from radiant to receiver, provided, of course, no optical arrangement is introduced to modify the path of the rays. consequently, for example, if ten seconds is found to be a proper exposure at nine inches from the light, the corresponding exposure at eighteen inches will not be twenty, but forty seconds ( ^ = . ^ = ). and as it is sometimes awkward to hold the frame and attend to a watch at the same time, a metronome, ticking seconds, will be found convenient, or a clock with a second hand may be placed where it can be seen during the exposure. a landscape slide without clouds, if the horizon is in the picture, is usually considered a failure, and has been dubbed "bald-headed." really good workers often put clouds into slides by "combination printing," which in some cases is comparatively easy, in others very difficult. if we are working by reduction from a good-sized negative, with a fairly even horizon, the difficulty is not great. the landscape part of the negative is first exposed, the sky being masked if necessary, and a cloud negative is then substituted for the landscape negative, a part of the former being masked to correspond with the landscape on the latter, and a second exposure is made on the same slide-plate. admittedly in all cases this requires "some doing," in many cases it is extremely difficult. an easier, if less "sportsmanlike," method is to make the cloud slide on a separate slide-plate, and to use the latter as a "cover-glass" for the slide. the cloud may cover the whole of the second slide, and that part of it not required may be wiped out by means of a reducing solution, used with a brush, such as the ferricyanide and hypo one described later. this method will be found useful even in contact slide making, but it also requires not only good taste in the selection of the cloud, but some deftness in manipulation; but the neat-handed beginner need not fear to make the attempt. development. it has already been stated that judgment of exposure is a matter of experience, and that results are the best criterion; here follow some more explicit statements on the same matter. whatever plate or developer is used, and whatever the time occupied in complete development: _ st._--if by the time the high-lights are sufficiently strong the shadows are too dense or blocked, the plate has been under-exposed. _ nd._--if by the time the high-lights are sufficiently strong the shadows have not attained sufficient density, or are veiled, the plate has been over-exposed. _ rd._--if at the same moment the high-lights show sufficiently and the shadows are transparent but sufficiently plucky, the plate has been properly exposed. _ th._--with a normal negative the normal exposure is the proper exposure; but (_a_) a negative abnormally strong in contrasts will require an abnormally long exposure; and (_b_) a thin negative, or one with a very short scale of gradation from densest to clearest, will require an abnormally short exposure, with probably some after-treatment in the direction of "intensification." ambitious slide-makers generally aim at warm-toned slides for pictorial effect, and rightly. but slides intended for scientific purposes are generally better when cold in tone, the definition is usually better. but whatever the aim, a good tone of one kind is preferable to a poor one of another kind, and the beginner should first make sure of getting a really good cold tone, which is comparatively easy, and then try his "'prentice hand" on warm tones. warm tones are obtained by using greatly super-normal exposures and greatly restrained developers; and the danger probably lies in the fact that the long exposures are apt to lead to fog, and the great restraint to over-density in the shadows, the latter especially when the exposure has not been quite long enough for the developer used; herein probably lies the whole secret of warm slide-making. if we aim at really warm tones and use developers suited to such design, we must on no account stint the exposure. cold tone developing solutions. [illustration] the classical solution for cold tone slides is a solution of ferrous oxalate in potassic oxalate. of all developers it is most free from fogging propensities. it is made from so-called "saturated solutions" of proto-sulphate of iron and potassium oxalate. thus, into a bottle put a quantity of iron proto-sulphate, and pour on about three times its weight of water containing a dram of sulphuric acid to each pint. shake well, and keep always at about ° fahr.; some of the iron must always be visible in the bottle, if not, more is to be added. the crystals of iron salt must be green and not rusty in colour. this is the "iron solution." the "oxalate solution" is made by dissolving potassium oxalate in about three times its weight of water. this also must be kept at ° fahr., shaken occasionally, and oxalate added if none is visible in the bottle. to make the ferrous oxalate solution we _pour_ one part of the iron solution _into_ six parts of the oxalate, and it is advisable to add to each ounce of developer at least half a grain of potassium bromide; minims of a % solution, made by dissolving one ounce of the bromide in about ounces of water, and then making up to ounces--all chemical. in about four minutes or less this ought to fully develop a properly exposed plate. if the development is much shorter the slide is apt to have an unpleasant greenish tone, a result that may also follow the use of an inordinate amount of bromide in the developer. the developing solution may be made in quantity greater than is required for one plate, and may be used several times if a little of the surplus and fresh solution is added when the quantity in use becomes slow in action. for really fine cold black tones the following formula by messrs. elliott & son will be found admirable:-- a metol grains. soda sulphite ounce. water ounces. b potassium carbonate grains. ammonium bromide " potassium bromide " water ounces. the developing solution consists of equal parts of a and b. if either of the above developers is to be used, the exposure is to be kept down as compared with the exposure to be followed by developers intended for very warm tones. the two developers which follow next, require about the same exposure as the two already formulated. "ortol" is a reducing agent quite lately introduced by mr. hauff, of feuerbach in germany, and mr. hauff's agents in this country are messrs. fuerst bros., of london. "ortol" gives the finest tones of the warm black type that we have as yet come across, it is singularly free from fogging propensity, and the tones do not easily degenerate into the greens so apt to occur after severe over-exposure with other "black" developers. we suggest a simple formula:-- a water ounces. metabisulphite of potassium grains. ortol grains. b water ounces. soda carbonate - / ounces. soda sulphite - / ounces. to make the developer, take one part of a, one of b, and one of water, and to each ounce of the mixture add one and a half or two grains of potassium bromide. the development of a properly exposed slide will take two or three minutes, and the result will probably be highly appreciated. the above is worthy to stand alone as representing developers for warm black tones, but the following works well. (messrs. elliott & son.) a hydroquinone grains. soda sulphite ounce. potassium bromide grains. water ounces. b caustic soda grains. water ozs. the developing solution consists of equal parts of a and b, and the plate may be fully developed in about two to three minutes. it has already been stated that in order to obtain really warm red or reddish tones by development, it is necessary to give very long exposure, and to use a developer very much restrained. it is further found that carbonate of ammonia has a considerable effect in reddening the developed image, and so we now come to procedure based on these lines. carbonate of ammonia is found in commerce in the shape of "chunks" more or less square. if one of these is pared with a knife--unless the sample is quite fresh--the outside will be found to be a soft amorphous powder, the inside a clear, very hard crystal; the clear crystal is in development an "accelerator," though a very weak one, the outside substance is a restrainer. probably both the inside--sesquicarbonate--and the outside--bicarbonate--are useful, and the best plan is to make a ten per cent. solution of the substance as obtained from a good chemist--not druggist. of this solution one grain of the salt is represented by ten minims. if now we take an ounce of a, and one of b of the last formula, and if we add to the ounce of a grains of ammonium bromide, and to the ounce of b grains of ammonium carbonate, and if we have given a proper exposure and develop with equal parts of the a and b modified as above, we shall get a slide of rich chocolate colour; and if we double the proportions of carbonate and bromide, and expose still longer, we shall get a slide still ruddier in tone, even to red. but there is always danger of fog, and of clogged shadows, and this must be reckoned with. there is a more certain and less dangerous way of getting handsome tones, which shall be described presently. gelatine slides are always fixed in hyposulphite of soda, about one part by weight to six parts of water; after this they must be well washed, say five minutes under a good rose tap, or in many changes of water in a dish for an hour, and every slide should be treated with a saturated solution of potash alum, of which each pint should contain a dram of hydrochloric acid. very many, if not most, slides are all the better for just a touch of a "reducer" such as follows:--the ordinary "hypo." solution is weakened with about four times its measure of water, and the plate is soaked for a minute in this. a few drops of a ten per cent. solution of potassium ferricyanide are put into the measure, and the hypo. mixed with it, and the whole allowed to work on the plate for a short time, carefully watched. of course a weak slide must not be thus treated, but it is often a good plan to develop slides to such a point that they will permit of this treatment. on the other hand it is often advisable to keep a slide thin in development, for instance, when the negative wants pluck, and intensification is indicated; or when we wish a good warm tone after a "black" developer such as our metol formula: a good average treatment is as follows:-- take half an ounce each of ammonium chloride and mercury bichloride and dissolve in ounces of water, soak the slide in this till it is bleached. wash well and treat with weak liquid ammonia, or a solution of soda sulphite, or of metabisulphite of potash, or fresh lime water. this will strengthen the slide and give it in most cases a fine rich colour. it is important to let these solutions act thoroughly, and not to stop the action half-way. the writer considers this the best and safest way to obtain warm tones, the reader may find out for himself which of these solutions produces the tones he chiefly affects. crystal varnish is _not_ wasted even on a gelatine slide. in conclusion, it must be realized that the screen-image is a greatly enlarged edition of the slide-image; any small defect on the slide is a huge one on the screen. consequently the slide-maker must sedulously cultivate cleanliness and manipulative care. _andrew pringle._ [illustration: fishing smacks. w. thomas. ] _how to make enlargements._ [illustration] enlargements may be made by daylight, or by artificial light, and there are two methods of producing them, namely, by enlarging direct from the negative on to a sheet of bromide paper; or by first making a small transparency, and from that producing an enlarged negative upon a slow dry plate. the first is the method usually adopted by amateurs, probably because the necessary operations are fewer, and perhaps more simple. the second plan, however, possesses the advantage that the prints may be made by any process, be it carbon, platinum, or silver, and thus a great variety of effect obtained. the first point however that the reader must decide is whether he will work by artificial light or by daylight. each may be said to possess certain advantages, and with many the question resolves itself into one of personal convenience. artificial light is, or should be, fairly constant in intensity, and if adopted there will probably be less waste of material through miscalculation of exposure. but if the source of light employed be other than a mixed jet, or the arc-light, if in fact it be of low intensity, negatives of a somewhat delicate type will be required in order to produce enlargements of the highest excellence. if the negatives are dense and strong, illuminants of low intensity, like oil or gas, do not possess sufficient penetration to duly register the denser portions of the negative, and the enlargements so made are apt to be deficient in half-tone, and hard. with well-graded negatives of suitable quality, however, most excellent enlargements may be produced by artificial light. when artificial light is used work may be carried on at any time of day or night, in winter or summer. those who adopt the daylight plan will, of course, be subjected to greater restrictions, at any rate, during the winter months, but amateurs who take a real interest in the work will do well to adopt the writer's plan, and provide themselves with apparatus for each method of working. enlarging by daylight. there are two ways of enlarging by daylight. the first involves the exclusion of all actinic light from a room except that which passes through the negative. the alternative method of working is to employ an ordinary enlarging camera, such as are made by middlemiss, or lancaster. it is desirable, but not necessary, if the first plan be adopted, to secure the exclusive use of a room. one with a northerly aspect should be chosen, for if sunlight falls upon the window shadows will at some period of the day fall upon the negative, and produce unevenly lighted enlargements. an upper room will be most suitable, and, if the light be a northern one, and there are no trees or buildings to obstruct the view, a reflector may be dispensed with. if external objects intervene, however, one must be employed. it should be fixed outside the window-sill, at an angle of °, and should be capable of adjustment. let it be _the full width of the window_, and _securely fixed_ for obvious reasons. a plate-glass mirror is effective, but expensive. a large drawing board painted dead white also answers well, but should not be left outside exposed to the weather. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: side view ditto] provision for excluding the light from the room is best secured by making a wooden frame large enough to fit closely against the window frame. upon this a piece of stout calico should be tightly strained and secured with tacks. it should then be sized, and when dry will be as tight as a drum; it must then be covered with two thicknesses of stout brown paper pasted on. the frame is shown complete in fig. . now at aa. bb. screw two strips of wood, the distance apart must be regulated by the size of the negatives to be enlarged. the ordinary camera is intended to be used as the enlarging camera, and the distance from c. to c. should be just equal to the size of the back portion of the camera. on the lower rail bb screw a piece of in. board to form a shelf or support d. for the enlarging camera. make a frame e. of / in. wood in. deep, the same size as the back of the camera, and screw to the shelf and top rail aa. now carefully cut away the brown paper and calico from the inside of this frame, at the part marked h. and paste strips of brown paper round it so as to prevent any light passing except through the opening h. a strip of felt should be tacked all round the large frame to prevent any light from creeping in between it and the window frame. a couple of turn buttons will keep it in position. a _firm_ table should be placed against the window close up to the wall to form a support for the enlarging easel. now a little care must be taken in fitting up this portion of the apparatus, and it is better to have something more exact than the propped-up drawing board or printing frame, which is sometimes recommended. get a carpenter to run out two v shaped rails as shown in fig. at cc. they should be about the length of the table, and screwed down upon it. procure a cheap drawing board about x , and to the under side affix two pieces of wood with v shaped grooves corresponding in angle to the rails. this forms the base of the easel aa. make a frame x , or rather larger than the biggest enlargement that it is desired to produce. it should be constructed of / in. wood, and be in. deep. it is shown in fig. at dddd. now make, or get made, a set of carriers ee, the largest of which should just fit into the frame. narrow fillets of wood screwed each side will afford a rise and fall adjustment, and a thumb screw at g will fix the carrier in any desired position. to obtain the cross-movement screw the frame dddd to a piece of inch board in. wide hh. place this exactly in the centre of the base board, and screw fillets ii of in. wood to each side. this will afford a cross motion, and a thumb screw at j will fix the carrier frame when the necessary adjustment has been made. [illustration: fig. .] in setting up an enlarging apparatus, whether it be for day or artificial light, it is absolutely essential to preserve the parallelism of its various parts, otherwise it will be impossible to produce sharp or evenly defined enlargements, and for this reason i have described somewhat fully the construction of a suitable easel. i may add that it will serve equally well for either daylight or artificial illumination, and i strongly advise the reader to construct, or have constructed, an easel on the lines i have laid down. with it either direct enlargements on paper can be produced, or plates may be used and enlarged negatives made. the easiest way of holding the paper during exposure is to procure two sheets of clear glass, patent plate is most suitable, sandwich the bromide paper between them, and secure with two strong bands of elastic. the complete apparatus in position for working is shown at fig. . [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] the second method of enlarging by daylight is by employing an ordinary enlarging camera. the same conditions as to lighting, etc., should be sought for, and the most convenient way of working will be to tilt the camera at such an angle as that the negative receives unobstructed illumination from the sky. a reflector in this case will not be necessary, but a piece of very finely ground glass should be placed about an inch in front of the negative in order to soften and diffuse the light. this method of working is shown in fig. . enlarging by artificial light. before describing the actual process of making an enlargement it will be well to deal with the alternative method of working, namely, by artificial light, as the manipulations of the sensitive material used are the same in either case. practically the most satisfactory way of working by the latter method is to use an enlarging lantern properly fitted with a condenser. the general principles of such an apparatus are identical with those which obtain in an ordinary optical lantern. methods which dispense with the use of a condenser are more or less unsatisfactory, and should be avoided. in the space at the disposal of the writer it is not possible to give directions for the construction of an enlarging lantern, but those who may desire to make their own, will find full instructions and working drawings in "[ ]practical enlarging." [ ] a iliffe & son. [illustration: fig. .] enlarging lanterns of excellent quality are obtainable commercially, but for the guidance of the uninitiated it may be useful to refer a little in detail to one or two important points with regard to their construction. the condenser will first claim attention. the ordinary pattern consists of two plano-convex lenses mounted as shown in section at fig. . this answers fairly well with the smaller sizes, but when the diameter of the condenser is large, a good deal of light may be lost. the interposition of a small meniscus or plano-convex lens, in the manner first suggested by the late j. traill taylor, and shown in fig. , will be found a great improvement. its proper position will be at the point where the divergent cone of rays proceeding from it just covers the large condenser. in our own practice we always place a diffusing screen of very finely-ground glass in front of the condenser at ee the diameter of the condenser is governed by the size of the negatives to be enlarged, it must be of sufficient size to include the longer sides of the plate within its circumference without cutting the corners. if it is much larger than this, an unnecessary loss of light will occur, because only that which passes through the negative can be utilized. [illustration: fig. .] the illuminant. the smaller and more intense the light, the nearer we approach to the ideal projection illuminant, and the better will be the definition of our enlargements. the arc light most nearly fulfils the desired conditions, and if it be available it should certainly be employed. next in point of utility comes the limelight, preferably in the form of the mixed jet, and those who understand its manipulation are recommended to adopt it, but the majority of amateurs will probably find it more convenient to use either incandescent gaslight or an oil-lamp. parallel wick-lamps should be avoided on account of the unequal illumination they produce, and if oil must be used a good circular wick burner will be found more suitable. where house-gas is available the incandescent gaslight is however much to be preferred. the light is perhaps not so powerful as that given by a really good parallel wick-lamp, but it is far more actinic and penetrating. the writer has used this light with great satisfaction, and therefore has no hesitation in recommending it. some workers have been troubled by the appearance of an image of the mantle on the screen, but this can usually be got rid of by a suitable adjustment of the lenses and the light, and in any case by the interposition of a piece of ground glass between condenser and negative. the choice of the lens. it is commonly stated that the lens with which the original negative was taken will serve equally well to enlarge it, and in the abstract the statement is perhaps not inaccurate. but assuming that a lens of a focus equal to about - / times the base of the plate has been used, it will be found that better results, both in regard to definition and equality of illumination, will be obtained by substituting a lens of rather longer focus, for example a half-plate lens for enlarging from quarter-plate negatives. this, although applying to both methods of working is particularly desirable when enlarging by artificial light, for an objective of small diameter and short focus cannot possibly pick up or receive the whole of the cone of rays proceeding from the condenser. a reference to figs. and will explain why this is so. in fig. we see what happens when a lens of too short a focus is used, but when one of longer focus is substituted, the whole of the cone of rays passes through and is utilized (fig. ). in selecting a lens one should be chosen which has a sufficiently large diameter to permit the apex of the cone of rays from the condenser to pass through. this point will, of course, vary with the degree of amplification, and in order to obtain the best results optically, the distance of the light from the condenser must be carefully adjusted in every case, and a clear, evenly lighted disc obtained before inserting the negative to be enlarged. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] with regard to the type of lens, one of the rapid rectilinear form will answer well. a portrait lens is often used on account of the brilliancy of image, but although it answers well for enlarging portraits, the roundness of its field makes it less suitable for landscapes unless it is considerably stopped down. if the very finest results as regards definition are required, then one of the now numerous flat-field lenses should be used. the writer can from practical experience speak well of the ross-goerz and the cooke lens. the latter is perhaps preferable for working with artificial light on account of the larger diameter of the back lens. wide-angle lenses, on account of their small aperture and short focus, are not suitable for use with a condenser, both for the reasons given, and on account of the difficulty in focussing owing to the small amount of light transmitted. when daylight is used, however, there is less objection to their employment. [illustration: fig. .] before leaving this part of the subject it should be noted that in regard to preserving the parallelism of its parts the same care in erecting and fitting up the enlarging lantern must be observed, as was insisted upon in the description of the apparatus for daylight. it will be found convenient, therefore, to mount the lantern on a base similar to that upon which the easel rests, so that both may move on the same rails. the easel described for daylight enlarging will serve equally well for working by artificial light. the complete apparatus is shown at fig. , which is a reproduction from a photograph of the apparatus constructed and used by the writer. the negative. in general practice one may find it necessary at times to enlarge from negatives of very dissimilar types, but there is no reason, when the negatives are to be produced with the special object of subsequently making enlargements from them, why care should not be taken to make them of a suitable character. thin delicate negatives should be enlarged by artificial light; dense, strong ones by daylight. if the negatives are very strong it will be difficult to produce soft and well-graded enlargements with a weak illuminant, the light not being sufficiently intense to properly penetrate the high-lights. a soft and clear negative, with good gradation, fully exposed, and neither exhibiting patches of clear glass shadow devoid of detail, nor of hard impenetrable high-light, will be found most suitable. fog should be avoided, as also should the yellow stain produced by pyro when improperly used. not that the pyro developer is unsuitable, for if sufficient sulphite is used, and the quantity of pyro kept down, negatives of very beautiful quality for enlarging purposes may be produced. great care should be taken to avoid bubbles, stains, scratches, or any kind of mechanical defects, as such when enlarged become painfully obtrusive, and spoil the effect of the best work. it will be found a good plan to bind the edge of the negative before enlarging it with a strip of lantern slide binding, so as to cover the clear glass rebate mark. if this be omitted the margins of the enlargement may become fogged by the lateral spreading action of the light. no hand-work should be attempted on the original negative, for any such treatment will become painfully apparent in the enlargement. if retouching be deemed necessary, it should in the case of a direct enlargement be executed upon the print itself, or upon the enlarged negative or preferably upon the enlarged transparency, when that method of reproduction has been adopted. direct enlargements. the following concise instructions for enlarging upon bromide paper will apply equally to the daylight or artificial light methods of working. in the first case the negative is placed in the dark slide of the camera, both shutters being drawn fully out. the camera is then put upon the shelf close up against the opening in the shutter, as shown in fig. , any light creeping in between shutter and camera being blocked out with the focussing cloth. if the enlarging lantern is used the negative will be placed in the carrier, just in the same way as a lantern slide, with the film side towards the enlarging lens. now the first difficulty that will be experienced will be to get the enlarged image of the required size. it will be well to content ourselves at the outset with a moderate degree of enlargement, say from / plate to × , and when proficiency is acquired, larger sizes can be attempted. at first we shall probably not succeed in getting any image at all. in adjusting the various parts of the apparatus we shall find the work easier if we remember that the nearer we place the lens to the negative the further will it be necessary to move the easel from the lens, and the greater will be the enlargement. a useful table of enlargements will be found in the "british journal almanac," showing the distance of lens from negative, and negative from paper, for almost any required degree of amplification. now it will be found much easier to focus the enlarged image by looking at it through a piece of finely ground glass, than by receiving it on a piece of card or paper, and the adoption of the easel plan of focussing previously described will enable this to be done. the ground surface of the glass (which must be of the same thickness as the piece behind which the paper is to be exposed) should be away from the lens and towards the person focussing, when it is placed in the carrier of the easel, it being retained in position with the spring s., fig. . focussing must be carefully performed, and is effected by sliding the easel to and fro upon the runners, and which should have been previously rubbed with blacklead. bromide paper is made in several varieties, such as smooth, rough, snow-enamel, cream crayon, etc., and is put up either in tubes, or packed flat. the latter is decidedly the more convenient, it being somewhat difficult to take the curl out of paper that has been rolled. the choice of paper is a matter of taste; for landscape work the rough paper or the cream crayon will perhaps be found most suitable. for finer work, and some classes of portraiture the enamel will prove effective. rough paper is better for strong broad effects, smooth for more delicate work and the rendering of fine detail. the coated side may be distinguished by its tendency to curl inwards. the easiest way of exposing it is to procure two pieces of patent plate glass of the same thickness as the focussing glass, sandwich the sheet of paper between the two, and secure with strong elastic bands. this will hold it quite flat during exposure, and will not disturb the actinism of the lens or impair the definition of the enlargement. development. this part of the work of producing an enlargement will only be lightly dealt with, as the subject is fully treated elsewhere in this volume. the writer prefers the ferrous-oxalate developer for bromide enlargements to any of the more recently introduced developers, but as it requires more skill and judgment to employ it with complete success, beginners may find it better to use amidol or metol, either of which when properly used gives excellent results. hydrokinone we do not recommend for this purpose owing to its tendency to give rusty blacks in the event of over-exposure, or undue hardness if it has been too short. with amidol a pure delicate black is easily obtainable, and it is moreover a very simple developer to use. our own plan is to employ a weak solution and give a full exposure, and by these means we find no difficulty in obtaining good gradation and pure blacks. the dish used for development must not be used for other developers or stains will probably occur. although a quick appearance of the image is usually a characteristic of amidol, no trouble will be experienced when the developer is used in the way we advise, for the picture will be found to develop slowly and regularly, and gradually grow in strength. quick development by this method would be an indication of over-exposure. a correctly exposed enlargement should take about ten minutes to develop. one stock solution only is necessary. it will keep indefinitely. sulphite of soda ounce. citric acid grains. distilled water ounces. potassium bromide grains. to each ounce of the above add, just before using, three grains of dry amidol. the exposure must be accurately timed. it is, however, impossible to give useful information on this head, unless such varying factors as the rapidity of the paper, the intensity of the light, the aperture of the lens, and the degree of enlargement are known. the best plan is to cut one of the sheets of bromide paper into twelve strips, and on these make several test exposures, carefully noting the duration of each. it is better (at any rate for a beginner) not to vary the constituents or strength of the developer, but to increase or diminish the exposure until a good result in colour and tonality is obtained. by entering full details relating to the production of a successful enlargement in a notebook, great exactitude in working will be obtained, and there need be little or no waste of material when additional enlargements have to be made from the same negatives at a future time. [illustration: drifting storm clouds. w. thomas.] a glass dish, though expensive, is very suitable for developing, for being flat-bottomed a minimum of solution can be used, and moreover if the dish should be dirty, the fact is at once apparent. the exposed paper should be soaked in water for a few minutes until uniformly wetted, and any air-bells removed with a camel-hair brush. the water is then poured off, and the developer applied in an even wave, so that the whole of the paper is covered uniformly and quickly. the image will appear slowly, and gradually gain in detail. when all the detail has appeared it may still appear lacking in vigour and contrast, but this will come if sufficient time be allowed. _development should not be stopped until the print is of the full strength required_, but it is not advisable to allow it to become much darker than it is desired to appear when finished, because there is very little loss of strength in the fixing bath. if the image flashes out immediately upon the application of the developer, the paper has been over-exposed. a strong dose (one or two drams) of ten per cent. bromide added to the developer may help to save it, but the enlargement will probably look poor and flat and of bad colour when finished. if the picture appears very slowly, and refuses to gain in strength, under-exposure is the cause, and two or three drams of a ten per cent. solution of sulphite of soda may improve matters, but as a rule the most satisfactory plan will be to make another exposure. with regard to the strength of the developer, that given is very suitable for negatives of normal density, but some papers may require a little more amidol, the appearance of the finished enlargements will guide the reader in regulating the quantity to suit the particular paper with which he may be working. the enlargement should be washed in plenty of running water from the tap to arrest development, and then fixed in:-- hyposulphite of soda ounces. water " a quarter of an hour should be allowed for fixation, but it is better to use two baths, giving ten minutes in each. after washing in running water for a couple of hours they may be hung up by one corner to dry, or pinned down to a blotting board. enlargements produced in the manner described should be of a pure engraving black colour, and if they are mounted upon _pure_ boards with _freshly_ made glenfield starch, they should prove permanent. enlargements are frequently toned to various shades of brown and red, generally by the employment of the uranium-toning bath. although the colours so obtained are often very artistic and pleasing, no reliance can be placed upon the permanence of an enlargement so treated, and the writer strongly recommends that when warm coloured prints are desired, an enlarged negative should be made and prints made therefrom in carbon, silver, or sepia platinotype. enlarged negatives. the production of an enlarged negative presents no difficulty that need deter any careful worker from attempting the work. no additional apparatus to that already described will be required, and either day or artificial light may be employed. in the first place a transparency must be made from the small original negative. it may be made either by contact or in the camera, preferably the latter as then the acme of sharpness will be obtained. if, however, the reader is acquainted with the carbon process he cannot do better than make a carbon transparency, for such are specially adapted for the production of enlarged negatives. many, however, will prefer to make the transparency on a bromide plate, and as this is the part of the process which requires the greatest amount of care, and as _in fact_ the _quality of the enlarged negative will entirely depend upon the character of the small transparency_, it is necessary to deal with the matter somewhat in detail. preconceived ideas of quality based upon the appearance of a good lantern slide must be put aside, for that is not at all what is required. what is wanted is a transparency in which every possible detail existing in the negative has been reproduced, and which in comparison with a lantern slide would look rather flat and over-exposed. every possible precaution should be taken to avoid granularity or coarseness of image, therefore a slow plate is almost essential; plates coated with lantern-slide emulsion are now obtainable, and will be found very suitable. a full exposure should be given, and a weak and well-restrained developer employed. these conditions tend to the production of the qualities desired. warm coloured transparencies so produced generally have a finer grain than those developed to a black or colder colour, but unless the colours produced are fairly uniform, considerable variation in exposure when making the enlarged negatives will be necessary, and for this reason it would perhaps be better for the beginner to aim at the production of good black transparencies possessing the qualities indicated. the small transparency, having been fixed, washed and dried, should be edged with black paper to prevent any subsequent fogging of the plate, by the lateral spreading action of the light. it is then placed in the enlarging apparatus, just as in the case of a negative, and carefully focussed. this operation must be very carefully performed. the writer uses a thin and very sharp negative of an architectural subject to focus with, afterwards substituting the transparency which is to be enlarged. landscape subjects, consisting chiefly of foliage, are seldom critically sharp, and it is then difficult to secure a sharply-focussed enlargement. the remainder of the operation is extremely simple. in the place of the ground-glass screen (which in this case should have its rough or ground side nearest to the enlarging lens) a slow dry plate is placed, backed with a piece of cardboard covered with black velvet to avoid reflections and possible fog. the exposure should be full, and a weak developer employed. trial exposures may be made on quarter-plates, coated from the same batch of emulsion, which the manufacturers will willingly supply, if the purpose for which they are required is made known. pyro will be found the most suitable developer, but it should contain a full proportion of sulphite, and not be too strong. exposure and development should be so adjusted that by the time every possible detail has been developed up, the plate will not have become unduly dense. if expense has to be considered, a piece of slow smooth bromide paper may be substituted for the large dry plate in which case the result will be an enlarged paper negative. for large sizes, × and beyond, the latter is a very economical method of working, and the negatives will be found to yield most artistic prints, and if the operations have been carried out as described, and the prescribed conditions carefully observed, the grain of the paper will not show obtrusively or unpleasantly in the prints. an alternative method of working, and one which admits of a large amount of control over the ultimate result, is to make in the first place a large transparency of the full size that the enlarged negative is desired to be. all the precautions upon which stress has been laid should be observed in regard to the choice of plate, developer, etc.; but in this case the enlarged transparency may be given a little more vigour and sparkle than would be desirable if the other method of reproduction were adopted, though in this the reader must be guided by the particular effect which he may be seeking to produce in his prints. for this purpose pyro will be found to be the most suitable developer, in that it permits of a large amount of control. from the large transparency a negative is produced by contact printing either upon a plate, or upon a piece of bromide paper. the great advantages of the latter mode of working are the facilities which are afforded for retouching or working upon the large transparency. negative retouching is always a difficult operation to an amateur, for he cannot see the effect of his work until he has made a print; whereas, in retouching a transparency the effect produced by each stroke of the pencil or brush is at once apparent. in the space at disposal it is not possible to describe the various ways in which improvements can be effected. first there are the chemical aids of local intensification or reduction. then much may be done by the judicious use of a pencil, but the part to be retouched must first be lightly rubbed with a little retouching medium in order to make the pencil bite. in extreme cases the back of the negative may be covered with tissue paper upon which a stump and chalk may be used _at discretion_. the novice must not be disappointed with the appearance of his enlarged negative when it is finished, nor should he form an adverse opinion of its printing qualities until he has made a print from it. confessedly an enlarged negative generally presents a different appearance to one that has been taken direct, and may even seem to lack some of those qualities that are commonly regarded as essential to perfection, but if the final result, the picture, comes up to our expectations, we may surely dismiss any lingering doubts as to whether the enlarged negative conforms to certain preconceived notions of technique, and it should be enough for us to know (and the fact is incontrovertible) that some of the finest and most artistic photographs ever shown owe their existence to this method of production. _john a. hodges._ [illustration: walberswick. by rev. a. h. blake.] _p.o.p._ [illustration] the three letters "p.o.p." are now so widely understood as referring to the gelatino-chloride printing-out class of papers that it may be said that p.o.p. is known to many who are not acquainted with the fully-written name of this class of productions. also it should be mentioned that when these papers are spoken of as gelatino-chloride papers it is not to be concluded therefrom that chloride of silver is the only silver salt present. what they do actually contain is probably only known to their respective producers. but generally speaking, it is enough to say that so far as the ordinary consumer is concerned, the family resemblance is so strong and chief characteristics so general that the following directions for using them may be held as generally applicable to the various well-known brands now on the market. at the outset, however, it will be convenient to note that for the purposes of manipulation we may roughly group them into two chief classes--_viz._, the matt (probably from the german word "matt," _i.e._, dull) and the glazed, glossy or enamelled. the latter comes to us with a highly glazed, _i.e._, shiny smooth surface, the former being slightly rough, of a surface and texture somewhat like that of very finely ground glass. _care of the paper._--the paper is sent out either in the full-sized sheet, measuring about × inches, or in smaller cut sizes, suitable for the usual / , / , / plate and other popular dimensions of plates. compared with albumenized print-out paper, p.o.p. is more sensitive to light; therefore, some care must be taken to avoid needlessly exposing it to the influence of daylight or strong artificial light. for example, the printing frames should be filled as far away from any window as possible, and the prints examined from time to time either by gaslight or as feeble daylight as possible. in handling the paper--cutting it up, etc.--care must be taken to avoid touching the sensitive surface with the fingers in any case. the touch of a moist or hot finger is very likely to produce a mark or stain which is usually irremovable. the paper should be protected from damp, excessive heat and impure air. if kept _rolled_ in a tin tube or _flat_ under pressure in the original packages, it will keep a considerable time--_i.e._, longer than ordinary albumenized paper. _printing_ is done in the usual way. strong diffused light reflected from the sky or clouds usually gives a better print than direct sunshine. in case, however, of a thin flat negative--_i.e._, one with insufficient contrast--good results may sometimes be obtained by covering the printing frame with a sheet of green glass and printing in moderately strong sunshine. in hot summer sunshine it is as well to cover the green glass with a sheet of tissue paper or fine-ground glass. care must be always taken when printing in sunshine or very hot weather to see that the negative itself does not get too warm, or the paper may stick to it. in this case the print is of course lost, and the negative, unless varnished, is also probably seriously damaged by silver stains, which are very difficult to remove. printing should not be carried quite so far as in the case of ordinary albumenized paper because in the subsequent operations of toning, etc., not so much strength is lost. the same care as regards shielding from light, etc., should be given to the prints after they leave the printing frame. they may be proceeded with at once or kept for some days before being toned, etc., but if this is done the prints should be kept under pressure. some workers have thought that the light action goes on, "continues" in the print after it is removed from the printing frame. this, however, is not the generally received opinion. _washing._--it is important that the first washing should be done with some care, or the prints may become stained. the points calling for attention are ( ) running water and plenty of it, ( ) care to see that the prints do not stick together. what is needed is that the soluble salts should be washed out of the paper as quickly as possible, and that the prints be not allowed to remain in the water containing these soluble salts longer than is necessary. hence the advantage of running water and plenty of it. the washing water must not be too cold or the salts will not pass out of the paper quickly enough; and again, it must not be too warm or the gelatine will melt. the best temperature is about ° f., and the limits should not go beyond ° and ° f., and preferably are kept within ° and ° f. as the paper is usually rather stout, it will need washing in running or constantly changed water for about ten to fifteen minutes, and in any case must be continued until all milky appearance of the water ceases. the print at this stage has a red-brown colour. if it is now passed direct into the fixing bath without toning it becomes somewhat more yellow, and when dry is usually a colour somewhat between yellow ochre and sienna. _toning_ is usually our next operation, and for this purpose we have a variety of toning baths recommended by different workers. the sulphocyanide and gold is perhaps the chief favourite. . ammonium sulphocyanide to grains. gold chloride grain. water to ounces. the proper way to mix this bath is to add the gold to the solution of sulphocyanide a little at a time. the following method will be found convenient. as ammonium sulphocyanide is somewhat deliquescent, it is convenient to keep it in solution. therefore, one ounce of the salt dissolved in twenty ounces of (distilled or filtered rain) water gives us roughly a strength of twenty-two grains per ounce. dissolve the contents of a fifteen-grain chloride of gold in fifteen drams of distilled water. to mix a bath, take of the sulphocyanide solution half-an ounce; to this add eight ounces of water. now take one dram of the gold solution and dilute with one ounce of water. then add this dilute gold solution a _little_ at a time to the eight ounces of sulphocyanide solution, and stir well with a glass rod. it will be noticed that as the gold solution drops into the sulphocyanide solution an orange-red precipitate is formed, which is redissolved on stirring. hence the gold must be added to the sulphocyanide, and not _vice versa_. . another favourite bath is as follows:-- ammonium sulphocyanide grains. soda sulphite " gold chloride " water to ounces. instead of weighing out two grains of sulphite it is more convenient to weigh twenty grains and dissolve in two-and-a-half ounces of water--_i.e._, at the rate of one grain per dram of solution. thus, to mix this bath, take an ounce of the above-mentioned sulphocyanide solution dilute with twenty ounces water. to this add two drams ( / oz.) of the sulphite solution. then take two drams of the gold chloride solution and dilute with an ounce of water, and add slowly with stirring as before. . another favourite bath is:-- sodium chloride (table salt) grains. ammonium sulphocyanide " gold chloride " water to ounces. some of the adherents of this bath recommend that the prints be only washed in running water for a few minutes and then put into the toning bath. others advise the prints to be immersed in the toning bath without any previous washing--_i.e._, straight from the printing frame. . here, again, is another bath which usually yields excellent results:-- soda phosphate grains. sodium chloride (table salt) " gold chloride grain. water ounces. . other workers omit the sodium chloride and increase the phosphate and get good tones. soda phosphate grains. gold chloride grain. water ounces. . others, again, combine the phosphate and sulphocyanide baths thus:-- sodium phosphate grains. ammonium sulphocyanide " gold " water ounces. the various toning baths mentioned above have one drawback common to them all in varying degrees--_viz._, that when once mixed and used they do not keep in good working order longer than a few hours. . the following bath claims to have the advantage that it will keep in working order for a short time at any rate, but the disadvantage that it cannot be used until it has been mixed twelve to twenty-four hours. soda acetate grains. ammonium sulphocyanide " gold chloride grain. water ounces. toning should be conducted in very weak daylight, or what is much better, gas or lamplight. the latter, being practically constant, enables the operator to judge the relative colour of the prints from time to time. care must be taken so that the prints do not stick together in the toning bath, and preferably only a few, say half-a-dozen or so, dealt with at a time, so that each print can be frequently turned over and examined. the change of colours proceeds somewhat slowly at first, but when once it begins it seems to gain in rapidity of rate of change, so that a careful watch must be kept. let it be remembered that the print, after fixing and drying, will appear a little darker and more blue (less red) than when wet in the toning bath. the temperature of the bath must not be too cold or toning is very slow, nor too warm or the gelatine may melt and toning be uneven. from ° to ° f. will be found a convenient range. the prints should not be touched on their printed surface more than can be helped. the fingers must be quite clean, the solutions uncontaminated with other chemicals, and a dish set apart for toning operations only. this dish should always be washed out well with tepid or cold water before and after use, and when put away should rest flat, opening downwards, on a shelf covered with a sheet of clean blotting paper. many failures in toning are entirely due to lack of care in details and sufficient attention to cleanliness. when toning is judged to be carried far enough, the prints should be placed in a roomy dish containing a solution of common salt, strength one ounce to twenty or thirty ounces of water, to stop further toning. fixing is done with a "one in ten" solution of sodium thiosulphite--_i.e._, hypo. this should be prepared with tepid water, or some time before use, as the dissolving of hypo in water is accompanied by a fall of temperature. a convenient method is to place a couple of ounces of hypo in a clean pint jug, and add about half a pint of fairly warm water and stir with a glass rod until the salt is dissolved, then fill up the jug from the tap with cold water. it is highly desirable to have plenty of fixing solution, and never attempt to use the same lot twice. place each print face down in the bath and submerge by pressing on its back. again see that the prints do not stick to each other, and turn each print two or three times. they should be in the fixing bath not less than twelve or fifteen minutes, and a few minutes longer will do no harm. at the end of, say, fifteen minutes, pour away about one half of the fixing bath and slowly fill up with water. turn the prints again, and then transfer them one by one to another roomy dish and wash in running water for a couple of hours, or in a dozen changes of water every five or ten minutes. then hang up to dry, using either clips or pin a corner to the edge of a wooden shelf or long lath suspended in a cool, airy place. _alum bath._--hot weather considerably increases the danger of the gelatine melting. to meet this trouble the following plan has to be resorted to:-- . dissolve common (potash) alum, one ounce in a pint of tepid water. let it stand until cold and pour off gently the clear part should any sediment appear. after washing and before toning, place the prints in this alum bath for about ten minutes and _again_ wash before toning for ten or fifteen minutes in running water. _the combined (toning and fixing) bath._--the general weight of opinion is _not_ in favour of combining these two operations at one time when reliable results are desired. nevertheless, there are times when this method may be found a convenience and yield results which are all that may be desired. the following bath is a favourite with some workers:-- . ammonium sulphocyanide grains table salt grains hypo ounces water ounces to this is _slowly_ added one grain of gold chloride in half an ounce of water. the prints first washed for five or ten minutes in running water, and placed in the combined bath and kept moving by being constantly turned over and over for about ten or fifteen minutes. the longer they remain in the bath the more blue and less red will they be when dried. here is another bath which finds some stout supporters:-- . ammonium sulphocyanide grains hypo ounce alum grains water ounces shake well, until thoroughly dissolved, then add lead nitrate grains again shake well and set aside to settle, pour off the clear part, and add gold chloride grain dissolved in half an ounce of water. others recommend a still more simple bath as follows:-- . hypo ounce water ounces gold chloride grain it is said that this bath gives better results if it is prepared a few hours before use, _e.g._, prepared in the morning and used in the evening. meanwhile, it should be kept away from daylight, and not in a very cold place. _drying and glazing._--some workers are of opinion that it is better to first "rough dry" the prints, _e.g._, by suspending by clips, or pinning one corner to a strip of wood, etc., and then to wet again and dry on a rough or smooth surface according as a matt or glazed final effect is desired. if however, the print has been through the alum bath (no. .) this preliminary rough drying may not be necessary. _matt surface._--the matt paper when rough dried has a matt or slightly rough surface, but it may be desired to accentuate the effect. this may be done as follows:--thoroughly clean with soap water and a nail brush a sheet of "fine-ground" glass similar to that used for a focussing screen. when quite dry, lightly dust it with fine talc powder (french chalk) and polish off again with a bit of clean rag. now slip this plate rough side up into a dish of cold water, which also contains the print face downwards. bring the print and glass into contact under water, carefully avoiding any air bubbles between them, as the two together are now raised from the water; firmly, evenly, but lightly pass a squeegee over the back of the print now in contact with the glass. then lightly press a sheet of blotting paper over the print to take up all adhering water, and set up in a cool airy place to dry, _e.g._, in a passage or between the door and half-open window. when quite dry, the print will very probably of itself come away from the glass, but if not, the finger nail inserted under one corner and a gently backward pull will separate it from the glass. in place of the fine ground glass, rougher glass of course may be employed. some workers also use for the same purpose a sheet of roughened celluloid. this is more costly than glass, but being not so fragile may prove cheaper in the end. _glazing prints_ is done exactly in the same way, with the single difference, of course, that we use a _smooth_ piece of glass, vulcanite, celluloid, paper maché slab, sheet of ferrotype metal, etc., etc., in place of a ground-matt, or rough surface. all the above-named substances have their partizans; perhaps the greatest favourite being good plate glass free from scratches. in all cases it is important to attend to two points, _viz._, thoroughly cleaning the support and waxing it. various substances and mixtures have been recommended for giving a glaze, polish to the glass, etc. many workers adhere to the powdered talc or french chalk already mentioned. others prefer some of the mixtures given below:-- . bees wax grains turpentine ounce . spermaceti grains benzole ounce a few drops only of the lubricant are applied to the glass plate with a bit of clean flannel, and well rubbed all over. then a final polish is given with a clean old silk handkerchief, or clean dry wash leather. on no account attempt to strip the print from the glass until the print is _quite_ dry or failure is more than likely to arise. _mounting._--care should be taken that the mountant does not give an acid reaction. test with litmus paper. clearly it is no use being at the trouble of producing a high gloss on the print if we are going to damp the print and so destroy the gloss in the operation of mounting. to avoid this, various plans have been adopted. ( .) if a cut-out mount is used it will suffice if the print be attached to the mount by glue at the edges only of the "cut-out." ( .) another method is to paste down on to the back of the print before it is quite dry, and while still on the glazing support, a backing of thin waterproof paper specially prepared for this purpose. this prevents the moisture of the mountant penetrating to the print. ( .) another plan is to use a mountant which does not contain water. the following mixtures are recommended:-- . masticated rubber grains benzole ounce a thin layer of this is applied by means of a short, stiff, flat hog's hair brush to the back of the print. it is then allowed to evaporate for a minute or so, and when tacky is applied to the mount, covered with a sheet of glazed paper, and a roller squeegee passed over the surface. . saturated solution of bleached shellac in alcohol. this must be applied as thinly as possible. . le page's fish glue applied to the edges only of the back of the print. a fourth method is to first carefully clean the edges of the glass surrounding the print still adhering to it. then to paste down the mount to the print and let all dry. then strip the print from the glass now already mounted. this is, however, a process not to be recommended, because requiring a long time for the print to dry, as the evaporation has to take place through the substance of the mount. additional procedures with p.o.p. _development of partially printed proofs._--this method of procedure is sometimes a matter of convenience in dull weather, etc. the printing is to be carried on until one can just see a very slight indication of detail in the high-lights. it is then washed in running water for about ten minutes, and then put into a ten per cent. bath of potassium bromide, and there it remains for another ten minutes or so. in this bath some of the image seems to fade away, and generally the print takes on a yellow tinge. the print is next washed in running water for about ten minutes, and then developed with ortol, metol, or preferably, hydroquinone. a considerable variation in the proportions of the constituents of the developer are possible. in general terms, one may say that a developer which gives a good black and white lantern slide when diluted with about an equal quantity of water will give a satisfactory print. . as an example of a thoroughly practical developer for this purpose we may give just one example:-- a hydroquinone grains potassium metabisulphite " potassium bromide " water ounces b soda sulphite ounce caustic soda grains water ounces take equal parts and mix just before use, wash for at least ten minutes in running water at once after development. developed prints may be toned in the combined bath , or , or may first be fixed, then _thoroughly_ washed, and then toned and again washed. if good results are wanted by the development process it is important to be careful that the paper is not exposed even to weak daylight more than can be helped, and not even to strong artificial light more than is necessary. at the same time it is quite practicable to do the operation of the bromide bath and developing in fairly strong gaslight, _i.e._, one need by no means be limited to the ordinary dark-room light as when developing plates. another point worth noting is that it is quite practicable to use magnesium ribbon for printing. for a rather thin negative it will be perhaps found sufficient to burn about a foot of the metal ribbon about three or four inches from the glass. the printing frame should be set up on edge in the vertical plane. the strip of metal ribbon is held by a pair of pliers, and ignited at the flame of a candle or spirit lamp. the lid of a biscuit box just in front of the frame does very well to catch the white magnesium oxide formed by burning. it is as well to move the flame of the burning metal opposite various parts of the negative during the exposure. it will be found a comfort to wear a pair of rather dark blue glasses during this operation, as the bright light of combustion prevents one seeing anything with ease for a little while. after development the print may be fixed only, and under certain conditions it is possible to obtain a fairly satisfactory black or brown colour without toning, but there is usually a slight tendency towards rather too much yellow. _platinum toning._--this method of toning is a favourite with many workers. by it a considerable variety of colour tones may be obtained, from a rich red chocolate brown through sepia brown to a warm black. the following toning baths have each their several advocates, and each worker must discover by experiment the one that gives him the particular brown colour he prefers:-- . potassium chloroplatinite grain. water / ounce. add dilute nitric acid (one part strong acid, twenty parts water) drop by drop until the mixture just turns a bit of blue litmus paper a red tinge. now take a glass rod and make of it a mop by tying a small bunch of clean cotton wool over one end, using for the purpose a bit of white cotton. having thoroughly washed the print for _at least_ ten minutes in running water, lay it face up on a sheet of glass, and apply the above toning solution with the cotton wool mop. having got a tint or colour nearly what you want, but allowing for a loss of red in fixing, wash off the toning solution and immerse the print in:-- . washing soda ounce. water " for three or four minutes, and then fix in the usual way in a ten per cent. hypo bath. here are some platinum toning baths well recommended:-- . lactic acid drams. water ounces. pot. chloroplatinite grains. . citric acid grains. water ounces. table salt grains. pot. chloroplatinite grains. . phosphoric acid drams. water ounces. pot. chloroplatinite grains. the chief points to bear in mind in platinum toning are: ( ) that the print must have practically all the free silver washed away before toning. to this end it is a very good plan to dip each print for a couple of minutes or so in a bath of table salt one ounce, water ten ounces, and again rinse under the tap for a minute or two. ( ) that the toning bath is acid, therefore one must either neutralize this acidity by passing through an alkaline bath, such as no. , or what perhaps is rather more convenient, though not quite so desirable--_i.e._, using a fixing bath made distinctly alkaline. the following proportions are recommended:-- . hypo ounce. water ounces. soda sulphite / ounce. washing soda / " _toning with gold and platinum._--a large number of experimenters have tried to find out how to produce platinotype-like effects with p.o.p. papers. perhaps none of them have been completely successful. the following procedure, however, seems to give the nearest approach to that ideal. the best results are obtained with a slightly matt-surfaced paper. this should be printed a shade or two deeper than the print is intended to appear finally. the print is well washed and then _partly_ toned in a gold bath:-- . soda acetate grains. borax " water ounces. gold chloride grain. it is then washed for a minute or so, and the toning continued in the following bath. . phosphoric acid dram. water ounces. pot. chloroplatinite grains. wash for five minutes and fix in bath . _intensifying and reducing p.o.p._--when the negative is obtainable and printable it is _very_ much better, and altogether more satisfactory to make a fresh print than to attempt to intensify or reduce an unsatisfactory one. nevertheless, it sometimes happens that this course is not possible, and the best has to be made from an unsatisfactory print. if the print is only very lightly printed, and comes straight from the printing frame, it is best to strengthen it by development (see formula _et seq._). if the print has been toned and fixed, etc., the following may be tried:-- . make a _saturated solution_ of mercury bichloride in cold water, let it settle, and use only the quite clear supernatent liquid. immerse the print in this for minutes, turning it from time to time, and see that no air bells are clinging to either side. wash the print in running water for minutes at least, and longer if convenient. then immerse it in a bath consisting of strong ammonia one part, water ten or twelve parts. again wash for five minutes under the tap. _reducing p.o.p._-- . hypo grains ( ) uranium nitrate " water ounces. the advocates of this solution claim for it that it can be used either _before_ or _after_ toning with equal facility and advantage. prints must be well washed both before and after its use in any case. another method, which is somewhat risky except in expert hands, is as follows:-- . dissolve metal iodine in alcohol to a rich dark port wine colour. dilute a small quantity with cold water until the whole is a pale sherry colour. now prepare a one in ten solution of potassium cyanide (_n.b.: a powerful poison_) and add this a _little_ at a time until the pale yellow colour of the iodine solution is just discharged. the print may be immersed in this until sufficiently reduced, or it may be applied locally with cotton wool mop (as described above under platinum toning formula ). the print must of course be quickly washed just before the desired degree of reduction has been produced. this solution acts somewhat quickly when once the action begins, and therefore it is well to deal with prints one at a time. defects, etc. _red-orange_ patches are usually due to touching the gelatine surface with dirty fingers, etc. these places, being somewhat greasy, repel the various fluids and cause uneven action of the developing, toning, etc. _brown stains_ are also often produced in the same way. they may _sometimes_ be removed by the application of a saturated solution of alum. if this fails one may try "chloride of lime" ("bleaching powder") one part in twenty parts of hot water. allow to stand until cold and apply with cotton wool mop. _yellow stains_ may sometimes be removed by a dilute solution of potassium cyanide (poison) of strength one part cyanide in fifty parts water. (yellow stains usually indicate hypo splashes.) _general fog from age._--this sometimes may be considerably reduced by giving the prints the bath of: soda sulphite (one in fifteen) _before_ toning, but well washing after this bath and before toning. _very slow toning_ generally points to the fact that the toning bath is too cold, or that it has been spoilt by a small quantity of hypo or developer, or that it does not contain sufficient gold. _uneven toning, i.e._, blue edges, generally points to a bath too strong in gold, or that there are too many prints in the bath at once, so that the edges are getting more of the metal than the central parts, or it may arise from prints sticking together or to the bottom of the dish. _blue-grey tones_ indicate too long a time in the toning bath, or a bath too strong in gold. _red-yellow tones_ arise from just the opposite state of affairs. _pinking_ of the high-lights points to the bath being too weak or becoming worked out. _double toning_, _i.e._, the print shewing different colours, points to insufficient washing or uneven action of the toning bath, _i.e._, not keeping the prints moving, or too slow toning, or that the toning bath does not suit the brand of paper. _blisters_ are usually due either to using a hypo fixing bath too strong, or passing the print from one solution to another of a markedly different temperature. hence the importance of dissolving the hypo either in tepid water or some time before use. the best all-round temperature for working this process is between the limits of ° and ° f. _tinting p.o.p._--the colours to be used may be the usual moist water colours by some good maker, or solutions of aniline colours. these latter may usually be dissolved in water and applied in thin washes. the surface of the print should be rubbed as little as possible. if water colours are to be used it will be found helpful to prepare the surface of the print with one or other of the following preparations. . white (bleached) lac. part alcohol -- parts apply evenly and quickly with a spray diffuser or with a broad soft brush, and let the print become _nearly_ dry before applying the colours. . the white of an egg in twenty ounces of water. shake well, then add ammonia drop by drop until the mixture just very faintly smells of it. filter and brush over the surface of the print. in mixing the water colours also use this albumen solution in place of water. _advantages of p.o.p._--as compared with ordinary albumenized silver paper the p.o.p. class has the advantage of giving more detail with marked transparency in the shadows. the operations are more flexible and the results are as permanent, if not more so, than those on albumen paper. the paper keeps in good condition for a longer time. the negative giving the best results with p.o.p. is one having delicacy rather than vigour, _i.e._, a long scale of gradation of delicate steps is well rendered. printing takes place quicker with p.o.p. than with albumen papers. the cost of paper and materials is much about the same in both instances. _notes._--in the glazed variety of paper the smooth shiny surface is the sensitive one, and, of course, goes next the negative in the printing frame. in the matt paper the sensitive side may generally be known by its tendency to curl inward, _i.e._, the concave or hollow side is the printing side. formalin may be used in place of alum for hardening the gelatine. of the usual per cent. solution of formalin take one ounce and dilute with ten or twelve ounces of water. dark spots or specks are frequently due to metallic dust either from the fingers or in the water. mounts having sham gold edges or bronze powders should be banished from the dark-room. dry "pyro" floating in the air may also account for spots. _rev. f. c. lambert, m.a._ [illustration: unloading. a. m. morrison.] _platinotype printing._ [illustration] amongst the various printing processes in common use amongst photographers, platinotype is unique in several respects. printing is conducted by daylight in precisely the same manner as silver printing, but the action of light only suffices to make the image partially visible. in this respect, platinotype stands, as it were, midway between what are familiarly termed "print-out" processes--that is, those in which the image is made completely visible by daylight, and those in which the action of light is latent or invisible, such as bromide paper and in the carbon process. the distinctive character of the platinotype print, with which, probably, everyone is so familiar that a platinotype effect almost amounts to a generic term, is not so much essential to the process, but has been largely determined by the different kind of papers and the preparation of those adopted by the manufacturers of platinotype printing papers. in the first place, the platinotype print is before anything a matt surface print, and possesses a certain kind of texture or surface which gives the finished print an appearance similar to a pencil drawing or an engraving; an appearance largely assisted by the characteristic colour of the platinum image, which is black. the invention and production of platinotype paper is due to mr. willis and the platinotype company, and although subsequently there have been both english and foreign imitators, we may safely confine our attention to those papers made and supplied by the platinotype company. as, however, the purpose of this article is to furnish the beginner with simple working instructions, rather than to describe the principles of the process, we will at once proceed to say how a platinotype print is made. to begin with, platinotype printing is divided into cold-bath process and hot-bath process. of the latter we shall speak later on, but for the present, as being most suitable for the amateur and beginner, we will consider the cold-bath method. the reason for this division and the meaning of the name will be abundantly evident presently. we first of all procure a tin of paper of the quality marked aa. the paper is put up in tin cylinders containing twenty-four pieces of either / -plate or / -plate sizes, or less for larger sizes. it may, if preferred, be obtained in full-size sheets × inches. we have now to bear in mind that the paper is sensitive to daylight to a slightly greater degree than are the silver print-out papers, and hence, whilst handling the paper, placing it in the printing frames, or what not, we need to be a little more careful as to how near the window we bring the paper. at the side of the room furthest from the window, or with an intervening screen between the paper and the window, or yet again, with the blind drawn down, we shall be quite safe in opening our tin of paper and inspecting it. on removing the lid of the tin we find a false top or cover hermetically sealing it, which has to be cut through in the manner becoming customary with various tinned foods and comestibles. we then find that the paper within is yellow on one side which is the sensitive side. within the roll of papers at the bottom of the tin we shall find a hard irregular lump of some substance wrapped round with cotton wool. keep this in the tin and now note its use from the following:--platinotype paper is highly susceptible to moisture and deteriorates under its influence. the air we breathe, and therefore the air enclosed within the tin case or any other vessel contains a large amount of moisture, and this moisture would be taken up by the platinotype paper to its own detriment. the presence of water or moisture in the atmosphere or in things we handle, although quite unperceived by us, would be discoverable by the platinum salts on the paper, which would thus become unfit for use, hence the only way of preserving it is by placing in the tin containing the paper some chemical which is even more susceptible to moisture than platinotype paper. such a body is calcium chloride, and this it is which we find wrapped in cotton wool in each tin tube of paper, or to speak more accurately it is asbestos prepared in a solution of calcium chloride. so long as that little lump remains dry and hard we may be quite sure that it has left no moisture in the air around it for the platinotype paper, and it will go on drinking it up until it becomes softened by saturation, when it must be removed and a fresh piece substituted, or it may be restored to its former condition by drying it on a red-hot shovel, the asbestos remaining unconsumed. whilst perhaps in after practice we may find it possible to relax our precautions against damp, yet at the outset the necessity of the utmost caution being observed cannot be too strongly insisted upon. out of a very large number of prints representing the beginner's first attempts at platinotype, by far the greatest number of failures are due to damp, and this, probably, for want of conception of the danger to which the paper is exposed. remember then that where there is ordinary air there is also abundant moisture, and as no tin box with a movable lid is air-tight, neither is it moisture-proof, but in the case of our tin of platinotype paper when once opened will go on admitting moisture which the calcium chloride will take up until it can take no more. after having cut through the inner sealed top of the tin, close up the little hole in the outer lid where the cutting point is with sealing wax, next cover the mouth of the tube with a piece of waxed paper or tinfoil, shut the lid down on to this, and then cover the junction of the lid with a broad indiarubber band. in this way damp may be prevented from gaining access to the inside of the tube to a great extent. specially constructed tubes are made which close with an air-tight stopper and have a false bottom with a perforated partition in which the calcium chloride may be kept. such a "calcium-tube," as it is called, if not an absolute necessity, is a very desirable acquisition. if you now take the negative to be printed from and hold it near the fire or a spirit lamp, it will on becoming warm give off perceptible moisture, thus showing that it was distinctly damp before. the negative, therefore, should be dried before being brought into contact with the platinotype paper. [illustration: streonsalch. w.j. warren.] the wood printing frame itself, if it has been used for printing in the open air, should be placed in an oven or held near the fire to thoroughly dry it. having placed the negative and the platinotype paper in the frame in the ordinary manner, there should next be placed at the back of the paper a thin sheet of waterproof cloth, vulcanized rubber of the proper size and thickness being sold for the purpose; this will prevent damp from penetrating to the paper from the back of the frame. the frame may now be closed and placed in the light for printing, and even having taken all these elaborate precautions against damp it would not be advisable to print out of doors except in dry weather, nor should the paper be left in the frame longer than need be, but if it is not proposed to finish the print off at once, it should be returned as soon as convenient to the security of the calcium tube. general outline of the process. platinotype paper is ordinarily only available for daylight printing, though the platinotype company have introduced a lamp of special construction and great power, by the use of which daylight may be dispensed with, and electric light, should it be available, may be used. as has been already said, platinotype paper is rather more sensitive to light than silver paper, and hence takes proportionately less time to print. the duration of the exposure to light constitutes the only real difficulty in platinotype printing, and whilst just at first it may result in the beginner's meeting with much disappointment, yet probably, with a little care and watchfulness the trouble will be surmounted, and sufficient experience gained to secure fairly uniform success thereafter, before even the first tube of paper has been used. the printed image shows on the yellow ground of the sensitized side as a faint grey, the darkest portions assuming an orange-grey tint, whilst the lighter parts remain all but invisible. a little practice will enable one to judge the right depth, that is to say, how visible the image should be before printing is to be stopped, but as a rough guide to commence with it may be said that printing is complete when the image is about half as deep as we should expect it to be if it were a "print-out" process. as we shall have occasion to return to the question of printing presently, we may now pass to the next step in the process. in twenty-five ounces of hot water dissolve half a pound of best neutral oxalate of potash, and keep this in a stoppered bottle as stock solution. what is known as _neutral_ oxalate should be used, and in order to ensure having a suitable salt it had better be obtained from a recognised photographic chemist or dealer. as the above solution becomes cool, a good deal of the oxalate will probably settle at the bottom in the form of solid crystals; of these no notice need be taken, for as long as there are undissolved crystals at the bottom of the bottle we know we have a saturated solution. we shall now require a dish of porcelain or enamelled iron, and if we choose the latter great care must be taken to see that the enamel is not cracked or blistered, as it will have an injurious effect if the oxalate of potash solution obtain access to the iron under the enamel. as it will be convenient to be able to alter the temperature of the solution when in this dish at will, a spirit lamp or stove or a small gas-stove will be a useful, if not an essential addition. over such heating apparatus the dish should be supported on an iron tripod, or by any extemporized substitute. if a porcelain dish be used, a thin sheet of iron should be placed first on the tripod stand, and then three or four scraps of iron, large common iron nails will serve very well, and on these the porcelain dish is allowed to rest so that it does not come into direct contact with the iron plate. the purpose of this is to save the dish from cracking, moreover the iron plate becomes hot, and retaining a good deal of heat serves as a kind of accumulator which goes far to maintain the dish and the contained solution at a uniform temperature for at least a short time. even better than this arrangement will be an iron dish filled with clean dry sand, the porcelain dish to rest on the sand which retains much heat. if an enamelled iron dish be employed, these precautions are not so necessary, though they may still be used with advantage. next we shall require another dish or similar vessel into which we pour a weak solution of hydrochloric acid, the usual proportions being:-- water parts pure hydrochloric acid part this constitutes the whole of the very simple apparatus needed, and we may now proceed to develop our print, which as already described is exposed to light in a printing frame in the usual manner until the image appears rather less than half-printed. development of the print. if convenient it would be an advantage to have the above-mentioned apparatus set up close to the window or other situation where the printing is actually carried on in order that each print may be developed and finished off forthwith,; the reason for this will, i think, appear as we proceed. development--that is, the changing of the print from the partially visible condition to its full degree of intensity--is practically instantaneous. the image does not gradually attain its maximum strength as in a negative or bromide print, but does so within a few seconds of its coming into contact with the oxalate of potash solution. [illustration: fig. .] having put into the dish on the tripod stand sufficient of the saturated solution of oxalate of potash to cover the bottom of the dish to the depth of half an inch or an inch, we light the lamp or stove and bring the solution up to a temperature of about ° fahrenheit. this may be tested with a thermometer or may very well be guessed by touch; we merely require the solution quite warm, but not so hot as to cause the slightest inconvenience if the fingers are placed therein. this will be a sufficiently accurate guide as to temperature. in case any dust or scum should have accumulated on the surface of the bath, wipe the surface of the solution with a piece of clean paper, and now take the first print to be developed in both hands, giving it a decided curl, or roll it round into a cylinder _sensitive side out_, so that it naturally takes a curled-up form (fig. ). we now take the print to the dish containing the oxalate solution without previous washing and without exposing the paper to the influence of light or moisture, and lowering the edge of the paper held in the left hand, sensitive side downwards, until it touches the fluid quickly and smoothly bring the rest of the print down until the right-hand end finally reaches the solution, then give it a sliding sort of shake in order to set free any bubbles of air which may be imprisoned under the paper, and then on raising the paper again after five to ten seconds, the image will be found to have come out to the full degree of visibility, which the amount of exposure had paved the way for. the paper may be returned to the oxalate bath for a minute or two longer if it be thought desirable, though only in the case of a very cold bath is any effect produced on the print by the oxalate after the first few seconds. the print is then passed _direct_ to the hydrochloric acid bath, which should be ready in a dish close at hand, and the print is now practically finished. before placing the print in the acid bath it may be noticed that the portions of the print not affected by light still remain yellow, and this yellowness the acid bath removes almost at once. in order to effectually remove the yellow surface (which is the unacted-upon sensitive salts and hence upon their removal the permanence of the print depends) three successive applications of the acid bath should be resorted to, the prints remaining for to minutes in each, and then finally washed in running water for a quarter-of-an-hour, dried between blotting paper or in any other manner preferred, and the platinotype print is finished and ready for mounting. it should be seen from the foregoing general outline of the process that for directness, simplicity, and for the short time in which a finished print may be produced that platinotype stands alone amongst printing methods. there are, however, some points needing careful consideration at each stage of the print's production, and to these we may now pay attention. practical considerations as regards exposure. as has already been stated right exposure constitutes the crux of the whole process; this once mastered the rest of the performance--development, clearing in acid and washing--is so simple that the chance of failure is remote. hence the greater need of paying especial attention to the question of exposure or printing. obviously, the duration of time of exposure cannot be fixed, not even to the extent it can be in bromide printing or any other method of printing with artificial light which may be a definite and permanent quantity. the variable quality of the daylight and the density of the negative are both fluctuating factors in the calculation and hence some means may advisedly be resorted to for acquiring a sort of exposure index suitable for each individual negative and every variety of light. first let it be noted that even with very great over-exposure the image will not become wholly visible, whilst to the inexperienced eye but little change takes place in the appearance of the printed image after the correct exposure has been reached. if then the print has been over-exposed, the fact is not made evident until the print is subjected to the influence of the oxalate developing bath. to start platinotype work trusting to chance or good fortune to secure for us good results, means that our whole course will be one of uncertainty and filled with exasperating disappointments to say nothing of the amount of paper and material which is certain to be wasted in unsuccessful efforts. the reader will probably have learned something of this from his past experiences of negative exposure, the difficulties of which he has by now, we may hope, overcome by careful and patient study, or else if he is not even now undergoing this stage of learning he is the victim of endless mistakes, every plate exposed is a shot in the dark with no certainty attending any one of them. exposure, however, in platinotype is not so difficult a matter as that of a dry plate, and the correct exposure with any particular negative once ascertained, every subsequent print from the same negative can, by simple mechanical means, be made with the certainty of its being _an exact facsimile_ of the others. printing with an actinometer. several kinds of actinometers are made for sale, the purpose of which is either to indicate the right exposure of a plate in the camera or to tell the duration of exposure for papers such as platinotype or carbon, the image on which is invisible, or nearly so. a simple, yet thoroughly efficient meter may be made as follows:--cut some fine tissue paper or _papier minéral_ into strips about a quarter of an inch wide and attach one to a piece of clean glass - / × - / with fresh starch or other colourless mountant. upon this first strip and exactly over it place a second, but bring it to within a quarter of an inch of the end of the first, next place a third strip in like manner a quarter of an inch short of the second strip, and so on until some seven or eight strips have been fixed. the combination will now be somewhat as the following drawing (fig. ), thus forming a tissue band which at each quarter-inch is one thickness more opaque. [illustration: fig. .] in the centre of each strip or increased thickness, paint with opaque colour, black or red, a letter or figure as in (fig. ). on the back or other side of the glass to which these strips are attached, paint over or cover with opaque paper all except the space covered by the strips. now place the whole in an ordinary / -plate printing frame, with the paper strips inside, next adjust a piece of silver paper, albumenized, or gelatine chloride precisely as though printing from a negative. close the back and we then have a thoroughly efficient actinometer. [illustration: fig. .] we now put out our first piece of platinotype paper to print, and alongside it so as to receive the exact same amount of light, we place our actinometer. the first print must admittedly be guess-work. after an interval of time, which may vary from say fifteen minutes to an hour according to the amount of light, we will withdraw the frame containing the platinotype print, and _simultaneously turn the actinometer over with its face down_, thus stopping its printing whilst examining the platinotype. retiring from the light we examine the progress of printing precisely as in silver printing, and we shall probably find that the image on the negative is now faintly visible on the platinotype paper, impressed in a sort of warm grey colour. if the darkest portions are of about the tint which we might produce by shading with an h pencil on a piece of primrose yellow or pale buff paper, we may reckon that the print has been sufficiently exposed. now refer to the actinometer and see what has taken place on the silver paper which we put into it. probably while the platinotype paper has been reaching the required depth of printing, the silver paper has also registered the image of the strips of paper, and has become printed through up to the fourth or fifth step of the tissue strips, showing on each strip its letter in white. make a note of the highest letter visible and proceed to develop the platinotype print. if upon development the print is weak and grey, lacking depth or intensity in the deepest shadows, and having blank and detailless whites for the higher tones, we may reckon that our print is under-exposed. the letter visible then, _with that particular negative_ is not sufficient. we then shift the paper in the actinometer so as to get a fresh portion under the tissue strips, or we substitute a new piece. we refill the printing frame and print again until the actinometer registers one, two, or three more steps and letters, and then try again. if, however, in the first case the platinotype print upon development gives a heavy dark print, with the details in shadows blocked up, and the high-lights grey, the whole possessing an overdone appearance, then in our second attempt we shall stop printing when the actinometer records some one or two letters less. but we may be more fortunate in our first attempt, and the print may be about right. in that case we mark on that negative in some way the tint or step or letter in the actinometer at which we arrested action, and henceforth, no matter the time of year, hour of the day, or latitude, that negative will give a similar print if stopped in accordance with that memorandum which it bears. if, however, we do not hit the right exposure the first time, we are pretty certain to do so the second, or at the most the third time, and having done so, we have not only an infallible guide for all subsequent prints from that same negative, but we have also some sort of index to base our calculations on for other negatives. thus if we at once proceed to print from another negative, that is, before any considerable alteration takes place in the light, we may by comparing the negatives at least estimate what will probably be the second negative's printing letter or step on the actinometer. sooner or later every negative (especially those from which we anticipate wanting subsequent prints) should bear either on the negative itself, or else in a carefully kept register or note book its correct printing letter. although this may seem a rather laborious practice, it is not so in reality, and so great is its educational power that i anticipate that after the first dozen or so negatives we shall almost dispense with the actinometer altogether, having by then trained the eye to tell when a print is finished merely by the appearance of the half-visible image. do not let this prospect, however, tempt the beginner to dispense with this valuable help at first, for to the inexperienced eye the appearance of the platinotype image is very deceptive, and having under-exposed the first print, it will not be safe to judge the extra printing of the next print only by the eye; the beginner is nearly certain to err, and the eye must not be trusted until it has had considerable training. after having had some considerable and varied experience in platinotype printing, one feels no little regret that an operation which has become so simple cannot be laid before a beginner in a more precise and definite manner, and i can only assure my reader that in a very little while what may now look like a very serious business, only surmountable by long and serious practice, will become a sort of intuitive faculty, and just as one feels after a little practice the precise amount of pressure which one should use when the fingers are placed on the notes of the piano, so just the right _visible_ depth of print required to give a developed print of such and such intensity comes to be a matter of instinct. it may here be stated that paper which has been affected by damp gives a slightly less visible image than dry paper. but moisture alone without oxalate will effect partial development, and if the time of exposure to light be so greatly prolonged, that despite all precautions moisture obtains access to the print during exposure, this may, as it were, start a kind of local development whilst the paper is still in the frame and printing, so that on looking at the print to watch its progress some of the deeper shadows may have sprung quite suddenly into a deep blackish-grey colour. in many cases this will quite spoil the finished result, whilst in others no harm seems to be done when the print is ultimately developed. remembering that the high-lights and indeed some of the lighter tints of the print are quite invisible until after development, care should be taken to look at the paper only in decidedly subdued light, or better still, artificial light, because the injury which is being done by even a short exposure to actinic light is not made manifest until after development, and as most of us know how soon a piece of silver paper will discolour in even moderately faint daylight, we should be additionally cautious with platinotype paper which is from twice to three times as sensitive to light. [illustration: fig. .] some points to be considered with regard to development. to avoid confusion it will be well to repeat here that at present we are only considering the practice of what is known as the cold-bath paper. this term is applied only in a comparative sense. the older hot-bath process requires the developing bath to be raised to a temperature of about ° f., whereas the best temperature for the cold process is about ° f. or even less; nevertheless, the cold-bath paper _may_ be developed in an oxalate bath of ° or even hotter, so also it may be developed on a solution which is quite cold. the result of altering the temperature is two-fold and may be stated thus:--_the colder the bath_, the _colder_ the colour, that is, the _bluer_ the greys and blacks, also development is slower and takes longer, and the contrasts harder. _the hotter the bath_ the warmer or browner the colour of the print; the more sudden the development and the greater the amount of half-tone and consequent softer contrasts. with these maxims in mind some amount of control may be exercised over the prints produced, especially as regards arresting development at any point desired if a cold developer be used, but in such case the print must be instantly removed to and plunged into the acid bath, until which immersion development continues, even after the print has been removed from the bath. development, as a general rule, should be conducted in feeble daylight or artificial light. development need not take place immediately, but at some subsequent time, provided the prints be meanwhile stored in a calcium tube and in every way rigorously protected from damp. the proportions which i have given for the oxalate of potash bath represent the standard developer as given by the makers of the paper for the hot-bath papers, and they recommend that this be diluted to about half strength for cold-bath papers. personally, i use it at full strength for the cold process, and see no reason for diluting it. it may be said that such a course is calculated to give strong, vigorous prints, for generally speaking, the stronger the bath, the stronger the contrasts of the print. the difference, however, produced by altering the strength of the bath is not very great. there are two alternatives to the oxalate of potash developer, both possessing certain, if not very strongly marked characteristics. the first of these is known as the "d" salts. these are sold in tins by the platinotype company, and consist of a loose admixture of certain salts, and hence it is essential that the entire contents of a half-pound tin be dissolved at once and kept thus as a stock solution. the proportions to be used are as follows: dissolve / lb. of d salts in ozs. water, and then take equal portions of this solution and water, in other words, dilute it to half-strength. the "d" salts are said to give colder colours and more half-tone, but the colour derived from development on the first-named oxalate bath may be made colder by adding to parts of developer part of a saturated solution of oxalic acid, in like manner slightly warmer colour may be obtained if the oxalate bath be made alkaline by the addition of carbonate of potash, but only just enough should be added to turn a red litmus test paper blue. if prints developed on d salts should appear mealy or granulated, the bath should be strengthened or used at the full strength of the stock solution (salts / lb. to water oz.). another developer, the effect of which is to minimize half-tone and increase the vigour of the contrasts, and so give very brilliant and even hard blacks and whites, is as follows: oxalate of potash ozs. phosphate of potash ozs. sulphate of potash / oz. water ozs. this should be made with hot water, and to get the full advantage of its contrast-giving powers, used quite cold. development will then probably take one or two minutes, but can be arrested sooner when the desired effect is attained. it may now be as well to enumerate and describe the various kinds of platinotype paper obtainable, and whilst the general treatment of them all is the same as described in the foregoing, some special recommendations may be made in each case. the papers for the cold-bath process are two called respectively aa and cc. aa is a smooth surface paper and is the kind usually employed for portraiture and general small work. cc is a heavier, stronger paper with a surface similar to stout cartridge or drawing paper. for pictorial work and for landscapes, also for large portraits or heads this paper is eminently suitable. next we have the papers for hot-bath process, to be presently described. these are firstly a and c, both precisely the same in character as the aa and cc just referred to, but intended to be developed in a bath at high temperature. these four kinds of paper all yield a picture of the normal platinotype black colour, the black tending to cooler or warmer tints according to slight modifications of treatment, but it is also possible to produce a platinotype print of a rich sepia brown by using the papers s and rs--these both in substance and character corresponding with aa or a and cc or c respectively. thus we have a thin smooth and a thick rough paper for each cold bath, hot bath, and for sepia printing. development of hot-bath and sepia papers. with the hot-bath papers perhaps the precautions against damp should be rather more stringent than for cold-bath papers, certainly they may not be relaxed, and in the sepia papers, s and rs, there seems to be even greater susceptibility still, but for this, printing and development are performed precisely as already described, but the temperature of the oxalate bath should not be less than ° to °, whilst in some cases it may be convenient to raise it still higher. the oxalate solution should, moreover, always be at full strength, namely, / lb. in ozs. of water or thereabouts, a much more diluted bath will result in granular prints. as a general rule the colour of a and c prints is a rather browner black than their cold-bath equivalents--aa and cc--with also rather softer contrasts. development takes place in shorter time than with cold-bath papers, and is indeed so instantaneous that any control is next to impossible. on this account, rather more dexterity will be required in development, that is to say, between the time that one end of the print touches the developer and the rest of the print is brought into contact with it, the shortest possible time should elapse. there must be no hesitation, the whole surface must be brought down gradually but swiftly, and accompanied by a sliding movement in order to squeeze out or wipe out any air bubbles which might cling to the surface of the paper. if this be not done evenly and continuously, it is more than likely that there will be marks of unequal development on the surface. [illustration: fig. .] it is no uncommon thing for the tyro to let the print hover over the bath before giving it its plunge in the hot solution, but in so doing it should be remembered that he is submitting it to the direct action of the steam which the bath is giving off, and so exposing it to damp. whilst with prints of / -plate size and under it may be sufficient to hold the print by one corner and wipe it across the surface of the solution, pressing it down with the fingers of the other hand, with larger sizes it will be well to cultivate a little trick in manipulation, and the accompanying figure may perhaps be suggestive (fig. ), in which it will be seen the left hand is bringing one end of the print into contact with the bath, whilst the right hand holds the opposite end above and well back, and the left hand will next be moved in the direction of the arrow, drawing the print with it along the surface of the bath, the right hand following but simultaneously lowering the whole of the print--thus the solution attacks the print smoothly and continuously, whilst the air is pressed out in the opposite direction. instantly the entire print is floating on the bath it should be moved about a little, as a further means of disengaging any air bubbles. as far as possible, prevent the developer from flowing over the back of the print, but this will be a far less evil than not bringing the whole printed surface immediately and at one stroke on to the developer. the print is next passed direct and without intermediate washing into the hydrochloric acid bath, as already described. the sepia papers, s and rs, are both hot-bath papers, and no special instructions need to be given as regards development, except that to get the full benefit of the sepia tint and secure a fine rich bright colour, the special sepia solution prepared and supplied by the platinotype company should be employed in the developer. of this, one or two drams should be added to each ounce of oxalate bath, either before heating it in the dish or afterwards and just before floating the prints. in the latter case stir the whole so as to get it equally mixed, and wipe the surface to remove any scum. a good substitute for the bath as above prepared for sepia prints may be made by adding one part of saturated solution of oxalic acid to each ten parts of oxalate of potash solution. the sepia papers are rather more sensitive to light than the black papers, and hence all operations should be conducted in very subdued daylight, a precaution even extending to the first acid bath. the bath containing the special solution should be used for sepia prints only, and when done with kept in a separate bottle for future use, but the bottle must be kept from the light, and the sediment which will fall should be left undisturbed at the bottom of the bottle or filtered out, and the dish used for sepia development should be well washed before using it for black prints. opinions seem to differ as to the wisdom of keeping old developing baths, but as far as my own experience goes i use the oxalate solution for black prints again and again, taking no heed of its discoloured condition. after developing, the bath is poured into the stock bottle, and so long as undissolved crystals remain at the bottom of the bottle hot water may be added from time to time to make up the loss occasioned by spilling and waste, thus the stock solution is always a combination of old and freshly-dissolved oxalate, and i have had one large jar of solution thus in very frequent use for over twelve months, a greenish-black encrustation gradually accumulating at the bottom without detriment. concerning the hydrochloric clearing or fixing bath. little needs to be said as to the hydrochloric acid bath into which the prints are passed immediately after development. the purpose of the acid bath is to dissolve out the sensitive salts which have been unaffected by light and which are still light-sensitive, the removal of these making the paper white and clean. thus the acid bath is both fixing and clearing in its action. into the first acid bath the prints will carry a good deal of the oxalate solution in which they have been developed, and it therefore soon becomes very much discoloured, wherefore after a lapse of about five minutes the print should be removed to a second acid bath of the same strength as the first (pure hydrochloric acid part, water parts) and after five or ten minutes into a third. after the prints (many may be done at the same time) have been in the third acid for five minutes, the bath should be examined, and if it is quite colourless, that is if the prints have not discoloured it at all, we may rest satisfied that clearing and fixation are complete, but if not, yet another acid bath should be given. whilst five or ten minutes in each acid bath is long enough, probably no harm to the print itself, yet no good, will follow a longer immersion. there may, however, be a danger of softening or rotting the paper, a danger which is increased should the bath be made stronger in acid. if a number of prints are being made, or if numerous dishes for acid constitute a difficulty or inconvenience, we may modify procedure as follows:-- make up the first acid bath to about half the prescribed strength, say hydrochloric acid one part to water to parts. into this each print may be flung as soon as developed, until the entire batch is thus far finished. in this weak acid bath the prints will take no harm if left for several hours, when an acid bath (one to seventy) of full strength having been prepared, the first weak solution may be poured off and the fresh poured on. in this the prints should be separately turned over, so that each receives thorough treatment, when the second bath may be thrown away and a third substituted. one dish thus serves for the whole series of acid baths. if adopting this course, it will be safer not to mix sepia and ordinary black prints in the same _first_ acid bath, after which, however, they may be treated altogether. sufficient washing to rid the paper of acid is all that is required to complete operations; but acid does not cling to the print as does hypo, moreover, we have not an absorbent gelatine surface to deal with, so that if prints were dealt with individually and washed by hand, probably a few minutes sluicing under a tap would suffice, but in a properly constructed print-washer, or even a large dish, twenty minutes to half-an-hour should be ample. if any doubt is felt, the last washing water may be tested with blue litmus paper. modifications in development. to impart a warmer and richer tone to prints on cc (cold-bath) paper, the following slight modification may be resorted to, but it must be regarded merely as an exception for definite purposes, being in violation of the instructions and rules already laid down. it consists of developing cc paper as though it were hot-bath paper, using a bath of about ° f and submitting it to the influence of damp to a slight degree. this latter very heterodox course may be effected by leaving the paper laid out all night in a room where there has been no fire to dry the air, or by using paper which has been kept for a week or so in its tube without calcium chloride and without sealing the lid, or yet again, the print may be held over the steam of the developer for a few minutes before developing it. it must be remembered that in doing this we are taking liberties with the process, and if poor, "muddy" prints result, we can only blame ourselves, but as a rule this will not be the case, the effect being rather to impart a slight creamy tone to the whites without otherwise degrading their brilliance, whilst the use of a hot bath gives the whole a distinctly brown-black image, which combined with the cream tint of the high-lights has a very luminous and warm effect. another method of development which must also be taken as an exceptional one, only to be used in special cases to attain special ends, is local development with a brush, using glycerine as a medium. as may have been seen from the foregoing descriptions, the development of a platinotype print, even with a cold bath, is so rapid that there is not a possibility of developing one portion more than another, or if such could be done, still it would be done with the certainty of leaving a mark where development had been stopped. these difficulties, however, may be overcome by the use of glycerine, the effect of which is to retard development to almost any degree, and by its soft, viscid character to soften and blend the line of demarcation where greater or less development ceased. the method of applying it is as follows: on removing the print from the frame it should be fastened to a board with pins, print side upwards. next pour on to the surface a small pool of _pure_ glycerine, and with the finger tip, a brush or soft pad, spread it _evenly_ and thinly over the print. it must not be allowed to remain on the surface in irregular patches of unequal depth, but after spreading it had better be wiped with a fresh pad of cotton wool, so as to remove any superfluous glycerine. now have four small vessels at hand, and into no. place an ounce or two of the ordinary oxalate developing solution, in no. put equal parts of oxalate solution and glycerine, in no. one part oxalate solution and two parts glycerine, and in no. pure glycerine. with a broad, soft hair brush apply the contents of no. to the less printed portions of the image and wait results. these portions will presently begin to gain in depth and to slowly develop up, now spread the no. mixture to the rest of the print and apply the contents of no. to the portions first treated with no. . the most obstinate parts may be touched with no. , plain oxalate solution, whilst any spots which have come up too quickly may be promptly arrested from further progress by the application of pure glycerine. here we have a method of developing up any one part, and restraining or entirely stopping any other. i do not think any good will be done by a more detailed description of its working, even if there be anything more to tell. it is essentially a method of development in which the individual worker will invent modifications and dodges for himself, and when all is said for it, it must be admitted only as a means of improving a subject when ordinary procedure fails. the character of the negative for platinotype. in the earlier days of platinotype printing it was generally insisted upon that the most suitable negatives were such as we should describe as somewhat vigorous or "plucky." whether it is that some alteration has been made in the manufacture of the paper or that taste as regards what constitutes a good print has changed, i cannot say. certain it is that in the experience of a good many, a "plucky" negative is by no means essential to the production of a good platinotype print. the soft, delicate negatives, of which the best professional portrait negatives are a good sample, yield the best possible results, whilst with the cc paper, negatives so thin and delicate as to be suitable for hardly any other printing process, give all that can be wished for. much, of course, will depend on the kind of print desired and the paper used, and here it may be remarked that from a given negative the different kinds of platinotype paper give different results. from a given negative the hot-bath papers yield the greatest amount of half-tone, the hot development tending to yield flatter results. next comes the smooth, cold-bath paper, and finally as yielding the maximum amount of vigour is the cc paper. hence if we make our negatives specially for our chosen printing process, a stronger negative will be needed for s, rs, a and c than for the aa and cc, whilst for the latter a negative distinctly erring on the side of extreme thinness will be best. if a negative gives prints which are too weak and flat for our purpose, a great improvement may be effected by printing through blue glass. if on the other hand the prints are too hard and harsh in contrast, it is advisable to print through "signal" green glass. toning platinotype prints. several formula and methods have been published from time to time, the object of which is to change the colour of the platinotype print by subsequent staining or toning, and whilst by such methods pleasing colours may sometimes be obtained, they possess an element of uncertainty, and must not be too much relied upon. an exception in this respect must, however, be made in the case of what is known as packham's method, the effect of which is to change the black platinotype to a sepia brown, or a brown slightly tinged with green. the necessary "tinctorial powder" must be obtained from mr. packham or through a dealer. to prepare the bath a packet of this powder is dissolved by boiling for three or four minutes in five fluid ounces of water, to which when cold add one ounce methylated spirit. this forms the stock solution and will keep for a long time if well corked. for use add thirty or forty minims of the stock solution to one pint of water, and in this steep the prints, turning them over frequently. toning may occupy several hours. to expedite matters, the dilute solution should be made with water of ° f., and the bath maintained at this temperature as in the case of hot-bath development. as soon as the desired tint is secured, remove the prints and wash well in three changes of cold water. prints may be so treated at any time after they have been made. glycerine developed prints are not suitable. prints must have been very thoroughly washed, so as to free them from every trace of acid, also thoroughly fixed in acid if they are to be "toned" by packham's method. if after "toning" and washing the whites of the print appear to have suffered, the prints should be placed for five or ten minutes in the following bath, which should be kept at a temperature of ° f. castille soap grains bicarbonate of soda grains water, hot ( ° f.) pint this will clear the whites and intensify the colour generally. platinotypes may be toned to a red-brown by uranium nitrate, or to a bluer colour with chloride of gold. they may also be intensified by pyrogallic acid or hydroquinone, but as the purpose of this article was merely to give simple working instructions for platinotype printing for the beginner, he may defer the consideration of such side issues until he has become _au fait_ in the production of a good platinotype print. _a. horsley hinton._ _contact printing on bromide paper._ [illustration] it is well to bear in mind at the outset that bromide paper is extremely sensitive to light, almost as much so as is a rapid dry plate. for this reason, it is obvious that it must not be carelessly exposed to actinic light. all manipulations except the actual printing must be conducted by red or yellow light, such as is allowed to pass through glass of these colours. for evenness of result, it is better to use a lantern than daylight, because the fluctuation in intensity of the latter is very misleading and liable to lead to failures through over or under development. the actual colour of the light, also, is of far more importance than one would suppose: ruby light tends to give one the impression that development is complete long before that is the actual case; it is also somewhat more difficult to handle the paper satisfactorily by this light than by a good yellow. for these and other reasons i strongly recommend the use of yellow light, a thoroughly safe one being given by gas or lamplight passing through one sheet of yellow glass and one thickness of "canary medium." this light, while being absolutely safe, gives such perfect illumination that it is as easy to control and estimate results as it would be by ordinary unfiltered gaslight. if a ruby glazed lantern is already in use for negative work, it can readily be prepared for bromide printing by merely removing the ruby glass and substituting the yellow and canary medium. with these brief hints as to illumination, let us consider the entire process in its various stages. _unpacking the paper._--the sensitive paper is generally packed in envelopes sufficiently opaque to protect it from the admission of light. the packet must be opened in the dark-room from which _all_ light (even stray streaks beneath the door) is excluded, excepting only that given by the yellow glazed lantern. the outer envelope being carefully undone, an inner cover will be found and these wrappers should be placed on a dry table while a sheet of the paper is removed. it is a good plan to have a "light-tight" box (obtainable from any dealer) in which to put the paper after unpacking it; this prevents loss of time and awkwardness of handling in having to replace the paper in its wrappers each time a piece is withdrawn for use. when several prints from one or more negatives are required, it is an excellent thing to have two of these boxes, one for the unexposed paper and one in which to put the prints as made until all are ready for development. _the class of negative._--bromide paper gives us a great command over results; in fact, so vast is the control we may exercise that it is possible to secure good results from almost all classes of negatives, from mere ghosts to those with density almost equal to that of a brick wall. but there is, of course, a class of negative that gives a good result with the least expenditure of skill, such a one is generally known as of average density, having a full scale of gradation with high-lights dense, yet not so opaque as to prevent you seeing a window clearly defined when looking towards it _through_ the densest parts of the film, such as the sky, for instance. another way to test the density is to put the negative, film side down, on some large print on white paper, the large letters should be just visible through the sky, but the smaller print should not be readable. that is the class of negative usually considered in instructions for use, as an "average" negative. _the sensitive side of the paper._--a difficulty sometimes occurs in telling which is the sensitive side of the paper: this may be easily ascertained by the appearance of the edge, which turns slightly inwards _towards_ the sensitive side. this is quite apparent to the sense of touch as well as sight. some people moisten their finger and thumb and squeeze the paper and see which sticks (the sensitive side), but that is a dirty method and quite unnecessary. _printing from the negative._--having unpacked the paper, after making sure that all but the yellow (or ruby) light has been excluded from the room, we are ready to print. for this purpose, different workers favour different classes of light: one prefers gaslight, another swears by magnesium ribbon, and some even prefer the light of day. personally, i favour ordinary gaslight passed through a no. bray's burner, because it is quite rapid enough for all practical purposes and is perfectly under control and free from serious variation. [illustration: fig. .] the burner should be within easy reach of the worktable and should be fitted with a byepass to obviate the necessity of continually striking matches. several years ago i had my bromide printing rooms fitted with an excellent lantern of this class in which the byepass was connected to two jets (one inside and the other outside the lantern) in such a way as to turn down the white light with the same movement that raised the coloured light, and _vice versa_. by this means no gas was wasted and the simple action of pulling or pushing a lever operated either light at will. by placing the same lever "amidships," both jets were lowered to the point of invisibility and could so remain for days at a time, yet always ready at a moment's notice. the accompanying sketch (fig. ) will give some idea of its construction. if the dark-room is small, and space is an object, the sink may be fitted with a wooden cover and this may be used as a table for printing the paper, but care must be observed to avoid the slightest moisture upon it or satisfactory work is impossible and the negatives may be ruined. in a large room, it is much better to have an ordinary kitchen table removed some distance from the sink; with this and a comfortable chair bromide printing is a very pleasant occupation. the following sketch (fig. ) will explain the arrangement of the table, and it applies equally well to the movable top of the sink. [illustration: fig. .] supposing that some arrangement of this sort is devised, we must unpack some bromide paper and put it in its box and then put a negative of "average" density in an ordinary printing frame. on the film side of the negative we must now place a sheet of bromide paper with its sensitive side in contact, replace the back of the frame and it is ready for exposure. before exposing it, _make sure that both boxes are shut_ or their contents will be ruined the moment the white light is turned up. upon reference to the instructions that accompany each packet of bromide paper, you will observe a certain number of seconds' exposure is advised at a certain distance from the light; in the case of the barnet extra rapid paper the time is given as about four seconds at a distance of eighteen inches. when all is ready for exposure, place the printing frame upright opposite the lantern at the mark indicating eighteen inches (see fig. ), note the time on the seconds hand of the clock and throw the lever over for white light for four seconds and then reverse it. remove the paper and if many are likely to be required from that negative, it would be well to develop the first print in order to judge as to the accuracy of the exposure. if over or under-exposed, the time must be reduced or lengthened as required. when the best time and distance has been ascertained for a certain negative, mark it with a narrow strip of paper bearing full particulars for future guidance, such as: " sec., in., no. bray;" in this way absolute correctness of future exposures is assured. of course, if gas is not obtainable, magnesium ribbon may be used instead. in this case the negative would be marked " inch (or more) ribbon, ft. distant," as the case may be. _using masks and discs._--prints are sometimes required with an oval (or square) centre and white margins: this is effected by interposing a black mask of the desired size and shape (obtainable from all dealers) between the negative and the sensitive paper. the black paper prevents the passage of light and leaves white margins to the print. if grey margins are required, a disc (to fit the mask) is attached to a sheet of glass the same size as the negative and arranged so that registration is easily effected; the print is first made with a mask and is then placed in contact with the disc and plain glass (the negative being removed from the frame), and again exposed for a second to the light. if a black border is required the exposure of the margin must be extended three or four seconds. _vignetting._--to vignette bromide prints, the printing frame must be covered with a piece of cardboard in which a small hole (about - / inches by inch for a cabinet head and bust) is pierced. the hole _must_ be covered with a sheet of white tissue paper which will diffuse the light and cause it to travel without harsh lines beneath the opening, and make the print with perfectly gradated edges. it is sometimes an advantage to move the negative while printing vignettes; but it is not absolutely essential if the hole in the cardboard is not too large and if the card is removed some little distance from the negative. if the card is too close to the negative, the gradation will be abrupt and the vignette will not look well. _cloud printing._--this requires some care in order to avoid harshness and sharply defined lines. if the sky of the negative prints white, the addition of clouds from another negative is not difficult; but if it is at all thin, the entire sky must be carefully painted out with a deeply opaque pigment in order to make it quite dense and unprintable. as a bromide print cannot be examined while in progress: that is, cannot be seen at all before development, careful registration is desirable in order to prevent printing the clouds across the landscape instead of above it. to do this an opaque mask should be made thus: make a print from the negative on p.o.p. and, without fixing or toning it, cut it carefully in two parts following the horizon line as nearly as possible, then expose to light, until quite black, that part representing the landscape. attach this to the glass side of the cloud negative (with the paper side of the p.o.p. in contact) and see that the bottom edge and the right corner of the paper and glass (viewed from the glass side of the negative) exactly coincide. to make use of this arrangement, you first make a print from the landscape negative, making sure that the negative and paper are firmly pressed against the bottom and left-hand side of the printing frame when looking towards the film side of the negative; mark the registered corner with lead pencil thus =l= in order to prevent mistakes in the second printing. to print the clouds, you put the negative in the frame and press it well home to the left-hand corner and the base of frame (looking at the film side, of course), and then put the print in contact with the same precaution and replace the back. now take a piece of brown paper with one edge roughly torn in shape of the horizon line of the mask and cover the entire negative on the glass side. hold the covered frame in your hands at a distance of (say) four feet from the gas and turn on the white light. directly the light is up, draw the paper slowly downwards until the horizon line is just passed, and then _immediately_ begin to slowly push it upwards towards the top of the sky. do this steadily and slowly for (say) four to six seconds, according to the density of the cloud negative. with a good thin cloud, four seconds should be quite enough, but you can easily settle this point on developing the first print. _printing from dense negatives._--dense negatives require much longer exposures than those of "average" (or ideal) density. this may often be prolonged to twice or three times the normal exposure at the same distance. a yellow coloured negative increases the exposure greatly, as much as ten to thirty times the normal frequently being requisite to get a decent print. an over dense negative that gives very harsh prints by other printing processes can be made to yield prints of exquisite softness on bromide paper by giving a full exposure at a _short_ distance from the gas. [illustration: cupboard love. t. lee syms.] _printing from thin negatives._--thin negatives on the other hand, require quite different treatment. in order to get plucky prints from very thin negatives, useless in other processes, we must give a very brief exposure at some distance from the gas; and here it may be well to note that removing the negative to a greater distance from the light is equal to decreasing the actual time of exposure and has other advantages in connection with thin negatives with which theory does not seem to agree. to print from a very thin negative, then, instead of four seconds at eighteen inches, let us cover it with a sheet of tissue paper and give it four seconds at a distance of three or four feet and note the result on development. if it appears to be over-exposed, we may reduce the time of exposure to three seconds at the same distance and modify the developer, as will be explained later on. _development of prints._--all my remarks in this article apply equally to most commercial brands of bromide paper; but it is only fair to state that they are particularly intended for that made by the firm of manufacturers publishing this book. development, and so on, is very similar with all makes of paper, but most of my recent experiments have been made on the "barnet" matt surface bromide. i shall presently describe the use of several well-known developers, but it must be well understood that, whatever formula is adopted, a preliminary soaking of the print before development must be done. when we are about to develop a number of prints we must first soak them in plain cold water until quite flaccid, otherwise the application of the developer would cause the dry print to cockle and curl, and the development would not be regular. this rule applies equally in the case of one print only as when a hundred are ready for development; a prolonged soaking in plain water having no ill effect. _the iron developer._--this is one of the developers most frequently recommended for bromide work, but personally i never advise its use (especially by a novice) because the use of the acid clearing bath, which is an essential part of the process, is so frequent a cause of disaster and yellow prints. the barnet formula is as follows:-- a. potassium oxalate lb. potassium bromide grains hot water ozs. b. iron sulphate lb. citric acid drams. hot water ozs. to six ounces of a, add one ounce of b; this order of mixing must be observed or a dense precipitate of ferrous oxalate will be formed. place one of the soaked prints face (which may be distinguished by its "slippery" surface) upwards in a clean porcelain dish and pour the developer over it as evenly as possible. with this developer, the image comes up very rapidly, so that it is not advisable to try and develop more than one at a time. if the first print of a batch appears to be over-exposed, that is, if it flashes out instantly and the high-lights become rapidly clouded, add to each ounce of mixed developer from to drops of a ten per cent. solution of potassium bromide which will act as a restrainer, retard development, and keep the high-lights clear while the shadows acquire density. under-exposed prints can rarely be made to give passable results with ferrous oxalate. the addition of a trace of hypo to the developer has been recommended for bringing up their detail, but the result is far from good. as soon as development is complete the prints must _not_ be put in clean water, but must be transferred direct from the developer to the following acid bath:-- acetic acid dram water ounces after an immersion of one minute, the operation must be twice repeated in similar baths that have not been previously used; this is to remove the iron from the print. a thorough washing must next be given to remove the acid and the print may then be fixed for at least fifteen minutes in hypo ounces water ounces after fixing (no matter what developer has been used) the prints must be thoroughly washed in several changes of water for at least two hours. the chief reasons against the use of ferrous oxalate are lack of control over development and the necessary use of an acid bath. unless the acid bath is used, the prints will be yellow because of the iron in them, and if the acid is not entirely removed before fixing the prints will be yellow owing to the decomposition of the hypo by the acid in the print which causes deposition of sulphur. _metol developer._--with this, and the other developers i shall mention, an acid bath is not necessary and so one cause of failure (and extra work) is obviated. i have somewhat amended the barnet formula to meet the needs of workers on a small scale and have also arranged a and b to balance each other without disturbing the relative proportions of the ingredients. a. metol grains water (cold) ounces dissolve _completely_ and then add sodium sulphite - / ounces potassium bromide grains shake until completely dissolved but do not apply heat. b. potassium carbonate grains water ounces for use, mix three parts by measure of a and one part of b. with this developer and a normal exposure, the image should appear in a few seconds and development should be complete in about two minutes. as fast as the prints are developed they should be immersed in salt ounces water ounces to stop development. when all are developed, they must be rinsed for a minute or two in clean water and then fixed. over-exposure is remedied by the addition of potassium bromide solution (as in the case of ferrous oxalate); under-exposed prints should be developed in a weak solution such as a parts b part water parts development will take longer, but the weaker solution will help to bring up the detail without the harshness of the shadows that would be the case if the normal developer was used. _hydroquinone and eikonogen._--the advantage of combining eikonogen with quinol lies in the fact that one provides what the other lacks, the eikonogen tending to give detail without density and the quinol (in inexperienced hands) giving density without detail. the following formula will be found very satisfactory:-- a. quinol grains eikonogen " sodium sulphite " citric acid " water to ounces dissolve the sodium sulphite and citric acid in ounces of water, then add the other ingredients and enough water to make a total bulk of ounces. b. sodium carbonate grains sodium hydrate " potassium bromide " water to ounces for use, mix one part of a, one part of b and two parts of water. the same remarks as to over and under-exposure apply as in the case of metol. _toning bromide prints._--the "tone" or colour of the deposit depends largely upon the accuracy of exposure and the developer employed. ferrous oxalate gives a rich black deposit, but to my mind metol and the combined eiko-quinol give tones at least as beautiful with pretty gray half-tones. but some people prefer warmer colours, brown and red for instance, and some get brownish blacks (through over-exposure and the use of bromide) which they would like to change. the colour of the deposit may be changed in various ways by treating the print in baths of different metals. i will give a brief outline of the methods employed, leaving readers to modify them to suit each particular case. _black and blue-black tone._--brownish black prints can be much improved after fixing by immersion in a strong bath of gold chloride; the following is the strength used by me:-- a. ammonium sulphocyanide grains water ounce b. gold chloride grains water ounce when quite dissolved add b very gradually to a, shaking almost continuously. the fixed print should be washed for at least fifteen minutes before toning and should then be placed in a clean tray while the toning bath is poured over it. the solution must be kept moving and the print must be removed and washed directly the desired tone is reached. prolonged immersion will cause the print to acquire a deep blue tone. _brown and red tones with uranium._--prints immersed in the uranium toning bath gradually become warmer in tone, changing from black to brown and brownish red until they assume a deep red nearly approaching the well-known bartollozzi chalk. prints to be toned by this process must be _thoroughly_ free from hypo or stains will be the inevitable result. the toning bath should be made up as follows, and it must be used at once as it will not keep after mixing a and b:-- a. potassium ferricyanide grains water ounces glacial acetic acid ounce when quite dissolved add b. uranium nitrate grains water ounce immerse the print and keep the solution in motion until the desired colour is produced, then wash the print for half an hour in several changes of water acidulated ( dram in ounces) with acetic acid. weak, under-developed prints are much improved by this method of toning. at the end of half an hour, if the whites are at all yellow they may be cleared by immersing the print for a minute or two in the following bath:-- ammonium sulphocyanide grains water ounces after immersion, rinse the print for five minutes and dry. _intensification._--it sometimes happens (especially when too little light has been used to properly judge development) that one acquires a collection of prints that, owing to under or over-development, are useless; let us see how they may be rendered serviceable. an under-developed print, though weakly looking and "washed out," simply needs intensification to give it the requisite pluck. the foregoing uranium bath acts as an intensifier while conferring a ruddy tone on the deposit. a black deposit can be obtained by intensifying the well-washed print with mercury. the print must first be immersed in a saturated solution of mercuric chloride until the image disappears; it must then be again thoroughly washed to remove all traces of free mercury and may then be redeveloped by flowing over it an old ferrous-oxalate developer. if ferrous oxalate is not at hand, an old metol developer may be substituted, but the former is the more reliable. when the image is sufficiently intense, the print must once more be thoroughly washed. all the toning and intensifying operations may be conducted by daylight. _reduction of density._--over dense prints can be made fit for many purposes by means of a "reducer" capable of dissolving part of the deposit. the best for the purpose and the one least liable to cause stains is know as the belitzski's; it is prepared thus:-- water ounces potassium ferric oxalate " sodium sulphite " dissolve and add to the red solution so obtained. oxalic acid ounce shake until the solution turns green and then immediately pour off the solution from any crystals remaining undissolved. to this solution add hyposulphite of soda ounces and shake until dissolved, when it is ready for use. the print to be reduced need not be free from hypo, but should be rinsed for a few minutes after fixing (or soaked until limp, if previously dried) and may then be placed in a tray and flooded with the reducer. the tray must be well rocked and the print, when sufficiently reduced, must be removed without delay and rapidly washed in running water. _some cheap and useful trays._--if large-sized prints are made, the cost of suitable trays becomes a very serious item. the expense of these may be reduced to a mere nothing, without loss of effectiveness, by the substitution of home-made ones. all that is required to make a tray of any size is a thin wooden confectionery box (or the bottom part of a larger case) lined with the shiny white marbled oilcloth known as "american moleskin." this is fitted inside the box (the corners being turned under) and secured by a row of tacks around the top edge. no further lining or preparation is required and the tray will stand all sorts of ill-treatment. as for durability: i had three such trays made out of old herring-boxes picked up at calgary and lined with moleskin that had already seen service as cover to a wash-handstand and chest of drawers in a canadian boardinghouse. for upwards of a year those trays were used daily and travelled many hundreds of miles by mule and dog train, and were not worn out when i returned home. my porcelain trays were smashed by a fall from a refractory mule, but the rough and ready makeshifts were a priceless boon. it seems to me that by practising economy of this kind and in various similar ways (_i.e._, where economy is necessary as, unfortunately, it sometimes is) the cost of practising our pet recreation is very materially reduced. _w. ethelbert henry, c.e._ _the gum-bichromate process._ [illustration] pictorial photography is answerable for the revival of this, one of the almost forgotten methods of printing. results unacceptable to bygone requirements have been reintroduced with advantage, where suggestive individuality and artistic effect have been desired. the gum process has an unlimited range of possibilities, it would be impossible to describe them all. the minutest details, or the broadest diffusion together with the power of working from the highest to the lowest keys of _chiaroscuro_ are values that can only be realized when the infatuation consequent on successfully working the process is experienced. this method of printing, as with the so-called "carbon process," is dependent upon the characteristic behaviour of the chromic salts when in combination with organic substances, such as gelatine, gums of various kinds, starch, etc. when any of these mixtures are submitted to the action of actinic light, they become more or less insoluble. this property was partially discovered as far back as , by vauquelin. professor sucrow, mungo ponton, beauregard and others advanced its application to photography up to about , but it was not until some ten years later that its great value as a photographic agent was definitely established. hunt, fox talbot and poitevin, each worked indefatigably to bring the application of the chromic process to a successful issue; but to poitevin must be accredited the honour of being the original inventor of the chromated pigment or carbon process. this brings us up to about . none of these investigators appear to have been remarkably successful, beyond having established definite, but valuable facts of the changes produced. this want of success may possibly be accounted for by the general employment of gelatine and direct printing. it was not until pouncey and others, about , employed gum as the colloid medium, that any great advance was made. about this time an important commission of inquiry decided that to pouncey, gamier and salmon, and beauregard the honour of producing permanent prints must be equally credited, and accordingly divided the duc de luyue's prize between them, giving to poitevin the credit of the priority of invention. pouncey appears to have followed up the process with some considerable success, as some of his existing examples are excellent; it is much to be regretted that we have not more detailed particulars of his methods of working; but he evidently was before his time and met with but little encouragement. to alfred maskell and m. demachy must be accredited the revival of this long neglected process, and during the last three years much advancement has been made towards perfecting it. serious workers, both at home and abroad, are industriously exhausting the possibilities of the process, and crude as some of the earlier examples of this revival have been, improvements and simplicity of working are giving us productions of every description, of such excellent quality that it may soon be expected to satisfy even the caustic criticism that has so persistently opposed its re-introduction. dexterity in the various stages of practical manipulation is necessary before skilful efficiency can be secured, and in order to arrive at this, due consideration must be given to the selection of the paper the colour most suitable to the subject and the effect desired. almost any kind of paper will be found workable, if it be of fairly good quality. those that are thickly coated with soluble sizing media are unsuitable, for although they may give clear whites they sometimes produce harsh prints, the half-tones are also liable to be lost in development unless very deeply printed. several of the continental kinds are well adapted to the process and work in an excellent manner, giving soft and even results; of course, it will be understood that for definition and fine detail the finer grained descriptions are the best, but where diffusion is desired those of a coarser texture may be advantageously used, they give a granulation that tends materially to secure the peculiarities of gradation characteristic of this process. a few of the continental papers that will be found to work with ease to the beginner, are as follows:-- michallet paper is rather coarse, but takes the gum coating easily, it has a series of lines running in both directions, which are rather objectionable for some subjects; but it is an excellent paper for first experiments. ingrés, is also a paper of similar character, and can be worked with equal facility. lallane is another paper of the same class, but much finer. allongé paper is entirely free from the markings peculiar to those previously mentioned. this paper is best worked on the reverse side, which can be distinguished by examining the name marked in one corner. among the english papers the ordinary cartridge, whatman's drawing papers and many others are adaptable, but it must be borne in mind that those with a toothed or grained surface are preferable. there are two methods of working, and results of equal excellence have been produced by either. some of the most proficient workers of the process adopt the easier one of coating the paper, without previous preparation, with a mixture of gum, bichromate of potass and pigment. others adopt the precaution of first saturating the paper with a strong solution of bichromate, and when dry coating it with a mixture containing only gum and pigment. experience is in favour of the previous saturation of the paper, this is recommended especially for beginners, as there are several kinds of paper that will not work efficiently by the first method; but when skill and practical knowledge of the special behaviour of the materials employed is acquired, either method can be adopted. we may presume that the advantage of the previous saturation of the paper with the chromic salt is, that should there be any inequality in its structural character, or should it be unequally sized, the bichromate appears to act as a kind of resist to the penetration of the pigment, thereby securing an increased range of tone and a corresponding purity of the whites. the process may be divided into the following operations:-- saturation or sensitizing of the paper. preparation of the gum mucilage. mixing and preparing the pigments. coating the paper. printing and exposure. development. for working by the previously chromated paper method, the sensitizing solution is made up of one part of bichromate of potassium dissolved in ten parts of water. this strength will not keep at all temperatures. should the salt crystallize out, it is necessary to warm a portion of the solution and re-dissolve the crystals. the solution may be used repeatedly, but it will be necessary to filter it occasionally. before saturation it is convenient to cut the paper into the most useful sizes--quarter sheets are handy. having decided which is to be the working side, mark the back distinctly. into a dish of sufficient depth pour in the one in ten bichromate solution to a depth of about one inch, and immerse your paper sheet by sheet, until you have in it all you intend to sensitize. as each sheet is placed in the solution, remove air bells and turn it over and repeat this precaution. the time necessary for immersion is of no importance so that the saturation is absolute, about five minutes being generally sufficient for the thickest of papers. by removing the bottom sheet to the top and passing through the whole in this manner, turning over each sheet and removing all air bells, even saturation is secured. each sheet is carefully and slowly removed from the solution and dried in the dark. the paper is now very sensitive to actinic light, which must during all future operations be carefully guarded against. after the paper is dry, it will--if kept so--be in good condition for a long time. to prepare the gum mucilage, take two ounces of soudan or turkey gum and dissolve it in five fluid ounces of cold water, strain out the floating impurities through fine muslin, and allow others, and finer to subside. this mucilage will keep in good condition in a well-corked bottle, for a considerable time. m. demachy employs gum mucilage of twice this density. pigments in powder are more suitable than in any other form, if in cakes or paste. the medium in which they are prepared, does not work kindly with the gum, and it is also difficult to accurately measure quantities. no advantage is gained by using expensive colours, they can all be purchased at a good colourman's, and at a small cost. lamp or any carbon, black, red ochre, yellow ochre, burnt sienna, and raw sienna, all work well; there is some uncertainty with the umbers and sepias. it will be found that much time will be saved if a combination of these dry colours is made up in bulk, as for instance--one hundred and seventy-five grains of vegetable black and one hundred of burnt sienna, give a rich soft brown colour. these must be finely and intimately mixed with each other, which is conveniently accomplished by grinding with a small pestle and mortar; after which the mixture may be kept in a wide-mouthed bottle. another advantage in thus keeping combinations of dry colours in bulk, is the absolute certainty of repeating the actual tint when required. various combinations of similar mixtures can be made. of course it will be understood that any or all of the above-named colours may be used singly. the grinding of the pigment with the mucilage is easily done on a stone slab with a palette knife. take half a fluid ounce of the two in five gum mucilage, to which add the same quantity of water and thoroughly mix. weigh out fifteen grains of the mixed pigment and place in a heap on the slab, add a few drops of the diluted mucilage, grind and regrind the mixture until it is completely smooth, then remove it to a cup, and clean the stone with another portion of the reduced mucilage, finally adding the whole of the ounce, intimately mix, and it is then ready for coating the paper. for extra fine work on smooth paper, and in fact for all classes of work, the fine grinding of the colours adds materially to extend the range of gradation, and although the trituration may be carried out fairly well with a palette knife, when the finest possible grades are desired, recourse must be had to the muller and stone. mullers are obtainable of any artist's colourman, they are made in glass, and a convenient size is about one inch in diameter. the most convenient brush for applying the mixture of combined gum and pigment to the paper, is of the description known as bear's hair, these are usually set in tin; a flat one about two inches wide is a useful size. in order to coat the paper evenly, pin it down to a drawing board by each corner with a double layer of blotting paper an inch or two larger than the paper to be coated. the blotting paper will absorb the excess of colour at the margins and enable you to secure an even coating up to the extreme edge. take a fairly full brush of the mixture after thoroughly incorporating the colour and spread it evenly over the paper, crossing and recrossing it with the brush. allow the mixture to lie upon the paper for a second or two so that the paper may expand; now release each of the corners and pin the paper down again. upon the next operation depends the evenness of the coating. take a four inch wide artist's badger's hair softener, hold it vertically and lightly by two fingers and the thumb about an inch and a half from the top of the handle, and pass it rapidly over the whole surface of the paper as quickly and evenly as possible. the motion producing the best effect is not the usual sweeping action, but a series of sudden short jerks, difficult to describe but easily acquired. continue this softening down until the paper has an even semi-transparent surface without uneven cloudy spots. allow it to dry spontaneously, but before it is stored for future use dry it carefully by the fire, but avoid overheating. uncertainty of result is a defect often brought into argument against this process; but absolute uniformity is not difficult if strictly accurate quantities only are employed. with constant strength of bichromate and gum, uniform weights and combination of pigment, similarity of repeats are obtained: but these can only be secured when each sheet of paper is coated identically with its fellow. to get this evenness the badger hair softener must be washed out and dried after coating each sheet. this is very quickly accomplished by an energetic shaking and drying upon a smooth towel. if the paper has been coated properly, it has an even semi-transparent surface slightly glassy. failures often occur from using an excess of pigment and allowing the gum to become too thick in consequence of evaporation. excess of pigment gives dense heavy shadows and increases the difficulty of printing; excess of gum gives clear high-lights, tending to hardness and easy solubility endangering the half-tones. the paper, if it has been correctly coated will work satisfactorily, if on steeping a small piece of it downwards upon cold water, the pigmented gum dissolves and drops from the surface leaving the paper nearly clean. from ten to fifteen minutes should complete this test. the method of working without previously chromatizing the paper is as follows:--take half a fluid ounce of four-in-ten gum mucilage and add to it an equal quantity of saturated solution of bichromate of potass; to this, with all care as to grinding and mixing, add the pigment; coat the paper as before directed. this method will be considerably slower in printing than that in which the paper had been previously saturated with the bichromate; neither are the whites as a rule quite so clear; but it will possess a peculiar grain and softness not otherwise obtainable, which is much approved by some workers of the process. exposure is so much dependent on circumstances that it is difficult to give precise directions, being governed by the density of the negative, the thickness of the coating and the intensity of the light. even and not too dense negatives are the more suitable, for if the intermediate and high-lights are over dense the shadows are considerably over printed before the lighter parts can be brought out. skill in development can do much to overcome these defects, but they may be considerably modified by the judicious employment of matt varnish, and by other methods of locally retarding printing. the greatest assistance in obtaining uniformity in printing is the employment of a reliable actinometer, wynne's print meter is probably the most useful for this purpose, with ordinary gelatino-chloride paper as a register; from twelve to sixteen numbers will be mostly sufficient for an ordinary negative, on not too thickly coated paper. another method of judging exposure is by the appearance of the shadows; they may frequently be seen by transmitted light, and when well out printing may be judged to be correct, but this is a slovenly method and only approximately correct at the best. if the bichromate is used only in the pigmented gum, without previous saturation of the paper, exposure must be much more prolonged. by no other process is it possible to obtain such diversity of effect as by this; much will, however, depend on the skill which is exercised in development. should the printing exposure have been fairly correct it is a simple procedure. the print is floated face downward upon cold water contained in a deep dish; see that all parts are equally acted upon by the water, and that no air bells exist; if any, they may be easily removed by gently raising the print and immersing it again once or twice. after it has been soaking some five or ten minutes it may be examined; if all is going well, and the exposure has been approximately correct, the pigmented gum on the unexposed margins will have left the paper, and possibly some of the high-lights and half-tones may be making an appearance, if so, the treatment must be of a gentle character, and the print may be safely left for some time longer in the same position face downward; never allow it to lie either in or out of the water face upwards for any long time, or unremovable stains will be developed. many prints will develop almost entirely without assistance, or with only an occasional laving of water if allowed to lie in this position for a long time. on the other hand some may, even when only slightly over-printed, give no indication of development. when this is the case remove the print from the water and place it face upwards upon a thin, smooth board, fix it in position with one drawing pin on the extreme margin, then gently lave cold water over it; should some of the darker parts still resist this action, longer soaking will be found advantageous. if there are still parts on which the colour will not move, recourse must be had to the brush, and for this purpose nothing is better than a large camel's hair mop. keeping the brush always full of water, touch where necessary very softly; do not sweep it up or down, but just dab here and there as may be required, constantly flowing over the surface a copious supply of water. if there are still parts in the shadows, or even in the high-lights that will not move, a jet of water from an enema syringe or from the household service pipe is very useful. as a last resource a prolonged steeping in water of varying degrees of temperature, even up to the boiling point, may be resorted to, but the application of increased temperature requires judicious management. when the print is sufficiently developed, if the creamy yellowness of the chromate stain is not desired, the print must be cleared or bleached, either in a solution of alum, sulphite of soda, or hyposulphite of soda, strength being immaterial with a careful after-washing. if the print is only just sufficient or only slightly over-printed, care must be taken that the clearing bath is not acid, neither must the washing be too prolonged, but if the print is first dried and submitted to light, this precaution is unnecessary. always allow the prints to dry spontaneously. it will not do to use any kind of pressure or blotting paper, for the surface of the colour is very tender and delicate. _jas. packham, f.r.p.s._ _an introduction to carbon printing for beginners._ [illustration] in the article that follows next will be found a complete exposition of the carbon process, with its various adaptations from the preparation of the paper and material forwards. whilst at the present time carbon printing is more largely used by professional photographers, yet its simplicity, the absence of chemical formulæ and complications combined with the beauty of the results, makes it eminently suitable for amateur workers, and hence it has been thought desirable that as an introduction to the subsequent article, a brief and simple outline of the process should be given for the benefit of those who have not hitherto made its acquaintance. in the first place then let it be understood that in carbon printing instead of depending on light to make a visible alteration of the sensitive salts as in silver printing, we expose the prepared paper or "tissue," as it is called, under a negative and secure a positive in insoluble gelatine, the gelatine having combined with it a pigment, and hence we get an image in pigment, not in platinum, or silver, or gold, but in a simple pigment which may be of any colour. if bichromate of potash is mixed with an organic substance such as gelatine, that gelatine becomes insoluble after exposure to light, and if that gelatine carries with it a pigment, then on becoming insoluble it holds the pigment with it. if now, paper or other material be coated with bichromate, gelatine, and pigment, and exposed to light under a negative in the usual way, the thin portions of the negative will admit of the light acting on this coating and making it insoluble, whilst the parts which are protected from light, as for instance the sky or white objects, will remain unchanged and soluble, and on being washed in water will dissolve away, leaving white paper, whilst the light-affected portions which have become insoluble remain in proportion as the light has penetrated the various densities of the negative. this then is how we obtain our print. for fuller explanation of the paper or "tissue" and its manufacture the reader is referred to the next article. the beginner will certainly first obtain his tissue ready made, and he can purchase it ready sensitized or otherwise. the former will be best at the outset, but it must be borne in mind that it should not be kept longer than can be helped before use, and never more than ten to fourteen days at the utmost. various shades of blacks, browns, and reds are the usual colours, also grey, green, and blue. the tissue is rather more sensitive to light than silver paper, and should therefore be opened and handled in subdued light. it must be kept as dry as possible. a rather vigorous negative is best for carbon printing, one not too strong in contrasts. before placing the negative in the frame, we must give it what is termed a "safe edge." this is done by making a narrow border, say of about a quarter of an inch or less, round the negative, either on the glass or film side, with opaque black varnish, or it may be done by gumming on narrow strips of paper, such as lantern-slide binders. if binders and not black varnish are used, they must be applied to the glass side. the carbon printing paper which will hereinafter be called the "tissue" will be found to present an unpromising appearance, and as the coating is the full colour of the pigment in which the print is eventually to appear, it follows that the progress of printing will not be visible, and a mechanical means of gauging the exposure must be resorted to. an actinometer, similar to that described in the article on platinotype, will do, and another and simpler form is described in the next article. printing will occupy about one-third of the time occupied by gelatino-chloride of silver paper. development is conducted in daylight, but not too close to a window. the absence of chemical solutions has been suggested as an advantage, in this process the developer being merely hot water. it is not necessary to have this laid on, a can of hot water close at hand and a kettle on the fire or gas stove not far off are all that are required. we shall require four or five dishes, one at least of which should be a good deal larger than the size of the prints we are to develop and several inches deep--a good-sized pie-dish or a basin will do. development merely consists of washing away the unaffected and therefore soluble coating, but it must be remembered that the less affected portions representing the half-tones have received their modicum of light on the surface, and therefore the soluble part of the film is underneath the part that has like a surface skin become insoluble. this necessitates the printed film or tissue being transferred to another paper or "support," so that we may develop or wash away from the back. in procuring your carbon tissue order at the same time a packet of single transfer paper, which is paper with a thin coating of hard gelatine. now to proceed. place a piece of single transfer paper into a dish of cold water, and in three or four minutes the coated side will feel slimy, then place in the same dish a piece of the printed tissue face upwards. this will probably curl up at first and afterwards flatten out again. when this has happened or in a few minutes after immersion bring the piece of single transfer paper and the print together, film to film, so that they may be in contact, and square one with the other. now holding them by one edge, withdraw them together by sliding them out of the dish on to a sheet of thick glass, a large cutting glass serves well, or stout sheet of zinc. this should be supported in readiness at the rim of the dish. having the transfer paper and print now on the glass or zinc, hold them firmly and with a rubber squeegee press them closely into contact, squeezing as much water out as possible. a better way perhaps is, if the dish is large enough, to place the glass or zinc under the two papers whilst in the water and so raise them out. the squeegeeing must be done thoroughly, firmly, and all over--several strokes being given in each direction. next lift the papers, now in firm contact and sticking together, and place them between blotting paper on which is a heavy weight. the next print may now be proceeded with and so on. the print should be between blotting paper and under pressure for about twenty minutes, after which it is removed to a dish of hot water--almost as hot as the hands can comfortably bear, say ° to ° f. after lying in this for a few moments the dark pigment will be seen to be oozing out from between the two papers. when this has begun to come pretty freely take one corner of the print and pull it away from the transfer paper. it should come quite easily, and on being peeled off entirely it is thrown away. we have now the transfer paper bearing the printed film reversed, that is, the side which was previously at the bottom and next the original paper support, is now uppermost and can therefore be got at. if we splash it or lave it with the hand, using the hot water, we shall soon see what happens. the smudgy mass of pigment begins to wash away and the picture gradually appears. this constitutes development and we continue working it with hot water until the whole is clear and bright, being careful not to touch the film with fingers or anything but water, for being in a very delicate and soft condition it would be certain to sustain injury. the hotter the water the greater its washing-off action, and hence in cases of over-exposure very hot water may go far to recover the print. when the desired result is secured, transfer the print to a dish of cold water, this instantly tends to slightly harden the film by cooling it, and after two or three minutes it is passed into a dish of alum and water, which further hardens it and also "clears" the print of any bichromate salts which may still remain. in the alum bath the print should remain until any sign of yellow stain has disappeared, when after a final rinse of a few minutes in cold water to remove the alum, the print may be hung up to dry. it will be seen that there is no prolonged washing as with those processes in which hypo is employed, and the print is absolutely permanent. it must be remembered, however, that in the finished picture we are looking at the back of the printed film as it received the light impressions from the negative, and hence the image is reversed, that is, the left is on the right and the right on the left. for landscape and views this reversed position will probably be of no importance, but if it is desired to have things right way round--in portraits it will be essential--we must either work from reversed negatives, or we must again transfer the film which will then constitute a _double_ transfer. we shall now understand why previously we called the paper to which the film was transferred _single_ transfer. inasmuch as it will be seen that the print is not on paper, but consists of a transferable film of pigmented gelatine, it will be understood that the paper employed is merely a support to that film, hence it is customary to speak of the paper as the support, whilst moreover it maybe, and as often as not is ivory, glass, textile fabrics, wood, or other substances. if now we wish to again transfer the film so as to correct the lateral reversal, we substitute for the single transfer paper a "_temporary_ support." the temporary support which is to receive the film merely whilst it is being developed, and with the intention of its being subsequently transferred again to a _final_ support, may be paper or many other things. moreover, remembering that the film is mainly gelatine, it should be clear that whatever the nature of the surface of the temporary support, the soft glutinous film will take that surface just as we may make the impression of a seal in sealing-wax. the normal carbon print is shiny, due to the gelatine, and so, if as a temporary support we were to use ground glass or matt "opal," the carbon print film would receive the fine granulated surface and give a matted print as a result. this merely by the way as suggesting an additional advantage offered by the double transfer process as a set-off against the slight extra trouble. if double transfer is determined upon, and it is not intended to experiment with ground glass, etc., then when purchasing the carbon tissue, some _temporary_ support (sheets of paper coated with gelatine and shellac) should be procured, also some pieces of _final_ support. whatever the temporary support, it must receive an application of waxing solution. this also may be bought, or can be made of:-- yellow resin grains. yellow wax " ether ounces. melt the wax, add the resin, stir together and then add the ether. pour a little of this mixture on to the temporary support and spread with a tuft of cotton wool, and rub over to make it even. the final support for double transfer may be purchased, and is made ready for use by soaking for ten minutes in alum. the temporary support, after being waxed and the waxing solution having become dry, is to take the place of the single transfer paper in every respect, and the film developed as already described. when it has reached the final washing, after the alum clearing bath, it is brought into contact with the final support (which has been for ten minutes in alum bath as just described) and is removed to the glass or zinc plate and squeegeed. it is now hung up to dry, and when quite dry the blade of a knife should be inserted at one corner and the temporary support gently pulled off. such is the carbon process, neither difficult nor lengthy, and with this brief outline to form an introduction, the reader who is a tyro will the better appreciate the fuller description which follows. * * * * * whilst the article that follows is more comprehensive than the beginner may require at first, he is nevertheless advised to read it carefully through, and some points which may not seem clear at first will explain themselves after a very little experience. _the carbon process._ [illustration] before proceeding to practical details of working, it may be as well to realize what a piece of carbon tissue is, and what takes place in the process of exposing such tissue to light. mr. j. w. swan, who is to be regarded as the inventor of carbon process as we now know it, was justified in giving the name "tissue" to the film of pigmented bichromatized gelatine, as at first it was a tissue unsupported by paper backing and containing pigment practically, if not entirely, carbon. the terms "carbon" and "tissue" have been generally accepted as describing a pigmented paper containing permanent colour, therefore little if any misunderstanding is caused by such general description. the carbon process, like other kindred methods, is based upon the well-known hardening action of light upon a bichromate salt in combination with organic matter. when paper is coated with a mixture of gelatine pigment and a bichromate salt, dried under favourable conditions and exposed to light under a negative it naturally follows that a positive image is produced. the negative acting as a screen, prevents any undue hardening of such portions of the picture as are intended to form the high-lights, only slightly interfering with what are to be the middle tints, and practically permitting full play in the shadows. the latent image is imprinted on and into the film of tissue compound with the most delicate portions on the surface, and means must therefore be adopted to protect the surface during the washing away of all parts of the film not intended or desired to form any part of the finished picture.[ ] in swan's process this object was secured by cementing the surface of the printed tissue to its temporary support with rubber solution, but after j. r. johnson discovered that the printed tissue would adhere without any cement to any surface impervious to air and water simply by atmospheric pressure, the same end was gained by soaking the undeveloped print in water until about _half saturated_, then bringing it into contact _under water_ with either its temporary or permanent support, slightly squeegeeing or sponging to remove as much water as possible without injury to the print; as to _air_, _there ought not to be any present_ if care is taken to exclude it before lifting from the water bath. the half-soaked tissue after mounting absorbs every particle of water from between the surfaces, and thus secures optical contact. [ ] it is generally asserted by non-practical carbon printers that all portions of the film behind that which finally forms the print, are unacted upon by light. that is to say, unchanged and quite as soluble as if not printed at all. the upholders of such a theory should try the following experiment:--take a piece of tissue, cut it through the centre, expose one piece, then mount both under precisely similar conditions and wash in the same warm water bath. paying special attention to the backing papers, they will find the one unacted upon by light will have parted with its load of coloured material in much less time than the piece that formed the backing of the print. the squeegee, handy tool as it is, ought to be used with great care, in no case with any degree of force, or serious injury will result, particularly to the finer kinds of work, such as double transfer prints of all kinds, either on paper, ivory or opal. the rubber edge of the squeegee should be free from notches, often caused by contact with the sharp edges of glass plates. the notches can be removed by rubbing on a sheet of glass paper placed on a plane surface. tissue making. the tissue compound consists of a mixture of the following ingredients:--gelatine, sugar, pigment and water. the proportions are of infinite variety according to season, the nature of the pigment used, and the purpose for which the tissue is intended. for convenience it is the rule for tissue makers to prepare what is termed stock jelly by dissolving, by the aid of a water bath, gelatine and sugar in water, in varying proportions--roughly speaking:-- gelatine parts. water to " sugar[ ] / to - / " [ ] for some purposes (instead of sugar), glycerine, sugar of milk, or treacle may be substituted. the pigments are made up into what are termed jelly colours, which are ground either by hand on a slab of glass, marble or granite, using a suitable muller for the purpose, or when large quantities are required a paint mill driven by steam or other power is employed. in hand grinding the colour is kept moist by syrup on greatly reduced stock jelly. after grinding by hand the pigment is lifted from the slab with a palette knife and stirred into melted stock jelly. when the mill is used, the pigment is mixed with the jelly before grinding. the proportion of pigment to jelly varies enormously according to the nature of the pigment, and may be anything between - / per cent. and per cent. having prepared stock jelly and jelly colours, and allowed both to set, they are weighed out in proper proportions, the jelly being dissolved in a tin vessel placed in a water bath. the colour, generally speaking, is dissolved in a small proportion of the stock jelly placed in the mill and again ground into the bulk of the jelly. in some cases the pigment is dissolved in warm water and filtered through cotton wool, fine felt or flannel. after adding powdered recrystallized bichromate, the jelly compound is ready for coating or spreading on the paper. the coating may be done by hand or machine. several forms of machine are in use, including the first form invented by mr. swan. when only a small quantity is required, it is the general practice to coat by hand. in hand coating, the tissue compound may be strained through fine muslin into a flat tin dish placed on a water bath; the surface cleared of air bubbles by dragging over it a strip of stiff paper. the sheet of paper to be coated is held in an upright position at the further end of the dish with its bottom edge just touching the surface of the solution, gently lowered until the whole surface of the sheet is in contact with the solution. if the lowering is properly done there will not be any default in contact, but if allowed to rest on the solution a few moments, the presence of air bubbles, if any, will be detected by the presence of little lumps on the back of the paper, these may be removed by raising a corner and touching the spots with a finger tip. the sheet is then raised with a rather slow and steady motion, allowed to drip, then clipped to a line by its top corners and left to dry in a warm dry room from which white light has been excluded. when this method of coating is adopted it is best to have the sheets of paper an inch longer than the dish; the blank edge prevents contamination of the fingers and distortion of the sheet caused by contraction in drying. another method of hand-coating is to roll the sheet into a tube shape, placing the roll on the surface of the jelly compound one and a half inches from the top of the free end, raising with rather slow and steady motion as before. when the second method is chosen an oblong and somewhat deep dish will be found better than the flat shape; the flat dish may be used if tilted to give greater depth of solution in a corner. [illustration: at the fountain. j. w. wade.] in the manufacture of tissues the greatest care must be taken to avoid over or long-continued heating of the gelatine solution. either a too high temperature or a lower temperature, long continued, destroys the solution by rendering a considerable portion of it soluble in cold water and to a great degree reducing its gelatinous character. the samples of gelatine used in tissue making are of two kinds, although both of good quality they differ in solubility, in hot weather a larger proportion of the "hard" sample is used, in cold weather _vice versa_. insensitive tissues. all insensitive tissues are made with a single sample of hard gelatine. they are stocked by dealers and must of necessity be fit for use at any season of the year, to say nothing of those exported to hot climates. transfer papers. papers of many kinds are necessary for single transfer prints, the tint of the paper must blend and harmonize with the tone of the tissue or by contrasting help to produce a pleasing effect. for prints of warm tones such as red chalk, terra cotta and the various tints of sepia, a yellowish or cream-toned paper forms the most harmonious basis; the various tints of black, blue, and purple look best on a slightly bluish-tinted paper. for instance, a copy of an old engraving in tissue, of the brown tone of the original would be utterly spoilt by a blue-tinted basis. the above remarks apply only in a limited degree to double transfer papers which in general use are confined almost exclusively to portraiture. such papers are sometimes modified by tinting mauve, rose, opal, etc., etc. such tints are only in small demand and are in all cases confined to papers coated with enamel preparations. the best and most durable form of double transfer paper is that prepared on fine chemically pure paper with colourless gelatine and made insoluble by the smallest possible quantity of chrome alum, entirely without white or tinted pigment of any kind. the best variety of double transfer paper only differs from the finest form of single transfer paper in having on its surface a rather thicker and softer coating of colourless gelatine. all transfer papers, either for single or double transfer, may be coated in the same way as tissue, with the exception of those having a very rough surface. all drawing papers and in fact all papers of very rough surface are prepared by brushing over their surfaces several coatings of a very thin solution of gelatine containing a larger proportion of chrome alum or formalin than is used in making ordinary single transfers. a flat camel-hair brush is best for this form of coating, care must be taken to avoid air bubbles. flexible temporary support. is paper coated with a gelatine solution in the first instance, and after drying, again coated with an aqueous solution of shellac. sensitizing the tissue. pour the bichromate solution into a deep flat dish (porcelain, ebonite, zinc, wood or tin) to the depth of half an inch to an inch; place a sheet of tissue in it face upwards, remove air-bubbles with a camel-hair brush or soft sponge, using as little pressure as may be; turn the sheet and remove bubbles formed on the paper, turn the sheet again face upwards, and passing brush or sponge gently over the surface, keep it evenly wet until it is fairly limp; remove from the solution, place face downwards on a perfectly clean glass or zinc plate, squeegee to remove excess of solution, blot or wipe with a soft cloth, remove any solution from the fingers, lift from the plate, handle by edges only, clip to a line, small sizes by one corner only, larger sheets by two corners, leaving a little slackness between the two clips to allow for contraction in drying, otherwise the sheet will be distorted and difficult to press into contact with the negative. the sensitizing _may_ be done in ordinary daylight. the drying _must_ take place in a room from which actinic light is excluded, and in a current of warm dry air, free from impurities, such as the products of combustion from burning gas, or an escape of sewer gas, etc., and at a temperature not higher than ° f. the drying should be done as quickly as possible, otherwise the tissue's keeping property will be greatly reduced, and in all probability a thin film formed on the surface, of insoluble gelatine, known to printers as "decomposed tint," degrading the high-lights, and, except in the case of very "hard" negatives, spoiling the work. it will be evident to anyone that the fancy forms of sensitizing have been carefully avoided--floating on the back, floating on the face, etc., etc. all the results desired can be obtained by immersion. if a hard negative has to be dealt with, a stronger solution, or longer soaking in the bichromate solution, is all that is needed; for weak negatives _vice versa_. _note._--in the dry frosty air of winter, sensitized tissue will dry without heat, and continue soluble for a considerable length of time, often as long as a month, or even longer. in hot weather it is recommended that the solution of recrystallized bichromate be made immediately before using, as in dissolving the crystals a considerable reduction of temperature is produced. should the temperature then be over ° f., ice must be used, not in the solution, but roughly broken up and mixed with salt in an outer vessel. if ice is placed in the bichromate bath allowance must be made by keeping out part of the water. the ice should be encased in several thicknesses of fine muslin to prevent the solid impurities it generally contains getting into the solution. when recrystallized bichromate is not procurable, a few drops of liquid ammonia added to solution of crude bichromate is recommended. as bichromate is cheap, a fresh solution should be made for each large batch of tissue. printing the negative. any negative that will yield a thoroughly good albumen print is suitable for carbon work. the thinner negatives now made for p.o.p. and similar processes are less satisfactory for direct prints in carbon, for enlargements and reproductions such negatives can be made to yield most satisfactory results by modifying the transparency and the enlarged or reproduced negative. the latitude in this direction is great. no matter how flat the original negative may be, _if all the grades are present_ it can be manipulated in such a way that the most brilliant result will be produced. preparation of the negative for printing. the negative is prepared for printing as in all other processes by removing all defects such as pinholes, streaks, etc. for the carbon process the negative requires to be further provided with what is termed a "_safe edge_;" this is a line of black varnish, from one-eighth to half an inch in width according to the sizes of the negatives, painted on its margin, either on the film or glass side. in the case of original negatives masks of opaque paper are used instead of the painted edge, the masks having openings cut in them slightly less than the size of the negative. the purpose of the safe edge is to secure a margin on which light has not acted, as such a margin gives greater freedom to the operator in the process of development by preventing the more deeply printed portions of the picture leaving the support when the backing paper is removed. double transfer printing. it may be explained in a few words why an ordinary (non-reversed) negative must be printed by double transfer. in all other solar processes when the print is removed from or taken off the face of the negative, it is turned over to view, it therefore follows that the details on the left side of the negative are found on the right side of the positive print; with the carbon print no such turning occurs, it is mounted upon its support in the same position as it lay on the negative, developed in that position from the back and leaving the position of objects the same as in the negative. in some cases this reversal of the position of details is unimportant. we will first consider the double transfer. in all double transfer processes a temporary support must be provided. such supports are of two kinds, flexible and rigid. when a matt-surface print on paper is required, finely grained opal glass is used. for the enamelled surface patent plate, for intermediate or only slightly glazed surface, a flexible support is used. flexible support yields a surface similar to an albumen print without special preparation. when the higher glaze of the double-albumenized print is desired, the printed tissue is coated with thin collodion before mounting on the flexible support. rigid supports, zinc or ground-glass plates, have been used, but owing to the difficulty of seeing the details during development their use is practically discontinued. flexible temporary support is always used in transferring to canvas, wood panel, opal, ivory, etc., etc. in the case of canvas, the double transfer process has two great advantages. first, staining is avoided, the bichromate has been thoroughly got rid of in the process of development. secondly, the canvas is prepared to receive the print by a substratum that allows the carbon image to expand and contract with the expansion or contraction of the canvas and not in opposition to it. there are also two advantages in adopting the double transfer process for the production of pictures on ivory. the first, is freedom from bichromate stains. secondly, the ivory is not distorted by washing in hot water, such distortion generally takes place when the single transfer process is adopted. wood panels are prepared in a similar way to canvas. stains are avoided, and as there is not the expansion and contraction of canvas to provide against, the substratum is modified in composition and greatly reduced. the stains above alluded to are caused by the chemical combination of bichromate with the lead of the paint, forming chromate of lead or chrome yellow. in the case of opal, opaque celluloid, and similar substances, no staining takes place, the double transfer is only required to restore the image to its proper position. single transfer. the single transfer process is practically the only method in use when large sizes or large numbers of prints are required. for large sizes the negatives are reversed in the process of enlargement. for small sizes one or more reproduced reversed negatives are made, either in the camera from a carbon transparency, or by contact printing from a carbon transparency on a dry plate. with reasonable care, little if any loss of quality occurs in reproduction. as the single transfer process is the most simple form of carbon printing, it is generally recommended to beginners. probably the most simple form of all is single transfer on opal. the opal plate does not require any preparation beyond cleaning. neither soap nor grease of any kind must be permitted to contaminate the surface, otherwise the print will fail to adhere. opal plates are cleaned by scrubbing with fine graining sand and water, and a muller or a small plate, either of ordinary or opal glass, placed upon the wetted sand and moved over the surface with a circular motion until soiled or discoloured markings are ground off. the actinometer. an actinometer must be used to gauge the amount of exposure, as only a faint image, and in some tissues none at all, is visible during or after exposure. the simplest form of instrument is the best. that in general use is known as johnson's actinometer, a square tin box containing a long strip of sensitive albumen paper, and provided with a glass lid painted to the colour of printed albumen paper, an opening in the paint in the form of a slit three-sixteenths of an inch in width, from which the paint has been removed. the strip of sensitive paper is made to pass between the top of an inner lid and the painted side of the glass lid underneath the clear slit with the end of the strip protruding at one side of the box. on exposure to light the sensitive silver paper gradually discolours until it closely resembles the colour of the paint, that is called one tint; the tint is changed by pulling the slip forward just the width of the slit, and so on until the requisite number of tints have been printed for the strongest or densest negative in the batch exposed, those negatives requiring less exposure are turned down or removed when the requisite number of tints are registered in each case. exposure. for double transfer from opal the materials required are opal plates, sensitive tissue, french chalk, collodion, double transfer paper, pressure frame, flat camel-hair brush, chamois leather. before placing the negative in pressure frame, carefully clean from both sides all finger marks, etc., with the leather, place negative in frame on a paper mask, or provided with a safe edge. after exposure to light, remove from frame and develop on plate prepared as follows:--rub the whole surface with french chalk on a pad of muslin, afterwards removing loose particles by gentle brushing. coat with collodion made as follows:--enamel collodion, part; ether, part; alcohol, part. filter and coat by pouring a pool on centre of the plate, and, by tilting it, force the collodion to flow into the top right corner, then to the left, then to bottom left, and finally drain off at bottom right corner, rocking the plate the while. the collodion must be allowed to set until it will bear the gentle pressure of a finger in its thickest part, but must not be permitted to dry in any part before plunging into clean cold water to remove the solvents by washing. the time required in washing is variable according to time of year. when the collodion ceases to repel water it is ready to receive the printed tissue. soak the tissue for the requisite time, but not so long as to become quite saturated, bring it into contact with collodionized side of plate, remove to squeegeeing board, place over it a piece of wet rubber cloth, or a piece of wet thick single transfer paper, coated side up, to prevent injury to exposed margin of collodion and to facilitate the smooth passage of squeegee over the surface in removing excess of water. if, on removing the covering from the plate, the back of tissue is found to be unevenly wet, blot or place plate in a rack to drain; in a few minutes develop in warm water, temperature ° to ° f. be careful to remove the backing paper _under water_, _and as soon as possible after immersion_ in the warm bath. finish development by laving or pouring warm water over the print from jug or other vessel, until all details are brought out. when washing is finished the print should look rather light, as in drying a decided increase in strength is obtained; rinse _slightly_ in alum solution to stop bleeding only, place in clean cold water to wash out any remains of bichromate, thoroughly rinse by dashing water upon the print to remove any particles of solid matter that may have stuck to its surface; place in a rack to dry, and transfer as soon after drying as possible. the transfer paper is cut a trifle larger than the net size of the print, but less than the opal support; it is soaked in warm water until the surface is slimy to the touch, but not soft enough to break under pressure between finger and thumb. the softened transfer paper is placed in clean cold water into which the dry print is plunged, water dashed upon its surface to remove air; the two surfaces are brought into contact under water, and squeegeed into contact as in first mounting before development. when thoroughly dry, the print may be removed from the opal plate by inserting the point of a knife at the edge. double transfer prints with enamelled surface are produced precisely as above, only substituting patent plate for ground opal, and by adding a second thickness of paper to the back of the finished print before removal from its temporary support. double transfer from flexible support. the flexible temporary support is prepared by waxing. the waxing solutions are:-- no. . benzol oz. pure beeswax (natural not bleached) grs. no. . turpentine oz. yellow resin grs. after dissolving, mix the two solutions, pour a little of the mixture on fine flannel, rub it over so as to evenly moisten the surface of the flexible support, wipe off with a second flannel using only slight pressure but rubbing briskly and with circular _motion_. when finished, the waxed surface should be perfectly even and quite free from streaks or other markings. the waxing should be done some considerable time before the support is required for use, and exposed to the free action of air to remove all trace of the solvents. paper prints with ordinary or slightly glazed surface. after removal from the pressure frame, the tissue is plunged into cold water with a piece of support slightly larger. after soaking the necessary time, the prepared surfaces are brought into contact under water, removed from the bath and placed upon any even plane surface, such as zinc, glass, etc., squeegeed into contact, blotted or otherwise treated to remove uneven dampness, and developed in warm water as in double transfer from rigid support, then slightly rinsed in alum solution and washed in clean cold water until all traces of bichromate are removed. after the transferring is done as before described, only the print on flexible support must be soaked in water until quite flat before bringing into contact with its final support. paper prints with highly glazed surface. the printed tissue after removal from the pressure frame is coated with collodion, for this coating allowance must be made in printing. a considerable reduction in temperature takes place and any moisture present in the air is condensed on the tissue, bringing into action the well-known effect of continued moisture, _i.e._, considerably increasing the depth of the print. great care must be taken to coat evenly and to prevent the collodion running in streaks on the back of the print. when such streaks or unevenness of any kind are present, a corresponding dark line or lines will be found on the face of the finished print. transfer same as for prints with ordinary surface. all prints from flexible support on paper with a highly glazed surface as well as those intended for transfer to ivory or opal are coated with thin collodion:-- enamel collodion parts ether " alcohol " double transfer to opal and ivory. after development the print is allowed to dry, and as soon after drying as possible it is transferred to its final support, whether opal or ivory, by a solution of gelatine composed of the following ingredients:-- gelatine (fairly hard) - / ozs. water " chrome alum solution ( grs.) " soak the gelatine in the water until quite limp, dissolve by heat, then add the grain chrome alum solution; roughly filter through two or more thicknesses of fine muslin into a flat dish on a water bath. after cutting the print to a size a trifle less than opal or ivory, place both print and final support in gelatine solution, allow print to stretch until quite flat, then bring them into contact under solution, squeegee and place on edge to dry. when quite dry, remove temporary support by inserting the point of a knife between the surfaces at the edge, wash with benzol or ether to remove all traces of the waxing solution. the print is now ready for the artist. double transfer prints on canvas. for double transfer prints on canvas, as a basis for oil painting, there is not at the present moment a large demand. a strong prejudice exists, and deservedly so, against such prints, for the following reasons. some thirty years ago, in the principal establishment in which carbon work was done, a process of printing on canvas was in vogue. it was roughly this:--a stretched artist's canvas without other preparation was coated with dammar varnish; after drying, the canvas was used in pretty much the same way as single transfer paper is now--that is to say, a piece of printed tissue was squeegeed into contact with its surface, developed by floating on hot water, and practically in that crude condition placed in the hands of artists for oil-colour painting or finishing as it is sometimes prudently called. the natural result followed--_viz._, in a dry warm room the canvas stretched, the film of unmodified gelatine contracted; hence cracks, peeling, etc., until the work, valuable or otherwise, was utterly ruined. the method of preparing the canvas for the reception of the carbon image introduced by the writer is based upon opposite principles, as mentioned in the preceding general remarks, and may be described as follows:--a yielding and elastic substratum of gelatine forms a crust, so to speak, that expands and contracts according to the corresponding behaviour of the canvas support. ordinary painted canvas, such as is used by artists, or strong linen may be used with special treatment. preparation of painted canvas. the canvas is first stretched tightly on a drawing board, same size as picture required, the greater part of paint removed by scrubbing with soda solution (either nail brush, sponge or a piece of flannel will answer the purpose) until the surface of the fabric is exposed and little of the paint remains beyond the priming. after drying, the canvas is coated with the following solution, applied with a flat camel-hair brush. several coats (three in cold, four in warm weather) are given, drying between each and rubbing with fine sand paper if at all uneven. coating solution. cooking gelatine (cox's soup answers perfectly) oz. sugar " glycerine " water " grain chrome alum solution " the print is exposed in the ordinary manner, developed on temporary support, allowed to dry and transferred to the canvas as follows:--the canvas is placed face upwards, on a level surface by preference, on a broad board over a large tank. the dry print is placed face upwards in a flat dish, the warm coating solution poured over it, air bells removed with the brush, the surface of the canvas brushed over with the solution. the bulk of the solution is then poured on the canvas and before it has had time to run off the print is lowered carefully and quickly upon it and squeegeed to remove excess of solution. after thorough drying, the temporary support is removed, the surface of the print cleaned with benzol or ether or a mixture of both to remove every trace of the waxing compound, and mounted on a stretcher in the usual manner. a print on canvas prepared as above, is perfectly reliable, it will neither crack nor peel, and can be used with perfect confidence as a basis for the most costly form of artistic finishing, as the carbon image rests upon an elastic substratum in actual contact with the fibrous substance of the canvas. to prepare ordinary strong linen or calico. proceed precisely as for painted canvas (of course without scrubbing), using the same coating solution with half-a-pound white pigment added, sulphate of baryta answers perfectly. sand or glass paper must be used pretty freely as the surface of the unpainted fabric washes up roughly when the gelatine coatings are applied. wood panels. wood panels are prepared by removing the surface of the paint only with soda solution. after drying, a tooth is given by rubbing with fine sand paper and coating with solution as under:-- gelatine (cox's soup) oz. sugar " glycerine / " water " grain chrome alum solution / " _note._--before transferring to either kinds of canvas or wood panel in cold weather, it is absolutely necessary to thoroughly warm the final support, otherwise the gelatine solution will gelatinize before the excess can be removed from between the surfaces. the single transfer process. the single transfer process may be briefly described as follows:--the sensitive tissue is exposed under a negative and the exposure gauged by actinometer as for double transfer printing. after removal from the pressure frame the printed tissue is plunged into clean cold water along with a piece of transfer paper of any desired surface or quality, cut a little larger than the tissue (to provide a margin by which the picture may be handled without injury during development). after soaking the requisite time, the two prepared surfaces are brought into contact under the water, removed to a squeegeeing board, plate of glass or zinc, and squeegeed into contact; care must be taken to use only as much pressure as is needed to remove the superfluous water from between the surfaces. a sponge may be used instead of a squeegee, or both may be dispensed with, if care is taken to remove every trace of air from surfaces before lifting from the cold water bath. when neither squeegee or substitute for it is used, the print must be handled with greater care, as undue bending before atmospheric pressure comes into operation would destroy contact. the print is hung up to drain, and more time allowed between mounting and development. development is the same as in double transfer, with one or two rather important exceptions. st. the single transfer print is developed upon the material on which it is to remain. nd. there is no preparation of the supports, neither in the case of paper or opal. rd. the developed print can be soaked for a considerable time in a saturated solution of alum without injury, the alum solution greatly assisting in removing bichromate. carbon transparencies. carbon transparencies, either for projection, enlargement, or reproduction, are printed in a special tissue known as transparency tissue, and developed on glass plates prepared with a thin coating of fine hard gelatine. the coating solution is composed as follows:-- gelatine / oz. water " bichromate potash dram. the glass plates are carefully selected, free from bells, scratches, and other defects; thoroughly cleaned, either by acid or rubbing with plate powder to remove every trace of grease, and then coated with the gelatine solution, and placed in a rack to dry; when dry, exposed to light to render the film somewhat insoluble. it is not desirable to print until the film is absolutely hardened throughout. the print adheres firmly to the plate when the substratum is not over-printed. a positive intended for projection should show clear glass in the highest lights without undue density in the shadows, all details plainly seen--in a word, quite transparent. positives intended for enlargement must be fully exposed--that is to say, every detail on the highest lights brought out, but no more; beyond that point there is nothing to be gained. over-printing in the transparency tends to bury detail in the shadows of the enlarged negative, and to blend the highest grades in the high-lights, reducing the roundness or modelling of the picture. in the case of very hard negatives intended for enlargement, the usual treatment is to sun the whole surface of the transparency in order to secure detail in the high-lights. a moment's consideration will convince any practical printer that nothing but injury to the final print can result from such treatment of the transparency. the high-lights are degraded, the details in the shadows further buried. the better method is to make an extra special transparency tissue, for the printing of such hard negatives, containing a greatly reduced proportion of pigment to gelatine. such a tissue permits greater depth of printing, retains all details in the shadows and high-lights, and, in fact, enables the enlarger to produce a negative that will yield a thoroughly satisfactory print. reproduced negatives. in making reproduced negatives from hard originals, ordinary transparency tissue will serve every purpose. the transparency is printed in the usual way, and developed on a prepared glass plate; when dry a negative is printed from the transparency without special treatment and also developed on glass, when a decided reduction of density will be found to have taken place. the reproduced negative will possess all the good qualities of the original, plus improved printing quality. it is only in the case of extremely hard negatives that the extra special tissue is required. if a perfect reproduction of an original negative is required, the transparency must be printed either in very weak light or in direct sunlight. either method gives a brighter image than that produced in ordinary diffused daylight. the same method must be adopted in printing the negative. _note._--care must be taken when direct sunlight is used to see that the pressure frame and everything in and about it is thoroughly dry, otherwise the tissue may stick to the negative, spoiling the print and probably the negative also. it must also be noted that two tints, printed in direct sunlight, although of apparently the same depth, mean quite as much as three such tints printed in diffused light. failures and defects: their causes and cure. as a rule, failures in working the carbon process are caused, as in most other cases of failure, by imperfect _knowledge of the substances and nature of the ingredients used in the process_. before going into further detail, it may be as well to point out that a great deal of misunderstanding has been caused, by writers on this subject--that may be fairly termed "blind leaders of the blind." with only slight knowledge of the subject they have misled beginners by assuring them that the process is simplicity itself, in fact the most simple photographic printing process extant. up to a certain point, and to that certain point only, is such description true. there are no subtle chemical combinations, no mixing and maturing of toning or other solutions. but--and in this case there is great virtue in the _but_--the greatest care is not only required, it is absolutely demanded, in manipulation. a carbon print from start to finish is probably subject to more chances of injury than any other form of print in existence. when this fact has been fully grasped by the novice, and he has been thoroughly prepared for the difficulties before him, the rest is plain sailing. care, and care only; nothing beyond. he who wishes to succeed in carbon work must pay infinite attention to every small matter of detail as far as such detail relates to manipulation, otherwise he will only succeed in achieving failure. frilling and reticulations. frilly reticulations are generally caused by over-soaking the tissue before development, or failing to provide protection of the clear portions of the margin of the negative by a safe edge. spots on the finished print. spots are generally caused by solid particles of grit or other impurities being allowed to find their way into the water in the process of development, or, as in the case of certain peculiar circular spots that often deface the carbon print, such spots are caused by small fragments of tissue broken from the edges in cutting, which, being of the same colour as the prepared surface of the tissue and exceedingly small, often escape notice. they adhere most tenaciously to the surface of the tissue, and if not removed before the print is mounted upon its temporary or final support, cause the mischief referred to; being confined between two surfaces they cannot escape, but are dissolved by the water used in developing the print, swell and make a circular patch, often greatly injuring the picture. spots of a different character are produced in quite an opposite direction. instead of being black they are light, in groups each spot having a dark rim on the outside. they generally occur in under-exposed prints, and are formed by fine particles of air imprisoned between the coating of gelatine and the paper support. when the tissue is mounted for development and placed in warm water, the fine particles of air swell, and not being able to escape from between the surfaces, impress themselves into the yielding portions of the printed tissue and make the marks above referred to, unless the printing has been deep enough to allow of their removal before development is completed. cause of failures in the second transfer. other causes of failure refer particularly to prints by double transfer, either to paper, opal, ivory, canvas or wood panel or any similar surfaces. such failures are generally produced by _soap_, _fat_, or _any kind_ of greasy substances being permitted to find their way into the water in which such prints have been manipulated previous to their final transfer. another point should be mentioned: the sooner a print intended for second transfer is finished the better the result will be. pressure marks. pressure marks are caused by using damp tissue or damp pads in the pressure frame. it is recommended that a piece of waterproof material, such as mackintosh cloth, be placed between the tissue and the padding, and that the pads be as smooth and free from grain as possible. it will be found on close examination that the mottled, spotty appearance, known as pressure marks, closely resemble the texture of the pads behind the tissue. _thos. s. skelton._ index. =a.= alpine photography, " outfit for, " lens for, " carrying camera in, " plates for, " carrying baggage for, " outfit for developing, " exposures, " development, " " formulæ, " light (tables), , accelerator, alum bath, formula, aberration, spherical, " chromatic, astigmatism, aplanat lens, astigmat lens, aperture of lens, angle of image, accessories in portraiture, architectural photography, " " camera for, " " lenses for, " " plates for, actinometer for platinotype, " for carbon process, =b.= backing mixtures, background in portraiture, breadth in pictorial work, blisters on p.o.p, bromide printing, " safe light for, " negative for, bromide paper, sensitive side of, " printing, , , " " lamp for, bromide printing, masks and discs, " " vignetting, " " cloud printing, bromide paper, development of., " " iron developer for, " " metol, " " hydrokinone for, " " eikonogen for, " " clearing bath, " " fixing bath, bromide prints, toning with gold, " " toning with uranium, " " intensifying, " " reducing, " " cheap trays for, =c.= camera, carrying in alps, caramel for backing, curvature of field of lens, cooke lens, composition in pictorial work, clearing bath for platinotype, , cloud printing on bromide paper, clearing bath for bromides, clearing bath for gum-print, carbon process, outline of, " safe edge for, , " carbon process, negative for, " transfer paper for, , " temporary support, " in detail, " squeegee for, " stock jelly, " coating paper for, " transfer papers for, " flexible support, " sensitizing tissue for, " drying tissue, " negative for, " reasons for transfer, " transfer to opal, " actinometer, " exposure, " transfer from opal, " t'sfer. from flex. spt., " glazed surface prints, " transfer to ivory, " transfer to canvas, " preparation of canvas, " " linen, " " wood, " single transfer, " transparencies by, " reproduced negs. by, " failures and defects, " frilling of print, " spots, etc, " pressure marks, canvas, carbon prints on., =d.= development, " dishes for, " effect of temperature on, " light for developing room, " with pyro-ammonia, " " formulæ, " with pyro-soda, " " formulæ, " with ortol, formulæ, " with hydroquinone (quinol), " " formulæ, " with ferrous oxalate, " " formulæ, drying plates, dark room light, testing, defects of negative, dallmeyer's portrait lens, " stigmatic lens, depth of definition (focus), distortion of lens, development of portrait negative, " " formulæ, detail in pictorial work, , development in hand cam. exps., " formulæ, " of lantern slides, , " of enlargements, " of p.o.p, " platinotype paper, , " of bromide paper, - , " of gum print, =e.= exposure, over, , " under, , " table with pinhole, exposure of lantern slides, enlargements, " light for, , " daylight, " apparatus for, " lens, " direct, " development of, enlarged negatives, " " transparency for, exposure in carbon printing, =f.= fixing, " formula, frilling, flat image, fog on negative, fog-green, focal length of lens, " " comparison of, focussing interiors, finders for hand cameras, focussing scale for hand camera, fixing bath for bromide, frilling of carbon print, failures in carbon printing, flexible suppt. carbon process, , formulÆ:-- development, pyro-amm. (abney), " " (bothamly), " pyro-soda " , " ortol " , " hydrokinone " , " ferrous oxalate " , fixing, hypo " , clearing, alum " , reduction, ferricyanide " , belitzski reducer " , intensification, mercury " , " uranium " , development, metol (baker), " pyro-soda " , " quinol and rodinal " , " amidol (thomas), " hydrokinone " , " eikonogen " , " metol (pringle), " ortol " , " hydrokinone " , " amidol (hodges), fixing, hypo " , p.o.p. toning, gold (lambert), , , " alum bath " , " combined bath (gold) " , " " (lead) " , " " (gold) " , p.o.p. glazing " , " mounting " , " development, quinol ", " toning, platinum " , " fixing " , " toning (gold) " , " reducing " , " tinting " , platinotype clearing (hinton), " developing " , , " toning " , bromide develping., iron, (henry), " clearing " , " fixing (henry), " developing, metol " , " quinol & eikonogen " , " toning (gold) " , " reducing " , , carbon process waxing, (skelton), " " tissue jelly " , " " waxing " , " " collodion " , " " substratum " , , , , =g.= green fog, " " cure for, glazing p.o.p., , gum bichromate process, " " paper for, " " outline of process, " " gum solution, " " colours, " " brushes for, " " development, " " clearing bath, =h.= hypo.--test for, hard image, halation, head-rest in portraiture, hand camera, photography with, " " lens for, " " finders for, " " shutter for, " " focussing scale for, " " development of exposures, hardening p.o.p., =i.= intensification of negatives, " with mercury formulæ, " with uranium formulæ, image formation, image angle, isochromatic plates for pict. work, interior--focussing, " exposure for, intensification of lantern slides, " of p.o.p., intensifying bromide prints, ivory, carbon prints on, =j.= jena glass for lenses, =l.= latent image, local development, , lens, " function of a, " aberrations of a, lenses, comparison of, " testing, lens for pictorial work, " for architectural work, levels " " " , lens for hand camera, lantern slides, " " various processes, " " camera for making, " " exposure of, " " development, , " " warm tones on, , " " reducer for, " " intensifier for, linen, prints on by carbon process, =m.= mountain photography see alpine do. monocles, moving objects & architectl. work, mounting p.o.p., =n.= negative making, " washing, " drying, " defects of the, " too thin, " too dense, " image too flat, " image too dense, " fog on, " green fog on, " black spots, marks, bands on, " transpnt. bands, spots on, " stains on, " to intensify, " to reduce, " to varnish, " for platinotype, " for bromide printing, " reprodn. by carbon process, " for carbon printing, , =o.= optics--see lenses, opal for carbon print, , =p.= preservative, pinhole image, , portrait lens, , planar lens of zeiss, pinhole table of exposures, portraiture, " shutter for, " in ordinary rooms, portraits out-of-doors, portraiture, lenses for, " development in, " " formulæ, pictorial photography, plates for architectural work, p.o.p., print-out paper, " care of the paper, " printing, " washing, " toning, " fixing, " combined bath for, " alum bath for, " drying, " glazing, , " matt surface, " mounting, " development of, " platinum toning, " toning with gold & platnm., " intensifying, " reducing, " defects of, " stains on, , " blisters, " tinting, " hardening, " spots on, printing p.o.p., platinotype printing, " paper to preserve, " outline of process, " development, , " exposure of, , " with act'meter, " temperature of develmt., " developing salts, " papers, various kinds, " sepia paper, " clearing bath, , " devpmt. by glyc. method, " negative for, " prints toning, printing bromide paper, , , papers for gum-bichro. process, pressure marks in carbon prints, =r.= restrainer or retarder, reducer, reduction of negative, " formulæ, , reduction, local, refraction of light, rapid rectilinear, symmetrical, lens, rapidity of lens, rembrandt effects in portraiture, retouching portrait negative, reducer for lantern slides, reducing p.o.p., reducing bromide prints, reticulation of carbon prints, reproduction of neg. by car. pro., =s.= satz-anastigmat lens, stigmatic lens of dallmeyer, stops, value of, stops, comparative value, table, spectacle lens, selection in pictorial work, shutter for hand camera, stains on p.o.p., , sepia platinotype, spots on carbon prints, single transfer carbon process, safe edge for carbon printing, , sensitizing carbon tissue, =t.= tripod on ice, a caution, test for hypo, testing dark-room light, tele-photo lens, truth in pictorial photograph, tone value, toning p.o.p., , , tinting p.o.p., toning platinotypes, , toning bromide prints (gold), " (uranium) trays for bromide printing, transparency by carbon process, t'sfer. paper for carbon p'cess., , temporary support, carbon process, tables:-- light, , stops, pinholes, =v.= view finder, varnishing negatives, vignetting bromide prints, =w.= washing plates after development, wood, carbon prints on, =z.= zeiss-planar lens, " lens for architecture, * * * * * * * * * end of work * * * * * * * * * advertisement * * * * * * * * * twelve ... perfect productions. _barnet_ | +---------- _ordinary_ = = plates | +---------- _studio_ " | +---------- _extra rapid_ " | +---------- _rocket_ " | +---------- _lantern_ " | +---------- _photo-mechanical_ " | +---------- _astronomical_ " | +---------- _platino-matt_ bromide paper | +---------- _ordinary bromide paper_ | +---------- _snow enamel paper_ | +---------- _p.o.p._ | +---------- _carbon tissue_ price list on application. manufactured by elliott & son, ... barnet. * * * * * * * * * transcription notes: the original spelling and grammar have been retained. footnotes have been moved to the end of the paragraphs in which they are referenced. minor adjustments to hyphenation and other punctuation have been made without annotation. the caret symbol ^ is used to represent a number or expression raised to some power ( ^ = ). typographical changes to the original work are as follows: pg kodak/kodak: a form of ... pg removed repeated word at: can be got at ... pg simultaneouly/simultaneously: where they cross ... pg two/too: too far behind or ... pg frolicing/frolicking: joyous sunshine ... pg rythmical/rhythmical: something ... pg salutory/salutary: has a very ... pg concatention/concatenation: under any ... pg potass/potash: metabisulphite of ... pg power/powder: ("bleaching ... generously made available by the internet archive/american libraries.) transcriber's note: inconsistent numbering of figures and references to figures have been retained as in the original publication. [illustration: a specimen of woodburytype printing.] the art and practice of silver printing. by h. p. robinson & capt. abney, r.e., f.r.s. the american edition, new york: e. & h. t. anthony & co., no. broadway. . preface. silver printing has been often doomed, but it still survives. other processes of photographic printing have been introduced, nearly all of them having their individual merits, especially that of permanency, but all lacking in two essential qualities--ease of production and beauty of result. in these particulars no process has ever approached the one to the working of which this little book is devoted. the one defect of silver printing is the possibility of its results fading; but surely it is better to be beautiful, if fading, than permanent and ugly. it is better to be charmed with a beautiful thing for a few years, than be bored by an ugly one for ever. but is silver printing necessarily a fading process? we have in our possession a large number of silver photographs produced from twenty to twenty-five years ago, which are as perfect in tone and colour as when they were produced. carefully prepared, and properly kept, a silver print should be as permanent as any other. that silver prints should be permanent as well as beautiful, has been the object of the authors. table of contents. chapter page i.--preliminary experiments ii.--preparation of albumenized paper iii.--the sensitizing bath iv.--how to keep the sensitizing bath in order v.--silvering the paper vi.--washed sensitive paper vii.--cutting paper viii.--printing-frames ix.--preparing the landscape negative x.--printing the landscape xi.--preparing the portrait negative xii.--vignetting xiii.--printing the portrait xiv.--combination printing xv.--toning xvi.--fixing the print xvii.--washing the print xviii.--printing on plain paper xix.--printing on resinized paper xx.--printing on gelatino-chloride emulsion paper xxi.--drying the prints xxii.--mounting photographs xxiii.--defects in prints xxiv.--encaustic paste xxv.--enamelling prints xxvi.--cameo prints appendix chapter i. theory of silver printing. perhaps it may be wise, first of all, to give the reader some account of the manner in which the subject of silver printing is to be treated, before entering into very minute details, so that it may be followed as a whole, instead of being studied in fragments, a course which is sure to lead to failure, from a want of comprehending what may have been skipped. to understand "the why" and "the wherefore" of every detail is an essential in most occupations, and it is wonderful that photographers are satisfied with the results of rule-of-thumb formulæ, instead of reasoning out their utility. in the following pages most of the theoretical considerations will be brought out in such a manner that everyone will be able to understand them, provided only that there is a slight acquaintance with the name and properties of the chemicals which are dealt with. preliminary experiments. into a glass beaker put a couple of pinches of common salt, which must be dissolved in a little water. in a test-tube[ ] dissolve about an equal amount of silver nitrate (agno_{ }), and add it to the salt solution. we shall find that we have an immediate precipitate, for chloride of silver will be formed by what is called double[ ] decomposition, and there will remain in solution a soluble salt known as sodium nitrate. when the silver chloride has settled down, decant off the liquid, and add water to it once or twice, draining off each time. divide the chloride into four parts, placing each part on a strip of glass. on two of them pour a little common salt solution, and on the other two pour a little solution of silver nitrate; take one of each pair, and place it in a dark cupboard (if warmed, the quicker will be the operation) to dry. take the other two moist portions of chloride into the open air, and expose them to daylight, and note the results. it will be seen that one of these will darken very rapidly to a violet colour, whilst the other will remain much lighter, though perceptibly blackening. after a time the latter will appear to grow deeper, whilst the former will become a deep black. the one that blackens most rapidly will be found to be that one on which the silver nitrate was poured. divide the slightly blackened chloride on the strip of glass into two portions, and over one pour a little beer, and over the other a weak solution of potassium nitrite, and again note the difference. it will be found that here the blackening commences anew, but proceeds much more rapidly on that portion over which the nitrite was poured. here are the experiments. what do they teach? potassium nitrite, and silver nitrate, are both inorganic salts, and they both have an affinity for--that is, tend to combine with--any of the halogens (by which are meant such bodies as chlorine, iodine, bromine, and fluorine). in the former case we have silver chloride formed with a little hypo-chlorous acid; in the latter we have a more difficult decomposition: the potassium nitrite is decomposed into hydrochloric acid and potassium nitrate.[ ] we can tell that chlorine is liberated by the action of light on silver chloride, since if we prepare some as above, well wash it, and expose it to light in pure water, we shall find that the latter contains chlorine, since a few drops of silver nitrate poured into it after exposure give a white precipitate. if we make the same experiments with the dried portions of silver chloride as we did with the moist, we shall obtain the same results, with the exception that with the dried, in which there is excess of salt, there will be hardly any discolouration. the experimentalist should also note that if the darkened chloride be broken up, the interior retains its white colour in all its purity. this tells us that the discolouration is _almost_ confined to the surface, hence it is useless, for printing purposes, to have such a mass of chloride as would be opaque, since all but a very thin film would be unacted upon. if the darkened chloride be examined closely, it will be seen that the colour varies, being bluer in the case of that which has silver nitrate in contact with it (either moist or dry) as compared with that which is darkened in contact with the potassium nitrite. we have the best of reasons for believing that the blue colour is really due to a combination between the sub-chloride and the oxygen contained in the water or in the air. the true colour of the sub-chloride is that which is exposed beneath an oxygen absorbent such as the nitrite. practical printers are aware that albumenized paper containing a chloride is employed for producing silver prints, and the probability is that the albumen must exercise some kind of influence on the resulting picture. let us examine this, and see what effect it can have. carefully break an egg, and separate the yolk from the white, pouring the latter into a beaker. beat up the white with a bundle of quill pens, allow the froth to subside, and then filter it. pour a little of the filtered albumen (the white of egg) into a test-tube, and add a little silver nitrate solution to it, and expose the precipitate which falls to light. it will be seen that it darkens rapidly, assuming a foxy red colour. take a couple of glass plates and coat them with plain collodion, wash under the tap, and whilst still moist flow albumen over them two or three times, and set them up to dry. when thoroughly dry, plunge them for a few seconds into a weak solution of silver nitrate ( grains to the ounce of water will suffice), wash one under the tap, and then allow both to dry again. take both plates out into the light, and note the results. the one from which the silver nitrate has not been washed will darken very rapidly, the other will take some time to start; but if the exposure be sufficiently prolonged, it will gradually assume a hue equally as dark as the other. if we repeat these experiments with gelatine, which is used as a sizing in some papers, we shall find very much the same nature of things taking place, the differences being so slight, however, as not to require detailed notice. so far, then, we have considered the darkening properties of the silver compounds which are to be used by the printer, but it remains to be seen what _permanency of darkening_ they possess. if we treat the darkened silver chloride solution exposed with the silver nitrate or the potassium nitrite to a solution of hyposulphite of soda or ammonia, both of which are solvents of the white chloride, we shall find that a residue of metallic silver is left behind. if we treat the darkened albuminate of silver with the same agents, we shall find that very little change is effected by them. from this we may gather that the action of light on them is of a totally different nature.[ ] this is also most marked if we treat the two with hydrosulphuric acid solution (sulphuretted hydrogen[ ]). it will be found that the colour of the darkened silver chloride becomes more intense, while the other is bleached, or, rather, becomes of a yellow tint. this last effect has an important bearing on the permanency of silver prints, as will be more fully explained when considering the subject of fixing the print. chapter ii. preparation of albumenized paper. in printing on albumenized paper we must divide the operations, and give a detailed account of each. in case the reader may desire to prepare his own paper, we give the following formula and directions. to prepare the albumen, procure a sufficient number of eggs, remembering that the white of a large egg will be about a fluid ounce; have a cup to collect the yolks, and a four-ounce measure at hand. give the centre of the egg a smart blow against the top of the cup. the shell can now be readily pulled in two, the yolk remaining unbroken with part of the albumen in one half, and the rest of the albumen in the other half of the shell. take the halves, one in each hand, and pour the albumen from one to the other, holding them over the small measure. as the operation continues, the yolk will gradually separate, the white falling into the vessel below. if conducted with care, the whole of the latter will be collected without breaking the yolk. if the yolk break, some will be sure to find its way into the measure along with the white, and this, together with the white speck known as the tread, must be rigorously taken out by means of a spoon. the _uncontaminated_ white is then poured into a large jar. if the operator carefully collects the white of each egg into the four-ounce ounce measure first, he will find his labour much diminished, as it is awkward to get out the small pieces of yolk from a large quantity of albumen. the eggs are thus broken, and the white collected till there is a sufficient quantity for the purpose in hand. suppose we are going to make up ounces of solution, then about ounces of white of egg must be found in the jar. one point to settle is the amount of salt to be used to each ounce of albumen. it must be recollected that a medium quantity is the best for medium negatives; anything between and grains per ounce may be used. we prefer ourselves about . supposing this quantity to be used, we proceed to dissolve grains of chloride of ammonium in ounces of water, and add it to the albumen. it has been proved that as regards colour of the picture, it does not matter what chloride is used. to prevent crystallization, it is better to use ammonium, which contains a greater amount of chlorine than do sodium or potassium chlorides. it must now be beaten up till it is in a froth. this breaks up the fibrous matter, and on subsidence the liquid will be found to be limpid. the most convenient implement with which to beat up the albumen is the american egg-beater. three or four minutes' work is quite sufficient to make the whole into a froth. an ordinary culinary whisk, such as is used in the kitchen, may also be put into requisition, or, in default of that, a bundle of quill pens. a lesson in producing a froth can be learnt from the cook of the establishment. when the salted albumen has settled it must be filtered, which, perhaps, is best effected through a sponge, though glass-wool is a capital substitute. in either case a small, loosely-fitting plug is placed in the neck of an ordinary funnel, and, after rinsing with cold water, the albumen is poured in, and allowed to filter through slowly. it is advisable to avoid bubbles as far as possible, and the accompanying arrangement will be found to avoid their formation. the funnel is placed in the position shown (fig. ); the capillary attraction between it and the glass will cause the drops to trickle down the side, and collect, without bubbles, at the bottom. this little contrivance will be found of use in other operations besides that of silver printing, and should be made a note of. the albumen may also be filtered through one, two, or three thicknesses of muslin, according to its fineness, tied over the mouth of a bottle or beaker of which the bottom has been removed. the albumen is placed in a vessel slightly larger than the filter, which is allowed to sink gradually. when full it is withdrawn, and the fluid poured into the dish. by this plan upward filtration is established. the fluid may be poured into the filter itself, and used in the ordinary manner.[ ] [illustration: _fig._ .] [illustration: _fig._ .] on a larger scale, white of eggs in a fresh condition can be obtained from egg merchants who utilize the yolks by selling them to the grocers and confectioners. albumen can be obtained by the gallon in this condition, according to the price of eggs. it will be evident that there is considerable economy in taking the whites wholesale. as a rule, about three gallons of albumen will coat two reams of albumenized paper. mr. england (to whom we are indebted for so many of our remarks on albumenizing paper) procures about the latter quantity at a time, and beats it up mechanically in a large vat holding some fifty gallons, in order to allow space for the froth. he allows the albumen to rest four days before employing it, and filters it through three thicknesses of flannel. the quality of paper to be used varies considerably with the custom of the printer. thus, in some countries, we find a much thinner paper used than in england. the great desideratum is that it should be perfectly opaque to transmitted light. a good test of this is to make a couple of black ink marks on a piece of white paper, and then press down firmly the paper it is proposed to employ over this. if the black ink marks are indistinguishable, the paper will do as regards this quality, as the light reflected from the surface which gives the impression of whiteness to the eye is much stronger than the light which penetrates through it, and is absorbed by the black lines. as to quality, it is best to trust to the manufacturer, those known as saxe and rives papers answering better than any other that we know of. the rives is, when moist, a paper which is more easily torn than the saxe, and, consequently, we recommend that the former be employed for small work, such as portraits, and the latter for large landscape prints. in regard to the sizes to be albumenized, it must be left to the operator to say what will be the most useful to him. it is rarely advisable to albumenize less than a half sheet of paper, the whole size of which is about by inches; by is not an inconvenient size to manipulate. at any rate, a dish larger each way by a couple of inches than the paper must be procured, and put on a level table. the temperature of the room should be at least °, in fact, the hotter it is the more glossy will be the resulting paper. the solution, free from bubbles, is poured in, and should be of a depth of at least / an inch. suppose the smaller size to be coated, before commencing, the paper is taken by the two opposite corners, the hands brought together, and the convex side brought on to the surface of the fluid; the hands are then separated, and the paper will gradually float on the surface. one corner should be gradually raised to see that all air-bubbles are absent. if there be any, they should be broken with the point of a glass rod, and the paper again lowered. bubbles can usually be seen through the paper, and, instead of raising it, a few gentle taps with the finger over the spot will generally move the bubble to the edge of the paper. in practice, some have found it well to moisten the surface of the paper with a damp sponge, and when quite surface dry to albumenize it. this should, however, be unnecessary. the sheet should remain on the albumen a little over a minute, when it could be gently raised by one corner and allowed to drain over a basin; it is then caught by a couple of american clips and hung up to dry.[ ] [illustration: _fig._ .] supposing a whole sheet is to be coated, it will be found more convenient to take the sheet by the corners of _one end_, one in each hand, and to lower the surface near the end of the dish, and gradually draw the paper over the side of the dish till the whole surface is flat. bubbles can be got rid of as shown above. two large dishes are usually employed, and by the time the second sheet is floated in the second dish, the first sheet of paper is ready for removal from the first dish. the sheets, when slowly removed from the bath, are allowed to drain a few seconds, and then thrown over wooden rods of some two inches in diameter, which are removed to a rack, and placed near a trough to collect the drainings.[ ] when drained sufficiently the rods are removed to other racks, and the paper allowed to dry spontaneously. it is the practice of some albumenized paper manufacturers to hang the sheets over a line, uncoated side next the line; but this is a mistake, as it will nearly always be found, on sensitising the paper and exposing it, that a mark is left across the paper corresponding to the part where the string touched the back of the paper. in practice we have found that each sheet of paper takes up about / oz. of solution, and, of course, its equivalent quantity of salt. the principal difficulty in albumenizing paper is the occurrence of lines on the paper in the direction in which it was placed on the surface of the albumen. any arrest of motion in floating the paper will cause them, but more usually it is due to imperfect beating up of the solution. some papers are not readily coated with albumen, in which case the remedy given above may prove effectual; or a little solution of oxgall may be equally well applied. a want of gloss in the dried albumen may be due to too long a floating on the fluid, or to floating and drying the paper in too low a temperature. the explanation of the first cause is that albumen, when fresh, has an alkaline reaction, due to the presence of a small quantity of soda, which may be said to be its base, and any alkali will dissolve the gelatinous sizing of a paper. when the sizing is dissolved, instead of remaining on the surface, the albumen sinks into the paper, and thereby the gloss is lost. when albumen is stale it no longer possesses this alkaline reaction, but has an acid reaction quite visible on the application of blue litmus paper to it; the blue colour disappears and is replaced by a red tint. when in the alkaline state, the paper is much more difficult to coat, but an acid condition means the production of inferior tones. _rolling the paper._--the paper, when dried, is often rolled with a heavy pressure to improve the gloss; a copper-plate press is found to answer admirably, placing the albumenized side next the bed. this rolling should not be necessary if attention be paid to the temperature of the preparation room. the higher the temperature the finer will be the gloss, as we have already said. chapter iii. the sensitizing bath for albumenized paper. to render albumenized paper sensitive to light it has to be treated with a solution of silver nitrate, and the most convenient method of applying it is to float it on a dish containing the silver salt in solution. the first point to consider is the strength of the solution. if we float albumenized paper (face downwards) on a solution of grains of silver nitrate to the ounce of water, we shall find, what at first sight may seem to be remarkable, that the albumen will be dissolved away from the paper, and that there will be a precipitate left in the silver solution. why is this? it must be remembered that albumen is soluble in water: it is coagulated or insoluble in water when combined with silver nitrate. the fact is that the quantity of silver nitrate in the solution we have been experimenting with is too small. the water dissolves the albumen first, and then the silver has time to act upon it to form the insoluble albuminate. if we soak paper in common salt, and treat it in the same way with the same strength of solution, we shall find that this is not the case: the silver chloride will remain on the paper. from this we learn two facts. st. that the silver solution has a greater affinity for the chloride than for the albuminate, and that in an equal mixture of the two more chloride would be formed than albuminate; in other words, that the ammonium chloride would be totally converted into silver chloride long before the silver albuminate was formed. nd. that a certain strength of silver nitrate is necessary to prevent the albumen dissolving from off the paper. this last fact has fixed the lowest strength of any sensitizing solution to be thirty grains to the ounce, and even if this be taken as a limit, it is necessary that the water should be rendered less active by holding some other soluble matter in its embraces. this is usually effected by adding some other neutral and inactive nitrates. there does not seem to be any theoretical limit to the amount of silver nitrate in solution, but practically it rarely contains more than grains to the ounce, though occasionally we have heard of it being used of a strength of grains to the ounce. the important point now presents itself. how are we to fix the strength of the bath? what principles must we follow? to answer these questions we extract a passage from another work of this series.[ ] "if a paper be coated with albumen (say) in which has been dissolved a certain quantity of a soluble chloride, and floated on a silver solution, both chloride and albuminate of silver are formed. it depends, however, on the strength of the solution as to what proportions of each are present, owing to the fact that the organic compound is much slower in formation than the chloride, and has less affinity for the silver. if the silver solution be not sufficiently strong, the chloride may rob that portion of it with which it is in contact of all the silver before any (or, at all events, sufficient) albuminate has been formed, the molecule being composed almost entirely of silver chloride. the stronger the silver solution the more 'organate' will it contain; whilst if it be very weak, very little will be present. hence it is with albumenized paper which is weakly salted with a silver chloride a weak sensitizing bath may be used, whilst if it be rich in the chloride it must be of proportionate strength." it will now be seen that the proportion of chloride to albumen has to settle the point. we next have to consider the time during which the silver should be in contact with the paper when the floating is commenced. let us take the case of a strong silver solution, and consider the action that will follow. immediately the paper is placed in contact with the solution, silver chloride is formed, and the amount of the silver nitrate in the layer of fluid in immediate contact with the surface being scarcely diminished by the formation of silver chloride, the albuminate is formed almost simultaneously, forming a film which is to a great extent impermeable to the liquid. but even before this layer is coagulated, the next layer of chloride will have been formed, so that we may say we have one layer of albuminate and chloride of silver, and one layer of chloride of silver alone. the further penetration of the silver solution will be very slow; hence, for fully saturating both the albumen and the salt with silver, the time of flotation must be prolonged. for some purposes, however, this is not necessary, as will be seen presently. next let us trace the action of a weak solution, not weak enough to dissolve the albumen off the paper, but of the minimum strength. the solution, as before, would immediately form the silver chloride, but before the albumen had coagulated at the surface, the solution would penetrate to the interior of the film, and then the formation of the albuminate would proceed nearly equally throughout the whole of the interior. evidently, then, in this case, the contact of the silver solution would be less prolonged than in the former case. if the floating be prolonged the silver solution in the interior will become weakened, and partially dissolve the albumen and be carried by the water into the interior of the paper; it will also partially dissolve off the surface, and a negative printed on such a paper would have all the appearance of being dead in lustre, and existing in the paper itself instead of on the surface. we may thus summarize:-- . a paper floated on a strong solution may require long floating. . a paper floated on a weak solution requires short floating. . and the strength of the solution may be between the grains and grains to the ounce of silver according to the amount of soluble chloride dissolved in the albumen on the paper when the negative is really good as regards opacity and delicacy. the knowledge of the amount of chloride in the paper supplied by dealers has to be arrived at somehow, and the following method will answer. cut up a quarter sheet of the paper into small pieces, and place them in a couple of ounces of methylated spirit. this will dissolve out most of the chloride, and should be decanted off. another two ounces of spirit should be added to the paper, and, after thoroughly soaking, should be decanted off, and added to the other spirit. the spirit containing the chloride may then be placed in a glass vessel standing in hot water, when it will evaporate and leave the chloride behind. it may be weighed; but since it is better to know how much silver chloride (agcl) would be formed, the residue should be dissolved in a few drops of water, and a little silver nitrate added. the silver chloride will be precipitated, and should be carefully washed with water, and then be filtered, the paper being opened out and dried before the fire on filter paper. the chloride is then detached and weighed; - / grains of silver chloride would show that a weak bath should be used, whilst grains would show that a strong bath was required. with most brands of albumenized paper directions are issued as to the best strength of silver nitrate solution for sensitizing, and a fair estimate of the chloride present can be gained from such directions. a weak solution loses much of its strength by each sheet of paper floated, much more proportionally, in fact, than a strong solution, since the same amount of fluid is absorbed by the paper in each case, whilst the amount of silver abstracted from the _whole_ is also equal, which reduces the strength per ounce more with the former than with the latter. a weak sensitizing solution, therefore, requires much more attention than a strong one: crystals of silver nitrate must be constantly added to the former. in practice and for general work, then, we recommend a moderately strong bath, the method of making up of which we shall describe. to make up pints of solution with a strength of grains to the ounce, we shall require , grains of silver nitrate. this is carefully weighed out in the scales, a piece of _filter paper being placed in each pan_. by adopting this plan freedom from all impurities that may cling to the pans will be avoided, and the silver nitrate will be perfectly pure. place the silver salt in a large clean bottle, and add half-a-pint of water to it, and shake it to dissolve it. the best water for the purpose is distilled water; but filtered rain, pure spring, or river water answers well. if the water contain any chlorides, it will be shown by a milkiness due to a formation of silver chloride. this must be filtered out when the remaining pint and a-half of water is added. the solution is now ready for use, and, being of the simplest character, is not to be excelled, though the addition of some soluble salts may be advantageous, particularly in dry climates or in very dry weather. such salts are found in sodium nitrate, or ammonium nitrate, as much as equal weights of either of these substances being added. thus our formula would stand as follows were these additions made:-- _original solution._ .--silver nitrate grains water ounce _modified solution._ .--silver nitrate grains ammonium nitrate or sodium nitrate " water ounce the reason of the addition of the ammonium or sodium nitrate is that prints are better obtained on paper which is not absolutely free from water. when very dry, the liberated chlorine (see page ) is apt to attack the albuminate, whereas it is deprived of much of its activity when it is able to be absorbed by water, which, in the presence of light, is decomposed into hydrochloric acid and oxygen.[ ] hydrochloric acid can attack the silver nitrate present in the pores of the paper, and produce fresh silver chloride. if the paper were quite dry, the liberated chlorine would scarcely be able to attack even the silver. moisture, though very little, is desirable. in the excessively dry climate of india, &c., in the summer, one or other of these deliquescent salts should be invariably present for the purpose indicated, unless fuming be resorted to. the sensitizing bath should also never be allowed to be acid with nitric acid, since the resulting prints would invariably be poor. the best way of securing this neutral state is by keeping a little carbonate of silver at the bottom of the bottle in which the solution is kept. a few drops of a solution of sodium carbonate added to the bottle over-night will secure this. the reason why nitric acid is to be avoided is shown by placing a print in dilute nitric acid. it is well known that darkened silver chloride is unaffected by it; but the print will be found to change colour, and to become duller and redder than if washed in water alone. the nitric acid evidently attacks the albumen. nitric acid decomposes the carbonate of silver (which, be it remembered, is an insoluble body), forming silver nitrate, and liberating carbonic acid.[ ] alum in the printing bath has also been recommended for preventing the bath from discolouring, and it is effective in that it hardens the surface of the albumen; but the ordinary explanation of its effect is defective. if a solution of common alum be added to the silver nitrate we get silver sulphate (which is best out of the bath, and it is slightly soluble in the solution), and aluminium nitrate is formed.[ ] the same effect would be produced if aluminium nitrate were added to the bath solution. we, however, give a means of adding it as recommended by some writers. when filtering the solution, put a small lump of alum in the filter paper, and pour the solution over it, or add one grain of alum to every ounce of solution, and then filter. chapter iv. how to keep the sensitizing bath in order. experience tells us, however strong we may make the bath solution to coagulate the albumen on the paper, that a certain amount of organic matter will always be carried into it. at first this is not apparent, since it remains colourless in the solution; but after a time, after floating a few sheets of paper, the organic silver compound gradually decomposes, and the solution becomes of a brown or red tint, and if paper were floated on it in this condition there would be a dark surface and uneven sensitizing. it is, therefore, necessary to indicate the various means that may be employed to get rid of this impurity. the earliest, if not one of the best, is by the addition of white china clay, which is known in commerce as kaolin. a teaspoonful is placed in the bottle containing the solution, and well shaken up; the organic matter adheres to it, and precipitates to the bottom, and the liquid can be filtered through filter-paper or washed cotton-wool, when it will be found decolourized. another mode of getting the liquid out of the bottle is to syphon it off by any syphon arrangement, and this prevents a waste in the solution from the absorption of the filtering medium. the accompanying arrangement (fig. ) will be found useful for the purpose, and can be applied to other solutions where decantation is necessary. a is a wide-mouthed bottle holding the solution. b is a cork fitting the mouth, in which two holes have been bored to fit the two tubes, d and c, which are bent to the form shown. when the kaolin has subsided to the bottom, air is forced by the mouth into the bottle through c, the liquid rises over the bend of the tube d, and syphons off to the level of the bottom of the tube inserted into the liquid, provided the end of d, outside the bottle, comes below it. [illustration: _fig._ .] [illustration: _fig._ .] to bend a tube, a common gas flame is superior to a bunsen burner. the tube is placed in the bright part of the flame in the position shown; by this means a good length of it gets heated, and a gentle bend is made without choking the bore, which would be the case were a point of a flame used. another method of purifying the solution is by adding a few drops of hydrochloric (muriatic) acid to it. chloride of silver is formed, and when well shaken up, carries down with it most of the organic matter, but leaves the bath acid from the formation of nitric acid.[ ] this must be neutralized unless a little silver carbonate is left at the bottom of the bottle as described at page . a camphor solution may also be added for the same purpose. make a saturated solution of camphor in spirits of wine, and add a couple of drachms to the solution, and shake well up. the camphor will collect the albumen, and it can be filtered out. in case the first dose does not decolourize it, another one must be added. another plan is to add potassium permanganate (permanganate of potash) to it, till such time as the solution takes a faint permanent rose tint. the theory is that the organic matter is oxidized by the oxygen liberated from the permanganate, and falls to the bottom. it is not strictly true, however, and the solution will never be as free from organic matter as when the other methods are employed. the final and best method is to add a small quantity of sodium carbonate (say grains), and expose it to daylight. when the organic matter becomes oxidized at the expense of the silver nitrate, the metallic silver with the oxidized organic matter will fall to the bottom. this plan answers admirably when time is no object, but in dull weather the action is slow. when once the precipitation fairly commences it goes on quickly, and if a little freshly precipitated metallic silver be left at bottom of the bottle the action is much more rapid. this is a wrinkle worth remembering in all photographic operations where precipitation is resorted to. we have hitherto supposed that the only contamination of the bath is organic matter, but it must be borne in mind that each sheet of paper floated on the solution transfers a certain amount of nitrate of the alkali[ ] with which the albumen is salted. [illustration: _fig._ .] it will thus be seen that in an old bath there will be no need to add the soluble nitrates given in page , since they will be already formed. when they are in excess the best plan is to precipitate the silver by some means,[ ] but we select one which is easy of application, since it requires no watching. evaporate the solution to half its bulk, and slightly acidify it with nitric acid ( drops to the pint of solution will suffice); throw some ordinary granulated zinc into the jar or bottle containing it; the silver will now be rapidly thrown down in the metallic state, and in the course of two or three hours the action will be complete. next carefully pour off all the fluid as close as possible to the residue. pick out all the lumps of zinc, and add a little dilute hydrochloric acid to dissolve up all the small particles of zinc which may be amongst the precipitated silver. filter the solution away, and wash the residue once or twice with water. take out the filter paper, and dry it before a fire, or in an oven, and then detach the silver, and transfer it to a small crucible, which place, with its contents, over a bunsen burner or spirit lamp flame till it is red hot. the heat will destroy all organic matter, leaving a residue of carbonous matter behind, which, after subsequent operations, will be eliminated by filtration. next cover the silver with nitric acid,[ ] and in an evaporating dish slightly warm it over a spirit lamp or bunsen burner. red fumes will appear, and when all action has ceased, more acid must be added till such a time that very nearly (but not quite) all the silver is dissolved up. then evaporate off all the fluid and allow it to cool, when water can be added to such an extent that it is _over strength_ for the bath. now measure the whole bulk of the solution in a glass measure, and test by the argentometer for strength. an argentometer is, in reality, an instrument for taking the specific gravity of a liquid. it is as shown in the figure. a b is a glass tube, inside of which is a graduated scale showing grains; c is a hollow glass cylinder, which has a little glass ball filled with mercury. when immersed in water, the instrument sinks till the scale reads --that is, a b is deeply immersed. when any soluble salt is dissolved in the water, the stem rises further. if the soluble salt be silver nitrate, the scale is made to read grains per ounce. it is then evident, if the bath contains any other soluble salt besides the nitrate of silver, the readings will be untrustworthy. supposing you have a total quantity of - / ounces of solution, and the argentometer tells you it is of a strength of grains to the ounce, you must make a small calculation to see how much water you must add. in - / ounces of solution there will be - / × or - / grains of silver nitrate. if you want to make the bath grains to the ounce, you must divide this quantity by , which is very nearly . the original amount of fluid ( - / ounces), when deducted from this number of ( ) ounces, will give you the amount ( - / ounces) of water that is to be added to give you a bath of the required strength. when the water is added, the solution should be filtered from the carbonaceous matter, and the bath, after neutralizing with sodium carbonate, will be ready for use. chapter v. applying the silvering solution to the albumenized paper. as each piece of paper takes somewhere about five minutes to sensitize and hang up to dry, it is evident that the larger the piece of paper sensitised the greater will be the saving in time in this operation. practically a whole sheet of paper, which is about inches by , is the maximum ordinary size, whilst it may be convenient to float a piece as small as - / by - / . there is not much difficulty in floating either one or the other if ordinary care be taken, but it is no use disguising the fact that large sheets are sometimes faultily sensitized even by experienced hands, if the solution be not in a proper state. the great enemy to success is the formation of bubbles on the surface of the solution, and if it be at all contaminated with organic matter they are more liable to be met with than if the bath be new. it may be taken as a maxim that no paper should be floated if, to commence with, the bath be not purified. a flat dish of about - / inches in height, and an inch larger in breadth and length than the paper to be floated, is used, and the solution poured in to a depth of / inch. the paper is grasped by the two hands as shown at page , so that a convex albumen surface is formed downwards, which is placed diagonally across the dish and lowered on to the surface of the solution; the hands are at the same time separated outwards, so that the whole surface of the paper is caused to float on it without any arrest. by this means all air is forced out before the paper, and no bubbles should be beneath. to make assurance double sure, the paper is raised from the corners which were not grasped by the hands, and if by any chance a small bubble should be found, it is immediately broken by the point of a clean quill pen or glass rod. before floating the paper the surface of the solution should be examined for scum or bubbles, both of which may be removed by passing a strip of clean blotting-paper across it. the dish employed should be scrupulously clean, and in cold weather it is a good plan to warm both it and the solution before the fire previous to use. in warm weather, the albumen of the paper may be in a very horny condition, which increases the liability to form bubbles. the writers have found that if the sheet of paper be exposed to the steam passing from a kettle of boiling water for a few seconds (moving it so that every portion shall come in contact with it) just before sensitising, the surface becomes more tractable, and in a better condition for sensitizing; keeping the paper in a moist atmosphere effects the same end. the length of time for floating the paper depends on the subjects to be printed, _but, as a rule_, three minutes with the -grain bath will be found to answer for the majority of negatives. when the proper time has elapsed, a corner of the paper is raised from the solution by means of a glass rod, and grasped by the thumb and forefinger of the right hand. it is then raised _very slowly_ from off the solution till another corner is clear, when that is grasped by the forefinger and thumb of the left hand; and it is finally withdrawn entirely, and drained a minute from the lowest corner into the dish. it is next hung up to dry by a corner which should be fastened to an american clip (fig. ) suspended from a line stretched across the dark room, taking care to keep the corner which last left the solution the lowest. a piece of _clean_ blotting-paper about one inch long by / an inch wide is brought in contact with this latter corner, and adheres to it from the moisture. this collects the draining from the paper whilst drying, and prevents a loss of silver, since it can subsequently be detached and placed amongst the residues for burning. [illustration: _fig._ .] [illustration: _fig._ .] there is another mode of floating large sheets of paper, which is sometimes recommended. one corner is turned up about a quarter of an inch. this is held by the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, and the opposite corner of the diagonal held by the right hand. the first corner is brought on the solution near the opposite corner of the dish to that towards which it will eventually be near. the sheet, having assumed a convex form, is drawn by the left hand across the dish, the right hand being gradually turned to allow the whole surface to come slowly in contact with the solution. air-bubbles are said to be avoided by this means, though for our own part we see no practical advantage in it over the last method. [illustration: _fig._ .] some operators also, when lifting the paper from the dish, pass it over a glass rod placed as in the figure, in order to get rid of all superfluous fluid from the surface. this is a poor substitute for withdrawing the paper slowly from the dish, since capillary attraction is much more effective and even in its action than this rude mechanical means. by those who do not possess patience, however, it may be tried. some practical photographers also "blot off" the excess of silver, but this is a dangerous practice unless there is a certainty that no "anti-chlor" has been used in preparing the blotting-paper. for our own part we recommend the usual mode of draining the paper. when surface dry, it can be dried in a drying box. the following is a kind which has been adopted by one eminent photographer, and is excellent in principle. over a flat and closed galvanized iron bath erect a cupboard. fig. gives the elevation, and fig. the section. a is the bath, d the cupboard, which may conveniently be closed with a roller shutter,[ ] b, passing over _c c_, and is weighted by a bar of lead, so as to nearly balance the weight of the shutter when closed. a couple of bunsen gas-burners, e e, heat the water in a; the steam generated is carried up the flue f, which also carries off the products of the combustion of the gas. the paper may be suspended from laths tacked at the top of the cupboard by means of american clips. [illustration: _fig._ .] [illustration: _fig._ .] chapter vi. washed sensitive paper. for some classes of work sensitized paper may be washed with advantage previous to drying, and there is much economy in this plan, particularly in hot weather, since it keeps of a purer white for a much longer period than where the silver nitrate is allowed to dry on the surface. it may not be out of place to call attention to the action of silver nitrate on the paper. if a stick of lunar caustic be applied to the skin when dried, there is a peculiar burning effect produced, and even in the dark the cuticle becomes discoloured, though not black. in the albumenized paper we have albumen and the gelatine sizing, and these substances behave somewhat like the skin. the gelatine particularly will become oxidized at the expense of the silver, a reddish organic oxide being formed; and again, if the silver nitrate be alkaline or strictly neutral, we have the same action occurring as when we precipitate metallic silver by means of an alkali, and an organic body such as sugar of milk. the gelatine takes the place of the latter. when the free silver nitrate is removed, the tendency for the spontaneous darkening of the paper is much diminished, since the chloride and albuminate of silver are much less readily reduced than the nitrate. the following plan is adopted for washing the paper:--the paper, after floating, is drawn twice rapidly through a dish of rain or distilled water, and, unless some other substance which can absorb chlorine be added to the last wash water, care should be taken not to soak out all the free nitrate, as then the paper would produce flat prints. it is then hung up to dry as before. immediately before use it must be fumed with ammonia, in order that the prints may be "plucky," and free from that peculiar speckiness of surface which is known to the silver printer as "measles." we can readily trace the "measles" to their source. suppose all free silver nitrate is washed away, and the paper be then exposed to light, the chloride is rapidly converted into subchloride, and chlorine is given off (see page ); if there be nothing to absorb it at once it will attack the albuminate, which is blackened at the same time, and fresh chloride will be formed in little minute spots. these discolour, and are of different tint to the rest of the print, and give rise to the appearance of measles. this, of course, is not so marked when a little free silver nitrate is left in the paper; but as what is removed is principally removed from the surface, it may still be unpleasantly discernible. fuming obviates it entirely if properly performed, for chlorine and ammonia combine to form finally ammonium chloride, a neutral and inactive salt. any other chlorine absorber may be substituted; thus citric acid, potassium nitrite, and many others are effective, and cause vigorous prints to be produced. perhaps the easiest way of giving the paper the necessary amount of ammonia is that recommended by colonel wortley. this is to place overnight the pads of the printing-frame, if they be of felt, into a closed box in which is placed a saucer containing a couple of drachms of liquor ammoniæ, and to withdraw them as required for the printing-frames. the pads will be thoroughly impregnated with the vapour of ammonia, and a couple or more prints, in succession, may be made before it is necessary to change them. the ordinary method of fuming is that used in america. hearn describes a box, which is very convenient and simple in construction. he says: "take any common wooden box, large enough for the purpose, and make a door of suitable size for it, which, when shut, will totally exclude all light. make a false bottom in this about six inches, or so, from the real one, and perforate it with holes of about the same size that a gimlet would make. these holes should be very numerous, and at the centre there should be, if anything, a smaller number of them, because the saucer containing the liquor ammonia is generally placed at the centre of the real bottom of the box." for our own part we dislike the false bottom as constructed, and recommend one of fine gauze, and, instead of placing half-an-ounce of ammonia in the saucer as hearn directs, we prefer to soak half-a-dozen sheets of blotting-paper in ammonium chloride solution, about grains to the ounce, and the same number of sheets soaked in lime water; one sheet of each are placed together, and ammonia is liberated by double decomposition; calcium chloride being also formed. this method is excellent in hot, dry weather, since it imparts a certain amount of moisture to the paper. in damp weather it is a good plan to dry the vapour by sprinkling on the gauze calcium chloride, which will rapidly absorb the aqueous vapour, and will allow the ammonia to pass on unimpeded. the sheets of paper are held at the top of the box by american clips, suspended from laths about three inches apart, and it is not a bad plan to fasten a lath on to their bottom edge by the same means, to do away with their curling. to fume a single piece of paper it may be pinned up to the inside of the top of the lid of a box, and a drachm of ammonia sprinkled on cotton wool distributed at the bottom. the point to be attended to is that the fuming shall be even, and it is evident that the ammonia should rise equally from any part of the bottom of the box. in the plan of the box given above, the bottom of the sheet is apt to get a little more ammonia than the top. the time of fuming depends on so many things that a rule can scarcely be given for it; twenty minutes may be considered about the extreme limit. if this sensitizing bath be acid, the time must evidently be longer than when it is strictly neutral or slightly alkaline; and if the negative be hard, it will require to be less fumed than if it be of a weak nature, since the action of ammonia is to cause rapid darkening in the deep shadows. in hot weather the fuming should be shorter than in cold, since the ammonia volatilizes much more rapidly when the temperature is high. on the whole, we recommend colonel wortley's plan of fuming the pads in preference to fuming the paper. another mode of preserving the paper from discolouration is to add citric acid to the printing bath, which is effective owing to the fact given at page . the following formula is a good one, and has answered with the writer. it is-- silver nitrate grains citric acid " water ounce the paper is floated for the ordinary length of time, when it is dried thoroughly and placed between sheets of pure blotting-paper. it will keep in its pristine state for months, if excluded from the air. it is better to fume this paper strongly before use, or the toning becomes a difficult matter. ordinary sensitized paper may be preserved for a considerable time if, when dry, it is placed between sheets of blotting-paper saturated with a solution of carbonate of soda, and dried. washed sensitized paper is also improved in sensitiveness by floating it for a few seconds on-- citric acid grains potassium nitrite " water ounce it can be fumed, when dried, in the usual manner. in the year-book of photography for mr. a. borland recommends the following modification:-- he floats the paper on nitrate of silver, as usual, and after it has drained surface dry, blots off any drops that may remain at the edges, and then floats the _back_ of the paper for about three minutes on the following bath:-- nitrate of soda ounce distilled water ounces this is rendered slightly acid by a little solution of _freshly_ prepared citric acid in water. the degree of acidity is regulated by litmus paper (the blue specimen), which should be slightly reddened by it. after this solution has been mixed about ten minutes, it is filtered, and the paper floated. mr. borland says the paper keeps well, and prints the same as ordinary paper, and any tone may be produced. chapter vii. cutting paper. we have often come across operators who have no really definite plan on which they cut up their paper for a day's work, and they have little idea of the most economical place of dividing the sheets. the following remarks by mr. hearn, which appeared in the photographic news, , will be useful to the printer, and, being so extremely well described, we take the liberty of reproducing them. "in cutting up the paper for printing, due regard should be given to the materials employed. in the first place, the fingers should be free from anything that will stain or soil the paper, and they should never touch the _silvered_ side, but always the _back_. the hands should be perfectly dry, free even from any perspiration, for if this is not strictly regarded in the handling of the paper, 'finger stains' will appear on those parts of the paper with which the fingers come in contact. to guard against this, a rough towel should be suspended in a convenient place, and the hands wiped upon it as often as may be found necessary--say once in every five or ten minutes. an ivory newspaper cutter, about eight inches long and an inch wide, together with a suitable sized pair of shears, will be all of the instruments necessary. "in cutting the paper for very large prints, such as by , by , by , &c., the beginner had best (to obtain the right size) lay over the sensitive paper the proper sized mat that is to be placed over the print when finished, and then cut accordingly. considerable paper can be saved in this way, and printed in card size. "there should always be an assortment of different sized mats in the printing room; one of each size will do, which should be kept expressly for this purpose. "in cutting the paper for an by print, the length of the sheet is generally placed before the printer, and the paper bent over to the further edge of the sheet, and then creased, and thus cut into two equal pieces, one of which can be used for the contemplated print. i would recommend that instead of taking exactly one half of the sheet of paper, as described above, to take about _an inch more_ than the half, so as to allow for any slight tear that may happen along the edges of the paper during the washing, toning, &c., and also so as to be sure of having the paper wide enough for the different sized mats. "i have seen some nice prints printed upon the exact half of a sheet of paper, which, when taken from the final washing (and the edges trimmed, being slightly torn), were then too narrow to be covered with the proper sized mats, and had to be rejected; whereas, if in cutting this paper allowance had been made for this final trimming, the prints would have been saved. the rest of the sheet can be cut very well into sixteen or eighteen carte pieces. "in cutting cabinets out of a sheet, fifteen is all that can very well be obtained, and to get that number lay the sheet on a wide table, or printing bench (with the length of it running from right to left), and divide it into three equal parts. by laying the cabinet glass on these strips of paper, and cutting the paper a little wider than the glass, five cabinets can be obtained from each strip, and fifteen out of the whole. these pieces will be plenty large enough, both in length and width; besides, this is a very convenient and economical way to cut the paper without waste. [illustration: inches +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | | | | | | | | | | | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ inches. | | | | | | | | | | | | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | - / | | | | | |inch.| inch| | | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ _fig._ .] "by a glance at the cut (fig. ) it will be seen that the size of the pieces will be - / by inches, and consequently there will be more room for the width than there will be for the length. the edges of the width side of the paper can be trimmed a little, as there is usually some little tear, or some other defect, that can thus advantageously be got rid of. often, when there are only a few cabinets to be printed, i take a quarter-sheet, and bend over the length of it to about three-quarters of an inch of the opposite side, crease it, and then cut with the paper-knife. you thus obtain a large and small piece; the smaller one of these can be cut into four cards, and the larger one can be cut in two, and thus obtain two generous size cabinets; or the printer can use the larger of the two pieces for printing the by size. this is the way i obtain my by pieces when i wish them. "the beginner must remember that in bending over the _length_ of a sheet of paper by inches in size, the divided paper will be by inches in size, which is termed, in the language of the printing room, half-sheet. "to obtain the quarter-sheet, the _length of the half-sheet_ is cut equally in two pieces, and then the size will be by inches. "a glance at fig. will show that either a generous size by , or a couple of nice cabinet pieces, together with four cartes, can be easily obtained from a quarter-sheet. "to obtain thirty-two cartes, quarter the sheet, and divide each quarter into eight equal pieces. [illustration: inches. +-----+------+ | | × | |cab. | | | | cab. | +-----+------+ inches. | | | | | | +-----+------+ | | | | | | +-----+------+ _fig._ .] [illustration: inches. +-----+-----+-----+ | | | | | | × | | +-----+-----+-----+ inches. | | | | | | | | +-----+-----+-----+ | × inches, | | stereoscope. | +-----+-----+-----+ _fig._ .] "to obtain thirty-six pieces out of a sheet, it is necessary, for convenience, to first quarter it, and then divide it into three equal strips (fig. ) taken from the _length_ of the paper. the pieces, as thus cut, will measure - / by inches, which will answer admirably for the stereoscopic size. each one of these strips of paper can be cut into three good sized cartes, making nine out of a quarter, and thirty-six out of a whole sheet. "forty-two cartes can be obtained very neatly by laying the sheet before you (fig. ), and dividing the length into seven equal parts; when done, each strip should measure - / by inches in size. the whole number of pieces will be forty-two. it will be seen that the size of the carte pieces ( by - / inches) only allows very little room for waste paper in trimming after printing, and thus it will be found necessary to exercise some care in placing these pieces on the negative for printing. [illustration: inches. +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ inches. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ _fig._ .] "to obtain the forty-two carte pieces from the sheet without waste, great care is required in sensitizing the paper to prevent tearing, and also to prevent silver from getting on the back of it; in cutting it either the shears or the paper-knife should be used with care. _do not tear the paper with the hands_, as is very often done, especially when the printer is in a hurry. "in making out the above, i have considered the sheet of paper to be by inches in size, but it is seldom that the sheet measures _exactly_ this, for the _length_ often measures from one quarter to one inch more, but never less, while the width is invariably the same. when this is the case, a little better margin is allowed in cutting the sheet up, which is a good thing, especially when a large number of small pieces are to be obtained from the sheet. forty-two pieces is all that should be obtained from a sheet of paper which measures by (or by - / , &c.) inches, because the pieces of paper are now as small as they should be with safe results to the prints, on account of bad edges, &c., which it is often necessary to trim after printing. there is a way to obtain forty-eight, and even fifty-two pieces of paper from the sheet, but i would not advise any of my readers to try to obtain that quantity, as there are many disadvantages connected with it that more than neutralize the benefits. the paper is sometimes cut up to the _exact carte size_, and then printed up as it is, thus saving the trimming of the prints after printing. this is, perhaps (?), a good way, but for the beginner it is very risky, because the paper will have to be placed _exactly on the negative_, or else the print will be worthless. even to the experienced printer this is very difficult, because the greatest care and skill are required to do it _as it should be done_; then the _inexperienced_ printer could not hope to do it successfully." chapter viii. printing-frames. [illustration: _fig._ .] there are a variety of printing-frames in the market, each of which may have something to recommend it; and yet, as a rule, the simpler and more uniform the frames are, the more handy are they for the printer, since he rapidly becomes accustomed to handling them, and knows their peculiarities. the simplest pattern is one introduced by meagher, as shown in fig. . the negative rests on india-rubber strips which line a framework of its exact size, and a folding back, as shown, covers it. the paper is pressed on to the negative by a pad, and the back on that by means of two brass springs. this is a very excellent pattern for cabinet pictures and cartes, but we can scarcely recommend it for anything larger, since even if it were possible to supply sufficient pressure to secure proper contact of the paper, the negative would be in danger of being cracked. [illustration: _fig._ .] for all sizes above cabinet, the printing frame as given in the figure is the best. the construction will be seen at once. in the front part of the frame is a piece of thick plate glass (depending for its thickness on the size of the frame). on this the negative rests, and over this again are the necessary pads and backboard, which is clamped down by means of two cross-bars, on which springs are fixed. an increase of pressure may be given by increasing the thickness of the pad (which may consist of smooth felt) next the negative, or by sheets of thick blotting-paper quite free from all folding marks. sometimes the back of the frame is hinged in three pieces,[ ] and this is almost essential for large prints (say feet by foot inches), since every part of the picture should be capable of examination during the progress in printing. with a simple single hinged backboard this is impossible. [illustration: _fig._ .] [illustration: _fig._ .] when large negatives are to be printed, the plate glass front should always have at least an inch clear all round. for smaller negatives (say by and under) half-an-inch clear is sufficient. this allows a certain latitude in the position of the negative, and enables the fingers to get at the paper without inconvenience. in the frames in which the front of the negative is unsupported this cannot be the case, and for this reason (as well as those given above) they are not recommended for large prints. chapter ix. preparing a landscape negative for printing. landscape negatives are rarely ever in perfect harmony for printing, and much may be done by judicious doctoring of the best of negatives to secure the best of prints. with moderate negatives it is absolutely essential that they should be improved. let us take the example of a hard landscape negative, which if printed so that the deep shades should show detail, would show none in the high lights. a piece of thin tissue paper (the kind known as _papier minerale_ is the best), of the size of the negative, is damped evenly with a sponge, and carefully pasted on the back of the negative. the negative is then held up to the light, and the high lights carefully traced with a faint line by means of a pencil. these are then cut out by means of a sharp penknife, and a trial print taken in the shade. if it be found that the shadows still print too deeply when the detail in the high light is visible, another thickness of tissue paper may be applied, cutting out this time, perhaps, the high lights and the half tones. another trial print will show whether the object is attained. if still not satisfactory, crayon in powder from the scrapings of a stick of crayon, or blacklead, may be applied by a stump to the parts requiring it. it may happen that the effects of the tissue paper may be seen in the print by the light penetrating beneath it, and causing the edges of the shadows to print too dark. in this case, which may arise from the negative being taken on a thin glass plate, the parts covering the high lights, and which were cut out, should be indented with a jagged edge such as this, the dotted line showing where the cut would come if it had been cut out in a clean sharp line. another mode which we have sometimes found successful, though care is required in employing it, is to coat the back of the plate with a very dilute emulsion of a quarter the ordinary consistency, then to expose it, through the negative, and develop with one of the ordinary alkaline developers (we prefer the ferrous oxalate),[ ] and then fix. this last film may be protected with a layer of albumen part of albumen to parts of water. by this means the shadows become subdued and the contrasts diminished, and there is no danger of any sharp demarcations in the shades being apparent. [illustration: _fig._ .] there is one way of improving a hard negative, if taken on a gelatine plate, which would probably be dangerous in the hands of a novice, but which is most effective when used with skill and judgment, but must be applied before the plate is varnished. one of the most popular methods of reducing the density of an over-intensified gelatine negative is with a very weak solution of perchloride of iron. the writers have found that the reducing agent may be applied locally. let us suppose the case of a figure in a landscape in a light dress, which produces a white patch in the print. the negative should be placed in a dish of water, then lifted up until the part to be reduced is just above the level of the water; a solution of perchloride of iron should then be applied to the part with a camel's-hair pencil, care being taken that it does not spread over the edges or run down the negative. when this is found to be taking place, the plate should be allowed to fall into the water; it can then be lifted again, and the operation proceeded with. it is not easy to give any strength for the solution of perchloride of iron, but it is best to begin weak, and strengthen as required. a saturated solution has been used in an obstinate case without any mischief being done, but this required very careful watching. for landscapes, mr. england has successfully used a strong solution of cyanide of potassium with the same object. he moistens the parts of the gelatine plates which require reduction with water applied by a paint-brush, and afterwards, with another, applies the cyanide. the reduction can be watched as it progresses, and by a judicious use of the brush no sharp line of demarcation between the reduced and unaltered parts is visible. with a thin negative the tissue paper may be applied as before, only in this case the shadows are left bare, the half tones have one thickness of tissue paper over them, the highest lights two or three. an emulsion may be used in this case as well, only instead of fixing the transparency which is at the back, the precipitated silver is dissolved away by nitric acid, and the developer applied again. by this means, the density in the high lights may be doubled if required. it must again be repeated, that in all cases the use of emulsion requires great care, seeing that if any get on the varnished surface, markings are sure to occur. it sometimes happens, especially with gelatine plates, that the corners of one side of a negative print too dark. this is very visible in sky and sea pictures. the careful application of blacklead on the tissue paper on the back of the plate may often save a beautiful negative that would be otherwise useless. in most landscape negatives there is a want of atmosphere (by which we mean the haze always present in the air) in the distance and middle distances, and we have found that by applying one piece of tissue-paper to the back of the negative to cover the middle distance and distances, and another to cover the distance alone, atmospheric effect is produced. the effect of atmosphere is usually shown by grey tones as compared with those of the foreground, and the greyer they are the more distant should the objects be away in nature. this effect is accomplished by the tissue-paper. it must, however, be remembered that the lights of distant objects are greyer than those of the foreground, hence the tissue paper must be used with judgment to prevent the distant lights from appearing too white. this sometimes is effected by giving _the lights in the foreground_ a covering of tissue paper. we very much doubt if there exists any landscape negative which would not be improved by the use of tissue paper, since photography often tends to do away with atmosphere. we have, in some cases, strengthened the high lights on the film side with the paint-brush and prussian blue. this requires skill, and should be done very sparingly. it may be objected that when these artifices are resorted to, that the photograph must of necessity fail in regard to truthfulness. the answer to this objection is quite easy to give. if a photograph were true in itself, they should never be resorted to, but since it always falls short of the truth, it is quite legitimate to give it the effect that a perfect process would do, by which we mean one in which the intensity of the negative is exactly proportional to the intensity of the light producing it. it has been shown in the photographic news of , that the gradations of a negative are never perfect, and the use of the tissue paper, &c., makes it more nearly in accord with nature. these remarks, of course, have reference only to what we might call "a good printing negative;" the advisability of doctoring poor negatives is scarcely open to argument. improve as much as you like, but be very careful not to overdo it. chapter x. printing the landscape picture. a trial print from a negative should first of all be taken, to enable the operator to gauge as to how much is required to be done to it. a piece of sensitized paper of the exact size of the plate is taken and examined by transmitted light in the dark room. if there be any appearance of markings due to bubbles, or of star-like metallic spots, probably due to small particles of iron being in the albumen, it need not be rejected altogether. should there be any of these defects, the sheet should be placed on one side to cut up into smaller sizes. we will suppose that we are going to print a by negative. a strong frame (of the description given at page ) must be employed, and the thick plate glass carefully freed from all dust, grit, or stains. the back of the negative is then placed in contact with it, so as to occupy the centre of the frame. the piece of sensitive paper is placed over it, and the back placed loosely over it, and is then carried face downward into the place where the printing is to be done, and the frame is placed face downwards on the floor, and left for a few minutes. by this artifice the paper takes the same degree of humidity as the atmosphere, and there will be no danger of any cockling, and consequent (as it is termed) want of contact, between the paper and the negative. this is only necessary when there is any very great difference in the temperature of the drying room and the place where the prints are to be exposed, and in some establishments the difficulty is met by carrying the whole supply of paper in a closed box into the latter place, and allowing it to absorb any moisture that it can take up. in any case, the paper is next to be placed in absolute contact with the negative, and we strongly recommend the use of sheets of blotting-paper cut to the proper size (about four thicknesses will be sufficient), and backed by a thick pad of closely woven and very smooth felt. these latter are rather expensive, but are very durable if ordinary care be taken of them. the blotting-paper is useful in causing contact, and also because any accidental presence of silver nitrate solution on the back of the sensitive paper is immediately detected, and there is, consequently, no danger of carrying it to another print and spoiling it, which it might do were it absorbed by the felt pad. the back of the frame is then placed _in situ_, and the hinged cross-piece brought down and secured by the fasteners. if the springs be sufficiently strong, the film of the negative should now be in absolute contact with the sensitive paper. if there be any grit on the plate glass, or adhering to the back of the negative, it is highly probable that the glass plate will crack, and if the plate on which the negative is taken be very curved,[ ] the same disaster may be expected. suppose the day to be bright, and the negative fairly dense, the frame may be placed for the trial print facing away from the sun (if there be any) so that it receives merely skylight, and no direct rays. when the transparent parts of the negative seem to have taken a fairly black or brown colour, the print should be examined. in practice we have found (supposing the printing room be away from the dark room) that a cloth of thin yellow calico is a useful adjunct during the examination. the cloth is large enough to cover the frame and also the head of the operator. one half of the back is loosened and raised, the half pieces are pulled back, and the paper will probably be found adhering to the negative, and may require a little manoeuvring to separate it. a very thin slip (of the size of a toothpick) of soft wood, sharpened at one end, is a good implement to employ, as by inserting it the paper can be separated at one corner, and then be raised by the fingers. we have seen some printers blow against the paper, as if they were separating the leaves of a book from one another, but this method is to be deprecated, since particles of saliva are apt to be carried on to the paper with the breath, and to cause spots, which often appear unaccountable. should the print appear slightly deeper than it is required to remain, it is probably ready to be withdrawn from the action of light, but the remaining half of the paper must next be examined to see whether such is the case. to do this the first half of the pressure-board of the frame which is loose must be pressed down once more into position, the frame reversed end for end, and the other half of the board opened. if the print is large (say by ) it is not advisable to look at much of it at once, or for a longer time than can be avoided. it constantly happens that on a warm day the paper contracts during the short time necessary for a proper examination of the print; the consequence is, that the paper does not fall on the same place on the negative when reflected, and the result is a double print on the paper. the printing being judged to be complete, the paper is withdrawn by taking off pressure-board and pads, and put away for the further operations of toning and fixing. in one establishment we are acquainted with, the prints when taken from the frame are placed in a box the lid of which is pierced by a hole covered with a dark cloth; whilst others keep them in a press of blotting-paper. the great point to attend to, however, is to keep them away from all actinic light; and we should say, further, from all light, since darkened silver chloride becomes oxidized in light which is usually considered to be non-actinic. no doubt every printer is aware that the prints produced from the same negative and on the same sample of albumenised paper similarly sensitized vary considerably in richness and depth on different days. for instance, when the light is bad, and when, consequently, the printing takes a long time, the colour of the darkened surface will be found to be much duller than on a day when the light is powerful. silver albuminate is much less sensitive to feeble light, whilst in bright light the difference in sensitiveness is not nearly so marked, and this may account in a certain degree for the difference; but if any one takes the trouble to expose sensitised albumenized paper to bright light so as to darken, and then to cover up half, leaving the other half to be exposed to the light coming through ruby-glass, it will be found that there is a difference in colour between the two portions, and on toning the differences will be still more marked. in dull weather the red and yellow rays bear a greater proportion to the blue and violet rays (all of which enter into the composition of white light) than they do on a bright day. it is the blue and violet rays that reduce the silver chloride to the state of sub-chloride, and then oxidize the latter; yet it must be remembered that the red and yellow also oxidize the sub-chloride without being able primarily to produce it. hence on a bright day, when the printing is quick, the red and yellow rays have but little time to do any work, whilst on a dull day they have plenty of opportunity of oxidizing the sub-chloride as fast as it is formed. the oxidized image is always more difficult to tone than one which is unoxidized, hence the advantage of printing in a good light if possible. the writers believe that one of the principal causes of the variation in tone of silver prints, which is only too often to be seen, is caused by this difference in length of exposure to the light. the operator must now be supposed to be cognizant of the operations of toning and fixing which are to be described in subsequent chapters, and that he has the finished trial print of the particular landscape negative before him. he sees whether the middle distance or far distance is obtrusive, and notes which portions require to be softened down by tissue paper, or to be brought nearer by strengthening the high-lights, and eventually forms a picture of it as it should be, centring his imagination in it as built up round the point of principal interest. he endeavours to see whether the sweeps of light and shade lead up to this principal object in the view, and whether, if light, it is in contrast with an immediate dark part of the picture, or _vice versa_. knowing that this is one of the laws of art, he next should endeavour practically to give effect to his imaginative picture by the judicious manipulation of tissue paper, the crayon, and the paint, such as described in chapter ix. the next point to attend to is as to whether the picture requires clouds or not, and if he have a stock of cloud negatives of the right size, he must endeavour to pick out one, a portion of which will compose well with the lines of the picture,[ ] and at the same time be correct as regards light and shade. when such a negative is selected, it remains to print it in. a white sky is an abomination, and a plain tinted one without gradation is nearly as bad. if, therefore, the operator has the heart and means to do this double printing, he should never neglect to do it. but we would here remind him that when a sky-negative has been used with a particular view, it should always be devoted to that landscape. nothing could be in worse taste, or further from nature, than to use the same sky with different landscapes. we once saw a frame of sixteen views, thirteen of which were backed with the same sky; this was bad enough, but the absurdity went further, and in the same exhibition were landscapes by another photographer with the same sky! the inference is that both these photographers bought their sky negatives, printed them, and exhibited them as their own--a proceeding to which a harsh name might be given. to use a cloud negative properly, the reader should consult the chapter on "combination printing." there is another artifice, however, that does away with the blank sky. it is practised by some of the leading photographers in england, and may be put in requisition instead of the more elaborate double printing. in order to do this, a not quite opaque sky--that is, one which "prints in" a little--is necessary. very effective clouds may be produced by a paint-brush and lamp-black, indian ink, or gamboge, by painting them artistically _at the back of the negative_. it matters not if the clouds so formed show sharp lines and dots, since, if the printing be done in diffused light, the thickness of the glass plate on which the negative is taken shades these off, and gives them the soft edges which are natural to clouds. the clouds may take any of the usual shapes as seen in nature, and the paint should not be applied too strongly, but should have a certain amount of transparency. in some negatives we have seen taken on dry plates, the sky was very transparent, and, when printed in the ordinary manner, showed a good deal more than perceptible tint. yet, by a judicious masking, fleecy clouds floating in a light sky were produced, which deceived the greatest connoisseurs in such matters. we will now describe how such a negative should be prepared for printing. black varnish should be carefully run round the sky-line on the face of the negative, for about a quarter of an inch. on the back of the negative the medium should cover the sky to within one-eighth of an inch of the sky-line, and by this means a sharp but _slightly softened edge_ of the distant landscape was projected. the breadth of the black varnish border on the back was slightly greater than that on the film side of the negative, being about an inch. a piece of cardboard was also roughly cut out to the sky-line, and left sufficiently broad so as to more than cover the sky when laid flat on it. the negative with the clouds painted on it was now placed in the pressure-frame, with the sensitive paper in contact with it. outside the frame, and corresponding with the sky-line, the edge of the cardboard was placed, a small bar to act as a weight was placed across it as shown in the figure, and the top end supported by a couple of wooden pegs. the printing took place in diffused light. when the picture was withdrawn from the frame, the sky, being shaded gradually by the card, was printed in lightly, whilst the remaining portion of the negative received the full light; the sky, as is right it should be, was darker near the zenith than toward the horizon, where it was, in fact, white; but since the clouds were printed in at the top, the baldness of the white sky was avoided. [illustration: _fig._ .] excellent clouds may also be produced by the stump and crayon on tissue paper, many of the effects of delicate clouds being capable of being produced in this manner. a certain amount of skill is required in producing them, but nothing beyond that which a little practice can give. we may add that, instead of using this cardboard shade, some printers prefer first to entirely mask the sky and print in the landscape, than to mask the landscape, and to use a movable screen over the negative, drawing it backwards and forwards during exposure, taking the precaution that the top of the sky receives the most exposure. the method of using the cloud negative, we have already said, will be found in the chapter on "combination printing." above all things, the printer must bear in mind that if there be any _distance_ in the picture, the sky, when it meets the margin, must be only very delicately tinted. let it be remembered that a picture is often spoilt by printing in clouds too heavily. the clouds for an effect should be most delicate, with no heavy massive shadows which overwhelm those of the landscape itself. we are only talking of the ordinary landscape when the effect of storms is not desired. it is not within the scope of this work to show how a landscape and a sky negative may be printed into one plate to form a transparency from which a new negative may be made; suffice it to say that, by using collodio-chloride, or by the use of a slow dry plate and exposing to candle light, the former may be produced in almost the same way that the print is produced, and a negative may then be produced in the camera or by a dry plate. chapter xi. preparing the portrait negative. so much has been written on the subject of what is called "retouching" the negative, that it would be a waste of space to enter very fully into details here. it is now generally admitted that working on the negative is not only legitimate, but that it is absolutely necessary, if a presentable portrait is to be printed. the only question is, where to stop. professional retouchers, in too many cases, do too much, and by doing so they "overstep the modesty of nature," and turn the lovely delicacy, softness, and texture of living nature into the appearance of hard and cold marble statuary. everything that is necessary to do to a portrait negative is very simple; it should be corrected, not remodelled. freckles and accidental spots should be stopped out, high lights may be strengthened, and shadows softened. we may here briefly indicate the technical methods of performing these operations. some operators pour a solution of gum over the negative after fixing, and when it is dry work upon the surface of the gum; but it is better and safer to retouch the negative after it has been varnished. the varnish must be allowed to become thoroughly hard before any working upon it is attempted. a negative varnished at night should be ready to be retouched the next morning. if very little has to be done to the negative, it may be done at once without preparation; but it is often advisable to prepare the surface of the varnish to take the lead pencil, with which the greater part of the work is done. this is done with "retouching medium." several preparations under this or similar names are sold by stock dealers, all of them giving, as far as we have tried them, equally good results. if the photographer prefers to make his own medium, he may do so by diluting mastic, or any similar varnish, such as copal, with turpentine. apply the medium to the parts that it is intended to work on with the finger, and allow to dry, which it does in a few minutes. place the negative on a retouching desk, and commence to fill up with the point of the pencil all spots that are not required, such as freckles or uneven marks. some operators begin at the top of a face and work evenly downwards. this is a bad plan, and usually results in a mechanical flattening of the face; it is better to fill in here and there as necessity appears to arise. the high lights may now be strengthened, taking care not to make them violent or spotty. the shadows of the face will be found to require softening, but the general shape of the shadows must not be altered, and in modifying lines--such as the lines in the forehead and under the eye--take care not to remove them altogether. an old man without wrinkles is an unnatural and ghastly object--the "marble brow" of the poet should be left to literature. the best pencils to use are faber's siberian lead, the hard ones in preference. hh and hhh are the sorts usually employed. the pencils must be kept very finely pointed. to ensure this, a piece of wood covered with glass cloth should be kept always at hand on which to grind the leads to a point. sometimes there are portions of a negative that require more filling up than can be done with a pencil; in this case water-colour must be employed. indigo or prussian blue is, perhaps, best for the purpose, because these pigments allow a more appreciable or visible quantity to be laid on without becoming opaque than any of the warm colours. sometimes parts--such as the arm of a child--will print too dark when in contrast with a white dress; in this case it will be necessary to paint over the part on the back of the negative, or to cut out a piece of _papier minerale_ to the shape, and paste it over the dark part, also on the glass side of the negative. chapter xii. vignetting of the many varieties of small portraiture, the vignette is, perhaps, the most popular, and, when well done, is certainly the most refined and delicate. two things are to be especially avoided in vignetting. the form of the vignette should not follow the form of the figure closely, as it is too often made to do, and dark backgrounds should not be employed. the qualities to endeavour to attain are softness of gradation, and an arrangement of the forms of the vignette that shall throw out the head and figure, and the resulting print should somewhat resemble a sketch, finished if you like, but sketchy in effect. although the background should be light, it ought not to be white, but of a tint that would just throw up the white of a lady's head-dress. if the background screen could be painted so that a little shade should appear over the shoulders of a sitter for a head, or rather darker behind the lower part of a three-quarter figure, so much the better would be the effect. it would be difficult to find a case where gradation could not be of advantage in a background; however slight, it conduces especially to relief. having stated what should be aimed at in vignettes, we now come to the technical methods of producing them. in many cases vignetting is considered to be a merely mechanical operation, and very often looks like it. perhaps the trade have more to answer for than the printer, since the qualities of the wares advertised for the use of the vignetter are often exaggerated to such a degree that they are supposed to be suitable to any pictures. vignette glasses are not so common as they used to be, but they certainly are useful in some instances; we almost think that the methods of producing vignetting apparatus which will be described shortly, superior to them. in case the printer should wish, however, to use these glasses, here is a method by which he may produce them. have a piece of orange glass, flashed on one side only, rather larger than the size of the picture to be vignetted. take a rough print, and trace round, in the proper position on the glass with an ink line, the point to which the picture should extend. this should be marked on the unflashed surface of the glass--that is, the surface on which the glass is uncoloured. place the plate so marked on a white surface, flashed side uppermost, and make a solution of hydrofluoric acid and water, part of the former to of the latter, in a gutta-percha dish or bottle.[ ] make a pad of flannel and cotton wool at the end of a stick, about the size of a large nut, and drop this into the solution. dab this on the coloured surface of the glass in the central portions where the print is to be completely printed in, gradually working out to the inked line. always work from the centre to the edges, and dilute the acid with a little water as it approaches the margins. by degrees the flashing will be dissolved away in the centre, and, if properly performed, the colour will gradually be eaten away, till the glass is colourless in the centre, and keeping its full shade of orange at the ink lines. the glass is then washed, and is ready for use. the most popular plan of vignetting is with cotton-wool. we believe that the greater part of the vignetting done in england is by this clumsy, costly, and difficult method. it requires more time and attention than any other way of producing the same results. its advantages are, that it is more "elastic," and allows the operator more scope for attention than other methods. in the hands of a person who has very great skill, taste, and patience, it is undoubtedly most useful; but when used by anything lower than the highest skill, the results are almost always hard and inartistic. the operation is thus performed. a hole is cut in a piece of cardboard, which is placed over the negative. under the edges of the cardboard is placed cotton-wool, which is lightly pulled out, so as to slightly shade the vignette, and produce the vignetting gradation. the next methods of vignetting are dependent on simple laws of optics. suppose you cut a round hole in a card, say, half-inch in diameter, and so arrange it that all the light getting to a sensitive paper comes through this hole, and that the card is for our experiment placed half-an-inch from the paper. now place the hole so as to face the sky, but so as the sun has no direct rays falling through the hole. it will be found that the greatest darkening will not occupy a space exactly opposite the hole, but be _away from the side on which the light is brightest_. the dark round patch will be shaded gradually off till a line is reached where, practically, the light has no effect--that is, if the surface of the card next the paper be blackened. it will be noted, however, that the shading is not equal on both sides, but that the gradation is most extended away from the side on which the light is brightest. a good example of what is meant will be to try the experiment of placing the paper and card flat on the ground in the angle between two walls, both of which are in shadow. it will be seen that the brightest gradation takes place in the direction exactly away from the angle of the walls. next repeat the experiment, making the hole point to the sky, which is equally illuminated and pointing well away from the sun. it will be found that the gradations are equal, and the greatest darkening exactly opposite the hole. raise the card next to the height of one inch, and the gradations will be found to be more extended and softer. the reason of this can be well understood by a glance at the figures. in both, suppose a b to represent the section of the card, and c d the hole in it, and the dotted circle the sky, and e f the paper. take the points _a_, _b_, and _c_ on the paper, and let us in the three instances see what relative illumination they will receive. _a_ is opposite the hole, and receives the light from a circle of sky of which _d e_ is diameter, and _b_ from an ellipse of which _h k_ is one diameter, and _e_ from an ellipse of which _f g_ is one diameter. in the first case, where the card is / inch from the paper, _h k_ is about one-fifth of _d e_, and _g f_ about one-third of _d f_, and since the ellipses vary as their two diameters multiplied together, the point _b_ would receive only one-twenty-fifth the light that _a_ received, and _c_ about one-ninth. [illustration: _fig._ .] [illustration: _fig._ .] in fig. the card is raised one inch from the paper, and here _f g_ is about three-quarters of _d e_, and _h k_ about two-fifths; therefore, in this case, the light on b would be only four-twenty-fifths, or about one-sixth of that acting on _a_, and about nine-sixteenths or one-half nearly on _c_. it is thus evident that the further away the card is, the more extended will be the gradations. again, suppose, in the last figure, the bit of sky at _g f_ was twice as bright as at _d e_, then the amount of light acting on _c_ would be the same as that acting on _a_. it will thus be seen how important it is for proper gradation that the hole in the card should be exposed to an equally illuminated sky, or that some artifice should be employed to render the illumination equal. if we paste a bit of tissue paper over c d, this is accomplished, for then it becomes the source of illumination, and it is illuminated equally all over, since on every part it receives the light of the whole sky; but this is not the case if it is transparent to diffused light, and is never the case if it is exposed to direct sunlight, since a shadow of the hole is always cast on the paper beneath. if you choose to put another piece of tissue paper, (say) one inch above the hole, and extending over the whole length of the card, this difficulty is got rid of, and this last piece of tissue paper illuminates that pasted over the hole c d, and the gradations will then be nearly perfect. now to apply the above to forming a vignetting block. suppose we have a one-inch head to vignette and to show the shoulders and chest, to be of the size of a carte-de-visite, that the background is about a half-tone between black and white, and that but a trace of it shall appear above the head. to make a good vignette, the graduation from black to perfect white should lie within a limit of half an inch for a carte size portrait. the question then arises at what distance from the plate should a vignetting card be cut to help this object, and what shape should be made the hole in the card. we take it that one-fifth of the light necessary to produce a full black tone would hardly produce any effect on the sensitised paper; knowing this and the size of the aperture, we can calculate exactly what height the card could be raised. take the breadth between the shoulders that is to be fully printed as - / inches, then by constructing a figure similar to figures or we shall find that the necessary height is about one-third of an inch.[ ] [illustration: _fig._ .] by judiciously cutting out an aperture in the card and vignetting, defects in a background may often be entirely eliminated from the print. proceed in this way: take a print of the portrait, and cut out the figure in such a way as to get rid of the defective background, and then place this on a piece of thick card (we prefer a thick card, since it will not sag easily, and thus alter the gradation), and cut out an aperture corresponding to it. the outsides of most carte-de-visite frames are raised from the glass about one-third of an inch; place the card on the front so that the aperture corresponds to the figure on the negative, and tack it on to the frame. the dotted lines (fig. ) show the card fastened on to the frame, and the opening left. this latter may be covered with tissue paper, and the frame placed in diffused light from the sky. in some cases it may be necessary to use a larger printing frame than the ordinary carte frame, in which case the operator should be able to make a vignetting apparatus raised at a proper height from the glass. suppose it is required to raise the opening half an inch above the glass, and that the card is - / by - / . [illustration: _fig._ .] take the card and rule rectangles as shown (fig. ), the inner one being - / by - / inches, the next one / an inch outside that, and the third / an inch outside that again. cut out the outer rectangle entirely, so that we have a piece of card of the size abcd. take a needle point, and prick through the card at the points efgh and join these points at the back of the card by lines. now take a sharp penknife, and, having laid a flat edge along, cut the card half through its thickness along kl, lm, mn, and nk. turn the card over, and cut along the lines corresponding to eh, hg, ge, and fe, also half way through the thickness of the card. turn the card over once more, and cut out the shaded pieces at the corners. now bend the card along the cuts, and a raised block will result of this shape. the corners are held together by pieces of gummed or albumenized paper, and the block is ready for an aperture to be cut in it according to the portrait to be printed. wooden grooves may be glued along the top of the vignetting frame, into which cards containing other apertures can be slipped.[ ] [illustration: _fig._ .] the most practical method of vignetting, a modification of the above, and the one we always prefer in our own practice, is as follows:-- [illustration: _fig._ .] take a piece of soft wood, half an inch thick for a cabinet size--a thinner piece should be selected for a smaller picture--of a larger dimension than the negative; in the centre of this cut a hole of the shape of, but much smaller than, the desired vignette. one side of the hole should be very much bevelled away, as represented in this section (fig. ). place this block on the glass of the printing-frame, bevelled side under, the hole being exactly over the part of the negative from which the vignette is to be printed. the hole must now be covered with tissue paper or ground glass, and the frame placed flat on a table to print. the size of the hole in relation to the size of the vignette will be easily ascertained by a little experience without the labour of elaborate calculations. on dull days the tissue paper or ground glass may be omitted. this method is very simple and effective. a quantity of vignetting blocks of various sizes and shapes could be made by a carpenter, or by the printer, and should be always at hand. a vignetting block should never be less than a quarter of an inch away from the glass, otherwise the gradations will be too abrupt. chapter xiii. artistic methods of printing the portrait. having described in the last chapter the various mechanical arrangements by which a simple vignette is produced, we will now proceed to give some account of how that and other forms of printing can be turned to the most artistic account in portraiture. the idea that printing is a mere mechanical operation was exploded long ago. it is now recognized that the final result owes a good deal of its artistic effect to the way in which the negative is dealt with after it is varnished, and especially to its treatment by the printer. there are many varieties of vignettes, and the method is useful in various ways. _plain vignettes._--the usual vignetted portrait is that which represents a good-sized head and shoulders in the space allotted to the picture. for a carte-de-visite, a head measuring about - / inches from the top of the head to the chin is a good proportion. larger sizes are often made, but they look coarse and vulgar, as if the photographer had tried how much quantity he could give for the money, regardless of quality; and even if the quality is good, the vulgar effect is still there. for a cabinet size a head of - / or - / inches is quite large enough. a very pretty style is that in which the gradation is carried out so gradually as only to end with the edge of the paper. _three-quarter length vignettes._--a three-quarter length figure of a lady, either standing or sitting, makes a pretty picture; for gentlemen, a three-quarter vignette is not so good, although it is admissible. it is difficult to make the legs look anything but awkward when they are vignetted into empty space at the knee. for three-quarter vignettes a light, sketchy landscape background may be used with effect. there are many varieties of what may be called "fancy printing," in which the vignette takes a conspicuous part. the first style that we will consider is that of _vignettes on a tinted ground._--print a vignette in the usual way. take it out of the frame, and place it on a board covered with velvet or flannel, to prevent the paper shifting. cover the print with glass, and place over the printed part a piece of black paper roughly torn to the shape, and rather smaller than the vignette. place the whole in the light until the white margin is slightly tinted, or "blushed," as it is sometimes called. the edges of the black mask should be slightly turned up or kept moving to prevent the junction of the tinting and the vignette being visible. the above method represents a vignetted head on smooth grey paper, and is useful to show up the high lights on the face; but there is a modification of this effect, in which the appearance of a sketch on rough drawing-paper is produced. _vignettes on rough drawing-paper._--if, instead of placing a piece of plain glass over the masked print, a thin negative of some diaper or pattern had been used, the design could have been printed on the paper instead of the even tint. a very good negative for this purpose is made as follows:--obtain a sheet of the roughest drawing-paper, take a camel-hair brush dipped in thin sepia, and brush it evenly over the paper; the colour will fall into the depressions of the paper, and make the roughness still more visible. this should now be placed where a side light falls upon it, and photographed. a very thin negative is all that is required. this negative should be used in place of the plain glass, and, if not printed too dark, the effect of the delicate vignette inside the rough tint is very pleasing. it is better when using negatives for this purpose to place them in pressure-frames, instead of merely placing them or the print on the velvet board, to print, or perfect contact may not be obtained. _medallions._--medallions of oval and other forms are now a good deal used for small portraits. these are simply produced by gumming a mask, made of black or yellow paper, with an oval or other-shaped aperture, on to the negative, the mask preserving the part it covers white. these masks can be bought from the dealers cheaper and better than they can be made. eccentric shapes are, usually, in bad taste; the oval and dome are quite sufficient for all purposes. if, instead of leaving the outside of the print--that protected by the mask--white, it could be tinted, the lights in the picture would have greater value, and the effect be improved. to do this, the printed part should be covered with a black-paper disc corresponding with the mask used in printing, the print covered with glass, and exposed to the light until printed the required depth. in performing this operation it will be found convenient to gum the disc to the covering-glass. if texture could be added to this tinted margin, then another element of beauty would be added. this may be done in a similar manner to that described for vignettes, by using a negative made from rough drawing-paper; but, in this case, there is opportunity for a greater choice of objects from which to make the tinting negative, such as grained leather, marble of various kinds, paper-hangings--when suitable patterns can be obtained--and from the borders of old prints. in this, as in many other things connected with photography, there is a good deal of room for bad taste, which the photographer must try to avoid. he must remember that all these surrounding designs should assist the portrait, and not distract the attention from it. _vignettes in ornamental borders._--the writer has lately produced some effects that have given much pleasure by using designs specially drawn for the purpose. the designs principally consist of an oval in the centre for the portrait, and a tablet underneath, on which the original of the portrait may sign his name. these forms are surrounded by flowers and other objects conventionally treated. the spaces for the portrait and name should be stopped out with black varnish, so as to print white. the easiest way to use these ornamental border negatives is as follows:--first print the border negative; you will then have a print with a white oval space in the centre. place this print on the portrait negative, taking care that it occupies the proper position in the oval. this is easily ascertained by holding the print and negative up to the light. it should then be placed in the frame and printed, care being taken that the vignetted gradation does not spread beyond its limits over the border. there is a good deal of variety to be got out of the combination of the mask and vignette. here is one of them. _combination of medallion and vignette._--vignette a head into the centre of the paper; when this is done, place over it a black paper oval disc, taking care that the head comes in the centre under the mask. place a piece of glass over the whole, and print. when the disc is removed, the print will represent a vignette surrounded by a dark oval. many variations may be made of this form of picture, and there is much scope for skill and taste. any of the tinting negatives above described may be used, or they can be made from designs drawn on paper as we have already stated, or from natural objects. but if our reader has followed us clearly thus far, he is now in a position to form combinations for himself. this we recommend him to do, for there is an additional beauty in anything in art that indicates a distinctive style or shows thought and originality. there is too much tendency in portraitists to run in grooves, which the universal prevalence of the two styles, card and cabinet, help to promote. but we must caution the young photographer against the mistake of making changes for the sake of change. the "loud," and the bizarre, may attract foolish people, but it is only the beautiful that will secure the attention of the cultivated and refined. chapter xiv. combination printing. the scope of photography is wider than those who have only taken a simple portrait or landscape suppose. it is almost impossible to design a group that could not have been reproduced from life by the means our art places at our disposal. we do not mean to assert that such subjects as michael angelo's last judgment, or raphael's transfiguration, for instance, have ever been done in photography; but it is not so much the fault of the art, as of the artists, that very elaborate pictures have not been successfully attempted. it has not been the failing of the materials, unplastic as they are when compared with paint and pencils; it has been the absence of the requisite amount of skill in the photographer in the use of them, that will account for the dearth of great works in photography. the means by which these pictures could have been accomplished is combination printing, a method which enables the photographer to represent objects in different planes in proper focus, to keep the true atmospheric and linear relation of varying distances, and by which a picture can be divided into separate portions for execution, the parts to be afterwards printed together on one paper, thus enabling the operator to devote all his attention to a single figure or sub-group at a time, so that if any part be imperfect, from any cause, it can be substituted by another without the loss of the whole picture, as would be the case if taken at one operation. by thus devoting the attention to individual parts, independently of the others, much greater perfection can be obtained in details, such as the arrangement of draperies, the refinement of pose, and expression. the most simple form of combination printing, and the one most easy of accomplishment and most in use by photographers, is that by which a natural sky is added to a landscape. it is well-known to all photographers that it is almost impossible to obtain a good and suitable sky to a landscape under ordinary circumstances. natural skies are occasionally seen in stereoscopic slides and very small views; but i am now writing of pictures, and not of toys. it rarely happens that a sky quite suitable to the landscape occurs in the right place at the time it is taken, and, if it did, the exposure necessary for the view would be sufficient to quite obliterate the sky; and if this difficulty were obviated by any of the sun-shades, cloud-stops, or other inefficient dodges occasionally proposed, the movement of the clouds during the few seconds necessary for the landscape would quite alter the forms and light and shade, making what should be the sky--often sharp and crisp in effect--a mere smudge, without character or form. all these difficulties are got over by combination printing, the only objections being that a little more care and trouble are required, and some thought and knowledge demanded. the latter should be considered an advantage, for photographs, of a kind, are already too easy to produce. of course, when a landscape is taken with a blank sky, and that blank is filled up with clouds from another negative, the result will depend, to a very great degree, upon the art knowledge of the photographer in selecting a suitable sky, as well as upon his skill in overcoming the mechanical difficulties of the printing. it is not necessary here to enter into a description of the art aspect of the matter, as that has often been discussed; so we will confine ourselves to the mechanical details. the landscape negative must have a dense sky, or, if it be weak, or have any defects, it must be stopped out with black varnish. in this case, it is better to apply the varnish to the back of the glass; by this means a softer edge is produced in printing than if painted on the varnished surface. with some subjects, such as those that have a tolerably level horizon, it is sufficient to cover over part of the sky while printing, leaving that part near the horizon gradated from the horizon into white. it may here be remarked that in applying black varnish to the back of a negative, occasions will often be found where a softened or vignetted edge is required for joining, where a vignette glass or cotton wool cannot be applied; in such cases the edge of the varnish may be softened off by dabbing slightly, before it is set, with the finger, or, if a broader and more delicately gradated edge be required, a dabber made with wash-leather may be employed with great effect. [illustration] when an impression is taken, the place where the sky ought to be will, of course, be plain white paper; a negative of clouds is then placed in the printing-frame, and the landscape is laid down on it, so arranged that the sky will print on to the white paper in its proper place; the frame is then exposed to the light, and the landscape part of the picture is covered up with a mask edged with cotton wool. the sky is vignetted into the landscape, and it will be found that the slight lapping over of the vignetted edge of the sky negative will not be noticed in the finished print. there is another way of vignetting the sky into the landscape, which is, perhaps, better and more convenient. instead of the mask edged with cotton wool, which requires moving occasionally, a curved piece of zinc or cardboard is used. here is a section of the arrangement. the straight line represents the sky negative, and the part where it joins the landscape is partly covered with the curved shade. skies so treated must not, of course, be printed in sunlight. it is sometimes necessary to take a panoramic view. this is usually done, when the pantascopic camera is not employed, by mounting two prints together, so that the objects in the landscape shall coincide; but this is an awkward method of doing what could be much better accomplished by combination printing. the joining of the two prints is always disagreeably visible, and quite spoils the effect. to print the two halves of a landscape, taken on two plates, together, the following precautions must be observed: both negatives must be taken before the camera-stand is moved, the camera, which must be quite horizontal, pointing to one half of the scene for the first negative, and then turned to the remaining half of the view for the second negative. the two negatives should be obtained under exactly the same conditions of light, or they will not match; they should also be so taken that a margin of an inch and a-half or two inches is allowed to overlap each other; that is to say, about two inches of each negative must contain the same or centre portion of the scene. it is advisable, also, that they should be of the same density; but this is not of very great consequence, because any slight discrepancy in this respect can be allowed for in printing. in printing vignettes with cotton wool, or a straight-edged vignette glass, the edge of the left-hand negative on the side that is to join the other, taking care to cover up the part of the paper that will be required for the companion negative; when sufficiently printed, take the print out of the frame, and substitute the right-hand negative; lay down the print so that it exactly falls on the corresponding parts of the first part printed (this will be found less difficult, after a little practice, than it appears), and expose to the light, vignetting the edge of this negative, also, so that the vignetted part exactly falls on the softened edge of the impression already done. if great care be taken to print both plates exactly alike in depth, it will be impossible to discover the join in the finished print. if thought necessary, a sky may be added, as before described, or it may be gradated in the light, allowing the horizon to be lighter than the upper part of the sky. perhaps the greatest use to which combination printing is now put is in the production of portraits with natural landscape backgrounds. many beautiful pictures, chiefly cabinets and card, have been done in this way by several photographers. the easiest kind of figure for a first attempt would be a three-quarter length of a lady, because you would then get rid of the foreground, and have to confine your attention to the upper part of the figure and the distance. pictures of this kind have a very pleasing effect. in the figure negative, everything should be stopped out, with the exception of the figure, with black varnish; this should be done on the back of the glass when practicable, which produces a softer join; but for delicate parts--such as down the face--where the joins must be very close, and do not admit of anything approaching to vignetting, the varnish must be applied on the front. a much better effect than painting out the background of the figure negative is obtained by taking the figure with a white or very light screen behind it; this plan allows sufficient light to pass through the background to give an agreeable atmospheric tint to the distant landscape; and stopping out should only be resorted to when the background is too dark, or when stains or blemishes occur, that would injure the effect. an impression must now be taken which is not to be toned or fixed. cut out the figure, and lay it, face downwards, on the landscape negative in the position you wish it to occupy in the finished print. it may be fixed in its position by gumming the corners near the lower edge of the plate. it is now ready for printing. it is usually found most convenient to print the figure negative first. when this has been done, the print must be laid down on the landscape negative so that the figure exactly covers the place prepared for it by the cut-out mask. when printed, the picture should be carefully examined, to see if the joins may be improved or made less visible. it will be found that, in many places, the effect can be improved and the junctions made more perfect, especially when a light comes against a dark--such as a distant landscape against the dark part of a dress--by tearing away the edge of the mask covering the dark, and supplying its place by touches of black varnish at the back of the negative; this, in printing, will cause the line to be less defined, and the edges to soften into each other. if the background of the figure negative has been painted out, the sky will be represented by white paper; and as white paper skies are neither natural nor pleasing, it will be advisable to sun it down. if a full-length figure be desired, it will be necessary to photograph the ground with the figure, as it is almost impossible to make the shadow of a figure match the ground on which it stands in any other way. this may be done either out of doors or in the studio. the figure taken out of doors would, perhaps, to the critical eye, have the most natural effect, but this cannot always be done, neither can it be, in many respects, done so well. the light is more unmanageable out of doors, and the difficulty arising from the effect of wind on the dress is very serious. a slip of natural foreground is easily made up in the studio; the error to be avoided is the making too much of it. the simpler a foreground is in this case, the better will be the effect. the composition of a group should next engage the student's attention. in making a photograph of a large group, as many figures as possible should be obtained in each negative, and the position of the joins so contrived that they shall come in places where they shall be least noticed, if seen at all. it will be found convenient to make a sketch in pencil or charcoal of the composition before the photograph is commenced. the technical working out of a large group is the same as for a single figure; it is, therefore, not necessary to repeat the details; but we give a reduced copy, as a frontispiece to this volume, of a large combination picture, entitled "when the day's work is done," by mr. h. p. robinson, a description of the progress and planning of which may be of use to the student. a small rough sketch was first made of the idea, irrespective of any considerations of the possibility of its being carried out. other small sketches were then made, modifying the subject to suit the figures available as models, and the accessories accessible without very much going out of the way to find them. from these rough sketches a more elaborate sketch of the composition, pretty much as it stands, and of the same size, by inches, was made, the arrangement being divided so that the different portions may come on by plates, and that the junctions may come in unimportant plates, easy to join, but not easy to be detected afterwards. the separate negatives were then taken. the picture is divided as follows:-- the first negatives taken were the two of which the background is composed. the division runs down the centre, where the light wall is relieved by the dark beyond it. these two negatives were not printed separately--it is advisable to have as few printings as possible--but were carefully cut down with a diamond, and mounted on a piece of glass rather larger than the whole picture, the edges being placed in contact, making, in fact, _one_ large negative of the interior of the cottage, into which it would be comparatively easy to put almost anything. the next negative was the old man. this included the table, chair, and matting on which his feet rest. this matting is roughly vignetted into the adjoining ground of the cottage negative. the great difficulty at first with this figure was the impossibility of joining the light head to the dark background; no amount of careful registration seemed equal to effect this difficult operation; but if it could not be done, it could be evaded. several clever people have been able to point out the join round the head, down the forehead, and along the nose, but we have never been able to see it ourselves, because we know it is not there. this is how the difficulty was got over. the figure was taken with a background that would print as nearly as possible as dark as the dark of the cottage. the join is nowhere near the head, but runs up the square back of the old woman's chair, then up the wall, and across the picture, over the head in an irregular line, and descends on the old man's back, whence it was easy to carry it down the dark edge of his dress and the chairs till it comes to the group of baskets, pails, &c., that fill up the corner. on the other side, the join runs along the edge of the table, and finds its way out where the floor coverings come together. the old lady was then photographed, and is simply joined round the edge; so also was the group in the corner, and the glimpse of the village seen through the window. at first sight, it will appear difficult to place the partly-printed pictures in the proper place on the corresponding negative. there are many ways of doing this, either of which may be chosen to suit the subject. sometimes a needle may be run through some part of the print, the point being allowed to rest on the corresponding part of the second negative. the print will then fall in its place at that point. some other point has then to be found at a distance from the first; this may be done by turning up the paper to any known mark on the negative, and allowing the print to fall upon it; if the two separate points fall on the right places, all the others must be correct. another way of joining the prints from the separate negatives is by placing a candle or lamp under the glass of the printing-frame--practically, to use a glass table--and throwing a light through the negative and paper; the join can then be seen through. but the best method is to make register marks on the negatives. this is done in the following manner. we will suppose that we wish to print a figure with a landscape background from two negatives, the foreground having been taken with the figure. at the two bottom corners of the figure negative make two marks with black varnish, thus |_ _|; these, of course, will print white in the picture. a proof is now taken, and the outline of the figure cut out accurately. where the foreground and background join, the paper may be torn across, and the edges afterwards vignetted with black varnish on the back of the negatives. this mark is now fitted in its place on the landscape negative. another print is now taken of the figure negative, and the white corner marks cut away very accurately with a pair of scissors. the print is now carefully applied to the landscape negative, so that the mark entirely covers those parts of the print already finished. the landscape is then printed in. before, however, it is removed from the printing-frame, if, on partial examination, the joins appear to be perfect, two lead pencil or black varnish marks are made on the mark round the cut-out corners at the bottom of the print. after the first successful proof there is no need for any measurement or fitting to get the two parts of the picture to join perfectly; all that is necessary is merely to cut out the little white marks, and fit the corners to the corresponding marks on the mask; and there is no need to look if the joins coincide at other places, because, if two points are right, it follows that all must be so. this method can be applied in a variety of ways to suit different circumstances. it is always well to have as few paintings as possible, and it frequently happens that two or more negatives can be printed together. for instance, the picture we have been discussing--"when the day's work is done"--is produced from six negatives, but it only took three printings. the two negatives of which the cottage is composed was, as already explained, set up on a large sheet of glass, and printed at once; the old man was also set upon another glass of the same size, with the negative of the glimpse through the window; and the old woman was printed in like manner, with the corner group of baskets, &c. so that here were practically three negatives only. these were registered with corner marks so accurately that not a single copy has been lost through bad joins. there are one or two things to consider briefly before concluding this subject. it is true that combination printing--allowing, as it does, much greater liberty to the photographer, and much greater facilities for representing the truth of nature--also admits, from these very facts, of a wide latitude for abuse; but the photographer must accept the conditions at his own peril. if he finds that he is not sufficiently advanced in knowledge of art, and has not sufficient reverence for nature, to allow him to make use of these liberties, let him put on his fetters again, and confine himself to one plate. it is certain (and this we put in italics, to impress it more strongly on the memory) that _a photograph produced by combination printing must be deeply studied in every particular, so that no departure from the truth of nature shall be discovered by the closest scrutiny_. no two things must occur in one picture that cannot happen in nature at the same time. if a sky is added to a landscape, the light must fall on the clouds and on the earth from the same source and in the same direction. this is a matter that should not be done by judgment alone, but by judgment guided by observation of nature. effects are often seen, especially in cloud-land, very puzzling to the calm reasoner when he sees them in a picture; but these are the effects that are often best worth preserving, and which should never be neglected, because it may possibly happen that somebody will not understand it, and, therefore, say it is false, and, arguing still further on the wrong track, will say that combination printing always produces falsehoods, and must be condemned. a short anecdote may, perhaps, be allowed here. some time ago a photograph of a landscape and sky was sent to a gentleman whose general judgment in art was admitted to be excellent; but he knew that combination printing was sometimes employed. in acknowledging the receipt he said, "thank you for the photograph; it is a most extraordinary effect; sensational, certainly, but very beautiful; but it shows, by what it is, what photography cannot do; your sky does not match your landscape; it must have been taken at a different time of day, at another period of the year. a photograph is nothing if not true." now it so happened that the landscape and sky were taken at the same time, the only difference being that the sky had a shorter exposure than the landscape, which was absolutely necessary to get the clouds at all, and does not affect the result. another instance arose in connection with a picture representing a group of figures with a landscape background. four of the figures were taken on one plate, at one operation; yet a would-be critic wrote at some length to prove that these figures did not agree one with another; that the light fell on them from different quarters; that the perspective of each had different points of sight; and that each figure was taken from a different point of view! these two cases are mentioned to show that it is sometimes a knowledge of the means employed, rather than a knowledge of nature--a foregone conclusion that the thing must be wrong, rather than a conviction, from observation, that it is not right--that influences the judgment of those who are not strong enough to say, "this thing is right," or "this thing is wrong, no matter by what means it may have been produced." chapter xv. toning the print. if a print on albumenized paper be fixed without any intermediate process, the result is that the image is of a red, disagreeable tone, and unsightly. moreover, it will be found that, if such a print be exposed to the atmosphere, it rapidly loses its freshness, and fades. in order to avoid this unsightliness, resort is had to toning, the toning, in reality, being the substitution of some less attackable metal for the metallic silver which forms a portion of the print. the usual metal used for substitution is gold applied in the state of the ter-chloride. it is not very easy to tell precisely how the substitution is effected; the question is, at present, sub judice, and, therefore, we propose to omit any theory that may have been broached. it is sufficient to say that it is believed the first step towards the reduction of the gold is the production of a hydrated oxide, and never metallic gold. be that as it may, if a finely-divided silver be placed in a solution of chloride of gold, the silver becomes converted into the chloride, and the gold is quickly reduced to the metallic state; and since gold combines with more chloride than does silver, it is manifest that when the substitution takes place,[ ] the metallic gold deposited must be very much less than the silver. the colouring power of gold is, however, very great, when in the fine state of division in which we have it, being an intense purple to blue colour, and a very little of this mixed visually with the ruddy or brown colour of the albuminate which has been discoloured by light gives, after fixing, a pleasing tone. a picture, when toned thus, is composed of silver subchloride, metallic gold, and an organic compound of silver. if a print be kept in the toning bath too long, we are all aware that the image becomes blue and feeble, and the same disaster happens when a toning bath is too strong, _i.e._, is too rich in gold solution. the reason of this is, that too much gold is substituted for the silver in the sub-chloride, and there is in consequence too great a colour of the finely-precipitated gold seen. to make a toning bath, the first thing is to look after the gold. there is a good deal of chloride of gold sold, which is, in reality, not chloride of gold, but a double chloride of gold and of some such other base as potassium, and if it be paid for as pure chloride of gold, it is manifest that the price will be excessive. it is best to purchase pure chloride of gold, though it may be slightly acid, since subsequent operations correct the acidity. in our own practice we get fifteen-grain tubes, and break them open, and add to each grain one drachm of water, and in this state it is convenient to measure out. thus, for every grain of gold to be used, it is only necessary to measure out one drachm into a measure. in delicate chemical operations, this would rightly be considered a rough method; but for a practical photographer it is sufficiently precise. now if chloride of gold alone were used, it would be found that the prints, after immersion in a dilute solution, were poor and "measley," and practice has told us that we must add something to the solution to enable it to act gradually and evenly. first of all, the gold solution must be perfectly neutral, and we know no better plan than adding to it a little powdered chalk, which at once neutralizes any free acid. it is not a matter of indifference what further retarder is added, for the reason that the more you retard the action, the more ruby-coloured becomes the gold, and less blue. a well-known experiment is to dissolve a little phosphorus in ether, and add it to a gallon of water, and then to drop in and stir about half a grain of chloride of gold. phosphorus reduces the gold into the metallic state, but when so dilute the reduction takes place very slowly. the gold will, however, precipitate gradually, but it will be in such a fine state of division that it is a bright ruby colour. a very common addition to make to a toning bath is acetate of soda, and if the gold be in defect, the same appearance will take place in the solution. if chloride of lime, however, be added instead, and a commencement of precipitation of gold be brought about, the gold will be of a blue colour, having a slight tendency to purple. in this case, the grains of gold deposited are larger than when it is in the ruby state. the tone of the print then depends in a large measure on the degree of rapidity with which the gold is deposited. the quicker the deposit, the larger and bluer the gold, whilst an extremely slow deposition will give the red form. it often happens that no matter how long a print is immersed in a toning bath, it never takes a blue tone. the reason will be obvious from the above remarks. we now give some toning baths which are much used. no. .--gold tri-chloride grain sodium carbonate grains water ounces this bath must be used immediately after mixing, since the gold is precipitated by the carbonate. the tones given by this bath are purple and black. the prints should be toned to dark brown for the purple tone, and a slightly blue tone for the black tone. no. .--gold tri-chloride grains saturated solution of chloride of lime drops chalk a pinch water ounces the saturated solution of chloride of lime is made by taking the common disinfecting powder, and shaking a teaspoonful up in a pint bottle. when the solids have settled, the clear liquid can be decanted off, and corked up till required. this is the solution used above. it is as well to keep this solution in the dark room. the water with this bath should be hot (boiling better still), and the bath may be used when it is thoroughly cool. it is better, however, to keep it a day before using, since, when fresh, the action is apt to be too violent, and the prints are readily over-toned. the tone with this bath is a deep sepia to black. to get the first tone a very short immersion is necessary; the prints should be almost red. for a black tone the prints should be left in the solution till they are induced to be of a purple hue. no. is made as follows:-- sodium acetate drachm gold trichloride minim distilled water ounces this bath is a most excellent one in many respects, and should not be used under a week to get the best result. as this is a long time to keep a bath, it is as well to have two always on stock. it keeps indefinitely if proper care be taken of it. this produces a purple or brown tone, according to the length of time the print is immersed in it. now, as to toning the print. after the day's printing is done, the prints should be placed in a pan of good fresh water, in order to dissolve out all or a certain amount of silver nitrate that is invariably left in them. a puncheon, such as is used in dairies, is very convenient. it should be filled with water, and the prints placed in one by one, taking care that no one sticks to its neighbour, as this would be a fruitful source of unequal toning. most water contains a little carbonate of lime and chloride of sodium, &c.; the water will therefore become milky. when the prints have been in the first water for ten minutes, they should be removed to another vessel of water, one by one. the first wash water should be placed in a wooden tub, with a tap let into it about six inches above the base, together with a little common salt. the salt forms chloride of silver, which gradually precipitates, and the clear water is then drawn off on the next day, and the sediment is left undisturbed. [illustration: _fig._ .] it now remains to see which toning bath is to be used. if no. or , the whole of the free silver should as far as possible be washed away, which may entail three or four changes of water; the last two washings it will hardly repay to place in the tub; the second washing should certainly be added to it. if no. toning bath be used, a little free silver should remain in the print; in fact, the washing should be confined to two changes of water. when toning operations are commenced, the toning solution is poured off from any sediment that may be in the bottle containing it into a dish a couple of inches wider each way than the largest print which has to be toned. if big prints have to be toned, it is inadvisable to place more than a couple in the dish at the same time, since there is a certain awkwardness in judging of the amount of tone given to a print which is (say) between two or three. the prints should be placed face up in the solution, and great care should be taken that liquid separates each print from the next one to it, otherwise there will be patches of unequal toning. the dish containing the prints in the solution should be gently rocked to secure a proper mixture of the solution which may have been robbed of its gold in those strata next surface of the prints. the rocking is also advisable to cause any adhesion between two deep-toning prints impossible. if the prints be of small size, a dozen or more may be toned at one operation. each print should be frequently brought to the surface of the liquid, and examined in order to see how the toning action is progressing. when one print is judged sufficiently toned, it is removed to a dish containing pure water, and another untoned print placed in the dish in its stead. this operation is continued till all the prints are toned. we have heard that it has been suggested to place the prints in water containing a little acetic acid or common salt, in order to stop the toning action continuing from the solution which may be held in the paper. the former is most undesirable, acetic acid, as we shall see presently, decomposing the fixing bath. as to the addition of common salt, we can scarcely give a favourable opinion regarding it. the addition of a chloride does, in truth, alter the colour of the deposited gold (see _ante_), and it may be this that gives rise to the opinion that it corrects toning action. of one thing we have little doubt, however, and that is, that the addition of any large amount of common salt will tend to turn the albumenate of silver into chloride, which in fixing will materially weaken the print. when giving the formula of the toning baths, we have indicated the depth to which toning should take place. one great point to attend to is, that a print should not be a slatey colour when fixed, and that can only be avoided by stopping the toning action when the print arrives at a blue-purple stage. the toning bath, when used, should be replaced in the bottle, and we recommend that it be kept in a dark place, otherwise any chloride of silver which finds its way into the solution will darken and be a nucleus for the precipitation of gold from the solution. the energy of the toning bath would, in consequence, be wholly gone. it will be found that in very cold solutions formed in winter the toning action is much slower than in summer, and we need scarcely point out that this due to the fact that cold invariably retards chemical action. this retardation is not advantageous, and it will be found positively hurtful as to the colour of the precipitated gold. we therefore recommend that the toning solution and the dish in which it is to be poured should be warmed before the fire, the former to a temperature of about °f., and the latter a little higher. by this means the toning action will take place as rapidly as in warm weather, and the same tones be produced. it must be remembered we are writing for all; not for those alone who have an elaborate arrangement for keeping their operating rooms at a good temperature in all weathers, but also for those who cannot afford the luxury. it is for this reason that we have given the above directions. chapter xvi. fixing the print. sir j. herschel was the first to point out that hyposulphite of soda would dissolve chloride of silver, and subsequently it has been found that it dissolves almost every organic salt of silver. in our early chapters we gave some examples of this. when we add hyposulphite to a salt of silver, such as the chloride, we get one of two reactions, the formation of a nearly insoluble double hyposulphite of soda and silver, or a readily soluble one. silver sodium chloride and hyposulphite agcl + na_{ }s_{ }o_{ } form insoluble double sodium hyposulphite of and chloride. silver and sodium agnas_{ }o_{ } + nacl and silver sodium chloride and hyposulphite agcl + na_{ }s_{ }o_{ } form soluble double sodium hyposulphite of and chloride. silver and sodium ag_{ }na_{ } (s_{ }o_{ }) + nacl the first insoluble double hyposulphite is formed when there is only a small quantity of sodium hyposulphite present; the soluble kind when the sodium hyposulphite is in excess. since it is the soluble kind which we wish to form, it is manifest that the presence of a sufficiency of hyposulphite in the fixing bath is necessary. if not, we have left the insoluble form on the paper. if either of these two kinds of hyposulphite be made in a test-tube, we can readily simulate the effect of atmospheric exposure. if slightly acid water be added to the hyposulphite, it will be seen, when chloride of silver has been dissolved by the hyposulphite, that the precipitate or solution commences to blacken, sulphide of silver being formed. on the other hand, if we take albumenate of silver, and dissolve it in hyposulphite of soda, we shall find that the addition of acid gradually causes a yellow-looking compound to separate out, and it is probably this body formed in the paper which causes the gradual yellowing of the whites of silver prints. what is taught us, then, by this observation is, that by thorough washing we must try and eliminate all traces of hyposulphite of silver, and, indeed, of the hyposulphite of soda, since the latter decomposes as rapidly in the presence of acid as does the silver compound. the formula for the fixing bath which we recommend is:-- sodium hyposulphite ounces water pint ammonia / drachm the addition of the ammonia prevents any possibility of an acid reaction arising, and otherwise softens the film of albumen and the size of the paper, causing more rapid fixation and more thorough washing. another thing the ammonia does is, that it prevents, in a great measure, blistering of the film of albumen, which is common in some highly-albumenized paper. experience has shown that one ounce of solid hyposulphite will fix with safety three sheets of paper, so that an idea can be formed of how much must be used for a day's printing. the hyposulphite bath which has been used one day should never be used the next, since it invariably contains the germs of decomposition in it from some cause or another. indeed, the appearance of the solution indicates this is so, since it is usually of a yellow or brownish appearance. the time required for fixing a print varies with the thickness of the paper used. as a rule, prints on the medium-sized paper require ten minutes' soaking in the bath, whilst thick-size requires fifteen minutes. whilst toning, the dish containing the hyposulphite should be kept in a gentle rocking motion, as in toning, and for the same reasons. prints may be examined from time to time, to see how the fixing progresses. when a print is not quite fixed, small spots of dark appearance will be seen when it is examined by transmitted light. the operation of fixing should be continued after these disappear for at least three or four minutes, in order that the hyposulphite of soda in the dish may get impregnated with the double silver and sodium salt which is in the print, and thus render washing more effectual. it should be noted that the dish for fixing should be at least as long and wide as the dish used for toning; that it should be deeper when, as a rule, all the prints are fixed at one time. care should be taken that dishes which are used for sensitizing, toning, or fixing, _should not be used for anything else_. the glaze of porcelain dishes is often soft, and frequently absorbs a certain amount of the solutions used. thus, if a porcelain dish be used for a solution of any aniline dye, it will often be found that it is permanently stained. colour in this last is merely indication of what happens with any other solution. it will thus be seen that it is a mistake to use a dish for fixing when the glaze is cracked, since old hyposulphite must find its way into the body of the fresh solution that may be used, and thus institute a spontaneous decomposition, and a consequent want of permanence in the print. for our own part, we believe that a gutta-percha dish is a safer dish to use than any other, since it is impervious to any solution, and can be well scoured after fixing, and before being again brought into use. we believe that much of the fading of prints may be traced to the use of unsuitable dishes for fixing. chapter xvii. washing the print. there are very many apparatus designed for washing prints; but we believe that, where few prints have to be treated, careful hand-washing is as superior to machine-washing, as hand-made paper is to machine-made. in our own practice we take the prints from the fixing-dish, and immerse them in a large puncheon of water, and allow them to soak for five minutes, after which we carefully pour off all the water, and replenish with fresh, in which we leave them for a quarter-of-an-hour. after that we take the prints and place them on a glass slab, and, with a squeegee, squeeze as much water as possible out of each separately; this we repeat twice. after two more washings of a quarter-of-an-hour, we then wash for half-an-hour, and, with a sponge, dab them as dry as possible, and again immerse for half-an-hour. after repeating this operation twice, we allow a stream of running water to pour into the puncheon for a couple of hours, carrying the stream through an india-rubber pipe, at the end of which is a glass tube, to the bottom of the puncheon, and so that the pour of water goes against the side. by this means there is a constant stir in the water, and the water flows over the edge of the puncheon. it is convenient to cut a notch in the top rim of the puncheon, so that the water may find an exit before reaching the level of the rim. the prints are then taken out, sponged once more, and dried. by this arrangement we have got prints which are perfectly unfaded, though they have been in existence eighteen years, and have been to the tropics, and in the dampest climates. this method of washing, though tedious, should be applied to all prints; but, in the present day, it can hardly be hoped that it can be immediately adopted, on account of the attention it requires; we therefore describe an apparatus which can be used. it was designed by mr. england, and consists of a working trough, as shown in the figure, which is automatically worked by an overshot wheel. we need not enter into the details of the invention, as they are self-evident. [illustration: _fig._ .] this washing arrangement causes the prints to be alternately soaking in water, and draining. whilst in the water they are perpetually being shaken apart by the movement of the tray, and thus every part of the print gets washed, and it is almost impossible for two prints to stick together. in all washing apparatus there is a danger of air-bells forming on the surface of the prints while in the water, but in this form there is the advantage that whilst draining the air-bells must break, and so water on rising to the level of the prints can obliterate any of the evil effects which would be caused by their being perpetually remaining on one spot. it is useless to attempt to describe other forms of the apparatus, since there are so many; we have chosen one which appears to us to be a satisfactory form. the following tests for the elimination of hyposulphite are taken from another work of this series.[ ] "the following is a most delicate test. "make the following test solution:-- potassium permanganate grains potassium carbonate " water quart "the addition of a few drops of this rose-coloured solution to a pint of water will yield a slightly pink tinge. if there be any trace of sodium hyposulphite present, this colour will give place to one of a greenish hue. "if the permanganate be not at hand, the following well-known starch iodide test may be adopted:-- "take about two drachms of water and a small piece of starch about the size of a small pea; powder and boil the starch in the water till the solution is quite clear; add one drop of a saturated solution of iodine in alcohol to this clear liquid. it will now become dark blue. of this solution drop two drops into two clean test tubes, and fill up one with distilled water and the other with the water to be tested; a faint blue colour should be perceptible in the first test tube. in the second test tube, should hyposulphite be present, this blue colour will have disappeared, the iodide of starch becoming colourless in its presence. the best mode of comparing the two waters is by placing a piece of white paper behind the test tubes. "it frequently occurs that though sodium hyposulphite cannot be detected in the washing water, it may be present in the paper itself. the paper on which most prints are taken being sized with starch, if a _very_ weak solution of iodine be applied with a brush across the _back_ of a print, a blue mark will indicate the _absence_ of the hyposulphite. care must be taken that the iodine solution is _very_ weak, otherwise a part of the iodine will first destroy the trace of the salt, and then the remainder will bring out the blue re-action." we finish this chapter by quoting our maxims to be observed in printing. "_maxims for printing._ " . the prints should have the highest lights _nearly_ white, and the shadows verging on a bronzed colour before toning. " . place the prints, before toning, in the water, face downwards, and do not wash away too much of the free nitrate of silver. " . the toning solution must be neutral or slightly alkaline, and not colder than °. " . tone the prints to purple or sepia, according as warm or brown prints are required. " . move the prints, in both the toning and fixing solutions, repeatedly, taking care that no air-bubbles form on the surface. " . take care that the fixing bath is not acid. " . use fresh sodium hyposulphite solution for each batch of prints to be fixed. " . wash thoroughly after and before fixing. " . make a sensitizing bath of a strength likely to give the best results with the negatives to be printed. " . print in the shade, or direct sunshine, according to the density of the negative." chapter xviii. printing on plain paper. prints on plain paper are sometimes of use; for instance, they form an excellent basis on which to colour. they are of course duller than an albumenized print, since the image is formed more in the body of the paper than on the surface. the following formula may be used:-- ammonium chloride to grains sodium citrate " sodium chloride to " gelatine " distilled water ounces or, ammonium chloride grains gelatine " water ounces the gelatine is first swelled in cold water, and then dissolved in hot water, and the remaining components of the formulæ are added. it is then filtered, and the paper is floated for three minutes, following the directions given on page . if it be required to obtain a print on plain paper in a hurry, a wash of citric acid and water (one grain to the ounce) may be brushed over the back of ordinary albumenized paper, and, when dried, that side of the paper may be sensitized and printed in the ordinary manner. for cold tones the wash of the citric acid may be omitted. the toning and fixing are the same as described in chapters xii. and xiii. chapter xix. printing on resinized paper. the following is taken from another volume of this series.[ ] to mr. henry cooper we are indebted for a valuable printing process, founded on substituting resins for albumen or other sizing matter. the prints obtained by this process are very beautiful, and lack that gloss of albumen which is often called vulgar and inartistic. the following are the two formulæ which mr. cooper has communicated to the writer:-- frankincense grains mastic " calcium chloride to " alcohol ounce when the resins are dissolved in the alcohol, the paper is immersed in the solution, then dried and rolled. the sensitizing bath recommended is as follows (though the strong bath given at page will answer):-- silver nitrate grains water ounce to the water is added as much gelatine as it will bear without gelatinizing at ° fah. the second formula gives very beautiful prints, soft and delicate in gradation. the paper is first coated with an emulsion of white lac in gelatine, which is prepared as follows:-- ounces of _fresh_ white lac are dissolved in pint of strong alcohol, and after filtering or decanting, as much water is added as it will bear without precipitating the lac; ounce of good gelatine is soaked and dissolved in the pint of boiling water, and the lac solution is added with frequent stirring. if, at any stage of this operation, the gelatine is precipitated, a little more hot water must be added. the pint of lac solution ought, however, to be emulsified in the gelatine solution. to use the emulsion, it is warmed, and the paper immersed in or floated on it for three minutes. when dry, the coated surface is floated in the following for a couple of minutes:-- ammonium chloride grains [ ]magnesium lactate " when dry, it is sensitized on a moderately strong bath (that given on the last page will answer). if more vigour in the resulting prints be required, it is floated on:-- citric acid grains white sugar " this last bath improves by use, probably by the accumulation of silver nitrate from the sensitized paper. any of the toning baths given in chapter xii. will answer, though mr. cooper recommends:-- solution of gold tri-chloride ( gr. to dr. of water) dr. pure precipitated chalk a pinch hot water ounces dr. of sodium acetate are to be placed in the stock-bottle, and the above solution filtered on to it. this is made up to ounces, and is fit for use in a few hours; but it improves by keeping. in commencing to tone, place a few ounces of water in the dish, and add an equal quantity of the stock solution, and if the toning begins to flag a little, add more of it from time to time. with the resin processes over-toning is to be carefully avoided. resinized paper may be obtained from most photographic dealers, we believe, and for some purposes is an admirable substitute for albumenized paper. chapter xx. printing on gelatino-chloride emulsion paper. mr. w. t. wilkinson has recently brought forward the notion of using gelatine instead of albumen as a medium for holding the silver chloride in printing. he uses the following formula:-- barium chloride , grains gelatine , " water ounces the gelatine is allowed to swell in the water, and, by the aid of heat, is dissolved; the barium chloride is then added. next he prepares-- silver nitrate , grains water ounces and adds this to the former, little by little, in a large bottle with much shaking, or pours it slowly into the former in a large jar, stirring briskly the whole time. this makes an emulsion of silver chloride, and is used without washing. when required for use, the gelatine, which will have set when cold, is swelled by placing the jar containing it in hot water, and is then transferred to a dish. the dish should be kept warm by being placed, supported on small blocks, in a tin tray (about two inches larger in dimensions every way than the dish) filled with hot water, the temperature of which should be about ° f. to commence with. saxe or rive paper may be coated by rolling the sheet face outwards, and placing the edge of the roll upon the gelatine. the two corners of the paper in contact with the solution are then taken hold of by the fingers, and raised. the paper will unroll of itself, and take up a thin layer of the gelatine emulsion. the sheet of paper is then suspended to dry. all these operations are, of course, conducted in the dark room. the behaviour of the paper in the printing-frame is precisely the same as albumenized paper, and the washing and toning are conducted in the same way. for a fixing bath is used-- sodium hyposulphite ounces water " the washing after fixing is more rapid than with albumenized paper. it is washed in ten or twelve changes of water for ten minutes, and then placed for five minutes in an alum bath made as follows:-- potash alum ounces water " the print is washed in a few changes of water, and the prints are ready for drying and mounting. the advantage of the alum bath is that the hyposulphite is destroyed into harmless products, and the gelatine is rendered insoluble by it. in the formula given there is large excess of chloride, and we recommend that instead of using , grains of barium chloride, , grains be used. (mr. wilkinson has used that amount of the barium salt that would be required exactly to convert , grains of silver nitrate into silver chloride, if the formula for barium chloride were bacl_{ } instead of bacl_{ }.) it will be seen that whichever formula is used, there is no silver left to combine with the gelatine, and hence the image will be entirely formed by metallic silver, and not an organic salt of silver. chapter xxi. drying the prints. in many establishments the prints are taken direct from the washing water, and hung up by american clips, and thus allowed to dry. when this is done, the prints curl up as the water leaves the paper, and they become somewhat unmanageable. if prints have to be dried at all before mounting--and they must, unless they are trimmed before toning--a better plan is to make a neat heap of some fifty or sixty of the same size (say cartes), place them on blotting-paper, and drain for a time, and then in a screw-press (such as is used to press table-cloths, for instance) to squeeze out all superfluous water. after a good hard squeeze the prints should be separated, and the plan adopted by mr. england carried out. he has frames of light laths made, of about feet by feet, and over this frame is stretched ordinary paperhanger's canvas. the prints are laid on this to dry spontaneously, and they cockle up but very little. the frames, being light, are easily handled. after the squeezing is done, supposing the room in which they are placed be not very damp or very cold, the prints will be ready for trimming and mounting in a couple of hours. to our minds there is nothing superior to this mode of drying, since the squeezing in the press tends to eliminate every slight trace of hyposulphite which might be left in them. _trimming the prints._--perhaps more prints are ruined in trimming than in any other way, when the operator is inexperienced, since it requires judgment to know which part of the print to trim off, so that a right balance shall be kept. in trimming landscape prints, it is impossible to give any set rules; the judgment as to what is artistic must be the guide. of one thing we may be certain, that, unless the operator who took the original negative knows exactly how to balance his picture on the focussing-screen, the print will always bear cutting down in one direction or the other. such a clipping, of course, alters the size of the print, which, if it be one of a series, will be a misfortune; but, on the other hand, the artistic value of the individual print will be increased. for portraits there are some few rules which should be followed in trimming. always allow the centre of the face to be a little "out" from the central line of the print, making more space on the side towards which the sitter is looking. allow a carte or cabinet to be cut in such a way that, if the sitter has been leaning on something, it does not seem as if he had been leaning on nothing. should there be an unintentional lean on the part of the sitter, trim the print so that he appears in an upright position. to trim the print, there should be the various sized shapes in glass used. thus there should be glasses with bevelled edges for the carte, the cabinet, and other sizes, which can be laid on the print as a guide to the trimming. the absolute trimming may be done either by shears or by a knife, a leather cutters' knife being excellent, since it is rounded, and can be brought to a keen edge very readily. when the knife is used, the print is placed on a large glass sheet of good thickness, the pattern placed over it, and, whilst this is held down by the left hand, the knife is used by the right, keeping it close to the edge of the pattern glass. when shears are used, the print is held against the pattern glass by the left hand, and each side trimmed by one clip, taking care to make the cut parallel to the edges of the pattern glass. it requires a little practice to prevent clipping the glass as well as the paper, but for small sized prints, such as the carte, the shears have a decided advantage over the knife. for cutting out ovals, robinson's trimmer is an excellent adjunct to the mounting-room, and in this case ovals stamped out of sheet brass are used as guides. [illustration: _fig._ .] the figure will show the action of the trimmer. the small wheel is the cutter, and, being pivotted, it follows the curve against which it is held. it is better to cut out prints with this trimmer on sheet zinc in preference to glass, the edge of the wheel being kept sharp for a longer time than where the harder glass is used. to use the trimmer, the print is placed on the sheet of zinc, the oval mask (or square mask, with slightly rounded corners) is placed in position on it. the wheel of the trimmer is brought parallel to, and against, the edge of the mask, the handle being grasped by the right hand, the thumb to the left, and the fingers on the right. a fairly heavy downward pressure is brought to bear on the trimmer, and at the same time the wheel is caused to run along the edge of the mask. the cut should be clean, and the join perfect, if proper care be taken. it is desirable to practise on ordinary writing paper before it is taken into use for prints. square masks with very slightly rounded corners can be used; the smaller the wheel, the less curved the corners need be. it will be seen that there is a limit to smallness of the wheel used, since, if too small, the stirrup on which it is pivoted would rest upon the mask. the larger the wheel the easier is the cutting. with larger sizes than the carte or the cabinet, mounting may often have to be delayed, since it is easier to keep a stock of unmounted prints (say landscapes) unmounted than it is when they are mounted. in this case the prints should be put away as flat as possible. the plan of drying we have indicated takes out the "curl," but even then they will not be flat enough to be handily put away. we therefore recommend the practice of stroking the prints. a flat piece of hard wood, about foot long and - / inch broad, and the thickness of a marquoise scale, has its edges carefully rounded off. the print is seized by one corner in one hand and unrolled; the face of the print is brought in contact with a piece of plate glass. the "stroker," held by the other hand, is brought with its rounded edge on to the back of the print near the corner held by the first hand. considerable pressure is brought upon the stroker, and the print is drawn through between it and the plate. the print is then seized by another corner and similarly treated. by this means a gloss is put upon the print, and the creases and cockles are obliterated. the print is now ready for trimming. it is well to have a square of glass with true edges cut to the size of the pictures. the prints should be trimmed upon a sheet of plate glass, a sharp penknife being used to cut them. a rough test for ascertaining if the opposite sides are equal is to bring them together, and see if both corners coincide. it may sometimes be found useful to cut out a print into an oval. the following method for tracing any ellipse may be employed:--on a thickish piece of clean paper draw a line a b, making it the _extreme_ width of the oval required. bisect it at o, and draw d o c at right angles to a b. make o c equal to _half_ the smallest diameter of the ellipse. with the centre c and the distance o b, draw an arc of a circle, cutting a b in e and f. place the paper on a flat board, and at e and f fix two drawing-pins. take a piece of thread and knot it together in such a manner that half its length is equal to a f. place the thread round the two pins at e and f, and stretch it out to tightness by the point of a lead pencil. move the pencil guided by the cotton, taking care to keep it upright. the resulting figure will be an ellipse. modifications of this figure may be made by making a second knot beyond the first knot, and placing the point of the pencil in the loop formed. when the figure has been traced in pencil on paper, it should be carefully cut out with a sharp penknife, and placed on the print which is to be trimmed into an oval. when so placed, a faint pencil line is run round on the print, and the cutting out proceeds either by scissors or penknife. [illustration: _fig._ .] chapter xxii. mounting photographs. there are many photographers who, unfortunately, are quite indifferent as to the medium they use in mounting the trimmed photographs. so long as the medium will cause the adherence of the back of the print to the cardboard employed, they are perfectly satisfied, whether it be paste fresh or sour, or starch or gelatine in a similar condition. if any of our readers have had the misfortune to have their rooms papered with rancid paste, they will have noticed that the unpleasant smell attending it has not been removed from the room for weeks, and that there is a liability of the return of the disgusting odour when the air is at all damp. in this case the fact that decomposition is going on is detected by the olfactory nerves, because the quantity is considerable. it is none the less true, however, that every square inch of the surface of the wall paper is undergoing the same ordeal, and that if it contains any colour, &c., which would be affected by decomposing organic matter, there would be but small chance of the paper retaining its fresh appearance. were a silver print mounted with the same paste, we need scarcely point out that danger to its permanency is to be apprehended. paste, we know, is as a rule tabooed, but there is no occasion for it to be so if care be taken that it is absolutely fresh when employed in mounting. in looking for a mounting material, we should endeavour to find something which does not readily take up moisture. glue, gelatine, dextrine, and gum are all inadmissible on this account; on the other hand, starch, arrowroot, cornflour, and gum tragacanth, when once dry, do not seem to attract moisture. referring to glue, mr. w. brooks says[ ] that he has recently seen many photographs which have been mounted with that medium, and in some cases, where the glue has been put on too thickly, it swells up into ridges, showing marks of the brush with which it is applied, and each ridge after a time turns brown. the same writer is not wholly in favour of starch, but in our own opinion pure white starch is as good a material as can be met with. to prepare it for use as a mountant, a large teaspoonful of starch is placed in the bottom of a cup, with just sufficient cold water to cover it. this is allowed to remain for a couple of minutes, after which the cup is filled with boiling water, and well stirred; the starch should then be fairly thick, but not so thick as to prevent a brush taking up a proper supply for a good sized print. we will suppose that we are going to mount a day's work of carte-de-visite prints. in a former chapter we have said that it is desirable that the prints should be left damp. if they are dried, they should be _slightly_ moistened, and placed in a heap one above the other, as by so doing the moisture is confined, and one damping of all the prints is sufficient. in our own practice we have, as is natural, all the prints with the faces downwards. a stiff bristle brush is then dipped into the pot containing the starch, and the starch brushed over the back of the top print. this one is then carefully raised from the print beneath it, and, supposing it to have been properly trimmed, it is laid upon the card, and pressed down by means of a soft cloth, and placed on one side to dry. the next print is then treated in the same manner, and so on. by this plan no starch gets on the face of the prints, which is a desideratum. with a little practice, just sufficient starch will be brushed on each carte, and no more. young hands, however, are sometimes apt to give more than a fair share to them; in this case, after pressing the print down with the soft cloth, it may be useful to place on the print a piece of writing paper, and press all superfluous starch out by a rounded straight-edge, or an ivory or wooden paper knife. the card in this case should be placed on a slab of thick glass, so as give an even pressure. the starch, which will exude beyond the edges of the card, should be carefully wiped off with a _clean_ cloth. this is of course a method to be adopted only in the case of bungling mounting, but it is useful then, and may save a carte. it should be remembered that the less mounting medium used, the greater is the chance of a silver print not fading. to mount larger prints, the back should be slightly damped, and the brush with the starch applied with cross strokes, so that every part is covered. particular care should be taken that the corners and edges are not missed, since it often necessitates re-mounting the print, which is to be avoided as far as possible, since it is a troublesome matter. the rounded-edged ruler, and the sheet of white paper, is also useful here, since over a large surface there is more difficulty in getting even layers of starch, than over smaller ones. when a print has to be mounted with a margin, the places where the top corners have to come should be marked with a fine pencil point. by a little dexterity, the top edge of the print, the back of which has been covered with starch in the manner described, can be brought into the position indicated by these dots, and be then lowered without puckers or folds. it should be remembered that the print should just cover the pencil marks, since it is almost impossible to erase blacklead with india-rubber, if any starch should by accident get on it. it is well to dry these prints under pressure, since the cardboard is apt to cockle. a couple of boards rather longer than the prints suffice for the purpose. the mounted prints are laid between them, a sheet of clean blotting-paper separating each, and a few weights placed on the top board. for prints of moderate size, a table-cloth press is an excellent substitute. as to the kind of mounts to be used, opinions vary. to our mind, the simpler they are, the better they look. it is not rare to find a regular advertisement of the photographic establishment below a carte or cabinet print. to say the least of it, this is bad taste, and we are sure it is bad art. if the work be good, it needs no recommendation; and if it be bad, the less of an advertisement that appears, the better it is for the photographer. at the back of a carte or cabinet is the place where any advertisement should appear; but even here it may be overdone. when we find the back of the carte got up with any amount of gold-lettering flourishes, and no blank space on which the eye can rest without encountering some one especial merit of the artist, we may expect to find on the front of the card the same kind of tawdry work. it is seldom advisable to have the mount of a white colour, though for cartes or cabinets, in which the margin will be hidden in the album, this is not of much consequence; but for prints in which the margin shows, it is generally advisable to have some slight tint visible, preferably of a cream or buff colour. there are some classes of work which will, however, bear a white margin, but it is rarely the case; and we advise, as a general rule, that there should be some tone on it, to prevent its attracting the eye away from the picture by its whiteness. black mounts are much in vogue at the present time, and they are effective and artistic; but chemical analysis has shown them not to be safe, since they are enamelled with substances which are apt to induce fading. a good and stable black mount is a desideratum, which it is to be hoped will be found before long. notwithstanding our preference for starch as a mountant, we give a method of preparing glue for the same purpose. the glue used should be light, and as clean as possible. it should be shredded and soaked in sufficient clean water to cover it for five or six hours; any dust which may have adhered to it will find its way into the water. the water should be poured off and replaced by an equal quantity of fresh. the vessel containing it is heated over a small gas jet or spirit lamp until solution takes place. the liquid is then thinned down with warm water till it is of proper consistency, a point which is soon learned by a little practice. an ordinary small glue pot will be found convenient. it is sometimes useful to have at hand a mounting solution which will not cockle the mount, and the late mr. g. wharton simpson gave a formula which is very good in this respect. fine cut gelatine or shredded glue is swollen in the least possible quantity of water, and this is boiled with alcohol, with much stirring. if grains of nelson's no. fine cut gelatine are taken, dr. of water should be used for making it, and to it oz. of alcohol be added. when cool this sets into a jelly, and can be used by letting the bottle into which it has been transferred stand in hot water. prints can be mounted on foolscap paper with this medium without any serious cockling being apparent. it should be recollected that no two batches of paper will mount exactly alike, some expanding more than others. it is well to mount a trial print before doing many, to see exactly how the paper under manipulation behaves. _rolling the prints._--after the prints have been under the hands of the retoucher, they should be rolled in a rolling-press in order to give a brightness to the printed image. it would be invidious to point out any particular press that should be used. suffice it to say, there are many excellent ones in the market. the directions for cleaning and using the press are supplied with each machine; we therefore refrain from saying anything about them. chapter xxiii. defects in prints. the bath solution is sometimes repelled by the paper, and this is found chiefly in highly albumenized paper, and is generally caused by the paper being too dry. passing the sheet of paper over the steam from a saucepan will generally effect a cure. small white spots, with a black central pin-point, are often met with in prints. dust on the paper during sensitizing will cause them, the grit forming a nucleus for a minute bubble. all paper should be thoroughly dusted before being floated on the sensitizing bath. grey, star-like spots arise from small particles of inorganic matter, such as ferric oxide, lime, &c., which are present in the paper. they become more apparent by decomposition during the printing operations. they may generally be discernible by examining the paper by transmitted light. bronze lines (straight) occur through a stoppage during floating the paper in the sensitizing solution. should the lines be irregular, forming angles and curves, it is probable that a scum of silver oxide, &c., may be detected on the surface of the sensitizing solution. a strip of blotting-paper drawn across the bath will remove the cause of the defect. should the print appear marbled, it may be surmised that the sensitizing solution is weak, or that the paper has not been floated sufficiently. in some cases it may arise from imperfect albumenizing; but in ordinary commercial samples the cause can be easily traced. red marks on the shadows may appear during toning, and are very conspicuous after fixing. they generally arise from handling the paper with hot, moist fingers after sensitizing; greasy matter being deposited on the surface, prevents the toning bath acting properly on such parts. weak prints are generally caused by weak negatives. such can be partially remedied by paying attention to the strength of the sensitizing bath (see appendix), and by using washed paper. harsh prints are due to harsh negatives. they can generally be remedied by paying attention to the mode of printing, as given in chapter ix. if the negative be under-exposed and wanting in detail, there is, however, no cure for this defect. a red tone is due to insufficient toning; whilst a poor and blue tone is due to an excess of toning. the whites may appear yellow from imperfect washing, imperfect toning, imperfect fixing, or from the use of old sensitized paper. should prints refuse to tone, either the gold has been exhausted, or else a trace of sodium hyposulphite has been carried into the toning bath by the fingers or other means. a trace of hyposulphite is much more injurious to the print than a fair quantity of it. should the toning bath refuse to tone after the addition of gold, it may be presumed that it is contaminated by a trace of sodium hyposulphite. a dark mottled appearance in the body of the paper indicates imperfect fixing, combined with the action of light on the unaltered chloride during fixing. if the fixing bath be acid, the excess of acid combines with the sulphur, and forms hydrosulphuric acid, which will also cause the defect. the cause of mealiness or "measles" in the print has been explained in page . chapter xxiv. encaustic paste. the value of an encaustic paste in improving the effect of photographic prints has become very generally recognised amongst photographers. a good encaustic confers three special benefits on the print: it gives depth, richness, and transparency to the shadows; it renders apparent delicate detail in the lights which would otherwise remain imperceptible; and it aids in protecting the surface, and so tends to permanency. one of the writers has in his possession prints that were treated with an encaustic paste thirteen years ago, which retain all their original freshness and purity, while prints done at the same time from the same negatives have gone, to say the least of it, "off colour." various formulæ for the preparation of encaustic pastes have been published, and many of them very excellent. the qualities required are, easiness of application, and the capacity of giving richness and depth without too much gloss, and of yielding a hard, firm, permanent surface. for a proper combination of all these qualities, nothing has ever approached the paste of the late adam-salomon, of which the following is the formula:-- pure white wax grains gum elemi " benzole " essence of lavender " oil of spike " the wax is cut into shreds, and melted in a capsule over a water bath. placing it in a jar, and the latter in a pan of hot water, will serve. powder the elemi, and dissolve it in the solvent, using gentle heat. some samples of elemi are soft and tough, and will not admit of powdering, in which case it may be roughly divided into small portions, and placed in a bottle with the solvents. strain through muslin, and add the clear solution to the melted wax, and stir well. it is then poured into a wide-mouthed bottle, and allowed to cool. the encaustic paste is put on the prints in patches, and then rubbed with a light, quick motion, with a piece of flannel, until a firm, fine surface is obtained. we give another simple formula which is efficient, though we ourselves prefer the above. white wax cut into shreds ounce turpentine " and thinned down, if necessary, till it has the consistency of "cold cream." yet another is-- white wax ounce benzole ounces. chapter xxv. enamelling prints. there are several modes of enamelling prints, but there is none better than that described by mr. w. england, which we quote in his words. "i have a glass having a good polished surface (patent plate is not necessary), and rub over it some powdered french chalk tied up in a muslin bag. dust off the superfluous chalk with a camel's hair brush, and coat with enamel collodion. i find it an improvement to add to the collodion usually sold for the purpose dr. of castor oil to the pint. when the collodion is well set, immerse the plate in a dish of water. when several prints are required to be enamelled, a sufficient number of plates may be prepared and put in dishes; this will save time. now take the first plate, and well wash under a tap till all greasiness has disappeared; place it on a levelling stand, and pour on as much water as the plate will hold. then lay the print on the top, squeeze out all the water, and place the plate and print between several thicknesses of blotting-paper to remove all superfluous moisture. the plate, with the print in contact, should now be placed in a warm room to dry spontaneously, when the print will come easily from the glass. care should be taken not to attempt to remove the print till quite dry. if the pictures required to be enamelled have been dried, it will be necessary to rub over them some ox-gall with a plug of soft rag; otherwise the water will run in globules on the surface, and make blisters when laid on the collodion. "i may mention that prints done in this way lose their very glossy surface on being mounted, but retain their brilliancy, which i think is an improvement, as i dislike the polished surface usually given to the print when gelatine is employed." chapter xxvi. cameo prints. at one time there was a rage amongst photographers to produce cameos, and, for this purpose, a special piece of apparatus was required to produce the embossing. the figure will explain it. [illustration: _fig._ .] the print, after mounting, was enamelled by coating a plate with collodion--as described above--and a thin film of liquid gelatine applied. in some cases the carte itself was gelatinized, dried, and damped, and placed in contact with the collodion film. the carte was placed face downwards on the gelatine, and placed under pressure till quite dry. it was then removed, and bore on its surface a high gloss caused by the collodion. it was then ready for embossing, which was effected by placing it in the above apparatus. some people like the style; and it will be seen that great variety in it may be made by printing sufficient depth of border round the cameo; but, for our own part, we think that, in an art point of view, they are decidedly vulgar; and besides which, the surface of the cameo is readily scratched, since it is raised. we only give a brief account of what has been done in this direction, not to encourage its adoption, but rather to caution the photographer. appendix. reduction of over-exposed prints. mr. england writes as follows to the photographic journal, and we can unhesitatingly say that the method of reducing an over-printed proof is excellent. "a simple and certain method of reducing over-printed proofs has been one of the wants long felt by all photographers. it is well known that in every photographic establishment even the most careful printers cannot always be sure of getting the exact depth of tone required, and proofs occasionally get over-printed. of course prevention is better than cure; but, when a remedy is necessary, the method i am about to describe answers admirably. i tried a great many experiments before i succeeded to my satisfaction. i found that cyanide of potassium totally destroyed the print, even when used moderately strong. by using a weaker solution it was well under control, and the exact depth could be readily obtained; but during the washing to remove the cyanide the action of the latter continued, and spoiled every proof. i then tried several methods to arrest the action of the cyanide, but without success. it then occurred to me to use the cyanide in such a weak state that but little should be held in the paper, only sufficient to reduce the print to the required depth; for this purpose i made a bath of only four drops of saturated solution of cyanide to a pint of water. the prints immersed at first showed no signs of getting lighter, but after about an hour the most perfect results had been obtained with prints considerably over-printed. with lighter pictures a less time is required. proofs treated in this way lose nothing of their tone during the after-washing, which should be thoroughly done, and, when dry, retain all the brilliancy of an ordinary print." the plan of using cyanide has, we know, often been proposed, but with no success until, we believe, mr. w. brooks gave a formula which worked successfully with him. another plan, proposed by mr. l. warnerke, for effecting the same thing is the use of ferric sulphate. a weak solution is prepared, and the print immersed in it. the reduction takes place rapidly, but evenly. we need scarcely say that it is better not to have to use either of these remedies, by avoiding over-printing; but as mistakes will occur, it is evident that the above will be of use at times. utilization of silver residues. all paper or solutions in which there is silver should be saved, as it has been proved by experience that from to per cent. of the whole of the silver used can be recovered by rigid adherence to the careful storage of "wastes." . all prints should be trimmed, if practicable, before toning and fixing; in all cases these clippings should be collected. when a good basketful of them is collected, these, together with the bits of blotting-paper attached to the bottom end of sensitized paper during drying, and that used for the draining of plates, should be burnt in a stove, and the ashes collected. these ashes will naturally occupy but a small space in comparison with the paper itself. care should be taken that the draught from the fire is not strong enough to carry up the ashes. . all washings from prints, waters used in the preparation of dry plates, all baths, developing solutions (after use), and old toning baths, should be placed in a tub, and common salt added. this will form silver chloride. . the old hyposulphite baths used in printing should be placed in another tub. to this the potassium sulphide of commerce may be added. silver sulphide is thus formed. . to no. nitric acid may be added, and the ashes boiled in it till no more silver is extracted by it. the solution of silver nitrate thus produced is filtered off through white muslin, and put aside for further treatment, when common salt is added to it to form chloride, and added to no. . . the ashes may still contain silver chloride. this may be dissolved out by adding a solution of sodium hyposulphite, and adding the filtrate no. . . no. , after thoroughly drying, may be reduced to metallic silver in a reducing crucible[ ] by addition of two parts of sodium carbonate and a little borax to one of the silver chloride. these should be well mixed together, and placed in the covered crucible in a coke fire, and gradually heated. if the operator be in possession of one of fletcher's gas furnaces he can employ it economically, and with far less trouble than using the fire. (it is supplied with an arrangement for holding crucibles, which is useful for the purpose.) after a time, on lifting off the cover, it will be found that the silver is reduced to a metallic state. after all seething has finished, the crucible should be heated to a white heat for a quarter of an hour. the molten silver should be turned out into an iron pan (previously rubbed over with plumbago to prevent the molten metal spirting), and immersed in a pail of water. the washing should be repeated till nothing but the pure silver remains. the silver hyposulphite, having been reduced to the sulphide by the addition of the potassium sulphide, is placed in a crucible, and subjected to a white heat; the sulphur is driven off, and the silver remains behind. another method of reducing silver chloride to the metallic state is by placing it in water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid together with granulated zinc. the zinc is attacked, evolving hydrogen, which, in its turn, reduces the silver chloride to the metallic state, and forming hydrochloric acid. after well washing, the silver may be dissolved up in nitric acid. yet another method is to take sugar of milk and a solution of crude potash, when the silver is rapidly reduced. this requires careful washing, and it is well to heat the metal to a dull red heat to get rid of any adherent and insoluble organic matter which may have been formed, before dissolving it in nitric acid. to print from weak and hard negatives. should a negative be found very hard, a slight modification of the sensitizing solution will be found beneficial, supposing the ordinary paper is to be used. silver nitrate grains water ounce the negative should in this case be printed in the sun. the more intense the light, the less contrast there will be in the print, as the stronger light more rapidly effects a change in the albuminate than if subjected to weaker diffused light. the reason for the reduction in quantity of the silver nitrate in the solution is given on page . to print from a weak negative, the sensitizing solution should be:-- silver nitrate grains water ounce the printing should take place in the shade; the weaker the negative, the more diffused the light should be. if a negative be dense, but all the gradations of light and shade be perfect, the strong bath, and, if, possible, a strongly-salted paper, should be used. the printing should take place in sunlight. to make gold tri-chloride [au cl_{ }]. place a half-sovereign (which may contain silver as well as copper) in a convenient vessel; pour on it half a drachm of nitric acid, and mix with it two-and-a-half drachms of hydrochloric acid; digest at a gentle heat, but do not boil, or probably the chlorine will be driven off. at the expiration of a few hours add a similar quantity of the acids. probably this will be sufficient to dissolve all the gold. if not, add acid the third time; all will have been dissolved by this addition, excepting, perhaps, a trace of silver, which will have been deposited by the excess of hydrochloric acid as silver chloride. if a precipitate should have been formed, filter it out, and wash the filter paper well with distilled water. take a filtered solution of ferrous sulphate (eight parts water to one of iron) acidulated with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and add the gold solution to it; the iron will cause the gold alone to deposit as metallic gold, leaving the copper in solution. by adding the gold solution to the iron the precipitate is not so fine as if added _vice versa_. let the gold settle, and pour off the liquid; add water, and drain again, and so on till no acid is left, testing the washings by litmus paper. take the metallic gold which has been precipitated, re-dissolve in the acids as before, evaporate to dryness on a water bath (that is, at a heat not exceeding ° f.) the resulting substance is the gold tri-chloride. to be kept in crystals this should be placed in glass tubes hermetically sealed. for non-commercial purposes it is convenient to dissolve it in water (one drachm to a grain of gold). ten grains of gold dissolved yield . grains of the salt. hence if ten grains have been dissolved, . drachms of water must be added to give the above strength. to make silver nitrate. silver coins are mostly alloyed with tin or copper. in both cases the coin should be dissolved in nitric acid diluted with twice its bulk of water. if tin be present there will be an insoluble residue left of stannic oxide. the solution should be evaporated down to dryness, re-dissolved in water, filtered, and again evaporated to dryness. it will then be fit for making up a bath. if copper be present, the solution must be treated with silver oxide. the silver oxide thus formed is added, little by little, till the blue or greenish colour has entirely disappeared. this will precipitate the copper oxide from the copper nitrate, setting free the nitric acid, which, in its turn, will combine with the silver oxide. the copper will fall as a black powder mixed with any excess of silver oxide there may be. take one or two drops of the solution in a measure, and add a drachm of water, and then add ammonia to it till the precipitate first formed is re-dissolved. if no blue colour is apparent, the substitution of the silver for the copper is complete; if not, more silver oxide must be added till the desired end is attained. distilled water must next be added till the strength of the bath is that required. this can be tested by the argentometer. if to a solution of silver nitrate a solution of potash be added, a precipitate will be formed. this is the silver oxide. the potash should be added till no further precipitation takes place. the oxide should be allowed to settle, the supernatant fluid be decanted off (a syphon arrangement is very convenient), and fresh distilled water added to it. this, in its turn, after the oxide has been well stirred, should be decanted off. the operation should be repeated five or six times, to ensure all nitrate of potash being absent, though its presence does not matter for a printing bath, since this or some other nitrate is formed when the paper is floated. the end. for photographic stock and apparatus, artists' materials, etc., _send your orders to the_ mammoth stock house _of_ w. r. reid, & euclid avenue, cleveland, ohio. entrekin's enamellers, weston's burnishers, magee's nitrate silver, and other chemicals, photo-chrome outfits, convex glass, oval and square, card size to x , webster's transparent water colors, parlor paste, velvet frames, square and oval walnut frames, mouldings and linings. solar printing. manufacturer of _reid's new negative and ferrotype collodion, reid's new negative and ferrotype varnish, reid's brilliant and extra brilliant non-blistering albumen paper._ no charge for packing boxes. write for price-list. special prices to large buyers and cash customers. jas. h. smith _wholesale dealer in_ photographic goods, picture frames, mouldings. albums, brackets, mats, picture cord, glass, patent window cornices, etc. outfits a specialty. second-hand apparatus, lenses etc., bought, sold or exchanged. _best goods at lowest prices._ south fifth street, quincy, ill. send for price-lists. a. m. collins, son & co. manufacturers of all kinds of cards and cardboards for photographers warehouse: no. arch street philadelphia , square feet of floor room. the largest force of employees. largest stock in the united states. hiram j. thompson, jobber in picture frames, mouldings, mirrors, albums, pictures, and photographic materials. no. wabash ave., chicago. send for my late catalogue. photographic enlargements by the platinotype process. done with the electric light. the platinotype prints are characterized by a _beautiful tone, perfection of detail, pure whites, and absolute permanence._ by the use of the electric light we are enabled to proceed without regard to the weather, and can fill orders _promptly_ without the delays usually attending solar printing. send for price-lists. thos. h. mccollin, _ arch street_, (dealer in all photographic supplies.) pa. philadelphia, pa. _the old reliable!_ p. smith & co., no. west fifth street, cincinnati, ohio. and branch at no. east broad street, columbus, ohio. where _the amateur and the professional photographer_ will find everything =requisite for either the wet or the dry plate process.= _dry plates and outfits in great variety._ _velvet frames, etc., etc., etc._ mullett bros., dealers in photographic supplies. walnut st., kansas city, mo. western photographers! look to your interests, and purchase your stock and apparatus at the kansas city stock house, thereby avoiding heavy freight bills and a great loss of time. _in addition to a full line of photo. supplies, we have also a large variety of_ albums, silk velvet frames, picture cord and nails, convex glass, matts, etc., etc. photographers in the east contemplating moving west will find it to their interests to purchase their goods here, thereby saving a great expense in shipping. having more than doubled our capital and room, we are now able to compete in _price_ and _variety_ of goods with _any_ house west of n. y. send a trial order and be convinced. prompt and careful attention to all orders. milwaukee. gustavus bode, northwestern photographic warehouse and chemical laboratory, spring st., milwaukee, wis. a full line of photographic goods and artists' materials, --embracing-- _apparatus, chemicals, glass, albumenized papers, frames, albums, views, etc._ english, german and american oil colors, and all materials used in the fine arts. specialty. nitrate of silver and chloride of gold made for photographic purposes. gold and silver wastes refined. satisfaction guaranteed. send for price-list. buffalo photographic warehouse. david tucker & co. photographers' supplies. main st. buffalo, n. y. david tucker. s. b. butts _ national photographic emporium. _ w. baltimore street, baltimore, md. richard walzl, proprietor. dry plate outfits a specialty, all the latest novelties in connection with the improved dry-plate processes furnished at the shortest notice. _any photographer_ who wants _lenses_, _cameras_, _camera stands_, _backgrounds_, _chemicals_, _glass_, _albumen paper_ or in fact _any photographic goods_, should send for our price-list and be convinced that it is to their interest to send their orders to us direct. a trial order will convince the most skeptical. photography in all its branches for the trade. expert artists employed on the premises enable us to make this branch a great feature, and we can always guarantee satisfaction. our practical photographic publications are unequalled. see testimonials in _photographer's friend._ price-list sent free to any photographer. our new lenses are the sensation of the day--and the prices are so moderate they will astonish you. you can try our lenses before you buy them. if you want anything in the photographic line, address richard walzl, baltimore, md. pa. pittsburgh, pa. john i. shaw, _successor to j. w. morrison_, manufacturer and dealer in _photographic materials, cameras, etc., etc._, nos. & sixth street, pittsburgh, pa. _mouldings, albums, oval, square and arch top frames, velvet and combination frames._ photographic dry plates and outfits for amateurs and professionals. everything required in the practice of photography in all its forms. john i. shaw, pittsburgh, pa. w. j. hazenstab's new photographic stock house, market street, st. louis, mo. is now opened and prepared to fill all orders for photographic goods, _at bed rock prices for cash._ _general outfits for galleries a specialty._ _remember i carry in stock_: am. opt. co's camera boxes and stand, success camera boxes, sam. peck & co.'s camera boxes, voigtlander & son's portrait lenses, darlot's portrait lenses, darlot's quick-working portrait lenses, darlot's view lenses, also the celebrated peerless portrait lenses, known for their rapidity and depth. _and a large assortment of_ card stock. also agent for _cramer & norden's dry plates, eastman's dry plates, carbutt's dry plates_. large assortment of frames and mats at very low prices. small expense in carrying on my business enables me to sell for less money. --> _i attend to all orders personally._ <-- send for trial order. price-lists sent on application. wm. j. hazenstab, _photographers' supply house_, market street, st. louis, mo. _n. b.--remember i give per cent. discount for cash on all orders of $ or over._ e. weiskopf, manufacturer of optical lenses, specialties: condensers, cosmorama lenses, and magnifying mirrors, no. centre street, new york. new york, oct. , . _in view of the fact that the undersigned has aided in the production of many of the most artistic photographic pictures produced in this country during the last ten years, pictures which have received gold and silver medals at philadelphia, london, paris, amsterdam and other cities of the world, he feels warranted in soliciting the patronage of photographers unacquainted with his works._ --> _my recently introduced backgrounds comprise those suitable for the stocking of a new gallery, as well as several suitable for making special exhibition pictures._ no. ---- =vienna tapestry=. no. . =new eastlake=. no. . =the villa=, (_summer_). no. . =the winter road=, no. . =the rustic wall=. no. . =the palisades=. my three-quarter length backgrounds are, viz: _nos. , , ._ _for special pictures_ i recommend my new _portrait plaques_--an entirely new article in portraiture. several designs. _for suspending on backgrounds_, ornamenting fireplaces and sideboards, my _imitation dutch plaques_ are desirable and very popular. my late accessories are: no. . =the gambier rock=. no. . =eastlake fireplace and cabinet combined=, (_very rich_), =several movable parts=. no. . =the couch and set piece=. no. . =seavey's eastlake cottage and balcony=. no. . =the garden wall=, (_ parts_). no. ---- =the new garden seat=, (_ changes_). * . ye monthlie bulletin . a.d. of l. w. seavey his workeshop. under the foregoing heading, in the "specialty" columns of the several photographic journals of america, will appear from month to month brief announcements of my new productions. lafayette w. seavey, _no. lafayette place, new york, u. s. a._ photographers' supplies. frames, albums, _velvet goods._ lowest prices. send for our bargain list. eureka. cramer & norden and eastman's dry plates. american opt. co. dry plate cameras, and _general apparatus._ j. c. somerville, olive street, _near scholten's gallery_, st. louis, mo. wilson's photographics. a partial photographic encyclopedia. _by_ e. l. wilson, _editor "phila. photographer," "photo. mosaics," etc._ _a standard book for all workers in photography._ contents. lesson a. treatment of the subject--b. the needful apparatus--c. the objective or lens--d. the dark-room--e. preparation of the glass--f. chemicals and solutions--g. the manipulations--h. manipulatory miseries--i. retouching the negative--j. the glass studio--k. accessories and light--l. managing the model--m. printing on albumen paper--n. printing on plain paper--o. general remarks on printing--p. printing on various surfaces--q. printing perplexities--r. art in printing--s. mounting and finishing--t. photography outside--u. bromo-gelatine emulsion work--v. vogel's collodion emulsion--w. enlargements and lantern slides--x. phototypes, platinotypes, and collodion transfers--y. wastes and their worth--z. metrical measuring--&. concluding confab--index (six pages.) it is believed that this is the most valuable work ever offered to the working photographer. it contains pages; x - / inch cover, and is - / inches thick. more than illustrations. it gives full details of all practical processes, old and new, public and secret. among the latter are the "phototype," sometimes called the "artotype" process, with examples; many of the "lightning" processes; the "platinotype" process; the "collodion transfer" or "megatype" process, and many others. pages are devoted to posing and lighting; pages give instructions in emulsion "dry" work; pages show how to build and use skylights; pages furnish instructions for manipulating negatives; pages are applied to printing formula and dodges; pages gives notes from authors all over the world. it is printed on fine white paper, made especially for it, and sold at the low price of $ post-paid $ . for the beginner, for the amateur, for the photographic worker, it is believed to be most complete. no live photographer should fail to get it soon, before his neighbor is ahead. _edward l. wilson, publisher and proprietor_, nos. & chestnut street, philadelphia, pa. douglass, thompson & co., merchants in all requisites pertaining to the art-science of photography, photographers' booksellers, stationers & newsdealers, & state street, chicago, ill. a practical knowledge of the art-science of photography gives us a special advantage in meeting the demands of the profession. _everything used in_ silver printing _selected with greatest care and guaranteed of the highest order of excellence._ =prices low=. all the standard brands of albumen paper we furnish under _genuine_ marks and at lowest prices. it will pay you to send for our catalogues, bureau of information, hints on burnishing, etc, gayton a. douglass. } all free. henry g. thompson. } attention photographers! _brooklyn's head-quarters_ --for-- photographic stock of every description, _at the lowest possible c. o. d. prices._ sent all over the united states at the shortest notice. all the best brands of albumen papers and card stock, etc., etc., kept constantly on hand. --_send a trial order and be convinced._-- l. h. wilcox, _ fulton street_, brooklyn, n. y. the best is the cheapest. listen not to the cries of venders of worthless imitations, but buy the _genuine_, and receive full value for your money. _dallmeyer lenses, success cameras, climax cameras, e. a., g. c. and platyscope lenses, handy head-rests._ _genuine n. p. a. & s. & m. albumen papers_, =with the water-mark= _brilliant swiss albumen papers, a. d. swiss albumen papers, hovey's, morgan's, peerless, clemons' & hail columbia albumen papers._ rapid printing paper, eastman's dry plates, anthony's dry plate outfits. chemicals of guaranteed purity and strength. _every requisite for the studio and field._ send for illustrated catalogue and price-list. the most extensive line of velvet, plush and ebony frames, easels, albums, stereoscopes, graphoscopes, portraits of celebrities, stereo. views, etc., on this continent. e. & h. t. anthony & co., broadway, new york city. h. extra brilliant. h. extra and morgan's albuminized papers fully , reams of morgan's paper has been made and sold within the last year--equal to twenty million cabinet size pictures. we expect to increase its sale the coming year to almost double the above, judging from the demand of the last few months. the pearl tint is used in greater quantities than the other tints. send your orders for this brand of paper to j. haworth, _dealer in photo. supplies._ arch street, philadelphia, pa. eastman's gelatino-bromide dry plates. reliable, rapid, instantaneous. the best! used by all professionals and amateurs in preference to any others. complete instructions accompany each package. _eastman's gelatino-bromide pellicle_, for those who wish to prepare their own plates. manufactured only by the _eastman dry plate co., rochester, n. y._ e. & h. t. anthony & co., broadway, new york, _send for circular._ _trade agents._ andrew j. smith, photographic stock depot. _we keep a full line of_ photographic materials, which we are selling as low as any house in new york or boston. dealer in n. p. a. and s. & m. dresden, hovey, berlin, morgan's and clemons' double albumenized paper, nixon & stokes' ferrotype holders, collins, son & co's card stock of every description, taber & co's pebble mats, etc., powers & weigtman's silver and chemicals, anthony's ether, iodides, collodion and varnishes, atwood's alcohol, hyposulphite of soda, sulphate of iron, acetic acid, and glass in any quantity. _dry plate outfits for amateurs & photographers. everything pertaining to the trade. john dean & co's plates._ large assortment of frames, convex glass, artists' materials, etc., etc. _n. b._--no charge for boxing. your orders are solicited. _no. westminster street_, providence, r. i. [illustration: american institute new-york] highest medal. [illustration: _the medal of superiority_ awarded to wm f. ashe for a photographic background comb. staircase, balustrade & pedestal .] backgrounds for everybody! fancy, plain, rembrandt, etc., etc. floor cloths, _painted in oil_, _suitable for interiors and exteriors_, ashe's combination staircase balustrade and pedestal. ashe's patent _telescopic_ or _extension pedestals_. _and the following accessories_: rocks, vines, bridges, vases, cabinets, and mantel-pieces in papier maché and in profile, the latter interchangeable and with practical parts, doorways, cottage windows, stairways, balustrades, sleighs, boats, vases, etc., etc., in profile. _no extra charge to parties who furnish their own designs. samples free._ w. f. ashe, bleecker street, new york city. the mound city central photographic stock house, (h. a. hyatt, proprietor), no. north th street, st. louis, mo. head-quarters in st. louis for all photographers. we keep on hand everything new and of interest to the fraternity, to be seen and examined at pleasure. our stock is always complete and in keeping with the times. it embraces, with the large and varied assortment of general photographic requisites, the following standard brands of albumen paper, which you can always depend upon getting fresh _hovey's, peerless, eagle brand (dresden), s. & m. dresden, morgan's, clemons, trapp & munch_, --also-- _plain and salted papers._ we carry the standard brands _only_. there is _no_ extra we cannot duplicate with some regular brand. please remember this, and if you desire fair treatment, and low prices, just send us a trial order, note how _promptly_ we serve you, and the _quality_ of _goods_ you receive, and we will be assured of your future favors. our motto is to _please_, and we guarantee satisfaction. _--outfits a specialty.--_ send for illustrated catalogue. h. a. hyatt, north th street, st. louis, mo. _jno. g. hood. established . wm. d. h. wilson._ wilson, hood & co., _no. arch st._, philadelphia, deal in all varieties of photo. goods, and solicit your orders, for any article you may need, including the following: _s. & m., n. p. a., & c. s. double alb. paper, per ream, cts. " " " single " " " morgan's double alb. paper, " " " single " " "_ _all other brands supplied. magee's nitrate silver, magee's chloride of gold, best hypo. of soda, keg lbs. $ , american optical co. printing frames, american optical co. negative boxes, american optical co. retouching frames, negative racks, pans, trays, etc., waymouth's vignette papers, $ per pack, onion skin paper, per dozen, cts. singhi's vig. attachment, $ . todd's vig. attachment, $ ._ "hearn's artistic printing" $ . "hearn's practical printer" $ . _complete price-lists free._ sole agents in united states for the ross and steinheil lenses. eagle stock house. george murphy, no. west fourth street, n. y. photo. & ferro. materials. _outfits a specialty._ all goods sold for cash. manufacturer of _eagle negative and positive collodions, eagle negative and ferro. varnishes, eagle retouching fluid, eagle ground glass varnish._ sole agent for _hammenstede's collodions and varnishes, photo. chemicals of best quality._ the retoucher's outfit: _eagle new metallic pencil, hard, eagle new metallic pencil, soft, medium siberian lead, artists' holder, to fit all_, the most complete set offered. for the printer's department _is offered eagle photo-printing masks, english white tissue paper, thick yellow paper, onion-skin paper, heavy blotting paper, plain papers, albumen papers of all brands_. am also agent for brengel's salted paper. _emulsion and gelatine dry plate materials, emulsion and gelatine dry plates, best brands, backgrounds, chairs, accessories, etc._ _bargains in card stock. bargains in apparatus, lenses, etc._ domestic and foreign cash orders shipped promptly. four doors west of b'way. new york. _established in ._ factories: waterbury, conn., new haven, conn., new york city. scovill manufacturing co., manufacturers and dealers in all articles used in photography, warehouse, no's & broome st., new york. w. irving adams, agent. irving and all brands of albumen papers, phenix collodion, phenix varnish. french and other chemicals. scovill's new solid glass baths, [warranted.] osborne's picturesque foregrounds, american optical co's celebrated cameras, dry plates and dry plate apparatus, lenses, parlor paste, etc., etc., etc., etc. publishers photographic times and american photographer. subscription price, $ per annum. among its contributors are the leading men in the profession. [founded in .] the new england photographic stock house. largest variety in the united states. every article required by the amateur, photographer, picture and frame dealer, frame maker and crayon artist. specialties. _original importers of imitation dallmeyer tubes. sole agents for william's mitering machines. n. e. agents for bryant's accessories. sole agents for the celebrated "berlin paper." sole agents for the celebrated "gem paper." sole agents for burrill's portrait bust pedestal. sole agent for burrill's neg. high light reducer. bryant's quick collodion, celebrated for years._ _dry plate outfits for amateurs._ _every variety dry plate apparatus and materials. anthony's and american optical co's manufactures. dallmeyer, morrison and voigtlander tubes on sale._ c. h. codman & co., [formerly geo. s. bryant & co.,] bromfield st., boston. anthony's dry plate outfits _most complete assortment in market._ [illustration] light, portable and inexpensive. firm, substantial and practical. _the lenses supplied with these are superior to those furnished by any other house. send for descriptive circular._ anthony's patent perfect dry plate-holder best in the world! _e. & h. t. anthony & co. b'way, new york._ footnotes: [footnote : such things as test-tubes should be found in every photographer's work room; they cost little, and are always useful for working solutions. the sizes recommended are / -inch, / -inch, and -inch diameter. a dozen of each will not be out of the way.] [footnote : sodium silver silver sodium chloride and nitrate form chloride and nitrate. nacl + agno_{ } = agcl + nano_{ }] [footnote : potassium chlorine and nitrite and water cl + kno_{ } + h_{ }o give hydrochloric potassium acid and nitrate hcl + kno_{ } and silver chlorine, nitrate, and water cl + agno_{ } + h_{ }o give silver hydrochlorous nitric chloride, acid and acid. agcl + hclo + hno_{ }] [footnote : with the former we have this action-- silver silver liberated chloride gives sub-chloride and chloride. ag_{ }cl_{ } = ag_{ }cl + cl with the latter the silver in combination with the organic matter, which is in a state of oxide, is probably reduced to the state of sub-oxide.] [footnote : sulphuretted hydrogen may be prepared by pouring dilute sulphuric acid on ferric sulphide. the chloride or the silver compound, when damped, may be held over it, taking care that no liquid is spirted up on to it.] [footnote : those who prepare collodio-albumen plates will find the upward filtration arrangement of immense value, as bubbles are unknown by it.] [footnote : if bubbles are seen, they must be broken, and the sheet floated again for another minute.] [footnote : the drainings are added to the next batch of albumen which is prepared.] [footnote : "instruction in photography," th edition, page .] [footnote : hydrochloric chlorine and water give acid and oxygen. cl + h_{ }o = hcl + o] [footnote : nitric silver silver carbonic acid and carbonate give nitrate and acid and water. hno_{ } + ag_{ }co_{ } = agno_{ } + co_{ } + h_{ }o] [footnote : silver aluminium nitrate and sulphate (alum) agno_{ } + al_{ }(so_{ })_{ } give silver aluminium sulphate and nitrate. (ag_{ }so_{ }) + al(no_{ })_{ }] [footnote : silver hydrochloric silver nitrate and acid give chloride and nitric acid. agno_{ } + hcl = agcl + hno_{ }] [footnote : suppose it is salted with ammonium chloride, we have-- ammonium silver ammonium silver chloride and nitrate give nitrate and chloride. nh_{ }cl + agno_{ } = nh_{ }no_{ } + agcl] [footnote : several other methods are given in "instruction in photography," in the appendix.] [footnote : one part of nitric acid to parts of water.] [footnote : the shutter may be made of american leather, covered over with one quarter-inch strips of oak or well-seasoned pine. the shutter should fit into a groove formed along the sides and bottom of the front of the cupboard.] [footnote : in fig. the fastening for only one of the pressure-bars is given, to avoid complication.] [footnote : see "instruction in photography" (page ), fourth edition.] [footnote : for this reason, amongst others, it is desirable that photographers should use glass for their negatives which is at least tolerably flat.] [footnote : see "pictorial effect in photography" (piper and carter).] [footnote : hydrofluoric acid is always supplied by chemists in gutta-percha bottles, as it attacks glass. a spare gutta-percha bottle can easily be procured.] [footnote : this calculation is near enough for our purpose. there are certain niceties which might be introduced, such as the "critical angle of the glass."] [footnote : the boxes in which children's puzzles are often packed will give an idea of what is meant.] [footnote : silver subchloride and gold trichloride ag_{ }cl + aucl_{ } give silver chloride and gold. agcl + au] [footnote : "instruction in photography," th edition.] [footnote : "instruction in photography," th edition.] [footnote : or ten minims of ammonium lactate.] [footnote : see mr. w. brooks' article in photographic almanac, .] [footnote : the crucible should be of stourbridge clay.] transcriber's note: hyphenation, variations in spelling and inconsistent numbering of, and references to, figures have been retained as in the original publication. apart from spaces within compounds (which have been removed), formulae have been retained as originally published, excepted where noted below. on page , symbols resembling the left- and right-hand corners of a frame have been represented as |_ and _| as in varnish, thus |_ _|; changes have been made as follows: page nitric acid _changed to_ potassium nitrate page if the operator carefully collect the white _changed to_ if the operator carefully collects the white page theoretical limit to amount _changed to_ theoretical limit to the amount page agno_{ } _changed to_ agno_{ } nitratem _changed to_ nitrate. page agno_{ } _changed to_ agno_{ } page ammonium nitrate silver chloride _changed to_ ammonium nitrate and silver chloride nh_{ },no_{ } _changed to_ nh_{ }no_{ } agno_{ } _changed to_ agno_{ } page inches. _changed to_ inches. page printer could not hope to do it successfully. _changed to_ printer could not hope to do it successfully." page the ordinary consistency, than _changed to_ the ordinary consistency, then page enable the operator to guage _changed to_ enable the operator to gauge page centreing his imagination in _changed to_ centring his imagination in page light on b would be only four twenty-fifths _changed to_ light on b would be only four-twenty-fifths page and cut out an aperature corresponding _changed to_ and cut out an aperture corresponding page at a proper heigth from _changed to_ at a proper height from page having discribed in the last _changed to_ having described in the last page as it sometimes called _changed to_ as it is sometimes called page and the effect be improved.. _changed to_ and the effect be improved. page if he find that he is not _changed to_ if he finds that he is not page so dilute the reduction takes places very slowly _changed to_ so dilute the reduction takes place very slowly page common desinfecting powder _changed to_ common disinfecting powder it as as well to have two _changed to_ it is as well to have two page a littler acetic acid or common salt _changed to_ a little acetic acid or common salt page must be rememberd we are _changed to_ must be remembered we are page when the sodium hypsulphite is _changed to_ when the sodium hyposulphite is page and, with a squegee _changed to_ and, with a squeegee page floated on-- _changed to_ floated on:-- last page of advertisements best in the word! _changed to_ best in the world! [illustration: the s. & a. photographic series.] edited by w. i. lincoln adams. no. . the photographic amateur. by j. traill taylor. a guide to the young photographer, either professional or amateur. (second edition.) paper covers =$ . = no. . how to make pictures. by henry clay price. (fourth edition.) the a b c of dry-plate photography. out of print. (see no. ) no. . photography with emulsions. by capt. w. de w. abney, r.e., f.r.s. a treatise on the theory and practical working of gelatine and collodion emulsion processes. (second edition.) paper covers =. = no. . the modern practice of retouching. as practiced by m. piquepé, and other celebrated experts. (eighth edition.) paper covers, = = cents: library edition =. = no. . the spanish edition of how to make pictures. ligeras lecciones sobre fotografia dedicados a los aficionados, cloth bound, = = cents. paper covers =. = no. . out of print. no. . hardwich's photographic chemistry. a manual of photographic chemistry, theoretical and practical. (ninth edition) edited by j. traill taylor. leatherette binding = . = no. . twelve elementary lessons on silver printing. (second edition.) paper covers =. = no. . about photography and photographers. a series of interesting essays for the studio and study, to which is added european rambles with a camera. by h. baden pritchard, f.c.s. paper covers, = = cents. cloth bound =. = no. . the chemical effect of the spectrum. by dr. j. m. eder. cloth bound, = = cents. paper covers =. = no. . picture making by photography. by h. p. robinson, author of pictorial effect in photography. written in popular form and finely illustrated. library edition, =$ . =. paper covers =. = no. . first lessons in amateur photography. out of print. (see amateur photography, by w. i. lincoln adams.) no. . dry plate making for amateurs. by george l. sinclair, m.d. pointed, practical and plain. leatherette binding =. = no. . the american annual of photography and photographic times almanac for . (second edition.) paper cover (postage, cents additional) = . = library edition (postage, cents additional) = . = no. . photographic printing methods. by the rev. w. h. burbank. a practical guide to the professional and amateur worker. cloth bound. (third edition) = . = no. . a history of photography. written as a practical guide and an introduction to its latest developments. by w. jerome harrison, f.g.s., and containing a frontispiece of the author. cloth bound = . = no. . the american annual of photography and photographic times almanac for . illustrated. (second edition.) paper (by mail, cents additional) =. = library edition (by mail, cents additional) = . = no. . the photographic negative. a practical guide to the preparation of sensitive surfaces by the calotype, albumen, collodion, and gelatine processes, on glass and paper, with supplementary chapter on development, etc., by the rev. w. h. burbank. cloth bound. reduced from $ . to = . = no. . the photographic instructor for the professional and amateur. being the comprehensive series of practical lessons issued to the students of the chautauqua school of photography. revised and enlarged. edited by w. i. lincoln adams, with an appendix by prof. chas. ehrmann. (fourth edition, enlarged and revised.) paper covers = . = library edition = . = no. . letters on landscape photography. by h. p. robinson. finely illustrated from the author's own photographs and containing a photogravure frontispiece of the author. cloth bound. = . = no. . the processes of pure photography. by w. k. burton and andrew pringle. a standard work, very complete and freely illustrated. price, in paper covers, =$ . =. library ed. = . = no. . pictorial effect in photography. by h. p. robinson. a new edition. illustrated. mr. robinson's first and best work. cloth bound = . = no. . practical photo-micrography. by andrew pringle. fully illustrated. cloth bound = . = no. . the american annual of photography and photographic times almanac for . paper cover (by mail, cents additional) =. = library edition (by mail, cents additional) = . = no. . the optical lantern. illustrated. by andrew pringle. paper covers, =$ . =. cloth bound = . = no. . lantern slides by photographic methods. by andrew pringle. paper covers = = cents. cloth bound = . = no. . the american annual of photography and photographic times almanac for . paper covers (by mail, cents additional) =. = library edition (by mail, cents additional) = . = cyclopædic index for annual =. = no. . photographic optics. a text-book for the professional and amateur. by w. k. burton. paper covers, =$ . =. library edition = . = no. . photographic reproduction processes. illustrated. by p. c. duchochois. paper covers, =$ . =. cloth = . = no. . el instructor fotografico. paper covers, =$ . =. library edition = . = no. . the american annual of photography and photographic times almanac for . out of print. no. . the chemistry of photography. by w. jerome harrison. cloth bound = . = no. . picture making in the studio. by h. p. robinson. paper covers, = = cents. cloth bound (library edition) = . = no. . the american annual of photography and photographic times almanac for . edited by w. i. lincoln adams. paper covers (postage extra, cents) =. = cloth bound (library edition) (postage extra, cents) = . = no. . the lighting in the photographic studio. by p. c. duchochois. a new edition. paper covers, = = cents. cloth bound (library edition) = . = no. . the grammar of photo-engraving. by h. d. farquhar. illustrated. the most complete text-book yet published on this subject. price, in paper covers, =$ . =. cloth bound (library edition) = . = no. . industrial photography. illustrated. by p. c. duchochois. being a description of the various processes of producing indestructible photographic images on glass, porcelain, metal, and many other substances. paper covers, = = cents. cloth bound = . = no. . the american annual of photography and photographic times almanac for . edited by w. i. lincoln adams. paper covers (postage extra, cents) =. = cloth bound (library edition) (postage extra, cents) = . = no. . aristotypes and how to make them. giving a complete description of the manufacture and treatment of gelatino and collodio-chloride papers. by walter e. woodbury. illustrated. paper covers, =$ . =. library edition = . = no. . the encyclopÆdic dictionary of photography. containing over , references and about illustrations. by walter e. woodbury. in press. no. . the american annual of photography and photographic times almanac for . with over illustrations in paper covers. postage extra = = cloth bound. (library edition.) postage cents extra = . = no. . the photo-gravure process. by =henry r. blaney=. a very complete and practical book, written by an expert. in paper covers, = = cents. cloth bound (library edition). = . = for sale by all dealers in photographic goods, booksellers, and sent, post-paid, on receipt of price, by the publishers, the scovill & adams company of new york, send for book catalogue. broome street. * * * * * a selected list of books from the scovill & adams co.'s book catalogue. price per copy. amateur photography. a practical guide for the beginner. by w. i. lincoln adams. illustrated. paper covers, = c.=; cloth bound =$ . = lantern slides and how to make them. by a. r. dresser. a new book, very complete and practical =. = photography at night. by p. c. duchochois. illustrated. pp. paper covers = . = bromide paper and how to use it. written by an expert, with a specimen bromide illustration =. = the knack. written expressly to help the beginner in perplexity, reduced to =. = photographic lenses; their choice and use. by j. h. dallmeyer. a special edition, edited for american photographers. in paper covers =. = the chemistry of photography. by prof. raphael meldola = . = the photographic image. by p. c. duchochois. a theoretical and practical treatise on development. paper covers = . = cloth bound = . = the ferrotyper's guide. for the ferrotyper, this is the only standard work. seventh thousand =. = the photographic studios of europe. by h. baden pritchard, f.c.s. cloth bound, =$ . =; paper covers =. = art of making portraits in crayon on solar enlargements. (third edition.) by e. long = . = history and hand-book of photography. with seventy illustrations. cloth bound, reduced to =. = crayon portraiture. complete instructions for making crayon portraits on crayon paper and on platinum, silver and bromide enlargements; also directions for the use of transparent liquid water colors, and for making french crystals. by j. a. barhydt. a new edition. paper covers, = c.=; cloth bound = . = art recreations. ladies' popular guide in home decorative work, with a chapter on photography. edited by marion kemble = . = american carbon manual. for those who want to try the carbon printing process, this work gives the most detailed information. cloth bound. reduced to =. = manual de fotografia. by augustus le plongeon. (hand-book for spanish photographers.) = . = secrets of the dark chamber. by d. d. t. davie =. = the photographer's book of practical formulas. compiled by dr. w. d. holmes. ph.d., and e. p. griswold. paper covers, reduced from = c.= to = c.=; cloth bound, reduced from =$ . = to =. = american hand-book of the daguerrotype. by s. d. humphrey. (fifth edition.) this book contains the various processes employed in taking heliographic impressions =. = * * * * * an announcement! we have made arrangements with the new york photogravure company by which we are enabled to offer a series of magnificent photogravures at a very low price. the first is that which has been already published and described by us, being the "court of honor," at the world's fair. the companion to this is in preparation, and will shortly be ready. it represents a view of the "administration building and court of honor," looking up from the peristyle. these two pictures form a magnificent souvenir of the world's fair, and imperishable ones, which have not been approached in artistic or technical excellence. each measures about x inches, and they are printed in the best style, on paper x inches. the next two pictures are photogravures from negatives made by mr. john e. dumont, of rochester, and form admirable companion pictures. their titles are, "no doubt," and "in doubt," and represent, in one case, a monk with a winning hand of cards, and having no doubt what his play is to be. in the other, a monk holding a hand of cards which evidently is a losing one, and, as evidently, he is in doubt as to what to play. the story of these pictures is admirably told, and with all the well known skill of mr. dumont. the next in the series is a "landscape with sheep," by mr. robert s. redfield, of philadelphia, and can well pass for a reproduction of a painting by verbeck hoven, not that it is in any sense a copy of any picture, being entirely original, but in sentiment and feeling equaling the best and most artistic work of the painter. as a companion to this, "a storm at brighton" is published. this was one of the prize pictures at the recent exhibition of the joint societies of amateur photographers of boston, philadelphia and new york. it is exceedingly effective as a study of cloud and motion of water, and forms an admirably suggestive study for artists. it is from a negative by mr. ernest edwards, president of the new york photogravure company. the well-known picture of "flirtation" has also been engraved for this series, and will be very popular. this picture (it will be remembered) appeared in the american "annual of photography" for . with the exception of the two first, all these pictures measure about x inches for size of work, and are printed on etching paper, x inches. the uniform price of all is $ . each. for sale by all dealers. other subjects will follow, from time to time. these photogravures will be sent, post-paid, by mail, carefully packed, on receipt of price. the scovill & adams company. * * * * * twelve: photographic: studies. the third edition. a collection of photogravures from the best representative photographic negatives by leading photographic artists. compiled by w. i. lincoln adams. the collection includes "dawn and sunset," h. p. robinson. "childhood," h. mcmichael. "as age steals on," j. f. ryder. "a portrait study," b. j. falk. "solid comfort," john e. dumont. "ophelia," h. p. robinson. "no barrier," f. a. jackson. "el capitan," w. h. jackson. "still waters," j. j. montgomery. "surf," james f. cowee "a horse race," george barker. "hi, mister, may we have some apples?" geo. b. wood. printed on japan paper, mounted on boards. size, × , in ornamental portfolio and a box. price, $ . . sent, post-paid, on receipt of price, by the scovill & adams company. * * * * * artistic landscapes from nature. representing the four seasons. these plates were made from photographs taken direct from nature. they have been most beautifully reproduced by the highest grade (copper-plate) process of the new york photogravure company. the plates measure x inches, but are printed on extra heavy plate paper x inches in size. each picture is printed in a tint especially appropriate for the season which it represents, and the entire set of photogravures are in every way =worthy of framing=. the negatives were photographed from nature by mr. w. i. lincoln adams, and they have been _enthusiastically praised wherever shown_. what george inness, america's greatest landscape painter, says of these photogravures: "they are very charming, and should prove extremely useful in the development of the landscape art of our country." they are sold singly or in sets. price, per copy $ . the set of four . sent, post-paid, to any address, on receipt of price, by the montclair photogravure publishing company, montclair, n. j. * * * * * theodore metcalf co. chemicals fine, rare and crude, of every description. from the many years we have dealt in this class of supplies, we claim to be leaders in this branch of the drug trade, and by constantly replenishing and increasing our stock, and at once procuring or manufacturing all new chemical products, we are able to do full justice to all orders. : pure chemicals : for photographic and process work. bromide of potassium. bichromates. ammonium, potassium and sodium. powdered dragon blood, light colored and dark. metcalf powdered bitumen of judea. :: also :: syrian asphaltum. benzole, chemically pure, by can or barrel. etc., etc., etc. boston, u. s. a. * * * * * the grammar of photo-engraving. by h. d. farquhar. (number forty-five of the scovill photographic series.) containing instruction in drawing, chemistry and optics, as applied to photo-engraving. and a practical treatise on the art of half-tone, zinc etching, swelled gelatine, lithotype and chalk plate engraving, as practiced in the united states. illustrated. the object of this book is to present to the constantly increasing number of persons seeking after practical knowledge in the art of process engraving, a comprehensive and totally reliable text-book. the book has been written with a view to instruct the amateur as well as the professional, and the writer has always had in mind the beginner, counting no detail too trivial to be fully described. it has been written for the most part in the leisure hours, after practical service during the day in a photo-engraving establishment, so that the instruction goes directly from the shop to the pupil. it has been the author's hope, in writing this book, to so carefully describe every branch of work connected with the subject, that the beginner, who knows absolutely nothing about it, may become a practical photo-engraver from a careful reading of the work. contents: chapter i.--drawings for photographic reproduction. the materials required. chapter ii.--chemicals used in photo-engraving. chapter iii.--apparatus and the workshop. chapter iv.--photographic processes as employed in photo-engravings. preparation of the chemicals. chapter v.--causes of failure. remedies. chapter vi.--the half-tone process. screen plates. chapter vii.--zinc etching. preparation of chemicals used in zinc etching. chapter viii.--etching in half-tone. chapter ix.--blocking and finishing. tools and materials. chapter x.--swelled gelatine process of photo-engraving. chapter xi.--lithotype engraving for color work. chapter xii.--photographing on wood and other processes. price, in paper covers $ . " cloth bound (library edition) . for sale by all dealers in photographic materials, and sent, post-paid, on receipt of price, by the publishers, the scovill & adams company, broome street, new york city. * * * * * [illustration: a roadside cottage in the catskills e. edwards photo. n.y photogravure co.] photogravure. by henry r. blaney. _with introduction and additions by the editor._ new york: the scovill & adams company. . [illustration] copyright, . the scovill & adams company. contents. page introduction by the editor.--early history of photogravure-- woodbury's process--other methods, chapter i.--the negative.--quality best suitable.--necessity for reversing.--methods of obtaining reversals.--the powder process, chapter ii.--the transparency.--the carbon process.--cutting up the tissue.--sensitizing.--drying.--exposing.--continuing action of light.--development.--carbutt's transparency plates, chapter iii.--the carbon tissue.--sensitizing and exposing.-- the actinometer, chapter iv.--cleaning and graining of the copper plate plate-- grade of copper necessary.--where and how to buy it, chapter v.--development of negative resist on the copper plate.--preparation for biting with acid through the gelatine, chapter vi.--the acid baths.--how to make them and method of biting through the gelatine, chapter vii.--cleaning and polishing the plate, with tools necessary for retouching, chapter viii.--printing from the plate.--steel facing, chapter ix.--materials necessary for photogravure--list of firms supplying them, chapter x.--books and articles on photogravure, - , [illustration] introduction. about the year nicéphore niepce made the discovery that bitumen, under certain conditions, was sensitive to light. he dissolved it in oil of lavender, and spread a thin layer of the solution thus obtained upon stone. this he exposed under a drawing (making the paper transparent by waxing), and after sufficient exposure, oil of lavender was poured on. those portions of the bitumen which had been exposed to the action of the light had become insoluble, and so remained while the lines which had been protected by the drawing were dissolved away. by treating the stone with an acid these lines were bitten or eroded, and could be printed from. niepce afterward employed metal plates instead of the stone. here we have the foundation for a number of printing processes of the present day, including photogravure. for many years, however, progress in processes for intaglio printing was very slow. in talbot introduced a process termed photoglyphy, and in paul pretsch, of vienna, patented a process which he termed photogalvanography. in the late walter b. woodbury, inventor of the woodburytype process, suggested to m. rousselon, of m. m. goupil & co.,[a] a process which he had discovered, and which he describes[b] as follows: "the method, as perhaps many of your readers know, is based on the fact that some pigments used in carbon printing have an unpleasant habit of granulating when mixed with gelatine and bichromate, destructive to their use in carbon printing and woodburytype, but bearing the essence of success in an engraving process where grain is necessary. the origin of this method was simply owing to my getting some bad reliefs, in which this effect was first noticed. out of this arose the photo-engraving process which, as i said before, is now claimed as the invention of a frenchman. but i am digressing. "this relief, possessing a suitable grain, could, by hydraulic pressure, be made to transfer its minutest details to metal without any loss to fineness, so giving a plate possessing all the properties of a mezzotint. the methods hitherto used of electrotyping would have proved useless, as all detail would have been lost. the same thing applies to the new method i am now about to bring before your readers. the latter process of getting the grain transferred to a hard metal remains the same; but the novelty is in the method of producing the grained plate. to those who have practiced the process of enameling, as used by geymet and alker, and others, my description will be better understood. "i first coat a thin, polished steel plate (zinc will answer) with a very thin coating of gum, glucose, and bichromate as used for enameling. this i dry rapidly, and, while still warm and desiccated, expose under a glass positive. on removal from the frame after exposure the plate is made to take up a slight amount of moisture by breathing on it. "during this stage i brush or dust over it any hard powder, such as emery, powdered glass, etc, but these i keep of different degrees of fineness or coarseness. no. , is of a coarse quality, and is used first; no. is finer; and no. is of the finest grain obtainable. these are obtained by passing through muslin of different degrees of fineness. having in the first stage of moisture used the no. , or coarsest, powder, after a time no. is dusted over and adheres to the middle tints, while the very finest tones, which have almost lost their sticky qualities by the exposure to light, are treated to no. . "now we possess a granular picture having all the true qualities required in a photo-engraved plate, or, rather, such as will give a reverse in metal having these qualities. the steel or zinc plate is then to be exposed to light to completely harden the mixture all over, and is then treated exactly as in my other engraving process; that is, pressed into soft metal by hydraulic pressure, electrotyped, and then the surface is aciercised or coated with steel. the dark parts are thus represented by a coarse grain, the middle tints by a medium grain, and the finest shades by the most infinitesimal particles, thus meeting all requirements necessary to a successful photo engraving process." this process was taken up by a frenchman and claimed by him as his own invention. the chief difficulty with it was that the plates before being perfect require the work of a skillful engraver, sometimes for weeks. they were therefore very costly, six dollars per square inch being charged for the making of the plate alone. klic's process, , was the next important improvement in photogravure or intaglio printing, and since then many other processes and improvements have been introduced by obernetter, waterhouse, colls, zuccato, sawyer and others. in the following chapters mr. h. r. blaney gives a working description of the process as practiced to-day by many of the leading firms in this and other countries. this originally appeared in the columns of the photographic times, but i have made many additions that i have imagined may be of value to the student. a dividing line will be found between mr. blaney's writings and my own additions. the editor. [a] now boussod, valadon et cie. [b] _british journal almanac_, . chapter i. the negative. any negative may be used for photogravure, that is, taken from nature, or from a painting or engraving, provided it is reversed, and, in the case of paintings, should, in addition, be on an orthochromatic plate. the negative should be soft and brilliant, well exposed, and not hard or under-exposed. a reversed negative is always necessary if the print from the copper plate is required to be similar in regard to right and left, or if no other means are to be taken, to reverse the image upon the copper plate. professionals use stripping plates especially made for this purpose for small work, or the reversed negative may be made in the copying camera. a fairly good reversed negative can be made by contact in the printing frame from an albumen print from the original negative, the print made transparent with white wax by being placed on a piece of warm, clean metal and the wax rubbed over the face. to have the negative reversed, the print should first be placed, face out, against the glass of the printing frame, with its back against the sensitive surface of the transparency plate, the back closed in and exposed to a large lamp for about five seconds. every care must be taken that you use the best of negatives, carefully retouched if necessary, as the professional photographic etchers have informed me that (from their standpoint) the success of the whole process depends on the quality of the original negative and the care taken in artistic retouching. * * * * * it will often happen in commercial photogravure work that plates have to be made from all kinds of original negatives. in cases where these are flat from over-exposure it is well to make a carbon transparency; intensifying the image with a strong solution of permanganate of potash, and from this make a fresh negative upon a slow or carbutt transparency plate. mr. horace wilmer says: "the class of negative most suitable is such as gives a good result by any of the printing processes. a bright sparkling negative will always give a good plate, but i do not find that any satisfactory results can be got from a soft flat negative. the negative should be as perfect as possible. it is absolutely useless to work from a faulty negative. contrasts on it may be increased by retouching. such contrasts are desirable because the tendency of the etching is to reduce them somewhat." perhaps the simplest way of obtaining a reversed negative is by placing the dry plate in the slide film inside and exposing through the glass, of course after allowing in focusing for the thickness of the glass plate. with the wet-collodion process, usually the method employed by large photomechanical printers, this method can be used because it is a simple matter to carefully examine the glass plate to be employed, but it will be obvious that with the ordinary dry plate all the imperfections of the glass, such as dirt, scratches, air-bubbles, etc., will be clearly reproduced in the image. another method largely employed to produce reversed negatives direct, is by means of a mirror or prism placed either before or behind the lens. the prism is the more convenient, but if large sizes are used it becomes a costly piece of apparatus. the mirror, which should be a plane of glass silvered on its surface, is a less expensive affair. by either of these means the reversed negatives can be made direct without suffering the least in quality. with celluloid or other flexible films, printing can, of course, be done from either side. practical men, however, say that, except with the very thinnest films, there is an undoubted loss of sharpness in the grain when these films are reversed and with some mechanical processes. against this, however, it may be said that better contact can be obtained in printing than if the film were upon a piece of uneven glass, as is often the case, for by backing it with a piece of plate-glass perfect contact is ensured everywhere. we come now to the method of stripping the film from the glass. if the negative is made by the collodion process the matter is a simple one. the glass is treated with french chalk previous to collodionizing. after the negative is made and dried it is laid on a leveling stand and a solution of gelatine poured on it. when dry, it is readily stripped by running a knife all round. with ordinary dry-plates the method usually recommended is to immerse them in dilute hydrofluoric acid. the difficulty often experienced here is in the lateral expansion of the film. this will largely depend upon the plate, or rather the quality of the gelatine used. there are, however, two methods of securing the films to some medium unaffected by moisture, and so prevent expansion or distortion. the first is that recommended by mr. a. pumphrey and the second by mr. h. j. burton, modified descriptions of which are given in a recent number of _the british journal of photography_. if the negative is varnished this is removed. a thin film of gelatine is moistened in a dilute solution of hydrofluoric acid, one part of acid to sixty of water. this gelatine film is secured on paper by a coating of india-rubber. the action of the dilute acid is to soften the gelatine, making it very adhesive. it can, in this state, be readily attached to the negative by squeegeeing. the acid in the film passes through the negative, and releases it from the glass. it can then be lifted off and pinned to a flat surface to dry. the paper can afterward be stripped off, when dry, by moistening the back with a little benzole to dissolve the india-rubber. in this manner we get the stripped negative in exactly the same size as when on the glass, to which it can be restored at any time desired. burton, in his method, employs collodion in place of paper as the support. the negative is first coated with a thick collodion, and this is allowed ten minutes or so to set. it is then immersed in plain water until the film loses all appearance of greasiness. a few drops of hydrofluoric acid are added to the water, and the dish gently rocked. the film will soon detach itself, when the plate should be at once rinsed. another plate previously coated with gelatine, and dried, is placed in the dish, and the released film, after reversing, is floated upon it, the two removed together, and allowed to dry. so far we have only treated upon reverse negatives, either obtained at once or reversed afterward. it often happens, however, that we have an ordinary negative, which is required to be reversed. this negative may be a valuable one, and the risk involved in stripping it be too great. another simple method of obtaining a reversed negative is by means of the powder process. although this process is an old one, it appears to be but little known, for what reason we have never been able to define. it is by no means difficult, and by its means a negative can be obtained direct from a negative without the intermediate positive transparency. the principle of the process is this: an organic tacky substance is sensitized with potassium dichromate, and exposed under a reversed positive to the action of light. all those parts acted upon become hard, the stickiness disappearing according to the strength of the light action, while those parts protected by the darker parts of the positive retain their adhesiveness. if a colored powder be dusted over, it will be understood that it will adhere to the sticky parts only, forming a visible image, the same being a reproduction of the positive printed from. the process is very useful for the production of lantern slides and transparencies, or for the reproduction of negatives. any of the following formulæ may be employed for the manufacture of the organic substance:-- solution a. gum arabic grammes grape sugar grammes purified honey grammes alcohol, deg c.c. water c.c. solution b. saturated solution of ammonium dichromate. two solutions to be mixed together before using in proportions a, b, water. woodbury's formula. gum arabic grains glucose grains glycerine minims potassium dichromate grains distilled water ounces obernetter process. dextrine grains white sugar grains ammonium dichromate grains glycerine to minims distilled water ounces the gum is first dissolved and the remainder of the ingredients added. it may be necessary to warm the solution in a hot water bath to dissolve it. it is then filtered through flannel or clean muslin, and preserved for use in well-stoppered bottles. with this solution clear glass plates are coated and dried by a gentle heat over a small spirit lamp. the plate while still warm is exposed under a reversed positive[c] for from two to five minutes in sunlight, and from to minutes in diffused light. the image is then but slightly visible. on removing from the printing frame the plate is laid in the air (protected from light) for a few minutes to absorb a little moisture from it. the next process is the "dusting on." if the image is required to be black, fine siberian graphite is spread over it with a soft flat brush. this will adhere to the parts unaffected by light, giving an image of the positive. any colored fine powder maybe used, giving images in various colors. when fully developed the excess of powder is dusted off and the film coated with collodion. after this it is well washed to remove the unaltered gum and dichromate salt. the film may, if desired, be detached from the plate and used for enamels, ivory, wood, textile fabrics, opals, etc. [illustration] [c] reversed as regards right and left. chapter ii. the transparency. regular transparency gelatine dry plates are the handiest for making positives, especially for amateurs, if one does not care if the subject is in reverse, or if one has a reversed negative to work from. there is a "special" carbon tissue, price $ . per roll of × feet, made by the autotype company, of london, england, with full instructions appended; by a system of double transfer, reversed negatives may be obtained with this tissue. the "special" tissue is only to be used for the transparency. a safe edge of black paper is required on the transparency, pasted up exactly to the edge of the picture, on the glass side; it comes, sold in strips, gummed, ready for use, about / inch wide; this is required, as the tissue used for the negative resist on the copper plate, which is printed from the transparency, must have a safe edge, shielded from the light, or it will not attach itself to the copper plate, the tissue coming inside half way. the screw pressure printing frame should have a piece of heavy felt for backing the transparency. the following instructions for making carbon transparencies will no doubt be found useful: the carbon tissue prepared for this process consists of paper coated with gelatine containing carbon, lamp-black, or other pigments. the autotype company, of london, manufacture a special "transparency" tissue. cutting up the tissue is performed by unrolling it gently upon a zinc cutting plate, cut square and true, with the inches marked at the bottom and right-hand side. by using a t square and observing the numbered inches marked on the plate, it will not be difficult to cut the tissue to any dimension. if the tissue is very curly and unmanageable it should be kept down with convenient weights. after cutting it up to the required sizes, which should be conveniently smaller than the dish to be used for sensitizing, it should be kept flat under a metal plate. sensitizing the tissue is the next operation. this is performed in a solution of potassium dichromate rendered alkaline with ammonia. tie over the mouth of a two-gallon jug a piece of muslin, to form a kind of bag, into which place fifteen ounces of potassium dichromate, then fill up the jug with water and allow it to stand until the dichromate is dissolved and the solution becomes cold. it is sometimes advisable to regulate the quantity of dichromate. in hot weather, or for very thin negatives, the proportion of water should be doubled, while for very hard negatives only half the quantity should be used. in very hot weather it is often advantageous to replace about per cent. of the water with the same quantity of alcohol. the operation of sensitizing the tissue must be carried on in a room lighted by a window covered with a yellow blind. a flat dish of porcelain, glass, or _papier maché_, a squeegee, and a sheet of glass or zinc larger than the tissue, will be required. the solution is poured into the dish, and should be at least two inches deep. the tissue is then immersed in it, and the air-bells that form immediately brush away from both sides with a broad camel's-hair brush. the temperature of the bath should not be higher than deg. fahr.; and the time of immersion should be from three to five minutes. after the tissue has remained in the solution for the allotted time it is gently removed and laid face downward upon the glass or zinc plate, and the back squeegeed, removing all superfluous solution. the tissue is removed from the glass and laid over a sheet of cardboard, bent into the form of an arch, to dry. another method (h. j. burton's) of sensitizing carbon tissue is to lay it flat on a sheet of clean blotting paper, and sponge on the back a very strong sensitizing solution composed as follows: potassium dichromate ounces liquid ammonia fort ounce water ounces first mix the ammonia with the water, then grind up and add the dichromate. drying the tissue should be accomplished in a room perfectly free from the noxious fumes of other chemicals, and lighted only by non-actinic light. tissues sensitized during the evening should be dry on the following morning. it should then be cut to the sizes required and kept flat in a pressure frame, or other similar contrivance. exposing the tissue.--the tissue can be exposed behind the negative in an ordinary printing frame, or in special frames having no joint in the back, as no image is visible. the negative must be furnished with a safe edge, made by painting an edge about one-eighth of an inch round the negative with black varnish, or by pasting on strips of red or black paper. exposure must be judged by an actinometer. a very suitable instrument for timing the exposure of carbon tissue is sawyer's actinometer. it consists of a rectangular tin box with a glass lid, bearing twelve tints graduated from slight discoloration to a degree of opacity, representing the extreme amount of deposit upon the lights of the densest negatives, each division of this screen of tints bearing a number in opaque pigments; and a roll of sensitive paper is placed in the box, and the end pulled forward so as to pass under the tints. when this arrangement is placed in the light, the silver paper commences to discolor underneath the graduated screen, beginning of course at the lightest, but the number on the tint being in an opaque pigment is preserved white, and serves to register the progress of printing; for if, when the lid is opened, the number one, for instance, shows clearly on a tinted ground, the instrument is said to have registered one tint; by that time the number two will have begun to make its appearance, and, if sufficient exposure be given, the light will print through the whole scale by successive steps, and show up the numbers, one to twelve. with an instrument of this kind it is evident that, by exposing alongside the carbon tissue and determining the number of tints required for the proper exposure of that negative, the same number of tints with the same negative will always prove right. a little practice will enable one to judge the number of tints required for every class of negative. it will be well to remark here that freshly sensitized tissue will produce inferior pictures to that used a day or two after; the pictures are not so hard, and there is less danger of the high-lights being washed away. continuing action of light.--if the carbon tissue after exposure to the light, be kept in the dark for a little time the effect on the print will be precisely the same as if the exposure to light had been prolonged. this continuing action of light may often be utilized to advantage. pictures known to be under-exposed will, if kept till morning, by that time have acquired the same force as if they had received the proper exposure. development consists simply in dissolving the gelatine unaffected by light, with hot water as the solvent. immerse the exposed tissue in a bath containing cold water. it will first of all curl up, but afterward lay flat and limp. it is then placed in another bath containing cold water together with a sheet of glass which has previously been coated with a per cent. solution of gelatine. bring them together face to face, draw them out, and force into close contact with a large squeegee; then place between blotting paper for five or ten minutes. in squeegeeing, the tissue should be uppermost, and a sheet of american cloth laid over it to prevent the squeegee from damaging it. development should not be attempted for at least twenty minutes, during which time the glass, with the tissue on it, should be placed between sheets of blotting paper, and kept under pressure to insure its adherence to the glass support. after that time it is placed in a dish, and water heated to a temperature of deg. f. added. the colored pigment will at once commence to ooze out of the edges, and after a little time the paper originally holding the carbon film may be removed with the hand. then, by gently leveling the picture with the hand, the superfluous gelatine will be washed away, and if the exposure has been correct a perfect image should remain. a certain amount of control can be kept over an autotype picture. an over-exposed print will show itself by insolubility of the gelatine, and the high light refusing to be washed clear. the temperature should be raised considerably, and hot water poured over with a jug. if this fails to reduce the intensity, add a little ammonia to the water as a last resource, though the better plan is to make another print, giving less exposure. under-exposure results in over-solubility of the gelatine. the half-tones will be washed clean away. it is rarely an under-exposed print can be saved. all that can be done is to reduce the temperature of the water. development should never be hurried; the slower it is the better the gradation of tone in the results. after development is complete the bichromate salt is discharged, and the image rendered perfectly insoluble by well washing in cold water and placing in a dish containing a per cent. solution of potash alum, after which it is again washed and dried. another method of making a transparency and one that involves less trouble is by means of the transparency plates which are now in the market. of these we have tried carbutt's with the greatest success. for these the following instructions are given: the requisites are, a deep printing-frame a size larger than the negative to be used, with a flat glass bottom clear and free from scratches (crystal plate is best), a dark-room lantern, or other artificial light, and keystone gelatino-albumen plates. transparencies can be made same size of negative by contact and exposure to artificial light, or enlarged or reduced in the camera by daylight, with equal perfection in result. to make transparencies by contact place one of the keystone thin crystal glass transparency plates over the negative in printing-frame, lay piece of dark soft material over it, close down the back, and expose to the light of the lantern or to a gas flame or other artificial light, for to seconds, according to density of negative, at a distance of inches from the flame. use the following developer: eikonogen and hydrochinon developer. a. metric weight. avoirdupois weight. c.c.m distilled water ounces grammes sulphite of soda crystals ounces grammes eikonogen grains ½ grammes hydrochinon grains c.c.m water to make up to ounces b. metric weight. avoirdupois weight. c.c.m distilled water ounces grammes carbonate of potash ounces grammes carbonate soda crystals ounces c.c.m water to make up to ounces for use take ounce ( c.c.) of a, / ounce ( c.c.) of b, with ounces ( c.c.) of water. more of a will increase density, more of b will increase detail and softness. temperature of developer should not vary much below deg. nor above deg. the after treatment is same as with any other developer. let the development continue until the blacks look quite strong, and detail showing in the high-lights; wash off developer, then immerse in carbutt's new acid fixing and clearing bath. c.c.m sulphuric acid drachm grammes hyposulphite of soda ounces grammes sulphite of soda ounces grammes [d]chrome alum ounce c.c.m warm water ounces dissolve the hyposulphite of soda in ounces ( c.c.m.) of water, the sulphite of soda in ounces ( c.c.m.) of water; mix the sulphuric acid with two ounces ( c.c.m.) of water, and pour slowly into the sulphite soda solution, and add to the hyposulphite; then dissolve the chrome alum in ounces ( c.c.m.) of water and add to the bulk of solution, and the bath is ready. this fixing bath will not discolor until after long usage, and both clears up the shadows of the negative and hardens the film at the same time. let remain two or three minutes after transparency is cleared of all appearance of silver bromide. then wash in running water for not less than half an hour to free from any trace of hypo solution. swab the surface with wad of wet cotton, rinse, and place in rack to dry spontaneously. then varnish with plain collodion. [d] n. b.--during cold weather use only half the quantity of chrome alum in above. chapter iii. the carbon tissue--(sensitizing and exposure). the carbon tissue used as a resist, which is mounted on the copper plate, is made by the autotype company, london, england. no. standard brown is the right grade to use, though i have reached good results with no. . the no. is a heavier grade than no. , and requires two or three minutes longer exposure than the latter. use a deep printing frame with a screw pressure to secure absolute contact, which is known by iridescent markings appearing on the glass of the printing frame. a johnson's actinometer is very useful to time the exposure. from to tints are necessary. experience here is the only guide, as the light varies as well as the density of the negative and the sensitiveness of the tissue. if one does not have an actinometer, a slip of albumen paper may be used; as soon as the paper has reached the darkest point, which is then called one tint, extend it so that a fresh portion comes out to the light, and so on for the different tints. in september, for instance, the darkest tint is reached in about to minutes; two tints and a half or minutes in the shade at midday on a clear day in september is about right,--this is understood to be with medium negatives and no. tissue sensitized within three days. you should over-expose rather than under-expose, allowance being made when the acid is used. print deeply, so that, on development, the negative tissue on the copper plate shows all the detail clearly in the shadows. the tissue should not appear very dark on the plate. the copper should show up through the gelatine clearly and brightly. the thinner the negative tissue, the quicker the biting of the acid. sensitizing the tissue. the carbon tissue comes only in rolls of ½ feet by feet, price $ . , not cut. it is not sold in a sensitive condition. full instructions with each roll for sensitizing. tap water will do, but i would suggest distilled water for making the sensitizing solution of bichromate of potassium. bichromate of potassium ounce water ounces alcohol / drachm ammonia drops the best way to sensitize the tissue, is to place the tissue face up, keeping it flat so that the solution reaches all parts at once, removing all air bubbles, and rubbing in the solution with the fingers until pliant; the time of immersion is three minutes in winter, two minutes in summer. the hands should be washed directly after handling the solution, and care must be taken that there are no cuts on the fingers, as the solution is very harmful, but if due care is exercised and the hands well washed immediately with soap, little, if any, trouble will be experienced; use rubber finger tips as much as possible. keep the temperature of the solution at deg. both in summer and winter. take a piece of glass free from scratches (an inch larger all round than the tissue); have the glass ready cleaned with ammonia and talcum powder of fine whiting, squeegee the sensitized carbon tissue directly from the solution on to the glass and place to dry at night in a light-tight box; it will be dry in the morning. the tissue is in the best condition for three days after sensitizing; it can be used up to seven days; it gradually increases in sensitiveness from day to day. after a week or ten days has elapsed, it is hard to manage and becomes unreliable. when the tissue is dry take a sharp knife and cut inside the edge, and strip off one corner. fairly good results can be reached by simply drying over a curved piece of pulp board, which is tied with string on each end, but squeegeeing on glass gives a sharper result. the addition of ammonia and alcohol to the sensitizing solution makes it easier to strip the paper from the copper plate, after the carbon tissue is mounted on the plate, and enables one to develop the resist in the water at a lower temperature than without it, thus avoiding pits in the darker portions and white specks or bubbles in the lights, should the water reach too high a temperature. [illustration] chapter iv. the cleaning and graining of the copper plate, and grade of copper necessary, and where and how to buy it at reasonable prices. the best copper is recognized by its rosy lustre. pure copper only should be used. it can be purchased ready polished and beveled from several firms in new york. the best way, if large quantities of plates are required, is to buy the copper in the rough of one firm and have it polished by another, and bevel it yourself if necessary with a file and burnish it by hand, or the firm who polish it will do the beveling for you. the scovill & adams co. supply copper-plates of the finest quality, ready polished, for photogravure work. total cost by this method about one-third less than by purchasing ready made. it makes a copper plate / grade, × , cost about $ . . order your copper / in. grade up to × ; larger sizes / in. grade. if you use / in. grade above this size, the plate is liable to buckle. be sure the plate is free from pits and scratches and with a high polish. have what the polishers and engravers call a rouge polish. if they do not supply it, rouge it yourself with powdered rouge and turpentine, using a ball of absorbent cotton over a large piece of smooth cork. a good way to buy rouge is in the stick; it is more economical. rub the wet cotton on it and the right quantity is assured. pits in the copper may be taken out by tapping upon the back with a nail set, using a small piece of polished steel to lay the face of the plate on, and localizing the spot with a pair of calipers. the part raised by the tapping, cut away with the scraper, then rub the spot with scotch stone and water, then a piece of engraver's charcoal (cut to a pencil point), with machine oil; then burnish with the regular engraver's burnisher and sperm oil, finishing with rouge and refined turpentine. when the plate is well polished, make a strong solution of caustic potash (c.p.), which comes in sticks, as strong as possible, as long as it does not stain the copper. it should register about deg. with an actinometer used to test silver solutions. take a piece of absorbent cotton and clean the copper with potash (by the way, use finger tips); rinse under tap for five minutes, then a fresh piece of cotton with alcohol at per cent., rinse again with water, and place in warm water for final rinsing; stand up on corner, or place in drying frame usually used for negatives; allow to drain. should any stains appear, it must be recleaned and all the operations repeated until it drains off without streaks, for these streaks and spots of stain are caused by the caustic potassa, which is difficult to remove. it is as hard to get rid of from the copper as hyposulphite is from a negative. these streaks retard the acid on the copper wherever they appear, and cause defects in the recording of the original tones of the negative. the plate is then ready for graining. ii.--graining the copper plate. a grain is required on the copper plate so that the tones will be reproduced, as copper has not a sufficient grain of its own. the grain is given to the copper plate by dusting it with powdered syrian asphaltum or resin. have a paste-board box made inches high, inches wide and inches deep, perfectly air-tight, with a small door running the whole length on the widest side, an inch or two from the bottom. have the inside of the box perfectly smooth; place within the box ounces finely powdered syrian asphaltum (sold by messrs. theodore metcalf & co., tremont street, boston, mass.); it is difficult to find in new york. shake the box vigorously, place on table, insert a piece of wood an inch high made in shape of cross (or open square, or have netting of wire raised an inch from the bottom of the box); the copper plate, previously cleaned, is at once placed face up upon it. instead of shaking the box it can be arranged upon supports (see fig. ), and revolved. [illustration: fig. .] close the door instantly, and let the plate remain about two minutes; carefully remove the plate and place it on a florence oil lamp, holding the plate with a hand vise, watch carefully until the powder disappears from the surface and the plate slightly smokes, then stand aside to cool. do not keep the plate too long on the heater, or the particles of dust will run together, forming an impenetrable varnish over the plate. this part of the process is not difficult, but requires practice. preserve each atom of dust as much as possible, examine with magnifying glass and, when cool, test with finger nail; if it rubs off easily, it has not been heated enough; then the plate must be re-cleaned and again powdered. to get a good all-round working grain, suitable for medium subjects, the plate should be placed at once in the box after shaking; thus the coarser particles that fall first, and the finer, which gradually settle, will combine after two or three minutes. many combinations will be suggested to the student by practice to suit the subject; for instance, waiting for two minutes and then inserting the plate, gives a fine grain for delicate subjects. powdered dragon's blood (resin) in combination with asphaltum makes a beautiful grain; a separate box may be used for the dragon's blood; the asphaltum first dusted on the plate, then inserted in the dragon's blood box for twenty or thirty seconds, then melted together. the dragon's blood melts first, then the asphaltum. the air brush is also used by professionals; it throws a resinous spirit varnish, coarse or fine, as required. [illustration] chapter v. development of negative resist on the copper plate, and preparation for biting with acid through the gelatine. have a wooden box made inches long, by inches high, inches wide, with door inches high on side, fastened with hinges, top and bottom of box open; cover top with sheet zinc. place inside florence oil lamp; the door is valuable to regulate the heat. on top of box place deep porcelain tray, × , fill with water half full; in the water place two pieces of plate glass / inch high and inches long, on which to place copper to keep it from the bottom of the tray. slide the copper plate into the water, removing all air bubbles, keeping the fingers off the surface of the plate. take the sensitized and exposed tissue and place face down in the cold water ( deg.) sliding it gradually in at further end of the paper so as to avoid air bubbles; the instant the paper curls backward, place it over the copper plate and remove it quickly from the water. this has to be done with celerity or it will be found difficult to mount the tissue with the squeegee on the copper, and also it should be exactly placed with reference to the top and sides of the copper; all this, of course, to be done under water, never allow it to slip up out of it. place plate on table and squeegee into place, stroking firmly from the centre, each way. place face down on clean blotting paper, under heavy weight for fifteen minutes. while plate is under pressure (which is necessary to enable the gelatine to expand and attach itself to the plate), start the lamp gradually, and by the time the paper is ready the water should register on the thermometer deg. slide the plate under water removing air bubbles as they appear, with a ball of absorbent cotton; when the heat of the water reaches deg. fahr., the gelatine commences to ooze from all around the edges of the paper, and after the plate has remained in the water about ten minutes after the showing up of the gelatine (at the temperature from to deg.), take a pin and carefully raise the paper at the corner, gradually pulling away the paper toward the opposite corner, keeping the hand close to the water; should the gelatine which adheres to the plate appear to lift, wait a few minutes longer and start another corner. after the paper is stripped from the plate, gently develop the negative resist with a piece of fresh absorbent cotton, delicately rubbing the surface, edges first, and lave the plate up and down in the water, keeping the temperature steadily at to deg., by raising or lowering the lamp. (should the paper be under-exposed and appear very black on the copper, develop at to deg., not over. if over-exposed it will appear very thin, and the heat of the water must not go over deg.; it will strip at to deg.) then the negative image gradually appears, the darks first, which are of course the brightest portions; when all detail appears in the shadows and the negative stands out clear and bright, take it out of the dark-room (which is lighted with an ordinary lamp), and gently wash under the tap with clean and cold water at to deg. dry the resist with alcohol, pouring it over the plate from one end, starting with half alcohol and half water, gradually adding more alcohol and eliminating the water, until a final flooding with absolute alcohol is reached; use fresh solutions of alcohol and water for each copper; don't use old alcohol for anything except cleaning the copper at the end, and for removing the spirit varnish. stand up to dry against the wall, face out, and standing square on the bottom of the plate, in the same position as you flooded it with alcohol; it will be dry in twenty minutes if rightly flooded. the bare copper should now be protected by a strong varnish in alcohol (it must flow freely off the brush); a good varnish for this purpose, and the best i know of, is an etcher's asphaltum stopping-out varnish, sold by messrs. devoe & co., new york; price cents per bottle. should it get thick as you come to the bottom of the bottle, add a little spirits of lavender until it flows again freely. take an architect's ruling pen and carefully rule a line with the varnish up to the edge of the picture, making it exactly true with the sides of the plate and the space on each side of the work the same with the top, the bottom space slightly larger; make sure that it slightly comes inside the picture. keep the rule away from the surface of the gelatine, as it is very delicate. then cover all the rest of the copper, protecting the bare parts and bevel, and bringing the varnish up to the line. allow to dry hard; about twenty minutes will do. form a wall about the resist, with walling wax, about an inch high; make a lip at one corner, the further left hand one, for instance; see that there are no leaks. there are several grades of wax, but liedel & co.'s is the best; when ordering you should give the name as modeling wax; gray is a good color. pans can be used made of tin and varnished, or porcelain trays, protecting the back and edges of the plate with varnish, but i find the wax very helpful, especially on large plates. chapter vi. the acid baths.--how to make them and method of biting through the gelatine. perchloride of iron c.p. is the acid generally used for this purpose; it is a still acid, and if the room is well ventilated no harm to health results, but care must be taken to air the baths after making to get rid of the surplus chlorine. four baths are used, each of different strengths, the strongest is used first, the weakest last. i quote from the catalogue of the boston art museum, of the exhibition illustrating the technical methods of the reproductive arts and photo-mechanical processes, held january , : "photo-aquatint (photogravure) for the production of half-tone intaglio plates from photographs from nature, paintings, etc. a dry aquatint ground is laid on a metal plate, and over this is mounted a gelatine negative film, made by the pigment printing process. to obtain this negative film a _reversed_ positive on glass has first to be made. the reason why this positive must be reversed will become clear when the nature of the manipulations in the pigment printing process, which involves the turning of the film, are considered. the film mounted on the plate is a washout relief, thickest in those parts which are to show white in the impressions from the plate, and gradually growing thinner toward the darkest parts, where it is thinnest. the film acts as a 'resist' to the mordant, allowing it to pass freely in the thinnest parts, and less freely as it increases in thickness. if, however, the film were mounted on the bare plate, and the biting then proceeded with, the result would be of no practical use, as the plate would present merely shallow hollows, incapable of holding the ink, and which would therefore be wiped out in the attempt to clean the surface of the plate. this is, however, prevented by the aquatint ground, which allows the mordant to circulate only in the channels around the resinous particles of which it consists, and thus produces a grain precisely as in ordinary aquatinting. the mordant used in perchloride of iron, which is a 'still mordant,' _i.e._, one which does not evolve bubbles of gas. an effervescent mordant cannot be used as the bubbles rising under the film would tear it up. in biting, successive baths of varying strength are made. "a strong solution of perchloride of iron penetrates only the thinner parts of the film, whereas a weaker acts also through the thicker parts. the biting, therefore, begins with a strong solution, which acts only in the darkest parts, and followed up with weaker and weaker solutions, which continue the biting in the darks and at the same time carry it on gradually toward the lights. if necessary, the plate is worked over with the burnisher to brighten the lights, and with roulettes, etc., to strengthen the darks." purchase nine ( ) pounds of perchloride of iron in crystals ( cents per pound), take a wide-mouthed gallon jar, place within half a gallon of distilled water, add the iron until it tests deg. by a beaumé hydrometer, pour off enough to fill a one-litre glass stoppered bottle, after filtering through absorbent cotton. keep adding the iron to the jar until the strength of each bath is reached. to the strongest solution add half a drachm of c. p. muriatic acid, and to the weakest half a drachm c. p. nitric acid; the nitric acid is added so that in the last biting a good final nip is given to the copper. i here give my own formula, with those recommended by others. the four ( ) baths should be well aired for a day (in broad pans) in the open air before filtering. formula for acid baths. (h. r. blaney.) no. should register to beaumé's scale deg. no. " " " " " deg. no. " " " " " deg. no. " " " " " deg. the temperature of the bath to be at deg. fahr. when tested. (denison's.) no. should be made to register beaumé's scale, deg., the percentage of perchloride in this solution is , and the specific gravity . . no. , deg.; percentage, ; spec. grav. . no. , " " ; " . no. , " " ; " . no. , " " ; " . from an article in the _photographic news_ (english), nov. , , as practiced in india. biting bath. (waterhouse.) no. , sp. grav., . ; ap. per ct. of fe_{ }, cl_{ } = no. , " . ; " " no. , " . ; " " no. , " . ; " " no. , " . ; " " a stronger solution of deg. has been tried (by the above) but has no penetrating power through even the thinnest film. another formula. for large plates, lbs. perchloride of iron and distilled water, until weight amounts to . grammes per c.c. from this four ( ) solutions are made, at no. , deg. beaumé; spec. grav. . no. , " " " . no. , " " " . no. , " " " . the plate is now ready for biting. keep a record of the bitings, and length of time for each one, for after-study; also note the time of exposure of the tissue, age of same, etc., etc. pour the acid from a glass graduate with one sweep over the plate, removing all bubbles with a feather, noting the time of immersion so as to guide you. start with deg., having ready the deg. in another graduate, watch carefully the action of the acid, and if the resist has been properly printed, the action of the acid will show after a minute; if longer it means a generally longer biting for each bath. average bitings. deg., no. minutes deg., no. minutes deg., no. minutes deg., no. minutes temperature of bath at deg. fahr., with no. tissue. total of different bitings, from to minutes, according to depth of printing. it always varies. there is no hard and fast rule; you must in time learn to judge by your eye alone. the acid will first attack the thinnest part of the film, wherever that may be, and when the darkening of the copper ceases to spread to the next thickest parts, instantly pour off the acid, and pour on the deg. do not allow the atmosphere to act on the gelatine while biting any longer than is necessary to pour off one bath and quickly pour on a new one. the and deg. baths are for the middle tones, the deg. for the most delicate ones. the action of each bath is cumulative, the deg. biting a little where the deg. had bitten, the deg. doing the same for those before it, besides taking care of itself, and the deg. attacking all more or less. during the biting with the deg. solution, it should be continued until the whites just turn color, and a minute beyond; that is, the copper should begin to show a very little under the thickest and darkest film. (note that in the carbon resist the shadows are transparent and the high lights are opaque.) the length of the last biting very seldom is over two minutes. it is better to overbite your darks, and underbite your lights, if you vary any. the amount of moisture in the air and the heat of the day influences the length of biting. in hot weather in summer it is very difficult to work the process, the walling wax being discarded and the copper (back and edges protected by varnish) placed in a porcelain tray, surrounded by ice-water and kept at to deg., and the acid pured over the plate to the depth of one inch. [illustration] chapter vii. cleaning and polishing the plate, with tools necessary for retouching. when the biting is finished rapidly place the plate under the tap and rinse thoroughly, breaking away the film with your fingers; it seems to have rotted under the action of the acid and is easily removed. remove the walling wax, clean off the varnish with chloroform or turpentine, or alcohol first, and chloroform last. this leaves a dim picture on the plate, with a kind of scum over it; wet the plate with turpentine and start heavily with rouge, rubbing to and fro equally all over the plate with a ball of absorbent cotton; continue this treatment, using less and less rouge and more turpentine until you give the final polish to the high lights with a clean dry piece of cotton. be very careful not to overdo in rouging; the scum (if the biting of the plate is of medium strength) should clear from the plate with hardly a touch, and with very little rouging. some plates require a great deal of rouging; it then generally means that you must look to your sensitizer. i again draw your attention to the rouging; here is where any artistic feeling you may possess will come into play with taste and patience. after the plate is rouged sufficiently, an engraver's burnisher is used to clean up the highest lights and to modify others. two or three roulettes of different fineness are valuable to touch up any darks that need deepening; it matches very well with the grain, but i am always trying to dispense with the use of the roulettes; one ought to get it with the acid alone. a no. sewing needle in a holder (dentist's pin-holder, screw end) is necessary to touch out occasional white specks. you will have plenty of them at first unless you look out carefully for dust on the film; keep all your solutions constantly attended to by occasional filtering, and don't use your sensitizing solution more than half a dozen times; keep it well corked; if it gets old it scums the plate too much. [illustration] chapter viii. printing the plate and steel facing. before final finishing by hand a working proof should be printed from the plate by an expert plate printer, by which, what the plate needs can be determined before final proving. have the plate proved on different papers, and with different colored inks, so as to judge the effect. imperial japan is the best paper, besides etching paper, india, thin chinese and japanese papers. the cost of proving per single proof is cents for a × plate on imp. japan, about $ . per doz. same paper; etching paper, about $ . per --less for large quantities. a second-hand d press, suitable for printing large or small editions or for proving, can be bought in boston or new york for from $ to $ . for instructions in printing see hamerton's "etchers and etching." steel facing. the life of a photogravure plate without steel facing does not last much beyond impressions, so that if an edition is needed, send the plate to any good printer who will have it steel-faced for you; their charges are very moderate, about cents for a × plate. the steel-facing is accomplished by first making the plate chemically clean, as before preparation for graining, only be very thorough in using an old tooth-brush to get out the dirt and in addition use chloroform before using potash. then solder a copper wire on to the back. the negative wire is attached to the copper plate. to the positive pole of the quart smee battery is fastened a bright steel plate same size of copper, in a gallon jar. the plates are hung from glass rods / inch apart, a sufficient quantity of the following solution to be poured into the jar: (denison's.) warm water ounces ammonium chloride ounces sulphate of iron and ammonia ounces filter, and let stand for hours. five ( ) minutes will cover the plate with a thin film of steel. (obernetter's.) "place the copper plate in a porcelain tray on the bottom of which rests a brightly burnished copper wire, the negative pole. "the anode on the positive pole, a bright steel plate, is suspended over the copper plate, and kept in motion while the circuit is closed. a precipitate of steel, resembling silver in appearance, must instantly occur upon the copper plate, any air-bells to be removed. five minutes is sufficient to deposit a perfect steel coating." grease the plate after steel facing, to keep off the rust. formula: (obernetter's.) distilled water litre chloride of ammonium grammes proto sulphate of iron grammes iron alum grammes [illustration] chapter ix. materials necessary for photogravure, and list of firms supplying them. _materials._ printing frame (deep), × , screw pressure, $ . roll carbon tissue, no. ; standard brown, $ . johnson actinometer, $ . . beaumé hydrometer, $ . (with glass). silver " (argentometer) c. engravers' scraper, $ . , best grade. " burnisher, $ . , " powder box for graining (paste-board), $ . powdered syrian asphaltum, $ per pound. nine ( ) pounds perchloride of iron (c. p. crystals), c. per pound. stick rouge, c. turpentine, c. (refined). alcohol ( per cent.). modeling wax, $ . . one ps. scotch stone, c. one dozen glass blowers' charcoal, $ . per dozen sticks (for polishing copper). one pound absorbent cotton, c. one pound caustic potash c. p. (sticks). one porcelain tray, deep, × , $ . . one florence hand lamp, c. one squeegee. three roulettes, $ . each. hand vise, c. calipers, c. dairy thermometer, c. one bottle etchers' varnish, c. one ounce chloroform, c. six ounces bichromate potassium. one pound concentrated ammonia. list of firms supplying materials for photogravure. the scovill & adams co., broome street. photographic materials and photo-engravers' supplies. messrs. bestgen & co., washington street, boston, mass. polishers of copper plates. mr. george schard, wooster street, new york. polisher copper plates. mr. jos. wheeler, washington street, boston, mass. printer of photogravures. messrs. j. h. daniels & co., oliver street, boston, mass. printers of photogravures. messrs. frost & adams, cornhill, boston, mass. engravers' and etchers' supplies. messrs. f. w. devoe & co., fulton street, new york. engravers' and etchers' supplies. messrs. fusch & lang, warren street, new york. engravers' supplies. mr. alfred sellers, fulton street, new york. engravers' supplies (screw pressure printing frames). messrs. john sellers & sons, dey street, new york. engravers' supplies. messrs. eimer & amend, th street and d avenue, new york. chemists, glassblowers charcoal. messrs. theodore metcalf & co., tremont street, boston, mass. chemists. messrs. kimmel & voigt, canal street, new york. expert photogravure printers. messrs. whitely & co., centre street, new york. polisher of copper plates. messrs. gilderslieve & co., th street, new york. blankets for press. mr. charles creedner, south william street, room , new york. japan paper. mr. geo. b. sharp, baxter street, new york. copper plates. messrs. f. a. ringler, barclay street, new york. steel facing copper plates, printers of photogravures. messrs. leidel & co., th avenue, corner st street, new york. modeling wax; etchers' supplies. thomas hall (electrician), bromfield street, boston, mass. hydrometers (smee's battery), etc. new york steel and copper plate co., wallabout street, brooklyn, n. y. mr. jas. moffet, wooster street, new york. copper plates in the rough. [illustration] chapter x. books and articles on photogravure. published from to . la photogravure facile et à bon marché. par l'abbé ferret. paris. . price, fr. cents. manuel d'heliographie et de photogravure en relief. par g. bonnet. . paris. fr. cents. photogravure. by w. t. wilkinson. . london, e. c. published by messrs iliffe & son, st. bride street. price, _s._ _d._ photo-engraving and photo-etching. by w. t. wilkinson. sold by the scovill & adams co., new york. price, $ . . hamerton's "etchers and etching." roberts bros., boston, mass. price, $ . . photo-etching in india. article in _photographic news_ (english), november , . "photogravure, or photographic etching on copper." by herbert denison. a lecture delivered before the photographic society of great britain. printed in the photographic times, april st, , and following issues. photogravure or photo-etching. article in _wilson's magazine_, - . notes on photo-aquatint. catalogue of exhibition, illustrating the reproductive arts and photo-mechanical processes. address s. r. koehler, boston art museum, boston, mass. * * * * * merck's pyrogallic acid will be found, upon comparison, to be _superior_ in every respect to all other brands on the market. its distinctive points of superiority are: st.--absolute purity d.--perfect crystallization d.--immaculate whiteness th.--extreme lightness th.--moderate cost (its price is not higher than that of any other make.) [illustration] merck's pyrogallic acid produces the highest intensity to be desired in a photographic plate, and, at the same time, the finest detail in light and shade required for the most perfect printing negative. under ordinary precaution, it retains all its superior qualities undiminished for an indefinite length of time. when ordering specify "=merck's.=" to be had of all dealers. testimonials. "i have tested merck's pyro carefully in comparison with the other pyros at present on the market, and i find that it is superior to any and all of them." prof. charles ehrmann, instructor of the chautauqua school of photography. "i shall, in future, certainly use no other pyro but merck's. the best is always good enough for me." alfred stieglitz, editor _american amateur photographer_. "merck's pyrogallic acid will be found a very superior article. its purity is absolute, with quick crystallization and immaculate whiteness. in use, it produces the highest intensity that can be desired in the negatives. the detail in light and shade is perfect, producing printing qualities unsurpassed by any pyro we have ever used." st. louis and canadian photographer. "merck's pyro has undergone a severe test in my hands. i find it to possess many qualities which give it superiority over all other makes. authorities place the solubility of pyro as one part in two of water. i found one ounce of merck's to dissolve readily in : of water at °. it is extremely light, pure, and of a fine white color, giving rich negatives full of vigor and sparkling brilliancy." walter e. woodbury, editor of _the photographic times_. "i have used merck's pyrogallic acid, and prefer it to all others." b. w. kilburn, official photographer (stereoscopic), at the columbian world's fair, and san francisco mid-winter exposition. "i have tried merck's pyro and must certainly say it is the best i ever used. the results i have obtained with it are remarkably fine." w. b. post, amateur photographer, new york. moreno studio, fifth ave., new york. "i have been using merck's pyro in my studio, and am very well pleased with it. it is clean, gives brilliant negatives, and is reliable, one day's work being exactly the same as another's." a. moreno. "i have been using merck's pyro, and am ready to indorse the high praise which you have found it entitled to: 'that it is superior in point of purity, lightness and solubility' to any like product that i have seen. in fact, 'the new and improved process' seems to reach in its result the point beyond which it is impossible to go--that is, perfection. this was my impression at first sight, and using serves only to confirm it. in my opinion, pyro stands at the head of all developers of dry plates, and i am much mistaken if merck's pyro, when known, does not lead all brands of pyro." w. h. sherman, professional photographer, milwaukee. * * * * * scovill & adams photo-engraving materials, combined in a small outfit for half-tone photo-engraving. the articles contained in this outfit are all that is necessary for the half-tone process, except when the installation of large and expensive machinery is warranted. x american optical co. enlarging, reducing and copying camera, fitted with patent screen plate holder $ . camera swing . copy board . max levy screen, lines to the inch, x . max levy screen, lines to the inch, x . rectilinear lens, rapid paragon, x , w. d. . -qt. funnels, glass, c. . -oz. " " c. . pkg. no. filtering paper . hydrometers, c. . x glass baths in studio box, $ . rubber dipper . -gall. evap. dish . x porcelain trays, $ . . x vulcanite trays, $ . . -oz. graduates, c. . -oz. " c. . x printing frame, -in. glass . x retouching frame . large neg. racks . -in. french hand roller . composition roller, -in. . pincers . acid brushes . ink spatula . hook for cutting zinc plates . retouching brushes . gal. absolute alcohol . ½ lbs. ether . oz. pary's gun cotton, c. . oz. iodide potass., c. . oz. resubl. iodine, c. . lbs. nitrate silver crystal, $ . . lb. absorbent cotton, lb. packages . lbs. protosulph. iron, c. . lb. citric acid . " bichloride mercury . " cyanide potash . " glycerine . b'ks blue litmus paper, c. . lb. aqua ammonia fort. . / lb. nitric acid, c. p. . gall. benzole . lb. bichromate ammonia . " caustic potash . " com'l nitric acid, c. . " ferri chloride, bot. . " rubber cement, can . " nitrate lead, bot. . " ferricyan. potash, bot. . / " transfer ink . / " engraver's charcoal . " pumice stone . " sulphate copper, c. . " / -in. brass pins, c. . " lith. ink, black . galls. le page's liquid glue, $ . . shoot board and plane . set engraving tools . " finishing " . ½-in. flat file . -in. " . set ass'd sable pencils, nos. to . darlot focusing glass . -in. engraver's pad, filled . egg beater . set roulettes . ream proof paper . -oz. plain collodion vial . lb. best dragon's blood . polished zinc plates, sq. in. . " copper " " . ¼ send for the photo-engravers' catalogue to the scovill & adams co., broome st., n.y. * * * * * copying cameras for photo-engraving. the scovill enlarging, reducing and copying cameras. with s. & a. photo-engravers' adjustable screen plate holder. [illustration] no. . size, ½ × ½, ft. bed price, $ . " . " × , ft. bed " . " . " × , " " . " . " × , " " . " . " × , " " . " . " × , " " . " . " × , " " . _special sizes and styles made to order._ the form of construction of this camera is made apparent by the illustration here shown. * * * * * scovill copying cameras. with s. & a. photo-engravers' adjustable screen plate holder. [illustration] these cameras are made of hardwood, shellacked, not varnished. naturally they are without swing, but in every requisite they are complete; and for this particular service, as well as others, the american optical company's make is sought for before all others. such varied lengths of bed are required and ordered, that we can only give a price list for copying cameras with the regulation length of bed. we make them to order of any length of platform desired, either rigid or detachable, and with either single or double bellows. estimates promptly and cheerfully furnished. no. . ½ × ½, with bed feet in length price, $ . " . × , " ¾ " " . " . × , " " " . " . × , " ½ " " . " . × , " " " . " . × , " " " . " . × , " " " . _larger sizes made to order._ when ordering copying camera, please give length of cone, if that is needed. * * * * * the s. & a. photo-engravers' adjustable screen plate holder. [illustration] (patent applied for.) this holder, as is shown in the cut above, is a great improvement over any heretofore manufactured for photo-engraving purposes. its principal points of superiority are, briefly: first.--the ease with which it is adjusted for different size plates and screens, by a simple sliding movement of the two inside frames to or from the centre, and thus dispensing with the expensive and troublesome use of kit frames. second.--the convenience by which the screen plate is accurately adjusted to the sensitized plate by means of the metallic sliding adjusters. (heretofore it has been necessary to do the adjusting by means of inserting different thicknesses of cardboard, paper, etc.) third.--different thicknesses in the screen plates are allowed for by means of a spring which always holds the plate in accurate place, no matter what its thickness may be. fourth.--a graduated scale on each screen adjuster makes it easy to always insure absolute accuracy in determining the distance of the screen plate from the wet plate. fifth.--the simplicity of construction and excellent workmanship of the entire holder, being made, as it is, in the factory of the famous american optical company. and, altogether, it is an ingeniously designed and beautifully constructed holder, which will be found of indispensable aid to the practical photographer. these holders are thicker than the ordinary plate holders, and if it is desired to use them on a camera the ground glass of which is focused for the ordinary plate holder, a new ground glass frame is necessary in order to adjust the focus. when ordering a holder to fit a camera in use, send the old holder or the old ground glass frame, so that the new ones can be made to fit the camera. also state the size of largest and smallest screen plate to be used in holder. it is made in various sizes. prices as follows: frames _only_; for ground glass. × size $ . $ . × " . . × " . . × " . . × " . . × " . . × " . . if adjustment from the outside of holder is desired, add $ . to above prices. the scovill & adams co., broome st., new york city. * * * * * the scovill printing frames for photo-engraving. [illustration] the printing frames made by the american optical co. for photo-engraving are like everything else manufactured by this factory, of the highest degree of perfection, and the utmost care was given to the comparative distance of screws so as to produce an even pressure. many negatives have been either ruined or snapped by the use of imperfect printing frames. [illustration] the american optical co. printing frames for photo-engraving are the only safe ones on the market. prices. × , including one-inch glass $ . × , " " " . × , " " " . × , " " " . × , " " " . larger and special sizes made to order. * * * * * to photo engravers: having systematically undertaken the improvement of photo engravers' appliances, we follow the s. & a. photo engravers' adjustable screen plate holder, and the s. & a. accurately adjusted photo-engraving printing frames, with the s. & a. photo-engraving etching tub, to which we call the attention of those interested in this business. we extend to them a cordial invitation to examine the same at our salesrooms. [illustration] these photo-engraving etching tubs will "fill a long felt want" with the photo engravers, as they are constructed so as to resist the strongest acids, and combine the features suggested by practical experience. the tub measures, inside, ½ inches long, ¼ inches wide, and - / inches deep, and the price of same is $ . . very truly yours, =the scovill & adams co.= * * * * * [illustration] in olden times people were satisfied to worry along with whatever crude appliances came easiest to hand.... =the material progress= of the nineteenth century, however, has created a demand for a higher order of mechanical products than was formerly deemed essential, and this is peculiarly the case with.... process engravers. =to meet this demand=, the firm of john royle & sons have devoted the best part of their time, for the past years, to the improvement of the mechanical accessories to process engraving, and with what success is best testified to by the fact that their machinery is used exclusively by the _best_ process engravers, both in the united states and abroad. john royle & sons, paterson, n. j., u. s. a. * * * * * chrome=gelatine and photo=gelatine. chrome-gelatine is a perfected modification of the three-color printing process. it is so named from the gelatine process of printing being used to produce the resulting pictures, which are allowed to be really wonderful, and which may be reproductions from original oil paintings, water-colors, views from nature, objects of still life, textile fabrics--indeed, all classes of work copied from originals in color. the results, in all cases, are produced from three-color negatives. artists, whose works have been reproduced by this method, express their satisfaction of the results in the highest terms, without qualification. n. y. photogravure co. west d street, new york. * * * * * photogravure and aquarelle (_photogravure in colors._) photogravures are of all classes of subjects. an important modification of this process has recently been perfected (patent applied for), by which the delicacy of the gelatine print is maintained, at the same time that great strength and color is produced in the shadows. the plates thus made are very durable, and show but little wear after many thousands of impressions have been produced. moreover, they require no finishing or handling after having been etched, and are quite easily printed. aquarelles are printed from photogravure plates, inked up locally in a variety of colors. when the whole of the plate has been so inked, the impression is pulled. the results are beautiful, but the process of printing is exceedingly slow--three or four impressions a day, only, being obtainable from a moderate sized plate. n. y. photogravure co. west d street, new york. * * * * * publications the n. y. photogravure co. has on hand thousands of subjects of all classes, available for the purposes of illustration, and at the service of its customers. the newest and best subjects are being continually added to this collection. sets of illustrations selected with the greatest care and skill, for any desired purpose. the n. y. photogravure co. west d street, new york. * * * * * sun and shade. an artistic periodical. published monthly. forty cents a number. four dollars a year. each number contains eight exquisite photogravures, photo-gelatines or color prints, by the new chrome-gelatine process, printed on paper × inches, with descriptive letter-press. six volumes are now complete, price $ . each. each volume contains nearly one hundred plates. the whole six volumes form a complete gallery of current art. "sun and shade reproduces not only the most notable paintings and portraits, but the best work of amateur and professional photographers. if it gave nothing but the latter work it would be deserving of the most liberal patronage that it receives; but it is an admirable record of the greatest paintings at the metropolitan museum of art, of living american players, of portraits of celebrated americans, of great american painters, with reproductions of their work, and it is a monument of the n. y. photogravure co., which is a monument of artistic new york." the n. y. photogravure co. west d street, new york. * * * * * alfred sellers & co. manufacturers of zinc copper and brass plates for photo-engravers. printing frames, etching tubs, etching powders, rollers, etc. sellers' special transfer. etching and proving inks. inking slabs, chemicals (chas. cooper & co.'s), formulas, and all supplies for photo-engravers. photo-engraving taught in albumen, bitumen, or the enamel process. try the new russell etching powder. supplies in general. send for price list. beekman street, new york, n. y. u. s. a. * * * * * [illustration: e. c. meinecke· ernest burtt· h w rowland· photo-gravure. photo-gelatine. photo-lithography. lithography. photo-engraving. type-printing. works. brooklyn. n.y. e. c. meinecke & co. room . west nd street. new york.] the favorable comments received from all sources testify to the unrivaled results obtained by the photogravure process, as worked by our method. in reviewing a set of photogravures of the clifton water garden, from negatives by the proprietor, mr. s. c. nash, the _florists' exchange_, says: "in his work he has been ably seconded by messrs. e. c. meinecke & co., of new york, the makers and printers of the plates. without fear of contradiction, we state there is no method of reproducing a picture to compare with the photogravure process, except, possibly, the expensive and tedious steel plate. for fidelity to detail, sharpness of outline, contrast of light and shadow, breadth and depth, and absolute fidelity to life, we choose this. the photogravure process _is the best for_ =book illustrations= =art and trade catalogues= =calendars, menus, etc.= where the most artistic results are desired. either =plates supplied= combining the best wearing qualities with the most artistic finish, or editions ready for the binder. your correspondence is solicited, and a trial order requested, which will be executed promptly and in the best manner. * * * * * =amateurs!= in order to get the =best results= you must use the =cramer plate= manufactured by =g. cramer dry plate works, st. louis, mo.= =your dealer does not keep cramer plates, he sells them.= * * * * * =if you want to secure the best photogravure results,= =then you must use the best plates, and these are= =wuestner's "white label" sens. plate.= =wuestner's= =new eagle dry plate works.= for sale by all dealers. * * * * * [illustration: our business is to sell everything used in photography douglass & shuey co. iii state st. chicago.] =photogravure worker.= =have you tried= =the original= zeiss lens? =no?= _better do so at once._ the scovill & adams co. have them! * * * * * =zeiss-anastigmat lenses= =manufactured by= =bausch & lomb optical co.= =are unapproached for all process work, and are rapidly displacing other forms of lenses.= = - n. st. paul street, rochester, n. y.,= =new york city, corner fulton & nassau sts.= * * * * * [illustration: the photographic times an illustrated monthly magazine devoted to the interests of artistic & scientific photography the photographic times publishing association broome street new york edited by walter e. woodbury.] each number contains from to illustrations! besides a magnificent photogravure frontispiece. the most "up to date" photographic magazine in the world. all the best and latest improvements chronicled by the best writers. reproductions of all the finest photographic work from all parts of the world. * * * * * a few unsolicited opinions of the photographic times. "it is a daisy."--hon. a. a. adee. "it is a veritable triumph of photographic literature."--j. j. carter. "one of the finest illustrated magazines received by us is the photographic times."--_chenango telegraph._ "if my opinion is of any value, i will tell you that it is far and away ahead of anything that has ever been attempted."--h. j. aiken. "you have certainly reached the very height of possibilities in a photographic magazine."--arthur j. benton. "the photographic art has hitherto had no better exponent, and the publishers of this magazine are determined to keep at the head of the literature of their profession. the many original articles are fully illustrated."--_the portland transcript._ "be sure and continue sending it. can't keep house without it."--j. e. craig. "it is a beauty in every sense."--chas. wager hull. "the subject-matter, the number and quality of the illustrations, the typographic work and the general appearance of the photographic times, monthly, are, separately and collectively, cause for hearty congratulation. permit me to hereby extend mine, together with sincere wishes for your continued success."--c. d. cheney. ________________ the photographic times publishing association, = broome street, new york, n. y.= _please send me_ =the photographic times=, _commencing with_ _______________ , _for_ _______________ _to my address_: _name_, ______________________________________ _p. o._, _____________________________________ _county_, ____________________________________ _state_, _____________________________________ subscription rates, one year, $ . ; six months, $ . ; three months, $ . ; single copies, cents. remit by express, money order, draft, p. o. order, or registered letter. subscriptions to the photographic times received by all dealers in photographic materials in this and foreign countries; also by the american news company and all its branches. * * * * * =the photographic appetite= increases by what it feeds on. the beginner is usually content to start with a modest outfit, but as interest grows the hunger for more artistic results calls for better facilities so that the apparatus must constantly be of a more improved pattern and contain all the latest fixings, till finally the question of improvement is entirely one of the value of the lens. × size the empire, =$ . = the new waterbury, =$ . = the henry clay d, =$ . = the waterbury, =$ . = the henry clay, jr. =$ . = the henry clay, =$ . = to suit this growing appetite we make a line of camera boxes unequaled for workmanship and convenient appliances. we can supply any stage of hunger, and make to order to suit any whim. any photographic question cheerfully answered. send for our catalogue. the scovill & adams co. broome street, new york. * * * * * anthion-schering the best hypo eliminator. directions for use. the solution. five grammes ( grains) =anthion= are dissolved in one litre (one quart) of luke-warm distilled water. the solution keeps for at least one month. a. for gelatine plates. _a._ the plate ( × centimetres-- × inches) or film, after fixing, is allowed to drain and then washed for about five minutes in a dish with about cubic centimetres ( fluid ounces) water; it is then again allowed to drain. _b._ afterward it is laid in a second dish with c.c. ( fluid ounces) =anthion solution=, and again allowed to remain for five minutes with occasional stirring. _c._ the plate is then once more laid in c.c. ( fluid ounces) fresh water, exactly according to direction _a_. _d._ the operations _b_ and _c_ are repeated. the plate is then =free from fixing soda=. (in order to determine this, proceed as follows:) test. to be certain that all the fixing soda is completely destroyed, proceed as follows: several c.c. (half to one teaspoonful) of the last washing water are poured into a test-tube, and three or four drops silver nitrate solution ( to ) added. a white precipitate generally forms. if this gradually acquires a =yellow= tint, fixing soda is still present. in such a case operations _a_ and _b_ are to be repeated. b. for positive paper prints. the operations are carried out as under a, but instead of one plate five fixed copies ( × c.c.-- × inches) are taken, allowed to drain one by one, then laid singly in water (vide _a_), afterward in =anthion solution= (vide _b_), then again in water (vide _c_), again in =anthion solution= (vide _d_), and finally in water. =it is important that the paper prints are frequently separated in the different baths.= if the prints stick together, the solution does not penetrate and cannot act. = important = for large plates and prints it is not only necessary to use larger dishes, but also more liquid, both =anthion solution= and water. an excess of =anthion= or of water is decidedly useful, but less is disadvantageous. the above directions for washing relate to those who have no continual flow of water at hand. if a continual flow of water is obtainable, it is advisable to wash the plates or prints in flowing water for a quarter of an hour, and then dip in the =anthion solution= and test the result as above. send orders to your dealers, or to the scovill & adams co., new york. * * * * * when purchasing a developer please be particular to specify schering's the oldest and most favorably known brand. _put up with labels and seals as per fac-similes here given._ [illustration: one ounce =pyrogallic acid= resublimed from e. schering, manufacturing chemist, berlin, germany.] the standard of the last--third--edition of the german pharmacopoeia. see that you get the genuine "schering's." excelled by none. send orders to your dealers, or to the scovill & adams company, new york. provided on the internet archive. all resultant materials are placed in the public domain. transcriber note text emphasis is denoted as _italic_ and =bold=. whole and fractional parts of numbers as - / . humphrey's journal of the daguerreotype and photographic arts. ~~~~~~~~~~ the above-named publication is well known as the best and most valuable one devoted to the photographic science in this country. humphrey's journal made its first appearance nov. st, , and consequently is the first and oldest serial offered to the photographic world. the art of producing portraits and landscapes by means of light has recently taken a new and enlivening impulse, which will in all probability lead to important and interesting results. no practical daguerreotypist, photographer, or amateur should be without the means at hand for securing all of the information upon this subject. each should be ready to receive and apply the improvements as they may be developed. in order to accomplish this, it is a matter of great importance to the practitioner or experimenter that he should have a _reliable_ medium through which he can obtain _information_. in what source can the inquirer better place his confidence than in a regular journal, whose editor is literally a _practical_ person, and familiar with the manipulations necessary for producing portraits upon "_daguerreotype plates_," and upon glass and paper? such is the conductor of humphrey's journal. this journal is published once every two weeks, and contains all the improvements relating to the art, and is the only american journal whose editor is _practically acquainted_ with the process for producing _daguerreotypes_. _ambrotypes_, and _photographs_ the first no. of vol. viii is dated may st, . the terms (two dollars per annum) are trifling compared with the vast amount of information furnished. there are several societies recently established in europe composed of learned and scientific men, who are in every way engaged in investigating the science, and we may look for improvement from that quarter, as well as from our numerous resources at home. in the former case our facilities for early and reliable information cannot well be surpassed. ambrotypes.--_humphrey's journal_ contains everything novel which appears upon this subject, and has already presented more new, important; and original matter than can be found in any other place. many are the letters we have received during the term of the last volume, in which the writer has stated that a single number of humphrey's journal has contained information of more value to him than "several times the amount paid for the entire volume." our resources have grown up around us, and our facilities for procuring, as well as distributing, all such facts and improvements as will benefit as well as instruct all who have the progress of the art at heart, are as ample as they can well be made. the future volumes will be abundantly furnished with original writings from persons of standing in the scientific world; and the practical photographer will here find a full account of such improvements as may from time to time develope themselves. from the editor's long practical experience in the heliographic science, he will be enabled to present the subject in a plain, clear and concise manner. read what the editors say of humphrey's journal:-- "we have received a copy of a valuable journal (humphrey's) published in new york, which has reached the th number of vol. vi. ... we now have the pleasure of quoting from our transatlantic coadjutor."--_liverpool photographic jour._ "humphrey's journal is practical as well as scientific in character."--_american journal of science and arts._ "it treats the subject knowingly, and with force."--_new york tribune._ "it is both a popular and interesting publication."--_mechanics' magazine._ "it is highly useful to all who practice 'shadow catching.'"--_ohio state journal._ "the work is neatly gotten up, and contains many interesting varieties in this new field of science."--_times._ "it should be hailed and encouraged, not only by daguerreotypists themselves, but by every lover of science and art."--_the democrat._ "we cannot too strongly urge all artists, and those persons who feel an interest in the heliographic arts and sciences, to take a copy of the work."--_sentinel._ "it is indicative of talent worthy of the important art it is designed to elevate."--_american._ "this art is entitled to its own organ, which could not have fallen into better hands than those of the editor of humphrey's journal."--_transcript._ "it is a scientific work of interest and usefulness."--_star of the north._ "this journal answers many points heretofore regarded as inexplicable."--_hudson river chronicle._ "it is rich with interest."--_north american._ "it contains all the 'improvements.'"--_delta._ "it teaches us how to take our own portraits."--_bee._ "it will cultivate a taste for daguerreotypes."--_commercial advertiser._ "it should be in the hands of all."--_reveille._ "it is the daguerreotypist's friend."--_london news._ "it should be found in every library."--_evening journal._ _from some of our old subscribers._ "humphrey's journal has been the means of saving much time and money, for by its instruction i have been enabled to produce some of the finest paper pictures i have ever seen." w. p. "don't fail to send me the journal, for i would not be without it for _five_ times the amount of subscription. it is the only publication i can _depend_ upon." a. g. r. "your treatment of the humbugs and humbugging members of the profession, is of the most valuable importance to us practical daguerreians. go on. god speed! here is the amount for the renewal of my subscription." e. f. s. "how can any operator afford to be without it?" l. l. h. "here is five dollars: send me humphrey's journal to this amount. i will not be without it." m. s. "it is my best friend." j. e. w. we might quote like commendatory extracts enough to more than ten times fill this page. humphrey's journal contains octavo pages of reading matter. terms. one copy per annum, in advance $ three copies, do. do. six copies, do. do. the thousands who read it cannot be induced to remain without it. all who desire to keep up with the improvements should subscribe for a copy. subscription price two dollars per year. don't fail to become a subscriber. address =s. d, humphrey,= new york. [_office, lispenard street_] a practical manual of the collodion process, giving in detail a method for producing positive and negative =pictures on glass and paper.= ambrotypes. printing process. also, patents for the collodion processes; melainotypes--photographs in oil--albumenized collodion--cutting's patents and correspondence.--specification's of all the foregoing, giving each process entire. third edition, revised and greatly enlarged. by s. d. humphrey. new york: humphrey's journal print, lispenard street. . entered according to act of congress, in the year , by s. d. humphrey, in the clerk's office of the district court of the united states for the southern district of new york. preface to the third edition. ~~~~~~~~~~ the rapid and unexpected sale of the entire second edition of this manual has induced the author to lay the third edition before the public. although but little time has elapsed since the second, yet there have been some new developments which it has been thought best to give, as conducive to the interests of the practitioner. the manipulations have been given somewhat more in detail than in the second edition. all that would have a tendency to confuse the reader has been carefully avoided, and only the plain methods for operating laid down. the work is intended for the beginner in the glass process of producing heliographic pictures. s. d. h. new york, _february st, _. preface to the first edition. ~~~~~~~~~~ the object of this little manual is to present, in as plain, clear and concise a manner as possible, the _practice_ of a collodion process. this beautiful acquisition to a "sun-pencilling" was first given to the public by mr. frederick scott archer, an english gentleman, who alone is entitled to the credit, and deserves the esteem of every lover and practitioner of the art, for his liberality in _giving_ it to the world. the process here presented has never before appeared in print, and has been practised with the most eminent success by those who have been enabled to adopt it. all reference to the various systems or methods of manipulation, by the thousands of practitioners, has been excluded, and one process given. i conceived that this was the better plan to adopt, thus leaving the mind of the learner free from confusion, and pointing out one course, which, if carefully followed, will produce good and pleasing results. i have also presented a list of all patents upon the collodion process; this will give all an opportunity of choosing their own course in regard to the respect they may conceive to be due to such patent rights. s. d. h. contents. ~~~~~~~~~~ part i. chapter i. introduction--light--solar spectrum--decomposition of light--light--heat and actinism--blue paper and color for the walls of the operating room--proportions of light, heat and actinism composing a sunbeam--refraction--reflection--lenses--copying--spherical aberration--chromatic aberration chapter ii. camera--arrangement of lenses--camera tubes--camera boxes, bellows, and copying--camera stands--head rests--cleaning vice--nitrate bath--leveling stands--printing frames--collodion vials part ii. =practical hints on photographic chemistry.= chapter iii. soluble cotton--manipulation--plain collodion--bromo-iodized collodion for positives--ditto for negatives--solution of bromide and iodide of potassium and silver--double iodide of potassium and silver--developing solution--fixing the solution--brightening and finishing the image--photographic chemicals part iii. =practical details of the positive or ambrotype process.= chapter iv. lewis's patent vices for holding the glass--cleaning and drying the glass--coating--exposure in the camera--developing--fixing or brightening--backing up, &c. part iv. =practical details of the negative process.= chapter v. negative process--soluble cotton--plain collodion--developing solution--re-developing solution--fixing the image--finishing the image--nitrate of silver bath part v. =practical details of the printing process.= chapter vi. printing process--salting paper--silvering paper--printing the positive--fixing and coloring bath--mounting the positive--facts worth knowing chapter vii. helio process.--an entire process for producing collodion positives and negatives with one bath, and in much less time than by any other known process: by helio--photographic patents chapter viii. the collodio-albumen process in detail chapter ix. on a mode of printing enlarged and reduced positives, transparencies, &c., from collodion negatives--on the use of alcohol for sensitizing paper--recovery of silver from waste solutions,--from the black deposit of hypo baths, &c.--the salting and albumenizing paper--on the use of test papers--comparison of british and french weights and measures chapter i. light--solar spectrum--decomposition of light--light, heat and actinism--blue paper and color for the walls of the operating room--proportions of light, heat and actinism, composing a sun-beam--refraction--reflection--lenses--copying--spherical aberration--chromatic aberration. it has been well observed by an able writer, that it is impossible to trace the path of a sunbeam through our atmosphere without feeling a desire to know its nature, by what power it traverses the immensity of space, and the various modifications it undergoes at the surfaces and the interior of terrestrial substances. light is white and colorless, as long as it does not come in contact with matter. when in apposition with anybody it suffers variable degrees of decomposition, resulting in color, as, by reflection, dispersion, refraction and unequal absorption. to sir i. newton the world is indebted for proving the compound nature of a ray of white light emitted from the sun. the object of this work is not to engage in an extended theory upon the subject of light, but to recur only to some points-of more particular interest to the photographic operator. [sidenote: prism, solar spectrum.] the decomposition of a beam of light can be noticed by exposing it to a prism. if, in a dark room, a beam of light be admitted through a small hole in a shutter it will form a white round spot upon the place where it falls. if a triangular prism of glass be placed on the inside of the dark room, so that the beam of light falls upon it, it no longer has the same direction, nor does it form a round spot, but an oblong painted image of seven colors--red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. this is called the solar spectrum, and will be readily understood by reference to the accompanying diagram, fig. . [illustration: fig. .] to those who are unacquainted with the theory of light (and for their benefit this chapter is given), it may be a matter of wonder how a beam of light can be divided. this can be understood when i say, that white light is a bundle of colored rays united together, and when so incorporated, they are colorless; but in passing _through_ the prism the bond of union is severed, and the colored rays come out _singly_ and _separately_, because each ray has a certain amount of refracting (bending) power, peculiar to itself. these rays always hold the same relation to each other, as may be seen by comparing every spectrum or rainbow; there is never any confusion or misplacement. there are various other means of decomposing white light besides the prism, of which one of the principal and most interesting to the photographer, is by _reflection_ from colored bodies. if a beam of white light falls upon a white surface, it is reflected without change; but if it falls upon a _red_ surface, only the red ray is reflected: so also with yellow and other colors; the ray which is reflected corresponds with the color of the object. it is this reflected decomposed light which presents the beautifully colored image we see upon the ground glass in our cameras. [sidenote: light, heat, and actinism.] a sunbeam may be capable of three divisions--light, heat, and actinism; the last causes all the chemical changes, and is the acting power upon surfaces prepared to receive the photographic image. the accompanying illustration, fig. , will readily bring to the minds of the reader the relation of these one to another, and their intensities in the different parts of a decomposed sunbeam. [illustration: fig. .] the various points of the solar spectrum are represented in the order in which they occur between a and b, this exhibits the limits of the newtonian spectrum, corresponding with fig. . sir john herschel and seebeck have shown that there exists, beyond the violet, a faint violet light, or rather a _lavender_, to _b_, which gradually becomes colorless; similarly, red light exists beyond the assigned limits of the red ray to _a_. the greatest amount of actinic power is shown at e opposite the violet; hence this color "exerts" the greatest amount of influence in the formation of the photographic image. [sidenote: coloring walls blue.] (blue paper and blue color have been somewhat extensively used by our operators in their operating rooms and skylights, in order to facilitate the operation in the camera. i fancy, however, that this plan cannot be productive of as much good as thought by some, from the fact, that the light falling upon the subject, and then reflected into the camera, is, coming through colorless glass, not affected by such rays as may be reflected from the walls of the operating room; and even if it were so, i conceive that it would be injurious, by destroying the harmony of shadows which might otherwise occur.) the greatest amount of white light is at c; the yellow contains less of the chemical power than any other portion of the solar spectrum. it has been found that the most intense heat is at the _extreme red_, _b_. artificial lights differ in their color; the white light of turning charcoal, which is the principal light from candles, oil and gas, contains three fays--red, yellow and blue. the dazzling light emitted from lime intensely heated, known as the _drummond light_, gives the color of the prism almost as bright as the solar spectrum. [sidenote: light, heat, and chemical power.] if we expose a prepared collodionized plate or sensitive paper to the solar spectrum, it will be observed that the luminous power (the yellow) occupies but a small space compared with the influence of heat and chemical power. r. hunt, in his _researches on light_, has presented the following remarks upon the accompanying illustration:-- [illustration: fig. .] "if the linear measure, or the diameter of a circle which shall include the luminous rays, is , that of the calorific spectrum will be · , and of the chemical spectrum · . such a series of circles may well be used to represent a beam from the sun, which may be regarded as an atom of _light_ surrounded with an invisible atmosphere of _heat_, and another still more extended, which possesses the remarkable property of producing chemical and molecular change." [sidenote: refraction.] a ray of light, in passing obliquely through any medium of uniform density, does not change its course; but if it should pass into a denser body, it would turn from a straight line, pursue a less oblique direction, and in a line nearer to a perpendicular to the surface of that body. water exerts a stronger refracting power than air; and if a ray of light fall upon a body of this fluid its course is changed, as may be seen by reference to fig. . it is observed that it proceeds in a less oblique direction (towards the dotted line), and, on passing on through, leaves the liquid, proceeding in a line parallel to that which it entered. it should be observed, that at the _surface_ of bodies the refractive power is exerted, and that the light proceeds in a straight line until leaving the body. the refraction is more or less, and in all cases in proportion as the rays fall more or less obliquely on the refracting surface. it is this law of optics which has given rise to the lenses in our camera tubes, by which means we are enabled to secure a well-delineated representation of any object we choose to picture. [illustration: fig. .] when a ray of light passes from one medium to another, and through that into the first again, if the two refractions be equal, and in opposite directions, no sensible effect will be produced. [sidenote: refraction, lenses, focus.] the reader may readily comprehend the phenomena of refraction, by means of light passing through lenses of different curves, by reference to the following diagrams:-- [illustration: fig. . fig . fig. .] fig. representing a double-convex lens, fig. a double-concave, and fig. a concavo-convex or meniscus. by these it is seen that a double-convex lens tends to condense the rays of light to a focus, a double-concave to scatter them, and a concavo-convex combines both powers. [sidenote: enlarging or reducing in copying.] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] if parallel rays of light fall upon a double-convex lens, d d, fig. , they will be refracted (excepting such as pass directly through the centre) to a point termed the principal focus. the lines a b c represent parallel rays which pass through the lens d d, and meet at f; this point being the principal focus, its distance from the lens is called the _focal length_. those rays of light which are traversing a _parallel_ course, when they enter the lens are brought to a focus nearer the lens than others. hence the difficulty the operator sometimes experiences by not being able to "obtain a focus," when he wishes to secure a picture of some very distant objects; he does not get his _ground glass near enough to the lenses_. again, the rays from an object near by may be termed diverging rays. this will be better comprehended by reference to fig. , where it will be seen that the dotted lines, representing parallel rays meet nearer the lenses than those from the point a. the closer the object is to the lenses, the greater will be the divergence. this rule is applicable to copying, did we wish to copy a / size daguerreotype on a / size plate, we would place it in such a position to the lenses at a, that the focus would be at f, where the image would be represented at about the proper size. now, if we should wish to copy the / size picture, and produce another of exactly the same dimensions, we have only to bring it nearer to the lenses, so that the lens d e shall be equi-distant from the picture and the focus, _i. e._ from a to b. the reason of this is, that the distance of the picture from the lens, in the last copy, is less than the other, and the divergence has increased, throwing the focus further from the lens. these remarks have been introduced here as being important for those who may not understand the principles of enlarging or reducing pictures in copying. [sidenote: lenses.] i would remark that the points f and a, in fig. , are termed "conjugate foci." if we hold a double-convex lens opposite any object, we find that an inverted image of that object will be formed on a paper held behind it. to illustrate this more clearly, i will refer to the following wood-cut:-- [illustration: fig. .] "if a b c is an object placed before a convex lens, l l, every point of it will send forth rays in all directions; but, for the sake of simplicity, suppose only three points to give out rays, one at the top, one at the middle, and one at the bottom; the whole of the rays then that proceed from the point a, and fall on the lens l l, will be refracted and form an image somewhere on the line a g e, which is drawn direct through the centre of the lens; consequently the focus e, produced by the convergence of the rays proceeding from a, must form an image of a, only in a different relative position; the middle point of c, being in a direct line with the axis of the lens, will have its image formed on the axis f, and the rays proceeding from the point b will form an image at d; so that by imagining luminous objects to be made up of an infinite number of radiating points, and the rays from each individual point, although falling on the whole surface of the lens, to converge again and form a focus or representation of that point from which the rays first emerged, it will be very easy to comprehend how images are formed, and the cause of those images being reversed. "it must also be evident, that in the two triangles a g b and d g e, that e d, the length of the image, must be to a b, the length of the object, as g d, the distance of the image, is to g b, the distance of the object from the lens." [sidenote: spherical aberration.] it will be observed, that in the last cut the image produced by the lens is curved. now, it would be impossible to produce a well-defined image from the centre to the edge upon a _plain_ surface; the outer edges would be misty, indistinct, or crayon-like. the centre of the image might be represented clear and sharp on the ground glass, yet this would be far from the case in regard to the outer portions. this is called _spherical aberration_, and to it is due the want of distinctness which is frequently noticed around the edges of pictures taken in the camera. to secure a camera with a _flat, sharp field_, should be the object of every operator; and, in a measure, this constitutes the great difference in cameras manufactured in this country. spherical aberration is overcome by proper care in the formation of the lens:--"it can be shown upon mathematical data that a lens similar to that given in the following diagram--one surface of which is a section of an ellipse, and the other of a circle struck from the furthest of the two foci of that ellipse--produces no aberration. "at the earliest period of the employment of the camera obscura, a _double-convex_ lens was used to produce the image; but this form was soon abandoned, on account of the spherical aberration so caused. lenses for the photographic camera are now always ground of a concavo-convex form, or meniscus, which corresponds more nearly to the accompanying diagram." [illustration: fig. .] [sidenote: chromatic aberration.] _chromatic aberration_ is another difficulty that opticians have to contend with in the manufacturing of lenses. it will be remembered, that in a former page ( ) a beam of light is decomposed by passing through a glass prism giving seven distinct colors--_red_, _orange_, _yellow_, _green_, _blue_, _indigo_ and _violet_. now, as has been said before, the dissimilar rays having an unequal degree of refrangibility, it will be impossible to obtain a focus by the light passing through a double-convex lens without its being fringed with color. its effect will be readily understood by reference to the accompanying cut. [illustration: fig. .] if l l be a double convex-lens, and r r r parallel rays of white light, composed of the seven colored rays, each having a different _index_ of refraction, they cannot be refracted to one and the same point; the red rays, being the least refrangible, will be bent to _r_, and the violet rays, being the most refrangible, to _v_: the distance _v r_ constitutes the chromatic aberration, and the circle, of which the diameter is _a l_, the place or point of mean refraction, and is called the circle of least aberration. if the rays of the sun are refracted by means of a lens, and the image received on a screen placed between c and _o_, so as to cut the cone l _a l_ l, a luminous circle will be formed on the paper, only surrounded by a red border, because it is produced by a section of the cone l _a l_ l, of which the external rays l _a_ l _l_, are red; if the screen be moved to the other side of _o_, the luminous circle will be bordered with violet, because it will be a section of the cone m _a_ m _l_, of which the exterior rays are violet. to avoid the influence of spherical aberration, and to render the phenomena of coloration more evident, let an opaque disc be placed over the central portion of the lens, so as to allow the rays only to pass which are at the edge of the glass; a violet image of the sun will then be seen at _v_, red at _r_, and, finally, images of all the colors of the spectrum in the intermediate space; consequently, the general image will not only be confused, but clothed with prismatic colors. to overcome the difficulty arising from the chromatic aberration, the optician has only to employ a combination of lenses of opposite focal length, and cut from glass possessing different refrangible powers, so that the rays of light passing through the one are strongly refracted, and in the other are bent asunder again, reproducing white light. to the photographer one of the most important features, requiring his particular attention, is, that he be provided with a good lens. by the remarks given in the preceding pages, he will be enabled, in a measure, to judge of some of the difficulties to which he is _occasionally_ subjected. we have in this country but two or three individuals who are giving their attention to the manufacture of lenses, and their construction is such, that they are quite free from the _spherical_ or _chromatic aberration_. chapter ii. camera--arrangement of lenses--camera tubes--camera-boxes, bellows, and copying--camera stands--head rests--cleaning vice--nitrate bath--leveling stands--printing frames--collodion vials. babtista porta, when he saw for the first time, on the walls of his dark chamber, the images of external nature, pictured by a sunbeam which found its way through only a small hole, little thought of the importance which would be attached to the instrument he was, from this cause, led to invent. the camera obscura of this italian philosopher remained as a mere scientific toy for years, and it was not until daguerre's discovery that its true value was estimated. it now plays a very important part in giving employment to at least _ten thousand persons_ in this country alone. it is of the utmost importance, in selecting a set of apparatus, to secure a good camera; for without such no one can obtain fine pictures. in testing it, see that it gives the pupil of the eye and lineaments of the features sharp and distinct; and that the whole image on the ground glass has a fine pearly hue. look also to the field, and observe that the focus is good at the centre and extreme edges of the ground glass, at the same time. a poor camera generally gives a misty image, with the lights and shades apparently running together. the best american cameras are fully equal to those imported, while they cost much less; but there are great numbers sold which are not worth using. [sidenote: camera tubes and lenses.] if a lens gives a well defined image on the ground glass, it should do the same on the plate. many a valuable lens has been condemned for failing in this, merely in consequence of the plate-holder not being in focus with the ground-glass. in case of deficiency in this, put a glass into the holder, lay a rule across the face, and measure the distance between them very exactly; measure the ground-glass in the same way, and make the distance agree perfectly, by moving the ground-glass either back or forward in the frame, as the case may be, so that the surface of the glass plate shall occupy precisely the same position as the face of the ground-glass when in the camera. [illustration: fig. . fig. .] [sidenote: position of lenses in the tube.] it is very desirable that the operator should understand the arrangement of the lenses in the tube; it not unfrequently happens, that in taking out the "glasses" to clean them, he does not return them to their proper places, and the result is that his "camera is spoiled." a couple of illustrations and a few remarks will be sufficient to enable any one to replace the lenses in them properly. fig. represents the tube for holding the lens, and fig. shows their arrangement. it will be seen that the two back lenses have a small space between them; this separation is kept by a small tube or ring of the same circumference as the lens. the two front lenses are nearest together. it will be observed that the two thick lenses are towards each other; these are made of _flint glass_ containing much oxide of lead. the other two are double convex, and are made of _crown glass_. by noting the fact that the two cemented lenses go in the front of the tube, the glass having the thickest edge goes inside, and that the _thickest lens_ of the other two goes in first, from the back of the tube, it will not be easy for the operator to make a mistake in returning the "glasses." "i will remark that a diaphragm diminishes both chromatic and spherical aberration, by cutting off the outside portion of the lens. it lessens the brilliancy of the image, but improves the distinctness by preventing various rays from interfering with and confusing each other; it also causes a variety of objects at different distances to be in focus at the same time." [illustration: fig. .] [sidenote: camera boxes.] the tube containing the lenses is to be mounted on a box (camera-box) as in fig. . for this purpose there are several patterns of boxes, from among which i have made two selections of the most approved, and represent them by cuts, figs. , , . [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] figs. and represent a bellows-box which is probably more in use than all the other patterns together. they serve both for copying and taking portraits from life. a is the base; b is the back and _sliding_-box; c, bellows, which admits of extension or contraction; d is the opening to receive the carriage a, fig. ; e is a thumb screw to hold the sliding-box at any required distance. fig. represents the plate-holder and ground glass frame. a, carriage to pass through d, fig. ; b, frame for ground-glass, which may be turned in a horizontal or perpendicular position; c, a movable plate-holder held in place by means of springs; d, reducing holder, with bottom and plate to hold the glass plate: any size of reducing frame can be put in frame c; e e, spring bottom to keep frame d in place; f, slide; g, thumb-screw, when the carriage is to be put in or taken out of the box, fig ; h h, spring bottom to hold b in place. bellows-boxes can be obtained which receive the plate-holder from the top, the same as in the copying-box, figs. and . the common wood, or "copying-box," is represented by fig. . [illustration: fig .] a, being the main or outside box, is made of wood veneered with rosewood; b is another box which fits into a, sliding in and out as required. the ground glass and plate-holders fit grooves made in the inside box. in regard to plate-holders or tablets for holding the glass plates, it need only be said that the camera-boxes are accompanied with a complete set, so arranged that the light is wholly excluded from the plate while drawing out or pushing in the slide, for shutting off the light while the holder is out of the box. should any one be desirous of using the same camera, for taking both glass and daguerreotype pictures, it will be necessary for him to be provided with two sets of tablets for his box, one for each process. [illustration: fig. .] camera stands. [sidenote: camera stands, arm stands.] there are several patterns of these; almost every dealer has some particular style, which, if not for beauty, for his interest, suits his purposes best. among the assortment, i will present only two illustrations. the first, fig. , represents one which has an advantage over many others; it is made of cast iron, and of an ornamental pattern:--a, base on castors; b, fluted hollow column, which admits the iron tube c, which has on one side a hollow tooth rack to receive a spiral thread on the inner face of wheel d; this wheel, when turned, elevates or lowers the tube c to any desired height; e, thumb wheel attached to a screw which sets against tube c, to hold it in position, f, a pinion by which the camera can be directed; g g, thumb screws to hold the two plates together when in position. it is quite heavy, stands _firm_ and _solid_, and is not liable to be moved by the jar from walking over the floor. for permanently located operators these are the most desirable; but for those who are moving about from place to place, and those who wish to take views, a lighter article would be more convenient, such as one represented at fig. . this stand is made principally of wood, and can be readily taken apart, so as to be packed in an ordinary sized trunk. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] fig. represents a small "jenny lind stand," and is a very convenient article for the sitter to lean a hand or arm upon while sitting for a portrait; it is fixed with a rod for raising or lowering the top, and can be adjusted to any required height. head rests. [sidenote: head rests.] there are several patterns of head supports, or, as they are commonly called, head rests, in use by the profession. i give two illustrations (figs. and ). the first is an independent iron rest, known as the "jenny lind rest;" and the other is for fastening to the back of a chair, as seen in the cut. for general use, i would recommend the iron independent rest as far more advisable than any other. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] vices for holding glass. [sidenote: plate-holders, bath, dipping rods.] the article used for holding the glass, during the process of cleaning, is called a vice; and, of the numerous styles recently introduced, i find none that i would prefer to the old one known in market as "peck's vice;" it is simple and easy in operation, and at the same time is effectual. fig. represents this vice, which is to be firmly secured to a bench; the small piece of wood attached to the bottom is of no use. a a are the grooved for receiving the daguerreotype plate-block; but as they are too deep for the glass, i pin on a small strip of wood, so that the upper edge of the glass will be a little above the projection of the vice. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] nitrate baths and dipping rods. the accompanying illustration, fig. , _a_, represents a bath for holding the nitrate of silver solution. this shape is of my own suggestion, and the best adapted to the wants of the photographer. it will be seen that the front side is rounding, with a curve extending from side to side. by this shape, the _face_ of the glass is protected from coming in contact with the side of the bath--both edges of it turning so as to prevent injury. there is a small projection on the top, at the opposite side of the oval; this is to allow the solution to flow over and wash off any dust that may have gathered upon the surface of the solution. this wash runs out of a small tube, as is shown in the cut. any convenient vessel can be placed under it to receive the liquid. this can be filtered and returned as often as required. i am not in the practice of filling my baths full of solution, but always keep them filtered and clean; hence saving an excess of solution. _b_ represents a little support, which is secured at its base upon the shelf, to hold the bath in a slightly inclined position, which is preferable to having it stand perpendicularly. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] leveling stands. [sidenote: leveling stands.] persons oftentimes require a rest or place to put their glass during development or washing the picture. either of the stands represented by the annexed cut will answer the purpose. fig. is known to the daguerreotype operator as a "gilding stand," and is the one best adapted to the wants of operators on glass. it may be so arranged as to give the surface of the glass a water-level; d d are thumb-screws, by means of which, when properly regulated, the frame g may hold glass perfectly level and a large quantity of solution may be poured over the surface. printing frames. [sidenote: printing frames.] there are numerous methods and apparatus used for holding the negative and the paper during exposure to the light. the following illustrations represent a convenient and economical frame for this purpose. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] fig. represents the front of the frame. the negative glass is held upon it by springs attached by screws to the bottom half of the frame, a, so that they can be turned on or off, to suit the different sizes of glass. on the other end of the spring are wooden buttons, which are placed on the edges of the glass negative, holding it in its place, and pressing it firmly against the paper which is placed under it. this frame is made of two pieces of inch board, which are connected by hinges, falling over as seen in fig. , b being the half that is movable. this movable half is secured in position by means of a wooden button, attached to a on the back and under b, as seen in fig. . the separate pieces, a and b, are bevelled where they connect, as seen by fig. . d (in fig. ) is one of the springs, which can be seen in fig. . the entire bed or face of the frame, a and b, should be covered with a thick piece of satinet cloth, which may be pasted to the lower half, a, and extended over the entire surface of a and b. this forms a pad for the paper. this printing frame can be easily made by any cabinet-maker or carpenter. the springs may be of sheet iron or brass--either will be found sufficiently stiff for the purpose. every operator should be provided with from four to ten frames: the saving of time will be found to amply repay the expenditure necessary for a good supply. [illustration: fig. .] another article called a pressure frame, is represented in the accompanying figure. this is more expensive than the first, and is by some considered preferable. another cheap, convenient and equally good arrangement for holding the negative and paper, is to take three glasses--say one a full size, being the one having the negative upon it; and then take two glasses, each just half the size of the negative, and have a piece of _very thick heavy_ cloth cut the size of the negative glass, which can be put between it and the two half glasses, and then they can be held together by means of the common spring clothes pin. the advantage of the two glasses at the back is, that one can be entirely removed while the picture is being examined, and afterwards returned without, in the least, moving the impression. collodion vial.--color-boxes. [sidenote: collodion vials. color-boxes.] this shaped vial is made expressly for collodion, to which purpose it is admirably adapted. it has a wide mouth, and is so constructed that the liquid flows clear and free. it is deep, and with a heavy protruding base, to prevent its falling. there are two sizes made at present, one to contain - / ounces--the other, - / ounce. i generally use the smaller ones, but always keep on hand, and would not be without, a few of the larger size. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] fig. represents a color-box. these can be had of any dealer, completely fitted, with color and brushes for use. =chemistry.= ~~~~~~~~~~ practical hints on =photographic chemistry.= chapter iii. soluble cotton--manipulation--plain collodion--bromo-iodized collodion for positives--ditto for negatives--solution of bromide and iodide of potassium and silver--double iodide of potassium and silver--developing solution--fixing the solution--brightening and finishing the image--photographic chemicals. the chemistry of photography requires the attention, in a greater or less degree, of every practitioner. it is of the utmost importance, that those who wish to meet with success in the various processes given, should not only be provided with a good selection of chemicals, but also understand the nature of the agent employed. to give a perfectly complete and full list of every agent used would require more time and space than can be given in this work. i shall confine myself to some of the most important, and to such articles as are of the greatest interest to the practitioner. soluble cotton. i have, in my practice and trade, adopted the term _soluble cotton_ as the one most appropriate, making a desirable distinction from the article sold as _gun cotton_, they being of a somewhat different nature--gun cotton being the most explosive and least soluble, while the other preparation is more soluble and less explosive. there are two methods employed in the preparation of soluble cotton; one being by the use of nitric and sulphuric acids, and the other with sulphuric acid and nitrate of potash. the last of these i would recommend as being the most convenient for those who require only a small quantity of cotton. persons experimenting in the preparation of this article should exercise much care and judgment. a good cotton is not the result of hap-hazard operation. the operator should be acquainted, as nearly as possible, with the quality of the chemicals employed, and the proper mode of manipulation. _articles necessary._--one quart wedgewood mortar and pestle, or evaporating dish; one glass rod; one pane of glass, large enough to cover the mortar or dish; one ordinary-sized pail two-thirds full of pure rain or distilled water, and at least ten times that quantity of water at hand; twelve ounces (by weight, avoirdupois) of nitrate of potash (dupont's refined, pulverized); twelve ounces (by measure) of commercial sulphuric acid; and three hundred and forty grains of clean, pure cotton wool. _remarks._--it is advisable that the mortar or dish be deep and narrow, as the mixture can be better formed in a vessel of this shape. if not convenient to procure a mortar, a common earthen bowl will answer; glass is objectionable, as the heat generated in the combination of the acid and nitre is liable to crack it. a new pail should not be used, especially if it is painted, as the acids attack the paint, and injure the cotton. i prefer one that has been used for some time, and has been frequently cleaned. a common earthen wash-bowl, or any large glass dish, will answer in place of the pail. metal pails or vessels should not be used. _nitrate of potash_ (saltpetre) should be dry and finely-powdered. i use none other than dupont's refined; this is very nearly, if not absolutely, chemically pure. the commercial _sulphuric acid_ (oil of vitriol) of america is of great uniformity of strength, as sold by druggists generally. i use a test-bulb graduated to the proper density, and have been very successful in my experiments. in some twenty different samples of acid, used in different cities in the united states, i found only one that produced a poor cotton, and this might have been influenced by the moisture of the atmosphere, it being a very rainy day when i used it. during my recent and somewhat extensive practice, i have thought that the _fine long fibres_ of cotton wool do not make so desirable a soluble cotton as that which is heavy or common. four or five very careful experiments upon this point, have had the effect to produce in me a strong belief that my ideas are entitled to some consideration. i should not select the _finest_ cotton for making soluble cotton, but now invariably take that which is _thick_ or _coarse_. the result of my experience is (other things being equal), that cotton prepared in fine dry weather has a greater degree of solubility than when prepared in a moist atmosphere: hence i would recommend the experimenter to choose fine, clear weather for preparing it. =manipulation.= having at hand every article requisite, proceed as follows:--put the nitrate of potash into the mortar or dish; be sure it is dry and well powdered, and then add the acid; stir them well with the pestle and glass rod, so that the lumps will be all (or nearly so) out, and a pasty solution formed. this operation should not occupy more than two minutes' time. then put in the cotton, about one-quarter of the whole bulk at a time: it should be well picked apart, so that it may come immediately in contact with the acids, and should be _kneaded_, with the pestle and glass rod, into the solution, and as soon as wetted, another quarter should be added and wetted as soon as possible; so continue until all is in: then _knead_ with the pestle and mortar for at least four minutes, or until every fibre of the cotton is _saturated_ with the liquid; then the mortar should be covered over with the pane of glass, and allowed to stand for fifteen or twenty minutes; then the entire contents of the mortar should be thrown into the pail two-thirds full of water, and stirred with the glass rod as rapidly as possible: if this rapid stirring is omitted, the cotton will be injured by the action of the acids in combining with the water. the water should be poured off, and another change put into the pail. after about three changes, the hands may be used in the farther washing. the hands should be perfectly clean, and free from _all chemicals_. the changes of water and washing should be continued until every trace of acid has disappeared, which can be seen by testing with blue litmus test-paper. after it is thought that the cotton has become free, the water may be squeezed out of a little lump about the size of a pea, and then placed between the fold of the test-paper, and if it reddens the paper, there is acid present, and the washing should be continued until there is no change in the paper. when this is done, the cotton can be put into the folds of a dry towel or cloth (which has been thoroughly rinsed, so that no soap be present), and wrung out as dry as possible, and then it may be picked apart and put aside, exposed to a moderate temperature (say ° fahr.) to dry, when it is ready for use. i employ the method (for convenience, nothing more) of displacing the water by the use of alcohol. [_cutting's patent--see patents._] i wring out the water as before, then place the cotton in strong alcohol, stir and press it, and then pour it off; wring it out again, then put it in a change of alcohol, let it soak for about five minutes, then wring it out as dry as possible, pick it apart, and it will dry immediately, and place it in a close stoppered bottle; or, if wanted for use at once, put it into the dissolving solution immediately. i will here remark that, since the first edition, i have had occasion to use large quantities of soluble cotton, and have found that if it be kept in an atmosphere of alcohol and ether, its solubility is somewhat improved: that is, in the case of its not being used immediately after its preparation. this is easily kept, by dropping a few drops of ether or alcohol into the bottle containing it, and then sealing close until wanted for use. in the event of the water being displaced by alcohol, it is not necessary to thoroughly dry it, but put in a _perfectly close_ bottle to keep. _remarks._--there are a few precautions necessary to be observed in the preparation of soluble cotton. i should select a fine clear day, if time is no object; nevertheless i have made a good article in a moderately dense atmosphere. sulphuric acid has a powerful affinity for hydrogen, consequently, in damp weather, it is more or less reduced by the moisture in the air. it is advisable to prepare the nitro-sulphuric acid mixture on a roof, or between two doors or windows, where there is a good current of air, in order to prevent the inhalation of white vapors which arise, and are very poisonous to the lungs. as a preventive, in case of inhaling these vapors, i apply the fumes of aqua-ammonia. it is best for every one to have six or eight ounces of this always at hand; it neutralizes all acid that maybe spattered on the clothes, prevents its destructive powers, and restores the color. yellow vapors sometimes appear when putting the cotton in contact with the solution: this arises from its not being wet; and when they do appear, the cotton where they are should be quickly put under the liquid and kneaded rapidly, which will prevent a continuance of these vapors. i have had them appear, and used the cotton, and could not observe that any bad effect had been produced. the temperature is worthy the attention of the operator: if it be low, as in winter, and the cotton be left in the nitro-sulphuric mixture for fifteen or twenty minutes, the whole becomes a thick, stiff mass, bedded together, and has not had proper action, giving a bad article. a good temperature is about ° fahr. for the last of the time the cotton is in the mixture. this is not always convenient; so the operator will be governed by circumstances, taking his chance of having a good article. in some cases i have heated a _thick_ iron plate, at a moderate temperature, placing the mortar upon it, and thus aided in regulating the temperature. this is the most convenient method i have employed. it has been thought advisable to publish in full the account of edw. ash hadow's experiments and investigations upon the subject of soluble cotton. the following is an account of them as it appeared in _humphrey's journal_, vol. vi. p. :-- "having, in my earlier experiments on the collodion process of photography, experienced some difficulty in always producing a collodion of uniform quality with regard to sensitiveness, tenacity and fluidity, although making use of the same materials for its preparation, and this i find being the complaint of many others, it has been my study lately to determine the variations in quality to which the ingredients are liable, and the effects of these variations on the sensitive film, and likewise to ascertain whether the excellent qualities of some samples of collodion depend on the materials in ordinary use, or on some substances accidentally or intentionally added. researches in the preparation of collodion may appear superfluous, now that it is supplied of the best quality by so many makers; but as some persons of an independent turn of mind still prefer manufacturing their own, i venture to bring forward the subject with the hope of benefiting them. in this beautiful process so much depends for success on the quality of the collodion, that when in possession of a good specimen, it becomes one of the easiest and most simple, and ought to be the most certain of all the processes yet devised; for here no material of uncertain composition is introduced, such as paper, and thus we have nothing to fear from plaster of paris, alumina, or specks of iron or copper, which continually endanger or modify the calotype process; each ingredient can and ought to be obtained in a state of perfect purity, and with this precaution the degree of success depends upon the skill of the operator himself. "of all the substances used in this process, the gun-cotton is usually the only one actually prepared by the operator himself; in this he cannot fail to have observed the great variations in the solubility, and, when dissolved, the transparency and tenacity of the films, to which it is liable; the various processes also that are given appear at first sight unaccountably different, some directing ten minutes, others a few seconds immersion. in consequence of this i have specially examined into the cause of all these variations, with a view to obtain certainty, and also have endeavored to discover how far they affect the sensitiveness of the prepared surface. if we take a mixture of the strongest nitric and sulphuric acids and immerse as much cotton as can be wetted, after some minutes squeeze out the acid as far as possible, then immerse a second portion of cotton, and again express the acids for a third portion of cotton, and so on until the liquid is exhausted, we shall find, on comparing the cottons thus treated, after washing and drying, that there is a gradual alteration in their properties, the first being highly and perfectly explosive, and each succeeding portion less so, until the portion last immersed will be found hardly explosive, leaving distinct traces of charcoal or soot when burned. this may not appear surprising at first sight, as it may be imagined that the latter portions are only a mixture of gun-cotton and common cotton; this is, however, not the case, for if each quantity be immersed sufficiently long, it will not contain a fibre of common cotton, and may yet become charred on burning like unaltered cotton. the most remarkable difference, however, is discovered on treating them with ether containing a little alcohol, when, contrary to what might have been anticipated, the first or strongest gun-cotton remains untouched, while the latter portions dissolve with the utmost ease, without leaving a trace behind, which alone is sufficient proof that no unaltered cotton remains. this difference in properties is owing to the gradual weakening of the acid mixture, in consequence of the nitric acid being removed by the cotton, with which it becomes intimately combined, at the same time that the latter gives out a proportionate quantity of water. in consequence of these experiments, a great many mixtures of these acids were prepared of various strengths, each being accurately known, both to determine whether there were more than one kind of _soluble_ gun-cotton, and, if there were, to ascertain exactly the mixture required to produce the most suitable to photographic purposes. by this means, and by, what i believe has not been pointed out, _varying the temperature_, at least five varieties were obtained;--first, gun-cotton, properly so called, as before stated, quite insoluble in any mixture of alcohol and sulphuric ether. secondly, an explosive cotton, likewise insoluble, but differing chemically from the first, obtained by a mixture of certain strength when used _cold_. if _warm_, however, either from the heat produced spontaneously on mixing the two acids; or by raising the temperature artificially to about °, the cotton then immersed becomes perfectly soluble, producing a third variety; if, however, it be _thoroughly dried_, it becomes in a great measure insoluble. the fourth is obtained by the use of weaker acids used cold, and the fifth when the mixture has been warmed to ° previous to the immersion of the cotton; in either of the two last cases the product is perfectly soluble, but there is a remarkable difference between their properties, for on dissolving grains of each in ounce of ether, the cotton treated with _warm_ acids gives a perfectly fluid solution (which is likewise the case with the third variety produced by acids something stronger), while that obtained by the use of cold acids makes a mixture as thick as castor-oil. "having obtained these more strongly marked varieties, as well as intermediate kinds, with all gradations of solubility, it was necessary, before i could select any particular formula for preparing the cotton, to compare their photographic properties, with especial reference to sensitiveness, opacity of the reduced silver in negatives, and its color in positives. a certain weight of each being dissolved in a portion of the same mixture of alcohol and ether previously iodized, the comparison was made, by taking the same objects with each collodion in succession, and likewise by pouring two samples on the same plate of glass, and thus exposing them in the camera together, side by side; this last proved to be much the most satisfactory plan, and was repeated many times for each sample, taking care to reverse the order in which they were poured on, that there might be no mistake arising from the difference of time elapsing between the pouring on of the collodion and its immersion in the sensitive bath. by these experiments i had confidentially hoped to have solved the question as to the cause of difference in sensitiveness and other photographic properties of collodion; but in this i was disappointed, for, after repeated experiments, i believe i may safely affirm that they are precisely similar as regards their photographic properties. the same i believe may be said of swedish paper collodion, judging from a few comparative experiments i have made, and indeed it is difficult to discover what is the superiority of this material over clean cotton-wool; the ease of manipulation which some allege is a matter of taste, but i should decidedly prefer the open texture of cotton to that of a substance like filtering paper, composed of a mass of compacted fibres, the innermost of which are only reached when the acids have undergone a certain degree of weakening by the water abstracted from the outer fibres; and when we consider that from cotton alone we have the means of preparing all varieties of collodion, from the most powerfully contracting and transparent to the weakest and most opaque, and each if required with equal and perfect certainty, there appears to be choice enough without resorting to another material, differing only in being more rare and more difficult to procure. but, although the photographic properties of these varieties of collodion-wool are so similar, other circumstances, such as fluidity, tenacity, and transparency, render its preparation of some importance, and indicate that the acid mixture should always be used warm; and it is chiefly in consequence of this very circumstance, that greater success attends the use of nitrate of potash and sulphuric acid than that of mixed acids; for the former when mixed, produce the required temperature, and must be used while warm, since on cooling the mixture becomes solid, whereas acids when mixed do not usually produce so high a temperature, and being fluid can be used at any subsequent period; another obstacle to their use is the great uncertainty of the strength of the nitric acid found in the shops, requiring a variation in the amount of sulphuric acid to be added, which would have to be determined by calculation or many troublesome trials. when a proper mixture is obtained, the time of immersion is of no importance, provided it be not too short, and the temperature be maintained at about ° or °; ten minutes is generally sufficient; (though ten hours would not render the cotton less soluble, as is sometimes asserted.) "in using the mixed acids, the limits are the nitric acid being too strong, in which case the product is insoluble, or too weak, when the cotton becomes immediately matted or even dissolved, if the mixture is warm. i have availed myself of these facts in order to produce collodion-wool by the use of acids, without the trouble of calculating the proper mixture according to their strength. five parts by measure of sulphuric acid, and four of nitric acid of specific gravity not lower than · , are mixed in an earthenware or thin glass vessel capable of standing heat; small portions of water are added gradually (by half drachms at a time, supposing two ounces to have been mixed,) testing after each addition by immersion of a small portion of cotton; the addition of water is continued until a fresh piece of cotton is found to contract and dissolve on immersing; when this takes place, add half the quantity of sulphuric acid previously used, and (if the temperature does not exceed °, in which case it must be allowed to cool to that point,) immerse as much cotton, well pulled out, as can be easily and perfectly soaked; it is to be left in for ten minutes, taking care that the mixture does not become cold, and then transferred to cold water, and thoroughly washed; this is a matter of much importance, and should be performed at first by changing the water many times, until it ceases to taste acid, and then treating it with boiling rain-water until the color of blue litmus remains unchanged; the freedom from all trace of acid is insured by adding a little ammonia before the last washing. cotton thus prepared should dissolve perfectly and instantaneously in ether containing a little alcohol, without leaving a fibre behind, and the film it produces be of the greatest strength and transparency, being what m. gaudin terms 'rich in gun-cotton.' "the mixture of nitrate of potash and sulphuric acid is defective chiefly from the want of fluidity, in consequence of which the cotton is less perfectly acted on; this may be remedied by increasing the amount of sulphuric acid, at the same time adding a little water; a mixture of parts of dried nitre, with of sulphuric acid, by weight, together with of water, produces a much better collodion wool than the ordinary mixture of of nitre with - / of sulphuric acid. the nitre is _dried_ before weighing, in order that its amount, as well as that of the water contained in the mixture, may be definite in quantity; it is then finely powdered, mixed with the water, and the sulphuric acid added; the cotton is immersed while the mixture is hot, and afterwards washed with greater care even than is required when pure acids are used, on account of the difficulty of getting rid of all the bisulphate of potash that adheres to the fibres, which both acts as an acid and likewise causes the collodion to appear opalescent when held up to the light; whereas the solution should be perfectly transparent." plain collodion. [sidenote: plain collodion.] to dissolve the soluble cotton (pyroxyline), and form plain collodion, proceed as follows: take of sulphuric ether (concentrated), ounces alcohol, from to per cent., " soluble cotton enough to give the solution a consistency such as will allow it to flow evenly over the surface of the glass, and impart to it quite a thick and transparent coating. if the coating is opaque, the cotton has not been properly prepared, the acid mixture has been too weak. _remarks._--it is desirable for every operator to use chemicals of uniform strength, and the better method to adopt is to employ those purchased from some one respectable manufactory, and not take those furnished by irresponsible and unconscientious parties. at least one-half of the failures experienced by beginners is from want of good chemicals. it is not economy to purchase a _cheap article_. _alcohol_ is an article that can be procured in almost any small village in the united states, and is in general fit for collodion purposes. i have used per cent, in the above proportions, also the intermediate varieties to per cent., and have been quite successful; but feel convinced that the ordinary , as marked (which usually stands by actual test to per cent.), is preferable, except in cases where water is employed in dissolving the iodizing salts, when i would use fully per cent. before concluding the subject on plain collodion, i will introduce the account given by mr. e. a. hadow of his interesting and valuable experiments, as published in _humphrey's journal_, vol. vi, page . "having obtained good collodion-wool, the next point of inquiry was with regard to the solvent; to ascertain whether the addition of alcohol beyond what is necessary to cause the solution of the gun-cotton in ether, were beneficial or otherwise. for this purpose ether and alcohol were prepared perfectly pure, and mixtures were made of of alcohol to of ether, to , to , to and to . in one ounce of each were dissolved grains of gun-cotton and grains of iodide of ammonium (iodide of potassium could not be employed, since it requires a certain amount both of water and alcohol to keep it in solution); they were then compared, using a -grain solution of nitrate of silver, both by pouring on separate glasses, and likewise by covering two halves of a plate with two samples, as in examining the gun cottons, thus placing them under the same circumstances during the same time; in this way the effect of adding alcohol was very clearly perceived, since the difference between the collodions was much greater than could have been anticipated. "the first mixture containing only / th of alcohol was quite unfit for photographic purposes, from its being almost impossible, even with the most rapid immersion, to obtain a film of uniform sensitiveness and opacity throughout, the surface generally exhibiting nearly transparent bands, having an iridescent appearance by reflected light. "the second mixture with / th of the alcohol is liable to great uncertainty, for if there be any delay in pouring off the collodion the same appearances are seen as in the first, and like it the surface is very insensitive to light, while if the plate be rapidly plunged in the bath, the collodion film becomes much more opaque than before, and is then very sensitive. "the third proportion of of alcohol to of ether is decidedly the best, giving without the least difficulty a beautifully uniform and highly sensitive film, at the same time perfectly tough and easily removable from the glass if required. a further addition of alcohol, as in the two last collodions, was not attended with any corresponding advantage or increase of sensitiveness; on the contrary, the large proportion of alcohol rendered them less fluid, though with a smaller quantity of gun cotton they would produce very good collodions, capable of giving fine films: the cause of the weakness of the film, observed on adding much of the ordinary alcohol, is the large amount of water it usually contains. "this surprising improvement, caused by the addition of a certain quantity of alcohol, is referable to causes partly chemical, partly mechanical, for, on examining the films, it will be found in the first, and occasionally in the second collodion, that the iodide of silver is formed on the surface, and can be removed entirely by friction without destroying the transparent collodion film below, while in those collodions that contain more than one-fourth of alcohol, the iodide of silver is wholly in the substance, and in this state possesses the utmost sensitiveness. "this difference of condition is owing to the very sparing solubility of ether in water, which in the first case prevents the entrance of the nitrate of silver into the film, consequently the iodide and silver solutions meet on the surface; but on addition of alcohol, its solubility enables the two to interchange places, and thus the iodide of silver is precipitated throughout the substance in a state of the utmost division. this difference is clearly seen under the microscope, the precipitate being clotted in the one case, while in the other the particles are hardly discoverable from their fineness. "the presence of a little water considerably modifies these results, since it in some degree supplies the place of alcohol, and is so far useful; but in other respects it is injurious, for, accumulating in quantity, if the collodion is often used, it makes the film weak and gelatinous, and what is worse, full of minute cracks on drying, which is never the case when pure ether and alcohol are used. since the ether of the shops almost always contains alcohol, and frequently water, it is important to ascertain their amount before employing it for the preparation of collodion; the quantity of alcohol may be easily ascertained by agitating the ether in a graduated measure glass (a minim glass does very well) with half its bulk of a _saturated_ solution of chloride of calcium; this should be poured in first, its height noted, and the ether then poured on its surface, the thumb then placed on the top, and the two agitated together; when separated, the increase of bulk acquired by the chloride of calcium indicates the quantity of alcohol present, and for this allowance should be made, in the addition of alcohol afterwards to the collodion. "water is readily detected, either in ether or alcohol by allowing a drop to fall into spirits of turpentine, with which they ought to mix without turbidity; this is immediately produced if they contain water: for detecting water in _alcohol_, benzole is a more delicate re-agent than spirits of turpentine (chemist, xxix, ). it is also necessary that ether should be free from a remarkable property it acquires by long keeping, of decomposing iodides and setting free iodine, which thus gives the collodion a brown color; the same property may be developed in any ether, as schonbein discovered by introducing a red hot wire into the vapor in the upper portion of a bottle containing a little ether and water; if it be then shaken up and a solution of iodide poured in, the whole rapidly becomes brown; this reaction is very remarkable and difficult to explain for even a mixture of the ether and nitric acid fails to produce a color _immediately_. ether thus affected can only be deprived of this property by rectification with caustic potash." bromo-iodized collodion for positives.--no. . [sidenote: iodized collodion for positives.] one very important object in connection with this part of the collodion process is to have chemicals of a good quality, and always employ those of a fixed standard. plain collodion, ounces. solution of bromide, and iodide of potassium and silver, (page ) drachms. iodide of ammonium, grains. hydro-bromic acid drops. double iodide of potassium and silver (see page ) enough so that when the plate comes from the nitrate of silver bath, it will have an opaque cream color. _remarks._--in the preparation of this sensitive collodion, it is necessary to be cautious and not add too much of the iodide of potassium and silver, for in that case the coating would flake off, and falling into the silvering solution, the operator would be obliged to filter it before he could silver his plate with safety as regards spotting it. the method i employ is to add the plain collodion, bromide and iodide of potassium and silver, iodide of ammonium and hydro-bromic acid, and then cautiously add the double iodide of potassium and silver from five to ten drops at a time, trying the collodion from time to time by pouring a little on a narrow strip of glass, which i dip into the silvering solution, and let it remain for two minutes. if the coating assumes the proper color (a cream color), i shake the contents of the bottle, and then stand it aside to settle: it is better after it has stood for a week or two. this collodion i have used after it has been made eight months, and produced fine and satisfactory results, and use this nearly altogether in practice. since the first edition of this work has been issued, i have sold over two thousand pounds of this preparation, and the demand is on the increase. i will append another preparation (no. ) which i have successfully employed, and some operators prefer. bromo-iodized collodion for positives.--no. . plain collodion ounces. iodide of potassium grains. bromide of ammonium " enough of the double iodide of potassium and silver to give the coating a cream color when it comes from the silvering solution. it will take from one to three drachms. or this last may be omitted, and a few drops of a saturated solution of dry iodine in alcohol may be added. either of these plans have been successful in my practice. _remarks._--the iodide of potassium being insoluble in the collodion, it should be first dissolved in as little water as possible; _i. e._, take the quantity, grains, put it into a one-ounce graduate, and with a glass rod stir it, adding water, drop by drop, only until all of the salt is dissolved. then it may be poured into the collodion, and there will be a white powdery precipitate. the bromide of ammonium will dissolve in the collodion, and can be put into it. when all of the accelerators are in, it should be well shaken, and then allowed to settle and become clear. when wanted, a sufficient quantity may be poured into a vial (see fig. ) for use, and the main or stock bottle should not be disturbed oftener than necessary. this last collodion is not as durable as the first, but is less trouble to prepare. bromo-iodized collodion for negatives. [sidenote: iodized collodion for negatives] plain collodion ounces. iodide of potassium (dissolved as per page ) grains. bromide of ammonium " this collodion should be allowed to stand and settle twenty-four hours before it is used: when wanted, it should be poured off into a collodion vial. the more free the collodion is from sediment and small particles of dust or undissolved cotton, the softer and more perfect will be the impression it makes. in case the above proportions of iodide of potassium should not produce a cream-colored coating, when it comes from the nitrate of silver bath, more may be added: for example, if the coating is of a bluish tint, i would dissolve grains of iodide of potassium in water, as before, and then try it: shake well, and test it by putting a little on a slip of glass, and dipping it into the silvering solution; if it coats to a cream-color, it is right. it should be borne in mind, that after the addition of iodide of potassium here recommended, the collodion should be allowed to stand until settled, before undertaking to produce a picture, although the coating may be previously tested by means of a slip of glass. solution of bromide and iodide of potassium and silver. dissolve grains of crystallized nitrate, of silver in ounces of pure water, in a long -ounce vial. then in a clean -ounce graduate, or some other convenient vessel containing half an ounce of water, dissolve grains bromide of potassium. when this and the nitrate of silver are both dissolved, pour the solution of bromide of potassium into the vial containing the silver, and a thick yellow precipitate will fall. this is the bromide of potassium and silver. this should be washed by nearly filling the vial with water; shake it, and then let it settle, which it will readily do, and then pour on the water, leaving the yellow mass in the bottom of the vial; continue this operation of washing for at least ten changes of water; then, after draining off the water as close as possible, put into the vial four ounces of alcohol, shake it well and let it settle; then pour off as close as possible. by this means the water is nearly all taken out. pour into the vial _three_ ounces of alcohol; then in a small mortar finely pulverize one ounce of iodide of potassium, and the solution, which was before clear, will be more or less of a yellow color, and the bulk of the yellow precipitate will be diminished. i have sometimes completely re-dissolved the yellow precipitate, but this does not often occur, except there be more water present than is advisable. it is better to have an excess of bromide of potassium in the solution. this can be seen by its being white, and remaining undissolved in the bottom of the vial. this solution should be prepared in the evening, or in a dark room, and only the light of a lamp or candle employed. double iodide of potassium and silver. this solution is made in the same manner as in the foregoing article, substituting the iodide of potassium for the bromide--no bromide being used in this preparation. the yellow precipitate in this case will be re-dissolved and taken up in the solution: it may require more than one ounce of pulverized iodide of potassium to effect this, but it may be added in excess, so that the solution shall contain a quantity in powder. developing solution. [sidenote: developing solution.] protosulphate of iron, ounces. rain or distilled water, quart. put these into a quart bottle, and shake until the crystals are all dissolved, and this can be kept for a stock bottle, and when wanted for use pour into another bottle. of the above solution, ounces. acetic acid (no. ) " chemically pure nitric acid drops. shake this mixture well, and filter through a sponge, and it is ready for use. i file a mark in this bottle indicating five ounces, and another for ounce: this will save time in mixing the solution. _remarks._--in my recent tour of the united states, i found it difficult to obtain a good article of protosulphate of iron, and in its stead i used the common copperas, such as i could find almost in any store. i employ from one-fourth to one-half more than the quantity given above. if it looked a clear green, and free from a white or brownish powder, about one-fourth addition: _i. e._, four ounces, instead of three, as given above. if the solution in the stock bottle is not wanted for a week or more, a few crystals of the protosulphate of iron should be added, as it decomposes, and the strength is depreciated. there is quite a difference in the strength of the acetic acid as sold by out country druggists, and the operator should be sure that he has no. , to which quality the above proportions are adapted. i never have employed the developing solution but once, but can see no objections to use it for a number of glass plates, but it should be filtered every time before using. the quantity of nitric acid may be increased, so long as a proper proportion is preserved with the strength of the bath. the effect of this addition of acid will be to brighten the impression; but if carried too far, the reduction (developing) will be irregular, and the harmony of the impression injured. fixing solution. [sidenote: fixing solution.] water, ounces. cyanide of potassium, about drachms _remarks._--i put enough of the cyanide of potassium into the water to make the solution of such strength as to dissolve off the iodide of silver ("coating") in from twenty to sixty seconds. the operation is quite similar to that of hyposulphate of soda upon the coating of the daguerreotype plate. a too concentrated solution is likely to injure the sharpness of the image. brightening and finishing the image. [sidenote: humphrey's collodion gilding.] the article i now employ for finishing off my positives is in market, and known as humphrey's collodion gilding. it is a new preparation, and exerts a powerful influence upon the image, having the same brightening effect as chloride of gold on the daguerreotype. there is no article now in market that equals this. i have until quite recently used a varnish for this purpose, but having something that is of far greater value, i have discarded it. it is one of the most valuable improvements since the application of the collodion film as a vehicle for producing photographic images. it is a new discovery, and is being rapidly brought into use by the first ambrotypers and photographers in america. it adds at least one-half to the beauty of an ambrotype, above any method heretofore in use. it is _imperishable_, giving a surface almost equal in hardness to the glass itself. it is easy of application; it gives a brilliant finish; it is not affected by a moist atmosphere; it is not affected by pure water; it is the best article ever used for _finishing ambrotypes_; it will preserve glass negatives for all time; it will preserve the _whites_ in the ambrotype; it gives a rich lustre to drapery; it will bear exposure to the hot sun; it preserves positives and negatives from injury by light. it is an article that, when once tried, the operator upon glass (positive, negative, or albumenized plates) _will not do without_. the ingredients in the composition of this gilding are neither _patented_ nor _published_, but it can be procured from any dealer in photographic chemicals. nitrate of silver bath. [sidenote: nitrate of silver bath.] i here give what i consider an improvement on the bath mentioned in the first edition of this work. i first published it in _humphrey's journal_, no. , vol. vii.: the nitrate of silver solution is an important mixture in the chemical department of the ambrotype process, and requires the especial care of the operator in its preparation. i give the following as one of the most approved for general practice. it is well adapted to the production of positives, and its action is of great uniformity. pure water ounce. nitrate of silver in crystals [neutral to acid test] grains. nitric acid c. p. [quantity as given below]. this proportion is to be observed for any quantity of solution. if i were to prepare a bath ounces, i would proceed as follows: water ounces. nitrate of silver grains. measure the water, and put into a two-quart bottle; then pour out oz. of it in a pint bottle, and into this put the whole of the nitrate of silver ( gr.); shake it well until it is all dissolved. this forms a concentrated solution--into which put the following prepared iodide of silver:-- dissolve in a or oz. bottle containing oz. water, gr. nitrate of silver; and in another bottle or graduate containing a little water, dissolve grains of iodide of potassium; pour this into the grain solution of nitrate of silver, and a yellow substance (iodide of silver) will precipitate; fill the bottle with water, and let it settle; then pour off the water, leaving the yellow mass behind; again pour on it clean water, shake it, and let it settle as before, and pour off again; repeat this for about six changes of water. then it (the iodide of silver) is to be put into the bottle containing the oz. water and gr. of nitrate of silver; shake it well, and it will nearly or quite all dissolve; pour this into the two-quart bottle, and shake well; it will be of a yellowish white tint, and should be filtered through asbestos or sponge, when it will become clear. when clear, test the solution with blue litmus-paper; if it turns it red, it is sufficiently acid; if it does not change it, add _one_ or _two_ drops of nitric acid, chemically pure; then test it again; if it does not change it, add _one_ or _two_ drops more, or just enough to change the paper to the slightest red. a solution prepared in this proportion will, like others, improve by age. an old bath is considered far more valuable than one newly prepared. these remarks may appear to old photographic operators as of no importance, but they must bear in mind that there are hundreds just adopting this new process of picture taking. this solution will work more satisfactorily than the one i formerly used. it will work quicker in the camera, and is _equally_ durable. * * * * * acknowledgment.--the following pages, under the head of _vocabulary of photographic chemicals_, and treating upon the chemicals used in photography, are taken from the third edition of "hardwich's photographic chemistry:"-- =vocabulary of photographic chemicals.= [sidenote: vocabulary of photographic chemicals.] acetic acid. symbol, c{ }h{ }o{ } + ho. atomic weight, . acetic acid is a product of the _oxidation_ of alcohol. spirituous liquids, when perfectly pure, are not affected by exposure to air; but if a portion of yeast, or nitrogenous organic matter of any kind, be added, it soon acts as a _ferment_, and causes the spirit to unite with oxygen derived from the atmosphere, and to become _sour_ from formation of acetic acid or "vinegar." acetic acid is also produced on a large scale by heating _wood_ in close vessels; a substance distils over which is acetic acid contaminated with empyreumatic and tarry matter; it is termed pyroligneous acid, and is much used in commerce. the most concentrated acetic acid may be obtained by neutralizing common vinegar with carbonate of soda and crystallizing out the acetate of soda so formed; this acetate of soda is then distilled with sulphuric acid, which removes the soda and liberates acetic acid: the acetic acid being volatile, distils over, and may be condensed. _properties of acetic acid._--the strongest acid contains only a single atom of water; it is sold under the name of "glacial acetic acid," so called from its property of solidifying at a moderately low temperature. at about ° the crystals melt, and form a limpid liquid of pungent odor and a density nearly corresponding to that of water; the specific gravity of acetic acid, however, is no test of its real strength, which can only be estimated by analysis. the commercial glacial acetic acid is often diluted with water, which may be suspected if it does not solidify during the cold winter months. sulphurous and hydrochloric acids are also common impurities. they are injurious in photographic processes from their property of precipitating nitrate of silver. to detect them proceed as follows:--dissolve a small crystal of nitrate of silver in a few drops of water, and add to it about half a drachm of the glacial acid; the mixture should remain quite clear even when exposed to the light. hydrochloric and sulphurous acids produce a white deposit of chloride or sulphite of silver; and if _aldehyde_ or volatile tarry matter be present in the acetic acid, the mixture with nitrate of silver, although clear at first, becomes discolored by the action of light. many photographers employ a cheaper form of acetic acid, sold by druggists as "beaufoy's" acid;[a] it should be of the strength of the acetic acid fortiss. of the london pharmacopoeia, containing per cent, real acid, and must be tested for sulphuric acid (see sulphuric acid), and also by mixing with nitrate of silver. [footnote a: in this country the practitioner uses the article sold in market as "acetic acid, no. ."--s. d. h.] acetate of silver. (_see_ silver, acetate of.) albumen. albumen is an organic principle, found both in the animal and vegetable kingdom. its properties are best studied in the _white of egg_, which is a very pure form of albumen. albumen is capable of existing in two states; in one of which it is soluble, in the other insoluble in water. the aqueous solution of the soluble variety gives a slightly alkaline reaction to test-paper; it is somewhat thick and glutinous, but becomes more fluid on the addition of a small quantity of an alkali, such as potash or ammonia. soluble albumen may be converted into the insoluble form in the following ways:-- . _by the application of heat._--a moderately strong solution of albumen becomes opalescent and coagulates on being heated to about °, but a temperature of ° is required if the liquid is very dilute. a layer of _dried_ albumen cannot easily be coagulated by the mere application of heat. . _by addition of strong acids._--nitric acid coagulates albumen perfectly without the aid of heat. acetic acid, however, acts differently, appearing to enter into combination with the albumen, and forming a compound soluble in warm water acidified by acetic acid. . _by the action of metallic salts._--many of the salts of the metals coagulate albumen very completely. nitrate of silver does so; also the bichloride of mercury. ammoniacal oxide of silver, however, does not coagulate albumen. the white precipitate formed on mixing albumen with nitrate of silver is a chemical compound of the animal matter with protoxide of silver. this substance, which has been termed albuminate of silver, is soluble in ammonia and hyposulphite of soda; but after exposure to light, or heating in a current of hydrogen gas, it assumes a brick-red color, being probably reduced to the condition of a salt of the _suboxide_ of silver. it is then almost insoluble in ammonia, but enough dissolves to tinge the liquid wine-red. the author is of opinion that the _red coloration_ of solution of nitrate of silver employed in sensitizing the albumenized photographic paper is produced by the same compound, although often referred to the presence of sulphuret of silver. albumen also combines with lime and baryta; and chloride of barium has been recommended in positive printing upon albumenized paper, probably from this cause. _chemical composition of albumen._--albumen belongs to the _nitrogenous_ class of organic substances. it also contains small quantities of sulphur and phosphorus. alcohol. symbol, c{ }h{ }o{ }. atomic weight, . alcohol is obtained by the careful distillation of any spirituous or fermented liquor. if wine or beer be placed in a retort, and heat applied, the alcohol, being more volatile than water, rises first, and is condensed in an appropriate receiver; a portion of the vapor of water, however, passes over with the alcohol, and dilutes it to a certain extent, forming what is termed "spirits of wine." much of this water may be removed by redistillation from carbonate of potash; but in order to render the alcohol thoroughly _anhydrous_, it is necessary to employ _quick lime_ which possesses a still greater attraction for water. an equal weight of this powdered lime is mixed with strong alcohol of · , and the two are distilled together. _properties of alcohol._--pure anhydrous alcohol is a limpid liquid, of an agreeable odor and pungent taste; sp. gr. at °, · . it absorbs vapor of water, and becomes diluted by exposure to damp air; boils at ° fahr. it has never been frozen. alcohol distilled from carbonate of potash has a specific gravity of · to · , and contains to per cent, of real spirit. the specific gravity of ordinary rectified spirits of wine is usually about · , and it contains to per cent, of absolute alcohol. ammonia. symbol, nh{ } or nh{ }o. atomic weight, . the liquid known by this name is an aqueous solution of the volatile gas ammonia. ammoniacal gas contains atom of nitrogen combined with three of hydrogen: these two elementary bodies exhibit no affinity for each other, but they can be made to unite under certain circumstances, and the result is ammonia. properties of ammonia.--ammoniacal gas is soluble in water to a large extent; the solution possessing those properties which are termed alkaline. ammonia, however, differs from the other alkalies in one important particular--it is volatile: hence the original color of turmeric paper affected by ammonia is restored on the application of heat. solution of ammonia absorbs carbonic acid rapidly from the air, and is converted into carbonate of ammonia; it should therefore be preserved in stoppered bottles. besides carbonate, commercial ammonia often contains chloride of ammonium, recognized by the white precipitate given by nitrate of silver after acidifying with pure nitric acid. the strength of commercial ammonia varies greatly; that sold for pharmaceutica purposes, under the name of liquor ammoniæ, contains about per cent, of real ammonia. the sp. gr. of aqueous ammonia diminishes with the proportion of ammonia present, the liquor ammoniæ being usually about · . _chemical properties._--ammonia, although forming a large class of salts, appears at first sight to contrast strongly by composition with the alkalies proper, such as potash and soda. mineral bases generally are _protoxides of metals_, but ammonia consists simply of nitrogen and hydrogen united with oxygen. the following remarks may perhaps tend somewhat to elucidate the difficulty:-- _theory of ammonium._--this theory supposes that a substance exists possessing the properties of a metal, but different from metallic bodies generally in being compound in structure: the formula assigned to it is nh{ }, atom of nitrogen united with of hydrogen. the hypothetical metal is termed "ammonium," and ammonia, associated with an atom of water, may be viewed as its _oxide_; for nh{ } + ho plainly equals nh{ }o. thus, as potash is the oxide of _potassium_, so ammonia is the oxide of _ammonium_. the composition of the _salts_ of ammonia is on this view assimilated to those of the alkalies proper. thus, sulphate of ammonia is a sulphate of the oxide of _ammonium_; muriate or hydrochlorate of ammonia is a chloride of ammonium, etc. ammonio-nitrate of silver. (_see_ silver, ammonio-nitrate of.) aqua-regia. (_see_ nitro-hydrochloric acid.) baryta, nitrate of. (_see_ nitrate of baryta.) bichloride of mercury. (_see_ mercury, bichloride of.) bromine. symbol, br. atomic weight, . this elementary substance is obtained from the uncrystallizable residuum of sea-water, termed _bittern_. it exists in the water in very minute proportion, combined with magnesium in the form of a soluble bromide of magnesium. _properties._--bromine is a deep reddish-brown liquid of a disagreeable odor, and fuming strongly at common temperatures; sparingly soluble in water ( part in , lowig), but more abundantly so in alcohol, and especially in ether. it is very heavy, having a specific gravity of · . bromine is closely analogous to chlorine and iodine in its chemical properties. it stands on the list intermediately between the two; its affinities being stronger than those of iodine, but weaker than chlorine. (_see_ chlorine.) it forms a large class of salts, of which the bromides of potassium, cadmium, and silver are the most familiar to photographers. bromide of potassium. symbol, kbr. atomic weight, . bromide of potassium is prepared by adding bromine to caustic potash, and heating the product, which is a mixture of bromide of potassium and bromate of potash, to redness, in order to drive off the oxygen from the latter salt. it crystallizes in anhydrous cubes, like the chloride, and iodide, of potassium; it is easily soluble in water, but more sparingly so in alcohol; it yields red fumes of bromine when acted upon by sulphuric acid. bromide of silver. (_see_ silver, bromide of.) carbonate of soda. symbol, nao co{ } + aq. this salt was formerly obtained from the ashes of seaweeds, but is now more economically manufactured on a large scale from common salt. the chloride of sodium is first converted into sulphate of soda, and afterwards the sulphate into carbonate of soda. _properties._--the perfect crystals contain ten atoms of water, which are driven off by the application of heat, leaving a white powder--the anhydrous carbonate. _common washing soda_ is a neutral carbonate, contaminated to a certain extent with chloride of sodium and sulphate of soda. the carbonate used for effervescing draughts is either a bicarbonate with atom of water, or a sesquicarbonate, containing about per cent, of real alkali; it is therefore nearly double as strong as the washing carbonate, which contains about per cent, of soda. carbonate of soda is soluble in twice its weight of water at °, the solution being strongly alkaline. carbonate of potash. (_see_ potash, carbonate of.) caseine. (_see_ milk.) charcoal, animal. animal charcoal is obtained by heating animal substances, such as bones, dried blood, horns, etc., to redness, in close vessels, until all volatile empyreumatic matters have been driven off, and a residue of carbon remains. when prepared from bones it contains a large quantity of inorganic matter in the shape of carbonate and phosphate of lime, the former of which produces _alkalinity_ in reacting upon nitrate of silver. animal charcoal is freed from these earthy salts by repeated digestion in hydrochloric acid; but unless very carefully washed it is apt to retain an acid reaction, and so to liberate free nitric acid when added to solution of nitrate of silver. _properties._--animal charcoal, when pure, consists solely of carbon, and burns away in the air without leaving any residue: it is remarkable for its property of decolorizing solutions; the organic coloring substance being separated, but not actually _destroyed_, as it is by _chlorine_ employed as a bleaching agent. this power of absorbing coloring matter is not possessed in an equal degree by all varieties of charcoal, but is in great measure peculiar to those derived from the animal kingdom. china clay or kaolin. this is prepared, by careful levigation, from mouldering granite and other disintegrated felspathic rocks. it consists of the _silicate of alumina_,--that is, of silicic acid or _flint_, which is an oxide of silicon, united with the base alumina (oxide of aluminum). kaolin is perfectly insoluble in water and acids, and produces no decomposition in solution of nitrate of silver. it is employed by photographers to decolorize solutions of nitrate of silver which have become brown from the action of albumen or other organic matters. chlorine. symbol, cl. atomic weight, . chlorine is a chemical element found abundantly in nature, combined with metallic sodium in the form of chloride of sodium, or sea-salt. _preparation._--by distilling common salt with sulphuric acid, sulphate of soda and hydrochloric acid are formed. hydrochloric acid contains chlorine combined with hydrogen; by the action of _nascent_ oxygen (see oxygen), the hydrogen may be removed in the form of water, and the chlorine left alone. _properties._--chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas, of a pungent and suffocating odor; soluble to a considerable extent in water, the solution possessing the odor and color of the gas. it is nearly - / times as heavy as a corresponding bulk of atmospheric air. _chemical properties._--chlorine belongs to a small natural group of elements which contains also bromine, iodine, and fluorine. they are characterized by having a strong affinity for hydrogen, and also for the metals, but are comparatively indifferent to oxygen. many metallic substances actually undergo _combustion_ when projected into an atmosphere of chlorine, the union between the two taking place with extreme violence. the characteristic bleaching properties of chlorine gas are explained in the same manner:--hydrogen is removed from the organic substance, and in that way the structure is broken up and the color destroyed. chlorine is more powerful in its affinities than either bromine or iodine. the salts formed by these three elements are closely analogous in composition and often in properties. those of the alkalies, alkaline earths, and many of the metals are soluble in water, but the silver salts are insoluble; the lead salts sparingly so. the combinations of chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine, with hydrogen, are acids, and neutralize alkalies in the usual manner, with formation of alkaline chloride and water. the test by which the presence of chlorine is detected, either free or in combination with bases, is _nitrate of silver_; it gives a white curdy precipitate of chloride of silver, insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia. the solution of nitrate of silver employed as the test must not contain iodide of silver, as this compound is precipitated by dilution. chloride of ammonium. symbol, nh{ }cl. atomic weight, . this salt, also known as muriate or hydrochlorate of ammonia, occurs in commerce in the form of colorless and translucent masses, which are procured by _sublimation_, the dry salt being volatile when strongly heated. it dissolves in an equal weight of boiling, or in three parts of cold water. it contains more _chlorine_ in proportion to the weight used than chloride of sodium, the atomic weights of the two being as to . chloride of barium. symbol, bacl+ ho. atomic weight, . barium is a metallic element, very closely allied to calcium, the elementary basis of _lime_. the chloride of barium is commonly employed as a test for sulphuric acid, with which it forms an insoluble precipitate of sulphate of baryta. it is also said to affect the color of the photographic image when used in preparing positive paper; which may possibly be due to a chemical combination of baryta with albumen: but it must be remembered that this chloride, from its high atomic weight, contains _less_ chlorine than the alkaline chlorides. _properties of chloride of barium._--chloride of barium occurs in the form of white crystals, soluble in about two parts of water, at common temperature. these crystals contain two atoms of water of crystallization, which are expelled at °, leaving the anhydrous chloride. chloride of gold. (_see_ gold, chloride of.) chloride of sodium. symbol, nacl. atomic weight, . common salt exists abundantly in nature, both in the form of solid rock-salt and dissolved in the waters of the ocean. _properties of the pure salt._--fusible without decomposition at low redness, but sublimes at higher temperatures; the melted salt concretes into a hard white mass on cooling. nearly insoluble in absolute alcohol, but dissolves in minute quantity in rectified spirit. soluble in three parts of water, both hot and cold. crystallizes in cubes, which are anhydrous. _impurities of common salt._--table salt often contains large quantities of the chlorides of magnesium and calcium, which, being deliquescent, produce a dampness by absorption of atmospheric moisture: sulphate of soda is also commonly present. the salt may be purified by repeated recrystallization, but it is more simple to prepare the pure compound _directly_, by neutralizing hydrochloric acid with carbonate of soda. chloride of silver. (_see_ silver, chloride of.) citric acid. this acid is found abundantly in lemon-juice and in lime-juice. it occurs in commerce in the form of large crystals, which are soluble in less than their own weight of water at °. commercial citric acid is sometimes mixed with tartaric acid. the adulteration may be discovered by making a concentrated solution of the acid and adding _acetate of potash_; crystals of bitartrate of potash will separate if tartaric acid be present. citric acid is tribasic. it forms with silver a white insoluble salt, containing atoms of oxide of silver to atom of citric acid. if the citrate of silver be heated in a current of hydrogen gas, a part of the acid is liberated and the salt is reduced to a citrate of _suboxide_ of silver; which is of a red color. the action of white light in reddening citrate of silver is shown by the author to be of a similar nature. cyanide of potassium. symbol, k, c{ }n, or kcy. atomic weight, . this salt is a compound of cyanogen gas with the metal potassium. cyanogen is not an elementary body, like chlorine or iodine, but consists of carbon and nitrogen united in a peculiar manner. although a compound substance, it reacts in the manner of an element, and is therefore (like _ammonium_, previously described) an exception to the usual laws of chemistry. many other bodies of a similar character are known. ether. symbol, c{ }h{ }o. atomic weight, . ether is obtained by distilling a mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol. if the formula of alcohol (c{ }h{ }o{ }) be compared with that of ether, it will be seen to differ from it in the possession of an additional atom of hydrogen and of oxygen: in the reaction, the sulphuric acid removes these elements in the form of water, and by so doing converts one atom of alcohol into an atom of ether. the term _sulphuric_ applied to the commercial ether has reference only to the manner of its formation. _properties of ether._--it is neither acid nor alkaline to test-paper. specific gravity, at °, about · . boils at ° fahrenheit. the vapor is exceedingly dense, and may be seen passing off from the liquid and falling to the ground: hence the danger of pouring ether from one bottle to another if a flame be near at hand. ether does not mix with water in all proportions; if the two are shaken together, after a short time the former rises and floats upon the surface. in this way a mixture of ether and alcohol may be purified to some extent, as in the common process of _washing_ ether. the water employed however always retains a certain portion of ether (about a tenth part of its bulk), and acquires a strong ethereal odor; washed ether also contains water in small quantity. bromine and iodine are both soluble in ether, and gradually react upon and decompose it. the strong alkalies, such as potash and soda, also decompose ether slightly after a time, but not immediately. exposed to air and light, ether is oxidized and acquires a peculiar odor. ether dissolves fatty and resinous substances readily, but inorganic salts are mostly insoluble in this fluid. hence it is that iodide of potassium and other substances dissolved in alcohol are precipitated to a certain extent by the addition of ether. fluoride of potassium. symbol, kf. atomic weight, . _preparation._--fluoride of potassium is formed by saturating hydrofluoric acid with potash, and evaporating to dryness in a platinum vessel. _hydrofluoric acid_ contains fluorine combined with hydrogen; it is a powerfully acid and corrosive liquid, formed by decomposing flour spar, which is a _fluoride of calcium_, with strong sulphuric acid; the action which takes place being precisely analogous to that involved in the preparation of hydrochloric acid. _properties._--a deliquescent salt, occurring in small and imperfect crystals. very soluble in water: the solution acting upon glass in the same manner as hydrofluoric acid. formic acid. symbol, c{ }ho{ }. atomic weight, . this substance was originally discovered in the _red ant_ (_formica rufa_), but it is prepared on a large scale by distilling _starch_ with binoxide of manganese and sulphuric acid. _properties._--the strength of commercial formic acid is uncertain, but it is always more or less dilute. the strongest acid, as obtained by distilling formiate of soda with sulphuric acid, is a fuming liquid with a pungent odor, and containing only one atom of water: it inflames the skin in the same manner as the sting of the ant. formic acid reduces the oxides of gold, silver, and mercury, to the metallic state, and is itself oxidized into carbonic acid. the alkaline formiates also possess the same properties. gelatine. symbol, c{ }h{ }o{ }n{ }. atomic weight, . this is an organic substance somewhat analogous to albumen, but differing from it in properties. it is obtained by subjecting bones, hoofs, horns, calves' feet, etc., to the action of boiling water. the jelly formed on cooling is termed size, or when dried or cut into slices, _glue_. gelatine, as it is sold in the shops, is a pure form of glue. _isinglass_ is gelatine prepared, chiefly in russia, from the air-bladders of certain species of sturgeon. _properties of gelatine._--gelatine softens and swells up in cold water, but does not _dissolve_ until heated: the hot solution, on cooling, forms a tremulous jelly. one ounce f cold water will retain about three grains of isinglass without gelatinizing; but much depends upon the temperature, a few degrees greatly affecting the result. gelatine forms no compound with oxide of silver analogous to the albuminate of silver; which fact explains the difference in the photographic properties of albumen and gelatine. glycerine. fatty bodies are resolved by treatment with an alkali into an acid--which combines with the alkali, forming a _soap_,--and glycerine, remaining in solution. pure glycerine, as obtained by price's patent process of distillation, is a viscid liquid of sp. gr. about · ; miscible in all proportions with water and alcohol. it is peculiarly a neutral substance, exhibiting no tendency to combine with acids or bases. it has little or no action upon nitrate of silver in the dark, and reduces it very slowly even when exposed to light. gold, chloride of. symbol, aucl{ }. atomic weight, . this salt is formed by dissolving pure metallic gold in nitro-hydrochloric acid, and evaporating at a gentle heat. the solution affords deliquescent crystals of a deep orange color. chloride of gold, in a state fit for photographic use may easily be obtained by the following process:--place a half-sovereign in any convenient vessel, and pour on it half a drachm of nitric acid mixed with two and a half drachms of hydrochloric acid and three drachms of water; digest by a gentle heat, but do not _boil_ the acid, or much of the chlorine will be driven off in the form of gas. at the expiration of a few hours add fresh aqua-regia in quantity the same as at first, which will probably complete the solution, but if not, repeat the process a third time. lastly, neutralize the liquid by adding carbonate of soda until all effervescence ceases, and a green precipitate forms; this is _carbonate of copper_, which must be allowed several hours to separate thoroughly. the solution then contains chloride of gold in a neutral state, and free from copper and silver, with which the metallic gold is alloyed in the standard coin of the realm. the weight of a half-sovereign is about grains, of which grains are pure gold. this is equivalent to grains of chloride of gold, which will therefore be the quantity contained in the solution. the following process for preparing chloride of gold is more perfect than the last:--dissolve the gold coin in aqua-regia as before; then boil with excess of hydrochloric acid to destroy the nitric acid, dilute largely with distilled water, and add a filtered aqueous solution of common sulphate of iron ( parts in part of gold); collect the precipitated gold, which is now free from copper; re-dissolve in aqua-regia, and evaporate to dryness on a water bath. avoid using ammonia to neutralize chloride of gold, as it would be liable to occasion a deposit of "fulminating gold," the properties of which are described immediately following. _properties of chloride of gold._--as sold in commerce it usually contains excess of hydrochloric acid, and is then of a bright yellow color; but when neutral and somewhat concentrated it is dark red (_leo ruber_ of the alchemists). it gives no precipitate with carbonate of soda, unless heat be applied; the free hydrochloric acid present forms, with the alkali, chloride of sodium, which unites with the chloride of gold, and produces a double salt, chloride of gold and sodium, soluble in water. chloride of gold is decomposed with precipitation of metallic gold by charcoal, sulphurous acid, and many of the vegetable acids; also by protosulphate and protonitrate of iron. it tinges the cuticle of an indelible purple tint. it is soluble in alcohol and in ether. gold, fulminating. this is a yellowish-brown substance, precipitated on adding ammonia to a strong solution of chloride of gold. it may be dried carefully at °, but _explodes violently_ on being heated suddenly about to °. friction also causes it to explode when dry; but the moist powder may be rubbed or handled without danger. it is decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen. fulminating gold is probably an aurate of ammonia, containing atoms of ammonia to atom of peroxide of gold. gold, hyposulphite of. symbol, auo s{ }o{ }. atomic weight, . hyposulphite of gold is produced by the reaction of chloride of gold upon hyposulphite of soda. the salt sold in commerce as sel d'or is a double hyposulphite of gold and soda, containing one atom of the former salt to three of the latter, with four atoms of water of crystallization. it is formed by adding one part of chloride of gold, in solution, to three parts of hyposulphite of soda, and precipitating the resulting salt by alcohol; the chloride of gold must be added to the hyposulphite of soda, and not the soda salt to the gold. _properties._--hyposulphite of gold is unstable and cannot exist in an isolated state, quickly passing into sulphur, sulphuric acid, and metallic gold. when combined with excess of hyposulphite of soda in the form of sel d'or, it is more permanent. sel d'or occurs crystallized in fine needles, which are very soluble in water. the commercial article is often impure, containing little else than hyposulphite of soda, with a trace of gold. it may be analyzed by adding a few drops of strong nitric acid (free from chlorine) diluting with water, and afterwards collecting and igniting the yellow powder, which is metallic gold. grape sugar. symbol, c{ }h{ }o{ }. atomic weight, . this modification of sugar, often termed _granular sugar_, or _glucose_, exists abundantly in the juice of grapes, and in many other varieties of fruit. it forms the saccharine concretion found in honey, raisins, dried figs, etc. it may be produced artificially by the action of fermenting principles, and of dilute mineral acids, upon starch. _properties._--grape sugar crystallizes slowly and with difficulty from a concentrated aqueous solution, in small hemispherical nodules, which are hard, and feel gritty between the teeth. it is much less sweet to the taste than cane sugar, and not so soluble in water ( part dissolves in - / of cold water). grape sugar tends to absorb oxygen, and hence it possesses the property of decomposing the salts of the noble metals, and reducing them by degrees to the metallic state, even without the aid of lights the action however in the case of _nitrate of silver_ is slow, unless the temperature be somewhat elevated. _cane_ sugar does not possess these properties to an equal extent, and hence it is readily distinguished from the other variety. honey. this substance contains two distinct kinds of sugar, grape sugar, and an uncrystallizable substance analogous to, or identical with, the treacle found associated with common sugar in the cane juice. the agreeable taste of honey probably depends upon the latter, but its reducing power on metallic oxides is due to the former. pure grape sugar can readily be obtained from inspissated honey, by treating it with alcohol, which dissolves out the syrup, but leaves the crystalline portion. hydrochloric; acid. symbol, hcl. atomic weight, . hydrochloric acid is a volatile gas, which may be liberated from the salts termed chlorides by the action of sulphuric acid. the acid, by its superior affinities, removes the base; thus,-- nacl + ho so{ } = nao so{ } + hcl. _properties._--abundantly soluble in water, forming the liquid hydrochloric or muriatic acid of commerce. the most concentrated solution of hydrochloric acid has a sp. gr. · , and contains about per cent, of gas; that commonly sold is somewhat weaker, sp; gr. · = per cent. real acid. pure hydrochloric acid is colorless, and fumes in the air. the yellow color of the commercial acid depends upon the presence of traces of perchloride of iron or organic matter; commercial muriatic acid also often contains a portion of free chlorine and of sulphuric acid. hydriodic acid. symbol, hi. atomic weight, . this is a gaseous compound of hydrogen and iodine, corresponding in composition to the hydrochloric acid. it cannot, however, from its instability, be obtained in the same manner, since, on distilling an iodide with sulphuric acid, the hydriodic acid first formed is subsequently decomposed into iodine and hydrogen. an aqueous solution of hydriodic acid is easily prepared by adding iodine to water containing sulphuretted hydrogen gas; a decomposition takes place, and sulphur is set free; thus: hs + i = hi + s. _properties._--hydriodic acid is very soluble in water, yielding a strongly acid liquid. the solution, colorless at first, soon becomes brown from decomposition, and liberation of free iodine. it may be restored to its original condition by adding solution of sulphuretted hydrogen. hydrosulphuric acid. symbol, hs. atomic weighty . this substance, also known as sulphuretted hydrogen, is a gaseous compound of sulphur and hydrogen, analogous in composition to hydrochloric and hydriodic acids. it is usually prepared by the action of dilute sulphuric acid upon sulphuret of iron, the decomposition being similar to that involved in the preparation of the hydrogen acids generally:-- fes + ho so{ } = feo so{ } + hs. _properties._--cold water absorbs three times its bulk of hydrosulphuric acid, and acquires the peculiar putrid odor and poisonous qualities of the gas. the solution is faintly acid to test-paper, and becomes opalescent on keeping, from gradual separation of sulphur. it is decomposed by nitric acid, and also by chlorine and iodine. it precipitates silver from its solutions, in the form of black sulphuret of silver; also copper, mercury, lead, etc.; but iron and other metals of that class are not affected, if the liquid contains free acid. hydrosulphuric acid is constantly employed in the chemical laboratory for these and other purposes. hydrosulphate of ammonia. symbol, nh{ }s hs. atomic weight, . the liquid known by this name, and formed by passing sulphuretted hydrogen gas into ammonia, is a double sulphuret of hydrogen and ammonium. in the preparation, the passage of the gas is to be continued until the solution gives no precipitate with sulphate of magnesia and smells strongly of hydrosulphuric acid. properties,--colorless at first, but afterwards changes to yellow, from liberation and subsequent solution of sulphur. becomes milky on the addition of any acid. precipitates, in the form of sulphuret, all the metals which are affected by sulphuretted hydrogen; and, in addition, those of the class to which iron, zinc, and manganese, belong. hydrosulphate of ammonia is employed in photography to darken the negative image, and also in the preparation of iodide of ammonium; the separation of silver from hyposulphite solutions, etc. hyposulphite of soda. symbol, nao s{ }h{ } + ho. atomic weight, . the hyposulphite of soda commonly employed by photographers is a neutral combination of hyposulphurous acid and the alkali soda. it is selected as being more economical in preparation than any other hyposulphite adapted for fixing. hyposulphite of soda occurs in the form of large translucent groups of crystals, which include five atoms of water. these crystals are soluble in water almost to any extent, the solution being attended with the production of cold; they have a nauseous and bitter taste. hyposulphite of gold. (_see_ gold, hyposulphite of.) hyposulphite of silver. (_see_ silver, hyposulphite of.) iceland moss. _cetraria islandica._--a species of lichen found in iceland and the mountainous parts of europe; when boiled in water, it first swells up, and then yields a substance which gelatinizes on cooling. it contains lichen starch; a bitter principle soluble in alcohol, termed "cetrarine;" and common starch; traces of gallic acid and bitartrate of potash are also present. iodine. symbol, i. atomic weight, . iodine is chiefly prepared at glasgow, from _kelp_, which is the fused ash obtained by burning seaweeds. the waters of the ocean contain minute quantities of the iodides of sodium and magnesium, which are separated and stored up by the growing tissues of the marine plant. in the preparation, the mother-liquor of kelp is evaporated to dryness and distilled with sulphuric acid; the hydriodic acid first liberated is decomposed by the high temperature, and fumes of iodine condense in the form of opaque crystals. _properties._--iodine has a bluish-black color and metallic lustre; it stains the skin yellow, and has a pungent smell, like diluted chlorine. it is extremely volatile when moist, boils at °, and produces dense violet-colored fumes, which condense in brilliant plates. specific gravity · . iodine is very sparingly soluble in water, part requiring parts for perfect solution: even this minute quantity however tinges the liquid of a brown color. alcohol and ether dissolve it more abundantly, forming dark-brown solutions. iodine also dissolves freely in solutions of the alkaline iodides, such as the iodide of potassium, of sodium, and of ammonium. _chemical properties._--iodine belongs to the chlorine group of elements, characterized by forming acids with hydrogen, and combining extensively with the metals (see chlorine). they are however comparatively indifferent to oxygen, and also to each other. the iodides of the alkalies and alkaline earths are soluble in water; also those of iron, zinc, cadmium, etc. the iodides of lead, silver, and mercury are nearly or quite insoluble. iodine possesses the property of forming a compound of a deep blue color with starch. in using this as a test, it is necessary first to liberate the iodine (if in combination), by means of chlorine, or nitric acid saturated with peroxide of nitrogen. the presence of alcohol or ether interferes to a certain extent with the result. iodide of ammonium. symbol, nh{ }i. atomic weight, . this salt may be prepared by adding carbonate of ammonia to iodide of iron, but more easily by the following process:--a strong solution of hydrosulphate of ammonia is first made, by passing sulphuretted hydrogen gas into liquor ammoniæ to this liquid iodine is added until the whole of the sulphuret of ammonium has been converted into iodide. when this point is reached, the solution at once colors brown from solution of free iodine. on the first addition of the iodine, an escape of sulphuretted hydrogen gas and a dense deposit of sulphur take place. after the decomposition of the hydrosulphate of ammonia is complete, a portion of hydriodic acid--formed by the mutual reaction of sulphuretted hydrogen and iodine--attacks any carbonate of ammonia which may be present, and causes an effervescence. the effervescence being over, the liquid is still acid to test-paper, from excess of hydriodic acid; it is to be cautiously neutralized with ammonia, and evaporated by the heat of a water-bath to the crystallizing point. the crystals should be thoroughly dried over a dish of sulphuric acid, and then sealed in small tubes containing each about half a drachm of the salt; by this means it will be preserved colorless. iodide of ammonium is very soluble in alcohol, but it is not advisable to keep it in solution, from the rapidity with which it decomposes and becomes brown. the most common impurity of commercial iodide of ammonium is sulphate of ammonia; it is detected by its sparing insolubility in alcohol. iodide of cadmium. symbol, cdi. atomic weight, . this salt is formed by heating filings of metallic cadmium with iodine, or by mixing the two together with addition of water. it is useful in iodizing collodion intended for keeping, since it does not become brown from liberation of free iodine with the same rapidity as the alkaline iodides. iodide of cadmium is very soluble both in alcohol and water; the solution yielding on evaporation large six-sided tables of a pearly lustre, which are permanent in the air. the crystalline form of this salt is a sufficient criterion of its purity. iodide of iron. symbol, fei. atomic weight, . iodide of iron, in a fit state for photographic use, is easily obtained by dissolving a drachm of iodine in an ounce of _proof spirit_--that is, a mixture of equal bulks of spirits of wine and water--and adding an excess of iron filings. after a few hours, a green solution is obtained without the aid of heat. the presence of metallic iron in excess prevents the liberation of iodine and deposit of peroxide of iron which would otherwise speedily occur. it is very soluble in water and alcohol, but the solution rapidly absorbs oxygen and deposits peroxide of iron; hence the importance of preserving it in contact with metallic iron, with which the separated iodine may recombine. by very careful evaporation, hydrated crystals of protoiodide may be obtained, but the composition of the solid salt usually sold under that name cannot be depended on. the _periodide_ of iron, corresponding to the perchloride, has not been examined, and it is doubtful if any such compound exists. iodide of potassium. symbol, ki. atomic weight, . this salt is usually formed by dissolving iodine in solution of potash until it begins to acquire a brown color; a mixture of iodide of potassium and _iodate of potash_ (ko io{ }) is thus formed; but by evaporation and heating to redness, the latter salt parts with its oxygen, and is converted into iodide of potassium. _properties._--it forms cubic and prismatic crystals, which should be hard, and _very slightly or not at all deliquescent_. soluble in less than an equal weight of water at °; it is also soluble in alcohol, but not in ether. the proportion of iodide of potassium contained in a saturated alcoholic solution, varies with the strength of the spirit,--with common spirits of wine, sp. gr. · , it would be about grains to the drachm; with alcohol rectified from carbonate of potash, sp. gr. · , or grains: with absolute alcohol, to grains. the solution of iodide of potassium is instantly colored brown by free chlorine; also very rapidly by peroxide of nitrogen; ordinary acids, however, act less quickly, hydriodic acid being first formed, and subsequently decomposing spontaneously. iodide of potassium, as sold in the shops, is often contaminated with various impurities. the first and most remarkable is _carbonate of potash_. when a sample of iodide of potassium contains much carbonate of potash, it forms small and imperfect crystals, which are strongly alkaline to test-paper, and become moist on exposure to the air, from the deliquescent nature of the alkaline carbonate. _sulphate of potash_ is also a common impurity; it may be detected by chloride of barium. _chloride of potassium_ is another impurity; it is detected as follows:--precipitate the salt by an equal weight of nitrate of silver, and treat the yellow mass with solution of ammonia; if any chloride of silver is present, it dissolves in the ammonia, and after nitration is re-precipitated in white curds by the addition of an excess of pure nitric acid. if the nitric acid employed is not pure, but contains traces of free chlorine, the iodide of silver must be well washed with distilled water before treating it with ammonia, or the excess of free nitrate of silver dissolving in the ammonia would, on neutralizing, produce chloride of silver, and so cause an error. _iodide of potash_ is a fourth impurity often found in iodide of potassium: to detect it, add a drop of dilute sulphuric acid, or a crystal of citric acid, to the solution of the iodide; when, if much iodate be present, the liquid will become yellow from liberation of free iodine. the rationale of this reaction is as follows:--the sulphuric acid unites with the base of the salt, and liberates hydriodic acid (hi), _a colorless compound_; but if iodic acid (io{ }) be also present, it decomposes the hydriodic acid first formed, oxidizing the hydrogen into water (ho), and setting free the iodine. the immediate production of a yellow color on adding a weak acid to aqueous solution of iodide of potassium is, therefore, a proof of the presence of an iodate. as iodate of potash is thought to render collodion insensitive (?), this point should be attended to. iodide of potassium may be rendered very pure by recrystallizing from spirit, or by dissolving in strong alcohol of sp. gr. · , in which sulphate, carbonate, and iodate of potash are insoluble. the proportion of iodide of potassium contained in saturated alcoholic solutions varies with the strength of the spirit. solution of chloride of barium is commonly used to detect impurities in iodide of potassium; it forms a white precipitate if carbonate, iodate, or sulphate be present. in the two former cases the precipitate dissolves on the addition of _pure_ dilute nitric acid, but in the latter it is insoluble. the commercial iodide, however, is rarely so pure as to remain quite clear on the addition of chloride of barium, a _mere opalescence_, therefore, may be disregarded. iodide of silver. (_see_ silver, iodide of.) iron, protosulphate of. symbol, feo so{ } + ho. atomic weight, . this salt, often termed _copperas_ or _green vitriol_, is a most abundant substance, and used for a variety of purposes in the arts. commercial sulphate of iron, however, being prepared on a large scale, requires recrystallization to render it sufficiently pure for photographic purposes. pure sulphate of iron occurs in the form of large, transparent prismatic crystals, of a delicate green color: by exposure to the air they gradually absorb oxygen and become rusty on the surface. solution of sulphate of iron, colorless at first, afterwards changes to a red tint, and deposits a brown powder; this powder is a _basic_ persulphate of iron, that is, a persulphate containing an excess of the oxide or _base_. by the addition of sulphuric or acetic acid to the solution, the formation of a _deposit_ is prevented, the brown powder being soluble in acid liquids. the crystals of sulphate of iron include a large quantity of water of crystallization, a part of which they lose by exposure to dry air. by a higher temperature, the salt may be rendered perfectly _anhydrous_, in which state it forms a white powder. aqueous solution of sulphate of iron absorbs the _binoxide of nitrogen_, acquiring a deep olive-brown color: as this gaseous binoxide is itself a reducing agent, the liquid so formed has been proposed as a more energetic developer than the sulphate of iron alone. iron, protonitrate of. symbol, feo no{ } + ho. atomic weight, . this salt, by careful evaporation _in vacuo_ over sulphuric acid, forms transparent crystals, of a light green color, and containing atoms of water, like the protosulphate. it is exceedingly unstable, and soon becomes red from decomposition, unless preserved from contact with air. the following process is commonly followed for preparing protonitrate of iron:-- take of nitrate of baryta grains; powder and dissolve by the aid of heat in three ounces of water; then throw in, by degrees, with constant stirring, crystallized sulphate of iron, _powdered_, grains. continue to stir for about five or ten minutes. allow to cool, and filter from the white deposit, which is the insoluble sulphate of baryta. in place of nitrate of baryta, the nitrate of lead may be used (sulphate of lead being an insoluble salt), but the quantity required will be different. the atomic weights of nitrate of baryta and nitrate of lead are as to ; consequently grains of the former are equivalent to grains of the latter. iron, perchloride of. symbol, fe{ }cl{ }. atomic weight, . there are two chlorides of iron, corresponding in composition to the protoxide and the sesquioxide respectively. the protochloride is very soluble in water, forming a green solution, which precipitates a dirty white protoxide on the addition of an alkali. the perchloride, on the other hand, is dark brown, and gives a foxy-red precipitate with alkalies. _properties._--perchloride of iron may be obtained in the solid form by heating iron wire in excess of chlorine; it condenses in the shape of brilliant and iridescent brown crystals, which are volatile, and dissolve in water, the solution being acid to test-paper. it is also soluble in alcohol, forming the _tinctura ferri sesquichloridi_ of the pharmacopoeia. commercial perchloride of iron ordinarily contains an excess of hydrochloric acid. litmus. litmus is a vegetable substance, prepared from various _lichens_, which are principally collected on rocks adjoining the sea. the coloring matter is extracted by a peculiar process, and afterwards made up into a paste with chalk, plaster of paris, &c. litmus occurs in commerce in the form of small cubes, of a fine violet color. in using it for the preparation of test-papers, it is digested in hot water, and sheets of porous paper are soaked in the blue liquid so formed. the red papers are prepared at first in the same manner, but afterwards placed in water which has been rendered faintly acid with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. mercury, bichloride of. symbol, hgcl{ }. atomic weight, . this salt, also called corrosive sublimate, and sometimes _chloride of mercury_ (the atomic weight of mercury being halved), may be formed by heating mercury in excess of chlorine, or, more economically, by subliming a mixture of persulphate of mercury and chloride of sodium. _properties._--a very corrosive and poisonous salt, usually sold in semi-transparent, crystalline masses, or in the state of powder. soluble in parts of cold, and in of hot water; more abundantly so in alcohol, and also in ether. the solubility in water may be increased almost to any extent by the addition of free hydrochloric acid. the protochloride of mercury is an insoluble white powder, commonly known under the name of _calomel_. milk. the milk of herbivorous animals contains three principal constituents--fatty matter, caseine, and sugar; in addition to these, small quantities of the chloride of potassium, and of phosphates of lime and magnesia, are present. the fatty matter is contained in small cells, and forms the greater part of the cream which rises to the surface of the milk on standing. hence _skimmed_ milk is to be preferred for photographic use. the second constituent, _caseine_, is an organic principle somewhat analogous to albumen in composition and properties. its aqueous solution however does not, like albumen, _coagulate_ on boiling, unless _an acid_ be present, which probably removes a small portion of alkali with which the caseine was previously combined. the substance termed "rennet," which is the dried stomach of the calf, possesses the property of coagulating caseine, but the exact mode of its action is unknown. sherry wine is also employed to curdle milk; but brandy and other spirituous liquids, when free from acid and astringent matter, have no effect. in all these cases a proportion of the caseine usually remains in a soluble form in the _whey_; but when the milk is coagulated by the addition of acids, the quantity so left is very small, and hence the use of the rennet is to be preferred, since the presence of caseine facilitates the reduction of the sensitive silver salts. caseine combines with oxide of silver in the same manner as albumen, forming a white coagulum, which becomes _brick-red_ on exposure to light. sugar of milk, the third principal constituent, differs from both cane and grape sugar; it may be obtained by evaporating _whey_ until crystallization begins to take place. it is hard and gritty, and only slightly sweet; slowly soluble, without forming a syrup, in about two and a half parts of boiling, and six of cold water. it does not ferment and form alcohol on the addition of yeast, like grape sugar, but by the action of _decomposing animal matter_ is converted into lactic acid. when skimmed milk is exposed to the air for some hours it gradually becomes _sour_, from lactic acid formed in this way; and if then heated to ebullition, the caseine coagulates very perfectly. nitric acid. symbol, no{ }. atomic weight, . nitric acid, or _aqua-fortis_, is prepared by adding sulphuric acid to nitrate of potash, and distilling the mixture in a retort. sulphate of potash and free nitric acid are formed, the latter of which, being volatile, distils over in combination with one atom of water previously united with sulphuric acid. _properties._--anhydrous nitric acid is a solid substance, white and crystalline, but it cannot be prepared except by an expensive and complicated process. the concentrated liquid nitric acid contains atom of water, and has a sp. gr. of about · : if perfectly pure it is colorless, but usually it has a slight yellow tint, from partial decomposition into peroxide of nitrogen: it fumes strongly in the air. the strength of commercial nitric acid is subject to much variation. an acid of sp. gr. · , containing about atoms of water, is commonly met with. if the specific gravity is much lower than this (less than · ), it will scarcely be adapted for the preparation of peroxyline. the yellow _nitrous acid_, so called, is a strong nitric acid partially saturated with the brown vapors of peroxide of nitrogen; it has a high specific gravity, but this is somewhat deceptive, being caused in part by the presence of the peroxide. on mixing with sulphuric acid the color disappears, a compound being formed which has been termed a _sulphate of nitrous acid_. _chemical properties._--nitric acid is a powerful oxidizing agent; it dissolves all the common metals, with the exception of gold and platinum. animal substances, such as the cuticle, nails, etc., are tinged of a permanent yellow color, and deeply corroded by a prolonged application. nitric acid forms a numerous class of salts, all of which _are soluble in water_. hence its presence cannot be determined by any precipitating re-agent, in the same manner as that of hydrochloric and sulphuric acid. _impurities of commercial nitric acid._--these are principally _chlorine_ and _sulphuric acid_; also peroxide of nitrogen, which tinges the acid yellow, as already described. chlorine is detected by diluting the acid with an equal bulk of distilled water, and adding a few drops of nitrate of silver,--a _milkiness_, which is chloride of silver in suspension, indicates the presence of chlorine. in testing for sulphuric acid, dilute the nitric acid as before, and drop in _a single drop_ of solution of chloride of barium; if sulphuric acid be present, an insoluble precipitate of sulphate of baryta will be formed. nitrous acid. (_see_ silver, nitrate of.) nitrate of potash. symbol, ko no{ }. atomic weight, . this salt, also termed _nitre_ or _saltpetre_, is an abundant natural product, found effloresced upon the soil in certain parts of the east indies. it is also produced artificially in what are called nitre-beds. nitrate of potash is _an anhydrous salt_,--it contains simply nitric acid and potash, without any water of crystallization; still, in many cases, a little water is retained mechanically between the interstices of the crystals, and therefore it is better to dry before use. this may be done by laying it in a state of fine powder upon blotting-paper, close to a fire, or upon a heated metallic plate. nitrate of baryta. symbol, bao no{ }. atomic weight, . nitrate of baryta forms octahedral crystals, which are anhydrous. it is considerably less soluble than the chloride of barium, requiring parts of cold and of boiling water for solution. it may be substituted for the nitrate of lead in the preparation of protonitrate of iron. nitrate of lead. symbol, pbo no{ }. atomic weight, . nitrate of lead is obtained by dissolving the metal, or the oxide of lead, in _excess_ of nitric acid, diluted with parts of water. it crystallizes on evaporation in white anhydrous tetrahedra and octahedra, which are hard, and decrepitate on being heated; they are soluble in parts of water at °. nitrate of lead forms with sulphuric acid, or soluble sulphates, a white precipitate, which is the insoluble sulphate of lead. the _iodide_ of lead is also very sparingly soluble in water. nitrate of silver. (_see_ silver, nitrate of.) nitro-hydrochloric acid. symbol, no{ } + cl. this liquid is the aqua-regia of the old alchemists. it is produced by mixing nitric and hydrochloric acids: the oxygen contained in the former combines with the hydrogen of the latter, forming water and liberating chlorine, thus:-- no{ } + hcl = no{ } + ho + cl. the presence of free chlorine confers on the mixture the power of dissolving gold and platinum, which neither of the two acids possesses separately. in preparing aqua-regia it is usual to mix one part, by measure, of nitric acid with four of hydrochloric acid, and to dilute with an equal bulk of water. the application of a gentle heat assists the solution of the metal; but if the temperature rises to the boiling point, a violent effervescence and escape of chlorine takes place. oxygen. symbol, o. atomic weight, . oxygen gas may be obtained by heating nitrate of potash to redness, but in this case it is contaminated with a portion of nitrogen. the salt termed chlorate of potash (the composition of which is closely analogous to that of the nitrate, chlorine being substituted for nitrogen) yields abundance of pure oxygen gas on the application of heat, leaving behind chloride of potassium. _chemical properties._--oxygen combines eagerly with many of the chemical elements, forming oxides. this chemical affinity however is not well seen when the elementary body is exposed to the action of _oxygen in the gaseous form_. it is the _nascent_ oxygen which acts most powerfully as an oxidizer. by nascent oxygen is meant oxygen on the point of separation from other elementary atoms with which it was previously associated; it may then be considered to be in the liquid form, and hence it comes more perfectly into contact with the particles of the body to be oxidized. illustrations of the superior chemical energy of nascent oxygen are numerous, but none perhaps are more striking than the mild and gradual oxidizing influence exerted by atmospheric air, as compared with the violent action of nitric acid and bodies of that class which contain oxygen loosely combined. oxymel. this syrup of honey and vinegar is prepared as follows:--take of honey pound. acid, acetic, fortiss. (beaufoy's acid) drachms. water drachms. stand the pot containing the honey in boiling water until a scum rises to the surface, which is to be removed two or three times. then add the acetic acid and water, and skim once more if required. allow to cool, and it will be fit for use. potash. symbol, ko + ho. atomic weight, . potash is obtained by separating the carbonic acid from carbonate of potash by means of caustic lime. lime is a more feeble base than potash, but the carbonate of lime, being _insoluble_ in water, is at once formed on adding milk of lime to a solution of carbonate of potash. _properties._--usually met with in the form of solid lumps, or in cylindrical sticks, which are formed by melting the potash and running it into a mould. it always contain some atoms of water, which cannot be driven off by the application of heat. potash is soluble almost to any extent in water, much heat being evolved. the solution is powerfully alkaline and acts rapidly upon the skin; it dissolves fatty and resinous bodies, converting them into soaps; solution of potash absorbs carbonic acid quickly from the air, and should therefore be preserved in stoppered bottles; the glass stoppers must be wiped occasionally, in order to prevent them from becoming immovably fixed by the solvent action of the potash upon the silica of the glass. the liquor potassæ of the london pharmacopoeia has a sp. gr. of · , and contains about per cent; of real potash. it is usually contaminated with _carbonate_ of potash, which causes it to effervesce on the addition of acids; also, to a less extent, with sulphate of potash, chloride of potassium, silica, etc. potash, carbonate of. symbol, ko co{ }. atomic weight, . the impure carbonate of potash, termed _pearlash_, is obtained from the ashes of wood and vegetable matter, in the same manner as carbonate of soda is prepared from the ashes of seaweeds. salts of potash and of soda appear essential to vegetation, and are absorbed and approximated by the living tissues of the plant. they exist in the vegetable structure combined with organic acids in the form of salts, like the oxalate, tartrate, etc., which when burned are converted into carbonates. _properties._--the pearlash of commerce contains large and variable quantities of chloride of potassium, sulphate of potash, etc. a purer carbonate is sold, which is free from sulphates, and with only a trace of chlorides. carbonate of potash is a strongly alkaline salt, deliquescent, and soluble in twice its weight of cold water; insoluble in alcohol, and employed to deprive it of water. pyrogallic acid. symbol, c{ }h{ }o{ } (stenhouse). atomic weight. . the term _pyro_ prefixed to gallic acid implies that the new substance is obtained by the _action of heat_ upon that body. at a temperature of about ° fahr., gallic acid is decomposed, and a white sublimate forms, which condenses in lamellar crystals; this is pyrogallic acid. pyrogallic acid is very soluble in cold water, and in alcohol and ether; the solution decomposes and becomes brown by exposure to the air. it gives an indigo blue color with protosulphate of iron, which changes to dark green if any persulphate be present. although termed an _acid_, this substance is strictly _neutral_; it does not redden litmus-paper, and forms no salts. the addition of potash or soda decomposes pyrogallic acid, at the same time increasing the attraction for oxygen; hence this mixture may conveniently be employed for absorbing the oxygen contained in atmospheric air. the compounds of silver and gold are reduced by pyrogallic acid even more rapidly than by gallic acid, the reducing agent absorbing the oxygen, and becoming converted into carbonic acid and a brown matter insoluble in water. commercial pyrogallic acid is often contaminated with empyreumatic oil, and also with a black insoluble substance known as _metagallic acid_, which is formed when the heat is raised above the proper temperature in the process of manufacture. sel d'or. (_see_ gold, hyposulphite of.) silver. symbol, ag. atomic weight, . this metal, the _luna_ or _diana_ of the alchemists, is found native in peru and mexico; it occurs also in the form of sulphuret of silver. when pure it has a sp. gr. of · , and is very malleable and ductile; melts at a bright red heat. silver does not oxidize in the air, but when exposed to an impure atmosphere containing traces of sulphuretted hydrogen, it is slowly tarnished from formation of sulphuret of silver. it dissolves in sulphuric acid, but the best solvent is nitric acid. the standard coin of the realm is an alloy of silver and copper, containing about one-eleventh of the latter metal. it may be converted into nitrate of silver, sufficiently pure for photographic purposes, by dissolving it in nitric acid and evaporating the solution to the crystallizing point: or, if the quantity be small, the solution may be boiled down to complete dryness, and the residue _fused_ strongly; which decomposes the nitrate of copper, but leaves the greater portion of the silver salt unaffected. (n. b. nitrate of silver which has undergone fusion contains nitrite of silver, and will require the addition of acetic acid if used for preparing the collodion sensitive film.) silver, ammonio-nitrate of. crystallized nitrate of silver absorbs ammoniacal gas rapidly, with production of heat sufficient to fuse the resulting compound, which is white, and consists of parts of the nitrate + · of ammonia. the compound however which photographers employ under the name of ammonio-nitrate of silver, may be viewed more simply as a solution of the oxide of silver in ammonia, without reference to the nitrate of ammonia necessarily produced in the reaction. very strong ammonia, in acting upon oxide of silver, converts it into a black powder, termed _fulminating silver_, which possesses the most dangerous explosive properties. its composition is uncertain. in preparing ammonio-nitrate of silver by the common process, the oxide first precipitated occasionally leaves a little black powder behind, on re-solution; this does not appear, however, according to the observations of the author, to be fulminating silver. in sensitizing salted paper by the ammonio-nitrate of silver, _free ammonia_ is necessarily formed. thus:-- chloride of ammonium + oxide of silver in ammonia = chloride of silver + ammonia + water. silver, oxide of. symbol, ago. atomic weight, . if a little potash or ammonia be added to solution of nitrate of silver, a brown substance is formed, which, on standing, collects at the bottom of the vessel. this is oxide of silver, displaced from its previous state of combination with nitric acid by the stronger oxide, potash. oxide of silver is soluble _to a very minute extent_ in pure water, the solution possessing an alkaline reaction to litmus; it is easily dissolved by nitric or acetic acid, forming a neutral nitrate or acetate; also soluble in ammonia (ammonio-nitrate of silver), and in nitrate of ammonia hyposulphite of soda, and cyanide of potassium. long exposure to light converts it into a black substance, which is probably a suboxide. _properties of the suboxide of silver._--suboxide of silver bears the same relation to the ordinary brown protoxide of silver that subchloride bears to protochloride of silver. it is a black powder, which assumes the metallic lustre on rubbing, and when treated with dilute acids is resolved into protoxide of silver which dissolves, and metallic silver. silver, chloride of. symbol, agcl. atomic weight, . _preparation of chloride of silver by double decomposition._--in order to illustrate this, take a solution in water of chloride of sodium or "common salt," and mix it with a solution containing nitrate of silver; immediately a dense, curdy, white precipitate falls, which is the substance in question. in this reaction the elements change places; the chlorine leaves the sodium with which it was previously combined, and crosses over to the silver; the oxygen and nitric acid are released from the silver, and unite with the sodium: thus chloride of sodium + nitrate of silver = chloride of silver + nitrate of soda. this interchange of elements is termed by chemists _double decomposition_. the essential requirements in two salts intended for the preparation of chloride of silver, are simply that the first should contain chlorine, the second silver, and that both should be soluble in water; hence the chloride of potassium or ammonium may be substituted for the chloride of sodium, and the sulphate or acetate for the nitrate of silver. in preparing chloride of silver by double decomposition, the white clotty masses which first form must be washed repeatedly with water, in order to free them from soluble nitrate of soda, the other product of the change. when this is done, the salt is in a pure state, and may be dried, etc., in the usual way. _properties of chloride of silver._--chloride of silver differs in appearance from the nitrate of silver. it is not met with in crystals, but forms a soft white powder resembling common chalk or whiting. it is tasteless and insoluble in water; unaffected by boiling with the strongest nitric acid, but sparingly dissolved by concentrated hydrochloric acid. ammonia dissolves chloride of silver freely, as do solutions of hyposulphite of soda and cyanide of potassium. concentrated solutions of alkaline chlorides, iodides, and bromides are likewise solvents of chloride of silver, but to a limited extent. dry chloride of silver heated to redness fuses, and concretes on cooling into a tough and semi-transparent substance, which has been termed _horn silver_ or _luna cornea_. placed in contact with metallic zinc or iron acidified with dilute sulphuric acid, chloride of silver is reduced to the metallic state, the chlorine passing to the other metal under the decomposing influence of the galvanic current which is established. _preparation and properties of the subchloride of silver._--if a plate of polished silver be dipped in solution of perchloride of iron, or of bichloride of mercury, a _black stain_ is produced, the iron or mercury salt losing a portion of chlorine, which passes to the silver and converts it superficially into subchloride of silver. this compound differs from the white chloride of silver in containing less chlorine and more of the metallic element; the composition of the latter being represented by the formula agcl, that of the former may perhaps be written as ag{ }cl. (?) subchloride of silver is interesting to the photographer as corresponding in properties and composition with the ordinary chloride of silver blackened by light. it is a pulverulent substance of a bluish-black color, which is decomposed by ammonia, hyposulphite of soda, and cyanide of potassium, into chloride of silver which dissolves, and insoluble metallic silver. silver, bromide of. symbol, agbr. atomic weight, . this substance so closely resembles the corresponding salts containing, chlorine and iodine, that a short notice of it will suffice. bromide of silver is prepared by exposing a silvered plate to the vapor of bromine, or by adding solution of bromide of potassium to nitrate of silver. it is an insoluble substance, slightly yellow in color, and distinguished from iodide of silver by dissolving in strong ammonia and in chloride of ammonium. it is freely soluble in hyposulphite of soda and in cyanide of potassium. silver, citrate of. (_see_ citric acid.) silver, iodide of. symbol, agi. atomic weight, . _preparation and properties of iodide of silver._--iodide of silver may be formed in an analogous manner to the chloride, viz. by the direct action of the vapor of iodine upon metallic silver, or by double decomposition between solutions of iodide of potassium and nitrate of silver. when prepared by the latter mode it forms an impalpable powder, the color of which varies slightly with the manner of precipitation. if the iodide of potassium be in excess, the iodide of silver falls to the bottom of the vessel nearly white; but with an excess of nitrate of silver it is of a straw-yellow tint. this point may be noticed, because the yellow salt is the one adapted for photographic use, the other being insensible to the influence of light. iodide of silver is tasteless and inodorous; insoluble in water and in dilute nitric acid. it is scarcely dissolved by ammonia, which serves to distinguish it from the chloride of silver, freely soluble in that liquid. hyposulphite of soda and cyanide of potassium both dissolve iodide of silver; it is also soluble in solutions of the alkaline bromides and iodides. silver, fluoride of. symbol, agf. atomic weight, . this compound differs from those just described in being soluble in water. the dry salt fuses on being heated, and is reduced by a higher temperature, or by exposure to light. silver, sulphuret of. symbol, ags. atomic weight, . this compound is formed by the action of sulphur upon metallic silver, or of sulphuretted hydrogen, or hydrosulphate of ammonia, upon the silver salts; the decomposition of hyposulphite of silver also furnishes the black sulphuret. sulphuret of silver is insoluble in water, and nearly so in those substances which dissolve the chloride, bromide, and iodide, such as ammonia, hyposulphites, cyanides, etc.; but it dissolves in nitric acid, being converted into soluble sulphate and nitrate of silver. silver, nitrate of. symbol, ago no{ }. atomic weight, . nitrate of silver is prepared by dissolving metallic silver in nitric acid. nitric acid is a powerfully acid and corrosive substance, containing two elementary bodies united in definite proportions. these are nitrogen and oxygen; the latter being present in greatest quantity. nitric acid is a powerful solvent for the metallic bodies generally. to illustrate its action in that particular, as contrasted with other acids, place pieces of silver foil in two test-tubes, the one containing dilute sulphuric, the other dilute nitric acid; on the application of heat a violent action soon commences in the latter, but the former is unaffected. in order to understand the cause of the difference, it must be borne in mind that when a metallic substance dissolves in an acid, the nature of the solution is unlike that of an _aqueous_ solution of salt or sugar. if you take salt water, and boil it down until the whole of the water has evaporated, you obtain the salt again, with properties the same as at first; but if a similar experiment be made with a solution of silver in nitric acid, the result is different: in that case you do not get metallic silver on evaporation, but silver _combined with oxygen_ and _nitric acid_, both of which are tightly retained, being, in fact, in a state of chemical combination with the metal. if we closely examine the effects produced by treating silver with nitric acid, we find them to be of the following nature:--first, a certain amount of oxygen is imparted to the metal, so as to form an _oxide_, and afterwards this oxide dissolves in another portion of the nitric acid, producing _nitrate_ of the oxide, or, as it is shortly termed, nitrate of silver. it is therefore the _instability_ of nitric acid, its proneness to part with oxygen, which renders it superior to sulphuric acid in the experiment of dissolving silver. nitric acid stands high in the list of "oxidizing agents," and it is important that the photographer should bear this fact in mind. _properties of nitrate of silver._--in the preparation of nitrate of silver, when the metal has dissolved, the solution is boiled down in order to drive off the excess of nitric acid, and set aside to crystallize. the salt, however, as so obtained is still acid to test-paper, and requires either recrystallization, or a careful heating to about ° fahrenheit, to render it perfectly neutral. pure nitrate of silver occurs in the form of white crystalline plates, which are very heavy and dissolve readily in an equal weight of cold water. the solubility is much lessened by the presence of free nitric acid, and in the _concentrated_ nitric acid the crystals are almost insoluble. boiling alcohol takes up about one-fourth part of its weight of the crystallized nitrate, but deposits nearly the whole on cooling. nitrate of silver has an intensely bitter and nauseous taste; acting as a caustic, and corroding the skin by a prolonged application. its aqueous solution is perfectly neutral to test-paper. heated in a crucible the salt melts, and when poured into a mould and solidified, forms the _lunar caustic_ of commerce. at a still higher temperature it is decomposed, and bubbles of oxygen gas are evolved. the melted mass, cooled and dissolved in water, leaves behind a black powder, and yields a solution which is faintly alkaline to test-paper. the alkalinity depends upon the presence of _nitrite_ of silver associated with excess of oxide, in the form probably of a basic or _sub_-nitrite of silver.[b] [footnote b: nitrite of silver differs from the nitrate in containing less oxygen, and is formed from it by the abstraction of two atoms of that element.] solution of nitrate of silver is decomposed by iron, zinc, copper, mercury, etc., the nitric acid and oxygen passing to the other metal, and metallic silver being precipitated. silver, nitrite of. symbol, ago no{ }. atomic weight, . nitrite of silver is a compound of nitrous acid, or no{ }, with oxide of silver. it is formed by heating nitrate of silver, so as to drive off a portion of its oxygen, or more conveniently, by mixing nitrate of silver and nitrate of potash in equal parts, fusing strongly, and dissolving in a small quantity of boiling water; on cooling, the nitrite crystallizes out, and may be purified by pressing in blotting paper. mr. hadow describes an economical method of preparing nitrite of silver in quantity, viz. by heating part of starch in of nitric acid of · specific gravity, and conducting the evolved gases into a solution of pure carbonate of soda until effervescence has ceased. the nitrite of soda thus formed is afterwards added to nitrate of silver in the usual way. _properties._--nitrite of silver is soluble in parts of cold water; easily soluble in boiling water, and crystallizes, on cooling, in long slender needles. it has a certain degree of affinity for oxygen, and tends to pass into the condition of nitrate of silver; but it is probable that its photographic properties depend more upon a decomposition of the salt and liberation of nitrous acid. _properties of nitrous acid._--this substance possesses very feeble acid properties, its salts being decomposed even by acetic acid. it is an unstable body, and splits up, in contact with water, into binoxide of nitrogen and nitric acid. the peroxide of nitrogen, no{ }, is also decomposed by water and yields the same products. silver, acetate of. symbol, ago (c{ }h{ }o{ }). atomic weight, . this is a difficultly soluble salt, deposited in lamellar crystals when an acetate is added to a strong solution of nitrate of silver. if _acetic acid_ be used in place of an acetate, the acetate of silver does not fall so readily, since the nitric acid which would then be liberated impedes the decomposition. silver, hyposulphite of. symbol, ago s{ }o{ } . atomic weight, . in order to understand, more fully how _decomposition_ of hyposulphite of silver may affect the process of fixing, the peculiar properties of this salt should be studied. with this view nitrate of silver and hyposulphite of soda may be mixed in equivalent proportions, viz. about twenty-one grains of the former salt to sixteen grains of the latter, first dissolving each in separate vessels in half an ounce of distilled water. these solutions are to be added to each other and well agitated; immediately a dense deposit forms, which is hyposulphite of silver. at this point a curious series of changes commences. the precipitate, at first white and curdy, soon alters in color: it becomes canary-yellow, then of a rich orange-yellow, afterwards liver-color, and finally black. the _rationale_ of these changes is explained to a certain extent by studying the composition of the hyposulphite of silver. the formula for this substance is as follows:-- ago s{ }o{ }, but ago s{ }o{ } plainly equals ags, or sulphuret of silver, and so{ }, or sulphuric acid. the acid reaction assumed by the supernatant liquid is due therefore to sulphuric acid, and the black substance formed is sulphuret of silver. the yellow and orange-yellow compounds are earlier stages of the decomposition, but their exact nature is uncertain. the instability of hyposulphite of silver is principally seen when, it is in an isolated state: the presence of an excess of hyposulphite of soda renders it more permanent, by forming a double salt. in fixing photographic prints this brown deposit of sulphuret of silver is very liable to form in the bath and upon the picture; particularly so when the _temperature_ is high. to obviate it observe the following directions:--it is especially in the reaction between _nitrate of silver_ and hyposulphite of soda that the blackening is seen; the chloride and other _insoluble_ salts of silver being dissolved, even to saturation, without any decomposition of the hyposulphite first formed. hence, if the print be washed in water to remove the soluble nitrate, a very much weaker fixing bath than usual may be employed. this plan, however, involving a little additional trouble, is, on that account, often objected to, and, when such is the case, a _concentrated_ solution of hyposulphite of soda must be used, in order to dissolve off the white hyposulphite of silver before it begins to decompose. when the proofs are taken at once from the printing frame and immersed in a _dilute_ bath of hyposulphite (one part of the salt to six or eight of water), _a shade of brown_ may often be observed to pass over the surface of the print, and a large deposit of sulphuret of silver soon forms as the result of this decomposition. on the other hand, with a strong hyposulphite bath there is little or no discoloration and the black deposit is absent. but even if, by a preliminary removal of the nitrate of silver, the danger of blackening be in a great measure obviated, yet the print must not be taken out of the fixing bath too speedily, or some appearance of brown patches, visible by transmitted light, may occur. each atom of nitrate of silver requires _three_ atoms of hyposulphite of soda to form the _sweet and soluble double salt_, and hence, if the action be not continued sufficiently long, another compound will be formed almost tasteless and insoluble. even immersion in a new bath of hyposulphite of soda does not fix the print when once the yellow stage of decomposition has been established. this yellow salt is insoluble in hyposulphite of soda, and consequently remains in the paper. sugar of milk. (_see_ milk.) sulphuretted hydrogen. (_see_ hydrosulphuric acid.) sulphuric acid. symbol, so{ }. atomic weight, . sulphuric acid maybe formed by oxidizing sulphur with boiling nitric acid; but this plan would be too expensive to be adopted on a large scale. the commercial process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid is exceedingly ingenious and beautiful, but it involves reactions which are too complicated to admit of a superficial explanation. the sulphur is first burnt into gaseous sulphurous acid (so{ }), and then, by the agency of binoxide of nitrogen gas, an additional atom of oxygen is imparted from the atmosphere, so as to convert the so{ } into so{ }, or sulphuric acid. _properties._--anhydrous sulphuric acid is a white crystalline solid. the strongest liquid acid always contains one atom of water, which is closely associated with it, and cannot be driven off by the application of heat. this _mono-hydrated_ sulphuric acid, represented by the formula ho so{ }, is a dense fluid, having a specific gravity of about · ; boils at °, and distils without decomposition. it is not volatile at common temperatures, and therefore does not _fume_ in the same manner as nitric or hydrochloric acid. the concentrated acid may be cooled down even to zero without solidifying; but a weaker compound, containing twice the quantity of water, and termed _glacial_ sulphuric acid, crystallizes at ° fahr. sulphuric acid is intensely acid and caustic, but it does not destroy the skin or dissolve metals so readily as nitric acid. it has an energetic attraction for water, and when the two are mixed, condensation ensues, and much heat is evolved; four parts of acid and one of water produce a temperature equal to that of boiling water. mixed with aqueous nitric acid, it forms the compound known as nitro-sulphuric acid. sulphuric acid possesses intense chemical powers, and displaces the greater number of ordinary acids from their salts. it _chars_ organic substances, by removing the elements of water, and converts alcohol into ether in a similar manner. the _strength_ of a given sample of sulphuric acid may generally be calculated from its specific gravity, and a table is given by dr. ure for that purpose. _impurities of commercial sulphuric acid._--the liquid acid sold as _oil of vitriol_ is tolerably constant in composition, and seems to be as well adapted for photographic use as the _pure_ sulphuric acid, which is far more expensive. the specific gravity should be about · at °. if a drop, evaporated upon platinum foil, gives a fixed residue, probably bisulphate of potash is present. a milkiness, on dilution, indicates sulphate of lead. _test for sulphuric acid._--if the presence of sulphuric acid, or a soluble sulphate, be suspected in any liquid, it is tested for by adding a few drops of dilute solution of chloride of barium, or nitrate of baryta. a white precipitate, _insoluble in nitric acid_, indicates sulphuric acid. if the liquid to be tested is very acid, from nitric or hydrochloric acid, it must be largely diluted before testing, or a crystalline precipitate will form, caused by the sparing solubility of the chloride of barium itself in acid solutions. sulphurous acid. symbol, so{ }. atomic weight, . this is a gaseous compound, formed by burning sulphur in atmospheric air or oxygen gas; also by heating oil of vitriol in contact with metallic copper, or with charcoal. when an acid of any kind is added to hyposulphite of soda, sulphurous acid is formed as a product of the decomposition of hyposulphurous acid, but it afterwards disappears from the liquid by a secondary reaction, resulting in the production of trithionate and tetrathionate of soda. _properties._--sulphurous acid possesses a peculiar and suffocating odor, familiar to all in the fumes of burning sulphur. it is a feeble acid, and escapes with effervescence, like carbonic acid, when its salts are treated with oil of vitriol. it is soluble in water. _water._ symbol, h{ }o. atomic weight, . water is an oxide of hydrogen, containing single atoms of each of the gases. _distilled water_ is water which has been vaporized and again condensed: by this means it is freed from earthy and saline impurities, which, not being volatile, are left in the body of the retort. _pure_ distilled water leaves no residue on evaporation, and should remain perfectly clear on the addition of nitrate of silver, _even when exposed to the light_; it should also be neutral to test-paper. the condensed water of steam-boilers sold as distilled water is apt to be contaminated with oily and empyreumatic matter, which discolors nitrate of silver, and is therefore injurious. _rain-water_, having undergone a natural process of distillation, is free from inorganic salts, but it usually contains a minute portion of _ammonia_, which gives it an alkaline reaction to test-paper. it is very good for photographic purposes if collected in clean vessels, but when taken from a common rain-water tank should always be examined, and if much organic matter be present, tinging it of a brown color and imparting an unpleasant smell, it must be rejected. _spring_ or _river_ water, commonly known as "hard water," usually contains sulphate of lime, and carbonate of lime dissolved in carbonic acid: also chloride of sodium in greater or less quantity. on boiling the water, the carbonic acid gas is evolved, and the greater part of the carbonate of lime (if any is present) deposits, forming an earthy incrustation on the boiler. in testing water for sulphates and chlorides, acidify a portion with a few drops of _pure_ nitric acid, free from chlorine (if this is not at hand, use pure acetic acid); then divide it into two parts, and add to the first a _dilute_ solution of chloride of barium, and to the second nitrate of silver,--a milkiness indicates the presence of sulphates in the first case or of chlorides in the second. the _photographic nitrate bath_ cannot be used as a test, since the iodide of silver it contains is precipitated on dilution, giving a milkiness which might be mistaken for chloride of silver. common hard water can often be used for making a nitrate bath when nothing better is at hand. the chlorides it contains are precipitated by the nitrate of silver, leaving soluble _nitrates_ in solution, which are not injurious. the carbonate of lime, if any is present, neutralizes free nitric acid, rendering the bath alkaline in the same manner as carbonate of soda. sulphate of lime, usually present in well water, is said to exercise a retarding action upon the sensitive silver salts, but on this point the writer is unable to give certain information. hard water is not often sufficiently pure for the developing fluids. the chloride of sodium it contains decomposes the nitrate of silver upon the film, and the image cannot be brought out perfectly. the new river water, however supplied to many parts of london, is almost free from chlorides and answers very well. in other cases a few drops of nitrate of silver solution may be added to separate the chlorine, taking care not to use a large excess. black varnish. _asphaltum, dissolved in spirits or oil of turpentine._--the asphaltum may be coarsely pulverized and put into a bottle containing the turpentine, and in a few hours, if it be occasionally shaken, it will be dissolved and ready for use. it should be of about the consistency of thick paste. i use the above, but will now give two more compositions, for any who may wish to adopt them: _black japan._--boil together a gallon of boiled linseed oil, ounces of amber, and ounces of asphaltum. when sufficiently cool, thin it with oil of turpentine. _brunswick black._--melt lbs. of asphaltum, add lbs. of hot boiled linseed oil, and when sufficiently cool, add a gallon of oil of turpentine. the following is from _humphrey's journal_, vol. viii, number . _black varnish._--i generally purchase this from the dealer; but i have made an article which answered the purpose well, by dissolving pulverized asphaltum in spirits of turpentine. any of the black varnishes can be improved by the addition of a little bees'-wax to it. it is less liable to crack and gives an improved gloss. before closing this chapter, it has been thought advisable to remark, that one of the most important departments of photography is the practice of its chemistry. many of the annoying failures experienced by those who are just engaging in the practice of the art, arise from the want of good and pure chemical agents, and the most certain way to avoid this, is to purchase them only from persons who thoroughly understand both their nature and mode of application. as many who may read this work might wish to know the prices of the various articles employed in the practice of the processes given, they can be informed by addressing the author, who will furnish them with a printed price list. practical details of the positive or =ambrotype process.= chapter iv. lewis's patent vices for holding the glass--cleaning and drying the glass--coating--exposure in the camera--developing--fixing or brightening--backing up, &c. manipulations. [sidenote: manipulations.] under the head of manipulations i give the method i employ, and avoid confusion by omitting all comments upon the thousand suggestions of others. the glass is to have its sharp edges and corners removed, by drawing a file once or twice over it. the article used for holding the glass is called a vice. this vice is firmly secured to a bench. [since the foregoing pages have been in type there has been introduced into market a new patent vice, adopted both for glass and plate blocks. i find it, although a little more expensive, an article better suited to the wants of the operator or amateur. it is called lewis's patent glass vice.] clasp the glass firmly in the vice, and pour or _spurt_ upon it a little alcohol and rotten stone, previously formed into a paste, and then, with a piece of cotton flannel, the same as used in the daguerreotype, rub the glass until it is perfectly cleansed from all foreign substances, which will soon be known by experience. the rotten stone paste should not be allowed to dry while rubbing, as it is more liable to scratch the glass. i use another small bottle containing clear alcohol, which i spurt upon the glass, to obviate the drying. when the glass has been sufficiently cleaned, it should, while wet, be put in a vessel of water for future rinsing. clean, as before, as many plates of glass as may be required, and when enough are ready, rinse them off in the water, and then in a quantity of clean water, or a running current, give them a second thorough rinsing, and set them aside to drain. a convenient method of doing this, is to drive two nails horizontally into the wall or partition, a sufficient distance apart (say about - / inches) for the glass to rest on: the upper corner of the glass should be placed against the wall, and the extreme lower diagonal corner left hanging between the nails--which will probably be found the best position for draining yet suggested. after drying, they may be put into a box for safe and clean keeping. particular caution is necessary to avoid handling the glass during the operation. i never take the glass between my fingers, so that they come in contact with _both sides_ of it, except at one particular corner, as at figs. a and b. a quantity of glass prepared as above, may be kept on hand for use two or three days, and when wanted they should be again put into the vice[c] and cleaned, first with cotton flannel wet with alcohol, and then with dry flannel; and then, at a temperature slightly above that of the surrounding atmosphere, except in cases where the thermometer stands above °, it is ready for the brush,[d] which should be carefully applied to each surface, to free it from all particles of dust, and then it is ready for the film of collodion. [footnote c: the vice should be thoroughly cleansed, and no particles of rotten stone, or other matter, be allowed to come in contact with the glass, as it might adhere to the edges and wash off into the silvering bath, and ultimately cause specks. always remember that cleanliness is an indispensable requisite in order to produce a good picture.] [footnote d: one of the most desirable articles i have found for this purpose is the wide ( inch) flat camel's-hair brush often called a blender.] [illustration: fig. a. fig. b.] the glass is held between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand by the corner , fig. a., and towards and nearest the body, and as nearly level as possible. i find this the best position to hold the glass; as, in the case of the larger ones, they can be rested on the end of the little finger, which should be placed as near the edge as possible. then, from the collodion vial, pour on the collodion, commencing a little beyond the centre and towards , continuing pouring in the same place until the collodion nearly reaches the thumb--the glass slightly inclined that way; then let the glass incline towards , and continue to pour towards . as soon as enough has been put on to liberally flow the glass, rapidly and steadily raise corner , and hold it directly over , where the excess will flow oil into the mouth of the vial, which should be placed there to receive it. in case of a speck of dust falling at the time of coating, it can often be prevented from injuring the surface by changing the direction of the flowing collodion, so as to stop it in some place where it will not be seen when the picture is finished. now, with the thumb and finger of the right hand, i wipe off any drops or lines of collodion that may be found upon the _outer_ edge or side of the glass, being careful not to disturb that connected with the face. when the coating has become sufficiently dry, so that when i put my finger against it, it does not break the film, but only leaves a print, i put it into the silvering bath [_see_ fig. p. ]. i generally try corners and . the time, from the first commencement of pouring on collodion to its being put into the bath, should not exceed about half a minute, at a temperature of °. the finger test is the best i have found. the glass is to be rested on a dipper [_see_ fig. p. ], and placed steadily and firmly into the nitrate of silver bath--this in a dark room. it should not be allowed to rest for an instant as it is entering the solution, or it would cause a line. the time for the glass to remain in the bath depends upon the age and amount of silver the bath contains; for a new solution, from _two_ to _three_ minutes will be sufficient to give the proper action. if it be old, three to five minutes will be better. when it is properly coated, it can be raised up and taken by the corner, and allowed to drain for a few seconds, and then should be placed in the tablet, and is ready for the camera. the time of exposure will depend upon the amount of light present. if the bath is newly mixed, and the collodion recently iodized, it should produce a sufficiently strong impression by an exposure of about one-third of the time required for a daguerreotype. if the collodion has been iodized some time, and the bath is old, about one-half of the time necessary to produce a daguerreian image will be required. the plate should in no case be allowed to become dry from the time it is taken from the bath up to the time of pouring on the developer. at a temperature of about °, i have had the glass out of the bath ten minutes without drying. after exposure, the glass should be taken again into the dark room, and removed from the tablet and held over a sink, pail, or basin and the developing solution poured on it as follows: hold the glass between the thumb and finger of the left hand, by the opposite end corner from that in coating with collodion, _i. e._, , and let and be from you. [sidenote: manipulations of the positive process.] commence pouring on the developing solution at the end by the thumb, and let it flow quickly and evenly over the entire surface, the first flooding washing off any excess of nitrate of silver there may be about the edges or corners of the glass (if this silver is not washed off, it flows over the edges and on the surface of the impression, producing white wavy clouds of scum), and then hold the glass as nearly level as possible, it having upon its surface a thin covering of solution (care should be observed not to pour the developing solution on the plate in _one place_, as it would remove all the nitrate of silver and prevent the development of the image, leaving only a dark or black spot where it is poured on). put down the bottle containing the developing solution, and take up a quart pitcher previously filled with water, and as soon as the outline of the image can be plainly seen by the weak or subdued light of an oil or fluid lamp or candle, pour the water over copiously and rapidly. continue this until all the iron solution has been removed. if this is not done, the plate will be covered with blue scum on the application of the washing solution. then the glass can be taken into a light room, and the iodide of silver coating washed off with the cyanide solution, and then rinsed with clear pure water, and stood in a position to drain and dry. i place a little blotting paper under them: it aids in absorbing the water, and facilitates the operation. place the face of the glass against the wall, in order to prevent dust from falling upon it. i have often dried the coating by holding or standing the glass adjacent to a stove. a steady heat is advisable, as it leaves the surface in a more perfect state, and free from any scum. after the coating is perfectly dry, it is ready for the preserving process. it should be warmed evenly, and when about milk warm, "humphrey's collodion gilding" is poured on the image in precisely the same manner as the collodion. in a few seconds the coating sets, and after three-quarters of a minute, if it has not become dry, the blaze of a spirit lamp may be applied to the back and it will immediately become _perfectly transparent_, and nearly as hard as the glass itself: the effect is fully equal, if not superior, to that of chloride of gold in gilding the daguerreotype image. the surface becomes brilliant and permanent. the back of the glass can now be wiped and cleaned with paper or cloth, and gently warmed, and then with a common small brush one coat of black varnish can be applied. this brush should be drawn from side to side across the glass, and on the side opposite to that which has received the image. this is in order not to make streaks in the coating of varnish, but to have uniform lines across the entire length or breadth of the glass. if the varnish is of the proper consistency, it will flow into a smooth, even coating. after this first coating is dry, apply a second in the same manner, only in an opposite direction, so as to cross the lines of the first, uniting at right angles; when this last coating is very nearly dry, a piece of paper, glazed black on one side, and cut to the proper size, can be put next the varnish; it gives it a clean finish, at the same time that it aids towards a dense blackening. i sometimes apply the black varnish by flowing, in the same manner as in putting on the collodion. this picture is to be colored and put up in the same manner as the daguerreotype image, with a mat and glass. the last glass may be dispensed with by first using the collodion gilding, and then upon its surface apply the black varnish, as before. in this case the image is seen through the same glass it is on, and without being reversed: in this case the mat goes on the outside of the glass. when the image is seen through the glass upon which it is taken, it cannot be colored with very great success, as it cannot be seen through the reduced silver forming it. this forms a more or less opaque surface; but in point of economy the single glass is preferable. yet i would not recommend such economy, for i consider that a good impression ought to be well put up, and the welfare of the art fully substantiates that consideration. many ways have been devised for putting up pictures i have produced pleasing effects upon colored glasses: for instance, a picture on a light purple glass has a very pleasing effect; also in some other colors. i have also used patent leather for backing the image. i have produced curious and interesting results by placing a piece of white paper, or coloring white the back of the _whites_ of the image, and then blackening over or around this. by this means the whites are preserved very clear. _positives for pins, lockets, etc._--i employ mica for floating the collodion on, as it can be as easily cut and fitted as the metallic plate in the daguerreotype; and positives taken upon fine, clear, transparent mica, are fully equal to those taken upon glass, and yet they are ambrotypes. mica is an article familiar to every one, as being used in stoves, gratings, etc. the method of using it, is to take the impression on a thick piece, and then split it off, which can readily be done in the most perfect, thin, transparent plates; it is equally as thin as tissue paper, and can be cut as easily. the thickness of the piece upon which the impression is taken is of no moment, since it can be reduced at pleasure and is more easily handled while thick. observations on the positive collodion process. fogging.--there are numerous causes which will produce fogging: the principal ones will be mentioned. one is the admission of light upon the collodion. this maybe from a want of closeness of the dark room, the tablet,[e] the camera, or by accidental exposure. the method to locate the particular cause is to, _first_, when the glass is taken from the nitrate bath, let it stand for sufficient time to drain, then pour on the developer, and if the coating assumes a mistiness, or light-grey color, the fault is in the dark room; again, if the plate, after it has been treated with the developer and fixed, is clear, then also the fault is there. now try the tablet in the same manner, and if not there, try the camera, and the proper location will be found. [footnote e: since the foregoing pages have been in type an entirely new feature in the line of apparatus has been introduced; this is w. & w. h. lewis's patent plate-holder with solid glass corners. these holders have every requisite for excluding the light from the sensitive surface; they are accompanied with a "shut off," so that when the slide is drawn no light can reach the glass. this, in connection with the unequalled advantage of the solid corners, makes them the most desirable article for the operator. _humphrey's journal_, in referring to these holders, says:-- "we are always glad to note every step which our mechanics make towards improvement on the apparatus used by our practical photographic operators, and make the present announcement of one which has only to be known to be readily understood, and to be seen to be appreciated. a patent has recently been granted for making solid glass corners, which are to be attached to plate-holders, and form the most perfect article that has ever been introduced. heretofore the operator has had the corners of his plate-holders made with separate pieces of glass, cut so as to fit the corners of his frames; these are only glued or grooved in, and are constantly coming apart, falling out, and annoying in many ways; for our part, we never have considered them as fit for use in any manner. we look upon the present improvement as destined to entirely supersede all the methods heretofore introduced. in this case the collodionized or albumenized plate can come in contact with no other substance than a single piece of glass, and consequently there is far less liability of accident from either the staining of the plate or breaking of the holder. the rapid favor this improvement has gained already shows its great advantage over all other methods heretofore employed." ] "decomposition by exposure to light or by long keeping, even in the dark. the author conceives that it is possible for organic matter alone to produce, after a time, a partial decomposition of solution of nitrate of silver, sufficient to prevent it from being employed chemically neutral, but probably not much interfering with its properties in other respects. "use of rain water or of water containing carbonate of silver being perfectly neutral and from nitric acid. this difficulty is not a theoretical one only, but has actually been experienced. rain water usually contains ammonia, and has a faint alkaline reaction. pump water often abounds with carbonate of lime, much of which, but not the whole, is deposited on boiling. to remove the alkaline condition, add acetic acid, one drop to half a pint of the solution. "partial decomposition of the bath, by contact with metallic iron, with hyposulphite of soda, or with any developing agent, even in small quantity. also by the use of accelerators, which injure the bath by degrees, and eventually prevent its employment in an accurately neutral state. "vapor of ammonia, or hydrosulphate of ammonia, escaping into the developing room." spots.--one principal cause of spots is _dust_. the operating room should be kept as free from this as possible, and instead of its being dusted, it should be wiped with a damp cloth. specks or flakes of iodide of silver are often found in the nitrate bath. these sometimes occur by an ever-iodized collodion, and sometimes by collodion falling off while being silvered. when this occurs, the nitrate of silver solution should be filtered. a new sponge or a tuft of cotton is a good article to filter nitrate of silver solution through. a small particle of light finding its way upon the plate, will produce a spot. another and very frequent cause is, putting the slide of the tablet down rapidly, causing it to spatter upon the plate the solution which has drained off from it. this paper will be opaque when viewed by reflected light, and dark when viewed by transmitted light. occasionally a sort of transparent spot will appear: this may be traced to a want of sensibility of the iodide of silver. large transparent spots frequently appear by the operator's pouring the developing solution upon one place, and washing off the small quantity of nitrate of silver necessary to develope the image. this will be easily detected, and can be obviated by _flooding_ the most of the surface of the glass with a steady stream of the developer. stains and lines.--if the glass be allowed to rest for an instant with one portion of its surface in the silvering solution and the other out of it, it would cause a streak across; hence the necessity of totally immersing it with one firm, steady motion removing the glass before it has been thoroughly wetted, and the ether and alcohol allowed a uniform action over the entire surface. a plate should not be disturbed in the bath until it has been in a full minute at least. _irregular lines_ are often caused by using the developing solution too strong, or by not pouring it evenly over the plate at once. should it be allowed to rest in its progress, if but for an instant, it will leave its line. sometimes spangles of metallic silver appear: these are caused by the presence of too much nitric acid in the developer for the proportion of iodide in the film and the strength of the bath. there are other phases connected with the practice of the positive process, which it would be almost impossible to commit to paper, and cannot be so explained as to be perfectly comprehended by the new experimenter. it is absolutely necessary for all to observe every little point noticed in the foregoing pages, and at the same time exercise some good judgment, and no one need hesitate through fear of not being successful. practical details of the =negative process.= chapter v. negative process--soluble cotton--plain collodion--developing solution--re-developing solution--fixing the image--finishing the image--nitrate of silver bath. negative process. the manipulations and chemicals employed in the production of the negative collodion pictures are very similar to those already given for operating by the positive process; frequent reference will therefore necessarily be made to portions of that process, as described in the preceding pages, and only such parts will be given here, as do not correspond with the foregoing. it is thought advisable to omit in this chapter every reference that does not have a desired tendency to aid the operator in the plain straightforward order of manipulation. the negative process is fast becoming popular and needs the attention of all who desire to keep pace with the experiments in the art. since the first edition of this work it has been my pleasure to see many fine photographic specimens produced by the following process, and no one need fail, if he will carefully adhere to the details given. there perhaps may be circumstances making it advisable for some to have but one nitrate of silver solution for both positive and negative collodion pictures: for such, a process will be given in the following pages, which has recently appeared in _humphrey's journal_, and is called, after its author, the "helio process," this is well adapted for most purposes. soluble cotton. the method for preparing this has been given in page . it is prepared in the same manner for both positives and negatives. plain collodion. the preparation of plain collodion employed is the same as that described at page . developing solution for negatives. rain or distilled water ounces. protosulphate of iron grains. acetic acid ounces. a little alcohol may be added to make it flow more evenly over the plate--say oz. this solution can be kept in a pint bottle, and should have a funnel devoted solely to the purpose of filtering it. one of the most convenient dishes for receiving this solution, when poured over the plate, is a bowl with a lip to it, as it can be readily poured back into the funnel. the mode of employing this developer is the same as that for positives, described at page . it may be used an indefinite number of times, but should be kept clean; it soon assumes a red color. re-developing solution. this solution is for the purpose of giving increased intensity to the negative, but as its use in the hands of beginners is attended with some difficulty, i would not recommend the operator to try it until he has had considerable experience in the developing process, or he will undoubtedly spoil his proofs. its use requires promptness of action and quick observation. the following is the formula for its preparation: water ounces. protosulphite of iron grains. put this into a bottle, and when the crystals are dissolved, it is ready for use. it should be kept filtered, and can be used only once. now in another bottle put water ounces. nitrate of silver grains. remarks.--the impression is to be well washed after the developing solution has been poured off, and then the _re-developing solution_ (that portion containing the protosulphate of iron) can be poured on--the plate being held perfectly level: the surface is completely covered; the water containing the nitrate of silver should then be poured _rapidly_ on, to mix with the iron, when the surface of the impression will instantly commence to blacken; and if the action be allowed to continue for a lengthened period, say one minute, the impression will be ruined. it is a matter worthy of notice, that there is no perceptible action when the iron solution is poured over the glass; but the action is very energetic the instant the nitrate of silver solution comes in contact with the iron salt and the silver. as soon as any change can be observed, after the re-developer has been poured over the plate, it should be _quickly_ and copiously washed off with clean water, and then it is ready for the fixing process. i would dissuade novices in the art from practising with the _re-developing solution_, until they have first thoroughly mastered the entire process of taking negatives. the developing solution is the only one used by operators generally, and will, with proper care, produce satisfactory results. fixing the image. water ounces. hyposulphite of soda ounces. remarks.--this is nearly a saturated solution. the glass can be put in a dish and the solution poured over, or held in the hand, in the same way as the plate in the daguerreotype process. it can readily be seen when a sufficient action has been attained, as the unaltered bromo-iodide of silver will be dissolved, leaving only the reduced surface holding the image. this action should not be continued too long, as it affects the intensity of the picture, injuring it for printing. the glass should be well washed by pouring over it clean water, and then it can be stood away to dry, in a _nearly_ perpendicular position, on clean blotting paper, or otherwise, as is most convenient; when thoroughly dry, it is ready for the finishing. finishing the image. this is done with the same material, and in the same manner, as that given for positives--page . remarks.--the glass negatives, when not wanted for use, should be carefully put aside in a box, and kept free from dust and dampness: by so doing, it is believed that they will remain good for any length of time. nitrate of silver bath. this solution differs only from the positive bath, by omitting the _nitric acid_: in all other respects it is precisely the same, and is prepared by the same formula, as given at page . this is called the _neutral bath_, and is best adapted to the negative process. the nitrate of silver employed in its preparation should be perfectly free from excess of nitric acid, otherwise the whole solution will be slightly acid. if it should not be convenient to obtain nitrate of silver without this objection, the acid may be neutralized by putting into the solution a small quantity of common washing soda-- say grain to each grains of nitrate of silver--previously dissolved in about half an ounce of water. this may be put in at the same time that the iodide of potassium is, and it would save one filtration. in twenty samples of nitrate of silver that i have tried the above quantity of soda has been found sufficient; if, however, the _white_ precipitate first formed is re-dissolved on shaking the mixture, free nitric acid is present, and more of the soda may be added. this bath will improve by age, and be less liable to fog after having been in constant use for one or two weeks. operators who have the means, and design following the art professionally, will find it to their advantage to make from two to three times the quantity of solution they require for immediate use: by this means they will be enabled to replenish their stock, which may be used up or otherwise lost. practical details of the =printing process.= chapter vi. printing process--salting paper--silvering paper--printing the positive--fixing and coloring bath--mounting the positive. the printing process. [sidenote: manipulations of the printing process.] there is probably no department of the photographic art where can be found an equal amount of variety, as regards chemicals, manipulations, etc. the course adopted in the commencement, of giving only one process for the operator to work by--and that a good one--will be strictly adhered to in this place. i have produced as good positives on paper by the following plan, as i have ever seen. should the reader wish more extensive acquaintance with the printing processes, he is referred to humphrey's journal. salting paper. water quart. muriate of ammonia grains. the water is put into a flat, gutta-percha, glass, or earthen dish, and the muriate of ammonia is put into it, and stirred until it is dissolved and is well mixed with the water; then proceed as follows: we will suppose we have a gutta-percha dish sufficiently large to take in a sheet of paper by inches, and about - / or inches deep: take hold of two corners of the paper with the thumb and finger of each hand, and then draw the paper through the solution, by passing it from one end of the dish to the other, so that it will be wetted on both sides; then turning it over in the same manner, draw it back, so that its surface will be thoroughly moistened, but it is not necessary to _saturate_ the paper. now the paper is ready for drying, which may be done by hanging it on the edge of a shelf by means of little tack nails put through it at the same corners by which it was held in passing through the salting solution. in order to prevent streaks, from forming upon the paper, it is better to hang it in such a manner that it cannot touch the shelf, except at the corners: say the sheet is eight inches wide, and the tacks (which are put through the corners) to be only five or six inches apart, this will give the proper bend outwards, preventing its contact with the shelf. this entire operation can be performed in daylight, or otherwise as suits the convenience of the operator. this paper, when dry, should be laid between the folds of blotting paper (filtering paper will answer), and may be kept for any length of time, and is ready for the silvering process. silvering paper. in silvering paper, i employ the ammonio-nitrate, which is prepared as follows:-- water - / ounces. nitrate of silver grains. dissolve (in a -ounce vial) the nitrate of silver in the water, and then pour one-fourth of the solution into an ounce graduate or any convenient vessel: this keep for farther use in preventing the presence of an excess of ammonia. now, into the bottle containing the three-fourths put about drops of aqua-ammonia; shake well and a brown precipitate will be given. continue adding the ammonia, _drop by drop_, and shake after each addition, until the brown precipitate is re-dissolved and the solution is clear; then pour back into the bottle the one-fourth taken out at first: this will leave the solution slightly turbid, and when so, there is no excess of ammonia which would be objectionable. it may now be filtered through filtering paper, and it (the clear liquid) is ready for use. this should be kept in the dark, as it decomposes rapidly when exposed to light. the method of silvering the paper with ammonio-nitrate of silver, is as follows: take a tuft of clean cotton, roll it into a ball-shape, then wet it by holding it against the mouth of the bottle containing the ammonio-nitrate, and when well wet, apply it to the paper (which should be placed flat on a clean board) by gently rubbing it over the surface, care being taken not to roughen it. if the solution has not been filtered for some time, it would be advisable to pour a little on the centre of the paper, and then distribute it over the surface by means of the cotton, which is held in the fingers: by this last method any sediment which may be in the bottom of the bottle is prevented from getting upon the paper, and causing spots. i have used a brush for the purpose of distributing the solution, by which plan there is less liability of getting it on the fingers and staining them. care must be taken to cover the _entire surface_ of the paper, or there will be light streaks, occasioned by the absence of the silvering solution. this want of silver will appear on the paper in light parts, as seen in the accompanying cut: [illustration: fig. .] after the paper has been perfectly coated, or washed with the silvering solution, it should be placed in a perpendicular position to dry. i usually tack the paper on a board of the requisite size, and then stand it on one edge until it has drained and dried. as soon as dry, it is ready for use. this paper will not keep more than twelve hours, therefore the operator should silver in the morning the quantity required for the day. it is imperatively necessary that the silvered paper be kept in the dark. it is extremely sensitive to light, and a very brief exposure of the prepared sheet would render it unfit for use. printing the positive. the several kinds of apparatus used for holding the negative and the sensitive paper together, have already been given on page , figs. , , . the paper having been salted and silvered, as just described, should be placed on the pad of the printing frame or glasses, with its sensitive surface up, and then the negative placed directly upon and in contact with it; then it is to be fastened together, when it will be ready for exposure to the direct rays of the sun. from to seconds will be found enough to give a sufficiently intense print. the paper first changes to a slate color, and then to a brown or copper color t when of a dark slate color is about the proper time to take it out and immerse in the toning bath. fixing and coloring bath. i have employed the proportions given by mr. hardwich in his _photographic chemistry_, page --humphrey's american edition. solution of chloride of gold, a quantity equivalent to grains. nitrate of silver " hyposulphite of soda ounces. water " "dissolve the hyposulphite of soda in four ounces of the water, the chloride of gold in three ounces, the nitrate of silver in the remaining ounce; then pour the diluted chloride by degrees into the hyposulphite, stirring meanwhile with a glass rod; and afterwards the nitrate of silver in the same way. this order of mixing the solution is to be strictly observed; if it were reversed, the hyposulphite of soda being added to the chloride of gold, the result would be the reduction of metallic gold. the difference depends upon the fact that the hyposulphite of gold which is formed is an exceedingly unstable substance, and cannot exist in contact with unaltered chloride of gold. it is necessary that it should be dissolved by hyposulphite of soda _immediately_ on its formation, and so rendered more permanent by conversion into a double salt of soda and gold. "the _time of coloration_ depends much upon the quantity of gold present, and may in some cases be extended to many hours. the results of a few experiments, performed roughly, appeared to indicate that the activity of this bath is less affected by depression of temperature than those prepared with tetrathionate. certainly the injurious effects of prolonged immersion are not so evident as with the first two formulæ: the purity of the whites remains unaltered for many hours if the bath is new, but with an old bath there is a tendency to yellowness, which is probably caused by the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen. fresh chloride of gold must be added from time to time, as it appears to be required." after the impression has remained in the toning bath a sufficient length of time, it should be placed in a dish or sink of clean water, which should be changed several times--floating for at least hours; then it may be taken out and hung up to dry. "touching."--the _coloring_ of a photograph forms no part of my process: this is a matter to be given into the hands of an artist, and when it bears the finishing touch of his skill, it is no longer a _photograph_, but _an oil_ or _watercolor painting_; all the delicate workings of nature having been lost or hidden under the colors. a photograph may often be "touched" to advantage. if, as is frequently the case, there be little white spots on the face of the paper, they may be readily covered by the application of a little india ink, with the point of a wet pencil or fine small brush. mounting of positives. this, though a small matter in itself, is worthy of great attention. the durability of the proof depends much upon the purity of the paste used in causing its adhesion to the bristol board. i have employed the following composition with the most eminent success:-- gum arabic ounces gum tragacanth - / " isinglass - / " sugar / " water pints these ingredients should all be dissolved, and then boiled down to the proper consistency, by means of a gentle heat. i will give another composition, which will serve a good purpose, and keep for a long time:-- water ounces. one table spoonful of wheat flour powdered alum grains. powdered resin " brown sugar ounce. bichloride of mercury grains. this last composition may be more convenient for operators, and it will answer the purpose well. it is thought by some to be the _best_ and _most durable_ paste yet prepared for the purpose. =facts worth mentioning.= [sidenote: facts worth knowing.] _the poisonous effects_ of cyanide of potassium upon sores, may be obviated by immediately applying some of the positive developing solution, described at page . by this means much annoyance may be avoided to persons afflicted with chapped or sore hands. _bending glass rods_ or tubes can be easily done by subjecting them to the blaze of a spirit lamp--the same as that used for gilding the daguerreotype. first hold the rod just above the blaze, then gradually allow it to descend into it, imparting to the rod a rotatory motion with the finger and thumb: this will soon cause a softening of the glass, when it may be bent to any desired shape. if the ends are to be bent to form hooks, another small piece of glass, or any warm metal, may be placed upon the end, in the blaze of the lamp, and as soon as thoroughly softened, it can be pressed or bent to form the hook. by filing around a glass tube or rod, it may be easily and safely broken at the desired point, by giving it a sudden jerk between both hands, holding it close to the encircled part. _cementing glass_ may be readily accomplished by placing the two ends together in the blaze of the lamp, and holding them there until they attain a sufficient degree of heat to slightly fuse: when cool, the ends will be found perfectly united. _the background_ best adapted to positives is unbleached muslin, such, as is sold for sheeting, and can be found in almost any dry goods' store: it should be from two to three yards wide. a clouded appearance is given to the background by merely marking it with _charcoal_, forming streaks or "_waves_" resembling clouds. these come out black, or dark, in the positive, and give a variegated appearance. the roughness of the marking does not matter, since the background is generally a little out of the focus of the lenses. trees and other designs may be represented in this matter. _positive collodion pictures_ may be whitened by the use of bichloride of mercury, thirty grains to one ounce of water. after the picture has been developed, fixed and washed, by the process given in the preceding pages, the solution of bichloride of mercury may be poured over the surface of the image: it almost immediately presents a series of interesting changes in color. the surface at first blackens but for a few minutes, when it begins to get lighter, and gradually brightens to a pure white, inclining to a blue. it should then be thoroughly washed and dried, as usual. _instantaneous pictures_ may be taken by employing the _iodide of iron_ in the collodion. the best method with which i am acquainted, is to have a saturated solution of iodide of iron in alcohol, and drop one or two drops into an ounce of the collodion (which has been previously iodized) used in taking positives. this can be used at once, as soon as mixed. no more of this collodion should be prepared than is wanted for immediate use, as it will keep good for only a few hours. the saturated solution of iodide of iron can be kept on hand ready for use at all times. there should be an excess of the iodide in the alcohol. the same accelerating effect is produced with the negative collodion prepared in this way. _plain collodion_ may be iodized as soon as dissolved: this will save time in settling. it is a fact that some cotton is more readily dissolved when the bromo-iodizing is present: but by the addition of this, i have often taken up considerable quantities of the gummy sediment remaining in the bottom of bottles. _prepared glass_ may be preserved clean and free from dust by keeping in boxes such as those used for keeping daguerreotype plates. by taking out every other partition between the grooves, the glass can be readily put in. _collodion vials and bottles_, after having collodion in them once, should be rinsed with alcohol and ether (in the same proportions as employed for dissolving the cotton), before using them a second time for that purpose. penuriousness in this respect would be bad policy. _coating large glasses._--a convenient method of doing this is represented in the following illustration: [illustration] the glass is held by one corner, ; the other corner, , is rested on a table or bench, and the collodion poured on, so that the excess may be poured off at . _black stains_ upon the hands, caused by nitrate of silver, may be removed by moistening them and rubbing with a lump of cyanuret of potassium. this salt is poisonous, if used to a great extent [_see page _]. another safer, but more expensive plan, however, is to take a saturated solution of iodide of potassium in water, and then wash with nitric acid diluted with two parts water. _stains upon white linen_ can be removed by washing with a saturated solution of iodide of potassium containing a little iodine; then wash with water, and soak in a saturated solution of hyposulphite of soda until the yellow iodide of silver is dissolved. _the hands_ should always be washed after fixing a positive or negative picture, before again touching a glass to be coated, or the dipper; this precaution is necessary, lest any of the iron salt, or the hyposulphite, should get into the silvering solution and spoil it. _in taking collodion pictures_, it is always advisable for the sitter to be arranged before the glass is taken from the bath: this will save time and there will be less liability of the collodion drying. _a good negative_ may be known by its possessing the following characteristics:--by transmitted light the figure is bright, and appears to stand out from the glass; the dark shadows are clear, without any misty deposit of metallic silver; the high lights black almost to complete opacity. _a glass coated with collodion_, if kept too long before immersion in the bath, will not be equally sensitive over its surface; the parts most dry being the least sensitive. _glass pans, for scales_, can be procured by every one at trifling expense: take a watch crystal, and place in the common metal pan; balance this with lead, or any weight: this can easily be kept clean, and is the most advisable for weighing all deliquescent salts, and chemicals employed in the collodion process. _caution._--persons engaged in making collodion, and using ether and alcohol, must bear in mind that these chemicals are _very inflammable_; hence extreme caution is necessary to avoid exposing them to the flame of a lamp or candle. i have known of several serious accidents, of recent date, all of which were caused by the imprudence of the experimenter in the particular above mentioned. _wipe the plate-holder_ every time before the glass is put into it: this will prevent spots, which might otherwise occur from the presence of nitrate of silver solution which drained from the plate previously used. these spots are of an opaque yellowish tinge, and in shape resemble the stain which would be occasioned by a _splash_ of water. _glass jar positives._--a good _white_ or light-green glass will answer for the collodion coating. glass which contains air-spots can be used, if it be placed in such a manner as to let the light of the image come over them, as the spots cannot be seen through the opaque surface. only the best white glass should be used for _covering_ the picture. some operators use the convex glass, which is very clear, and answers the purpose. _the nitrate of silver bath_ should be kept covered, except when in use. _if a glass be immersed too soon_, streaks and waves will be occasioned. these will be seen at the end of the plate which is least dry: the coating is also more liable to peel off. it should be borne in mind, however, that the peeling of collodion is not always attributable to this cause. _diffused light in the developing room._--in proportion as the sensitiveness of the plates increases, greater care must be exercised in thoroughly excluding all rays of white light. with opalescent films, neutral, this cause of fogging is more common than any other. _tn the case_ of a portrait, if the features have an unnaturally black and gloomy appearance, the dark portions of the drapery, &c., being invisible, the picture has been _underexposed_ in the camera. chapter vii. =helio process.=[f] [footnote f: it has been thought advisable to publish in this work the _helio process_, and i do so just as it appeared in _humphrey's journal_.--s. d. h.] an entire process for producing collodion positives and negatives with one bath, and in much less time than by any other known process.--by helio.--photographic patents. boston, oct., . s. d. humphrey. _sir_,--as _humphrey's journal_ is the only truly progressive and independent photographic publication in america, i feel it the duty of every one to aid its editor in furthering the interest of the amateur and practitioner of the art; and, suiting the action to the word, i present the following process as being worthy of confidence, and having, in my hands, proved eminently satisfactory. i am surprised to see that operators and men respectably connected with the practice of the art should so far fall beneath the station of true artists as to advertise to catch each other, or the verdant ones, by offering this or that little improvement all "printed complete for five dollars." as an amateur, and having the good of the science i love at heart, i now contribute my mite for the benefit of all interested; and, following the glorious example of g. b. c. (who i hope we shall soon hear from again,) in your last, i say--god speed! i shall endeavor to be as minute and concise as possible, so as to enable any one to adopt and successfully use my processes. _preparation of soluble cotton._--i put into a wedgewood mortar, twelve ounces, by weight, of dry and finely pulverized nitrate of potash (i use dupont's refined), and add to it twelve ounces, by measure, of good commercial sulphuric acid; i mix these well together by the use of a glass rod and pestle, so that it forms a paste; i then add, in small quantities at a time, about grains of good coarse cotton (this is according to your process), and _knead_ the mass well for from three to five minutes; and then cover the mortar with a piece of glass, and let it stand for twenty or thirty minutes, by which time it will have been sufficiently acted upon. then the cotton is to be plunged into a quantity of clean water and thoroughly washed in a number of changes of water, so that when it is squeezed between the folds of blue litmus-paper it will not redden it; this indicates that the acid has been washed out; i then place the cotton in a clean strong towel and wring out all the water i can, then put it into alcohol, then wring it again, and adopt your plan of not letting it become thoroughly dry. the cotton being now ready for use, i dissolve it in the following mixture, in a bottle of proper size:-- sulphuric ether ounces. alcohol, per cent. ounces. soluble cotton, enough to make it about as thick as cream. the above should be well shaken, and then allowed to stand for one or two days to settle. this constitutes my plain collodion, and should be poured off into another bottle, leaving the sediment behind. _iodizing._--for this purpose i employ the following preparation:-- _a._--_iodide of silver._--dissolve fifty grains of nitrate of silver, crystals, in two ounces of pure water, and forty grains of iodide of ammonium in two ounces of pure water; then pour the two together, shaking the mixture well; let it settle, which it will do in a few minutes; then pour off the water carefully, leaving behind all the yellow iodide of silver; pour again a fresh quantity of water over the precipitate, and continue this washing for at least six changes of water; then drain off the water as close as possible and pour on two ounces of alcohol, which, when drained off, will leave the powder sufficiently clean for the purpose. _b._--i now dissolve forty grains of bromide of ammonium and one hundred grains of iodide of ammonium in two ounces of per cent, alcohol, and then add the iodide of silver (preparation _a_), and shake the whole well together, giving a saturated solution. this is to be filtered through cotton or paper, when it will be ready for use. _c._--to sixteen ounces of plain collodion add from eight to twelve drops of tincture of iodine ( grains of dry iodine dissolved in half an oz. of alcohol) and grains or drops of fluoride of ammonium; shake the mixture well; then add all of the solution _b_; shake it again and thoroughly; after this has stood for twenty-four hours it can be used, but will be found better after it has been prepared one week. nitrate of silver solution. pure rain or distilled water ounces. nitrate of silver (in crystals) - / ounces. clean pure white sugar grains. six grains of iodide of ammonium dissolved in half a drachm of alcohol. the above, thoroughly mixed and allowed to stand for a few hours, should be filtered through a new clean sponge, asbestos, or swedish filtering paper, and then a few drops of nitric acid, chemically pure, should be added, just enough to redden blue litmus-paper; then it is ready for use, and will improve by age. _developing solution._--this formula has proved very satisfactory in my hands, and i hope will be equally so with all who give it a trial:-- water pint. boracic acid / ounce. protosulphate of iron / ounce. pulverized nitre / ounce three drops of oil of cinnamon dissolved in two ounces of alcohol. dissolve and filter, and it is ready for use. it is better to make this developer fresh every other day. _dissolving off the iodide of silver._--water, about half a pint; cyanide of potassium, enough to clear the impression in about thirty seconds--say a quarter of an ounce. _fixing the impression._--i use the article well known to every good photographer as humphrey's collodion gilding, and it serves the purpose better than anything that i i know of. _black varnish._--i generally purchase this from the dealer; but i have made an article which answered the purpose well, by dissolving pulverized asphaltum in spirits of turpentine. any of the black varnishes can be improved by the addition of a little bees'-wax to it. it is less liable to crack and gives an improved gloss. _negative and printing processes._--being myself an amateur, and desiring to study economy and convenience, my attention has been given to the test of numerous plans for avoiding the necessity of two baths and silvering solutions and i feel confident that the amateur will find the following, in connection with the foregoing positive process, the best adapted to his wants. the same bath and solution is used for the negative as for the positive process; and the time of exposure in the camera should be prolonged a few seconds. i have produced beautiful negatives, in-doors, in _four seconds_, and, out-doors, _instantaneously_. the manipulation, bath, and developing solution are precisely the same as those used in the positive process. _fixing the negative._--place the following mixture in a well-stoppered bottle: pure water ounces. aqua-ammonia, concentrated ounce. this solution should be poured on the negative and allowed to remain for about twenty seconds. it should be borne in mind, that the developing solution (same as for positives) should be well washed off the glass before the fixing solution is poured over; after it has remained on the glass for the time given ( seconds), the negative can be washed with clean water and dried; it is then ready for printing. the iodide of silver is not, as in other processes, dissolved off, but remains on the glass. it sometimes happens that the negative is not sufficiently intense; this result can be obtained by pouring over the plate the following solution, which should remain for about three-fourths of a minute: water ounces. nitrate of silver grains. alcohol ounce. loaf sugar / ounce after this solution is used, i pour over the impression the developing solution, and then wash well with water. this re-developing may be repeated two or three times, and almost any desired intensity obtained. _printing process--salting the paper._--boil the following mixture in an earthen vessel until it becomes transparent:-- distilled water ounces. muriate of ammonia grains. arrowroot grains. after this has been sufficiently boiled, it should be strained through clean linen or cotton cloth (free from soap or other substances), and, when cool, it is ready for coating the paper, which is done by dipping a new clean sponge into it and rubbing it over one side of the paper, giving it a uniform coating; but as it is not desirable to have too much on the paper, it should be rubbed with a clean sponge until nearly dry; it can then be hung up by the corner until thoroughly dry, when it can be put into a portfolio and kept for exciting for use. _silvering solution._--this solution may be prepared in the light, but must be used in a dark room:-- distilled water pint. nitrate of silver - / ounces. dissolve and pour into an earthen or gutta-percha dish. take the paper (cut to the proper size) and _float_ it on this solution for about three minutes; care must be observed that there are no air-bubbles between the solution and the paper, for this would cause spots. it now can be hung up to dry, and as soon as dry it may be used. let me here repeat, that this operation must be conducted in a dark room. _fixing and toning bath._--i find that a better effect is produced if the positive be a little over-printed before being acted upon by the following mixture:-- distilled water ounces. chloride of sodium grains. this solution should be put into a flat dish and the print placed on it, face down, for from one and a-half to three minutes, when it should be taken off and put into the following solution, and allowed to remain there from three quarters of an hour to two hours:-- distilled water ounces. hyposulphite of soda ounces. nitrate of silver grains. the following method should be observed in preparing this last mixture, viz.:--dissolve the three ounces of hyposulphite of soda in _sixteen_ ounces of the water and the sixty grains of nitrate of silver in the remaining two ounces; then pour the nitrate of silver solution into that containing the hyposulphite of soda, stirring the mixture continually until all is well mixed. after the print has remained in the toning solution for the specified time, it should be taken out and well washed in several changes of clean water, and dried and mounted in any of the usual ways. with a few general remarks i will close this, perhaps, too long communication. it should be a point in the practice of every one who desires success in any process, to maintain a strict observance to cleanliness; this is one point in which most persons fail, and it cannot be too strongly impressed upon the minds of manipulators. it should be understood that the foregoing process is _complete in itself_, and is not to be confounded with any other method. the _collodion_ is adapted for the _nitrate of silver bath_, and the _bath_ for the _collodion_; and no one should use other preparations of collodion and silvering solution, except they do so with the full expectation that it will be at the _loss of either or both of the preparations employed_. allow me, through the columns of your invaluable journal, to say to those who may read the foregoing process, that if they find (as i have) my process to prove profitable to them, i shall consider myself amply repaid if they will, through the same medium, contribute to our stock of information by giving an account of their experiments. i feel quite confident that some of the amateurs, with whose reputation i am already acquainted, and of whose private works in photography america has cause to feel proud,--could furnish interesting, useful and valuable information upon this subject. such men, for instance, as g. b. c, of md. (who has already made a good beginning), g. w. d., of the same place, and mr. g. g., of pa. friends and co-laborers, shall we hear from you? i pause for a reply! i look with interest upon every stroke of the pen from your able correspondent g. m., of washington, whose specimens of photographic engraving you recently had the kindness to show me. i assure you, it did not a little astonish me to witness the surprising truthfulness with which the details were presented. helio. =correspondence= between the u. s. commissioner of patents and james a. cutting, relative to his applications for letters patent. united states patent office, april , . sir: your application for letters patent for an alleged improvement in making photographic pictures, having been submitted to the proper examiner, is rejected. as the use of alcohol to absorb water in hasty desiccation is understood to be commonly practical in most chemical laboratories, no reference is thought necessary for the rejection of the first claim. secondly, the mixture of alcohol and ether in unlimited proportions to dissolve gun cotton for photographic purposes, is common. [_see_ gaudin's process, "humphrey's daguerreian journal," vol. , p. .] thirdly, collodion with bromide basis, is not new. [_see_ general remarks on collodion, by gaudin, "photographic art journal," st series, vol. , p. .] the two articles above referred to are translated from the french, and contain also, it is believed, sufficient to show that the subject of the fourth claim has been anticipated, rendering further reference unnecessary. respectfully yours, &c., s. f. shugert, acting commissioner. j. a. cutting (care of c. g. page), washington, d. c. * * * * * jane , . sir: in regard to the use of bromide bases with collodion, i am prepared to show that i had it in successful use in the month of april, ; and if the circumstances require legal proof of the same, it will be furnished, though at some expense of time and money to me; and as the question is only between the public and myself, i trust the office will see fit to grant me a patent for the same. james a. cutting. hon. chas. mason, commissioner of patents. * * * * * united states patent office, april , . sir: in your letter of the th, you say that, if necessary, proof can be given that you had in successful use, in the month of april, , collodion prepared with a bromide oasis. on referring to the "journal of the photographic society," of london, no. (june, ), page , you will see that sir john herschel used bromide for the same purpose previous to the year . ammonia, in various combinations, has long been in use for the preparation of sensitive collodions. [_see_ report of the british association, , p. , "journal of the photographic society" no. , , p. .] f. m. lyndes' process and compositions show that he has used iodine, bromide, and chloride of ammonium; and count de montegon, in the same journal, no. , april, ; page , for his fifth composition of collodion, used liquid ammonia. these are all regarded as equivalents for your compositions covered by the fourth claim; if, however, there is a difference, you are at liberty to show in what it consists; and the examination is accordingly postponed to await your action. yours, &c., c. mason, commissioner. j. a. cutting (care of c. g. page), washington, d. c. * * * * * washington, june , . sir: in reply to your communications of the th instant, and april th, , i propose to modify my claims as follows, to wit: after the first clause of the claim, nineteenth line, ending with the words "set forth," add as follows: "i do not claim the use of alcohol as a _desiccating agent_, but limit my claim to its special use and purpose, as herein stated." erase the fourth clause of the claim, commencing on the twenty-sixth line, and ending with the words "set forth" on the thirtieth line. in reply to the objection raised by the office that "bromide was used in ," i have to say that i was fully aware of the employment of bromide in various ways for photographic purposes, and that i have also, in common with photographers, known the extreme difficulty of using bromide, and that notwithstanding the sensitiveness imparted by bromide to other compounds, it has been almost universally discarded by practical photographers. the discovery of collodion as a vehicle for sensitive materials is of recent date, and there seems to have been a backwardness on the part of photographers to attempt bromide bases with collodion, and so far, whatever trials have been made subsequent to my discovery, it is evident that they have been attended with the results of "misty pictures." to whatever my success may be due, i maintain that i have been the first to use a bromide base with collodion--and with that only do i claim it--and the results in my pictures show with what success. respectfully, james a. cutting, by att'y, chas. g. page. hon. chas. mason, commissioner of patents. * * * * * united states patent office, june , . sir: your specification of an improvement in composition for producing photographic pictures is herewith returned for a slight amendment, which is, to omit the reference to specimens which do not accompany the patent, and to correct an error in the oath as noted on the margin. yours, &c., c. mason, commissioner. james a. cutting, hanover st.; boston, mass. * * * * * united states patent office, june , . sir: by reading a paper by mr. w. crookes in the "journal of the photographic society, london," no. , p. , "on the employment of bromine in collodion," it is believed you will be satisfied that the date there given on which he used bromized collodion is prior to your claim to having used it; he refers to p. , no, , published in june, , for experiments made with bromized collodion, which paper is dated june d, . mr. isaac rehn, of philadelphia, has testified to having seen you make use of a bromide base, viz., bromide of potassium and collodion, about the st of july, , or about one month after the date of mr. crookes' paper in england. the specification is accordingly returned, that you may cancel the fourth claim, and amend the papers to suit. yours, &c., c. mason, commissioner. mr. j. a. cutting, (care of c. g. page), washington, d. c. * * * * * patent for the use of camphor in combination with iodized collodion. the schedule referred to in the letters patent, and making part of the same. _to whom it may concern:_ be it known, that i, james a. cutting, of the city of boston, county of suffolk, and state of massachusetts, have invented a new and useful improvement in positive photographic pictures on glass, and i do hereby declare the following to be an exact description thereof: the nature of my invention consists in the use of gum camphor, in addition to the existing materials in the preparation of collodion for positive photographic pictures on glass. to enable others skilled in the art to make and use my invention, i will proceed to describe the process as follows: having prepared the collodion in the usual manner, i take a pint bottle, in which i introduce twelve ounces of collodion, to which i add one drachm of iodide of potassium, dissolved in alcohol. i then shake the mixture thoroughly, and add thereto eighteen grains of refined gum camphor, shaking the mixture again, until the whole is combined, then allow it to settle, when it is lit for use. the advantages of my improvement consist in the increased vigor of the delineations of the half-tones of positive pictures on glass, giving greater depth and rotundity thereto, which render this combination exceedingly useful for microscopic pictures, as well as the ordinary purposes of portraiture. t would have it understood that the combination of camphor with iodide of potassium and collodion, as above specified, is adapted solely to the production of positive pictures on glass and not to the production of negative pictures on glass, from which positive pictures on paper may be printed, as a sufficient degree of opacity is not thus afforded for that purpose. what i claim as my invention, and desire to secure by letters patent, is the use of camphor, in combination with iodized collodion, as set forth in the specification. james a. cutting. samuel grubb, } _witnesses._ i. rehn. } _dated, july th, ._ * * * * * patent for the use of balsam for sealing photographic pictures on glass. the schedule referred to in letters patent and making part of the same. _to whom it may concern:_ be it known that i, james a. cutting, of boston, in the county of suffolk and state of massachusetts, have invented new and useful improvements in photographic pictures on glass, and i do hereby declare the following to be an exact description thereof: the nature of my improvement consists in the application of a coating of balsam of fir to the side of the glass on which the picture is made, over which coating i place another glass of equal size with the one on which the picture is. to enable others skilled in the art to make and use my invention, i will proceed to describe the process as follows: after thoroughly cleaning a glass plate of the same size as that on which the picture to be secured is made, and moving all dust from the picture, i hold the glass containing the picture in a horizontal position with the pictured side uppermost, then apply the balsam in a line along one edge of the glass and placing one edge of the second glass in close contact with the first, containing the balsam, press them gradually together towards the opposite edge, causing the balsam to flow by a gentle pressure towards the opposite edge, in this manner excluding all air from between the glasses; then by an even pressure exclude the superabundant balsam. the advantages of my improvements are, that by a mechanical combination of the balsam with the picture it is greatly increased in strength and beauty, by an additional brilliancy and the exhibition of the most minute delineations; and by the application of the second glass in combination with the balsam, the picture is hermetically sealed and rendered entirely permanent, by being secured from the influence of both air and moisture, and also from injury by dust or other extraneous matter, or acid vapors, or any violence less than what could occasion the fracture of the plate glass. i am aware of the previous use of balsam for the cementing of lenses and the securing of microscopic objects, and other like purposes, and do not therefore extend my claim to any of these uses; but what i claim as my invention, and desire to secure by letters patent, is the combination of balsam with photographic pictures on glass, and with additional glass by which they; with the balsam, are hermetically sealed, as described in the specifications; and for the purposes therein set forth, and for no other. james a. cutting. issac rehn, } _witnesses._ samuel grubb. } _dated july th, ._ * * * * * patent for displacing water from soluble cotton by the use of alcohol; also, for the use of bromide of potassium in combination with collodion. the schedule referred to in these letters patent, and making part of the same. _to all to whom these presents shall come:_ be it known that i, james a. cutting, of boston, in the county of suffolk and state of massachusetts, have invented certain improvements in making photographic pictures, and that the following is a full, clear and exact description of the principle or character which distinguishes them from all other things before known, and of the usual manner of making, modifying, and using the same. my improvements relate to that class of photographic pictures in which the pictures are obtained upon a prepared film of glass or other substance. the film which i employ is collodion, and in order to insure success, the collodion must be prepared after my own process, as follows: take ounces (troy) of pure dry nitrate potassa, and pulverize in a clean glass mortar; add to this - / ounces, fluid measure, of pure sulphuric acid, and stir the mixture with a glass rod; immerse in this liquid, grains of clean, dry cotton, and knead the mass of cotton in the liquid for about ave minutes; remove the cotton and quickly wash it, till every trace of acid is gone, and it must then be dried quickly--for i have discovered that the more rapidly the cotton is dried, the more sensitive the collodion; and i have found the best effects produced by displacing the water from the cotton by strong alcohol. to prepare the collodion, take ounces concentrated sulphuric ether, ° baumé, and mix this with ounces of per cent. alcohol. to this mixture add the prepared cotton, in quantity sufficient to make a collodion as thick as it can, and yet at the same time flow evenly over the surface of glass. let it settle clear, and decant the solution. in order to "excite" this collodion, take a deep ounce vial--introduce - / grains of bromide of potassium, and add water, drop by drop, to make a saturated solution. in this solution dissolve - / grains of iodide of potassium, then add ounce of collodion, and shake well. let it settle clear and decant for use. the solution must be decanted every day. in order to make the most sensitive collodion, i dissolve the bromide and iodide of potassium and the collodion[g] in a saturated solution of carbonate of ammonia in water. in using this collodion, pour it upon a clean glass plate to form a film in the usual way, and as soon as the collodion has set, and before it becomes dry, immerse the plate in a bath of nitrate of silver, made with grains of nitrate of silver, grains of iodide of silver, and ounce water. take the plate directly from the bath to the camera, and after sufficient exposure, the plate is taken to a dark room to develope the impression with the following solution: 'take pyrogallic acid, grains; acetic acid, no. , ounce; dissolve and filter. for use, take of this liquid - / drachms, diluted with - / drachms of water, and when the impression is sufficiently developed, pour off the liquid, and immerse the plate in a solution of the hyposulphite of soda, ounces to the pint of water. wash the plate with pure water, and dry it in the usual way. [footnote g: this is a mistake: the collodion is not to be dissolved in the "carbonate of ammonia in water," but only the bromide and iodide of potassium. i called mr. cutting's attention to this, and he said i was correct.--s. d. h.] the advantages of the above process are, the brief time required to produce an impression, and the sharpness of the pictures. portraits can be taken with as much facility as with the daguerreotype, and the pictures are sharp and of excellent tone. the impression thus obtained is negative, and the positive picture is produced in the usual way. i denominate this the mezzographic process. what i claim as my improvements in the process of obtaining photographic pictures, are-- _first._ displacing the water from the cotton, for this purpose, with strong alcohol, as set forth. i do not claim the use of alcohol as a desiccating agent, but limit my claim to its special use and purpose, as herein stated. _second._ the employment of bromide of potassium in combination with collodion. james a. cutting. t. campbell, } _witnesses._ samuel grubb. } _dated july th, ._ * * * * * patent for the use of japanned surfaces previously prepared upon iron or other metallic or mineral sheets or plates in the collodion process. _to all whom it may concern:_ be it known that i, hamilton l. smith, of gambier, in the county of knox, and state of ohio, have invented certain new and useful improvements in photographic pictures, and i do hereby declare the following to be a full, clear, and exact description of the same, and of the manner of making and using my invention or discovery. the nature of my invention or discovery relates to the taking of _positive_ pictures by the photographic process, upon a black japanned surface prepared upon iron or any other metallic plates or sheets, and consists in the use of collodion, and a solution of a salt of silver, and an ordinary camera. to enable others skilled in the art to make and use my invention. i will proceed to describe the manner of preparing and applying it which i have found to answer well in practice; not confining myself, however, to the special process or processes herein described, so long as the characteristics of the invention remain the same. i first take metallic sheets, preferring for the purpose iron, as this metal is the only one, except the precious metals, which is without action on the silver salts generally used, as also the other chemicals; but other metallic or mineral sheets may be used, and i do not, therefore, confine myself specially to any particular metal. upon each of the sheets is prepared a black japanned or varnished surface, such as is used by tinners or japanners for coating metallic and other surfaces. the japan or varnish may be made and applied as follows:--take one quart of raw linseed oil; add to this two ounces of asphaltum and sufficient umber, or lamp black, to give the desired shade. boil these ingredients until a portion dropped on a cool surface will remain in a round spot without flowing away. it is then thick enough to use. if it should be too thick, it can readily be thinned with spirits of turpentine. apply the japan to the sheets or plates with a brush, and after allowing it to stand a short time, until the marks of the brush disappear, place the sheets or plates in a drying oven and submit them to heat until the surface will bear the finger to be drawn over it without bringing off the japan; it may, if found necessary, be coated again and treated in a similar way, and finally polished with rotten-stone and oil, or other polishing material. other ingredients may be used in making the japan, such as mastic, lac or copal varnish, and other shades of coloring matter may be used. by collodion i mean any solution of gun-cotton or pyroxyline; and by a solution of salt of silver, i mean any of the salts thereof which can be used in photography for obtaining positive impressions by a camera. a japanned surface may be prepared on glass, or on leather and other fibrous materials. or glass may be made black by means of coloring matter introduced or embodied with the glass, so as to be _in_ instead of _on_ the glass. but foreseeing the difficulty of embracing all these applications in one application, i do not desire to have them so considered; but reserve the right to hereafter apply for such application of my general principle as i may deem essential, or of sufficient importance to be protected by letters patent. and it might be proper to add, that vulcanized gutta-percha or indurated rubber may be used as the basis upon which, or in which the japanned surface may be made. the invention, however, consists mainly on the surface, so that a silver picture may be made upon it, said surface forming the background of the picture. the ingredients for fixing and developing the positive impression, upon the japanned surface may be the same as those heretofore essayed by me in a former application, and need not again be repeated here. though other chemicals, or other proportions of the same chemicals, may be used. having thus fully described the nature of my improvement in photographic pictures, and shown how the same may be accomplished, what i claim therein as new and desire to secure by letters patent, is:-- the obtaining _positive_ impressions upon a japanned surface previously prepared upon an iron or other metallic or mineral sheet or plate, by means of collodion and a solution of a salt of silver and a camera, substantially as herein described. hamilton l. smith. geo. t. chapman. } _witnesses._ james h. lee. } _dated february, th, ._ * * * * * photographic pictures on oil. _to all whom it may concern:_ be it known that i, joel haywood tatum, of the city of baltimore and state of maryland, have discovered or invented a new and useful preparation of oil ground or body, and mode of preparing the same by which photographic impressions, such as portraits of all sizes, landscapes or still life may be produced upon such oil prepared ground body or surface, whether upon canvass, mill-board, pannel, or other body whatever, without any permanent injury to such body, ground or surface for the reception of colors in oil (water) or dry (paste), without impairing the texture, quality, durability, or other desirable quality of the body ground, or surface rendered so impressible, and give the following as the process used in accomplishing the result. i take ordinary prepared canvass, mill-board, pannel or other substance for the reception of oil painting by any composition of oil (or oleaginous substance) and oxide of lead or zinc, spanish whiting, fuller's earth, or their equivalents, singly or in combination, and after having removed all irregularities or lumps from the surface i damp or wet the surface with spirits of wine, and wipe clean; after which, i treat the surface with a solution of potassium or any good alkali, regulating the strength to the amount of oil in the body-ground or surface to be treated (ordinarily oz. of super, carb. soda to pint of water), as soon as the surface has uniformly changed color allow the surplus solution to run off, wash off by pouring over the surface clean water, let dry, but not by the fire or in the sun, as that would bring out the oil to the surface. when dry, treat the surface again with a solution of the chloride of sodium (of the strength ordinarily used and prescribed for paper positives), decant from the surface the superfluous fluid after a minute, and let dry, as before; remove to a dark room, and treat the surface with a solution of the nitrate of silver, its strength being governed by the strength of impression desired, usually grains of nitrate of silver to oz. of distilled water; allow the solution to float upon the surface a few moments to insure uniformity of deposit, and then decant the surplus, in the bottle or lath; place a small piece of filtering paper on the edge of the body, and place that, edge down, to facilitate the drainage; when dry, place the negative impression (which must previously have been obtained, by the use of the camera, either on collodion or albumen upon glass or upon paper) upon the body or ground to receive the impression in the position the picture is desired, with the face of the negative to the surface of the body to receive the impression. if the negative impression does not cover the whole surface, then a mat should be used so as to extend to the edge of the ground on all sides. expose to the light, and, when sufficiently long, remove the negative into a dark room (lighted with a feeble lamp); dash over the impression a weak solution of hyposulphite of soda, and let stand a few moments; then wash off with a very dilute acid of only sufficient strength to neutralize the alkalies remaining upon the surface, usually five or six drops of sulphuric acid to an oz. of water is sufficient. what i claim as my own invention and discovery, and desire to secure by letters patent, is the mode of preparing and rendering oil (oroleaginous) bodies, grounds, or surfaces impressible or sensitive to the photographic art by the temporary destruction or chemical change of the oil or oleaginous matter of the immediate surface only, by the use of spirits of wine and alkaline solution, or their equivalents, and, after fixing the impression by the use of hyposulphate of soda, the use of dilute acid, by which last application the alkalies are neutralized and the oil restored with the impression permanent upon the surface. disclaiming everything heretofore known in the production of photographic pictures upon paper or any unoiled body or surface. joel haywood tatum. _witnesses._ j. s. hollingshead, } e. g. handy. } original, _dated april, . _. re-issue, _dated may , _. * * * * * patent for making the border of the picture transparent, and placing the mat back of the picture. _to all whom it may concern:_ be it known that we, albert bisbee, of columbus, in the county of franklin and state of ohio, and y. day, of nashville, in the county of davidson and state of tennessee, have invented certain new and useful improvements in photographic pictures on glass, and we do hereby declare the following to be a full, clear and exact description of the same. the nature of our invention consists in making the edges of the coating or film on the glass transparent so that the picture is made only on the central part of the glass, and extending so far as to meet the inside edge of the mat or border, generally used in putting up such pictures, and then placing the mat back of the picture. to enable others skilled in the art to make and use our invention, we will proceed to describe the same as follows:-- we place inside of the camera, and about one-tenth of the focal distance of the lens from the glass, a board having an aperture of any desired pattern that we wish the edges to have. this board shades the edges of the glass, thereby leaving them transparent in the picture. then the picture, being taken in the usual manner, is finished by varnishing with transparent white varnish, and then backed with japan varnish, care being taken to have the japan on the back extend only to meet the inside edges of the mat. then we place the mat back of the picture and secure it in its place with the preserver. if applied to the process, as patented by j. a. cutting, with two glasses, the picture is made as above described, and then the second glass is applied, and finished as before by backing with japan. the advantage of our improvement, is in having the mat protected from being soiled, and making the picture appear more round, causing an illusion as though the picture or image was suspended in the atmosphere, clear from the background. having thus fully described the nature of our invention, what we claim therein as new, and desire to secure by letters patent, is, making the border of the picture transparent and placing the mat back of the picture, as described in the above specification, and for the purpose set forth. _witnesses to the signature of a. bisbee._ c. a. barker, } wm. field. } a. bisbee. _witnesses to the signature of y. day._ b. bingham, } w. atkins. } y. day. _dated may th, ._ * * * * * patent for the application of coloring substances, or matter, to photographic impressions. be it known that i, giles langdell, and marcus a. root, of philadelphia, in the state of pennsylvania, have invented a new and improved mode of coloring daguerreotype and other photographic portraits or pictures made on glass, metal or other material; and we do hereby declare that the following is a full and exact description:-- the nature of our invention or discovery consists in providing and applying both mineral and vegetable coloring matters in solution to the daguerreotype or any other photographic impression, introducing the said coloring matter either into the collodion or the developer, or by pouring upon the plate after the impression is fixed by hyposulphite of soda, or the cyanide of potassium, or by any other means. the several coloring substances, e. g. red saunders, alkanet, dragons' blood, &c., &c., can be used separately or in conjunction or compounded with various mineral substances, or with any coloring matters obtained from other roots, woods, gums or other vegetable matter, the proportions or quantity employed being varied or regulated by the lightness or depth and strength of tone which may, from time to time, be required. the desired or similar results may be obtained from different formulæ. the following answers for all practical purposes, but may be varied at pleasure:-- digest for two or three days red saunders (pterocarpus santalinus) half a pound in three pints of water to which the aqua-ammonia has been added. then pour off the solution and precipitate by the addition of nitric acid. wash the precipitate thoroughly with water and dry it. then dissolve it in strong alcohol and dilute with the same as required to produce the tone or tint that may be desired. alkanet (anchusa tinctoria) may be prepared in the same way. dragons' blood dissolved in alcohol and treated in the same manner will produce the various shades of yellow. the foregoing articles, and also madder, indigo, cochineal, and some other coloring substances both vegetable and mineral alone or combined, will produce pleasing results when applied as follows (although they may be introduced into the collodion):-- we prefer first to develope the impression, then to fix and dry it, and afterwards to flow on the toning or tinting solution, as collodion or varnish, &c., is poured upon the plate, allowing the solution to run off the corner, and then levelling the plate to make the fluid flow uniformly over and tint the whole surface of the plate evenly. then wash at once and thoroughly with clean water, and stand the plate up to dry, after which it may be colored (the dress of any tint or color desired--the face, hands, &c., are flesh tint) with dry colors (as is usual in coloring daguerreotypes) applied to the collodion or upon the varnish. what we claim as our invention and discovery, and desire to secure by letters patent, is the application of coloring substances or matter to photographic impressions or pictures upon glass or metal, or other material in the form and manner herein described. _witnesses._ james j. b. ogle, } giles langdell [l. s.] williams ogle, } m. a. root. [l. s.] _dated july th, ._ * * * * * patent for the use of albumenized collodion. _to all whom it may concern:_ be it remembered, that i, victor m. griswold, of the city of lancaster, in the county of fairfield and state of ohio, have invented certain improvements in the art and mode of taking photographic pictures, and i do hereby declare that the following is a full and exact description thereof: the nature of my invention consists in an improvement in the photographic art of taking pictures. to one quart of collodion prepared in the usual way or manner, i add three ounces of a solution prepared thus: the clear solution which results from the whites of eggs which have been well beaten, and one equal bulk of pure soft water. when this is added to the collodion, it is thrown to the bottom in long stringy white masses, which after a few days impart to the liquid albuminous properties, rendering the film closer in texture, and bringing out all the minor details more sharply and perfectly than by the ordinary collodion, and giving to the picture a glossy and sparkling tone, unlike any produced by other means. another method which i frequently adopt is thus; albumen as above, without water, to which is added iodide of potassium forty grains; this throws down the albumen in jelly-like masses, and, when added to the collodion, not only iodizes it, but produces the same effect upon the collodion as by the formula above. also, another method: one ounce of chloroform, to which is added one half ounce of albumen, prepared as above, iodized; this forms also a soft semi-transparent jelly, which on being added to the collodion produces perhaps the best effect of any of these preparations. this addition of albumen also answers a far better purpose, than any that has hitherto been employed for freeing old samples of collodion from free iodine held in suspension by which they can be rendered as clear and limpid as they were when first mixed. what i claim as my invention, and desire to secure by letters patent is the addition of albumen to collodion in the manner and for the purpose herein and above specified. v. m. griswold. alfred m'veigh, } _witnesses._ j. c. heuley. } _patented july th, ._ * * * * * coloring ambrotypes. _to all whom it may concern:_ be it known that we, d. b. spooner and h. b. spooner, of springfield, in the county of hampden, in the state of massachusetts, having invented new and useful improvements in coloring ambrotype or photographic pictures on glass, and we do hereby declare that the following is a full and exact description thereof:-- the nature of our invention consists, in so preparing the collodion film containing the picture in alternate placers with gum or other suitable material, so that when a penetrating dye or pigment, in a solution that will penetrate the collodion film, may be deposited on any particular portion of the picture between the collodion film and the glass, in order to give it the requisite color properly distributed between the face, drapery, &c. the following is the process adopted:-- after the picture is thoroughly washed and dried, proceed with a brush to cover any portion of the picture not designed to take the color, with a solution of gum or any other substance insoluble in the coloring solution, but soluble in any other liquid in which the coloring matter is not soluble. e. g.--take a solution of gum arabic in water, and apply it to a portion of the picture. now take a solution of turmeric in alcohol, and pour it upon the collodion surface of the picture, and you immediately get a deposit of the coloring matter between the collodion and the glass, the portion of the picture covered with the gum not being penetrated by the alcohol, is protected from the color while all other portions are colored. then, by washing the picture in water, the gum is dissolved and washed off, and the parts uncolored may remain in their natural state without color, or, by applying the gum solution to the portion already colored with a part of the uncolored portion, another color may be produced by the use of another pigment in the same manner as before described. in this manner any number of colors may be produced; or, when a small portion only of the picture is to be colored, the whole of the picture may be colored and dried, and then that portion which is to retain the color may be covered with the gum solution, and the coloring matter not protected by the gum may be extracted with alcohol or other solvent, and the gum washed off as before. the advantages of our invention consist in depositing the coloring matter in its _various tints_ on the front side of the picture between the collodion and the glass, instead of coloring the fibre of the collodion, or the upper side of it, as is common, which does not show through to the positive side of the picture on account of the opacity of the silver deposit which forms the picture. we do not claim the coloring of a picture all over with a single tint, but what we claim as our invention and desire to secure by letters patent, is the application of gum arabic or other equivalent material, as set forth in the specification, for the purposes therein described, and no other. d. b. spooner. h. b. spooner. _witnesses._ george w. adams, } chas. h. codman. } _patented august , ._ chapter viii. =the collodio-albumen process.= [sidenote: collodio-albumen process.] this is a process, invented by dr. taupenot, for obtaining negatives on glass, which bids fair to outrival all others, being easy of manipulation, and giving results of the most exquisite minutiæ and beauty. glass plates, when prepared and excited by this process, may be kept at least a fortnight before being developed, and these plates when exposed in the frame may be developed immediately, or kept for days before commencing this operation. indeed it is quite possible to prepare and excite a number of plates before leaving home to go on a tour of twelve or fourteen days; to expose the plates at any time or place during the journey, and bring them home to be developed. the manipulation may be said to consist of nine distinct operations. . cleaning the plate. . coating with iodized collodion. . exciting the collodion film. . coating with albumen. . exciting the albumen coating. . exposure in the camera. . developing the image. . fixing the image. . varnishing the plate. before describing these operations, i propose to give clear directions for preparing the necessary solutions, merely promising that, where i have deviated from the inventor's plan, it has been after performing careful experiments, to test the merits of the two modes of proceeding. the necessary solutions for this process are: collodion bath solution. iodized collodion. iodized albumen. albumen bath solution. pyrogallic solution. silver developing solution. fixing solution. _collodion bath solution._ nitrate of silver in crystals ounce. iodide of potassium grains. distilled water ounces. alcohol drachms. dissolve the ounce of nitrate of silver in two ounces of the distilled water, and the two grains of iodide of potassium in one drachm of distilled water; mix the two solutions and shake well together until the precipitate which is first thrown down is re-dissolved; when this takes place, add the remaining fourteen ounces of distilled water, and the two drachms of alcohol. on the addition of the water a turbidness ensues, which must be removed by the solution being very carefully filtered through filtering paper; and the filtered liquid should be clear and transparent, free from any deposit or floating particles, and must possess a slightly acid reaction of test-paper. in order to ascertain if the solution thus prepared possesses the necessary amount of free acid without superabundance, proceed to test and to correct it, if necessary. _iodized collodion,_ the collodion to be used in this process must be one yielding good _negative_ pictures--that supplied by home & thornthwaite under the name of negative collodion answers admirably. this is supplied either ready iodized, or the collodion and iodizing in separate bottles. as this collodion becomes less sensitive after being iodized a fortnight, it is advisable to iodize no more than will be used in that time--therefore, obtain the collodion and the iodizing solution separate, as the mode of iodizing this collodion is very simple. half an ounce of the iodizing solution is mixed with one ounce and a half of collodion, and the mixture allowed to settle twelve hours before being used; and it is even advisable to pour off the clear solution into a perfectly clean bottle, in order to get rid of any insoluble matter which may fall to the bottom. _iodized albumen._ white of egg (free from yelk) ounces. honey ounce. iodide of calcium scruples. yeast tablespoonful. mix these together in a tall glass jar, or wide-mouthed bottle of at least one pint capacity; tie a piece of paper, pierce with small holes over the top to keep out dust; then place the whole near a fire or other warm situation, where the temperature is not lower than seventy degrees, or higher than ninety degrees. in a few hours fermentation commences, which is evident by the formation of bubbles of gas, rising through the liquid. this action continues for five or six days; when it ceases, pour the whole on a paper-filter contained in a funnel, underneath which must be placed a bottle to receive the liquid as it passes through. the fluid being of a viscid nature filters slowly, generally occupying twelve hours. the filtered liquid is the "iodized albumen," which is said by dr. taupenot to keep good for years. it must be carefully preserved from dust or contact with any substance, as the success of the picture depends materially on the condition of this albumen. _albumen bath solution._ nitrate of silver ounce and a half. acetic acid, glacial ounce. distilled water ounces. animal charcoal drachms. dissolve the nitrate of silver in the distilled water, then add the acetic acid and animal charcoal, and keep in a closely stoppered bottle for use. _pyrogallic solution._ pyrogallic acid grains. glacial acetic acid drachms. alcohol drachms. distilled water ounces. dissolve the pyrogallic acid in the distilled water, and then add the acetic acid and alcohol. _silver developing solution._ nitrate of silver drachm. acetic acid drachms. distilled water ounces. dissolve the nitrate of silver in the distilled water, and then add the acetic acid. _fixing solution._ hyposulphite of soda ounces. water pint--dissolve. _varnish._ the varnish best adapted for this purpose is that supplied by home & thornthwaite, and termed negative varnish.[h] [footnote h: in this country, humphrey's collodion gilding is the article in almost universal use.] _cleaning the plate._ the plates must be cleaned in the usual way, merely premising that extra care must be observed to remove every impurity, as cleanliness in photography is an absolute necessity. in order to hold large plates whilst being cleaned, the "screw plate-holder" is exceedingly useful. this is made in three sizes, and adapts itself to all sized plates. the small size is useful for plates up to inches by . the second size is for plates up to inches by . and the third size for plates up to inches by . _coating with iodized collodion._ the plate having been thoroughly cleaned, and received its final polish by the use of a prepared chamois leather, is coated with negative collodion, which has been iodized at least twelve hours, and allowed to settle. _exciting the collodion film._[i] [footnote i: this and subsequent operations (except exposure in the camera) must be performed in a dark room.] after the ether has evaporated, and the surface of the collodion appears set, the plate must be laid, collodion side upwards, on a glass dipper, and plunged with _one downward movement_ into a bath filled to within an inch of the top with collodion bath solution, made as described at page , which must be carefully filtered through filtering paper before being used. after the plate has been allowed to remain in the bath one minute, it is lifted out three or four times, in order to facilitate the removal of the oily appearance the plate now presents. when the surface appears wetted uniformly, on being drawn out of the solution the plate is removed from the dipper, and the excess of solution drained off, and is then placed collodion side upwards, on a fixing stand, and distilled or filtered rain water poured over the surface, so as to remove as much as possible of the bath solution from the surface. the plate is now removed from the fixing stand; the back well washed with water, and then placed nearly upright on blotting paper, with the face against a wall for _one minute_ to drain. _coating with albumen._ having allowed the plate to drain one minute, place it again on a levelling stand, with the film upwards, and pour over it as much of the iodized albumen as the plate will hold, from a glass measure containing not more than enough of the albumen to coat two plates with, pour off the excess into the measure, and again cover the plate with albumen three separate times; ultimately drain off as much as possible of the excess of albumen, and place the plate nearly upright against the wall, with the coated side inwards, to dry, which takes place in an ordinary temperature in about one hour. in coating with albumen, the presence of air-bubbles or dust must be guarded against. the former can be easily done by taking care, in pouring the albumen into the measure and on the plate, not to pour so as to generate air-bubbles in the liquid. but should any be detected, hold the plate horizontally and give it another coating of albumen, then incline the plate so that the bulk of the liquid shall pass over and carry off the bubbles with the running stream. dust on the plate must be prevented by operating in a room as free from this photographic enemy as possible. in order to render the coating of albumen as uniform as possible, the plate must stand to dry on two or three layers of filtering paper and the upper surface must touch the wall at _one point only_ and not to be allowed to rest against it along its entire upper edge. when the albumen coating is _thoroughly dry_ (and not till then), the plate is ready to be excited, but if more have been prepared than are likely to be used for taking pictures on during the next ten days or fortnight, they may be stowed away in a plate box, ready to receive the sensitive coating at any time. the author's experience has led him to believe that these albumenized plates will keep good any length of time, as plates which had been coated a month, when excited, exposed, and developed, appeared to possess all the properties of recently prepared plates. _exciting the albumen coating._ prior to the plates being excited they must be _thoroughly dry_ and free from any particles of loose dust on the surface, back, or edge. sufficient of the albumen bath solution, page , must be filtered through filtering paper to fill a dipping bath of the required size, so that the plate can be immersed in it. the careful filtering of the fluid is very necessary in order to free it from any floating particles, and to separate the animal charcoal. the plate is now taken and laid, albumen side upwards, on the dipper, and then lowered into the bath with one steady downward movement, where it is allowed to remain one minute; it is then taken out, the excess of liquid drained off, and placed on the fixing stand, with the albumen surface uppermost, and a stream of water poured over it for at least one minute, so as to remove every particle of the bath solution. this complete washing is very necessary, in order to prevent stains in the after development, which invariably takes place around the edges, if not thoroughly washed. the plate having been thoroughly washed, is leaned against a wall to dry, or if required for immediate exposure, may be dried on a plate of heated metal or foot warmer, but in no case must the exposure in the camera take place until the surface is thoroughly dry. _exposure in the camera._[j] [footnote j: remarks as to the selection of the view, &c., are not given, as this can be effected by the individual taste of the operator, but care must be taken that direct rays from the sun shall not fall on the lens or enter the camera during the exposure of a plate.] as has been before stated, this operation may take place immediately the plate is thoroughly dry after being excited, or a fortnight may intervene between the excitement and exposure, provided the plate is kept very carefully excluded from light and any chemical or sulphurous vapors, in a plate-box adapted for that purpose, with the sensitive surface towards the back of the box. when the exposure is about to take place, or at any time previously, the camera-backs may each have a plate placed in them ready for exposure; to do this, the camera-back must be taken into the operating room and the door closed, so as to exclude all white light. the hinged flap of the camera back is opened, and the prepared plate laid, with its sensitive surface downwards, or next the sliding flap, so that its corners may rest on the silver wire corners of the plate frame previously placed within the camera back ready to receive it. the hinged flap is now closed and kept from opening by turning the flap button over it; the sliding flap is examined to see that it is pushed closely down so as to guard any access of light, and it is then ready to be placed in the camera, and may be taken into the open air with impunity. should the exposure not take place immediately, or, should the camera back have to be carried any distance, it is advisable either to wrap it up in black cloth, or secure the flaps from the chance of coming open during transit, by a stout string being tied around the back. the focussing is conducted in the usual way and the cap replaced on the lens; the focussing glass is now removed and the camera back fitted into the same aperture, with the sliding flap next the lens. the sliding flap is pulled up to its fullest extent, placing the hand on the camera back to prevent it rising out of the camera with this action. the cap of the lens is then removed, so that the light may be admitted into the camera, and to fall on the sensitive surface of the plate. after the necessary time of exposure has taken place, the cap is replaced on the lens, the sliding flap is pushed down, and the camera back withdrawn from the camera; the plate can then be taken into the operating room to be developed, or this operation may be deferred for days or even a week, or more if convenient. the time of exposure in the camera varies according to the intensity of the light and the aperture and focal length of the lens; therefore, to give the exact time of exposure would be impossible, still it may assist the amateur if i give the time required in summer with full sunshine, and merely state that this time may be increased to double in winter or dull weather. in the ordinary sunshine of a summer's day the time of exposure will be: seconds with a lens of -inch focus and / -inch stop. seconds with a lens of -inch focus and / -inch stop. seconds with a lens of -inch focus and - / inch aperture with no stop. - / minute with a lens of -inch focus and / -inch stop. - / seconds with a lens of -inch focus and - / -inch aperture with no stop. minutes with a lens of -inch focus and / -inch stop. - / minute with a lens of -inch focus and / -inch stop. - / minutes with a lens of -inch focus and / -inch stop. minutes with a lens of -inch focus and / -inch stop. seconds with a lens of -inch focus, - / -inch aperture, with no stop. - / minutes with a lens of -inch focus and / -inch stop. minutes with a lens of -inch focus and / -inch stop. - / minutes with a lens of -inch focus and / -inch stop. - / minutes with a lens of -inch focus and / -inch stop. - / minutes with a lens of -inch focus and / -inch stop. - / minutes with a lens of -inch focus and / -inch stop. _developing the image._ the camera back is taken into the operating room, from which all white light is carefully excluded, the plate removed from the camera back, and laid, albumen side upwards, on the fixing stand; as much distilled water is now poured on it as the surface will hold, taking care that every part of the sensitive surface is covered with the liquid; allow the water to remain on the surface for one minute, then pour off and drain slightly; replace the plate on the stand, and pour over the surface so as thoroughly to cover every part, the pyrogallic solution (made as described at page , and carefully filtered just before being used); allow this to remain on the plate for one minute, then drain off into a perfectly clean measure, and add to it an equal bulk of silver developing solution, page ; mix these thoroughly together with a glass rod, and then pour the mixed liquids over the plate; allow them to rest until the picture begins to appear, which generally takes about from three to five minutes; then pour off and on repeatedly, until the developing fluid becomes opaque, which then contains floating particles, and these, if allowed to do so, would settle on the plate, to the injury of the picture; but this may be prevented by brushing the surface with a camel's-hair brush frequently during the development. when this opacity of the developing fluid takes place, drain all the fluid off the plate, and thoroughly wash with water; then mix another quantity of pyrogallic and silver developing solution in the same proportions as before, and pour this on and off the plate as before, until the picture appears sufficiently intense, and the middle shades well brought out; when this takes place drain off, and wash with water, so as to clean the surface thoroughly, and the plate is then ready for the next step, "fixing the image." should the picture begin to develope in less than three minutes after the application of the mixed developing fluids, thoroughly drain the plate, and wash well with water, then continue the development with a solution of three parts pyrogallic solution and one part silver developing solution; but should the picture not begin to appear in five minutes, the addition of half a drachm of the albumen bath solution to each ounce of mixed developing solution will be necessary, in order to obtain the middle shades and the required intensity. it may be stated, as a guide, that the best negatives which the author has produced occupied from ten to twelve minutes in developing. _fixing the image._ the plate, having been thoroughly freed from the developing fluid by careful washing, is now placed on the fixing stand, and the surface covered by the fixing solution, made as described at page , being poured over it. in a few seconds the yellow opalescent color of the film will begin to disappear, and its complete removal may be hastened by blowing gently on the plate, so as to disturb the fluid. when every particle of yellowness has disappeared, the fixing solution is drained off, and the surface _thoroughly_ washed, and it is then leaned against the wall to drain and dry. _varnishing the plate._ the plate, being thoroughly dry, is ready to receive a coating of transparent varnish.[k] in order to protect the albumen surface from injury during the printing process. to do this effectually the plate must be held before a fire, or over a lamp, until it is slightly warm all over; then pour over its surface the negative varnish, in the same manner as collodion is applied; allow the superfluous varnish to drain back into the bottle; hold the plate again before the fire until the whole of the spirit is evaporated; and, when cold, the plate is ready to be printed from, so as to produce any number of positive pictures on paper. [footnote k: humphrey's collodion gilding is the best for this purpose.] it will be observed, that in describing this process, the operator has been supposed to be so situated, that in case a second view of the same spot were required, he could return to his operating room, remove the plate which had been exposed, from the camera back to the plate box, and place another in the camera back, ready for taking another view. but, unfortunately, this is not at all times practicable. we, therefore, require some means of removing the plates, after being exposed, from the camera back into the plate box, and substituting others in their stead, whilst we are in the open air. in order to effect this, the "field plate box" has been devised by the author, by the aid of which the plates may be removed from the box, exposed in the camera, and again returned into the box, without any possibility of access of light falling on it. this box is but a trifle larger than the ordinary one, and is furnished with two sliding bottoms, working in grooves, one over the other; the lower bottom has a grooved channel, into which the side of the camera back slides; the camera back has an aperture through the side, closed by a narrow slide, and the lower bottom of the field box has a corresponding one. we now suppose the field box to have been previously filled with excited glass plates, having their sensitive sides towards the back of the box, and the box lid closed. the bottom slide is now pushed on until the aperture is in a line with any particular groove of the field box (which position is indicated by a numbered scale and index point). the camera back is then slid on to its place on the field box, so that the hinged flap is towards the front of the box, and its narrow slide drawn out. the upper slide is then withdrawn, and the box inclined, so that the plate in that groove opposite the aperture in the lower slide, may pass through into the camera back. when this has taken place, push in the narrow slide of the camera back, invert the box, and push in the inner slide; then withdraw the camera back from its channel, and expose the plate in the camera. when this is done, slide the back again into its channel, draw out the inner box slide, then the narrow camera back slide, invert the box, and the plate will then leave the camera back and pass into the field box, occupying the same groove as before. in order to get out another plate, slide the lower bottom, so that the index points to the number on the scale, as that of the groove in which the required plate is situate. then proceed as before directed. chapter ix. on a mode of printing enlarged and reduced positives, etc., from collodion negatives. to explain the manner in which a photograph may be enlarged or reduced in the process of printing, it will be necessary to refer to the remarks made at page , on the _conjugate foci_ of lenses. if a collodion negative be placed at a certain distance in front of a camera, and (by using a tube of black cloth) the light be admitted into the dark chamber only through the negative, a reduced image will be formed upon the ground glass; but if the negative be advanced nearer, the image will increase in size, until it becomes first equal to, and then larger than, the original negative; the focus becoming more and more distant from the lens, or _receding_, as the negative is brought nearer. again, if a negative portrait be placed in the camera slide, and if the instrument be carried into a dark room, a hole be cut in the window-shutter so as to admit light through the negative, the luminous rays, after refraction by the lens, will form an image of the exact size of life upon a white screen placed in the position originally occupied by the sitter. these two planes, in fact, that of the object and of the image, are strictly _conjugate foci_, and, as regards the result, it is immaterial from which of the two, anterior or posterior, the rays of light proceed. therefore in order to obtain a reduced or enlarged copy of a negative, it is necessary only to form an image of the size required, and to project the image upon a sensitive surface either of collodion or paper. a good arrangement for this purpose may be made by taking an ordinary portrait camera, and prolonging it in front by a deal box blackened inside and with a double body, to admit of being lengthened out as required; or, more simply, by adding a framework of wood covered in with black cloth. a groove in front carries the negative, or receives the slide containing the sensitive layer, as the case may be. in reducing photographs, the negative is placed in front of the lens, in the position ordinarily occupied by the object; but in making an enlarged copy it must be fixed behind the lens, or, which is equivalent, the lens must be turned round so that the rays of light, transmitted by the negative, enter the back glass of the combination, and pass out at the front. this point should be attended to in order to avoid indistinctness of image from spherical aberration. a portrait combination of lenses of - / or - / inches is the best form to use, and the actinic and luminous foci should accurately correspond, as any difference between them would be increased by enlarging. a stop of an inch or an inch and a half aperture placed between the lenses obviates to some extent the loss of sharp outline usually following enlargement of the image. the light may be admitted through the negative by pointing the camera towards the sky; or direct sunlight may be used, thrown upon the negative by a plane reflector. a common swing looking-glass, if clear and free from specks, does very well; it should be so placed that the centre on which it turns is on a level with the axis of the lens. the best negatives for printing enlarged positives are those which are distinct and clear; and it is important to use a small negative, which strains the lens less and gives better results than one of larger size. in printing by - / lens for instance, prepare the negative upon a plate about two inches square and afterwards enlarge it four diameters. paper containing chloride of silver is not sufficiently sensitive to receive the image, and the print should be formed upon collodion, or on iodized paper developed by gallic acid. the exposure required will vary not only with the intensity of the light and the sensibility of the surface used, but also with the degree of reduction or enlargement of the image. in printing upon collodion the resulting picture is positive by transmitted light; it should be backed up with white varnish, and then becomes positive by reflected light. the tone of the blacks is improved by treating the plate first with bichloride of mercury, and then with ammonia. mr. wenham, who has written a most practical paper on the mode of obtaining positives of the life size, operates in the following way:--he places the camera, with the slide containing the negative in a dark room, and reflects the sunlight in through a hole in the shutter, so as to pass first through the negative and then through the lens; the image is received upon iodized paper, and developed by gallic acid. _on printing collodion transparencies for the stereoscope._--this may be done by using the camera to form an image of the negative in the mode described at the last page; but more simply by the following process:--coat the glass, upon which the print is to be formed, with collodio-iodide of silver in the usual way, then lay it upon a piece of black cloth, collodion side uppermost, and place two strips of paper of about the thickness of cardboard and one-fourth of an inch broad, along the two opposite edges, to prevent the negative being soiled by contact with the film. both glasses must be perfectly flat, and even then it may happen that the negative is unavoidably wetted; if so, wash it immediately with water, and if it be properly varnished no harm will result. a little ingenuity will suggest a simple framework of wood, on which the negative and sensitive plate are retained, separated only by the thickness of a sheet of paper; and the use of this will be better than holding the combination in the hand. the printing is conducted by the light of gas or of a camphine or moderator lamp, diffused daylight would be too powerful. the employment of a concave reflector, which maybe purchased for a few shillings, ensures parallelism of rays, and is a great improvement. the lamp is placed in the focus of the mirror, which may at once be ascertained by moving it backwards and forwards until an _evenly illuminated circle_ is thrown upon a white screen held in front. this in fact is one of the disadvantages of printing by a naked flame--that the light falls most powerfully upon the central part; and less so upon the edges, of the negative. * * * * * (from humphrey's journal, no. , vol. .) on the use of alcohol for sensitizing paper. [sidenote: to sensitize paper.] i have practised for some time the following simple method, which appears to me to be very superior for cleanliness and celerity in working, for depth of tone, and especially for purity of white in its results. by means of it t have produced very satisfactory results upon paper which was otherwise nearly worthless. to your sensitizing solution (which should be not less than grains to the ounce), whether simple nitrate or ammonio-nitrate, add per cent, of alcohol. float the paper upon the solution for seconds. this method answers equally well for albumenized or plain paper. you will find that the solution penetrates the paper which flattens _instantaneously_ upon it. it becomes as transparent as though it were oiled, and every minute air-bubble or defect in the paper is rendered visible. remove the air-bubbles by pressing upon the paper about an inch from the bubble, and thus driving it out under the paper. in doing this, if the solution flows partially over the back of the paper, shake it until the paper is wholly immersed, which will prevent any unevenness in printing. the paper reassumes its transparency in the toning bath, but it will dry a pure white. the sensitising solution will not become materially discolored even after frequent applications of albumenized paper. should it become so much discolored as to give a dark hue to the paper, shake it in a bottle with two drachms of animal charcoal and leave it a night to settle. it will filter clear. a very small portion of your solution may be made available in sensitizing a sheet of paper by pouring it upon a clean glass, the size of the paper or a little larger, which is carefully levelled and nicely laying down the paper upon it. this is useful when your solution is too small to float in your trays. the alcohol causes it to flow and be absorbed with perfect evenness. to remove the papers from the solution and dry them:--provide a dozen or more clothes-pins, of the kind that are supplied with a ring of india-rubber for a spring. into the top drive a pin firmly and bend it to a hook. lift a corner of the paper by passing under it the point of a quill tooth-pick, and attach to it one of the clothes-pins; lift the edge out by this, and attach another to the other corner. you may thus carry the sheet by the pins and hang it upon a line to dry without touching it with the fingers, a matter of some importance to amateurs of the art, who must have unstained hands for their day's _business_. it may be worth while here to add the following simple and economical method of printing, which i have found to surpass in convenience and afford all the advantages of the most expensive printing frames. four common clothes-pins, such as work with a _wire_ spring supply pressure enough for a / -plate. lay your prepared paper upon the negative, and next to it about twenty _separate leaves_ of thin common wrapping paper cut to the size of the negative; next a sheet of tolerably stiff and smooth writing paper, and lastly, a piece of glass as a back to the whole. let the glass back be pushed from the lower edge of the papers about / of an inch, or just so far as to enable you to pinch the negative and papers with the thumb-nail and forefinger. attach a pin to each corner and your negative is prepared for exposure. now, to examine your picture without endangering its displacement:--remove the pins from one end, and place it, face downwards, on a table, the other end with pins attached projecting an inch beyond the edge. hold down the back glass with the left hand, while with the right you remove the pins and pinch the papers and negative together between the forefinger and thumb-nail. upon the smooth sheet of paper you can easily slide the back glass an inch from the edge. hold it there, and on the uncovered margin attach _three_ of the pins with as deep a bite as they will take. you may now examine your picture to within an inch of its margin, as you would turn over the leaves of a book. to replace the back, lay it again on the table and slide the back glass up to the pins before you remove them. the rest of the process is obvious. the minutiæ of my communication may excite a smile with some, but i shall always act upon the principle, that nothing is more out of place than an apology for minuteness in describing manipulations. g. b. c. * * * * * recovery of silver from waste solutions,--from the black deposit of hypo baths, etc. [sidenote: recovery of waste silver, etc.] the manner for separating metallic silver from waste solutions varies according to the presence or absence of alkaline hyposulphite and cyanides. a. _separation of metallic silver from old nitrate baths._--the silver contained in solutions of the nitrate, acetate, etc.; may easily be precipitated by suspending a strip of sheet copper in the liquid; the action is completed in two or three days, the whole of the nitric acid and oxygen passing to the copper, and forming a blue solution of the nitrate of copper. the metallic silver however separated in this manner, always contains a portion of copper, and gives a blue solution when dissolved in nitric acid. a better process is to commence by precipitating the silver entirely in the form of _chloride of silver_, by adding common salt until no further milkiness can be produced. if the liquid is well stirred, the chloride of silver sinks to the bottom, and may be washed by repeatedly filling the vessel with common water, and pouring off the upper clear portion when the clots have again settled down. the chloride of silver thus formed may afterwards be reduced to metallic silver by a process which will presently be described. b. _separation of silver from solutions containing alkaline hyposulphites, cyanides or iodides._--in this case the silver cannot be precipitated by adding chloride of sodium, since the chloride of silver is _soluble_ in such liquids. therefore it is necessary to use the sulphuretted hydrogen, or the hydrosulphate of ammonia, and to separate the silver in the form of _sulphuret_. sulphuretted hydrogen gas is readily prepared, by fitting a cork and flexible tubing to the neck of a pint bottle, and having introduced _sulphuret of iron_ (sold by operative chemists for the purpose), about as much as will stand in the palm of the hand, pouring upon it - / fluid ounces of oil of vitriol diluted with ounces of water. the gas is generated gradually without the application of heat; and must be allowed to bubble up through the liquid from which the silver is to be separated. the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen being offensive, and highly poisonous if inhaled in a concentrated form, the operation must be carried on in the open air, or in a place where the fumes may escape without doing injury. when the liquid begins to acquire a strong and persistent odor of sulphuretted hydrogen, the precipitation of sulphuret is completed. the black mass must therefore be collected upon a filter, and washed by pouring water over it, until the liquid which runs through gives little or no precipitation with a drop of nitrate of silver. the silver may also be separated in the form of sulphuret from old hypo baths, by adding oil of vitriol in quantity sufficient to decompose the hyposulphite of soda; and burning off the free sulphur from the brown deposit. _conversion of sulphuret of silver into metallic silver._--the black sulphuret of silver may be reduced to the state of metal by roasting and subsequent fusion with carbonate of soda; but it is more convenient, in operating on a small scale, to proceed in the following manner:--first convert the sulphuret into nitrate of silver, by boiling with nitric acid diluted with two parts of water; when all evolution of red fumes has ceased, the liquid may be diluted, allowed to cool, and filtered from the insoluble portion, which consists principally of sulphur, but also contains a mixture of chloride and sulphuret of silver, unless the nitric acid employed was free from chlorine; this precipitate may be heated in order to volatilize the sulphur, and then digested with hyposulphite of soda, or added to the hypo bath. the solution of nitrate of silver obtained by dissolving sulphuret of silver is always strongly acid with nitric acid, and also contains _sulphate_ of silver. it may be crystallized by evaporation; but unless the quantity of material operated on is large, it will be better to precipitate the silver in the form of chloride, by adding common salt, as already recommended. * * * * * on the use of test papers. [sidenote: on the use of test papers.] the nature of the coloring matter which is employed in the preparation of litmus-paper has already been described at page . in testing for the alkalies and basic oxides generally, the blue litmus-paper which has been reddened by an acid may be used, or, in place of it, the turmeric paper. turmeric is a yellow vegetable substance which possesses the property of becoming brown when treated with an alkali; it is however decidedly less sensitive than the reddened litmus, and is scarcely affected by the weaker bases, such as oxide of silver. in using test papers observe the following precautions:--they should be kept in a dark place, and protected from the action of the air, or they soon become purple from carbonic acid, always present in the atmosphere in small quantity. by immersion in water containing about one drop of liquor potassæ in four ounces, the blue color is restored. test-papers prepared with porous paper show the red color better than those upon glazed or strongly sized paper. if the quantity of acid present however is small, it is not sufficient in any case simply to dip the paper in the liquid; a small strip should be thrown in, and allowed to remain for ten minutes or a quarter of an hour. if the paper, on immersion, assumes a _wine-red_ or purple tint, in place of a decided red, it is probably caused by carbonic aid gas: in that case the blue color returns when the paper is washed and held to the fire. blue litmus-papers may be changed to the red papers used for alkalies by soaking in water acidified with sulphuric acid, one drop to half a pint. * * * * * the salting and albumenizing paper. [sidenote: salting paper, etc.] take of chloride of ammonium, or pure chloride of sodium grains. water fluid oz. albumen fluid oz. if distilled water cannot be procured, rain water or even common spring water[l] will answer the purpose. to obtain the albumen, use new-laid eggs, and be careful that in opening the shell the yelk is not broken; each egg will yield about one fluid ounce of albumen. [footnote l: if the water contained much sulphate of lime, it is likely that the sensitiveness of the paper would be impaired (?).] when the ingredients are mixed, take a bundle of quills or a fork, and beat the whole into a perfect froth. as the froth forms, it is to be skimmed off and placed in a flat dish to subside. the success of the operation depends entirely upon the manner in which this part of the process is conducted; if the albumen is not thoroughly beaten, flakes of animal membrane will be left in the liquid, and will cause streaks upon the paper. when the froth has partially subsided, transfer it to a tall and narrow jar, and allow to stand for several hours, that the membranous shreds may settle to the bottom. pour off the upper clear portion, which is fit for use. albumenous liquids are too glutinous to run well through a paper filter, and are better cleared by subsidence. a more simple plan than the above, and one equally efficacious, is to fill a bottle to about three parts with the salted mixture of albumen and water, and to shake it well for ten minutes or a quarter of an hour, until it loses its glutinosity and can be poured out smoothly from the neck of the bottle. it is then to be transferred to an open jar, and allowed to settle as before. the solution, prepared by the above directions, will contain exactly ten grains of salt to the ounce, dissolved in an equal bulk of albumen and water. some operators employ the albumen alone without an addition of water, but the paper in that case has a very highly varnished appearance, which is thought by most to be objectionable. the principal difficulty in albumenizing paper is to avoid the occurrence of streaky lines, which, when the paper is rendered sensitive, bronze strongly under the influence of the light. the writer believes these to be caused by a commencing decomposition of the animal matter composing the cells in which the albumen is retained and the best remedy appears to be to use the eggs quite fresh; the same object may sometimes (but not invariably) be attained by allowing the albumen to stand for several weeks until it has become sour; after which it will be sufficiently limpid to run through a filter. in salting and albumenizing photographic paper by the formula above given, it was found that each quarter sheet, measuring eleven by nine inches, removed one fluid drachm and a half from the bath; equivalent to about one grain and three quarters of salt (including droppings). in salting plain paper, each quarter sheet took up only one drachm; so that the glutinous nature of the albumen causes a third part more of the salt to be retained by the paper. _selection of the paper._--the english papers are not good for albumenizing; they are too dense to take the albumen properly, and curl up when laid upon the liquid; the process of toning the prints is also slow and tedious. the thin negative paper of canson, the papier rieve, and papier saxe, have succeeded with the writer better than canson's positive paper, which is usually recommended; they have a finer texture and give more smoothness of grain. to apply the albumen; pour a portion of the solution into a flat dish to the depth of half an inch. then, having previously cut the paper to the proper size, take a sheet by the two corners, bend it into a curved form, convexity downwards, and lay it upon the albumen, the centre part first touching the liquid and the corners being lowered gradually. in this way all bubbles of air will be pushed forwards and excluded. one side only of the paper is wetted: the other remains dry. allow the sheet to rest upon the solution for one minute and a half, and then raise it off, and up by two corners. if any circular spots, free from albumen, are seen, caused by bubbles of air, replace the sheet for the same length of time as at first. the paper must not allowed to remain upon the salting bath much longer than the time specified, because the solution of albumen being _alkaline_ (as is shown by the strong smell of ammonia evolved on the addition of the chloride of ammonium), tends to remove the size from the paper and sink in too deeply; thus losing its surface gloss. albumenized paper will keep a long time in a dry place. some have recommended to press it with a heated iron, in order to coagulate the layer of albumen upon the surface; but this precaution is unnecessary, since the coagulation is perfectly affected by the nitrate of silver used in the sensitizing; and it is doubtful whether a layer of dry albumen would admit of coagulation by the simple application of a heated iron. _to render the paper sensitive._--this operation must be conducted by the light of a candle, or by yellow light. take of nitrate of silver grains. distilled water ounce. prepare a sufficient quantity of this solution, and lay the sheet upon it in the same manner as before. three minutes' contact will be sufficient with the thin negative paper, but if the canson positive paper is used, lour or five minutes must be allowed for the decomposition. the papers are raised from this solution by a pair of bone forceps or common tweezers tipped with sealing-wax; or a pin may be used to lift up the corner, which is then taken by the finger and thumb and allowed to drain a little before again putting in the pin, otherwise a white mark will be produced upon the paper, from decomposition of the nitrate of silver. when the sheet is hung up, a small strip of blotting-paper suspended from the lower edge of the paper will serve to drain off the last drop of liquid. the solution of nitrate of silver becomes after a time discolored by the albumen, but may be used for sensitizing until it is nearly black. the color can be removed by animal charcoal,[m] but a better plan is to use the "kaolin" or pure white china clay. the writer has also tried the common "pipe-clay," which answered perfectly, but appeared to injure the sensitiveness of paper subsequently floated upon the bath (?). [footnote m: common animal charcoal contains carbonate and phosphate of lime the former of which renders the nitrate of silver _alkaline_; purified animal charcoal is usually acid from hydrochloric acid.] sensitive albumenized paper, prepared as above, will usually keep for several days, if protected from the light, but afterwards turns yellow from partial decomposition. =comparison of british and french weights and measures.= [sidenote: weights and measures.] weights. grain, apothecaries' = · grammes, french. ounce " = · " " avoirdupois = · " drachm, apothecaries' = · " ---- gramme = · grains, apoth. decigramme = · " " centigramme = · " " ---- measures of capacity. _cubic inches._ _fluid ounces._ litre = · = · decilitre = · = · centilitre = · = · millilitre = · = · ---- _lb._ _oz._ killogramme = - / avoirdupois. ---- measures of length. metre = · inches. decimetre = · " centimetre = · " millimetre = · " ---- cubic inch of water at ° = · grains. " " mercury " = · " fluid oz. of water = · " " " measures = · cub. in. f. drachm = · grains. pint (new york) = · cub. in. oz. bromine = - / f. drachms. grain, troy or apoth. = · gr. avoir. lb. avoir. = troy grs. " = of its own grs. the drachm avoirdupois is never used except in weighing silk. pendulum vibrating seconds at new york = · inches. in weighing solids, few weights are really necessary if they are properly assorted; nothing less than half a grain is likely to be useful, and the series following will weigh any quantity from the half grain to two thousand one hundred and ten and a half grains, by differences of only a single grain. the numbers are in grains, but the same principle may be carried out with any other denomination, whether ounces, pounds, or tons. / , , , , , , , , , , , , , , &c. the artist should be provided with not less than three glass measures--one of a pint, graduated to ounces--one of two ounces, graduated to drachms--and one of two drachms, graduated to minims. * * * * * =lewis's patent glass baths= for nitrate of silver solutions.--since the foregoing pages have been in print this new article of baths has been introduced, and will probably supersede all others now in market. they are encased in a box made expressly to hold them, and form a valuable and important improvement in the apparatus used in the various glass processes. index. aberration, chromatic, ; spherical, . acetic acid, . albumen, ; preparation of positive paper with, . alcohol, ; used in sensitizing paper, . ammonia, . ammonio-nitrate of silver, preparation and use of, . animal charcoal, . barium, chloride of, . baths, glass, ; gutta-percha, . bichloride of mercury for whitening positives, . bromide and iodide of potassium and silver, . bromide of potassium, . bromine, properties of, . bromo-iodized collodion for positives, (ambrotypes), , ; for negatives, . camera boxes, . camera, construction of, . camera stands, . carbonate of soda, . chemical and visual focus, . china clay, . chloride of ammonium, . chloride of barium, . chloride of gold, preparation of, ; for toning, chloride of sodium, . chlorine, . chromatic aberration, . citric acid, . cleaning glass plates, . coating large glasses with collodion, . collodion, manufacture of, ; iodized for positives, , ; for negatives, ; mode of coating glasses with, ; vials, . collodio-albumen process, dr. taupenot, . color-boxes, . cutting's patents and correspondence, . cyanide of potassium, ; use of, . decomposition of light, . developing solution for positives, ; for negatives, , . dippers, glass and gutta-percha, . double iodide of potassium and silver, . ether, preparation of, . fixing positives on glass, ; negatives on glass, ; positives on paper, . fluoride of potassium, . fogging of collodion positives, . formic acid, . fulminating gold, . gelatine, properties of, ; for mounting photographs, . glass, cementing, . glass plates, cleaning of, ; coating with collodion, ; coating with albumen, . glass rods, bending of, . glycerine, its properties, . gold, chloride of, preparation of, ; for toning, . grape sugar, . hadow, mr., researches and formula for making soluble cotton, ; on iodizing collodion, . head rests, . helio, collodion process for positives and negatives, . honey, . humphrey's collodion gilding, . hydrochloric acid, . hydriodic acid, . hydrosulphuric acid, . hypo bath, . hyposulphite of gold, . hyposulphite of silver, . hyposulphite of soda, preparation and properties of, . instantaneous positives, . iodide of ammonium, preparation of, ; for iodizing collodion, , . iodide of cadmium, . iodide of iron, preparation of, ; its uses and acceleration, . iodide of potassium and silver, preparation of, ; use in sensitizing collodion, , . iodide of potassium, properties and preparation of, . iodide of silver, preparation and properties of, ; its use in the nitrate bath, , . iodine, preparation and properties of, . iodized collodion, , , , . iron, perchloride of, . " protonitrate of, . jenny lind stands, . kaolin, properties of, . lenses, double-convex, concavo-convex, double-concave, . lenses, forms of, , ; combination of, for portraits, ; chromatic aberration of, ; spherical aberration of, . leveling stands, . light, decomposition of, . litmus, . manipulations of the positive collodion process, ; negative process, . measures and weights, . milk, . mounting positives on paper, . negatives for printing positives, , . nitrate of potash, . nitrate of silver, . nitrate of silver bath, mode of preparing for positives, ; for negatives, ; for negatives and positives in helio's process, . nitrate of silver used in developing negatives, . nitric acid, preparation and properties of, ; use in nitrate bath, , ; use in making soluble cotton, . nitro-sulphuric acid used in preparing soluble cotton, , . oxide of silver, preparation of, . oxygen, . oxymel, preparation of, . paper, sensitive, for printing, ; alcohol used in, . patent for the use of camphor in combination with iodized collodion, ; for sealing photographic pictures, ; for the use of alcohol as a desiccating agent, ; for the use of bromide of potassium in collodion, ; for the use of japanned surfaces for taking positives, ; for photographic pictures in oil, ; for making transparent borders, ; coloring positives, , ; for albumenized collodion, . plate-holders, lewis's patent, solid glass corners for, . plato vices, . portrait lenses, combination of, . positives, (ambrotypes,) process for producing, ; by the helio process, ; printing on albumenized paper, , ; ammonio-nitrate of silver used in, ; use of chloride of gold in toning, ; fixing, ; fixing and brightening, (ambrotypes), humphrey's collodion gilding used in, ; printing frames for, ; collodion for, , ; mica used for, . positives, enlarging from negatives, . potash, ; carbonate of, . practice of the positive collodion process, ; negative process. ; helio's positive and negative process, ; printing on paper, . prism, ; refraction of light by, . protosulphite of iron used in developing positives. ; negatives, . pyrogallic acid, preparation of, . sensitizing paper, use of alcohol in, . silver, properties of, ; removal of stains from the nitrate of, ; recovery of from waste solutions, . solar spectrum, . soluble cotton, ; hadow on, . spherical aberration, . spots upon positives, . stains and lines upon positives, . taupenot, m., his collodio-albumen process, . test-paper, use of, . toning bath for positives on paper, . weights and measures, . * * * * * corrections. [transcriber note: corrections have been applied to text.] on page and th line from the top, for "iodide of silver," read _iodide of potassium_. on page and nd line, for " ounces," read _ounces_. * * * * * transcriber note minor typos may have been corrected. images were moved so as to prevent splitting paragraphs. all images were derived from materials made available on the internet archive and are placed in the public domain. kodaks _and_ kodak supplies canadian kodak co., limited toronto, canada "kodak" is our registered and commonlaw trade mark and cannot be rightfully applied except to goods of our manufacture. when a dealer tries to sell you, under the kodak name, a camera or films or other goods not of our manufacture, you can be sure that he has an inferior article that he is trying to market on the kodak reputation, and he also makes himself liable to suit by us for damages and injunction. _if it isn't an eastman, it isn't a kodak_ kodak service make it simpler. from the very inception the kodak idea has been--make photography so simple that anybody can take good pictures. simpler cameras, simpler processes have followed each other with almost startling rapidity. but the kodak company has not been satisfied with merely making mechanical and chemical improvements; it has assumed the responsibility of educating people in picture taking. the very first kodak, way back in , was accompanied by a so-called "manual" that did more than merely explain the operation of the mechanical features of the camera. it showed how the pictures should be taken, _how_ (and how not) to photograph a tall building, how to photograph a small child--told about the length of exposures in different kinds of light, both in-doors and out. it was really a primary hand-book of photography. from that day on, every piece of kodak apparatus, every amateur product of the company has been accompanied by the most concise instructions, instructions that were also constructive because they not only told the beginner what to do but _why he was to do it_. even in the kodak advertising matter as much space is given up to telling people how to make pictures as in telling them why they should buy kodak goods. booklets in large editions, giving instructions in practically every phase of amateur photography have been and still are distributed without charge. photography has not merely been made simpler, it has been explained to all who are interested. "kodakery"--a monthly help and now comes a new help to the beginner--"kodakery," a little magazine that will tell the amateur how to get better pictures. it's beautifully illustrated. written and edited by those who know photography inside and out and who also know the places where the amateur has trouble, it will be a joy and a help to every enthusiast, will add for thousands to the witchery of kodakery. every purchaser, after may st, , of a kodak or brownie camera will be entitled to "kodakery" for one year without charge--he may have it continued by subscribing at cents per year if he so desires. in the back of each kodak and brownie manual, which we are now printing, is a "subscription blank" which, upon being properly filled out and mailed to--"kodakery," toronto, ont.--will entitle the purchaser of such camera to one year's free subscription to "kodakery." at the time this plan goes into operation there may still be some such manuals without a subscription blank, but in such case a blank may be obtained from the dealer of whom the camera was purchased. every purchaser of a kodak or brownie camera is entitled to one copy of the manual or instruction book and to one year's subscription to "kodakery." the editors of "kodakery" aim first of all to make the little book a real help. at the same time it will be interesting and its delightful illustrations will show the beginner new possibilities in amateur photography. this little magazine is but a part of the kodak service. to sell a camera and then turn the customer adrift has never been a part of the kodak plan. along with our improvements in apparatus and materials, we have always endeavored also to improve the kodak service. "kodakery" will, we believe, prove the means of keeping us more closely than ever in touch with our customers. in many ways it will be directly helpful--and it will always suggest the propriety of the customer's going to his kodak dealer or to us, if there are little difficulties (there are no big ones, now) to be overcome. it is to be a real help--a part of the kodak idea--one more aid to the beginner in the making of good pictures. canadian kodak co., limited. toronto, canada. kodak ball bearing shutter this shutter is automatic and as its leaves are mounted on ball bearings it operates with remarkable smoothness and precision. the leaves open and close in the form of a star, admitting a much larger amount of light in the same space of time than the ordinary type of shutter. all but the no. work with bulb or finger release and have variable indicated speeds of / , / and / second as well as bulb and time exposures. [illustration] they are also fitted with indicator for registering each exposure as made and iris diaphragm. supplied with kodak junior no. a, and folding pocket kodaks, nos. a, r. r. type; , a and . the no. is supplied with the vest pocket kodak and vest pocket kodak special, and is similar to the above excepting that it works with finger release only, has variable speeds of / and / second, and is regularly equipped with the kodak autotime scale. the no. is also supplied with the kodak junior no. , but in this instance is not fitted with autotime scale. pocket automatic shutter this shutter has star shaped opening and is automatic in action. it works with finger release for bulb, time and instantaneous exposures and is perfectly reliable in every respect. fitted with iris diaphragm stops and regularly supplied with nos. and a folding pocket kodaks, and nos. and a folding pocket brownies. [illustration] brownie ball bearing shutter the ball bearing type of shutter has been found so accurate and reliable that we have designed a shutter on the ball bearing principle for the and a folding brownie cameras. this shutter is well made in every respect, it works with bulb and tube or finger release, and is fitted with the kodak autotime scale--a great help for amateur photographers, especially beginners. [illustration] the brownie ball bearing shutter works not only for time and bulb exposures, but has variable indicated speeds of / , / and / second. it is fitted with iris diaphragm and supplied with the nos. and a folding brownie cameras. for a more complete description of the kodak autotime scale supplied with this shutter, see page . compound shutter the compound shutter is an automatic and setting shutter combined. automatically, either time or bulb exposures may be made, while it may be set for speeds of from to / , / and / second, according to size of shutter. the shutter leaves are formed of segments opening in star shape, giving even illumination over the entire plate the instant the exposure is started, and an iris diaphragm is supplied for stopping down. [illustration] case is made of aluminum, and accurate adjustments can be made with the shutter in any position. regularly supplied on the nos. a, , a special and _six-three_ kodaks and as a special equipment with the nos. and a folding kodaks. kodak automatic shutter and kodak autotime scale the kodak automatic shutter is carefully adjusted for time, bulb and instantaneous exposures. it is also graduated for fractional parts of a second, and is unusually accurate. [illustration] this shutter is fitted with the kodak autotime scale and is supplied as a special equipment on the nos. a, r. r. type; , a and folding pocket kodaks. the scale greatly reduces the liability of error in exposure, as it automatically indicates the proper time and stop opening for subjects under any condition of outdoor photography. it is exceedingly simple to use. the speed indicator is merely set at the point on the scale indicating the kind of light prevailing and the diaphragm indicator at the point indicating the character of the subject. these scales are also supplied at a nominal charge for the following shutters when fitted with double lenses only, and can be readily attached by any amateur. always order by style letter. style a. for use with kodak ball bearing shutter, - / × - / and - / × - / . style aa. for kodak ball bearing shutter, × - / , - / × - / and × . style b. for use with f. p. k. automatic, - / × - / and - / × - / , no. s. v. (blair or premo) automatic, or no. b. & l. s. v. automatic shutters. style bb. for use with f. p. k. automatic, - / × - / and × , no. s. v. (blair or premo) automatic, or no. b. & l. s. v. automatic shutters. style c. for use with kodak automatic shutter, - / × - / . style cc. for use with kodak automatic shutter, - / × - / and × . style d. for b. & l. automatic and century automatic shutters, - / × - / . style dd. for use with b. & l. automatic and century automatic shutters, - / × - / and × . style ddd. for use with b. & l. automatic shutter, - / × - / . style i. for use with kodak ball bearing shutter, - / × - / . price, any of above styles, $ . . style h. for use with no. , - / × - / compound shutter. style hh. for use with no. , - / × - / and × compound shutter. style hhh. for use with no. , - / × - / and × compound shutter. price for any style compound shutter, $ . . kodak lenses the regular r. r. and meniscus lenses used on kodak and brownie cameras have always been the best lenses of their respective types that could be secured. these lenses are perfectly adapted to everyday amateur photography, producing pictures under normal light conditions that leave nothing to be desired by the average amateur. for those, however, who wish even greater efficiency and capabilities, we supply the anastigmat lens equipments. the superiority of the anastigmat lens, without attempting to go into the technicalities of the subject, consists of--perfect definition over the whole negative, absolute flatness of field, and higher speed. in r. r. lenses the tendency to lack of definition toward the edges, which always occurs in an uncorrected lens, is so slight as to be unnoticeable except to the most expert eye. in a true anastigmat, it is entirely eliminated. the speed of a lens is determined by the relative size of the diaphragm opening. an r. r. lens cannot be used at an opening greater than / its focal length, commonly designated as _f._ . but an anastigmat lens can be so corrected as to permit the use of larger diaphragm openings and still produce sharp, clear negatives. this larger opening admits more light within a given time than that of the r. r. lens, hence the anastigmat is much faster. thus the zeiss or cooke kodak anastigmat lens, working at an aperture of _f._ . admits per cent. more light in a given time than does the r. r. this speed advantage enables the user to make short exposures on dull days or under poor light conditions, where hopelessly undertimed negatives would result with an r. r. lens. and under proper conditions, exposures up to / second with a compound shutter and / with a focal plane shutter, can be made with the anastigmat. in the last few years there has been a steadily increasing interest in and demand for anastigmat lens equipments among amateur photographers, and we responded to this demand, first by furnishing the special kodaks fitted with zeiss kodak anastigmat lens, _f._ . --a lens fully corrected and offering the advantage of high speed. these have been followed by the _six-three_ kodaks. these differ from the specials in that they are simply our regular kodak models, without the special covering and finish of "specials," and fitted with anastigmat lenses specially designed by taylor, taylor & hobson, for kodak use and called the cooke kodak anastigmat. this lens works at _f._ . and is fully corrected in every particular. vest pocket kodak the extraordinary popularity of the vest pocket kodak is due not alone to its compactness--it is so flat and smooth and small that it will readily slip into a vest pocket--but also to the excellent quality of its pictures, whether printed by contact or enlarged. in fact, this little camera in itself is so very desirable and of such general utility, that we furnish it with several different equipments to meet any demand. for average photography, the camera fitted with kodak ball bearing shutter and tested meniscus achromatic lens is amply efficient, for it will make excellent pictures under ordinary conditions. for those who want the microscopic definition of the anastigmat, we offer the vest pocket kodak, this year, fitted with the new kodak anastigmat lens. this lens works at _f._ , it is fully corrected, and made of the first quality of jena glass. this makes a most desirable outfit at a surprisingly low price for an anastigmat equipment. then for those who want not only the absolute sharpness and flatness of field, but the maximum of speed as well, we offer the camera fitted with zeiss kodak anastigmat lens, _f._ . . [illustration] the appearance of the vest pocket kodak is so suggestive of quality, that it makes an ideal camera for gift purposes on holidays, birthdays, at graduation time, and such occasions. for these purposes we have devised the kodak gift case shown in the illustration. the vest pocket kodak in this case is fitted with kodak anastigmat lens, _f._ . the carrying case is of imported satin finish leather, in a shade of soft brown that is in perfect harmony with the deep blue of the handsome silk-lined container. the whole outfit possesses a quality and richness that will appeal to the most fastidious. the vest pocket kodak with any equipment is always ready for action. it is only necessary to pull out the front to its full extent, and the camera is in focus for objects at any distance. the shutter is automatic, and a convenient reversible finder, for composing the view in either horizontal or vertical position, is provided. [illustration] another feature is the extreme simplicity in loading--nothing trappy or fussy about it. indeed, the operation of the camera is simple in every detail, nothing in the way of simplicity or efficiency having been sacrificed in order to reduce the size. in detail for rectangular pictures, - / × - / inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of kodak, × - / × - / inches. weight, ounces. lens, regular, meniscus achromatic, -inch focus. _special_, zeiss kodak anastigmat _f._ . , or kodak anastigmat _f._ . shutter, kodak ball bearing no. . brilliant reversible finder. all metal body, black enamel finish and black leather bellows. the price vest pocket kodak, meniscus achromatic lens and kodak ball bearing shutter $ . vest pocket kodak with kodak anastigmat lens _f._ and kodak ball bearing shutter . kodak gift case, includes vest pocket kodak with kodak anastigmat lens _f._ , imported satin finish leather case and silk-lined container . vest kodak, _special_, zeiss kodak anastigmat lens, and kodak ball bearing shutter . leather case for vest pocket kodak . grain leather case for vest pocket kodak _special_ . imported satin finish leather case . hand bag for vest pocket kodak . _de luxe_ bag, suede calfskin, long straps . n. c. film cartridge, exposures, - / × - / (no. ) . kodak portrait attachment . no. kodak junior so complete and varied has the kodak line become, so altogether simple is the operation of each camera, that each year it looks well nigh impossible to strengthen the line or broaden the selection for the amateur. [illustration] however, the kodak policy of never letting well enough alone has developed two most attractive new models this year, which round off the whole line, being built upon the idea of providing genuine daylight-all-the-way kodaks, with all the kodak convenience and dependability, for those who wish to take up photography at the minimum of expense. the first of these models, the no. kodak junior, makes - / × - / pictures and loads with the kodak film cartridge of six exposures (no. ). and for loading and unloading, the back of the camera is constructed upon a new principle which makes it unusually easy to remove. a striking feature of this camera is its extreme thinness and all-around compactness. it will readily slip into the pocket, and yet it is fully equipped for efficient work in all branches of general amateur photography. it is fitted with the no. ball bearing shutter, speed / of a second, with cable release, as described on page , and offers the choice of rapid rectilinear or meniscus achromatic lens. all lenses fitted to this camera must stand the usual rigid kodak tests. the no. kodak junior is provided with automatic focusing lock, collapsible reversible finder, two tripod sockets--in fact, the practical, convenient working equipment which one expects in a true kodak. the camera is well made in every respect, it is covered with a good quality of grain leather, and the metal parts are finished in nickel and black enamel. the low price means no stinting in either material or workmanship. it is only possible through the perfection of our scientific factory organization and the large quantities which our large distribution enables us to make at one time. [illustration] in detail for rectangular pictures. - / × - / inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of kodak, - / × - / × - / inches. weight, ounces. lens, meniscus achromatic, - / -inch focus. also supplied with rapid rectilinear lens if desired. shutter, kodak ball hearing no. , with cable release. (see page .) brilliant, reversible, collapsible finder. the film cartridge for this camera is the same as the one used for no. brownie and not for no. folding pocket kodak. the price no. junior, kodak with meniscus achromatic lens and kodak ball bearing shutter $ . ditto, with r. r. lens . black sole leather case, with strap . kodak autotime scale (style , for use with the camera when fitted with r. r. lens only) . n. c. film cartridge, exposures (no. ) . kodak portrait attachment . no. a kodak junior in this new model is offered the advantages of low cost, with kodak efficiency, which we have seen in the no. kodak junior, in a camera made upon the same principle for - / × - / pictures. [illustration] this is one of the most popular amateur sizes, the proportion being unusually pleasing for landscapes, street scenes, and the like, in the horizontal position, and admirably adapted for portraiture when used vertically. with its strikingly thin, compact form, its reliable equipment and its low cost, the no. a kodak junior is sure to please anyone who prefers pictures of this size. this model will accommodate the regular twelve exposure kodak n. c. film cartridges, and thus offers the daylight-all-the-way feature of all kodaks. the shutter is the kodak ball bearing with cable release, which works not only for bulb and time exposures, but has variable indicated speeds of / , / and / second. the leaves, opening in the shape of a star, admit the greatest possible amount of light, for a between-the-lens shutter, at each exposure. the camera is furnished with either meniscus achromatic or rapid rectilinear lens. in both cases the lens is carefully tested and must conform to the high kodak standard before it is allowed to go on the camera. simplicity marks this camera in every respect. it is made with the new style back--unusually easy to remove for loading and unloading. it has an automatic focusing lock, which permits the camera to be brought to focus quickly for objects at any distance. the finder is of the new collapsible type; it is reversible, and two tripod sockets are furnished, so that the camera may be easily used in either the vertical or horizontal position. so compact that it will readily slip into the pocket, this camera offers that high standard of efficiency which is inseparable from the kodak idea. the back and bed are made of aluminum, the covering is genuine leather, and metal parts are finished in nickel and black enamel. [illustration] in detail for rectangular pictures, - / × - / inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of kodak, - / × - / × inches. weight, ounces. lens, meniscus achromatic, -inch focus. also supplied with r. r. lens if desired. shutter, kodak ball bearing with cable release. (see page .) brilliant, reversible, collapsible finder. the price no. a kodak junior, with meniscus achromatic lens and kodak ball bearing shutter $ . ditto, with r. r. lens . black sole leather case, with strap . kodak autotime scale (style a, for use with camera when fitted with double lens only) . n. c. film cartridge, exposures (no. ) . ditto, exposures . kodak portrait attachment . nos. and a folding pocket kodaks [illustration] these little kodaks are designed for those who wish compact folding cameras which can be easily carried in the pocket and which will make pictures without the necessity of focusing or estimating distances. upon opening the camera the front springs automatically into position, ready at once for making pictures of objects at any distance. a reversible finder makes composition easy, and slight pressure of the shutter lever makes the exposure. when closed the bed folds over front and bellows, concealing all adjustments, and the camera can then be very conveniently carried in any coat pocket. the camera is made of aluminum, with best seal grain leather covering and has nickel fittings. they differ only in the size of the pictures they make. in detail for rectangular pictures, no. , - / × - / inches; no. a, - / × - / inches. capacity, each exposures without reloading. size of kodak, no. , - / × - / × - / inches; no. a, - / × - / × - / inches. weight, no. , ounces; no. a, ounces. lens, meniscus achromatic, no. , -inch focus; no. a, -inch focus. shutter, pocket automatic. (see page .) brilliant reversible finder. the price no. no. a folding pocket kodak, with meniscus achromatic lens, pocket automatic shutter $ . $ . black sole leather case, with shoulder strap . . n. c. film cartridge, exposures (no. for no. , no. for no. a) . . ditto, exposures . . kodak portrait attachment . . no. a folding-pocket kodak--r. r. type [illustration] this is a camera of greater capabilities and wider scope than those previously described--the first of that series of double lens kodaks which have played such a prominent part in the development and popularization of amateur photography. these cameras are fitted with the best r. r. lenses to be had, each one carefully tested to the highest standard and fitted only if it conforms to that standard. the shutter is of the kodak ball bearing type. the camera as a whole makes a compact, inexpensive outfit, considering its capabilities, and one which, though suitable for the most serious work, will slip readily into the pocket, and is so simple that it may be effectively handled by the beginner. in detail for rectangular pictures, - / × - / inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of kodak, × × - / inches. weight. ounces. lens, double combination, rapid rectilinear, speed, _f._ , focal length, inches. shutter, kodak ball bearing. (see page .) automatic focusing lock. two tripod sockets. brilliant reversible finder. the price no. a f.p.k., r.r. type, r.r. lens, kodak ball bearing shutter $ . ditto, with kodak automatic shutter . black sole leather carrying case, with strap . kodak autotime scale (style a) . n. c. film cartridge, exposures, - / × - / (no. ) . ditto, exposures . kodak portrait attachment . nos. and folding pocket kodaks these cameras are made for two standard amateur size pictures and are similar in every essential respect excepting in the matter of size. the no. makes - / × - / pictures--a favorite with many, and especially suitable for lantern slide making, as the slide can be printed by direct contact. the no. makes × pictures and is preferred by many on account of the comparatively large size which it is possible to get of the objects in the composition. [illustration] both cameras offer the usual kodak simplicity, and the exceptional lens and shutter equipment which assures the user the maximum of efficiency in all work where an anastigmat equipment is not necessary. the illustration on the opposite page shows the no. . the shutter is the kodak ball bearing, in which is mounted an r. r. lens which must stand the most rigid test before it is passed by our inspectors. this lens works at _f._ , and as the leaves of the kodak ball bearing shutter open in the shape of a star, the greatest possible amount of light is admitted at this opening--a fact which makes the instruments especially valuable for snap-shot work. the cameras are equipped with rising and sliding front--a great convenience in architectural and many forms of landscape photography, and an automatic focusing lock is provided so that either can quickly be brought to focus at any-distance. while these models, of course, are designed for the use of our roll films, either can be loaded with plates at any time by the addition of a simple plate adapter or combination back (supplied extra). this is interchangeable with the regular back, is provided with ground glass for focusing and takes double plate holders. (see similar back illustrated on page .) both cameras are handsomely finished throughout. back and bed are of aluminum, metal parts are highly nickeled, and covering is of fine quality grain leather. [illustration] in detail for rectangular pictures. no. , - / × - / inches; no. , × inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of kodak, no. , - / × - / × - / inches: no. , - / × - / × inches. weight, no. , ounces: no. , pounds ounces. lens, double combination, rapid rectilinear, speed. _f._ , focal length. no. , inches: no. , - / inches. shutter, kodak ball bearing. (see page .) rising and sliding front. two tripod sockets. brilliant reversible finder with hood. automatic focusing lock. the price no. no. f. p. kodak., r. r. lens and kodak ball bearing shutter $ . $ . ditto, with kodak automatic shutter . . ditto, with compound shutter, highest speed / second and zeiss kodak anastigmat lens, _f._ . . kodak autotime scale (style a for no. , style aa for no. ) . . black sole leather case, with strap . . combination back, with ground glass . . double glass plate holders . . n. c. film cartridge. exposures (no. for no. . no. for no. ) . . ditto, exposures . . ditto, "double-two" cartridge, exposures . . kodak portrait attachment . . no. a folding pocket kodak the best thought of our manufacturing organization has been put into presenting in this model a moderate priced camera for general amateur photography that is the embodiment of skill and painstaking care. [illustration] it has in fact come to be recognized as the standard in hand cameras, and every suitable improvement made, or new idea evolved in the years in which it has been on the market, has been incorporated in its construction. the a folding pocket kodak was the first camera made for - / × - / pictures--a size which has become the most popular of all amateur sizes. its proportions are just right for post cards, it is unusually effective for landscapes and street scenes when used horizontally; while vertically, it is ideal for portraiture, whether full length or head and shoulders, when the camera is fitted with kodak portrait attachment. the camera is fitted with tested r. r. lens, the kodak ball bearing shutter, and rising and sliding front. and it is so simple that a beginner can make good pictures with it from the start. [illustration: showing combination back with focusing screen] like the no. , this model will accommodate plates as well as films by the simple addition of a combination back, which is interchangeable with the regular back. this may be secured from any dealer, it is fitted with ground glass and takes double plate holders. this camera is covered with best quality of fine grain leather, and has nickeled fittings. [illustration] in detail for rectangular pictures, - / × - / inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of kodak, - / × - / × inches. weight, ounces. lens, double combination, rapid rectilinear, speed, _f._ , focal length, - / inches. shutter, kodak ball bearing. (see page .) two tripod sockets. brilliant reversible finder with hood. automatic focusing lock. the price no. a f. p. kodak, r. r. lens, kodak ball bearing shutter $ . ditto, with kodak automatic shutter . black sole leather case, with strap . kodak automatic scale (style aa) . combination back . double glass plate holders, - / × - / , each . n. c. film cartridge, exposures, - / × - / (no. ) . ditto, exposures . ditto, "double-two" cartridge, exposures . kodak portrait attachment . no. a folding kodak for very large size pictures, we offer the no. a folding kodak--a camera which combines all the simple and convenient kodak features in a very light and compact camera, considering the size of the pictures it makes. it is fully equipped for out-of-the-ordinary work, as well as for snap-shot and general amateur photography. [illustration] one of its special features is its adaptability to home portraiture. fitted with the kodak portrait attachment, it will make bust portraits up to the full size of the film, as it may be operated as close as - / feet to the subject. a plate adapter (extra) with focusing screen, interchangeable with the regular back, will permit the use of dry plates if desired. the shutter supplied with this model is a double valve automatic, which works not only for time and bulb exposures, but is also graduated in fractional parts of a second from / to . the lens is a rapid rectilinear of the same high quality as those supplied with the preceding kodaks. the camera is equipped with rising and sliding front, rack and pinion for easy focusing, two tripod sockets and a very positive automatic standard clamp. the regular finder is a brilliant reversible, but when desired, a direct view finder can be furnished for specially quick snap-shot work with the camera held on a level with the eyes. constructed with the same care and attention to detail as the preceding model, the no. a is just as simple to operate, and is finished in the same style, with seal grain covering and nickeled fittings. [illustration] in detail for rectangular pictures, - / × - / inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of kodak, × - / × - / inches. weight, pounds ounces. lens, double combination, rapid rectilinear, speed, _f._ , focal length, - / inches. shutter, b. & l. automatic. rising and sliding front. rack and pinion for focusing. two tripod sockets. brilliant reversible finder with hood. the price no. a f. kodak. r. r. lens. b. & l. automatic shutter $ . ditto, with zeiss kodak anastigmat lens, _f._ . . ditto, with compound shutter, highest speed / second . kodak autotime scale for regular equipment (style ddd) . ditto, for compound shutter (style hhh) . black sole leather case, with strap . glass plate adapter, with ground glass . double glass plate holders, each . n. c. film cartridge, exposures, - / × - / (no. ) . ditto, "double-two" cartridge, exposures . direct view finder . kodak portrait attachment . panoram kodaks the panoram kodak does a special kind of work--a very desirable kind of work which cannot be done with a camera of any other type. as its name implies, it is constructed so as to take panoramic pictures of outdoor groups, landscapes, mountain views, and the like. for instance, in making a picture of an outdoor group of twelve or fifteen people, with an ordinary camera, they would have to be arranged in two or three rows to get good sized images, but with a panoram they can be arranged in a semi-circle, at a given distance from the camera, and all appear in the picture in one row and of the proper relative size. again, in making a landscape, the sweep of the panoram lens will take in the complete view, while the scope of the ordinary camera could only permit a portion of it to be taken at one exposure. in addition to its use for making horizontal pictures, the camera may be as easily used in the vertical position, and decidedly unique pictures of high waterfalls, mountain peaks and such subjects can be secured. the lens is mounted on a pivot and when the exposure is to be made, by pressing a lever the lens automatically swings on this pivot from one side of the camera to the other, embracing an angle of over degrees. at the same time, the shutter operates automatically with great precision, insuring even illumination throughout the exposure. there is no complication whatever in operation, the whole process is automatic; it's just as easy to make pictures with the panoram as with any other kodak. those who already have other kodaks or contemplate purchasing such, will find this a valuable addition to their photographic equipment for the making of out-of-the-ordinary pictures. panoram kodaks use the regular daylight loading n. c. kodak film, they are carefully made, have genuine leather coverings and nickeled fittings. the no. has a scope of degrees, while the no. embraces an angle of degrees. panoram kodaks cannot be used successfully indoors. [illustration] no. panoram kodak in detail for rectangular pictures, - / × inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of kodak, - / × - / × - / inches. weight, ounces. lens, specially selected as to quality and focal length. shutter, panoram. two tripod sockets. brilliant finder with hood. uses no. f. p. kodak cartridges. the price no. panoram kodak $ . black sole leather carrying case, with shoulder strap . n. c. film cartridge, exposures, - / × (no. ) . ditto, exposures . no. panoram kodak in detail for rectangular pictures, - / × inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of kodak, - / × - / × - / inches. weight. pounds ounces. lens, specially selected as to quality and focal length. shutter, panoram. two tripod sockets. brilliant finder with hood. uses no. b. e. cartridges. the price no. panoram kodak $ . black sole leather carrying case, with shoulder strap . n. c. film cartridge, exposures, - / × (no. ) . ditto, exposures . nos. a and special kodaks the special kodaks are made upon the idea of providing the very best possible in hand cameras. a fine anastigmat lens, made expressly for hand camera work, a high speed, accurate shutter, a complete operating equipment, and the best materials procurable, richly finished--these, moulded together by the most expert camera workmen in the world, leave nothing to be desired by the user, whether he be beginner or expert. [illustration] aside from the requirements of the focal plane specialist, there is no condition under which amateur pictures can be made, in which these cameras will not produce the best possible results. the nos. a and specials are alike in every respect excepting in size--the no. a making - / × - / pictures and the no. the larger - / × - / size. each is fitted with the zeiss kodak anastigmat lens working at a maximum opening of _f._ . , and with the compound shutter attaining a speed of / second. the fast lenses give the specials a great advantage over the ordinary camera in dull lights, and in combination with the compound shutter, make them second only to cameras having focal plane shutters for photographing rapidly moving objects. they have rising and sliding fronts, reversible finders, rack and pinion for focusing, spirit levels, in fact every useful convenience that can be put into a hand camera. the no. size will take plates by addition of a combination back (supplied extra). made as the last word in photographic perfection, these cameras are beautifully finished. covered with genuine persian morocco, with rich black leather bellows and nickeled fittings, they bear the impress of the quality that is in them. [illustration] in detail size of kodak. no. a, × - / × inches; no. , - / × - / × inches. weight, no. a, ounces; no. , ounces. lens, zeiss kodak anastigmat, speed, _f._ . , focal length. no. a, inches; no. , inches. shutter, compound. (see page .) two tripod sockets. brilliant reversible finder, with hood. spirit level. rack and pinion for focusing. the price no. a no. - / × - / - / × - / special kodak, zeiss kodak anastigmat lens, _f._ . , and compound shutter $ . $ . ditto, with cooke series iiia, _f._ . lens . . ditto, with b. & l. zeiss tessar series iib lens, _f._ . . . kodak autotime scale (style h) . . grain leather, velvet lined case, with strap . . combination back . double glass plate holders, each . n. c. film cartridge, exposures (no. for no. a, no. for no. ) . . ditto, exposures . . ditto, "double-two" cartridge, exposures . kodak portrait attachment . no. a special kodak to combine in one instrument every feature that could add to practical efficiency and yet retain the pocket kodak convenience and simplicity was the work that we set for ourselves in designing the a special kodak. in no respect did we fall short of that work. in this camera no essential to good picture making is omitted, yet it has no unnecessary "contraptions" to annoy and befog the beginner. it is recognized as the highest type of hand camera for the amateur--skilled or unskilled. [illustration] the a special kodak is equipped with the zeiss kodak anastigmat lens, _f._ . , the anastigmat made especially for hand camera work and combining speed, depth and definition in an unusual degree. the shutter is the compound, operated by either cable or finger release and having a maximum speed of / second. with this equipment it is possible to get well-timed pictures, under light conditions that would be fatal to good results with the ordinary camera and in bright light to make successful exposures as short as / second. the a special has a most complete equipment in keeping with the high grade of work for which it is designed. it has both rising and sliding front, reversible finder, rack and pinion for focusing, spirit level, double focusing scale--one for films and the other for plates. the camera body is made of aluminum, producing a very light, yet strong and durable, instrument. the finish and appointments are of the richest. the covering is genuine persian morocco, the bellows is of black selected leather, and these in connection with the highly nickeled fittings and dull black enameled shutter add that look of quality that is in harmony with its genuine efficiency and worth. [illustration] in detail size of kodak, - / × - / × inches. weight, ounces. lens, zeiss kodak anastigmat, speed, _f._ . , focal length, - / inches. shutter, compound, with cable release. (see page .) two tripod sockets. brilliant reversible finder, with hood. spirit level. rack and pinion for focusing. the price no. a special kodak, zeiss kodak anastigmat lens. _f._ . and compound shutter $ . ditto, with cooke series iiia _f._ . lens . ditto, with b. & l. zeiss tessar series iib lens, _f._ . . kodak autotime scale (style hh) . grain leather, velvet lined case, with strap . combination back . double glass plate holders, each . n. c. film cartridge, exposures (no. ) . ditto, exposures . ditto, "double-two" cartridge, exposures . kodak portrait attachment . _six-three_ kodaks [illustration] from the time that the kodak catalogue appeared last year, containing the first announcement of the _six-three_ kodaks, it was evident that these cameras were to score a great success. the demand for them grew, as it were, over night, and has steadily kept up ever since. this is a natural enough condition, when it is considered that _six-three_ kodaks provide those who want the anastigmat advantages of definition, flatness of field, and speed, at the minimum of expense, with suitably equipped and fully reliable cameras. to produce such cameras we have taken the regular folding pocket kodak models and replaced the r. r. lens and ball bearing shutter equipments with the compound shutter with cable release and the cooke kodak anastigmat lens. this lens is an anastigmat of first quality, fully corrected and working at a maximum speed of _f._ . . for other details on any _six-three_ kodak, merely refer to the detailed specifications of the corresponding regular model. the price _six-three_ kodak no. a, - / × - / , cooke kodak anastigmat lens, _f._ . , and compound shutter, highest speed / second $ . _six-three_ kodak no. , - / × - / , cooke kodak anastigmat lens, _f._ . , and compound shutter, highest speed / second . _six-three_ kodak no. a, - / × - / , cooke kodak anastigmat lens, _f._ . , and compound shutter, highest speed / second . kodak autotime scale (style h for nos. a and , style hh for no. a) . for prices on carrying cases, films, etc., see price list of corresponding regular models. no. brownie [illustration] this, the first of the brownies, is really responsible for the entire line of these popular cameras. originally produced as a camera particularly for the children, the no. brownie made such good pictures in their hands as to excite the interest of grown-up people, and the success obtained by its use created a demand for similar inexpensive cameras for pictures of larger size. the no. brownie is exceedingly simple to operate and each camera has to undergo the regular kodak inspection, before being sent out. the scope of view is ordinarily located by v-shaped lines at the top, but if preferred the brownie finder (detachable) illustrated below, can be fitted at an extra charge of cents. has automatic shutter for time or snap-shot exposures, and will make good portraits when fitted with kodak portrait attachment. in detail for square pictures, - / × - / inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of camera, - / × - / × inches. weight, ounces. lens, meniscus, - / -inch focus. shutter, eastman rotary, with one stop. the price no. brownie camera, meniscus lens. eastman rotary shutter $ . no. brownie carrying case, holds camera and finder . n. c. film cartridge, exposures, - / × - / (no. ) . brownie finder, detachable . no. brownie developing and printing outfit, including paper for prints . kodak portrait attachment . [illustration] nos. and a brownies [illustration] simple, sturdy, reliable, these inexpensive little cameras have stood the test of years, and will be found in the hands of many thousands of people all over the world, who are making perfectly satisfactory pictures with them. they are especial favorites with the children on account of their great simplicity, but they are withal so practical that they have been readily taken up by grown-up people who wish to make pictures in the easiest possible manner and at the minimum of expense. each has two finders, automatic shutter, carefully tested lens, and imitation leather covering. they differ from each other only in the size of the pictures they make and in their lenses. in detail for rectangular pictures, no. , - / × - / inches; no. a, - / × - / inches. capacity, no. , exposures without reloading; no. a, exposures without reloading. size of camera, no. , - / × × - / inches; no. a, - / × - / × - / inches. weight, no. , ounces; no. a, ounces. lens, no. , meniscus; no. a, meniscus achromatic. shutter, eastman rotary, with three stops. two finders. the price no. no. a no. brownie camera, meniscus lens, eastman rotary shutter $ . no. a brownie camera, meniscus achromatic lens, eastman rotary shutter $ . brownie carrying case, with shoulder strap . . n. c. film cartridge, exposures (no. ) . n. c. film cartridge, exposures, (no. for no. . no. for no. a) . . kodak portrait attachment . . a b c developing and printing outfit (see page ) . . no. brownie [illustration] for those who want larger pictures, the no. brownie offers the same simplicity, the same reliability and the same proportionately low cost, in a camera for - / × - / pictures, as do the smaller brownies. this camera is capable of producing excellent pictures in the hands of the young or the old, and its negatives are of such quality as to yield very good enlargements by use of the inexpensive brownie enlarging camera. in fact, this is a feature of all brownies. by the addition of a kodak portrait attachment this instrument can be used with excellent success in home portraiture. the no. brownie is well made in every respect. it has durable imitation leather covering, metal parts are nickeled and it offers the daylight-all-the-way feature of the kodaks. in detail for rectangular pictures, - / × - / inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of camera, - / × - / × - / inches. weight, ounces. lens, meniscus achromatic, -inch focus. shutter, eastman rotary, with three stops. two tripod sockets. two finders. the price no. brownie camera, meniscus achromatic lens, eastman rotary shutter $ . no. brownie carrying case, with shoulder strap . n. c. film cartridge, exposures, - / × - / (no. ) . ditto, exposures . ditto, "double-two" cartridge, exposures . kodak portrait attachment . no. folding pocket brownie [illustration] the folding brownies are made upon the same idea of simplicity and low cost as the box forms. they are so closely related to the kodaks--offering, as they do, the daylight-all-the-way feature and made in the kodak factories, by kodak workmen--that they well deserve the name "little cousins of the kodaks." the no. is a very dainty little camera which will slip readily into an ordinary pocket, and make excellent pictures the all-by-daylight-way. it is fitted with our pocket automatic shutter working for time, bulb and snap-shot exposures, in which is mounted an excellent meniscus lens. fitted with kodak portrait attachment, this becomes a good camera for home portraiture, and the negatives which it makes will yield excellent × enlargements by use of the brownie enlarging camera. the camera is carefully finished throughout, it has imitation leather covering and nickeled fittings. in detail for rectangular pictures, - / × - / inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of camera, - / × - / × - / inches. weight, ounces. lens, meniscus, - / -inch focus. shutter, pocket automatic. (see page .) two tripod sockets. automatic focusing lock. reversible finder. the price no. folding pocket brownie, meniscus lens, pocket automatic shutter $ . no. folding pocket brownie carrying case . n. c. film cartridge, exposures, - / × - / (no. ) . kodak portrait attachment . no. a folding pocket brownie [illustration] the pleasing proportions of the pictures taken by this little brownie, combined with its simple operation and reliability, have made it one of the most popular cameras of the whole brownie line. for effective landscape composition and full and three-quarter length portraits, the shape of its pictures is ideal. and when fitted with kodak portrait attachment, it may be operated close up to the subject for bust portraits. identical in construction and general design with the no. , this model can as easily be carried in the pocket, works for time, bulb and instantaneous exposures, and is well finished throughout. attractively covered with best imitation leather, and metal parts are highly nickeled. in detail for rectangular pictures, - / × - / inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of camera, - / × × - / inches. weight, ounces. lens, meniscus achromatic, -inch focus. shutter, pocket automatic. two tripod sockets. automatic focusing lock. reversible finder. the price no. a folding pocket brownie, meniscus achromatic lens, pocket automatic shutter $ . no. a folding pocket brownie carrying case . n. c. film cartridge, exposures, - / × - / inches (no. ) . ditto, exposures . kodak portrait attachment . no. folding brownie [illustration] always an efficient camera, the capabilities of the no. folding brownie have been still further increased by the addition of the brownie ball bearing shutter. this shutter, made upon the same principle as the kodak ball bearing, with its star-shaped opening and smooth, accurate action, makes the camera especially effective for snap-shot work. no. folding brownies are well made, dependable cameras in every respect, they have the simplicity and daylight-all-the-way feature of their big cousins, the kodaks, and offer the choice of either double or single lens equipment. illustration shows camera with single lens. in detail for rectangular pictures, - / × - / inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of camera, - / × - / × - / inches. weight, ounces. lens, meniscus achromatic, -inch focus. shutter, brownie ball bearing. (see page .) automatic focusing lock. two tripod sockets. reversible finder. the price no. folding brownie camera, meniscus achromatic lens. brownie ball bearing shutter $ . ditto, with r. r. lens and brownie ball bearing shutter . no. folding brownie carrying case . n. c. film cartridge, exposures, - / × - / (no. ) . ditto, exposures . ditto, "double-two" cartridge, exposures . kodak portrait attachment . no. a folding brownie [illustration] like the no. , the efficiency of this model has been greatly augmented by addition of the brownie ball bearing shutter. it offers the choice of either single or double lens, and working with the usual brownie simplicity, it makes a highly effective camera, for the popular - / × - / pictures, at low cost. this camera will produce extremely good results in general amateur photography, under ordinarily favorable conditions, and when fitted with kodak portrait attachment, becomes a most dependable outfit for home portraiture. it is covered with durable imitation leather, has nickeled fittings and a neat, attractive appearance. illustration shows camera with double lens. in detail for rectangular pictures, - / × - / inches. capacity, exposures without reloading. size of camera, - / × - / × - / inches. weight, ounces. lens, meniscus achromatic, - / -inch focus. shutter, brownie ball bearing. (see page .) automatic focusing lock. two tripod sockets. reversible finder. the price no. a folding brownie camera, meniscus achromatic lens, brownie ball bearing shutter $ . ditto, with r. r. lens and brownie ball bearing shutter . no. a folding brownie carrying case . n. c. film cartridge, exposures (no. ) . ditto, exposures . ditto, "double-two" cartridge, exposures . kodak portrait attachment . brownie enlarging camera the average amateur usually thinks of enlarging as an intricate, expensive process, requiring considerable skill and experience. but such is not the fact. even a youngster can make first-rate enlargements with a brownie enlarging camera. it's just as easy as printing on velox paper. in fact the two processes are very much the same, excepting that in printing, the negative and paper are in close contact, while in enlarging, the paper is at some distance from the negative, with a lens in between. [illustration] as shown in the illustration, the brownie enlarging camera is simplicity itself. it's just a light-tight cone with an attachment at the small end to hold the negative, and another at the large end for the paper. provision is made inside for holding the lens. to make an enlargement, one merely places the negative and paper in place, holds the negative end up to the light for a specified time and then develops the paper as usual. one of these inexpensive outfits will enable you to make enlargements at any time from your favorite negatives. the cameras are collapsible, so that they fold flat and may be conveniently carried in a suit case. the price no. . brownie enlarging camera, for × enlargements from - / × - / negatives $ . no. . ditto, for - / × - / enlargements from - / × - / negatives . no. . ditto, for × enlargements from × negatives (will also take - / × - / negatives) . v. p. kodak enlarging camera this is made upon exactly the same principle as the brownie enlarging camera, excepting that being small in itself, it is not made collapsible. it offers the simplest means for making - / × - / enlargements from - / × - / negatives. the price vest pocket kodak enlarging camera $ . brownie enlarging camera illuminator [illustration] in enlarging with the brownie or vest pocket kodak enlarging camera, the exposure may be made by daylight, but to accommodate those who wish to do their enlarging at night or who prefer to use artificial light at all times we have devised the brownie enlarging camera illuminator, which assures the user a uniformly strong, even light, day or night. it is simply constructed, and moderate in price. the illuminator is collapsible, but when set up, has the form of a half-round, light-proof box with socket through which is inserted an electric light bulb. the inner walls of this box are white and act as a reflector when the light is turned on. at the end is a ground glass, which diffuses the light, so that by placing negative end of the enlarging camera in contact with this glass and turning on the electricity, an excellent steady printing light is obtained. the glass is provided with a hinged protector of ruby cloth, which may be closed as soon as the exposure is completed, and the illuminator then becomes a perfect lamp for the developing and subsequent operations with the enlargement. complete instructions for use are included with each outfit, and anyone who has electric light in the house will find it invaluable for enlarging purposes. brownie enlarging camera illuminator, $ . . the kodiopticon [illustration] the kodiopticon opens a new use--a new pleasure in his negatives, for the amateur photographer. for it enables anyone who has electricity in his house, to show sharp, well-illuminated lantern slide projections without difficulty and at small expense. the kodiopticon is substantially made, and operated with an ordinary mazda electric lamp, at a distance of feet from the sheet, will project images of about inches. a larger image may be secured by setting the kodiopticon a greater distance away, but the greater the distance the less the illumination. can also be furnished with an electric arc lamp, when it can be used at feet, with the maximum illumination, projecting an image of about inches. the kodiopticon has a water jacket for protection of the slides from heat, and the price includes a strong wooden case, which, by reversing the top, serves as a permanent stand for the outfit. the price kodiopticon, complete with mazda lamp $ . ditto, with hand-feed arc lamp and ampere rheostat, accommodating volts . ditto, accommodating volts . watt mazda (tungsten) lamp, concentrated filament . eastman portable background carrier . eastman portable background, plain, × feet . lantern slide plates, - / × , per dozen . lantern slide cover glass, per dozen . lantern slide binders, per package strips . velox lantern slide films, - / × - / , per dozen . velox lantern slide frames, per dozen . velox lantern slide mats, - / × - / , per dozen . nepera solution, for developing velox l. s. films, -ounce bottle . lantern slide film varnish, -ounce bottle . velox transparent water color stamps [illustration] an interesting and highly enjoyable diversion for the amateur photographer is the coloring of prints. and those who use the kodiopticon will find that many slides are greatly improved by the addition of color. while actual color photography is by no means practical for general amateur use, anyone can make beautifully colored prints by the use of velox transparent water color stamps. no special artistic skill, no knowledge of painting whatever is necessary. just a brush or two and the book of stamps, which includes simple directions for coloring both prints and lantern slides. each book includes twelve sheets of colors and each sheet is divided by perforations into twenty-two stamps. to use any color merely tear off a stamp, place in a small saucer or palette supplied with the outfit, and cover with about a teaspoonful of water. the velox transparent water color stamp outfit offers the greatest convenience in coloring prints, as it includes the book of stamps, three brushes and a white enameled mixing palette, put up in a neat cardboard case. velox transparent water color stamps, complete booklet, colors $ . separate color leaves, two sheets . set of special brushes, per set . mixing palette . velox transparent water color stamp outfit, including book, three brushes and palette . kodak film tank [illustration] development, that former bugbear of the amateur photographer and especially of the beginner, is made a simple proposition by the kodak film tank--fully as simple as any part of the photographic process. the kodak film tank automatically develops every roll of film put into it, just as well as that roll of film could be developed by the most experienced photographer. if directions are followed, if the chemicals are mixed and the temperature regulated according to instructions, a boy or girl can get just as good results from the kodak film tank as an expert by any method. in other words, every roll of film put into the film tank, where the simple directions are implicitly followed, will come out developed as well, or better, than that roll of film could be developed in the dark room by the most experienced photographer. and it is very simple, it eliminates the dark room entirely, developing the film in broad daylight, and is so compact as to be easily carried and used anywhere. the kodak film tank consists of a winding box, a light-proof apron, and a heavily nickeled brass solution cup with cover. in the brownie film tank, however, no cover is necessary as the film roll itself is turned. all articles can be packed in the box, making the entire outfit self-contained. the film to be developed is placed upon a reel in the winding box, the cover is placed on the box and the film is wound around an axis in combination with the apron, in such fashion that, when completely wound, the apron protects the film effectually from light, and may be removed from the winding box safely at any time. it is then lowered into the cup of developer, the cover attached and the film left to develop for twenty minutes. after development the film is removed for fixing. every step is performed in daylight and the exact time necessary for development, in combination with the chemical formula, has been scientifically worked out, so that all differences of exposure within reasonable bounds are taken care of. especial attention is called to the new - / -inch size, for the development of a or a films. those who wish to develop more than one roll at a time can do so without purchasing extra tanks complete, by securing duplicating outfits as listed below. the price brownie kodak film tank, for use with no. , no. and no. folding pocket brownie cartridges, complete $ . vest pocket kodak film tank, for vest pocket cartridges, complete . - / -inch kodak film tank, for use with all kodak or brownie cartridges having a film width of - / inches or less, complete . - / -inch kodak film tank, for use with all kodak and brownie cartridges having a film width of - / inches or less, complete . -inch kodak film tank, for use with all kodak and brownie cartridges having a film width of inches or less, complete . -inch kodak film tank, for use with no. cartridge kodak or shorter film cartridges, complete . duplicating outfit, consisting of one solution cup, one transferring reel, and one apron, for brownie kodak film tank . ditto, for vest pocket film tank . ditto, for - / -inch kodak film tank . ditto, for - / -inch kodak film tank . ditto, for -inch kodak film tank . ditto, for -inch kodak film tank . kodak tank developer powders for brownie kodak film tank, per package, / dozen . ditto, for vest pocket tank . ditto, for - / -inch tank, per package, / dozen . ditto, for - / -inch tank, per package, / dozen . ditto, for -inch tank, per package, / dozen . ditto, for -inch tank, per package, / dozen . kodak acid fixing powder, per / -pound package . ditto, per / -pound package . ditto, per -pound package . no. brownie developing box [illustration] offering the same assurance of perfectly developed film as the kodak film tank, the brownie developing box is a modified form of the same, so simple to use that any boy or girl can readily understand and operate it. it consists of a metal box with cover, just long enough to accommodate a roll of no. or no. brownie film in one loop. to develop, the roll of film is inserted in the spool carrier, and by means of a cord and winding shaft the film is unrolled and carried around a roller bearing, thus exposing the film to the action of the developer. before unrolling the film the developer is poured in the box and the cover put in place; all these operations being performed in daylight. the film is then unrolled by turning the crank, when the box is rocked on its standard for six minutes. the developer is then poured off and box filled with water to wash out developer, after which film is removed and fixed in daylight. this is an excellent means, for those who have no. or no. brownie cameras, of developing their films without the need of skill or experience. the price no. brownie developing box $ . brownie developing box powders, per package of . kodak acid fixing powders, / -pound package . ditto, / -pound package . eastman plate tank [illustration] what the film tank has done for films, the plate tank does for plates. the idea of the two tanks is based upon the same time and temperature system of development, with, of course, such differences in actual construction of the tanks as are required by the physical differences between films and plates. and as plates must be unloaded in a dark room, the plate tank cannot offer the advantage of daylight quite all the way, but it takes only a few moments in the dark room to load this tank, after which it may be brought out into any light for development. the device consists of a metal solution cup with cover, a cage for holding or less plates, and a loading fixture for loading the plates in the cage. the exposed plates are loaded into the cage and placed in the tank, which has been filled with developer, in the dark room and the tank cover fastened in place. on the front of the tank is a dial for registering time. development is allowed to continue for fifteen minutes, the tank being reversed several times. after development the developer is washed out of the plates, and the fixing bath poured into the tank, after which the plates are ready for washing in the usual manner. the price eastman plate tank, for × , - / × - / , and smaller plates, includes solution cup, plate cage, loading fixture and adjustable kit $ . ditto, × , without kit . adjustable kit, for × or - / × - / tank, to take smaller plates . separate kits, for × tank, to take - / × - / , - / × - / or - / × - / plates, each . metal insert, for × tank, to take × plates . eastman plate tank developer powders, for × tank, per package, / dozen . ditto, for × tank, per package, / dozen . kodak acid fixing powder, per pound package . ditto, per / -pound package . developing and printing outfits [illustration] the eastman a outfit contains every requisite for finishing twenty-four - / × - / or smaller pictures, and by combining a variety of different articles and making up the outfits in large quantities, we furnish them at a much lower price than if the articles were purchased separately. one kodak candle lamp $ . one printing frame . one glass for frame . one -ounce graduate . one stirring rod . four developing trays . five tubes eastman special developer . one half pound kodak acid fixing powder . one package potassium bromide . two dozen - / × - / velox paper . three eastman metol quinol powders, for developing velox . instruction book . ----- $ . eastman a outfit, complete, neatly packed, $ . . eastman a b c outfit, similar to above but providing for × or smaller pictures $ . brownie developing and printing outfit, complete, for developing and printing pictures - / × - / . price, complete . _note_--these outfits cannot be shipped by mail. the kodak box no. [illustration] the kodak box no. contains everything for picture making by the daylight method. no dark room is necessary, and even the beginner can get good results by following the simple, explicit directions contained in the instruction book. this outfit is simple enough for boys and girls, while at the same time it will make pictures which will please the grown-up people. the price one no. brownie camera, - / × - / $ . one no. brownie developing box . one roll no. brownie film, - / × - / . two brownie developing box powders . one / -pound package kodak acid fixing powder . one -ounce graduate . one stirring rod . one no. brownie printing frame . one package ( dozen) - / × - / brownie velox . two eastman metol quinol developer powders . three paper developing trays . one dozen - / × - / mounts . one dozen - / × - / kodak dry mounting tissue . one instruction book . ----- $ . price, complete, neatly packed, $ . . kodak portrait attachment there is no greater pleasure in photography than home portraiture, and this little attachment, fitted to a kodak or brownie camera, will enable one to work up close to the subject and thereby secure bust portraits of excellent quality limited in size, with the focusing kodaks, only by the dimensions of the film. the attachments are simply extra lenses, which slip on in front of the regular lens, and they in no way affect the operation of the instrument, excepting to make the lens cut sharp at short distances. [illustration] these attachments are not only serviceable for portraiture but also for photographing any small object, such as flowers, fruits, still life composition, at close range. please order by number, or if required for older models or cameras with special equipments specify shutter and size of camera. [illustration: made with kodak and kodak portrait attachment] the price no. . for no. brownie, no. and no. a f. p. brownie, vest pocket and no. and no. a f. p. k. $ . no. . for no. a brownie . no. . for no. a kodak junior, both single and double lens; no. a f. p. k., r. r. type; no. f. p. k., no. folding brownie . no. . for no. and no. bull's-eye, no. brownie . no. . for nos. a, and a folding kodaks and no. a folding brownie . no. . for no. special and _six-three_ and a special and _six-three_ kodaks . no. . for no. a special and _six-three_ kodaks . no. . for no. kodak junior, both single and double lens, and vest pocket kodak special . no. . for no. f. p. k. with kodak automatic shutter . no. . for no. brownie . kodak color screens these screens are of great value in outdoor photography, and for all subjects embracing colors which act weakly on the sensitive film, as they hold back the strong blue and violet rays, affording the weaker colors time to record. the kodak color screens are mounted in the same manner as the kodak portrait attachment. the price no. . for vest pocket, nos. and a folding pocket kodaks, nos. and a folding pocket brownies $ . no. . for no. a brownie . no. . for no. a kodak junior, both single and double lens; nos. and folding pocket kodaks; no. a f. p. kodak, r. r. type; and no. folding brownie . no. . for nos. and bull's-eye and no. brownie . no. . for nos. a, and a kodaks. no. a folding brownie . no. . for nos. a special and _six-three_ kodaks and special and _six-three_ kodaks . no. . for no. a special and _six-three_ kodaks . no. . for no. kodak junior, both single and double lens, and vest pocket kodak special . no. . for no. f. p. k. with kodak automatic shutter . kodak wide angle lenses these lenses have a speed of _f._ and are interchangeable with the lenses furnished with the nos. a and folding pocket kodaks, and the no. a folding kodak. with each one we furnish a leather case and a graduated focusing scale for the camera bed. in ordering a kodak wide angle lens, give size (no.) of kodak and be sure to specify the shutter that the lens is to be used with. the price no. . ( × ) kodak wide angle lens, equivalent focus, / inches $ . (also adapted to a kodak.) no. . ( × ) kodak wide angle lens, equivalent focus, / inches . (also adapted to a kodak.) kodak tripods metal tripods [illustration] these tripods have the qualities that make for service as well as good appearance. light and very compact, they are yet rigid when extended because of their special construction. the principle is that of a telescope, each section sliding into the one above it, till the whole length is reduced to a single section and the sections are securely fastened to one another. nos. , , and fold up flat, the first three being supplied in neat cases. nos. and have the additional advantage of being fitted with a patent top, which provides a broad firm table for supporting the camera, but folds to the side when tripod is not in use. upper or outer sections are all black enameled, lower section brass. no. . sections, length closed - / inches $ . no. . sections, length closed - / inches . no. . sections, length closed - / inches . no. . sections, length closed - / inches . no. . sections, length closed - / inches . no. . sections, length closed inches . no. . sections, length closed inches . adjustable heads (extra) fitted with ball and socket joint, suitable for any of above tripods. no. $ . no. . no. . the eastman [illustration] three sections. no. , maple, for cameras up to - / × - / . price, $ . . the bull's-eye [illustration] two sections. aluminum revolving head. made of maple, with brass fittings. for × cameras, or smaller. length, extended, - / inches; folded inches. the only two-section tripod that will go in a suitcase. price, $ . . the standard [illustration] the feature of this tripod is the automatic locking of the sections when they are extended. light, compact and rigid. fixed, non-detachable head. length, folded. inches; extended, - / inches. weight, ounces. cherry finish, brass trimmings. price, $ . . the flexo [illustration] two sections. fixed, non-detachable head. only clear, straight-grained wood is used in its construction. price, $ . . folding pocket kodak tripod adapter no. . [illustration] a simple and effective device for holding either the no. or no. a folding pocket kodak on a tripod in either horizontal or vertical position. kodak may be reversed without removing from the adapter. f. p. k. tripod adapter no. $ . velox paper velox is the very best paper for amateur use for it is simple to use, thoroughly dependable and is made in a variety of grades and surfaces to fit all sorts of amateur negatives. it prints in any light, requires no dark room and permits the amateur to utilize his evening hours in print making. its simplicity of manipulation and extreme gradation make it suitable for photographic work of every kind. velox is divided broadly into two kinds of paper called "regular" and "special" (hard and soft) each division containing a variety of surfaces. "regular" papers develop quickly and are best suited for negatives lacking contrast. "special" papers develop slowly, and give soft effects from hard negatives. use "special" velox for negatives producing good results on "printing out" paper (such as solio), and "regular" only with very flat negatives (negatives lacking contrast). velox surfaces: in the "regular" class are carbon (matte surface), glossy, glossy double weight, velvet, and velvet double weight. "regular" velvet velox is semi-gloss and gives prints of exceptional beauty. this paper will give satisfactory results from very flat negatives. in the "special" class, the surfaces are carbon (matte surface), portrait (smooth matte), portrait double weight, rough, glossy, glossy double weight, velvet, and velvet double weight. "special" velvet velox has a greater range than any of the other "special" papers. royal velox is coated on a soft, mellow-tinted stock, which when re-developed affords all the soft delicacy of a rare old etching. it is made in two grades, "regular" and "special" and one surface, just rough enough to produce the desired effect. the price --------------------------------------------------------------- | single weight | double weight size |---------------------|--------------------- |dozen| / gross|gross|dozen| / gross|gross -------------------|-----|---------|-----|-----|---------|----- - / × - / |$ . | $ . |$ . |$ . | $ . |$ . | | | | | | - / × - / | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | - / × - / | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | - / × - / | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | - / × - / | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | - / × - / | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | × | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | * - / × (stereo)| . | . | . | | | | | | | | | ** - / × - / | . | . | . | | | | | | | | | - / × | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | - / × - / | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | × | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | - / × | . | . | . | . | . | . | | | | | | velox post-cards, - / × - / , | | | furnished in regular velvet, special | | | velvet, special portrait, regular glossy,| | | special glossy and regular royal and | | | special royal | . | . | . | | | ditto, double post-cards, - / × | | | inches | . | . | . | | | brownie post-cards, - / × - / , regular | | | and special velvet | . | . | . --------------------------------------------------------------- * glossy only ** for use in self-transposing stereo printing frame. brownie velox (one grade only) - / × - / , per package dozen sheets $ . - / × - / , per package dozen sheets . velox sundries n. a. (non-abrasion) velox liquid developer, -ounce bottle (makes ounces for special, ounces for regular) $ . ditto, -ounce bottle . nepera solution, per -ounce bottle . ditto, per -ounce bottle . nepera capsules (for converting nepera solution to a film or plate developer), per package dozen . velox re-developer for sepia tones, per -ounce bottle . ditto, ounces (sufficient for × prints) . velox re-developer tubes, per package tubes . velox liquid hardener, per -ounce bottle . ditto, -ounce bottle . kodak n. a. m. q. developer, per package tubes . kodak acid fixing powder for fixing velox prints, per pound . ditto, / pound . ditto, / pound . kodak velvet green effects heretofore to be had only by the laborious carbon process can now be secured by any amateur photographer with this new paper. for landscapes, for marines, and in fact, for the majority of outdoor amateur negatives, the rich green of prints on kodak velvet green produces most beautiful harmonious effects, with an indescribable "atmosphere" of nature itself. and to use this paper the amateur has to learn no new processes nor possess extraordinary skill. anyone who can print on velox paper can print just as successfully on kodak velvet green, as the two processes after exposure are identical, and the developing solution is only slightly changed. the surface--a smooth semi-matte--brings out detail fully, and the paper is supplied in both single and double weights. kodak velvet green post-cards are very appropriate for use at vacation time. prices same as for velox. (see page .) angelo platinum paper angelo platinum paper is exceedingly simple to handle and yields prints that are marvelous in gradation and delicacy. made in sepia only. angelo sepia, unlike most sepia platinum papers, develops in a cold solution. size price per doz. - / × - / $ . - / × - / . × . - / × - / . - / × - / . × . angelo solution angelo sepia solution ( -ounce bottle) $ . angelo sepia salts ( -ounce package) . aristo gold post cards rich sepia and purple tones. print, wash and fix. aristo gold post-cards, per dozen $ . solio paper a rapid, glossy printing-out paper. size per package doz. - / × - / $ . - / × - / . - / × - / . - / × - / . - / × - / . - / × - / . × . - / × (stereo) . - / × (no. panoram kodak) . per doz. - / × - / $ . × . - / × (no. panoram kodak) . post-cards . double solio post-cards . brownie post-cards, - / × - / . solio combined toning and fixing solution, per -ounce bottle, cents. ditto, -ounce bottle, cents; post-paid, cents. solio toning and fixing powders, per box of tubes, cents. eastman's "ferro-prussiate" postals a "blue print" that retains delicacy and detail. doz. post-cards (in sealed tubes) $ . eastman's permanent bromide papers for enlargements. grades: velvet, royal, standard, platino, enameled and matte-enamel. size per. doz. × $ . × . - / × - / . × . × . × . × . × . × . other sizes in proportion "how to make good pictures." every side of amateur photography is treated in this little book. the lens, the camera, composition, exposure, developing and printing are all handled in a most helpful and simple manner. flash light and high speed work are described in detail. the text is made plainer by numerous illustrations and even a child can understand clearly what is meant, for technical terms are avoided or made perfectly plain. the price "how to make good pictures," paper cover $ . ditto, library edition, cloth bound . the kodak album made on a new principle, which does away with mounting prints by paste or otherwise. they are merely slipped into pocket strips at top and bottom, and will not come out unless removed by hand. handsome grain leather cover and black leaves with linen finish. a, - / × - / , leaves, on $ . b, - / × - / , leaves, on . c, - / × - / , leaves, on . d, - / × - / , leaves, on . e, - / × - / , leaves, on . f, × , leaves, on . g, - / × - / , leaves, on . h, × , leaves, on . the interchange album an unusually long-lived album on the loose leaf principle. has special embossed leather cover with grain leather corners and back. furnished with linen finish leaves--black only. pkg. ex. le'v's a, × $ . $ . b, × . . c, × . . d, × . . the agrippa album a new, unusually flexible loose leaf album with beautiful grain leather covering and linen finish black leaves. pkg. ex. le'v's a, × $ . $ . b, × . . c, × . . d, × . . the arena album flexible, finest quality black grain leather cover. j, black leaves, or s, sepia leaves, - / × $ . k, black leaves, or t, sepia leaves, × . l, black leaves, or u, sepia leaves, × . m, black leaves, or w, sepia leaves, × . the tiber album a very flexible loose leaf album with imitation leather covering and black leaves. pkg. ex. le'v's a, × $ . $ . b, × . . c, × . . d, × . . the forum album flexible, black imitation leather embossed cover. a, black leaves, or n, sepia leaves, - / × $ . b, black leaves, or o, sepia leaves, × . c, black leaves, or p, sepia leaves, × . d, black leaves, or r, sepia leaves, × . e, black leaves, - / × . f, black leaves, × . g, black leaves, × . h, black leaves, × . artist's album loose leaf system, silk lacing. no. , black leaves; no. , white leaves; no. , sepia leaves, - / × $ . extra leaves, package of . no. , black leaves; no. , white leaves; no. , sepia leaves, × . extra leaves, package of . snap-shot album substantial card covering, soft black leaves. no. pages, - / × $ . no. pages, × . souvenir post-card album flexible, black leather embossed cloth cover. x, black leaves, × , for cards $ . x, r, black leaves, × , for cards . x, t, {flexible, black grain leather cover} . { leaves, × , for cards } woodmat a new medium for mounting prints on the "slip in" principle, giving the effect of a rich brown wood frame. for print outside each no. - / × - / - / × - / $ . no. a - / × - / - / × - / . no. - / × - / - / × - / . no. a - / × - / - / × - / . no. × - / × - / . eastman film negative albums for negatives, - / × - / , or smaller $ . for negatives, - / × - / or smaller . for negatives, - / × - / , or × . for negatives, - / × - / , or smaller . for negatives, × , or smaller . kodak mounts view carbon black, and scotch grey, felt surface, bevelled edges, no embossed design for prints size outside per per doz. - / × - / - / × $ . $ . - / × - / × . . - / × - / - / × . . - / × - / × . . - / × - / × . . - / × - / - / × - / . . × - / × - / . . - / × × - / . . - / × - / - / × - / . . × × . . - / × - / × - / . . lagoon jet black, ash grey and white for prints size outside per per doz. - / × - / - / × - / $ . $ . - / × - / × . . - / × - / - / × . . - / × - / × . . - / × - / × . . - / × - / - / × - / . . × - / × - / . . - / × - / - / × - / . . × × . . riverview a slip-in mount, no paste needed. grey and brown--oval and square for prints size outside per per doz. - / × - / × $ . $ . - / × - / - / × - / . . - / × - / × . . - / × - / × . . - / × - / × . . × - / × - / . . glencairn slip-in style, solid back, grey and buff, square only for prints size outside per per doz. - / × - / × $ . $ . - / × - / - / × . . - / × - / × . . - / × - / - / × - / . . × - / × - / . . rivera jet black, white and artists brown, wide border, bevelled edges for prints size outside per per doz. - / × - / - / × - / $ . $ . - / × - / × - / . . - / × - / - / × - / . . - / × - / - / × - / . . - / × - / - / × . . × - / × - / . . - / × - / - / × - / . . × - / × - / . . ridgeway in duplex form, for oval or square prints, brown and grey. for prints size outside per per doz. - / × - / × $ . $ . - / × - / - / × . . - / × - / × . . - / × - / - / × - / . . × - / × - / . . stereo mounts size of mount, - / × ; color, english grey; per , $ . ; per , $ . kodak dry mounting tissue mounts prints even on thin mounts without curl. the simplest method of mounting, no apparatus being required--just fix the tissue on print, lay on mount and press with a warm flat iron; no sticky fingers, no muss of any kind. the price size, - / × - / , dozen $ . size, - / × - / , dozen . size, - / × - / , dozen . size, × , dozen . size, - / × - / , dozen . size, × , dozen . glass dry plates seed and royal special extra rapid. size per doz. - / × - / $ . - / × - / . - / × - / . royal lantern slide plates, - / × - / . ditto, - / × . × . - / × - / . × . cover glass, - / × - / . ditto, - / × . lantern slide binders, per package, strips . printing frames eastman - / × - / , opens two-thirds $ . eastman - / × - / , opens two-thirds . eastman - / × - / , for films, opens two-thirds . ditto, for plates . eastman × , opens two-thirds . eastman × , opens two-thirds . eastman - / × , for no. panoram kodak, opens in three sections . eastman - / × , for no. panoram kodak, opens in two sections . brownie printing frame, no. , for - / × - / developing paper only . brownie printing frame, no. , for - / × - / developing paper only . developing trays "bull's-eye" composition, × $ . "bull's-eye" composition, × . "bull's-eye" composition. × - / . "bull's-eye" composition, - / × . maple leaf enameled, × . maple leaf enameled, × . maple leaf enameled, × . flash-light material the simplest and safest method of making flash-light pictures is by means of the eastman flash sheets and kodak flash sheet holder. the sheets burn slowly, giving a broad, soft light, and not so startling the subject as to give a staring effect to the eyes. [illustration] the holder is a genuine innovation. a saw tooth holds the sheet in proper position and it is lighted from the back through an aperture provided in the centre for the purpose. in this manner the holder is always between the operator and the flash sheet, and it may be held in the hand or supported on a tripod, a socket being provided for the latter purpose. no. flash sheets, per package of / dozen sheets, × $ . no. flash sheets, per package of / dozen sheets, × . no. flash sheets, per package of / dozen sheets, × . kodak flash sheet holder . kodak magnesium ribbon holder this extremely handy little apparatus provides a most convenient method of burning magnesium ribbon for photographic purposes. it comprises at once a compact magazine for storing the ribbon, a convenient holder for burning it, and a ready means of measuring definite lengths. [illustration] for printing on velox and other gas light papers, lantern slides, etc., the ribbon is pushed forward by a movement of the thumb upon the edge of the revolving disc until the desired length of ribbon projects from holder. kodak magnesium ribbon holder $ . alcohol lamp for use with above . _flashlight material cannot be sent by mail._ kodak trimming boards made of hard wood, with natural finish, have fine quality steel blades and are fitted with rule. [illustration] no. , capacity, × inches $ . no. , capacity, × inches . transparent trimming gauge (extra) . kodak candle lamp this clever little lamp is collapsible and can be packed into very small space when not in use. it is made of special tested ruby fabric, bound in metal frames and gives a strong, safe light for the dark room. [illustration] kodak candle lamp $ . extra candles for same, per dozen . kodak dark room lamp the kodak dark room lamp is oil burning and is fitted with both orange and ruby glass. it has an unusually broad wick regulated from the outside and gives a soft, steady light for the dark room. [illustration] no. kodak dark room lamp $ . velox lantern slide film for use with the kodiopticon or any other lantern slide projector that has a water cell cooling device. with these films you can make lantern slides by contact as easily as you can make velox prints, the exposure, development and printing being the same. for making slides by projection they are as convenient as any plate. after the slide is made, it is masked with velox lantern slide mats and mounted in the velox lantern slide frame which has standard opening, and eliminates the binding of the edges. these slides are absolutely unbreakable. prices velox lantern slide films. - / × - / , per dozen $ . velox lantern slide frames, per dozen . velox lantern slide mats, - / × - / , per dozen . nepera solution, for developing velox lantern slide films, -ounce bottle . lantern slide film varnish, -ounce bottle . tested chemicals [illustration] certainty in making negatives and prints depends as much on the quality of your chemicals as on any other one thing. all kodak chemicals are tested both photographically and for purity before the c. k. c. tested seal is allowed to go upon them. that seal is your protection. kodak chemical outfit $ . eastman special developer powders, per dozen . ditto, per / dozen . eastman special developer powders, per pkg. , in sealed glass tubes . eastman hydrochinon developer powders, per dozen . ditto, per / dozen . eastman's pyro developer powders, per dozen . ditto, per / dozen . ditto, per package powders, in sealed glass tubes . elon, per -ounce . roylon, per -ounce bottle . hydrochinon, per -ounce bottle . eastman's permanent crystal pyro, per -ounce bottle . velox re-developer tubes, package of tubes . hypo sulphite of soda, granular, per pound . alum, powdered, per pound . kodak acid fixing powder, per pound package . ditto, per / -pound package . ditto, per / -pound package . eastman intensifier, glass tube, per tube . eastman reducer, per box of tubes . potassium bromide, per ounce . kodak tested carbonate of soda (desiccated), per -pound bottle . kodak tested sulphite of soda (desiccated), per -pound bottle . for velox preparations see page . for solio preparations, see page . for tank developer chemicals, see page . kodak sundries eastman photo paste, -ounce tube $ . ditto, -ounce tube . eastman thermometer . thermometer stirring rod . hard rubber stirring rod . eastman film clips, - / -inch, per pair (nickeled) . ditto, -inch . kodak film clips, -inch (wood), per pair . focusing cloth, per yard . moulded graduate, -ounce . ditto, -ounce . ditto, -ounce . ferrotype plate, × , light . ditto, × , heavy . ditto, × , heavy . kodak print roller, × -inch rubber roller, nickeled frame . flexo print roller, -inch rubber roller, black enameled frame . eastman's special squeegee, -inch . ditto, -inch . developing and printing on velox paper ======================================================================== |developing and |developing| printing only |printing per roll| only | each exposure size |-----------------|----------|----------------- |mounted|unmounted| per roll |mounted|unmounted ------------------------------------------------------------------------ - / × ex. only| $ . | $ . | $ . | $ . |$ . - / - / × - / ex. | . | . | . | . | . - / - / × - / ex. | . | . | . | | - / × - / ex. | . | . | . | | - / × - / ex. only| . | . | . | . | . - / - / × - / ex. | . | . | . | . | . - / × - / ex. | . | . | . | | - / × - / ex. | . | . | . | . | . - / × - / ex. | . | . | . | . | . - / × - / ex. | . | . | . | . | . - / × - / ex. | . | . | . | | - / × - / ex. | . | . | . | . | . - / × - / ex. | . | . | . | | × ex. | . | . | . | . | . × ex. | . | . | . | | - / × - / ex. only| . | . | . |. - / | . × ex. only| . | . | . |. - / | . - / × ex. only| . | . | . | . | . - / × ex. only| . | . | . | . | . ======================================================================== unmounted prints are furnished unless otherwise specified in order. "double weight" prints will be billed at mounted rates. no orders executed for less than $ . . prints mounted with "kodak dry mounting tissue," no curling. enlargements each per doz. - / × - / , on card $ . $ . - / × - / , on card . . × , on card . lantern slides . . × , on card . × , on card . × , on card . larger sizes in proportion. - / × - / enlargements, from - / × - / negatives, each, unmounted $ . ; mounted $ . . no extra charge for sepia tones. small extra charge for double or triple mounting. where the kind of paper is not specified, we use our own judgment. specimen prints a specimen photograph made with any kodak (not larger than × ) will be sent to any address in canada upon receipt of four cents in stamps; no. a folding kodak, eight cents; no. panoram kodak, twenty cents. tourists travelers can always obtain fresh supplies of films at any of the following addresses: london kodak, limited, kingsway, w.c.; cheapside, e.c.; oxford street, w.; - regent street. w.; strand, w.c.; brompton road, s. w.; and gracechurch street, e.c. liverpool kodak, limited, bold street birmingham kodak, limited, corporation street newcastle kodak, limited, grainger street glasgow kodak, limited, - buchanan street dublin kodak, limited, grafton street paris kodak société anonyme française, avenue de l'opéra ; place vendôme boulevard des italiens lyons kodak société anonyme française, rue de la republic lausanne kodak société anonyme, avenue du tribunal federal nice kodak société anonyme française, avenue de la gare madrid kodak sociedad anonima; puerta del sol berlin kodak gesellschaft, m.b.h., leipzigerstrasse - ; unter den linden tauentzienstrasse brussels kodak, limited, rue de l'ecuyer copenhagen kodak aktieselskab, ostergade vienna kodak gesellschaft, m.b.h. kärntnerstrasse st. petersburg kodak, limited, bolschaia konnuschenaia moscow kodak, limited, petrovka - milan kodak società anonima; corso vittorio emanule rome kodak società anonima; corso umberto , naples kodak società anonima, via roma venice kodak società anonima; piazza s. marco budapest kodak társaság k. f. vaci-utca alexandria kodak (egypt) societé anonyme, rue chérif pacha cairo kodak (egypt) s. a. opera square cape town kodak (south africa), limited, - st. george's street melbourne kodak (australasia), limited, collins street sydney kodak (australasia), limited, george street brisbane kodak (australasia), limited, queen street adelaide kodak (australasia), limited, rundle street wellington kodak (australasia), limited, mercer street bombay kodak, limited, cook's building, hornby road terms the prices in this catalogue are strictly net, except to regular dealers who carry our goods in stock. for the convenience of our customers we recommend that they make their purchases from a dealer in photographic goods, as by so doing they can save both time and transportation charges. canadian kodak co., limited, toronto, canada. available by internet archive (https://archive.org) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see https://archive.org/details/practicalcinemat talbrich transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). page illustration fig contains an alphabetical list of components with "f" designating "clock" and small "f" designating "film". this latter designation for "film" has been indicated in the text by "=f=". practical cinematography and its applications * * * * * _by the same author._ price _s._ net each. moving pictures: how they are made and worked. lightships and lighthouses. the steamship conquest of the world. the railway conquest of the world. london: william heinemann. * * * * * [illustration: _by permission of the motograph co._ how to take moving-pictures of wild animals in safety. messrs. newman built a huge dummy cow fifteen feet in height of papier-mâché. the operator stands inside with his camera and the pictures are taken through a small hinged door. with this "property" dangerous animals can be approached closely.] practical cinematography and its applications by frederick a. talbot author of "moving pictures" etc. [illustration] london mcmxiii william heinemann copyright. preface this volume has been written with the express purpose of assisting the amateur--the term is used in its broadest sense as a distinction from the salaried, attached professional worker--who is attracted towards cinematography. it is not a technical treatise, but is written in such a manner as to enable the tyro to grasp the fundamental principles of the art, and the apparatus employed in its many varied applications. while it is assumed that the reader has practised ordinary snap-shot and still-life work, and thus is familiar with the elements of photography, yet the subject is set forth in such a manner as to enable one who never has attempted photography to take moving-pictures. at the same time it is hoped that the volume may prove of use to the expert hand, by introducing him to what may be described as the higher branches of the craft. the suggestions and descriptions concerning these applications may prove of value to any who may be tempted to labour in one or other of the various fields mentioned. in the preparation of this volume i have received valuable assistance from several friends who have been associated intimately with the cinematographic art from its earliest days:--j. bamberger, esq., of the motograph company, limited, james williamson, esq., of the williamson kinematograph company, limited, kodak limited, messrs. jury, limited, and monsieur lucien bull, the assistant-director of the marey institute, to whom i am especially indebted for facilities to visit that unique institution, and the investigation at first hand of its varied work, the loan of the photographs of the many experiments which have been, and still are being, conducted at the french "cradle of cinematography," and considerable assistance in the preparation of the text. frederick a. talbot. contents chap. page i. attractions and opportunities of the art ii. the principles of cinematography iii. the moving-picture camera and its mechanism iv. the camera and how to use it v. hand camera cinematography vi. developing the film vii. printing the positive viii. aberrations of animated photography ix. slowing-down rapid movements x. speeding-up slow movements xi. continuous cinematographic records xii. radio-cinematography: how the x-rays are used in conjunction with the moving-picture camera xiii. combining the microscope and the ultra-microscope with the moving-picture camera xiv. micro-motion study: how increased workshop efficiency is obtainable with moving-pictures xv. the motion picture as an aid to scientific investigation xvi. the military value of the cinematograph xvii. the preparation of educational films xviii. photo-plays and how to write them xix. recent developments in stage productions xx. why not national cinematograph laboratories? index list of illustrations facing page how to take moving-pictures of wild animals in safety _frontispiece_ a moving-picture expedition into the indian jungle polar bear diving a lion and lioness at lunch caught! operator and camera buried in a hole making moving-pictures of wild rabbits nest of king regulus, showing curious suspension mother king regulus feeding her young the jury moving-picture camera the williamson topical camera and tripod the williamson camera threaded for use lens of the williamson camera adjustable shutter of the jury camera the "aeroscope" moving-picture hand camera compressed air reservoirs of the "aeroscope" camera lens, shutter, mechanism and gyroscope loading the "aeroscope" camera mr. cherry kearton steadying himself upon a precipice mr. cherry kearton slung over a cliff vulture preparing to fly a well-equipped dark room showing arrangement of the trays winding the developing frame film transferred from developing frame to drying drum film wound on frame and placed in developing tray the jury combined camera and printer the williamson printer water beetle attacking a worm marey's apparatus for taking rapid movements cinematographing the beat of a pigeon's wing first marey apparatus for cinematographing the opening of a flower first motion pictures of an opening flower development of a colony of marine organisms continuous moving-picture records of heart-beats continuous moving-pictures of heart-beats of an excited person continuous cinematography--palpitations of a rabbit's heart stero-motion orbit of a machinist's hand lines of light indicating to-and-fro hand movements a wonderful x-ray film made by m. j. carvallo moving x-ray pictures of the digestion of a fowl stomach and intestine of a trout digestive organs of the frog lizard digesting its food x-ray moving-pictures of the bending of the knee x-ray film of the opening of the hand micro-cinematograph used at marey institute for investigating minute aquatic life micro-cinematography: the proboscis of the blow fly micro-cinematograph used at the marey institute one of dr. comandon's galvanic experiments with paramoecia micro-cinematography: blow fly eating honey the ingenious gilbreth clock rack, showing disposition of component parts, for test film of workman assembling machine film of rack and bench, floor marked off into squares, and clock cinematographing a man's work against time moving-pictures of a steam hammer ram dr. füch's apparatus for taking moving-pictures of the operations of a steam hammer wonderful apparatus devised by mr. lucien bull for taking , pictures per second moving-pictures of the ejection of a cartridge from an automatic pistol motion photographs of the splintering of a bone by a bullet soldiers firing at the "life target" front view of the "life target" showing screen opening screen mechanism of the "life target" cinematographing hedge-row life under difficulties moorhen sitting on her nest the young chick pierces the shell chick emerging from the shell newly hatched chick struggling to its feet chick, exhausted by its struggles, rests in the sun the chick takes to the water fight between a lobster and an octopus story of the water snail the head of the tortoise the hawk moth snake shedding its skin or "slough" the snake and its shed slough exterior view of dummy cow mr. frank newman and camera hidden within tree trunk lizard with spider in its mouth digestive organs and eggs of a water flea moving-picture naturalist and the lizard at home a novel "hide," with camera fifteen feet above ground "hide" uncovered showing working platform in text fig. page . mechanism of camera showing threading of film . the "pin" frame . the first picture of the four-spoke wheel . apparent stillness of spokes while wheel is moving . apparent backward motion of spokes while wheel is running forwards . when wheel is seen to be moving naturally . curious illusion of seeing twice the number of spokes in the wheel . mechanism of the noguès camera . the ingenious radio-cinematographic apparatus devised by monsieur m. j. carvallo . dr. comandon's radio-cinematographic apparatus practical cinematography chapter i attractions and opportunities of the art profit and pleasure combine to win recruits for the art of animated photography. as an entertainment offered to the public, the moving-pictures have had no rival. their popularity has been remarkable and universal. it increases daily, and, since we are only now beginning to see the magnitude of what the cinematograph can effect, it is not likely to diminish. this development has stirred the ambition of the amateur or independent photographer because the field is so vast, fertile, and promising. remunerative reward is obtainable practically in every phase of endeavour so long as the elements of novelty or originality are manifest. the result is that it is attracting one and all. animated photography can convey so fascinating and convincing a record of scenes and events that many persons--sportsmen, explorers, and travellers--make use of it. from the commercial point of view the issue is one of magnetic importance. in all quarters there is an increasing demand for films of prominent topical interest, either of general or local significance. the proprietors of picture palaces have discovered that no films draw better audiences than these. if they deal with a prominent incident like a visit of royalty to the neighbourhood, an important sporting event, a public ceremony, or even, such is human nature, with some disaster to life or property, they will make a stronger appeal for a few days than the general film fare offered at the theatre, because the episode which is uppermost in the mind of the public is what draws and compels public attention. even, it would seem, when the reality itself has just been witnessed by the audience, its photographic reproduction proves more attractive than all else. the picture palace, indeed, is assuming the functions of the illustrated newspaper, and is governed by like laws. the more personal and immediate the news, the more pleased are the beholders. so there is an increasing effort to supply upon the screen in life and motion what the papers are recording in print and illustration. one can almost hear the phrase that will soon become general, "animated news of the moment." already the french are showing us the way. in paris one is able to visit a picture palace for centimes at any time between noon and midnight and see, upon the screen, the events of the hour in photographic action. as fresh items of news, or, rather, fresh sections of film, are received, they are thrown upon the screen in the pictorial equivalent of the paragraphs in the stop press column of the newspapers, earlier items of less interest being condensed or expunged in the true journalistic manner to allow the latest photographic intelligence to be given in a length consistent with its importance. it is obvious that this branch of the business must fall largely into the hands of the unattached or independent worker, who bears the same relation to the picture palace as the outside correspondent to the newspaper. a firm engaged in supplying topical films cannot hope to succeed without amateur assistance. no matter how carefully and widely it distributes its salaried photographers, numberless events of interest are constantly happening--shipwrecks, accidents, fires, sensational discoveries, movements of prominent persons, and the like, at places beyond the reach of the retained cinematographer. for film intelligence of these incidents the firm must rely upon the independent worker. curiously enough, in many cases, the amateur not only executes his work better than his salaried rival, but often outclasses him in the very important respect that he is more enterprising. acting on his own responsibility, he knows that by smartness alone can he make way against professionals. only by being the first to seize a chance can he find a market for his wares. thus when blériot crossed the english channel in his aeroplane it was the camera of an amateur that caught the record of his flight for the picture palaces, although a corps of professionals was on the spot for the purpose. true, the successful film showed many defects. but defects matter little compared with the importance of getting the picture first or exclusively. similar cases exist in plenty. the amateur has an excellent chance against the professional. his remuneration, too, is on a generous scale. the market is so wide and the competition is so keen, especially in london, which is the world's centre of the cinematograph industry, that the possessor of a unique film can dictate his own terms and secure returns often twenty times as great as the prime cost of the film he has used. [illustration: _by permission of the motograph co._ a moving-picture expedition into the indian jungle. mr. cherry kearton, the famous cinematographer of wild animals, and his outfit loaded upon an elephant.] [illustration: _by permission of the motograph co._ polar bear diving. a striking motion-picture.] the market is open also to travellers, explorers, and sportsmen. these, with a cinematograph camera and a few thousand feet of film, can recompense themselves so well that the entire cost of an expedition may be defrayed. an austrian sportsman who roamed and hunted in the north polar ice fields received over £ , ($ , ) for the films he brought back with him. mr. cherry kearton, who took pictures of wild life in various parts of the world, sold his negatives for £ , or $ , . scientific investigators are in the same happy case. when their researches lead them to anything that has an element of popular appeal, there is profit awaiting them at the picture palace. the life of the ant, for instance, or electrical experiments, or interesting phases of chemistry, and many other features of organic and inorganic science, yield good returns to the scientist with a camera. such films will command _s._ ($ ) or more per foot of negative. there is another branch of the work already well established. the producer of picture plays, if his plot be tolerably good and the scenes well acted and well photographed, and if the play itself promises some popular success, can command a good price. at the moment there are several independent producers at work throughout the world. they have a large open market for the disposal of their wares and find no difficulty whatever in selling all they can produce. even the largest producers, who have huge theatres and command the services of expert scenario writers and players, do not hesitate to purchase from outside sources. a cinematograph camera, and a little luck, will make anyone's holiday profitable. the travelling amateur penetrates into places overlooked by the professional, and usually takes greater pains with his work. afterwards he finds his market in the fact that the demand for travel pictures is so great that a good film of feet will fetch £ ($ ) and upwards. at home he may exploit his ingenuity in making trick films, a most popular feature at the picture palaces, so long as he keeps novelty to the forefront. trick films, unfortunately, take so long to prepare and demand such care, skill and patience that the largest firms of producers as a rule are not eager to attempt them, because their production disorganises the more regular and profitable work of the studio. a good trick film of feet may occupy six months in preparation. but the amateur may approach what the large firm fears. to him time is no object, and he is able to maintain his interest, care, and ingenuity to the end of the quest. on the other hand the professional worker often tires of his trick subject before the task is half completed, with the result that novelty and care are not sustained. one industrious frenchman devoted nearly a year to the preparation of a film in which resort had to be made to every conceivable form of trickery, and sold his product for £ , or $ , . he also refused an offer of £ , ($ , ) for another film of pictures calculated to please children. to sum up, the amateur or independent cinematographer has a vast field available for the profitable exercise of his skill. except in regard to the topical work, which is of the rush-and-hustle order, he must show imagination in his choice of subject and craftsmanship in the execution of his work. he must, that is to say, be trained so far as to be no longer an amateur in the popular meaning of the word. he must learn aptitude in the school of experience. the reward is well worth the trouble. hitherto the amateur worker has been held back by the great expense of the necessary apparatus. the camera cost £ ($ ), and the developing and printing operations were generally supposed to be too difficult and costly for private undertaking. there was some excuse for these notions. the trade at first followed narrow lines, no welcome being held out to the amateur competitor. but circumstances have been too strong for this trade, as for others, and it burst its bonds in due time. the co-operation of the independent worker became essential as the demands of the market increased. in the production of plays, for instance, england at first led the way. but the american and french producers came quickly to the fore. the english pioneers, not being skilled in the mysteries of stage craft, wisely retired from the producing field upon the entrance of the expert from the legitimate theatre, who realised that the moving-picture field offered him increased opportunities for his knowledge and activity as well as bringing him more profitable financial returns for his labours. the british fathers of the industry devoted their energies to the manufacture of cinematographic apparatus, as they foresaw that sooner or later the amateur and independent worker must enter the industry. the activity of amateurs was needed by the english trade as a whole, and the manufacturer, with great enterprise, brought down the cost of apparatus to a very reasonable level. this has been effected by methods not less advantageous to the purchaser than is the reduction of the price--by standardisation of parts and simplification of mechanism. to-day a reliable camera for living pictures, suitable for topical and other light work, can be bought for £ or $ . a more expensive camera, the williamson, costs £ _s._ ($ ), and is actually as good as other machines priced at four or five times that sum. on the other hand, so much as £ ($ ) can be paid. but the camera sold for this large sum demands a purchaser with something more than a long purse. it demands special knowledge. designed for studio work, it has peculiarities that are difficult to master and is not to be recommended to a beginner. with the cost of the camera the cost of other apparatus has fallen in proportion. it was realised that the amateur's dark room and other facilities are likely to be less excellent than those of the professional and that he must be provided with compensating conveniences. this problem has been solved. a complete developing outfit can now be packed in a hand-bag, and a camera and printing outfit can be carried in a knapsack no larger than is required for the whole-plate camera of the old "still-life" photographer. simple and efficient appliances for the dark room can be purchased very cheaply. there is a portable outfit for use in field work, where it is imperative that films should be developed as soon as possible after exposure, and this outfit is now used by the majority of travellers and field workers, such as cherry kearton, paul rainey, and others. distinct advantage, it may be observed, comes from prompt developing. there may be vexatious delay, occasionally, but the photographer is at least able to tell quickly whether his film is a success or a failure. it is better to gain this knowledge on the spot, even compulsorily, where another record can be taken, than to gain it later a few hundreds of miles from the chance of trying again. the capital expenditure of the cinematographer need certainly not be great. a complete outfit, the "jury," may now be obtained for £ or $ . it comprises a combined camera and printer, developing troughs, film-winding frames for developing and drying, and all necessary chemicals. yet it is no toy, as might be thought, but a thoroughly reliable outfit capable of doing first-class work. anyone who is more ambitious, or willing to spend more money, should purchase the williamson outfit. this costs about £ , or $ . now for other difficulties that have nothing to do with money. it has been assumed that the art of animated photography is a mystery demanding a long and weary apprenticeship. but the impression is really quite wrong. anyone who has practised still-life and snap-shot photography may become proficient in the new art within a week or two. many of the problems encountered in the old photography are actually easier to solve in the new; some are eliminated entirely; others, that are intensified, are really not very hard to master. [illustration: _from the "cinema college," by permission of the motograph co._ a lion and lioness at lunch.] [illustration: _by permission of the motograph co._ caught! a jungle-fowl brought down by a leopard.] animated photography is nothing more than a kodak worked by machinery. instead of the shutter being actuated by hand to make an exposure, and the film afterwards moved by turning a roller so as to bring a fresh area before the lens, the two movements, in the cinematograph, are combined. the rotation of the handle alternately opens and closes the lens, and moves the film forward a defined distance after each exposure. therefore, speaking generally, if the beginner knows how to use an ordinary camera and is familiar with subsequent operations of developing and printing, he should be able to accustom himself quite readily, with little waste of material, to the different conditions of motion photography. there is practically but one process that he should not at first attempt. this is the perforation of the film. the film is a celluloid ribbon and is punctured near either edge, at intervals, so as to enable it to be gripped by the claws of the mechanism and moved forward intermittently a definite distance--three quarters of an inch--through the camera. this puncturing or perforation of the film is the most delicate of the whole cycle of operations. it can only be done by a machine of unerring precision manipulated with extreme care. the machines, though many are on the market, are somewhat expensive, and it is upon them that the steadiness of the picture on the screen depends. the inaccuracy in the perforation may be slight, a minute fraction of an inch, but it must be remembered that each picture on the film is magnified more than fifteen thousand times upon the screen, and the errors are magnified in proportion. but these considerations need not trouble the amateur. he can purchase his "stock," as the unexposed film is called, perforated ready for use. in spite of the great reduction in the cost of both camera and outfit the expense of cinematography is still its drawback. the film is the culprit. it costs from _d._ to _d._--say, from to cents--a foot. yet in this case, as in others, reduction seems to be within sight. the increased demand is sure to cheapen the process of production. if the price is not then lowered as much as could be hoped the cause will be in the cost of the basic materials. these also, perhaps, will become less dear in time. cinematography is an industry in revolution. its possibilities are only beginning to be seen; its followers are only beginning to be counted; but it can hardly be doubted that the ranks of the amateur and independent workers are certain to increase considerably and rapidly. the attractions and inducements to practise the craft are too alluring to be ignored. chapter ii the principles of cinematography for complete success in moving-picture work it is essential to have an elementary knowledge of the principles upon which the art is based. although pictures are said to be shown in motion upon the screen, no action is reproduced as a matter of fact. the eye imagines that it sees movement. each picture is an isolated snap-shot taken in the fraction of a second. in projection upon the screen, however, the images follow so rapidly one after the other and each remains in sight for so brief a period that the successive views dissolve into one another. the missing parts of the motion--the parts lost while the lens is closed between the taking of each two pictures--are not detected by the eye. the latter imagines that it sees the whole of the process of displacement in the moving objects. in fact it sees only one-half--the half that occurred in those fractions of seconds during which the lens was open. what occurred while the lens was shut is not recorded. animated photography, therefore, is an optical illusion purely and simply. the fact that an appearance of natural movement is seen under these conditions is due to a physiological phenomenon which, for the want of a better explanation, is termed "persistence of vision." this peculiarity of the eye and brain remains a scientific puzzle, and although in one or two quarters the theory of visual persistence is ridiculed, the iconoclasts have not yet brought conclusive testimony to upset it. the whole subject of persistence of vision in its relation to moving-pictures is discussed at length by the present writer in a former book to which he would refer such readers as may wish for information on this subject.[ ] [ ] see "moving pictures: how they are made and worked," chapter i. [illustration: operator and his camera buried in a hole to take moving-pictures of small animals.] [illustration: _by permission of the motograph co._ making moving-pictures of wild rabbits. mr. frank newman with his camera concealed in the bushes.] [illustration: _from the "cinema college," by permission of the motograph co._ the nest, showing curious suspension by four strings. a unique picture. the mother king regulus feeding her young. motion-pictures of the golden-crested wren, the smallest bird in the british isles.] the eye is about one million times faster than the most rapid sensitized emulsion which chemists have yet produced. so there is nothing wrong about the popular opinion that the organ of sight is the quickest of the senses. yet it is not so quick that it cannot be deceived. if the pictures of a cinematograph are projected upon the screen at the rate of so many per second, the effect upon the eye is that of perfectly natural movement. the laws that govern this illusion have been discovered in a very interesting way. a positive film was prepared, but between each successive image a wide white line was inscribed. this film was then passed through the projector, and the pictures were thrown upon the screen at the speed generally accepted as being necessary to convey the effect of natural movement; but animation could not be produced at all, however rapidly the pictures were projected. the reason was simple. immediately after a picture disappeared from the screen the white flash occurred, and notwithstanding its instantaneous character it was sufficient to wipe out the image of the picture, which without the white line would have lingered in the brain. even when the pictures were run through the projector at thirty per second, no impression of rhythmic movement was obtained; they appeared in the form of still-life pictures with spasmodic jumps from one to the other. they failed to blend or dissolve in the brain, notwithstanding that the white flash in some cases was only about one ten thousandth part of a second in duration. another film of the same subject then was passed through the projector under conditions exactly similar except that the line dividing the pictures in this case was black instead of white. when this picture was thrown upon the screen, animation became apparent directly the speed attained sixteen pictures per second, because after one image had vanished from the screen it persisted in the brain, in spite of the black flash, until the next picture appeared. thus, the requisite dissolving effect was obtained. the black flash did indeed produce a defect like that which was common in the early days of cinematography and was characterised generally as "flicker." but it did not suffice to ruin the illusion of movement. a white flash destroys apparent motion, owing to the brain being extremely sensitive to white: a black flash of equal duration exercises no ill effects. in the latest development of the art, one inventor has taken advantage of this peculiarity. he has perfected a practical system wherewith the shutter of the camera may be abandoned because each picture is cut off from its neighbour by a very thin black line. an improved mechanism jerks each picture off and brings the next one on the screen very sharply, so that an effect is produced like that obtainable with the shutter and without any impression of flicker. it may be pointed out that with this invention there are none of the aberrations described in a later chapter, such as the spokes of a wheel appearing to move in the reverse direction to which the rim is travelling. the next question is that of the speed at which it is necessary to take and to project the pictures in order to get an apparently true impression of natural movement. this factor to-day is governed almost entirely by commercial considerations. it has been found, as a result of elaborate investigation, that a speed of twelve to sixteen pictures per second is the minimum wherewith in monochrome pictures animation is obtainable. but this applies only to general work, such as records of ordinary scenes, topical events and stage plays, where the action of the moving objects is comparatively slow. in these instances an average of sixteen pictures per second in photographing and projecting gives completely satisfactory effects. but in reality the speed is a variable quantity: it must be adapted to the subject and the character of the work in hand. in other words, strictly speaking, the speed must be accommodated to the velocity of the subject so far as photographing is concerned, and also, in a lesser degree, to the distance of the moving object from the lens. for instance, when a man, walking four miles an hour, is photographed at sixteen pictures per second, the movements recorded are far from being natural or rhythmic. on the screen he appears to walk with a disjointed action. to obtain a lifelike result, his pace should be slowed down per cent., or the photographing speed should be accelerated to seventy pictures per second at the least. this fact is illustrated very conclusively in pictures of soldiers marching: they appear to advance like automatons. again, in photographing animals, a complete movement is often lost between successive pictures. a cat in one picture will be seen to the right; in the next picture it is on the left, having sprung from one side to the other during the brief interval the lens was closed. when extremely rapid movements have to be recorded, the photographing speed has to be accelerated to an extreme degree, up to ten thousand pictures or more per second in the case of a bullet leaving the muzzle of a rifle, and up to two thousand pictures per second to catch the movements of a dragonfly's wings. on the other hand, in photographing very slow movements like the growth of a plant, one picture per hour may be adequate. in projection the speed can be adjusted. the ten thousand pictures per second may be decelerated to sixteen per second to allow the movement to be followed, and although the rifle bullet may appear to crawl through the air, the movement is perfectly correct. similarly the very slow motions must be accelerated to sixteen pictures per second to obtain evident animation. these two extreme phases of cinematographic investigation are described at length in another part of this volume, but are mentioned here merely to show that the photographing speed is a somewhat elastic factor, to be adapted to circumstances in order to produce passably natural effects. for everyday work, however, a speed of sixteen pictures per second is sufficient and represents the generally practised velocity. possibly in the near future the speed will be accelerated to twenty, twenty-two, or twenty-four pictures per second, as the present speed is generally admitted to be too slow. the eyes of the regular picture palace patrons have become trained, as it were, with the result that there is an appreciable strain of the eyes, while the disjointed character of the movements on the screen may be detected. but when the taking and projecting speed is accelerated by per cent. the picture stands steadier upon the screen, the movements are more natural, and there is an entire absence of that automaton effect which is so characteristic of most pictures taken under prevailing conditions. these considerations do not affect photo-plays produced in the studio so materially, because there the actions of the players can be slowed down to suit the conditions. one of the leading manufacturers is earnestly considering the advisability of accelerating the taking and projecting speeds up to about twenty pictures per second, and private investigations and experiments have certainly demonstrated the value of such an improvement. unfortunately two difficulties prevent its immediate realisation. an increase of only four pictures per second represents an increase of per cent. in the consumption of the film, and therefore in its cost. the other difficulty is more serious. existing apparatus, both cameras and projectors, are geared to eight pictures per turn of the handle. this involves two complete revolutions per second. consequently the gearing of the mechanism would have to be altered, and this is a more troublesome question than appears at first sight. some time may elapse before a forward step is taken in this direction. in matters of this character the cinematograph industry is notoriously conservative, although the moment one firm courageously adopts an accelerated speed, the higher quality of the resulting pictures will force the others to follow the example. as a matter of fact the decision to adopt sixteen pictures per second was taken somewhat haphazardly without any scientific investigation. when it became standardised, film was expensive. accordingly, efforts were made to secure the requisite effect with the minimum expenditure of film. machines were built to coincide with these requirements, and the original designs have been followed slavishly in their broad outlines ever since. chapter iii the moving-picture camera and its mechanism the cinematograph camera differs entirely from the instruments used in other branches of photography. while the advanced worker and the prosperous picture-play producer employ costly and elaborate machines, the amateur, or the independent worker, in the particular field which he has selected for his operations, can get equally good results with an apparatus only a fifteenth or even a twentieth part as expensive. the range of operation with the cheaper instrument may be limited, and it may be deficient in those many little refinements which are characteristic of the professional appliance, and may lack silver-plated finish and highly-polished woodwork or morocco leather covering. but the camera itself is more important than these. the cameras, both expensive and low-priced, work upon the same fundamental principles. in the latter everything is reduced to the simplest form so as to be readily and easily understood by the beginner. they have the additional recommendation that the risk of breakdown is eliminated, because the few essential component parts are substantially made, well-proportioned, and nicely-balanced. serviceability and reliability are the outstanding features of the low-priced camera, and it is applicable to almost every branch of the craft. contrary to general belief, taking the "movies" is quite as simple as snap-shot photography with a kodak. in the latter case you press the button; in the former you turn the handle; the camera does the rest. the rotation of the handle, a simple operation, performs every duty through the internal mechanism. it swings the shutter across the lens, moves the film intermittently through the instrument, and coils up the exposed film in its dark box. as has been explained, the beginner is now able to make his selection from a wide variety of makes, ranging in price from £ ($ ) upwards. if one desires to gain experience in the cinematographic art with the minimum capital outlay, the jury, "new era," or "alpha" cameras will suit the purpose excellently. both are first-class, well-made machines, having perfect registration and alignment, extremely simple and easy to handle. the first-named model, which is the cheapest, is contained in a mahogany case measuring - / inches square by - / inches deep, and in the unloaded condition weighs - / pounds. the "alpha," which costs a little more, is full value for money, and is well worth the slightly increased price. this camera is fitted with a light-proof hinged front panel giving access to the adjustable shutter, which permits the opening of the latter to be varied within wide limits and thus enables extremely rapid movements to be photographed while running the machine at the normal speed. the spool boxes carry feet of film of standard gauge in each instance, and for general all-round work, such as the recording of topical events, either model will be found perfectly efficient. it may be mentioned that both models are supplied without the lens, because the average beginner in motion-picture work, having practised still-life or snap-shot photography, has usually developed a marked fancy for some particular make of lens--dallmeyer, cooke, ross, zeiss-tessar, or voigtlander. naturally, being familiar with the working of his favourite and knowing what he can do with it, he feels more at home when he is able to have it fitted to his moving-picture machine. here, again, there is a wide selection to meet all purses, so that the most fastidious tastes in regard to the lens may be gratified. on the other hand, if the beginner has no marked preference, and wishes to be economical, he can get a lens capable of doing first-class work at a remarkably low price. his complete outlay upon the camera and the lens need not exceed £ _s._, or, say, $ . if prices are not to be so strictly considered, and if the beginner wishes to have a machine of the finest type at a comparatively low figure, he cannot do better than fit himself out with a williamson camera, the price of which, complete with lens, is £ _s._, say $ . except for an expert, it is difficult to detect the difference between this machine and one which costs five times as much, for both are designed upon the same lines, are equally well made, and equally capable of doing the finest work. it must not be forgotten that mr. james williamson, the designer of the latter instrument, was one of the pioneers in cinematography, and, in his machine, the results of some twenty-five years varied and accumulated experience are incorporated. he has been able to realise just those essentials which are required for a high-class apparatus free from complexity, and this end has been achieved to excellent effect. the camera, finished in a brass-bound mahogany or teak case--the latter is preferable for working in tropical countries--measures - / inches square by - / inches deep, is fitted with a zeiss-tessar -inch lens with focusing, and iris diaphragm. it weighs - / pounds complete in loaded condition. it is eminently suited for all round duties, from the rush and tumble of topical work to the uneventful, quiet but exacting requirements of the laboratory. [illustration: the jury moving-picture camera. b. driving sprocket. a, c. upper sprocket pulleys. d. exposure window. h. gate. e, f. lower sprocket pulleys. g. exposed film-box guide pulley.] [illustration: the williamson topical camera and tripod. a. camera. b. handle. c. lens. d. view finder. e. tripod head. f. horizontal panoramic movement handle. g. vertical panoramic movement handle.] these machines by no means exhaust the selection. other manufacturers have produced very good instruments at competitive prices, but those which i have mentioned represent probably the best in their respective classes. for the purpose of introduction to the art of cinematography the beginner can do no better than obtain one of them. if, after a little experience, he comes to the conclusion that he has ventured into the wrong province, then his monetary expenditure is not serious. it will be seen that the aspirant has no lack of inducement to embark upon the moving-picture industry. provided he has acquired a certain knowledge of the elements of photography, and is possessed of average intelligence, there is no reason why he should not be able to produce pictures with his inexpensive machine that are in all ways comparable with the product of the professional worker and the costly instrument. naturally, as the intricacies of the craft are mastered, the tyro will wish for a more elaborate apparatus. he can gratify his ambitions in accordance with his progress, or with the improvement in his financial position. the mechanism of the modern cinematograph camera is very simple in its character and very easy to understand. the necessary parts are very few in number. in all cameras the chief object is to effect the forward intermittent movement of the film at regular intervals and for a defined distance. for this purpose the early types of camera were fitted with what is known as the geneva stop movement. opinion is divided upon its merits, some authorities condemning it unequivocally, while others uphold it strenuously, contending that it gives a steadier and freer motion. there is much to be said in favour of the latter view. mechanically the geneva stop movement is perfect. so far as cinematography is concerned its advantages were proved most emphatically by mr. robert paul, the first man to bring motion pictures into commercial application in great britain. he adopted this movement in his camera, and it cannot be denied that his pictures were in every way equal to those produced to-day, while his camera has never been excelled. curiously enough, although this movement has been superseded, there is a tendency among expert workers to revive it, and many cameras specially built have been fitted with it. the movement more commonly used is that known as the "claw." it is simple, and has the advantage of bringing the film into place for an exposure with a sharp, quick jerk. but it is a movement which requires to be designed very finely in order to perform its work smoothly and evenly, and without inflicting any injury upon the film. the claw consists of a small lever in duplicate, which is so mounted as to have an eccentric movement and is driven direct by the main gear wheel rotated by the handle. the free upper end of each arm of the lever has a projecting pointed tooth of sufficient size to engage with the perforations on either side of the film. with the revolution of the wheel upon which it is mounted eccentrically the claw engages with the perforations, and, thus gripping the film after the manner of a ratchet and pawl, jerks it downwards a definite distance. when this downward movement is completed the claw disengages from the perforations and falls back clear of the film. then the wheel, continuing its rotary movement, proceeds to lift the claw. when it has raised it to its highest point it brings it forward smartly to re-engage with the perforations, and causes a fresh downward movement of the film. the action is intermittent and occurs at regular intervals, while the movement of the film is always the same. quick engagement and disengagement of the perforations is imperative for preventing the vibration and tearing of the film. [illustration: fig. .--mechanism of camera showing threading of film.] the mechanism of the camera may be understood from the diagram (fig. ), which refers to the williamson instrument. the sprocket a is driven directly by the operating handle, which engages with the sprocket spindle. this sprocket a is fitted with two rows of teeth, mounted upon its periphery, and so spaced apart, both circumferentially and transversely, as to coincide with the distances between the perforations of the film. a pair of twin rollers, d and e, bear against this sprocket under the tension of a spring, their object being to keep the film pressed firmly against the sprocket. the teeth engage with the film perforations, so that by the rotation of the handle and sprocket the film is fed forwards regularly, smoothly and evenly, as it is drawn from the loaded spool box b. the film is brought into position before the lens by passing through what is known as the "gate." this device h consists of two parts of which the first is fixed irremovably while the second is hinged to the first at one side and kept flat against it by means of a spring. both of the parts are provided with an aperture or window, the exact size of a cinematograph picture-- inch wide by / -inch deep--through which the light passes, after admission through the lens, to strike upon the sensitized surface of the film. there is just sufficient space between the two parts of the gate to permit the film to move easily, and its object is to hold the film perfectly flat and steady during the period of exposure. each picture is thus kept in absolute focus. the feed through the gate is accomplished by the claw n, which is mounted upon the eccentric o as already described. at the instant of exposure the claw is free of the film, or in the "out position," as it is termed, so that the sensitized ribbon is absolutely still. when an exposure has been made, the claw, having risen to the highest point of its travel, re-engages with the film and jerks it down / inch, so as to bring a fresh unexposed surface before the lens. as the film emerges from the gate it is picked up once more by the sprocket a, the engagement of the perforations in the film with the sprocket teeth being assured by the two rollers j and k. the film then passes under the guide roller l, and is wound up on the bobbin m in the exposed film box c, the bobbin being worked through the handle that drives the mechanism. the rotation of the handle also ensures, through gearing, the revolution of the shutter p, whereby the lens is eclipsed intermittently. the shutter is a ring fitted with an opaque sector which comes before the lens and shuts out the light during the movement of the film through the gate h by the claw n. in the williamson camera this shutter is recessed into the case. although the lens may be of the fixed focus class--the focussing distance varying with the stop used--focussing can be carried out independently if very critical work is required. in the case of the williamson camera and others of this type, focussing is accomplished by opening the shutter and the side of the camera and looking through the gate. in some cameras a focussing tube is provided. this passes from the gate to the rear of the instrument, through a space provided between the superimposed film dark-boxes. it is telescopic at the forward end. thus, when focussing is being carried out, it can be extended so as to come flush with the gate, and pushed back out of the way when all is ready for working, so that the free movement of the film is not obstructed in any way. the rear end of the tube, which extends through the rear face of the camera box, is fitted with a cap to save the film from being fogged by light entering from behind. one conspicuous advantage of the williamson machine is that the whole of the mechanism is mounted upon a skeleton casting fixed to the interior of the mahogany case by means of four screws. by withdrawing these the whole of the internal mechanism may be removed intact, and much trouble is saved when inspection or repairs are necessary. in some cameras the intermittent movement of the film is effected by a single claw which engages with the perforations upon one side of the film only. but this movement is not perfect. all the pulling strain is thrown upon one side of the film. this gives it a tendency to move unevenly into the gate and also increases the risk of tearing. the driving gear of the camera is so adjusted that one complete revolution of the handle completes eight exposures. consequently two revolutions have to be made per second to maintain the necessary speed of sixteen pictures per second. in the williamson camera this is emphasised as a fixed speed in ordinary working, and any compensations demanded by the varying intensity of the light are made by altering the aperture of the lens. this is a logical method, for if the operator is required to make such compensations by varying the speed of his handle he is apt to obtain an indifferent result. it requires a very skilled operator indeed to vary the speed of the handle with judgment between the narrow limits possible. in some cameras this compensation for light is effected by varying the area of the opaque section of the shutter, but this is not so simple or effective a method as the variation of the stop. the latter can be accomplished while the camera is being driven, but in the former it is necessary that the work should be stopped while the front panel camera is opened and the shutter adjusted. as for the tripod, one cannot be too careful in choosing it. this apparently insignificant detail has a far-reaching effect upon the picture results. any ordinary tripod used in photographic work may suffice, but its absolute rigidity is essential. a tight head, too, is most necessary, without which the operator will get a side-to-side sway upon the picture. it must be borne in mind that in turning the handle there is a tendency, especially at first, to exert an unequal pressure upon the handle side of the camera, and, unless the support and its head are kept absolutely rigid, the pictures will betray evidences of the defect. the telescopic ladder tripod is very handy for topical work. this, when it is extended and when the camera is fixed, brings the lens some feet above the ground. a cross-rail placed from to inches above the ground, and attached to the rear legs, offers a platform upon which the operator can stand to work his instrument. in this way both camera and operator are brought above the heads of the crowd, and an uninterrupted view can be obtained. for moving-picture work a special type of tripod head has been evolved, which allows the camera to be moved bodily through both the horizontal and the vertical planes while exposures are being made. thus it can follow a subject travelling in either of these directions. the movements are upon the rack and pinion principle, a small handle being fitted to each motion so that either can be operated independently of the other. by means of this panoramic attachment the main object in the picture, such as a carriage or an aeroplane, may be followed in either direction. but if both movements are to be completed simultaneously, the operator will require help. one person must sight the object and keep it in the picture by the manipulation of the two handles governing the respective movements of the tripod head, while the other confines his energies to turning the camera handle. although the moving-picture camera is built substantially and strongly, its mechanism is comparatively delicate. while it will withstand the hardest descriptions of legitimate work, it succumbs readily to brutal treatment. although operated by means of a handle, it is neither a coffee mill nor a barrel organ, but a sensitive scientific instrument, and it must be treated as such if the finest results are to be obtained. rough usage will throw out the registration and alignment. if handled carefully a camera should perform its task for years without needing repair. the effects of wear and tear can be mitigated very appreciably by keeping the moving parts well lubricated with good oil, such as is used for clocks, which neither gums nor clogs the bearings, nor injures the mechanism in any way. chapter iv the camera and how to use it having examined the mechanism of the moving-picture camera, and the broad principles upon which it works, we must now study the way to use it. the first step is to load the film box, an operation which must be carried out in the dark room. the film is sold as a rule in standardised lengths, such as , , feet, etc. with the ordinary type of camera the or feet lengths are used. for topical work either are quite adequate as a rule. as has been said, the film is supplied perforated and ready for use. many firms that sell the "stock," as the unexposed film is called, attach a blank or unsensitized "lead" to one end of the roll, for the purpose of "threading-up" the camera. if this is not supplied, and if the operator wishes to avoid the waste of or feet of sensitized ribbon, the deficiency can easily be remedied. for the blank "lead" all that is required is about feet of useless or spoiled film which, however, should not be torn or cracked. the emulsion at one end of this should be scraped off for a distance of about / inch. a pocket knife will do this very efficiently. the blank should then be laid flat upon the table, emulsion side uppermost, preferably upon a sheet of glass which secures a smooth, clean, level surface, and a little film cement applied to the scraped end of the blank. film cement can be obtained readily and cheaply in small bottles complete with cap and brush. a bottle should always be kept to hand as it is often required, especially in joining up successive lengths of film; but if it should so happen that none is available at the moment, glacial acetic acid may be used with equal success, although it demands more careful handling. in an emergency alcohol constitutes a first-class cement, but it requires extreme care and skill because it is a solvent of the celluloid base. after the cement has been applied to the cleaned end of the blank lead, the end of the unexposed coil of film is laid upon it, emulsion side uppermost, the overlap being about / inch. care must be exercised to see that the joint is made perfectly square and that the perforation holes of each piece of film come dead true, otherwise there will be trouble in passing the joint through the camera mechanism. when it has been superimposed satisfactorily, pressure must be applied to secure perfect adhesion. in order to ensure perfect jointing a film jointer should be used: in fact it is an indispensable and inexpensive tool. when attaching the blank lead every precaution must be taken to protect the spool of unexposed film from light; only a very faint ruby glow should be used, for the cinematograph film is extremely sensitive. the cement dries rapidly, and the joint being found to be perfect the dark box should then be loaded. the coil of ribbon is slipped over the central bobbin. a hole large enough for this purpose is always left in the coil. the end of the lead is then passed through the velvet-faced slot near the bottom of the box. in order to prevent the loose end slipping back into the box, in which event there must be another journey to the dark room, it should be bent back and re-entered into the slot so as to form an external loop. the dark box is then closed, and securely locked, and is ready for insertion in the camera. it is advisable to carry at least two loaded boxes, especially if each is only of or feet capacity. the camera is provided with two dark boxes, one placed above the other. the upper box carries the unexposed film, while the lower receives the ribbon after exposure. the camera may then be "threaded-up," or, if focussing is desired, this can be completed first. with the williamson camera focussing is unnecessary within certain distances owing to the fixed foci of the stops. these will be explained later. many other manufacturers of cameras follow the same principle, and it is most convenient for every-day work. yet it may happen that the operator desires to focus critically. in this event he opens the side of the camera, lifts the pressure plate of the gate, and inserts into the gate window a small length, about inches, of matt film, with the matt side towards the lens. the matt film serves exactly the same purpose as the ground-glass in the ordinary plate camera. the handle is revolved until the lens is opened, and the image thrown upon the matt film becomes apparent. this can then be focussed by moving the milled focussing screw on the lens until the picture stands out as sharply as is desired. at first the operation may appear to be somewhat awkward, because the operator has to look upon the matt film at an angle. it is easier in the case of a camera fitted with a focussing tube, for the operator has then merely to open the side of the machine to insert the matt film and push the telescopic tube out to its fullest extent to bear against the gate. by removing the cap from the tube upon the rear face of the camera, and looking through it as if through a telescope, he is able to look squarely upon his screen. when focussing is complete the matt film is withdrawn and placed in a safe position. it is a good plan to clinch it to the bottom inner surface of the camera with drawing pins, for it can then be found when it is wanted. should the piece be lost the defect can be repaired as follows. take a small bit of waste film; scrape off the gelatine emulsion; and rough the celluloid surface with a piece of sandpaper; or even with a rough stone surface. it is well to carry a few inches of spoiled film in the pocket for such an emergency. the film may now be threaded up. the loop of blank projecting from the dark box is picked up and the coil within is steadily unwound as the threading proceeds. the blank is first passed under the pressure roller (marked d in fig. i), and then under the spring roller e, which can be lifted for this purpose. it must be seen that the teeth of the sprocket engage with the perforations in the film. a loop g is then made and the film is threaded through the gate h. before this can be done the claw n must be thrown in the "out" position to obtain access to the gate, which is done by turning round the eccentric. the spring part of the gate is then opened on its hinge, and the film is slipped in from the side. care must be observed that an ample loop is left above the gate. when the gate is closed once more another loop i similar to that above the gate, is formed. the film now is passed round the under side of the sprocket a, the spring roller j being pressed back to admit of easy entrance, and the end of the blank is passed under the second or pressure roller k. here again one must be careful to see that the insertion is square and that the sprocket teeth mesh with the film perforations. the film is then carried under guide roller l and through the velvet-faced slit into the empty film box c. this must be opened to permit the free end of the lead to be secured to the centre bobbin m, on which the film is wound in after exposure. the handle should be given a few turns to see that threading has been carried out properly, and also that it is properly attached to the bobbin m. if a sufficient length of blank is attached to the end of the unexposed film, and a piece of gummed paper is fixed on the lead about inches in advance of the joint, it is possible to continue winding in on the lower bobbin until this mark appears at the mouth of the loaded dark box. if the threading has been accomplished properly the interior of the camera should be as shown in the illustration facing p. . here both film boxes are shown open, though of course the upper one is kept closed during the threading process. the most important part of this operation is the formation of ample loops both above and below the gate. once formed they remain constant, because of the action of the teeth on the sprocket; for the movement of the ribbon over the sprocket is equal to that produced by the claws through the gate. at first sight the necessity of these loops may not be apparent, but when it is remembered that the film is moved through the gate intermittently, sixteen times per second, with a vicious jerk, it will be seen that if there were no loop, and the film were drawn directly from the dark box, a great strain would be imposed upon it, and probably it would break. but by providing the loop an elastic feed is secured, and the film is jerked into position before the lens with the minimum of vibration and without any risk of tearing or displacement. threading completed the lower dark box is closed and secured, together with the side of the camera, so that the whole of the interior is light-proof. the camera should not be re-opened after photographing has commenced until the whole of the film in the loaded box is exhausted, or, if the supply is not used, until the dark-room is regained, unless the waste of a foot or two of film is a secondary consideration. should it become necessary to open the camera in the field, the handle should be given two or three turns to make sure that the last picture taken is wound into the exposed film box and is thus secure from the light. opening the side of the camera obviously ruins the whole of the unexposed film threaded through the mechanism, so that when picture taking is resumed the handle must be given a few more turns to make sure that the whole of the light-ruined film has passed through the gate. seeing that one turn of the handle represents eight exposures, equivalent to inches of film, it is a simple matter to estimate how many turns of the handle are necessary to clear the gate of spoiled film. most cameras are provided with a film indicator enabling the operator to tell at a glance how many feet of film have been exposed. in this case, care must be taken to see that the indicator is returned to zero when the mechanism is threaded-up. another convenience is the "punch" whereby it is possible to mark the film after an incident has been photographed, so that the worker can afterwards tell in the dark room by a mere touch where the exposure ended in each case. the film should be marked after every episode is finished because it is then possible, if desired, to develop the film in lengths. indeed it is advisable to follow this practice, and especially when the exposures have been made under varying conditions of light. by developing in sections one gets lengths of uniform density--a great assistance in printing. [illustration: the williamson camera threaded ready for use. the film is taken from the upper unexposed film-box, passed over the sprocket, through the gate, under the sprocket and wound into the lower exposed film-box.] [illustration: the lens of the williamson camera. (for explanation see p. .)] [illustration: the adjustable shutter of the jury camera.] in cinematography, as in ordinary photography, the judgment of the brilliance of the light and of the right stop to use on each occasion, is the one important factor for which mechanical provision is impossible. this is because of the extreme variation of the light conditions. but, while no hard and fast rules concerning exposure can be laid down, it is possible to give the beginner a little guidance to keep him on the safe side. practice alone can make perfect, and experience is the more necessary because the cinematograph is an all-the-year-round machine. in topical work the operator is compelled to make the most of the existing weather conditions, no matter how deplorable they may be. under these circumstances it is well to have what might be termed a very flexible lens. the lens, that is to say, should be fitted with the means of varying the size of the aperture, and varying it within wide limits, according to the light conditions. the simplest way of achieving this is by means of what is called an iris diaphragm. to illustrate the functions of the iris diaphragm we will take the williamson instrument. this is fitted with a zeiss-tessar lens of -inch focus. by the aid of the iris diaphragm the diameter of the aperture may be varied from approximately / to / of an inch. now it is obvious that more light can be passed through the lens with the larger, than with the smaller, aperture. while the larger aperture would do excellently for filming a football match on a dull day in mid-winter, it would be useless for a seascape on a cloudless day in july. for the latter the smallest aperture would suffice. but the requirements between these two extremes must be met: in other words the aperture must be adapted to intermediate demands. by turning the milled ring in which the iris diaphragm is mounted the size of the aperture can be varied even to a minute degree and thus adjusted to any sort of light conditions. for the guidance of the operator the total rotary travel of the ring is graduated to six different definite points or as many different sized apertures. these are as follows:-- _f_/ · gives an aperture / -inch in diameter (nearly) " " / -inch " · " " / -inch " " " " / -inch " " " / -inch " " " " / -inch " although the differences between these successive apertures are very slight, they exercise a very appreciable effect upon the volume of light passing through the lens, and accordingly the period of the exposure. thus although stop _f_/ · only decreases the size of the aperture by / of an inch over _f_/ , yet the effect of this reduction is to necessitate twice as long an exposure as is suited for the latter stop. similarly _f_/ demands twice the exposure of that required for _f_/ · , and so on, the exposure being doubled with every diminution of the stop up to the limits of the diaphragm. yet in practice this increase of exposure between two stops is impossible, because the handle must be turned at a definite speed. it is obvious, therefore, that compensation must come from another quarter. instead of increasing the duration of the exposure we must have a greater intensity of light for _f_/ · than for _f_/ . at first sight the beginner might be disposed to think that the selection of the most favourable aperture is a matter demanding extremely fine judgment and skill, especially when there are other factors which may upset calculations. many other advantages arise from using as small an aperture as possible, such as increased sharpness of the picture, especially at the edges. mr. williamson the designer of the camera has realised this, and as a result of his unique experience, he has set down some very useful rules to guide the beginner, as to which stop should be used for varying conditions of light and subject. in elaborating this advice mr. williamson rightly commences from the zero point as it were, taking moving-pictures of a football match on a dull winter afternoon, when, owing to the feeble light, the capacity of the lens and the sensitiveness of the film are strained to the utmost. from this point he has graduated the diaphragm and its use as follows:-- -------------------------------------------------- stop. | subject and conditions. -------------------------------------------------- f/ · | on a dull winter's day; well-lighted | interior: or on a subject at any time | of the year where there are heavy | shadows such as under trees. -------------------------------------------------- f/ | on a bright day in winter: on dull | days in spring and autumn. -------------------------------------------------- f/ · | outdoor exposures during september, | october, march, and april. dull | summer weather. -------------------------------------------------- f/ | street scenes in bright summer | weather. -------------------------------------------------- f/ | open fields in bright sunshine. -------------------------------------------------- f/ | bright sea and sky subjects. -------------------------------------------------- it must be understood that the foregoing are not set down as hard and fast guiding rules, but they may be safely taken as some indication of what should be done under such varying conditions. they may be said to apply generally to the temperate zones where the conditions are almost identical, irrespective of geographical situation. if the beginner follows them at first he will not make very serious mistakes. but, as has been said, experience alone can finally determine the factor of lens aperture. the size of the aperture has another far-reaching effect. this is in regard to focussing. with the -inch zeiss-tessar lens of the williamson camera when the largest aperture is used, nothing important in the picture should be within a distance of feet. if it is, it will not be in focus. as the diaphragm is closed this distance decreases proportionately until the infinity, inf, mark is reached. at this point practically everything is in focus. the distance when other objects are in focus at the respective stops is as follows. _f_/ · focus distance feet _f_/ " " " _f_/ · " " " _f_/ " " " _f_/ " " " _f_/ " " " inf " " everything. at first sight the fact that the camera is operated by the turning of a handle makes it seem to be absurdly simple. one or two experiments however, will prove that it is far from being as easy as it looks. the salient point is to turn the handle steadily and evenly so as to complete two revolutions per second. the first pictures will be found to be very unsatisfactory, having an eccentric jerky effect instead of a smooth easy animation. an even pressure must be maintained throughout the complete rotation, and, before the beginner attempts to take any pictures and thereby waste expensive film, he would do well to practise handle-turning until he has become proficient. if the turning movement is timed with a watch, and "one" corresponding to a second is counted for each double turn, a perfectly steady turning movement will soon be attained. some cameras are fitted with an indicator which records the number of feet of film consumed. but no anxiety need be felt if this convenience is absent. the operator need only count one, two, three, and so on, while turning the handle, each number representing a double turn. in this way, as pictures, equivalent to one foot of film, are made with every double turn and every one count, the number reached at the end of the task will show how many feet of ribbon have been used, and if this is deducted from the amount originally held by the loaded box it is easy to tell the length of film unused. when the upper box has been exhausted and the lower box filled, the latter is withdrawn and packed away to be opened in the dark room only. the empty upper box is taken out and slipped into the lower position to act as a receiver from the next loaded film-box. in photographing, the operator must keep his eyes riveted upon the view finder, to make sure that the subject he desires is in the field of the lens. the movements can be followed easily, and there should be no difficulty in keeping the most important part of the subject in the centre of the picture. to follow the subject either in a horizontal or vertical plane it is necessary to turn the handle controlling the panoramic movements of the tripod head. this mechanism should be turned slowly and steadily with one hand, while the other is turning the camera handle. it is by no means an easy, simple matter to follow a subject in this way without any disconcerting jerky movement, since it involves doing two things at once. for a beginner it is particularly exacting, as an eye must be kept fixed upon the view finder to follow the moving object. but after a little experience the whole of these movements are carried out in a semi-mechanical manner. in cinematography, it is the diligent, careful, and persevering worker who scores successes. in the beginning failures may be galling and frequent, but practice and experience are the best teachers. one can soon become adept in a fascinating art. chapter v hand camera cinematography during the past few years competition among professional moving-picture photographers has become exceedingly keen, especially in connection with the filming of topical events. the operator often is faced with prodigious obstacles, the subjugation of which is not always easy, or even possible. for instance, in a dense crowd the conventional apparatus, from its bulkiness, weight, and proportions, cannot be handled, and, even if set upon its tripod with the lens elevated above the heads of the people, there is the serious danger of the whole being upset by the swaying motion of the mass of spectators. yet at the same time a place in the crowd constitutes an ideal point of view. again, there are many situations where the use of a tripod is impracticable, if not dangerous. take the aeroplane. an operator seated in a flying machine and desirous of recording the moving scenes beneath, cannot support his machine upon the conventional device for this purpose. he has to hold it as best he can, and so secure his pictures under extremely trying conditions. although films innumerable are taken by persons seated in aeroplanes, only a very small proportion ever come before the public eye, for the majority are failures. nowadays, also, the filming of aeroplane flights from a fixed point on the ground is by no means easy. in order to follow the evolutions of flying machines, more particularly at comparatively close ranges and when travelling at high speeds, two operators are required, one to turn the camera handle, and the other to sight and follow the object both through its horizontal and vertical planes in such a way as to keep it in the centre of the picture. to do this he has simultaneously to turn the two handles operating the panoramic and elevating gear of the tripod head, and often in opposite directions. the task must be done without the slightest jerk, or the success of the film is marred. one of the most disconcerting effects upon the screen is a jumpy panoramic movement either horizontally or up and down. it worries the eye, and more often than not reduces the picture to an almost unintelligible blur. [illustration: the "aeroscope" moving-picture hand camera. a. air valve. b. button for varying photographing speed during exposure. c. exposure button.] [illustration: the compressed air reservoirs of the "aeroscope" camera. one charge is sufficient to expose feet of film.] but perhaps the most unnerving and difficult conditions under which moving-pictures can be taken are those pertaining to the filming of wild animal life at close range under natural conditions. in this case a good nerve, a steady hand, and acute presence of mind, are indispensable. a wild elephant trumpeting madly and dashing towards the camera at full speed, or a lion springing towards the operator may form the subject for a thrilling incident in a film, but does not inspire confidence in the cinematographer. under such conditions a tripod outfit is worse than useless. it not only endangers the operator's life, but the pictures taken under such conditions are invariably of poor quality, even if they survive the results of the animal's mad frenzy. to stand one's ground and to keep turning the camera handle steadily at two revolutions per second up to the last moment with the _sang-froid_ of someone filming a street procession would put too great a strain on human nature. even the coolest man would not obtain first-class results at uncomfortably close quarters. instead of turning the handle in a steady rhythmic manner the motion would be in a series of erratic jerks, some fast and some slow, producing a result which the public would ridicule. mr. cherry kearton, whose pictures of jungle life constitute some of the marvels of the cinematographic art, considers that this branch of cinematography cannot be excelled for thrilling excitement. the operator must stand his ground undismayed, because the close-quarter pictures are always the most fascinating. yet at the same time he must keep a corner of one eye fixed upon an avenue of retreat, so that he can get clear in the nick of time when the crisis arises. the attention given to the photographic work must be reduced to the absolute minimum, so as to be practically automatic; the camera must be as small and as compact as possible, for the only way of escape lies often up a tree. several inventors have devoted their energies to the evolution of a reliable hand-camera, capable of fulfilling the same duty in cinematography as the snap-shot instrument in still-life work. the tripod was sacrificed, but then there arose another difficulty. this was in the necessity of moving the film mechanism by means of the handle. in fact, under many conditions of working, such as in the jungle, it would be quite impracticable. what was required was an efficient moving-picture machine, small, light, and compact, working upon the principle of "you-press-the-button-and-i'll-do-the-rest." it is a perplexing problem to solve, and the first commercially practicable idea in this direction was conceived by the polish scientist kasimir de proszynski. he has produced a camera completely self-contained and wholly automatic in its operation. dimensions and weight have been kept down. in loaded condition, with feet of film, it is inches long, - / inches wide, - / inches deep, and weighs only pounds. it works upon the "press-the-button" system, the film-moving mechanism and shutter running the whole time the button is depressed. the power comes from cylinders of compressed air by which a tiny engine is driven. all that the operator has to do is to sight his subject and to keep his finger on the button, while he follows the object on the view finder. when this camera, known as the "aeroscope," appeared upon the market, it aroused considerable interest, but its reliability was doubted. it was not until mr. cherry kearton decided to give it a trial that it came to be regarded more seriously as a feasible moving-picture machine. this naturalist-cinematographer took it with him on one of his expeditions, and was able to record some startling incidents which would not have been possible otherwise. familiarity with the camera and experience in the field convinced him of its serviceability, provided that certain modifications were effected. these were carried out, and the camera is now regarded as an excellent instrument for work that could not be achieved by any other machine. it is fitted, as has been said, with a small engine driven by compressed air. the air is stored in six small cylinders of an aggregate capacity of feet. this is sufficient to expose feet of film. the cylinders are charged with air in the manner of a motor tyre and with a similar kind of pump. an indicator on the side shows constantly the air pressure remaining in the reservoirs, while a regulator enables the speed to be varied. the driving mechanism is very light, small, and compact, and contains but a small number of parts, so that the risk of failure is not great. though it constitutes the most delicate part of the whole mechanism, and requires careful handling, it works remarkably well so long as it is kept clean and well lubricated. another prominent feature of the mechanism is what is termed an equilibrator. practically speaking this is a small gyroscope, and is introduced to subdue any small vibrations or tremblings which arise while the instrument is working. this part of the mechanism has been criticized on the ground that a gyroscope, to be effective, must be of appreciable weight. many operators dispute the necessity for its introduction. they point out that the beneficial effects are not proportionate to the extra weight involved. furthermore, being an additional piece of mechanism, it enhances the risk of derangement. against these contentions, however, the operators who have worked the instrument maintain that it nullifies all the vibrations set up by the driving mechanism, which, though apparently slight, would otherwise suffice to spoil the pictures. seeing that the sole object of employing this camera is the elimination of a rigid support such as a tripod, it certainly seems worth while, even at the cost of added weight, to gain some compensating steadiness. and the vibration of the air engine increases the need. [illustration: the lens, shutter, compressed air-driven mechanism, and gyroscope, which counteracts slight vibrations, of the "aeroscope."] [illustration: loading the "aeroscope" camera. the unexposed and exposed film-boxes are mounted upon one spindle.] in operating this instrument the usual method is to hold the camera against the chest and one cheek, thereby bringing the eye on a level with the sighting piece. by letting the elbows rest against the body the weight is easily and steadily supported. held in this position the minimum of fatigue is felt by the cinematographer, while he is given complete control over the mechanism. it can also be used when the operator is on horseback, the method of support being virtually the same. but in this case only one hand is used; the other is left free to control the horse. another advantage of the system is the ease with which the camera can be swung round in order to follow a moving object steadily. photographers who use a hand-camera are familiar with the disturbances set up by the motion of the body in breathing. this is often sufficient to spoil a picture if care is not displayed at the instant of exposure. with the aeroscope--owing to the exposure being from / to / of a second, relatively long in comparison with snap-shotting where the exposure is often only the / , or even less, of a second--these disturbances are somewhat more acute. considerable practice is required before this difficulty can be overcome. some operators who have used the aeroscope prefer to utilise a convenient support, if available, such as a wall, or the stump of a tree, thereby making sure of a solid rigid foundation. but in cinematography the ill-effects arising from respiration are not so serious as in still-life work. a picture here and there may show its effects, but they pass unnoticed. they are subdued, as it were, by the unblemished pictures which precede and follow. another camera of this type is the "jury autocam" which, as its name implies, works upon the automatic "press-the-button" system. this camera is fitted with a small electric motor, driven by a small dry battery, and brought into action by the pressure of a button. a small side-lever controls the picture-taking speed, which can be varied while the mechanism is running. the camera itself is exactly similar to the "jury duplex" model, the only addition being a small separate case, about inches in depth, fitted to the base of the instrument, and a covered chain gearing on one side for transmitting the power from the motor to the camera mechanism. this camera likewise is fitted with a small balancing apparatus to counteract slight vibrations. [illustration: mr. cherry kearton steadying himself upon a precipice to take pictures of bird life. mr. cherry kearton slung over a cliff, showing the operation of the hand camera. the "aeroscope" camera in the field.] [illustration: _from the "cinema college," by permission of the motograph co._ vulture preparing to fly.] in such instruments as these the even running of the motor is a vital factor. it must not run any faster when the reservoir or battery is fully charged than when it is nearly exhausted, nor must there be any variations of speed, for eccentricities of this sort are apt to spoil the film. the governing therefore requires to be most delicate and thorough. another difficulty is the incorporation of a reservoir capable of carrying a sufficient quantity of air at the necessary pressure to drive the length of film for which it is rated. in the "jury autocam" a length of feet can be driven on a single battery charge. this is adequate for many purposes, but a length of at least feet is generally to be preferred. the camera is being adapted to meet these conditions, and it is anticipated that no more difficulty will be met in consummating this end, than was involved in making the camera drive a feet length. while it is a moot point whether the automatic cinematograph camera will ever displace the orthodox machine entirely, it is a useful and even indispensable machine for working under difficulties. it has been used in the aeroplane and has been found successful. it is also of the utmost use in close-range dangerous work, or in situations where the turning of the handle by hand is liable to be carried out imperfectly and unsteadily. the aeroscope camera has been used on many notable expeditions such as those of paul rainey, and others in africa, and is used exclusively by mr. cherry kearton in his daring work in tight corners. many of the thrilling and exciting pictures taken in the haunts of wild animals have been secured therewith, and these films show convincingly what can be done with the instrument when it is handled by an expert. but the true province of the hand cinematograph camera undoubtedly is in connection with rush work. for the filming of topical incidents it is invaluable. the operator is not trammelled with a bulky outfit. he carries his camera in his hand or slings it across his back in the manner of a knapsack. when he wishes to film an incident he is not harassed even by the crowd. he is not compelled to set up a tripod or to climb to an elevated point to get clear of the sea of heads. he can hold the camera above his head, and by means of a second and special view finder placed on the under side of the instrument he can sight and follow the subject while pressing the button. thus he records the episode as easily as if he were placed in the most advantageous raised position, and could manipulate the machine in the orthodox manner. when his work is completed he can get away without any delay, because the small box contains everything. on the whole, however, the hand moving-picture camera is scarcely yet a suitable instrument for beginners. the invention is in its infancy, and although clever men are striving to make it more simple and reliable, many peculiar problems still remain to be solved. but in the hands of an expert operator it is capable of doing first-class work. chapter vi developing the film the beginner, when he handles for the first time a coil of sensitized film measuring - / inches in width, and perhaps feet in length, might hesitate to attempt its development. he might prefer to despatch it to a firm prepared to carry out this work for a light charge, confident that with the facilities at their command, and with their accumulated experience, they would be able to bring out his work to the best advantage. but the man who aspires to succeed in topical work for the local picture palace or general market, especially if he is not within easy reach of a post office, must be prepared to undertake the task himself. as a matter of fact it is by no means so difficult as it appears at first sight, and the rudiments of the process may be grasped readily by a person of average intelligence. success, as in other handicrafts, only can be achieved with practice. cinematography, being a peculiar and special branch of the photographic art, demanding the use of new and unfamiliar tools, has been responsible for the perfection of particular devices and methods to assist and facilitate development. in the early days the worker had to worry through the task, and was compelled to undertake a host of doubtful experiments. the beginner of to-day is able to profit from the mistakes of the pioneers, and the appliances and processes at his disposal are those of approved application. after one or two trials the worker will realise that the development of a -feet length of celluloid ribbon is no more difficult than the development of an ordinary kodak spool. one thing the beginner will do well to bear in mind. he should adopt some particular brand of film, and cling to it after he has become acquainted with its emulsion, speed, composition, and peculiar characteristics. there are three or four different makes of film upon the market, but it is preferable to select a film which is easily obtainable at any time and in any part of the world. i would strongly urge the beginner to select the eastman stock for this if for no other reason. the eastman organisation has its tentacles spread throughout the world. it has thousands of agencies in immediate touch with the different national companies. the result is that this film can be purchased without difficulty in nearly all parts of the globe. if a local dealer does not stock it, he can procure it to order within a day or two. moreover the film will be new and in perfect condition. there are many other reasons why it is advisable to select and to adhere to this stock, which, although of a technical character, are of much importance to the user. it must be borne in mind that the technics and chemistry of cinematography are still in their infancy, and the technical staff retained for the preparation of the various ingredients employed in the sensitizing of the film are striving constantly to improve and to increase the speed or sensitiveness of the emulsion. the result is that the worker who uses eastman film keeps pace with developments. the makers of this ribbon were the first to discover a base and emulsion suited to moving-picture work. this was achieved only after the expenditure of enormous sums of money, after hundreds of fruitless experiments, and with the co-operation of the highest technical and chemical skill. under these circumstances the limitations of the base and of the emulsion become thoroughly understood, so that the film is certain to maintain the highest quality. on the other hand, those firms who have embarked upon the manufacture of the commodity only within recent years, have still to face and to overcome many pitfalls which the older concern discovered and surmounted years ago. so the film marketed by younger organisations is apt to vary in its quality. [illustration: a well-equipped dark room showing arrangement of the trays.] [illustration: _by permission of jury's kine. supplies, ltd._ winding the developing frame. the film is transferred from the exposed film-box to a revolving frame, emulsion side outermost.] before the beginner attempts development he must make sure that his dark room and accessories are adequate. to seek success with makeshifts in the first instance is to court heart-rending failure. many of the utensils employed in the dark room can be fashioned by any handy man. they may lack finish, but so long as they perform their work properly nothing more is necessary. the dark room must be spacious, for cramped conditions are fatal to satisfactory work. an expert will perform his task successfully, if the exigencies arise, in a small cupboard, but the beginner will find that the more space he has at his command the easier he will be able to complete his task. the room should measure feet in length by feet wide at least. in a corner, or at some other convenient point along the wall, there should be an ordinary sink provided with free waste and with ample supplies of water laid on to a tap above. on one or other side of this sink, there should be a bench, feet in width, for the purpose of the developing, fixing, rinsing, and other baths. at least four trays will be required, three being for solutions and one for rinsing. each tray should be at least inches square inside, by about inches in depth. these trays may be made of wood throughout, with dove-tailed sides, and tongued and grooved bottom, or the bottom may be made of glass. if the work of dove-tailing seems too difficult, the sides and bottom need only be nailed or screwed together, but in this case a lining of waterproof fabric should be fixed to the wood. trays of this type are inexpensive, and are quite as good as those of a more elaborate character. in some developing works lead-lined trays are used, but they are weighty and cumbersome to handle. in order to draw off the solution when necessary it is well to fit a drain and plug in the bottom of the tray by which the contents can escape into the storage vessel placed beneath the bench. sometimes a vertical tank is used. this system is maintained to be the most satisfactory as it enables the solution to be kept more easily in movement. the tank, in this case, should be inches high by inches wide, and inches from front to back. these are inside measurements. it must be lined with waterproof material or with thin sheet lead in the same manner as the tray. for the purposes of the small worker, the tank process is more expensive, owing to the greater quantity of solution that it requires; so, for ordinary and limited working, the tray is recommended. it should be fitted with a rocker so as to enable the solution to be kept flowing evenly over the surface of the film. [illustration: fig. .--the "pin" frame.] the film is mounted upon a special frame. a frame made of wood is most generally used. this likewise a handy man can make at home, although it is not expensive to buy. the middle of each side of the frame is fitted with a short pin to serve as a spindle and to facilitate spinning round when the frame is mounted upon its stand. each transverse end is provided with guide pins for winding the film. the other type is known as the pin frame. its design may be gathered from fig. . it is a light skeleton frame with vertical pins projecting from the four diagonal members. the spool is slipped on the central spindle and the film is unwound and passed round the pin on one diagonal, then to the relative pins on the three other members. it is then taken round the second pin on the first diagonal, followed round the relative pins on the other three members, and so on until the whole film has been uncoiled, the pins on the other four cross members being called into requisition as additional supports when the frame is about half covered. when the film is mounted upon this frame it is in the form of an endless square spiral. when the frame is laid in the bath of solution the film stands edgewise. the wooden frame, however, is now almost exclusively used, as it is easier and simpler to work. the film can be transferred to it in a shorter space of time, and the frame with the film upon it can be handled more safely. the ruby light may be either electricity, gas, or oil, but extreme care must be taken to make absolutely certain that the light is non-actinic, and is not too powerful, otherwise the film, which is extremely sensitive, will be fogged during development. the safety of the light may be tested in a very simple and easy manner. cut off about inches of film from the unexposed reel, lay it flat upon the developing bench, emulsion side uppermost, in full view of the ruby light. place two or three coins upon the emulsion and leave them there for a few minutes. then develop the strip in a covered dish. if the space surrounding the places where the coins were laid comes up grey, then it shows that the light is unsafe, because the exposed emulsion surrounding the coins has become fogged. on the other hand, if no signs of the position of the coins are revealed upon the developed strip, the light is perfectly safe. the trays should be placed side by side along the bench. the one which is used for developing should stand furthest from the ruby light. if space will allow, the rinsing bath should be placed next to it, but if this is impossible the fixing bath may be placed there. a division board should be set up between the two trays, rising some or inches above their upper edges. this will prevent the fixing solution splashing into the developing bath and spoiling it. various formulæ have been prepared for development, each of which has certain advantages. as may be supposed, each firm has evolved a formula which it has found from experience to give the best results. obviously these formulæ are secret. but the most satisfactory for the beginner is that advocated by the eastman company. it possesses the advantage of having been prepared by the chemists who are responsible for the emulsion, who understand its particular characteristics and also its limitations. the majority of other formulæ are based more or less upon this one, which is applicable and adaptable to all kinds of work. it has the quality of bringing the picture out to the utmost degree, and by its means many of the errors in exposure may be corrected during development. the developing solution is made up as follows:-- ------------------------------------------------------------------ | avoirdupois. | metric. |------------------------------------ sodium sulphite (des.) | oz. | , grammes sodium carbonate (") | " | " metol | grains | " hydrochinon (hydroquinone) | oz. | " potassium bromide | oz. grains | " citric acid | grains | · " potassium metabisulphite | oz. | " water (imperial measure) } | - / gallons | " (united states " ) } | " | litres ------------------------------------------------------------------- the ingredients must be mixed in the order indicated. all the chemicals are readily and cheaply obtainable at any photographic chemists and drug stores. after preparation the developer will keep for a long period so long as the bottle is well stoppered and kept in a cool place. only the highest grade chemicals of a reputable brand should be used. a slight saving in the purchase of these essentials is false economy, because a film costing one hundred or more times the money saved in the outlay upon chemicals may thus be ruined. in cases of over-exposure, perhaps the most common fault of the beginner who does not understand the stopping down of the lens, a restrainer is necessary. this is composed of the following:-- -------------------------------------------------------------- | avoirdupois. | metric. |---------------------------------------- potassium bromide | oz. | grammes water | oz. | cubic centimetres -------------------------------------------------------------- the process of development is as follows. first, the film is transferred from the dark film-box of the camera to the frame. the latter, if it is of the wooden type, can be spun round freely when mounted on its stand. it is not advisable for the beginner to withdraw the coil of film bodily from the box until he is expert in winding the frame, otherwise, to his surprise and disgust, the spool may fall out and the film be precipitated to the floor in an inextricable tangle. he should let it remain in the dark box until it is removed by being drawn slowly through the velvet-lined slot. the free end of the film should be fixed with a drawing pin to one end-bar of the frame, and contained between two guide pins, with the emulsion side outermost. the emulsion side can be recognized even in the subdued light of the dark room because it has a matt surface, while the other side is glossy. the difference between the two sides can also be detected by the touch. when the end of the film has been attached to one end-bar the frame is turned, the film meanwhile being permitted to slide out of the dark box, until the opposite end of the frame comes up. the film is passed over this bar, also between the first pair of guide pins, and once more, with a half-turn to the frame, the film passes along the second side of the frame back to the first bar, between the succeeding pair of guide pins, over the top and back again to the opposite bar, this process being continued until the coil of film is unrolled, when the second extremity is likewise fixed to the bar by means of a drawing pin. the film while being wound must not be drawn too tightly; at the same time it must not be too slack. when winding has been completed, the frame and film will have the appearance shown in the illustration facing p. . the guide pins in the end-bars prevent the edges from overlapping or touching. the result is the presentation of two emulsion faces on either side of the frame and each face resembles the sensitized side of a dry plate. [illustration: the film transferred from the developing frame to the drying drum. for amateur use a small drum can be used.] [illustration: _by permission of williamson kine. co., ltd._ the film wound on frame and placed in the developing tray.] [illustration: _by permission of jury's kine. supplies, ltd._ the jury combined camera and printer.] in winding the film upon the frame, and indeed during all the operations, the operator should be careful not to touch the gelatine coating of the ribbon with his fingers. the finger nails should be kept well trimmed so that scratching may be avoided. a touched film is usually marked, for the touch leaves a deposit of grease, which interferes with the action of the developer. the frame, with the film wound upon it, is lifted off the stand and carefully placed in the developing bath, into which the developing solution has already been poured. if it is inserted gently no air bubbles or bells will form on the emulsion, but if there should be any such they can be removed at once by means of a large, flat, soft, camel hair brush. in order to secure first-class results, the developing solution should be kept at a temperature of ° fahr. the developing solution is rapid in its action and the film must be watched closely. the frame must be kept rocking so that the solution may remain in movement. this enables it to act upon the whole surface of the film equally. should development take place too quickly--(_i.e._ the images flash up almost instantly)--the frame should be removed at once from the developer and immersed in the rinsing tray to allow a few drams of the restrainer solution to be poured into, and mixed with, the developer. on the other hand the film may be under-exposed, and then the images will appear very slowly. development proceeds exactly as in the case of a glass plate, and the same judgment is required to determine when the process has been carried far enough. when this point has been reached the frame is lifted out of the developer and placed in the rinsing tray to receive a thorough washing. water is a kind friend in cinematography and should be used ungrudgingly. three or four thorough flushes will suffice to rinse the film satisfactorily, and then the frame is placed in the fixing bath. this is made up as follows:-- ---------------------------------------------------- | avoirdupois. | metric. |----------------------------- water | oz. (fluid)| , c.c. | | hyposulphite of soda | " | grammes | | sulphite | / " | " when fully dissolved add the following hardener. powdered alum | / oz. | grammes | | citric acid | / " | " ---------------------------------------------------- during fixing the frame should be kept rocked so that every trace of undeveloped silver salts may be removed from the film. then it is transferred to the washing tray and submitted to a thorough washing in frequent changes of water for some twenty minutes. the film is now ready for its final treatment. this is immersion in the soaking solution:-- ---------------------------------------------- | avoirdupois. | metric. |------------------------------ water | oz. | , c.c. glycerine | " | " ---------------------------------------------- this final bath is not always used, but it is desirable if the negative film is to be kept for any length of time. immersion in this soaking solution prevents the gelatine coating of the film from becoming hard and horny. after remaining in this bath for five minutes the frame is lifted out, and returned to its stand, where the excess of glycerine and water is removed by wiping with a soft cloth. it will be seen that once the film is wound upon the frame it is not removed during the whole process of development, and may be left in the same position during the drying period. but if the drying is to be quickly performed the frame must be of what is known as the spring type, so that it does not keep the same area of film constantly pressing upon the curved end-bars. otherwise the film would retain this shape when it has been dried and the kink would be irremovable. to avoid this defect it is just as well to transfer the film from the frame to a drum (see illustration facing p. ). this is an easy matter. the drum is mounted upon a stand so as to be free to revolve easily. detach one end of the film from the developing frame, and attach it to the drum by means of a drawing pin. the emulsion side, of course, must face outwards. then by unwinding the frame and rotating the drum simultaneously the film becomes wound spirally upon the drum. another pin will secure the second end of the film. the drum is an inexpensive and very handy accessory to the moving-picture photographer, especially in the drying operation, when forceful methods have to be adopted. unfortunately the drying of the film cannot be accelerated to any great extent. the hardening of the gelatine emulsion cannot be hastened, as in glass plate work, by immersion in a bath of methylated spirits or some other evaporative agent, since the alcohol contained therein would dissolve the celluloid base. the only available means is a current of warm, dry, clean air. while the well-equipped factory is fitted with a special drying room, such a facility is beyond the resources of the average independent worker, who must therefore be content to revolve his frame or drum continuously, until the gelatine has hardened sufficiently. the process can be accelerated to a certain extent by revolving the drum or frame over a steam radiator, or some other form of heating which emits no smoke or flame, but the temperature of the air must not be raised too high or the gelatine coating will be injured. if the weather is fine and calm, the drying may be done upon a lawn in the open air, but in any event extreme care must be observed to prevent dust settling upon the gelatine while it is wet and soft, or irreparable injury will be inflicted. so it behoves the worker to keep his dark room and drying room free from dust. drying should not be done in the dark room because there are small particles of chemical dust always floating about in such surroundings. if these should settle upon the emulsion they would play sad havoc with it. when the gelatine has hardened the film may be transferred direct from the drum to a spool by means of a winder. when the beginner has become expert he will be able to do this by hand, but it is never a wise practice since the coating is liable to become scratched. the spool-winder is inexpensive and does the work much more quickly, while the risk of damaging the film is eliminated. as has been mentioned, it is well to develop the film as soon as possible after exposure. although the exposed film is kept in a dark box, the chemical action set up by exposure before the lens, continues, as in dry-plate and snap-shot photography, and in a more rapid manner. consequently the film should not be left undeveloped for more than a few days at the utmost. while prompt development is usual in topical work, there are other sorts of work in which the operator may feel tempted to put the film on one side for development at a later and more convenient time. perhaps several weeks may elapse, and then complete amazement is expressed at the result. in the unexposed condition, however, eastman stock will last many months so long as it is not removed from the case in which it is packed at the works. equal care must be used in storing the developed negative films. they must be kept in a cool dry place, protected from severe fluctuations in temperature and climatic effects. chapter vii printing the positive theoretically there is no operation in the whole art of cinematography which is more complex than the preparation of the positive. this is used for projecting the image on the screen, and is the result upon which popular criticism is passed. also, in the process of printing the positive, several short-comings in the negative can be corrected. at the same time, from the practical point of view, the preparation of the positive is simple. the beginner who has mastered the somewhat intricate process of development, need not apprehend any greater difficulties than those he has already overcome before he essays to print his positive. in practice he will soon become proficient, though he may retain rather hazy ideas of the theory of the matter. the essentials for the preparation of the positive are a printing machine and an illuminant. the appliances and methods of operation differ completely from those used in any other branch of photography, so that a new art virtually has to be mastered. fortunately, the beginner gets assistance from those masters of the craft, who, having left the producing for the manufacturing side of the industry, willingly give advice to the tyro. by following the few rules which these early workers lay down, the beginner will not go far wrong, and will not run the risk of incurring many dispiriting failures. while the large professional firms use elaborate and costly printing machines, the amateur is able to get just as good results with simpler and cheaper apparatus. he could not wish for a better equipment than the williamson printer, which costs only £ _s._ ($ . ), or the jury duplex, which is a combined camera and printer. so far as the illuminant is concerned this depends upon circumstances. in most towns it is possible to obtain electric light, which is the simplest, and taken all round, the most reliable and satisfactory illuminant. if this is not available, gas and an incandescent mantle may be used. failing either of these conveniences, acetylene or petrol gas, the latter with the incandescent gas mantle, can take their place. even daylight may be used. success in printing depends upon a correct judgment of the intensity of the light, and of the density of the film. this enables one to estimate the exposure required. obviously this knowledge can only be acquired in the school of practice. the same experience is needed to estimate the length of the exposure in making lantern slides, or in bromide printing. but it must be borne in mind that in the cinematograph film one is working with a much more sensitive emulsion. a very good practice for the beginner is to make experimental exposures with short lengths of film--say inches--making the tests with sections of the negative which vary in density, at various distances from the light, and at different speeds. a careful note should be made of each trial. in this way one can estimate the exposure and learn how it should be varied at different points of the negative where the density varies. moreover, the knowledge will be acquired at comparatively little expense. if the negative has been over-exposed or over-developed, or both, a common error in the first attempts, it will naturally be very dense, and will demand a longer exposure, or a more powerful light, than a negative which is exposed correctly. this situation may be met either by slowing down the process of printing, or by bringing the light nearer to the film. on the other hand, if a negative is under-exposed it had better be destroyed at once, as it is worse than useless. an over-exposed negative will yield a passable print, possibly somewhat harsh, but nothing can be done with a negative which is deficient in detail. the only exception that may be made to this drastic policy is the topical film, which may have been taken under adverse conditions, during a fog, or in heavy rain, or on a dull day, or at a late hour when the light was bad. in the topical film it is more the interest of the event than the quality of the film that is important. for absolute simplicity it would be difficult to excel the system adopted in the jury duplex camera. in this case one obtains both camera and printing apparatus--without the lens--for the modest outlay of £ ($ ). there is a small bracket mounted upon the outer top face, and near the front edge, of the case. this bracket carries the spool on which the negative film is coiled. this is slipped on the bobbin and locked in position by means of a small lever. the film is carried from this spool between two small guide pressure rollers and fed into the camera through a slot faced with velvet, like that provided in the dark boxes. the film is pulled down a sufficient distance to enter the gate so as to secure engagement by the claws of the camera mechanism. in threading the film care must be used to bring the emulsion side facing the dark boxes and the glossy side facing the lens. the positive film is inserted in the unexposed film-box of the camera and is threaded up as if for taking photographs. as the emulsion side is uppermost, when the unexposed film meets the negative in the gate, the two films are brought together with their emulsion sides in contact. as one film is laid squarely over the other, and with the perforations in line, it will be seen that the claws engage with both, so that the two films are jerked together intermittently through the gate. emerging from the gate the two films part company. the exposed positive ribbon passes into the exposed dark box, while the negative film passes through another velvet-lined slot in the bottom of the camera, and then is wound up on another spool. it will be seen that in this case printing is carried out in a manner similar to photographing. the film is run through the camera in the ordinary way by turning the handle, and the number of exposures per second can be varied within wide limits to suit the density of the film. the camera is supplied with a second spindle and gearing upon which the handle may be slipped. the ratio of this gearing is one exposure per revolution, or as it is termed "one turn per picture." owing to the positive film being contained within the camera, and therefore in a light-tight space, the electric light or other illuminant may be mounted upon the bench within the dark room, so that the operator can work in a lighted apartment. in this arrangement, however, the camera should be clamped firmly to a rigid foundation, so that it may not move during exposure. this also ensures that the light should remain at a constant distance from the machine. this camera can be adjusted easily and cheaply for the purpose of daylight printing. all that is required is a square funnel, about two feet in length, made of wood and so designed that the smaller open end fits into the front recess of the camera after the shutter panel is removed or opened. this funnel should be made after the manner of a kodak enlarger, and blackened on the inside, with a dull medium, so that no reflections of light are set up. when this funnel is attached it is only necessary to stand the camera on its rear face so that the opening of the funnel points directly to the clear sky overhead, not towards the sun, and to turn the handle upon the one turn one picture gear. the printing speed will vary with the intensity of the light and the density of the film. obviously the camera can be run more rapidly on a bright summer than on a dull winter day. in the first case it is safe to turn the handle as fast as possible, but in the second the speed would need to be about one picture, or handle turn, per second. [illustration: the williamson printer. (for explanation see p. .)] [illustration: _from the "cinema college," by permission of the motograph co._ water beetle attacking a worm.] one advantage of this system of printing is that the picture is printed with the camera with which the negative was obtained, and so first-class results are inevitable. the registration is assured as well as the alignment. in threading up the camera it is only necessary to make sure that the image on the negative comes squarely and truly before the window in the gate. once this is so, every successive picture must be in perfect registration and alignment. there could be no method of printing more suitable for those who are travelling, or engaged on topical work, often under trying conditions, for the conversion from photographing to printing, and _vice versâ_, may be accomplished in an instant. some of the more expensive cameras costing from £ ($ ) upwards are now fitted with a printing attachment, the printing accessory being detached when the instrument is being used for photographing purposes. these cameras follow where the jury duplex led the way. the williamson printer works upon a different principle, being a distinct and separate machine. nevertheless it is an eminently practical appliance, and is as well adapted to the factory as to the amateur's dark room. it comprises a base board on which the whole of the mechanism is mounted, together with the stand for the light. (see illustration facing page .) in this installation there must either be a dark box to contain the light, against the face of which the base board of the printing mechanism is screwed, or else an aperture must be provided in the wall of the dark room and the light be placed on a shelf outside. the handy man, however, will be able to devise a light-tight box, either for the electric light or gas. in the latter case it must be fitted with a chimney with baffle plates absolutely light-tight, to carry off the products of combustion. the light-tight box should be lined either with absolutely safe ruby fabric, or with orange and ruby fabrics superimposed. if wood is used, the light-box is apt to split under the influence of the heat within. the williamson printer is of the simplest design conceivable. there is an upper spindle a (see illustration facing p. ) on which the spool containing the negative is carried. immediately below is another spindle carrying the spool b on which is slipped the coil of unexposed film. the negative film, emulsion side outermost, as it winds off the spool a is passed behind the guide roller c and then picks up the unexposed film of spool b. the emulsion side of the unexposed film comes into contact with the emulsion side of the negative film. passing over another guide roller d the films pass together between the two rollers e to enter the gate f. the latter is mounted upon the rear face of a small chamber, the aperture of which is of the size of the cinematograph film image. this aperture is provided on the inside with a small hinged shutter. by opening this one can see that the negative image occupies the full space of the window, or make any other observations. the film is moved intermittently through the printing gate f by the sprocket wheel g, the teeth of which engage with the perforations in the films. the engagement of the films with this sprocket is ensured by the two pressure rollers h. the sprocket g is mounted upon and revolved by the handwheel i--a motor drive can be incorporated if desired--and after being moved beyond this sprocket wheel, the two films divide, the positive film being wound upon a spool or into its dark box, while the negative is wound upon another spool. the movement of the light k, either towards or from the exposure window f, is effected by means of the handle j, which has ten stops corresponding to as many different distances. the lamp moves to and fro along the support l. it will be seen that the williamson is a simple, straightforward machine. it is soundly constructed and works admirably. its achievements are in every way equal to those of the complicated and more expensive model manufactured by the same firm for professional use.[ ] so long as the machine works reliably, and has perfect registration and alignment, nothing more is required. extra refinements, and little details, while of service to the expert, only serve to harass the amateur. [ ] "moving pictures: how they are made and worked," chapter viii., page . as a matter of fact the most important duties of a printing machine are to feed the two films evenly and easily through the gate, and to hold them flatly and tightly together, so as to secure perfect contact while they are before the exposure window. by this instrument both these duties are perfectly performed. the sprocket g continuously revolves under the steady turning movement of the handle, and the two films are held rigidly, tightly and steadily together by the pressure gate f. of course, in printing with this machine, the operator works in total darkness, owing to the coil of positive film being fully exposed. this is no handicap however, because the dark-room ruby lamp supplies sufficient light to enable the necessary operations to be performed. but it is not wise to use too powerful a ruby light, or the unexposed positive film will be fogged. turning the driving handle is no more difficult than turning that of the camera mechanism. the gearing is so designed that six exposures are made per revolution, representing twelve pictures per second, when revolved at the normal speed. with a negative of average density this speed is sufficient. but the period of exposure can be varied according to the speed at which the handle is turned. the turns of the handle should be steady and regular, or the pictures will be of uneven density owing to the variations in exposure. the electric light is easily moved by means of the handle while the ten stops give it great flexibility. in order to maintain an exposure of twelve pictures per second with an average negative, a lamp of candle power should be used. to ensure the best results it should be of the class known as "focus lamp." this type of lamp has a special filament, with a smaller coil than is found in the ordinary incandescent electric lamp. a gas burner with incandescent mantle may be used if electricity is not available, though the operator will have to ascertain the relative value of the luminous intensity of the light as compared with the candle power electric light, and will be wise if he makes one or two trial exposures with short lengths of film before essaying the printing of a complete film. while it is possible during printing to vary the distance of the light from the exposure window, the light being manipulated with the left hand, while the handle is turned with the right, there is slight necessity for such a procedure. the negative film should be examined to ascertain how the density varies along its length, and then each portion of film that shows tolerable regularity of density should be printed off at the same speed. in this way variations of distance need occur only with distinct lengths of film. this is a far safer method, especially for the beginner, than the movement of the light to and fro while the films are running through the gate, though of course with practice it becomes possible to do the two things satisfactorily at once. many amateur cinematographers make the mistake of attempting artifices which they have seen practised by some experienced professional worker, and the result is failure. what is easy and simple to the expert is often beyond the powers of the beginner. success in printing can only be achieved by honest and diligent work, but patience is sure of its reward. at first there may be a tendency to make the positives somewhat too dense, and then, when the evils of this defect are appreciated, to fly to the opposite extreme. of the two blemishes probably the latter is the worse, as it produces a washed-out effect upon the screen. the positive is developed in exactly the same way as the negative, and with the same solutions. when dry the positive, which may have been printed in short distinct lengths, should be connected up with the aid of cement as described in a previous chapter. if titles have to be introduced they may be inserted wherever required, merely by severing the film at that point, and introducing the length carrying the explanation. the preparation of the titles is a simple matter. if printed type is used, the letters cut out of white paper or cardboard are laid flat upon a level surface with a black background. the camera is then placed overhead with the lens pointing downwards upon the centre of the title space. the latter, brilliantly illuminated, is then photographed at the rate of sixteen pictures per second for a period of ten seconds or more according to requirements. in many instances, especially in non-topical work, the operator need not necessarily incur the expense and trouble of printing a positive film. many of the purchasers of educational and popularly scientific films will give their decision after having seen the negative passed through the projector in the manner of a positive film. so long as great care is used, this can be done without ill effects, but of course the slightest scratch or abrasion that the negative may receive in the process will be reproduced with accentuated effect upon the positive film. even with some of the topical films a positive is not necessary. to submit the negative to the local theatre or prospective purchaser is often a good way of saving time and being first in the field. many theatres now are being equipped with dark rooms and printing machines. a glance at the negative will enable the manager to decide whether the film is serviceable or otherwise, and if a purchase is made, the deletion of the uninteresting parts can be made before printing. incidentally, one great advantage of this is that the film is submitted for consideration about three or four hours earlier than would be the case if the independent worker struck off his own positive, and in these days of high pressure such a saving is important. it may often be the means of forestalling a competitor. even if it is intended to supply prints to two or three different picture palaces the negative offers a means of transacting business, because the respective establishments can give their orders, make their arrangements concerning announcements, and be able to judge fairly accurately the hour at which the film will be available for projection. in one instance an independent topical worker who had a first-class negative of a popular subject drove round from theatre to theatre with his negative and secured an order for about half-a-dozen copies. he then handed over the work of printing to a professional firm. four hours later he delivered the positives to the respective theatres, and ultimately he sold the negative outright to the firm who completed his printing contracts for the supply of other markets at their disposal. in another instance an enterprising amateur who had an excellent negative handed it over to a topical-film firm to print and circulate, the firm to take fifty per cent. of the receipts and to bear the expense of printing and other details. chapter viii aberrations of animated photography it has been pointed out in a previous chapter that cinematography is nothing more or less than an optical illusion. further proof of this assertion exists in plenty. when following the projection of a picture upon the screen, one is often perplexed by a curious effect, or a movement which appears to be in opposition to all the known laws of motion. this happens not only in trick work where such odd and startling effects are introduced purposely, but in straightforward every-day topical subjects. for instance, it must have been noticed that when a ship or railway train is in rapid movement, and is photographed from a fixed stationary point, such as the quay or platform, the moving object appears to stand out in bold relief against the background. one gathers a very comprehensive idea of its length, width, height, and the comparative size of all its integral parts, such as the guns on the ship's deck or the locomotive's cylinders. it is a curious stereoscopic effect, but at the same time is not truly so, because it is only the moving object which appears to possess solidity. the foreground and background remain as plane surfaces so that it is impossible to obtain an idea of distance. this effect arises from the fact that what might be described as the central part of the picture is moving or continually changing, thereby compelling all the objects attached to its length and breadth to assume relief in regard to the other parts of the picture. but if the camera with which the pictures are taken is placed upon the moving object itself, then the whole of the resulting picture stands out in a truly stereoscopic manner. one gathers an impression of distance between the various objects on the screen. everything is shown with form and solidity in precisely the same way as if one were looking through a hand stereoscope upon a photograph taken stereoscopically. this effect is due to the fact that all the planes are moving continually. but probably the most bewildering puzzle is the moving wheel. a carriage or waggon is seen advancing across the screen from left to right, but the spokes of the wheels, on the other hand, seem to be moving in the opposite direction. at other times the spokes move in successive spasmodic jumps, or appear to be stationary, so that a curious skidding effect is produced, notwithstanding that the rim itself is seen to be revolving normally. there have been many explanations of this extraordinary effect, and in one instance the higher mathematics were pressed into service without any great success. the most convincing explanation known to the writer is that given him by monsieur lucien bull, the assistant-director of the marey institute, where phenomena of this class are minutely investigated, because they accord with the work of that unique and admirable institution. by monsieur bull the illusion was explained very easily, but, curiously enough, in carrying out the experiments to this end, he encountered another illusion equally strange. [illustration: fig. .--the first picture of the four-spoke wheel.] [illustration: fig. .--during the eclipse of the lens the spokes have moved a distance equal to the angle between them, causing the spokes apparently to stand still while the wheel is moving.] to reduce the explanation to its simplest form we will suppose that a wheel has four spokes spaced equidistantly, that is, degrees apart, and that the wheel is moving from right to left. as a matter of fact such an example is not the best for the purpose, but it shall be taken merely because it is the simplest to understand. an exposure is made, the wheel being photographed in the position shown in fig. . the lens is eclipsed by the shutter, and the film is jerked downwards into position in the gate so as to bring a fresh unexposed surface before the lens. while this operation is taking place, we will suppose that the wheel, continuing its forward movement, completes one quarter of a revolution. consequently when the second exposure is made spoke has moved degrees, which is the angle between each spoke. accordingly it now occupies exactly the same position as that of spoke at the time of the first exposure. spoke has moved to the position formerly occupied by spoke . spoke has travelled sufficiently to take the place of spoke , while has gone to that of (fig. ). if four exposures are made, and the spokes move degrees each time the lens is closed, when the four pictures are thrown successively upon the screen they will look exactly alike. the spokes will appear to be quite stationary, although the rim of the wheel will have moved a distance equal to its circumference across the screen. consequently, if a dozen, a hundred, or a thousand exposures are made under these conditions, the spokes moving degrees between each exposure, a quaint skidding effect will be produced. all the spokes being alike the eye is unable to detect that any displacement has taken place between one exposure and another. this impression of the spokes standing still while the wheel is moving, must arise in every case in which the wheel moves sufficiently to cause the spokes to cover a distance equal to the angle between them during the interval while the lens is eclipsed by the shutter. it will happen equally whether the wheel has four, sixteen, or more spokes. [illustration: fig. .--during the eclipse of the lens the spokes move less than the angle (ab) between them, producing apparent backward motion of the spokes while the wheel is running forwards.] [illustration: fig. .--during the eclipse of the lens the spokes move more than the angle (ab) between them, and accordingly the wheel is seen to be moving naturally.] now we will suppose that the revolving speed of the wheel is retarded, causing less than a quarter of a revolution to be completed between each exposure. the spokes, let us say, move through an angle of degrees instead of degrees while the lens is eclipsed. the eye at first receives the impression shown in fig. . as the wheel only covers degrees during the eclipse, in the second picture the eye observes that movement has occurred. spoke is now behind the point formerly occupied by spoke (shown by the dotted line in fig. ) in the first exposure. the lens is eclipsed once more, and the spoke moves another degrees. when the next picture is seen spoke has fallen still farther behind the degrees mark, and this indication of less movement than the right angle becomes accentuated with each succeeding exposure. accordingly, the spokes in the successive pictures appear to be moving at a less speed than the rim of the wheel, and forthwith the eye imagines that the spokes are travelling backwards, although meantime the wheel rim is seen to be advancing across the screen. this remarkable effect is produced whenever the advance of the wheel is such as to cause the spokes to move less than the angle between them, no matter what the size of the angle may be. we will now suppose that the revolving speed of the wheel is accelerated so as to cause more than a quarter of a revolution to be made while the lens is eclipsed--that the spokes move forward degrees between each exposure. in this case, while the first picture will show the position indicated in fig. , the next exposure will show spoke in the position shown in fig. , that is, in advance of the angle of degrees and in advance of the position occupied by spoke --(see the dotted line)--in the first exposure. in the third picture the spoke will be shown still farther in advance of the right angle mark, and the effect will be produced of the spokes apparently gaining upon one another. when a series of pictures taken under such conditions is thrown upon the screen in rapid succession, the spokes and rim will be seen to be moving harmoniously in the forward and correct direction. accordingly natural movement of the wheel only can be shown when the spokes of the wheel, irrespective of their number, move a distance equal to more than the angle between them. [illustration: fig. .--when the spokes move slightly more (ac) or slightly less (ad) than half the angle (ab) between them, during the eclipse of the lens, the curious illusion of seeing twice the number of spokes in the wheel is produced.] in the course of elucidating this problem monsieur bull discovered another curious optical illusion produced by the moving wheel. still taking the four-spoke wheel as an illustration, we will suppose that between each exposure the spokes are displaced a little more or a little less than half the angle between them. as the spokes are set degrees apart, the half-way point will be degrees. when a succession of such pictures is thrown upon the screen, it is not four spokes which are seen, but eight (fig. ). monsieur bull is engaged upon a series of experiments to ascertain why this peculiar optical illusion should prevail, and the explanation will prove interesting. another interesting and more conclusive illustration of the optically illusory properties of the cinematograph was demonstrated to me by monsieur bull. in order to be absolutely positive that an apparatus which he uses in certain cinematographic investigations should maintain the speed he desires, he has contrived a tuning-fork control for his electric motor. this tuning-fork resembles a large trembler blade, such as is used in the high-tension accumulator and coil ignition system upon motor cars. this particular instrument is timed to make, say, vibrations per second, and at this speed, of course, it emits a distinctive musical note. this tuning-fork controls the electric motor driving the apparatus. for the purpose of illustration we will suppose it to be necessary that the speed of the motor shall not exceed revolutions per second. in the earliest experiments he depended upon his ear to detect whether the motor and tuning-fork were in synchrony. he varied the speed of the motor until its hum was dead in tune with that of the tuning-fork. but, as he thought that his ear might not be infallible, he devised an ingenious synchronising apparatus based upon the cinematographic principle. a small disk of cardboard provided with two holes near its edge, at opposite points of the circumference, is mounted upon the spindle of the tiny motor. behind this disk is placed a small adjustable mirror. a pencil of electric light is projected horizontally in such a manner that it strikes the cardboard disk at right angles, and, when a hole on the disk is brought into line with it, it passes through and falls upon the mirror. the mirror is then set so as to reflect and focus the pencil of light in a small circle upon the free vibrating extremity of the tuning-fork. naturally a strong shadow is thrown by the latter upon the white wall behind. in the daylight the vibration of this fork is distinctly visible, and although it is slight and rapid it can be followed without any effort. but when the room is darkened, the ray of light is thrown upon the tuning-fork from the mirror. when the motor bearing the cardboard disk is set in motion a very curious effect is produced. the pencil of light reflected against the tuning-fork becomes interrupted twice in every revolution of the disk, that is times per second, so that, looking at the background upon which the tuning-fork is silhouetted, the effect produced is precisely similar to that observable upon the cinematograph screen, where the passage of the light from the lantern is interrupted by the rotary action of the shutter. if the revolving speed of the motor, that is the number of revolutions per second, is the same as the number of vibrations per second of the tuning-fork, viz. , the end of the fork, as one looks at the illuminated circle on the wall against which the shadow is thrown, appears to be at rest. one only needs to touch the end of the fork, however, to be certain that it is vibrating. now if the motor be thrown out of synchrony with the tuning-fork, even if it makes only or instead of revolutions per second, the disturbance is shown instantly, because looking at the illuminated tuning-fork one observes it jumping spasmodically. this movement becomes more pronounced as the harmony between the revolutions of the motor and the fork is disturbed, the jumps of the blade at times being apparently of a very severe character. moreover, curiously enough, under the illumination of the ray of light the erratic movements of the blade appear to be three or four times more severe than they really are. but as the motor revolutions and the tuning-fork vibrations are brought into synchrony, the movements grow quieter, until at last the tuning-fork once more appears to be quiescent. the explanation of this quasi-cinematographic illusion, which is as interesting and as puzzling as that of the wheel, is very simple, for it is based indeed upon the same phenomena. as the cardboard disk is provided with two small holes spaced degrees apart, the passage of the ray of light is intercepted by the opaque section of the disk times per second when the motor revolutions and the tuning-fork vibrations are in absolute synchrony. the result is that at this speed the light strikes the tuning-fork each time at the instant it is at the half-way point in its oscillating travel. one hole in the disk comes before the light when the blade has completed half its movement in one direction, while the second hole comes into line with the light when the blade is at the same point on its return journey. consequently the light falls upon the blade at the same spot every time, causing the eye to imagine that it sees the blade always in the one position as if under a steady ray of continuous light. hence comes its apparent quiescence. but directly the speed of the motor is altered in relation to the vibration of the tuning-fork, the rays of light catch the blade at varying points in its travel, and these changes, coming in quick succession, convey the visual idea of movement. acceleration of the motor so that its revolving speed per second exceeds the number of the tuning-fork vibrations, causes the perceptible movements to be made more quickly, while on the other hand deceleration slows them down. in reality the eye imagines that it sees more than what actually takes place; it imagines that the blade of the fork is kicking spasmodically and viciously, whereas in fact the extent of the movement to and fro is constant and never changes. while the experiment is peculiarly fascinating, its application is extremely useful to the worker. it offers a means of being absolutely certain about the speed at which the instrument utilised in a particular investigation is running, so that the resulting calculations may be completed without the slightest error. chapter ix slowing down rapid movements during the past few years much effort has been spent upon adapting the cinematograph so that it will record exceedingly rapid movements, such as a bullet in flight. some popular films of this character have been placed on the market, and, in order to attract the public, have been colloquially described as "quicker-than-thought" or "quicker-than-the-eye" movements. strictly speaking both the latter designations are erroneous, especially in regard to the eye, inasmuch as if a bullet fired from a rifle were brilliant white the eye would be able to follow its flight with ease, notwithstanding the fact that it may issue from the muzzle with a travelling speed of , feet or more per second. so far as the moving-picture camera is concerned it is obvious that the ordinary machine could not be operated with sufficient speed to film a bullet in flight, or even to catch the flap of the wings of a small insect, such as a house-fly or bee. it would be impossible to jerk the film through the gate with sufficient speed to take perhaps five thousand pictures per second--the mechanism, and more particularly the film, would break down before a fiftieth of the number of pictures were taken in the space of one second. accordingly, great ingenuity has been displayed by cinematograph investigators in the evolution of a means of snapping such extremely rapid movements at sufficient speed to make the films interesting or scientifically useful. this particular branch of the craft was developed first by monsieur lucien bull, of the marey institute, who designed a novel and ingenious camera capable of taking up to two thousand pictures per second.[ ] with this apparatus many wonderful films have been obtained, and such a fascinating field of study has been revealed that attempts are being made in all directions to secure "quicker-than-thought" films that would have been thought ten years ago to be photographically impossible. monsieur bull is developing his idea in order to be in a position to obtain longer records of a subject, and also to take the photographs at a higher rate of speed. professor cranz, a german experimenter, also has carried out some novel experiments on the same lines, and has designed a system whereby he is able to take a photograph in the ten-millionth part of a second. [ ] see "moving pictures: how they are made and worked," chapter xxiv., page . this particular phase of cinematographic investigation is wonderfully fascinating, and from the private worker's point of view it is additionally attractive because it offers him an opportunity to display his ingenuity. it is only by individual effort and the mutual communication of ideas that perfection can be achieved, and in this one field there is great scope. there are many problems which have to be solved, many of which are peculiar to this particular study. it involves a combination of the electrical and cinematographic expert, since dependence has to be placed upon the electric spark for illumination, and also upon electricity for operating the mechanism. in such work as this the time factor is a most important feature. obviously, from the scientific point of view, it is essential to have some reliable means of determining the fraction of a second in which each picture is taken and also the period which elapses between the successive pictures. in the system devised by monsieur lucien bull a tuning-fork is used. the vibrations of this fork per second are known, and as the two ends of the fork are reproduced in each image, it is by no means difficult to calculate the time factor. dr. e. j. marey insisted strongly on the importance of this registration of time. it is obviously essential in many kinds of scientific work. marey during his life investigated some very rapid natural movements such as those of a pigeon's wings during flight. such a film would have been useless from the scientific point of view, unless there were some means of showing in what interval of time each successive picture was taken, and also the period which elapsed between each exposure. knowledge of these two facts enables one to tell the time occupied in making a complete flap of the wing, and the physical changes which take place in the shape of the wing to accommodate the bird to different conditions, and it also enables the investigator to trace the motion photographically lost while the lens is eclipsed to permit the film to be moved forward. to this end marey devised an interesting type of clock. it consisted of a dial provided with one large revolving hand which was driven by ordinary clockwork. the face of the dial was marked off into twenty equal divisions, each of which corresponded to one-twentieth part of a second. this "chronoscope" as it was called, was placed near the object under cinematographic study, so that both the movement of the clock-hand and that of the object were photographed simultaneously. this system of timing motions it may be pointed out has been revived in a similar form by mr. frank gilbreth in connection with "micro-motion" study described in another chapter. [illustration: _by courtesy of the marey institute._ marey's apparatus for taking moving-pictures of rapid movements. (for explanation see p. .)] [illustration: _by courtesy of the marey institute._ cinematographing rapid movements. the complete beat of a pigeon's wing secured by dr. marey in eighteen pictures, and taken, according to the "chronoscope" in the corner, in / ths of a second.] marey also evolved a means of adapting the camera so as to enable him to take the pictures at a speed exceeding sixteen per second. he did not change the mechanism of the camera very radically, but was able to secure as many as one hundred and ten pictures per second. his arrangement of the camera was very simple, as shown on the plate opposite. the film travelled intermittently, its arrest for each exposure being very abrupt. in the camera were two cylinders c and c^ between which the film passed, and these cylinders revolved in opposite directions and towards one another. as the two peripheries of the cylinders were brought together the film was gripped and was moved forward by friction, somewhat in the manner of the clutch-action which was adopted in the very first moving-picture cameras. but each cylinder was provided with eight flattened sections, of equal length, disposed equidistantly. consequently, when two opposing flat surfaces came together the grip on the film was momentarily released, and the film stopped, though the cylinders continued their rotary motion. by the incorporation of gear trains the number of revolutions could be varied up to about seventeen or eighteen per second. in the camera, above the lens was a small device whereby the sudden and complete stoppage of the film was assured during the periods when it was not gripped by the cylinders below. another similar device was introduced at f above the window, through which the mechanism at the gate was visible, and this also pressed lightly upon the film to counteract all the vibrations set up from its quick intermittent movement. the unexposed film was mounted upon a spool in the removable box r in the usual manner, but before being fed into the camera it passed between two other friction disks d and k, and was then fed through the camera mechanism and out at the bottom into a second removable spool box l, where it was wound in after exposure. this lower box also contained two friction disks similar to those in the unexposed film box, and the larger of these cylinders in the lower box, like d in the upper or unexposed box, was driven by the revolving handle, through belts and pulleys. it was a very simple apparatus. although it was open to the objection that the film might slip while photographs were being taken at high speed, marey proved strikingly successful in his use of it, his pictures being wonderfully steady, even when taken at a speed of one hundred and forty per second. in photographing the beat of a pigeon's wings he secured a complete cycle of motion in eighteen pictures, which, by reference to the chronoscope visible in the same field, shows that they were recorded in three-twentieths of a second. such an adaptation of the camera could be used successfully to-day for what might be described, somewhat paradoxically, as slow rapid movements. but it would be better to secure a more positive and simple means of moving the film forward. of course the main advantage of the friction disk system is that the film suffers no damage as it moves. in an ordinary camera, working on the conventional claw principle, there would be a tendency to tear the perforations when the pictures exceeded sixty or so per second, and it would prove difficult in some instances to ensure the absolute quiescence and steadiness of the film during exposure. with the geneva stop system of moving the film, a steady smooth movement is more easily obtained than with the claw mounted upon a sharp eccentric. for such work where there is no desire to exceed two hundred pictures or so per second, the ideal camera is that which has been perfected by monsieur m. p. noguès, of the marey institute. in general appearance this camera resembles the ordinary machine. it was designed specially for the purpose of field work, for which monsieur bull's camera is not suitable. in monsieur bull's camera the illumination is effected by means of the electric spark, and it is impossible by this means to light a large field. [illustration: fig. .--mechanism of the noguès camera, wherewith up to two hundred and forty pictures per second can be taken.] in monsieur noguès' camera there are two claws, each mounted upon its own eccentric, and the film passes between them. the claws do not work together. that is to say, they do not engage the film simultaneously on both sides, but work alternately. when one is engaged with the film the other is in the out position. without entering into a technical description of the mechanism it may be stated that there is an articulated lever system, so designed as to give the claws an irregular d-shaped trajectory, which is very rapid and abrupt, the ascent of the claw to re-engage with the film being sharper and quicker than is possible in the orthodox design. the general design of the claw mechanism and its method of operation may be gathered from a reference to fig. , wherein the paths described by the moving parts are indicated clearly. the handle whereby the camera is operated is turned at the normal speed of two revolutions per second, but this, owing to the gearing, causes ninety or more downward jerks to be imparted to the film f during each second. this makes one hundred and eighty film movements by the two claws per second, and consequently one hundred and eighty exposures. notwithstanding the high speed at which the celluloid ribbon is moved through the camera, there are no signs whatever of tearing. furthermore, the film, during the brief period of exposure--from / th to / th part of a second--remains perfectly steady and quiet in the gate. the first camera built on this principle had a maximum speed of one hundred and eighty pictures per second, but by modifying certain details it was found possible to increase the velocity in a subsequent machine to two hundred and two hundred and forty pictures per second. this represents a far higher speed than has ever yet been attained with the ordinary moving-picture apparatus. the machine is no larger than the ordinary type, although, owing to the rapidity with which the pictures are taken, the externally fitting film-box system is adopted, so as to provide a supply of about feet of film for exposure. in projection on the screen the speed is reduced to about one-twentieth or more of the rate of the exposure. the results are far superior to any which have yet been seen upon the screen. the movements are steadier and more continuous, inasmuch as the proportion of lost movement is about one-twentieth of what it is with the orthodox instrument. the result is that one sees upon the screen many phases of movement which otherwise escape detection or are only partially shown under present cinematographing conditions. owing to the gearing and the balance of the moving parts the operation of this camera is not more fatiguing than that of the ordinary instrument; indeed, it runs far more easily and lightly. the camera has been evolved for the express purpose of reinvestigating many of the studies conducted by marey, which, owing to the imperfect appliances at his disposal, are possibly incomplete. but it may be asked, where is the demand for pictures taken at such a speed? in reply it is only necessary to point out that such photographing speeds are indispensable in studying the motions of the smaller members of the animal kingdom. for instance, an amateur recently prepared a film showing the life and habits of lizards. they were taken at the normal speed of sixteen pictures per second, which the operator judged to be sufficient. but when the pictures were shown upon the screen, the very motions which are the most interesting, such as the movement of the tongue, jerk of the head, and so forth, were lost. similarly, another film depicted the chameleon, but failed to catch the instantaneous throw of its tongue. on the other hand, when the pictures were taken at the accelerated speed of fifty to eighty per second, the results were strikingly different. not only were they more complete, but they were smoother, more continuous, and more natural; in fact, they were practically identical with those which the human eye observes in the creatures themselves. phases of natural movement, capable of being recorded at speeds ranging between eighty and two hundred per second, are the most promising spheres of moving-picture activity at the present moment. nature study never fails to arouse enthusiasm, while from the operator's point of view it is indescribably fascinating. something unexpected is secured at every turn of the handle. the portrayal of nature stirs the emotions of wonder, it is true to fact, and it often introduces the spectator to something about which he has read but which he never has seen. consequently, so far as life is concerned, the pictures should never be taken at less than forty to fifty per second, unless one is contented to have a mere distorted impression of what actually takes place. even moving-pictures of the snail or tortoise, generally considered to move very slowly, should never be photographed at a less speed, because these have actions which cannot be caught at sixteen pictures per second. generally speaking, the smaller the live subject under investigation, the more rapid should be the photographing speed. the movements of a bee's wings cannot be caught at sixteen or even two hundred pictures per second. this was proved some time ago when monsieur lucien bull, by the aid of his electric spark system, and special camera, obtained a series of photos showing how a bee regains its normal balance when it is upset. for this purpose a bee was launched from the special apparatus used in connection with the camera, with its equilibrium very seriously disturbed. so rapid was its recovery that twenty pictures taken in succession at the above speed served to illustrate the whole operation, the final photograph showing the bee in normal flight. this was the first occasion wherein this peculiar phenomenon had been photographically recorded, and the unique character of the achievement may be realised from the fact that the bee regained its balance in the infinitesimal period of approximately the hundredth part of a second. even in photographing a man, to show rapid walking motion, a speed of sixteen pictures per second is far from adequate. if he happens to be walking at four miles an hour quite per cent. of the motion is lost, and the movement portrayed under these conditions is spasmodic and jerky. for a natural cinematographic record of a man walking, at the present orthodox rate of sixteen pictures per second, his pace should not exceed a mile an hour. therefore to film a man walking at four miles an hour the photographing speed should not be less than sixty-four pictures per second. though the ultra-rapid movement involves the use of intricate electrical apparatus, it is a peculiarly absorbing study. the appliances required are necessarily expensive, but, since it is virtually an untouched province, enormous opportunities await the patient worker. it is additionally attractive because each worker is to a very great extent dependent upon his own ingenuity in the design of efficient auxiliaries and secondary apparatus. it is this wide scope for individual initiative which causes rapid cinematography to be so keenly appreciated by investigators, and, as results have shown, their discoveries when popularised make a very deep impression on the public. of course, in projection, it is useless to attempt to throw the successive pictures upon the screen at anything approaching the speed at which they were snapped. if the flight of a bullet recorded at say ten thousand images per second, were projected at a corresponding speed, nothing would be seen. so, in projection, the speed is slowed down; the subject photographed at two thousand pictures per second is thrown upon the screen and brought to the eye at the rate of sixteen pictures per second. the bullet moves across the screen with the pace of a snail. the wings of a dragon fly, which in life make several hundred oscillations per second, appear to move as sluggishly as those of a barn-door fowl. but the detail and the complex movements are recorded; the eye sees and follows something which has formerly been beyond its powers. if it is desired to reduce the speed to its absolute slowest point, so as to facilitate even closer study, the operator can take advantage, to an extreme degree, of the phenomenon of the persistence of vision. this has been done by monsieur lucien bull. it is impossible to reduce the speed of projection to less than sixteen pictures per second, for this is the lowest rate at which the laws of persistence will allow of an appearance of continuous motion. yet there is an ingenious way of obtaining the equivalent of a speed of eight pictures per second, and this without either disturbing the apparently lifelike movement or producing any flicker. the method is by duplicating each separate picture of the negative upon the positive. that is to say each negative picture is printed twice in succession upon the positive, so that inches of film, which normally would carry sixteen successive and different pictures carries in this case only eight. when projected upon the screen, at the rate of sixteen pictures per second, the eye fails to detect that it is seeing every picture twice. this might almost be described as an optical illusion, and it makes another interesting proof that the eye can be deluded by cinematography. monsieur bull, after having found that the eye did not observe that two identical pictures were shown in succession, endeavoured to carry multiplication still farther. he found, however, that a pair of pictures was the limit. when three identical pictures were shown in succession the impression upon the eye was too long. the movement from triplet to triplet gave a disjointed effect such as arises in ordinary projection when the speed is too slow. chapter x speeding-up slow movements the preceding chapter described how it is possible to photograph extraordinarily rapid movements and to slow down in projection so as to enable the eye to follow them. now i will go to the other extreme and show how the very slowest movements can be accelerated and thrown upon the screen in continuous motion. this feature has proved one of the most popular in the whole range of cinematography, for it has enabled the public to follow, within the course of a few minutes, such wonderful and apparently impossible studies as the growth of a plant from the germination of the seed and the appearance of the leaves to the bursting of the bloom and the formation of the seed for the propagation of the species. the speeding-up of relatively slow movements has become a favourite branch of research among cinematograph workers mainly because it is simple, inexpensive, and comparatively easy. the worker needs to develop only one special faculty. that is patience, for the recording of a single subject may easily extend over a period of a month or so, and the camera has to be kept going night and day to produce a faithful record. it is a field which the amateur can follow very profitably. it puts no great tax on his skill. the risk of failure is slight, and the films thus obtained, if worked out upon popular or instructive lines, are certain to command a ready market. for this work one may use the ordinary £ ($ ) camera. it illustrates the fact that cinematography is nothing more nor less than a string of successive snap-shots, for the principle is that which is generally described as "one turn one picture." that is to say, instead of the handle being turned continuously as in taking a topical subject, it is moved at stated intervals, and only sufficiently to make one exposure and to jerk the film downwards the required distance ready to receive the succeeding image. it virtually resolves cinematography into ordinary snap-shot or kodak photography. this development, like many others widely practised in the moving-picture world to-day, has issued from the marey institute. it was there exploited in the usual manner for the study of natural movement and phenomena. in the early days of the present century, even before the picture palace came into vogue, the workers of this institution produced a short length of film showing the opening of the blossom of a convolvulus. although this film is some ten years old it would be difficult even now to improve upon it. the opening movement of the petals is so steady and perfect as to suggest that the exposure was not intermittent but continuous. in these particular studies success in the main depends upon the apparatus employed for the periodical exposure of the film and the judgment shown in deciding the lapse of time between the successive exposures. naturally this varies according to the characteristics of the subject under investigation. a mushroom, for instance, demands exposure at briefer intervals than would be necessary for filming the growth of a grain of wheat. the timing is perhaps the most difficult part of the undertaking, because if it is not gauged to a nicety the movement on the screen is apt to be unnatural, the growth taking place in a series of sudden jerks instead of proceeding slowly, steadily and gracefully. many a first-class film of this character has been ruined because the interval between the exposures has been too long to bring about the necessary blending together of the motions in the successive pictures. no hard and fast rule can be laid down to guide the worker. experience and close study of the subject being photographed can alone enable this factor to be determined. the auxiliary apparatus to ensure the exposures being made at regular intervals need not be of an intricate character. the simpler the means, the more likely is the result to be successful. clockwork mechanism can be devised to open the shutter at stated intervals, but this system suffers from one serious disadvantage. the mechanism must be wound up regularly, and when a long study is in progress, extending over a fortnight or a month, the worker is apt to overlook this indispensable duty. there is one worker who generally uses a water motor, and has found it very reliable; but it cannot be safely left, and it ceases to act if the public water supply be cut off. the most reliable agent for such work is electricity. when the marey institute first embarked upon these tedious subjects a very elaborate apparatus was employed. it was like a gallows, being in reality a massive wooden frame (see illustration facing page ) fitted with a pulley. a rope passed over this pulley, and to one end was attached a weight p. the other end passed round a small winch t, to which the camera c was connected. upon the spindle connecting these two parts of the mechanism was a small wing-piece l, one of the extremities of which rested upon a vertical spindle e connected with an electro-magnet f. in the electro-magnet circuit was a small water-balancer b having two cells and a see-saw motion. this was driven by a stream of water flowing from the tap of the tank r. the flow of water from the tap could be regulated. when the elevated cell of the balancer was filled, its weight caused it to fall. as it fell the electric circuit of the battery v was closed. this caused the small vertical rod e to be drawn downwards by the electro-magnet f. the descent of the rod allowed the leaf l to fall. the make and break in the electro-magnet was instantaneous, so that the vertical rod e immediately returned to its normal position, with the result that, when the wing came round, after completing a revolution, it was stopped, and remained there until the second cell of the water-balancer, filling and falling in its turn, repeated the cycle of operations. as the rod carrying the wing l was the common axis of the winch and the driving mechanism of the camera the release of the wing brought the strain of the weight p upon the cord, and thereby moved the camera driving mechanism a complete revolution. thus it conformed to the "one-turn-one-picture" movement. it was a combination of weight-driven and electrical mechanism, and, though apparently complicated and certainly cumbersome, it was satisfactory because it completed its work with unerring steadiness and regularity. as the weight p descended a very small distance for each exposure a single winding-up was sufficient to drive the mechanism for several hours. the intervals between the exposures could be varied by turning the tap on or off, thereby changing the volume of water flowing into the balancer. the thinner the water stream the longer the period required to fill the cell, the longer the interval between each see-saw, and obviously the greater the lapse of time between each exposure. similarly the time intervals between each exposure could be shortened by turning on the tap so that the cell became filled more quickly. [illustration: _by courtesy of the marey institute._ the elaborate apparatus contrived at the marey institute to take the first moving-pictures of the opening of a flower. (for explanation see p. .)] [illustration: the first motion-pictures of an opening flower. taken at the marey institute. the complete opening of a convolvulus is shown in fifteen pictures.] [illustration: _by courtesy of the marey institute._ the development of a colony of marine organisms. (read from top to bottom and left to right.)] in the marey institute investigations with the convolvulus, which was placed on a chair a short distance from the lens of the camera, sixteen successive snap-shots were made in the hour. these pictures, taken at intervals of four minutes, show the complete opening of the flower, the phases in the successive pictures blending so well together as to convey the impression that the pictures were taken at the normal speed. a striking contrast to the bulky, weighty, and massive apparatus employed ten years ago to photograph intermittently the opening of a flower is the latest device which is employed at this institute for this work. it is a small, light compact contrivance driven by a kind of carriage clock. this clock actuates two levers whereby electric contacts are made at predetermined intervals to open and close the lens. this mechanism can be set so as to give exposures at intervals ranging from a minute to several hours, and will run for twenty-four hours without attention. the apparatus is as accurate as it is ingenious. it is obvious, however, in such work, that a great deal depends upon the personality of the worker himself. if he is skilful he will find no difficulty in devising a reliable timing apparatus which he can trust for hours together. but the simpler the character of the appliances the more trustworthy will they prove, because the reduction in the number of the component parts will decrease their liability to derangement and irregular action. seeing that exposures have to be continued at the predetermined intervals throughout the whole twenty-four hours, arrangements must be made for artificial illumination during the night. this should not prove a difficult problem. there is a wide range of illuminants--electricity, gas, acetylene, etc.--from which a choice can be made according to the circumstances of the case. thus a worker living in country districts may find a difficulty in obtaining electric current or coal gas, in which case he must rely upon acetylene, or a petrol gas flame, in conjunction with an incandescent mantle, or even an electric battery and flash-lamp with a reflector. if electricity or coal gas are available from public supply sources there need be no anxieties whatever. a metallic filament incandescent electric lamp of high power is quite sufficient for the purpose, and if there is need for a concentrated strong light it can be obtained by mounting the lamp within a parabolic reflector, such as is used for automobiles. coal gas with an incandescent burner and mantle is just as efficient, and concentration in this case can be managed in the same way with a reflector. but it is necessary to make sure that no draughts play upon the gas flame, as the intensity of the light might thus be greatly impoverished. acetylene is a very useful and powerful illuminant when all else fails. it is the nearest artificial approach to sunlight. petrol gas with an incandescent mantle will be found just as good as ordinary coal gas, while there are many cheap lamps well adapted for its use. if all these alternatives are lacking there is the electric flash lamp working with the dry battery. a tiny metallic filament incandescent bulb mounted within a parabolic reflector will give a light of intense brilliancy. but the exhaustion of the battery causes the value of this light to diminish in a relatively short time, so it is well not to let it burn continuously. there should be a means of producing the flash only at the moment the timing apparatus makes the exposure. in one application of this system the flash and the movement of the shutter are controlled by an electro-magnet, arranged in such a manner that the lamp lights up a fraction of a second before the shutter is moved. thus the object under study is in the full glare of the light before the film is exposed. of course, if a high capacity accumulator can be obtained, such as that of the latest edison nickel type, the light may be left burning continuously. but when there is already an electrical system of actuating the shutter it is a simple matter to incorporate a means of limiting the contact in the lamp to the moment of the exposure. for the average worker, however, the electrical system is too costly. he will usually prefer a form of light which can be allowed to burn continuously through the night. even the longest night will not consume a very great quantity of current or gas. also, unless some very accurate mechanism is used for controlling the intermittent operation of the light, there is always a chance that the exposure and the illumination may fail to synchronise, and thus an excellent film might be ruined. the "one-turn-one-picture" movement has to be adopted for many subjects other than flowers. for instance, it is necessary in filming the movements of the star-fish, in evolution phenomena such as the emergence of a chicken from its shell, and in the case of certain minute organisms which can be cinematographed only with the aid of a microscope. but the same broad principles apply in each case; there is equal need for time and patience, while complete success can only be achieved by careful observation and ingenuity. there are critical moments in such work and the unexpected frequently happens. unless the operator is equal to the emergency weeks of tedious labour may be wasted. the study of exceedingly slow movements offers a very promising field to the patient worker. a film which occupies a month to photograph, and entails an exposure once every thirty minutes, produces a film only feet in length. in projection it passes across the screen in a minute and a half. this means that a process of nature is condensed into one thirty-seven-thousandth part of the time it actually took, and its presentation on the screen is a remarkable triumph. but at first sight the minute and a half seems a very slight return for the time and labour expended. this is one of the principal reasons why the professional cinematographer displays a marked aversion to the recording of slow movements. on the other hand, it offers unique attractions to the private investigator, for the time occupied in preparing a film that reveals the wonders of nature invariably commands a high price if it has the elements of popularity or novelty. chapter xi continuous cinematographic records it has already been pointed out that the intermittent method of taking cinematograph pictures results in the loss of certain motions which occur during the interval when the lens is eclipsed by the shutter. a similar loss is experienced by the eye, in daily life, when it blinks. in the case of blinking, of course, the proportion of movement which escapes observation is exceedingly small. but in cinematography practically one half of the movement is lost. when very rapid movements are being investigated these losses become appreciable--in fact the most vital part of a motion may be missed during the / part of a second during which the lens is covered by the shutter. there are many fields in which cinematography as at present practised is quite useless owing to this intermittent eclipse of the lens. suppose that the behaviour of a rapidly moving piston rod is under observation. with the ordinary type of moving picture camera and process the results are quite misleading. the piston travels so rapidly, perhaps at a rate of , lineal feet per minute, that with sixteen pictures per second only a very small proportion of the work would be recorded. this deficiency, however, is remedied by another development in chronophotography. this is the continuous cinematographic record, the outstanding feature of which is the elimination of the revolving shutter and the intermittent movement of the film, in favour of a lens that is constantly open, a sensitized ribbon that moves steadily and continuously all the time the experiment is in progress. marey, in the course of his momentous investigations with animated photography, used this system for a number of experiments in which an intermittent exposure would not have afforded sufficiently precise results. recent experiments have substantiated marey's contentions upon this point, and have shown how unreliable are the results obtained with sixteen pictures per second where extraordinary precision is required. an effort was made to remove the drawback of the intermittent method by writing in, or divining, the movement which occurred during the periods of eclipse, but this method, in turn, was found to be unreliable. there are some motions which it is impossible to imagine or anticipate, even if they do occur in the one-thirty-second or one-sixty-fourth part of a second. [illustration: _by courtesy of the marey institute._ continuous moving-picture records of the beats and sounds of the heart. electro-cardiogramme of a normal person. the upper line refers to the heart beats; the lower line is a photographic record of the heart sounds. these wonderful pictures are rendered possible by dr. einthoven's string galvanometer in conjunction with mr. lucien bull's ingenious camera.] [illustration: _by courtesy of the marey institute._ continuous moving-pictures of the heart beats of an excited person. the upper line shows the palpitations occurring at irregular intervals, while the lower line is a cinematographic record of the heart sounds.] under these circumstances the continuous photographing system is now very extensively employed. it has undergone many wonderful developments and achieved extraordinary success. one of the most interesting and marvellous of its triumphs was won with the extremely sensitive "string" galvanometer, which was invented by the eminent dutch scientist, professor einthoven. this particular apparatus has been of incalculable value to the medical profession, and monsieur lucien bull has constructed a special camera with the idea of obtaining permanent and continuous cinematographic records of the experiments conducted by means of it. the apparatus employed for this particular sphere of operations is of a somewhat involved character. fundamentally the camera is that which was designed by monsieur bull for photographing the flight of insects at the rate of two thousand pictures per second, but it has been modified to suit the new conditions. the reason why it offers the best chance of securing a continuous record is that its sensitized ribbon is mounted upon a drum, a single winding of which produces a photographic record about feet inches in length. the principle of the einthoven string galvanometer may be described roughly in a few words. there is a very fine conducting wire, or fibre, of platinum or silvered quartz, which is stretched across the magnetic field of the galvanometer. it is extremely thin, being virtually a hair. now, when an electric current, ever so slight, is transmitted through this fibre, or string, as it is called by the inventor, it is deflected from its position of rest, the extent of the deviation varying with the strength of the electrical disturbance. when a slight current is sent through the string it may betray the fact with no more than a slight tremor, but a stronger current will cause it to move violently. a pencil of light, from an electric arc lamp, is transmitted through the galvanometer in such a way that the string is brilliantly lighted. an enlarged image of the string is then thrown upon the sensitized ribbon in the camera by means of a powerful microscope lens. seeing that the time and distance measurements in such delicate experiments as these are of the first importance, the sensitized surface upon which the record is printed--paper or film--is calibrated photographically while the experiment is proceeding. it is divided into small squares, the longitudinal lines referring to the time factor, while the transverse lines indicate the extent of the movement of the quartz thread. this continuous record system is of inestimable value in connection with physiological researches when details concerning the beating of the heart are desired. a person who places a finger of each hand upon the extremities of the string, witnesses the recording of his own heart beats. for the brief period between each beat the string remains quiescent in its normal position, and the record of the same, the enlarged shadow thrown by the pencil of light through the microscope lens, is made upon the sensitized surface within the camera in the form of a steady straight line. the beat of the heart sends an impulse of electricity through the galvanometer, and causes the string to deviate rapidly. as the pencil of light is shining continuously through the microscope lens of the instrument, it stands to reason that the slightest tremor of the thread, accentuated in the shadow, must be recorded. no vibration is too slight to be caught. not only is the extent of the vibration photographed and capable of being calculated by means of the calibration, but, as the sensitized ribbon is travelling continuously past the lens, the duration of the vibration is photographed as well. in the case of a normal and healthy person the number of vibrations on the record, corresponding to heart-beats, will average about per minute, and their extent or amplitude will remain comparatively even. but if the person is in bad health, excited, or exhausted, the palpitations will be depicted in the most erratic manner, both as regards their occurrence and their force. one very powerful palpitation, for instance, may be followed by a comparatively long interval of quiescence, succeeded by several spasmodic short movements at brief unequal periods. from the medical point of view the perfection of the system offers illimitable opportunities. in the hospital, where a patient may be lying in a critical condition, the surgeon can have a continuous record of the state of his pulse without its being felt by hand at intervals. the physician, in unusual or baffling cases of disease, can have a photographic record of the pulse and heart movements from the moment the symptoms develop until the patient either dies or recovers. it also enables the physician to be informed as to how the invalid is responding to his treatment. hitherto, the practice has been to feel the pulse at varying specified intervals, to commit the readings to a chart, and then to connect the points by lines so as to show at a glance whether heart movement has accelerated or decelerated, and to what degree. such charts are satisfactory so far as they go, but they may be erroneous, because the action of the heart may have fluctuated between the readings. with the continuous photographic system, however, guesswork does not enter into the issue at all. the complete story is set down in an unimpeachable graphic manner. perhaps the most extraordinary feature of this development is that the very sounds of the heart palpitations can be committed to a sensitized surface in a continuous manner. the principle is much the same as in the case of the record of the heart's movements. there is a small light disk provided with an aperture, mounted upon a stand. across this aperture is stretched a thread of platinum or quartz. this instrument is placed in the horizontal path of a pencil of light, between the camera and the source of illumination, so that the ray passes through the aperture of the disk to enter the lens of the camera. consequently the shadow of the quartz thread is thrown upon the sensitized surface in the camera. a film of soapy water is spread over the aperture in the disk, and this, of course, comes into contact with the quartz thread. the provision of this film in reality converts the disk into a very sensitive diaphragm. now a stethoscope is placed over the patient's heart, the opposite end of which is connected to the disk in such a way as to bear upon the surface of the soap bubble. when the heart beats the noise which is set up thereby is received by the stethoscope and conveyed to the soap bubble. the bubble, being very sensitive, responds to the sound movement in greater or less degree. as it vibrates, it naturally moves the quartz thread with it, and the moving shadow of the string is caught by the photographic film in the camera. in this manner the surgeon or observer can have a permanent continuous record of the sound of the heart beats converted into movement, and from the regularity of the oscillations he is able to tell whether the heart is beating regularly. if desired, the record of both the heart-beat as demonstrated by the galvanometer, and the sound of the palpitation as indicated by the soap bubble diaphragm, may be obtained upon one chart, and, in synchrony, so as to set a double check upon the observations. the chronophotography of continuous movement has been brought to a high stage of perfection by the searching experiments of professor einthoven. from the physiological point of view he has contributed most valuable data concerning the heart, for his experiments have been with subjects of all ages and in varying conditions of health. the investigations have been extended to animals also, showing the differences in heart beating phenomena between the various members of the animal kingdom. [illustration: _by courtesy of the marey institute._ continuous cinematography.--the palpitations of a rabbit's heart. the vertical lines indicate the extent of the heart beat, while the horizontal lines give the time interval.] [illustration: the stereo-motion orbit of a machinist's hand. lines of light indicating to-and-fro hand movements. the latest development in micro-motion study. a small electric incandescent lamp is attached to the workman's hand, and the lines of light photographed.] there is an increasing tendency to adopt continuous cinematography in preference to the intermittent motion for many other phases of particular study, especially where very fine results are desired. one mechanical engineer has applied the method to the measurement of the deflection of bridges when undergoing tests. monsieur deslandres adopted a combination of stylography and chronophotography for recording the vibrations in metal bridges under varying conditions of traffic as far back as , but the direct cinematograph record is to be preferred. sometimes a camera has been used in combination with the existing processes of observations, so that a photograph of the actual movement and of its extent is obtained simultaneously, while the calibration of the sensitized surface, or the introduction of a clock, like that used by marey, enables the time intervals to be accurately determined. another ingenious form of continuous record, which was made many years ago by soret and georges demeny, the collaborator of marey, has been revived in an improved form by mr. frank b. gilbreth, the eminent american authority on motion study. in this case a moving film is not absolutely essential, but under certain conditions it is to be preferred. the object of the study is the tracing of motions with a view to their improvement and expedition, or the elimination of unnecessary actions, so that the particular task may be achieved in less time and with reduced exertion. a stationary plate may be used, and the path of the motion is indicated by a ribbon of light from a small electric incandescent lamp which is attached to the hand or other limb of the subject. in this instance the plate presents an apparent jumble of lines, but by the aid of a magnifying glass the complete cycle of movements can be followed from end to end. when the photographs are taken upon a stationary plate, however, it is necessary that they should be taken stereoscopically, so that relief may be given to the picture to enable the movement to be followed correctly. the hand or limb may not be visible in the photograph, but that is a minor detail, because the path it has described is indicated by the lines of light. when the subject is continually advancing, where it does not double back upon itself, a slowly moving film will supply a complete and perfect graphic record of its progress. but in all such experiments the timing element must be incorporated, or the record will have little practical value, and will provide no conclusive evidence. a novel application of this method was carried out by demeny several years ago. the scope of the investigation was the study of the characteristic walks and gaits incidental to certain maladies. patients suffering from rheumatism and other complaints which interfere with the natural walking motions were taken into a darkened room. incandescent electric lights were attached to their shoulders, heads, and other parts of their bodies, and these were photographed as the subjects moved about the darkened room. the results upon the sensitized surface were merely the paths described by the moving lights. there have been many applications of the continuous record, especially to the work of testing physical, chemical, or electrical phenomena. the observer is certain to obtain a correct result. this has been shown in certain microscopical observations where the movements are extremely rapid, and where a graphic outline is more important than the photographic detail of the subject. the great advantage of the continuous cinematographic system is that it records every movement. even the slightest vibrations will be indicated, and upon a large or small scale according to the rapidity with which the travelling sensitized surface is moved through the camera. comparative investigation between this and the other systems has proved that the continuous cinematograph shows many motions which the former systems lose. it has introduced the investigator to many curious phenomena of which he was previously ignorant. one thing must be emphasised. it is the salient difference between the ordinary cinematographic method and the continuously moving film process. the first records upon the film a complete picture of the subject. the second records only the path or trajectory of a _single point_, or at the utmost of a number of points, of the subject under observation. this remark does not refer to the method of cinematographing with the electric spark, which is a totally different and special application of the art. chapter xii radio-cinematography: how the x-rays are used in conjunction with the moving-picture camera with the perfection of radio-photography it was not surprising that the cinematograph investigator pressed this new development into service. it opened up a wide and fascinating field for moving pictures. when the röntgen rays were first introduced there was one serious handicap to photography by their means--the length of the exposure. but the chemist and the scientist speedily removed this adverse factor, and now x-ray photographs can be taken instantaneously-- per minute. long before this achievement radio-photography had been yoked with the moving pictures. it was a difficult problem, but it was solved. one scientific inventor stands out prominently in this connection. this is monsieur m. j. carvallo who, during his position as sub-director and secretary of the marey institute, spared no effort to harness the x-rays to cinematography. another illustrious worker is dr. j. comandon, who may be said to be the pioneer of the popularisation of cinematographic science. it was he who first appealed to the public with films of this character under the auspices of the well-known firm of pathé frères. he has been responsible for the preparation of many most interesting films. both of these workers have shown what can be achieved in this direction, while the fact that they proceed upon totally different lines adds value to their work. it enables their followers to decide for themselves which principle is likely to produce the most satisfactory result in each case. strictly speaking, monsieur carvallo's methods would appeal more strongly to the scientific mind, bent upon the discovery of some abstruse phenomena, and indifferent to the complicated process involved. the methods of dr. comandon, on the other hand, from their enhanced simplicity, will attract the average worker. this investigator makes a special point of accomplishing his end in as simple a manner as possible. from this it will be judged that radio-cinematography may be expensive or inexpensive. this is a correct assumption, but the amateur investigator need not fear that the deeper researches are beyond his reach. in justice to monsieur carvallo, it must be mentioned that his experiments were undertaken at a time when radio-photography had not reached its present stage, and therefore he had to contend with certain difficulties which no longer exist. [illustration: _by courtesy of the marey institute._ a wonderful x-ray film made by m. j. carvallo. the process of digestion in the intestine of a frog after its removal from the body.] [illustration: _by courtesy of the marey institute._ moving x-ray pictures of the digestion of a fowl. these pictures, taken at five per second by m. j. carvallo, show the different phases in a complete cycle of the gizzard, which lasts exactly five seconds.] monsieur carvallo was probably the first worker to attempt to portray in movement the elusive and peculiar features revealed by the röntgen rays. one or two other scientists had dabbled in the art, but their achievements were not very convincing for the simple reason that they did not employ chronophotography. monsieur carvallo, however, being fully aware of the valuable work that had been carried out by dr. e. j. marey, saw the true way of applying radiography to cinematography, and saw that it could not fail to be of scientific value. he embarked upon a number of illuminating, though tedious, experiments, in the effort to combine these two branches of photography. carvallo's installation was of a most elaborate character, but he accomplished some marvellous results, the full significance of which are appreciated only to-day. the complete apparatus he used in his experiments is shown in fig. . the source of energy was a small electric motor, capable of making , revolutions per minute with a current of only volts. this motor was extremely sensitive, since it would make revolutions per minute with a current of volts. the control of the speed was essential to his work, so he elaborated a simple and ingenious change-speed gear mechanism, which enabled him to drive the camera at four different speeds without touching the motor. the gear mechanism was not dissimilar from that adopted upon a larger scale in automobiles, lathes, and other machinery where the speed has to be varied according to the character of the work. the direct drive was transmitted from the motor-shaft to that of the camera mechanism through a belt and pulleys so as to secure flexibility and immunity from shocks. the three lower speeds were transmitted through gear wheels. these sets of wheels were mounted upon two parallel shafts and worked upon the sliding principle, which was found to be the simplest and most effective. in order to reduce the noise arising from the meshing and working of the gears the smaller wheels were made of fibre. [illustration: fig. .--the ingenious radio-cinematographic apparatus devised by monsieur m. j. carvallo. a.a. film spools. b. crookes tube. c. frog being radiographed. d. coil. =f=. film. f. clock. g. exposure interrupter. h. change-speed gears.] by this gearing system it was possible to vary the speed of the camera from revolutions per second to one turn in seconds. when still slower speeds were desired, upon the one-turn-one-picture principle, the motor was cut in and cut out intermittently so that the exposure could be varied from once in seconds to once in an hour or more. of course, in those instances where the exposures only needed to be made at relatively prolonged intervals, the driving motor was started up intermittently so as to move the shutter at the required moment. a pendulum clock was introduced into the electrical circuit, together with a novel relay. the clock-face was provided with a ring around the dial, with the hour intervals represented by contacts instead of figures. the clock was fitted with one hand only. one electrical lead was connected to the contact ring and the other to the pivoted end of the clock-hand. when the latter came against one of the contacts the electrical circuit was completed, the motor was set in motion, and the camera mechanism was given one turn--sufficient to make an exposure and to jerk the film forward the desired distance through the gate for the next exposure. obviously this clock system is capable of variation as desired. the contacts may be disposed to coincide with intervals of a second, a minute, an hour, or more between successive exposures. it was necessary to ensure that the contact was of sufficient duration to complete the cycle of camera movements, and, on the other hand, to prevent the motor movement being so prolonged that more than the requisite exposure and movement of the film would be made. this was effected by means of a brake, which arrested the movement of the motor after the exposure had been completed. [illustration: i. ii. iii. _by courtesy of the marey institute._ radio moving-pictures of cold-blooded animals made by m. j. carvallo. i. the stomach and the intestine of a trout (one exposure every seconds). ii. the digestive organs of the frog (one exposure every seconds). iii. lizard digesting its food (one exposure every seconds).] [illustration: . . _by permission of pathé frères._ two of dr. j. comandon's earliest investigations in radio-cinematography. . x-ray moving-pictures of the bending of the knee, showing muscular movement. . x-ray film of the opening of the hand.] with this seemingly complicated apparatus it was possible to take any desired number of successive pictures and at any intervals of time with unerring precision. for these particular experiments a special film was prepared, for the pictures produced by the standard camera were not large enough. monsieur carvallo took pictures of a depth of - / inches instead of the usual / inch. special arrangements were made also to secure extreme sensitiveness of the emulsion so that it might be more susceptible to the action of the x-rays. the disposition of the film followed special lines, as may be seen by reference to the diagram (fig. ). the crookes tube, containing the x-rays, was placed beneath a table provided with an aperture upon which was laid a transparent medium, such as glass, to support the subject under investigation. above this was placed the gate through which the film was moved intermittently, the sensitized ribbon travelling in a horizontal direction from one spool to the other. in the early experiments a maltese cross movement was incorporated to provide the requisite intermittent motion to the film, but subsequently a novel claw motion devised by monsieur noguès, the mechanician to the marey institute, was introduced with far better results. in carrying out the experiments with different live subjects extreme ingenuity was used in placing and holding the creature so that the most perfect images might be obtained. monsieur carvallo devoted his energies largely to radio-cinematographing the functions of digestion, and selected such subjects as fresh-water fish, toads, frogs, lizards, birds, and mice. thus he obtained comparative results from five species of the animal kingdom. the subjects were fed first with a special diet, comprising a mixture of flour, sugar, peptone, sub-nitrate of bismuth, and water or milk. the chemical, sub-nitrate of bismuth, was used in order to give the alimentary canal the necessary opacity to secure the best results under the röntgen rays. in the case of the trout the chemical was injected into the blood. in order to obtain sharp, clear, and distinct pictures upon the film, the subject under study had to be fixed in an immovable position. in the case of a trout a small celluloid envelope was made, fitted at each end with a small glass tube through which water necessary to the fish's existence was passed in a continuous stream. this vessel was only just large enough to contain the fish, so that movement was quite impossible. the top of the vessel was closed with a sheet of paraffin paper, which was placed in front of the aperture of the film gate. it was a very novel and successful means of radio-cinematographing a fish under natural conditions. the fish themselves appeared to suffer no ill-effects from the method adopted to keep them alive, a trout in one instance being kept in this confined position for two consecutive days. so long as an adequate supply of fresh water was passed through the celluloid vessel in which it was encased it experienced no trouble in respiration. in the case of the toad and frog the subject was kept in a prone position by attaching thin ribbons to the legs and extending the latter to their utmost so that the digestive organs might be radiographed clearly, distinctly, and without difficulty. the lizard, which is very difficult to photograph, was secured in a similar manner. the birds likewise were attached by their legs, and had their wings extended so that the body came directly in the path of the rays. when young birds were under investigation it was necessary to maintain a circulation of warm water around their bodies so that the temperature might remain constant; otherwise the digestive functions might have been disturbed, thereby invalidating the value of the pictures. in one investigation a fowl was placed in a plaster cast so as to hold it perfectly still and steady. the photographic speed was varied according to the character of the investigation and the subject. thus, in recording the digestion in the stomach and intestine of the trout, an exposure was made every twenty seconds. in the case of the toad the speed was one in every ten seconds, while the chicken required one in every five. one of the most novel experiments which monsieur carvallo carried out in this particular field was to ascertain the extent to which digestion will continue in the intestine after it is removed from the animal. the digestive tube of the frog was selected for this novel investigation and the photographs taken at the rate of one per second illustrate the fact that the digestive organ will continue its functions long after its removal from the body. since the year when monsieur carvallo carried out his scientific researches with the röntgen rays, radiographic science has made great strides. researches of this character no longer require elaborate and expensive apparatus. this has been shown by dr. j. comandon, the well-known french scientist, who, at the laboratories of messrs. pathé frères, has prepared some magnificent x-ray films in such a manner as to make them interesting to the average patron of the picture palace. dr. comandon possesses the unique ability of so treating his subject as to make it appeal to the unscientific mind. [illustration: fig. .--dr. comandon's radio-cinematographic apparatus.] in his system dr. comandon does not radio-cinematograph directly in the manner of monsieur carvallo, but has recourse to the fluorescent screen, thereby obtaining his results much more simply and easily. by this means, also, he is able to use the standard cinematograph camera and film without any modifications, the images upon the sensitized celluloid ribbon being of the normal size. the general arrangement of the apparatus used by this investigator is shown in the diagram (fig. ). a room is divided by a partition a. on one side is placed a camera f of the conventional type. on the other is the necessary electrical apparatus. an aperture b is provided in the partition, and this space is filled with a fluorescent screen. on one side of the partition a centrally in regard to the fluorescent screen, and a little distance therefrom, is placed the crookes tube c, the subject under investigation being placed between the tube and the screen. consequently, the radiograph is projected upon the fluorescent screen and this image is then photographed by the camera. at the normal photographing speed the exposure is about / second. the fluorescent screen employed by dr. comandon is of the type known as "reinforced." it is covered with tungstate of calcium, instead of barium platino-cyanide. with this screen the röntgen rays are intensified, or rather are transformed, the luminous radiation being rendered more actinic and therefore able to act more quickly upon the emulsion of bromide of silver with which the film is coated. by using this fluorescent screen the exposure is reduced to about one-tenth of what would be required were the subject radiographed direct. the high tension current is supplied from an apparatus of a special type e with which a current as high as , volts can be obtained. another prominent feature is the high tension interrupter d, which cuts the electric circuit of the tube in and out, in synchrony with the camera mechanism. thus the crookes tube is active while the shutter is open but inactive while it is closed. this interrupter consists of a small glass vessel, charged with petrol, and sealed with a cover of insulating material. within the vessel, and spaced about inches apart, are two brackets, which extend through the sides of the receptacle through hermetically sealed joints. to these brackets the positive and negative wires are coupled. above the brackets, and moving within the vessel, is an inverted u-shaped piece. this slides up and down through apertures provided for the purpose in the insulated cover. when lowered to its full extent the arms rest upon the brackets, to which the wires are attached, and this contact completes the electrical circuit. a pulley wire is fixed to the centre of the inverted u-piece to allow it to be moved up and down as required. the up-and-down movement serves as a make-and-break for the circuit. a lift of a quarter of an inch suffices to break the circuit, which lift is effected by the mechanism of the camera over a system of cords and pulleys. thus, when the camera handle is turned to open the shutter, the contact piece in the interrupter is lowered, the circuit is completed, and the crookes tube is brought into use. directly the shutter is closed the contact piece is raised and the tube is disconnected. this simple control permits the exposure to be varied from five or six to sixteen exposures per second, while the tube can be kept continuously at work for as many as fifty-five seconds if desired. the camera is fitted with a lens made from quartz, which permits the maximum quantity of the actinic rays to pass through to the sensitized film. the film is covered with an exceptionally sensitive emulsion in order to ensure the best results possible with very short exposures. in order to protect the spools of film in the camera from the actinic properties of the rays diffused from the fluorescent screen, the boxes are covered with sheet lead, while the operator is protected with a lead apron, such as is used generally in röntgen ray investigations. the many interesting films which dr. comandon has produced offer adequate testimony to the practicability and success of the system which he has evolved. undoubtedly it is the simplest and most inexpensive method of "radio-cinematography" which has been brought into practical operation up to the present, and it is one which may be followed by the private investigator with such modifications as may suggest themselves in particular cases. chapter xiii combining the microscope and the ultra-microscope with the moving-picture camera one of the most fascinating fields in the whole realm of animated photography is the filming of the infinitely small by the aid of the microscope. in this manner it is possible to catch glimpses of bacterial and microbic life in natural movement, and to throw them upon the screen, where the extreme magnification enables one to follow with ease the motions of a living world invisible to the naked eye. furthermore, the representation upon the screen is clearer, brighter, more detailed, and easier to follow, than any image seen directly through the microscope. there is an absence of that distortion and unnatural motion which often occur when the microscope alone is used. micro-cinematography may be either costly or cheap. as the operator in a well-equipped laboratory is able to use a camera costing £ ($ ), it is only natural to suppose that he will also be able to command the services of the most expensive type of microscope. on the other hand, the independent worker, forced by circumstances to be content with an inexpensive camera, will have to do the best he can with an inexpensive microscope also. yet the investigator of each class can accomplish excellent work in his own sphere. i have seen some very fine films of microscopic subjects which were taken with an instrument costing less than a sovereign. from the general point of view they compared very favourably with those obtained with an instrument twenty times as costly. so long as the amateur does not attempt to embark upon work which is beyond the capacity of his microscope, and is content to work with subjects of relatively large size, there is no reason why he should not be able to take most interesting pictures. in the preparation of micro-cinematographic subjects it is essential that the instruments should be mounted upon a solid base, a heavy bench or table, so that vibrations may be as slight as possible. the camera may be turned by hand or driven by an electric motor through belts and pulleys. the method of mounting the microscope in its relation to the camera may be varied according to circumstances. in the simplest form the microscope is mounted horizontally with the stage on which the subject is placed set vertically, the subject itself being in line with the middle of the cinematograph lens. in working with the microscope it must be remembered that the objects are seen by transparence. that is to say, the ray of light passes directly through, or around, the object, causing it to stand out darkly upon a luminous background. from this arises one of the limitations of the microscope. if the subjects themselves are wholly or nearly transparent, they become wholly or nearly indistinguishable in the illuminated field in which they are placed. in still-life microscopical study this disadvantage is overcome by colouring the glass slide on which the subjects are deposited, but in cinematography this operation is ruinous to the work for the simple reason that the aniline dye used to colour the slide kills the microbe whose life and movements are to be observed. it must not be forgotten that very small organisms, as a rule, move at a speed which is quite disproportionate to their size. some will dart hither and thither across the field of the microscope with the speed of lightning, while others will move with great deliberation. in the first case a photographing speed of sixteen pictures per second will scarcely suffice to give a faithful record of movement. the result will be a series of disconnected jumps. on the other hand, if the object moves slowly, a photographing speed of sixteen pictures per second may be too rapid. in this event the phase of movement between two successive pictures will be so slight that the projection on the screen will appear tame unless the express object is to indicate the slowness with which the organism moves. and indeed this object can be achieved with almost equally good results by taking the pictures at a slower speed, say eight, four, or even two images per second, and thus saving a good deal of film. in most cases the micro-cinematographer works in a state of ignorance. he does not know whether he is obtaining a good or a bad film. his subject may be moving, or it may be quiescent, or it may hover round the extreme edge of the luminous field, in which case the pictures will be useless. when mr. james williamson and dr. spitta were engaged on micro-cinematograph studies some years ago, they introduced a means of following the subject through a second tube, and in this way were able to make certain that the camera was working only during those periods when the subject was in full activity, near the centre of the picture. in this way a considerable saving in film was effected. [illustration: _by courtesy of the marey institute._ micro-cinematograph used at the marey institute for investigating minute aquatic life. a. one turn one picture control mechanism. b. camera. c. microscope. p. small tank in which organism is placed, through which a stream of water from tank f runs continually. e. incandescent gas jet for illuminating object.] [illustration: micro-cinematography: the proboscis of the blow-fly.] another difficulty is the selection and control of the light. attempts have been made to concentrate solar light by means of a parabolic reflector or lens, and then to throw it through the microscope slide. the great drawback to this system is that intense heat is thrown upon the slide containing the organisms, and for these small creatures heat spells death. the same difficulties arise with acetylene and electric light. what is necessary is either to extinguish the light at intervals, in synchrony with the closing of the lens, or to intercept it so as to keep it off the subject until the exposure is to be made. this is done in a variety of ways by different workers. some years ago, when messrs. bull and pizon of the marey institute were engaged in the micro-cinema study of a colony of marine organisms, they adopted the apparatus and method of arrangement shown in the illustration facing p. . the microscope c was attached to the cinematograph b which was driven by the clock a. in this case it was only necessary to make exposures at relatively long intervals, and to continue them through several days and nights, so as to obtain a complete cycle of the phases of the development of the organisms. consequently the clock was introduced in order to make the exposures at the right intervals. the organisms were placed in a small flat glass tank or vessel d, and were illuminated by the light from an incandescent gas burner. as it was unnecessary to keep the burner alight during the periods when the shutter was closed, messrs. bull and pizon introduced a means of turning the light up and down. this was effected by a small electric magnet, working in synchrony with the clock and controlling the light so that the subject was illuminated only during exposure. as the studies were prolonged it was essential that the water in which the organisms were placed should be kept fresh and sweet. a glass jar f was introduced to serve as a reservoir, and from this a tube extended to the vessel d. a constant flow of water was thus provided. its circulation was ensured by another glass tube extending from the vessel p to the waste. the flow of water was controlled to a nicety by means of a tap without the production of bubbles or any other disturbance in the vessel d. in this manner the colony was preserved to the best advantage and in full activity. some such system of circulation is necessary in all cases where the investigations are to last a long time. in recent years the marey institute has much improved its micro-cinematographic apparatus. the microscope is now carried in a vertical position in front of the support which holds the camera. the camera is fitted with an external bellows which carries a prism at its outer extremity. the prism is brought over the eye-piece of the microscope. the rays of light striking the turning mirror on the base of the microscope are projected upwards through the object side or vessel and then through the eye-piece to the prism. here the rays are bent at right angles, and are thus directed upon the travelling film in the camera. the camera is driven electrically, the motor being mounted within the box forming the base. mechanism is introduced whereby the number of photographs per second may be varied within wide limits. the most interesting feature of this apparatus is the means adopted to enable the worker to follow the movements of the object so that the camera can be stopped when they are of no moment or are not sufficiently near the centre of the picture. a small proportion of the light rays which have passed through the microscope are deflected from the prism mounted upon the eye-piece and thrown into a small view finder beside the camera. looking into this view finder one can see exactly what is happening upon the stage of the microscope. this novel attachment enables the waste of film to be reduced to almost nothing. the character of the illuminant also can be varied. sunlight may be caught by the mirror of the microscope and projected through the instrument as well as the beam from an electric light, incandescent gas burner, or what not. with this effective and compact apparatus many marvellous microscopic experiments have been carried out at the institute, such as the filming of the heart-beats of minute insects, and so forth. one very fascinating investigation was that carried out by dr. j. ries, of switzerland, whereby he secured a cinematographic record of the different phases of the union of the sperm and the egg, as well as the separation of the membrane and segmentation of the sea urchin. the difficulties of such a delicate study were extreme, but the films obtained were of the utmost interest. they enabled the investigator to reconstruct upon the screen the complete phenomenon of fecundation. for this study the subject had to be photographed while immersed in a small vessel containing artificially prepared sea-water, which was renewed as required. the clock control enabled the camera mechanism to be so turned as to secure a regular series of exposures at the rate of seven per minute. when dr. jean comandon set himself to cinematograph the most minute microbes, which are so small that two million may be found in a cube measuring only one-twenty-fifth of an inch, he appreciated the limitations of the ordinary microscope, and the impossibility of obtaining images clearly and distinctly therewith. so he resorted to the ultra-microscope. with this instrument the light is not thrown directly through the slide containing the object, but is directed upon it by reflection from a light which stands at one side. beneath the object to be examined is placed a glass prism, or condenser, set at right angles to the optical axis of the microscope, the result being that the light enters the slide through the edge. the objects under examination, instead of appearing as dark objects against a luminous ground as in the direct transmission of the light, appear luminous in themselves and stand out as bright spots against a dark background. by the aid of this instrument, particles which are beyond the scope of vision with the highest powered microscopes may be seen with ease. thus this french investigator was able to photograph even the most minute organisms. the well-known firm of pathé frères placed their laboratory and resources at his disposal, so that the work might be done under the most favourable conditions. even then two years passed before a successful detailed film was obtained, and an apparatus made perfect for this class of work. the complete apparatus is set upon a massive bench, so as to secure absolute rigidity, because vibrations are fatal to good results. slight modifications are sometimes needed, but in most cases the same appliances are used, and in the same way. the light is furnished from a -ampère electric arc lamp. in front of this is arranged a series of lenses for concentrating and varying the rays, while all excess of luminosity is cut off from the microscope by means of a diaphragm. the microscope itself is set horizontally, with its longitudinal optical axis in line with that of the camera, and its eye-piece brought against the camera lens. the camera is one of the pathé models with detachable dark-boxes. the ray of light thrown from the electric lamp is concentrated and then falls upon the microscope condenser, which deflects it so that the objects under study become illuminated, no light entering the tube of the microscope. the camera may be turned by hand, or by a small electric motor, the latter giving an improved rotary motion with the least possible vibration. [illustration: the micro-cinematograph used at the marey institute. a. special condenser. b. electric arc light. c. camera. d. shutter between light and object. m. microscope. o. object under examination.] [illustration: _by permission of pathé frères._ one of dr. comandon's galvanic experiments with paramoecia. under the action of electric current the organisms perform strange evolutions.] one of the difficulties which harassed all the early efforts in micro-cinematography was the control of the light so that the subjects might not be killed by the heat generated by the concentrated rays. at first an investigation could not be continued for more than a second or two, because the microbes were killed by the heat. seeing that the pictures were taken at the rate of sixteen per second, an intermittent lighting system in synchrony with the opening of the lens was difficult to obtain, as there was the risk that the maximum illumination might not be thrown upon the subject at the precise fraction of a second during which the lens was open. many ingenious expedients were tested to remove this disability, but without success, until at last dr. comandon conceived the idea of introducing a rotary shutter, similar to that fitted to the camera itself. this was tried, the shutter being placed between the condensers and the stage on which the objects were set up. this shutter was revolved by the same mechanism as drove the camera shutter, and was so timed that the opaque sector interrupted the ray of light at the same moment as the camera shutter eclipsed the lens. in this way the microbes were protected from the heat of the light while the lens was closed, and it was possible to keep them alive and in full activity in the slide for a considerable time. repeated experiments suggested improvements in this shutter, and now the scientists employ one in which there are two or three opaque sectors of equal area spaced equidistantly, so that only a flash of light is thrown upon the microbes at the instant of exposure. still further to lessen the evils of the heat a water condenser has been introduced between two of the glass condensers placed near the lamp. this is a small circular vessel like a big lens. it is filled with cold water and provided with the means to remove the ill effects of bubbling when the temperature rises to boiling point. the system is very much the same as that adopted by the lumière brothers when they first used the electric arc for the purpose of projection and with the same object--to protect the inflammable celluloid film from the heat radiated by the light. with this ingenious and simplified apparatus dr. comandon has prepared some very remarkable films which have served to introduce the picture palace patrons as well as the scientists to phases of life about which little was formerly known. when thrown upon the screen the subject in some cases is magnified as many as fifty thousand times, so that the infinitesimal organisms stand up as large as dinner plates and their movements and structure and habits can easily be followed by the eye. when the earliest films prepared by dr. comandon were shown by dr. dastre, of the sorbonne, to the french academy of sciences, it was immediately realised that this was a new and reliable means of studying bacteria, and that many questions which heretofore had proved utterly unanswerable could now be solved with ease and precision. a little later the films were introduced to the public, and although it was feared that they would prove of only fleeting interest to the man in the street they have really interested him almost as deeply as the scientists. good films of bacteria never fail to please a picture palace audience. at present the preparation of these films is confined to a very small band of investigators. so far as bacteriology is concerned it is expert work, but there are many applications within the reach of the average microscopist. cinematography has been of use in spreading the knowledge of the facts of health and hygiene, and now that there are propagandist movements on these subjects the aid of the living pictures will be more than ever appreciated. chapter xiv micro-motion study: how increased workshop efficiency is obtainable with moving pictures in these days of competition it is obvious that the establishment in which the machinery is most efficient, the workmen most skilful, and the labour most economically expended has the best chance of success in its particular line of business. these are the days of scientific organisation and management, the value of which, developed upon rational lines, cannot be denied. but it has remained for the cinematograph to indicate the true lines along which such developments should be continued. for instance, there may be two workmen of equal skill and industry, each of whom is given an identical job. one completes his task in less time than the other, although the two men are admittedly of equal ability. they may be checked from stage to stage by the stop-watch, but this will reveal nothing conclusive, as the advantage from stage to stage will fluctuate between the two. it is only in the aggregate that the superiority of the one over the other is seen. the superiority may be so slight as to be almost negligible, but the fact that it exists is sufficient to prove that there is something wrong somewhere. where is it? how can it be detected? hitherto scientific management and stop-watch methods have been found wanting. the riddle can be solved in one way only, as investigations have shown, and that is by moving pictures. this new phase of scientific management has been evolved and perfected by mr. frank b. gilbreth, of new york, an eminent authority upon the subject of workshop organisation. he has given it the title of "micro-motion study." as the name implies it concerns the investigation of small movements by the ordinary standard cinematograph and the time measurement of each action. while this particular line of study may not be entirely new, since marey and his contemporaries in the study of movement indicated such a possible application, yet mr. gilbreth is the first to reduce it to a science. therefore he is justly entitled to the credit of perfecting this most important development of scientific management. everything depends upon the timing mechanism. this must be of the simplest type and of unimpeachable accuracy. in a previous chapter i have described the "chronoscope" which was used by marey. mr. gilbreth, for the purposes of his work, has evolved a clock working upon a similar principle. this clock, fitted with one hand, is designed to make one complete revolution in six seconds. the indications on its dial are as follows: the larger divisions represent tenths of a revolution. each of these is divided into two, thereby showing twentieths of a revolution, and these latter are further sub-divided into fifths, so that the dial is divided into one hundred parts. each of these divisions represents the thousandth part of a minute, while the clock can be read easily to half-thousandths of a minute. this clock, together with one of the ordinary type, is used in each investigation. both are prominently displayed in the image so that the time interval from picture to picture may be determined exactly. the ordinary clock is necessary, as it shows the total time occupied in an operation. the special clock, on the other hand, serves for timing the different stages or motions involved in completing the task. the principle may be utilised in a variety of ways, as has been proved at the works of the new england butt company of providence, rhode island. the manager of this concern, mr. j. g. aldrich, was one of the first to recognise the value and possibilities of micro-motion study. [illustration: micro-cinematography: blow-fly eating honey.] [illustration: the ingenious gilbreth clock, graduated to one-thousandths of a minute. the rack, showing disposition of component parts for the assembling test. micro-motion study: the latest development in scientific management.] it is an establishment devoted to the manufacture of machinery for making braiding, such as trimmings for ladies' dresses, and so forth. the machines are built for the most part from small light castings, which are machined only slightly, but which must fit together without the necessity of filing or finicking hand-work. in order to improve the efficiency of the factory and incidentally to augment its output and profit, experts were called in from time to time to say where modifications of process might reduce the manufacturing costs. different operations in the assembling of the pieces were timed. the result was the discovery of more expeditious methods of putting the pieces together. such time-study investigations also supplied a basis for computing the various scales and systems of payment for work done. notwithstanding the high pitch of efficiency to which the factory was brought by these methods, mr. aldrich felt convinced that still further speeding-up might be accomplished without over-driving the men. so he called in mr. gilbreth and his cinematographic method. in order to obtain the highest results, the most expert workman was taken as the subject of the experiment. in one corner of the assembling room the wall and floor were marked off into four-inch squares. in this space was placed the bench, together with the sets of component parts. here there was a slight divergence from the existing practice in the factory. instead of taking the pieces from various boxes, packets of parts were placed in convenient positions upon a rack. these were placed in the proper sequence, so that the workman was saved the task of thinking when selecting the successive pieces. he was able to take them up quickly and correctly in a mechanical kind of way. the timing clocks were placed in a prominent position facing the camera, and when all was ready, the workman was given the word to start. the whole operation of fitting the pieces of a machine together were filmed in this manner so as to give a complete cinematographic record of the assembling of a machine. now in micro-motion study the films are not intended for projection. instead of being screened, the pictures are studied with the aid of a magnifying glass, the motion in each picture being closely examined to detect whether it is essential to the task, whether it might be eliminated, or shortened. as the wall and floor are marked off into four-inch squares, the investigator is enabled to ascertain the precise length of each movement in picking up and fitting the parts. at the same time, such marking-off enables the expert to see whether the bench and rack of packets containing the component parts of the machine are disposed most advantageously in relation to the mechanic, and also whether the latter stands in the most convenient position before his work, to fulfil his task in the shortest possible time and with the minimum of physical effort. as might be supposed, the individual study of each picture in a film together with the following and timing of each elementary motion is a tedious task for the expert. this may be realised when it is pointed out that the time interval for each picture is only / part of a second. but the labour is not wasted. the searching analysis is sure to reveal where a movement may be accelerated here, or eased there, why it would be preferable to set the rack in this position, or why it would be better if the mechanic faced his work in such and such a way. this is the sole object of micro-motion study. nothing rivals the cinematograph for picking a movement relentlessly to pieces. the most expert workman is taken for the purpose of the investigation because his skill must be dependent upon his ability to reduce movements to the minimum. moreover, he serves as an excellent model for speeding-up if such is required. by the time his workmanship has been analysed and perfected by the elimination of all waste or unnecessary motions, and by his mastery of the best methods, the photographing in animation of his experience serves as a pattern for the benefit of all in the factory. some remarkable results have been accomplished by this new phase in scientific management. in the above-mentioned braiding factory the analysis of the movements incidental to a particular operation enabled the time occupied upon one task to be reduced from - / to - / minutes. in other words, the workman was able to perform more than four times his previous volume of work in an eight-hour day after his motions had been analysed by the cinematograph. nor is he driven harder to achieve this end: he is able to do it because all waste motions have been eliminated. the great value of micro-motion study is that it facilitates the transmission of skill from man to record. it provides a reliable way of transferring experience from a man who has gained it to one who has never had it. it acts as a check upon the work. the establishment is provided with an unassailable record of the time occupied throughout every department, and consequently holds a complete check upon the skill and capacity of every man. if there is a decrease in the output, showing slackness to exist somewhere, it can be traced before material damage is inflicted. every workman is kept up to concert pitch, and the maximum work per man is obtained without resort to driving or rushing. there is no limit to the applications of micro-motion study. obviously, although the best efforts of every man are required, it is essential that the records should be taken under normal conditions, so as to provide a fair basis. to introduce special arrangements for the test is to destroy the value of the investigations, because the other men will retort that they cannot equal the performance unless they have the same facilities. the workmen are never permitted to see the moving-picture record of their work. neither are they shown contrasting views of how and how not to do a thing. the pictures are merely for the use of the investigator. when it is necessary to communicate the results of an experiment to the workman, he is given no opportunity for argument. he is merely told how to do this or that, according to the experience gathered from an intimate study of the photographic record. this application of the cinematograph has been developed also for the benefit of apprentices. a youth who is trained on the correct lines from the very commencement of his duties has the best chance of becoming an expert workman, and for him the use of micro-motion study is invaluable. he can be taken through every separate motion step by step, the film used for this purpose being that of the most perfectly skilled man. experience has shown, moreover, that a youth can learn his craft more quickly and intelligently by following it upon the screen than by being brought face to face with the actual work at the bench. he appears to concentrate his attention better upon the moving-picture lesson than upon the practical demonstration, although in both cases the appeal is made to the eye. there is yet another valuable aspect of this work. enterprising and ingenious men are constantly devising improved processes in factory equipment. at times their revolutionary ideas are put into practice before they are thoroughly understood, and the result is far from satisfactory. the improvement proves to be more imaginary than real. but if recourse is first had to the cinematograph, the process can be submitted to a searching practical trial before it is installed. a film can be taken and each separate image can be examined minutely with the aid of the magnifying glass, until a pretty complete idea is gained as to the true value of the invention. the pictorial time record can be compared with the best results secured under the existing practice, and the manufacturer can ascertain what economies the new plan will effect before a penny is expended, or the working of his factory disorganised by the alteration. [illustration: mr. frank b. gilbreth cinematographing a man's work against time, showing the gilbreth clock. bench and parts arranged after test so as to secure assembling of machine with fewest and shortest motions. the gilbreth method for improving factory efficiency.] [illustration: micro-motion study: films showing how a man's work is analysed by moving pictures. these pictures are not thrown on the screen, but are examined by a magnifying glass. ( ) film of workman assembling machine, showing gilbreth clock and ordinary timepiece alongside. ( ) film of rack and bench, floor marked off into -inch squares, and gilbreth clock.] micro-motion study by the aid of the cinematograph is still in its infancy. but it appears to have a wide field of utility. the pictures can be taken at any desired speed, according to the character of the work photographed, but as a rule sixteen pictures per second will suffice. it must be remembered that in this case the record is not obtained for the purpose of studying movement from the scientific or physiological point of view, as with marey's investigations, but purely for the purpose of discovering whether certain motions are necessary to certain tasks. obviously the expert engaged in this work must possess an intimate knowledge of movement so as to be able to follow the motions closely and accurately through their natural cycles, and must also be familiar with the work of the factory so as to tell whether a man is working to the best advantage. this faculty alone demands a long apprenticeship, for experience is the only guide. mr. frank b. gilbreth, who has brought micro-motion study prominently before the public, has devoted years to the subject. he has become an unique authority upon it. now that its advantages are appreciated, one may expect it to fill an even wider space in industrial life, and to be applied in many directions that are as yet undreamed of. chapter xv the motion pictures as an aid to scientific investigation rapid strides are being made in the utilisation of animated photography as an aid to scientific investigation. it is a development useful in all fields of research where phenomena can be recorded in pictorial form. dr. e. j. marey, the eminent french scientist, was the pioneer in this work. one has only to peruse his classic work "movement"[ ] to realise the comprehensive nature of his studies. so thoroughly did he cover the ground of chronophotography, as it was then called, that it is difficult to conceive where any new application of the motion picture can now be made. [ ] "movement," by e. j. marey. heinemann, _s._ _d._ the aurora borealis always has been a subject fascinating to scientists. numerous papers and brochures have been written about it, and many elaborate drawings have been prepared to convey some idea of its characteristics and its kaleidoscopic changes. the drawings, however, fail to convince, and even the few still-life photographs which have been taken are uneventful. realising this deficiency a danish professor is striving to record the aurora borealis in motion upon the celluloid film. a special camera has been designed for his work, and with this it is intended to snap the phenomena from a convenient northern point such as spitzbergen or greenland, not only for the benefit of the scientific world but also for the general public which entertains only a hazy conception of the "northern lights." it need hardly be said that if this investigator should succeed in his difficult quest he will reveal upon the screen one of the most extraordinary wonders of the world. while the marvellous and weird colouring effects will be missing, the curtains of light that drape the sky, and the strange luminous shafts and glares which light the heavens, should provide a film of intense interest and fascination. the moving-picture camera is also being applied to the recording of solar eclipses with a view to obtaining a more impressionistic and intimate idea of the activity and extent of the flames which shoot from the surface of the sun. wonderful still-life pictures of these effects have been taken, and it is only fair to assume that they should be capable of being caught by the motion-picture camera. efforts are also being made to secure photographs of the heavens, but the difficulties are very great. the long exposure required in this case is a heavy drawback, but seeing that the slowest movements of nature can be recorded by the cinematograph, and may be speeded up in projection to convey the effect of animation, there is no reason why similar moving pictures of other worlds should not be obtained by combining the moving-picture camera with the telescope. the moon followed through its phases would yield an interesting study, and, incidentally, a film of this character would possess considerable educational value. at the present moment great activity is being manifested in the application of the cinematograph to mechanics. two sheffield investigators have designed a steel-testing machine to which is attached a microscope and a cinematograph camera. the piece of steel to be tested is placed in the machine and the cinematograph is set in motion. by throwing the resulting pictures upon the screen it is possible to follow exactly what takes place in the molecular construction of the steel while it is under test. the idea has been applied to many other phases of mechanics with equal success, and there have been many discoveries of a technical nature which have had their effect upon manufacturing processes. another series of technical experiments was carried out by dr. otto füchs, professor of engineering at the german technical high school of brünn. the purpose was to elucidate some hitherto obscure points in connection with the working of steam hammers. investigations in this field have hitherto proceeded on the graphic principle, the results being recorded by a stylo continually travelling over calibrated paper. it is admitted that this system leaves much to be desired because the stylo is not sufficiently sensitive, and fails to record many of the smaller and more important movements. accordingly, dr. füchs conceived the idea of using the moving-picture camera in the anticipation that much missing data might thus be discovered. a special apparatus was designed. in reality it is an ingenious combination of the moving-picture camera and the graphic method. there is a paper tape that passes continuously over two rollers and has two stylos constantly bearing on it. these stylos are connected with two indicators attached to the sides of the cylinder of the steam hammer, and they supply a continuous record of the steam pressure. the paper tape is moved by an electrically-driven gear, while time intervals are indicated by means of clockwork mechanism. so much for the graphic portion. [illustration: _by courteous permission of dr. otto füchs._ moving-pictures of a steam hammer ram. an illuminated index attached to the ram moves over a graduated scale, while an illuminated clock indicates the lapse of time.] [illustration: dr. otto fÜchs' apparatus for taking moving-pictures of the operations of a steam hammer.] what the cinematographic portion supplies is a continuous animated record of the movement of the ram of the hammer. attached to the ram is an index which moves up and down over a scale divided into centimetres. both the index and the scale are illuminated so that the result given by the camera shows a series of photographic images of the oscillating motion. above the illuminated finger and scale is a clock similar to marey's chronoscope and gilbreth's timepiece, driven by clockwork, and in synchrony with the remainder of the mechanism. this scale likewise has its points of division illuminated. its use is to supply the time factor without which such experiments are useless. the ram, the index-finger, the scale and the clock are all recorded upon the film, so that it is possible to tell the varying speeds at which the ram moves throughout its travel. the photographing speed may be varied as desired, and as a different position is caught in each picture, the distance the ram travels between two successive exposures, together with the time occupied in completing the cycle of movement, may be accurately gauged. the combination of the paper tape recorder with the photographic part of the apparatus affords a complete record of the ram's performance. the results are naturally of a severely technical character and of interest only to persons concerned with mechanics. but to these they are very important indeed. the experiments which have been completed by dr. füchs have thrown much light upon a difficult engineering problem. they have served to answer questions affecting the design of the hammer and its most economical efficient operation which would otherwise have been insoluble. from the public point of view the films possess no interest whatever, inasmuch as the subject is illuminated and photographed in such a way that only the features of technical interest are brought out strongly upon the film. another interesting and profitable province of the cinematograph is that concerning ballistics. this has been worked out by monsieur lucien bull at the marey institute with his camera capable of taking two thousand pictures per second under the illumination of the electric spark. while this investigator did not apply his invention directly to ballistics he indicated the manner in which such work could be carried out. the success of his experiments, however, prompted another investigator to enter the field. this was dr. cranz, of the berlin military academy. the apparatus this professor evolved has been devoted exclusively to the study of the flight of projectiles and to photographing the action of the mechanism of the magazine type of firearm. [illustration: _by courtesy of the marey institute._ the wonderful apparatus devised by mr. lucien bull for taking , pictures per second. showing stereoscopic camera, interrupter, condenser, coil, and resistance. illumination is obtained by the electric spark.] [illustration: ( ) ( ) films prepared by professor cranz with his remarkable camera. ( ) moving-pictures of the ejection of a cartridge from an automatic pistol. ( ) motion photographs of the splintering of a bone by a bullet.] the cranz apparatus is somewhat more complicated than that designed by monsieur bull, though the fundamental principle of operation is the same. the film, resembling an endless belt, is passed round two steel cylinders, one of which is driven by an electric motor. images of standard size are produced under the illumination of the electric spark, which concentrates the maximum amount of light upon the moving object. the photograph is in silhouette, and the disposition of the apparatus is such that five hundred consecutive pictures can be made in one-tenth of a second, the period of exposure varying between one-millionth and one-ten-millionth of a second. the outstanding feature of the installation is the special and novel type of interrupter. it consists of a pendulum by which the sparking is started before the projectile is fired and made to continue until the film has been exhausted. some of the results obtained by this apparatus are very remarkable. when the films are projected upon the screen at the average speed of sixteen pictures per second the flight of the bullet can be followed with ease. one film shows the effect of a bullet striking a suspended india-rubber ball filled with water, and brings out the remarkable formations the ball assumes during the infinitesimal part of a second when the bullet is passing through it. another interesting film shows the effect of a high velocity bullet striking a bone, and the manner in which the bone is splintered and smashed by the force of the impact conveys a realistic impression of the destructive force of the modern rifle projectile. the deadliness of the automatic pistol is well known. since seven shots may be discharged in four seconds, the movements of the mechanism are too rapid to be followed by the naked eye. yet by means of the cranz apparatus every motion is caught, and the whole is slowed down in projection to such a degree that the complete cycle of the firing of the shot and the expulsion of the cartridge, which normally occupies only a fraction of a second to complete, occupies about thirty seconds upon the screen. when these pictures were exhibited for the first time a number of black specks were observed to accompany the expulsion of the spent cartridge. these proved to be grains of powder which had not been ignited. their existence had never before been suspected, and the result was curious. after minute examination of the pictures a change was effected in manufacture of the cartridge so that the waste of powder through non-ignition should be reduced to the minimum. the success achieved in this direction was shown by the absence of non-ignited grains in subsequent pictures. another wonderful series of moving pictures was prepared by an american ophthalmic surgeon. he embarked upon elaborate researches to gain further information about the eye and its peculiarities both in sickness and in health. the illumination of the eye was carried out very cleverly, so as to obtain the greatest possible brilliancy without causing fatigue to the subject. accordingly his pictures were absolutely normal. in these experiments glass plates were used, for the reason that they give results much finer and more detailed than celluloid. in celluloid the grain of the base of the film is apt to be disturbing to very fine studies. in this way a great deal of new information was gained. one of the most remarkable discoveries was that the sensitiveness of the organ of sight is far greater than was previously supposed, and that the eye never is absolutely still, even when commonly regarded as being fixed and steady. during the past two or three years the uses of the cinematograph in medicine have been much extended. a former chapter has described its application to the study of microbic life, but the latest innovation is to employ it in the operating room. the pages of the medical papers are filled with reports of curious and unusual surgical operations, but mere reports are necessarily somewhat imperfect. in view of these circumstances it occurred to one eminent surgeon that a cinematographic record would form a first-class supplement to the technical description. the initial experiment proved a complete success, and accordingly the practice has been extended. in this direction france, germany, and the united states are taking a very active part. films of this character can be made to serve two useful purposes. they are valuable for the transmission of practical information between medical men and are useful in the lecture room among the students. suppose a hospital in new york has a strange and unusual case for operation. only the students in that establishment have the opportunity of witnessing it. but by the aid of the moving-picture camera and a lecture it can be reproduced in photographic animation upon the screen for the benefit of medical graduates in the various hospitals throughout the world. in research work, such as the study of new and unusual diseases, especially those of a tropical nature, it is possible to obtain a continuous record of a subject from the moment of infection through the various stages of the malady. for instance, in the study of sleeping sickness in uganda, colonel bruce had formerly to content himself with a graphic record or chart of the fluctuations of a patient's condition, with explanatory notes introduced here and there when a sudden change in the temperature or general behaviour of the patient developed. with the cinematograph it is possible to obtain a pictorial record which conveys a more forceful and exact impression of the symptoms. an interesting indication of what could be done in this direction was the film prepared by dr. comandon. he used a monkey for his subject, infecting it with the microbe of sleeping sickness discovered by colonel bruce. the effects which the bacteria produced upon the monkey were admirably illustrated, together with the changes that various remedies wrought in its condition. so far as concerns the application of the cinematograph to scientific research the greatest strides have been made in physiology. this was due to marey's enthusiasm in this branch of science, and the establishment of the physiological institute in paris where such investigations were carried out upon a most exhaustive scale. the results of marey's investigations are given in several volumes and in hundreds of papers which he sent to the various french scientific societies. there is no reason why the contributions of the cinematograph to physiological knowledge should not be equalled in other branches of science. up to the present the investigation of scientific phenomena with the aid of motion-pictures has not been carried far, but there are many signs that its sphere will be extended in the future. chapter xvi the military value of the cinematograph among the many uses of the cinematograph, frivolous and useful, amusing and instructive, perhaps none has proved so difficult or illusive as the attempt to apply it to soldiering for the purpose of improving marksmanship. the motion-picture had scarcely impressed itself upon the public when the war departments of the various powers were flooded with suggestions and patents for its employment in this sphere. needless to say the majority of these ideas were found to be impracticable, and probably this is the reason why the animated target has not been seriously taken up by military authorities. notwithstanding the many disabilities under which the cinematograph labours, it is generally admitted that it has real practical value in this field up to a certain point. it is able to induce the recruit to aim quickly and surely, and this is to-day recognised as being the governing consideration whether the range be point-blank or long-distance. one of the first practical developments in this direction was that perfected by messrs. paterson and musgrave. their wide and diversified experience of all that pertains to shooting and targets enabled them to avoid the defects of the system, which to many experimenters were not apparent owing to a lack of knowledge. the apparatus and method of operation were very simple. the target consisted of an endless roll of white paper which served as the screen, and upon which the pictures were projected from a point near the firing line. a self-recording system was incorporated whereby the result of a shot was transmitted back to the firing line to inform the marksman about the value of his hit. as the paper became perforated under the fusillade it was rolled up. the most important feature of this invention was the mechanism placed behind the screen, which synchronised with the movements of the objects at which the marksman aimed. in cinematographic projection, however, the throw of the picture cannot be extended beyond certain limits, that is, if a clear view is to be presented to those seated farthest away from the screen. in target practice this is a serious disadvantage. at a range of feet marksmanship would be almost impossible, owing to the indistinctness of the image upon the white wall. at that distance one always receives an impression of flicker. why this should be so is not quite apparent, though it is evidently governed by some law of optics. suppose, for instance, that a picture is being followed from a distance of feet, and a straining of the eyes is experienced. this may be overcome merely by looking at the screen through the reverse end of a pair of field glasses. as is well known, this usually makes the object appear to recede to a great distance, but when it is done in connection with moving pictures it makes the images stand out more brilliantly and distinctly, while they are far steadier, the flickering being almost entirely eliminated. in fact, if one wishes to witness a projection to the best advantage with the minimum of eye fatigue, this is the way to do it. it is obvious, under these circumstances, that the distance of the marksman from the target is restricted somewhat severely. from to feet is considered to be the greatest distance from which shooting can be practised to advantage. since the modern automatic pistol will carry about yards, while the latest types of rifles have a range of , yards or more, doubts may be raised as to the utility of the cinematograph in marksmanship. in the paterson-musgrave invention an ingenious attempt to overcome this disability was made by what might be termed a "range compensation." this end was achieved by making the figures of varying sizes, according to their distance from the marksman, so that a target of varying size was presented. thus in one case the man would appear in the foreground of the picture and be of relatively large size, corresponding to the target he would offer at a distance of yards. then he would be shown somewhat smaller to represent yards, and so on, until at the higher distances he offered a very small target indeed. from the military point of view the incidents were made as exciting as possible, and closely analogous to actual war conditions. as a case in point, the man on the screen would be shown behind cover, and aiming directly at the man on the firing line. his movements could easily be followed. he would be seen to expose himself slightly to sight his rifle and then to fire. the effect upon the marksman firing at the target was thrilling in its apparent realism, because he unconsciously developed the feeling that he had got to shoot first, and straight, or he would be hit. the self-recording system enabled him to judge whether he had got his shot well home, while the judge could decide whether the marksman or the photographic enemy had fired first. the judicious selection of subjects for portrayal upon the screen undoubtedly served to develop a sense of smartness among the marksmen. a decided improvement in quick-sighting or snap-shooting was obtained together with a concentration upon the work in hand. projection was carried out upon purely automatic lines. the projector was set working by a button control placed at the firing point, and pressed by the marksman or his officer. the instructor or officer had thus a complete control over the whole installation, and was in a position to make sure that his instructions were being followed, as well as being able to tell whether his men were quick in sighting. despite the many ingenious features incorporated in this idea, it does not appear to have met with official approval. there has recently been another invention, based upon a similar idea. this is what is called the "life target," and it is ingenious, practical, and well thought out, especially from the mechanical and electrical points of view. the original idea was suggested by a non-commissioned irish officer who fought through the boer war. his suggestion in its crude form, however, was scarcely feasible, but there were three other patents available, each of which had been designed for a different purpose, and it was realised that a combination of the four would enable a practicable cinematographic target to be produced. even then, innumerable experiments were required before perfection was gained. in this invention the salient feature is that when a shot is fired at the screen the whole of the mechanism is stopped for a very brief period, and the hit is indicated by a bright spot of light on the target. consequently the marksman is able to ascertain instantly the effect of his shot, and has no need to remove his eye from the object at which he has aimed. this is a distinct advantage, because the marksman can keep his sight ready for the succeeding shot, which may be fired instantly the mechanism resumes working. directly the film begins to move once more the previous shot represented by the illuminated spot upon the target is extinguished. the apparatus, as described, appears to be rather complicated, but as a matter of fact its working is extremely simple. the projector is mounted at a convenient place near the firing point, so that a truly square picture is presented to the marksman. in front of the firing line, and above the picture, is a very sensitive microphone or telephone receiver. connected with this is a delicate relay, which really forms the heart of the mechanism. when a shot is fired the report acts upon the microphone and upon the relay in turn. immediately a magnetic clutch, which is placed upon the motor drive of the projector, is released, and a brake arrests the movement of the projector mechanism. thus, the passage of the film is stopped in the gate, so that the picture remains stationary upon the screen. the screen itself consists of three separate sheets of specially prepared thick paper. the front sheet is coiled upon a horizontal roller which is mounted at the bottom. from this it is carried up and over a second horizontal roller at the top of the screen space, and then down again behind the front sheet, to be coiled upon a third horizontal roller, mounted above the first one. as the lower front roller can be moved or "fed" the paper is free to travel upwards over the top roller, and down again to be wound upon the third roller. behind these two thicknesses of vertically travelling paper is mounted a third sheet. this is coiled upon a vertical roller at one side, passed across the back of the two front sheets, and coiled round a second vertical roller on the opposite side. it is kept very taut, and serves to hold the two sheets in front in close proximity. it is moved by hand at intervals. behind the screen are a number of arc electric lights, or other illuminants, out of the firing line. in this way the space behind the screen is brilliantly lighted. as the paper remains stationary while the projector is running, it follows that a shot must penetrate the three thicknesses of paper, and the puncture is shown by the light from behind coming through the shot-hole. thus the marksman can see where his shot has struck. when the projecting mechanism has been stopped, and the result has been read, the shot-hole has to be obliterated before the film is able to resume its forward movement. this is accomplished automatically as follows: the relay, while declutching the drive and applying the brake, also sets in motion a plunger in a dash-pot. the time of the vertical travel of this plunger is varied, but the mechanism remains stationary, and the shot-hole visible, during its movement. when it has reached the limit of its travel it establishes contacts which serve to set the screen mechanism in motion. on the lower horizontal roller carrying the supply of paper is a ratchet and pawl movement, actuated by a solenoid. when the plunger connected with the relay closes the screen mechanism circuit, the ratchet is moved, and the outer sheet of paper moves upward one-eighth of an inch, while its return forming the second sheet moves simultaneously and correspondingly downwards. the displacement of these two vertically moving sheets disturbs the line of holes caused by the shot, and through which the back light was shining, so that the spot of light is extinguished, and an opaque screen is presented. the inclusion of the third or back paper not only serves as a stiffener, but also acts as a means of lessening the possibility of a repeat, especially as it is moved gradually and at long intervals in a transverse direction. the movement of the travelling surfaces of paper is extremely small, approximately the diameter of a shot-hole, so that the consumption of paper is very low. when the first roller has been exhausted it is only necessary to replace it by the roller on which the paper has been rewound, and the paper can be used over again. the possibility of three old shot-holes coming once more into line without a shot being fired is so extremely remote as not to be worth consideration. [illustration: soldiers firing at the "life target." the picture on the screen is thrown from the projector at right, and the picture is held stationary by the action of the report of the rifle caught by the microphone (marked x) upon the lantern mechanism.] [illustration: front view of the "life target," showing screen opening.] from this it will be seen that the final stage in the cycle of movements arising from the action of the rifle report upon the microphone, and the relay, is the movement of the paper forming the screen or target. the time during which the picture remains stationary may be varied within certain limits, but normally it is about a couple of seconds. when the paper has moved, obliterating the shot-hole, the brake on the projector is released, the magnetic clutch re-engages, and the film resumes its travel. the ingenious means adopted for stopping and restarting the projector will be appreciated as a great feature of the invention, and though the action may appear to be abrupt, no damage whatever is inflicted upon the film. one point about this apparatus deserves attention. in the ordinary projector, if the celluloid film is stopped in the gate for a fraction of a second, and is exposed to the light, it flares up instantly, owing to the great heat emitted by the illuminant and the high inflammability of the film. as it is necessary to allow the film to stand still upon the screen in this case, after the shot has been fired, means had to be found to keep it sufficiently cool to prevent combustion. this is done by a radiator arranged around the condenser, which in itself is a special kind of cooling tank. another noteworthy point is the way in which a still-life lantern slide is thrown upon the screen when desired. the projector carries two lenses, one for animation, and the other for still-life lantern slide work. the ordinary way of bringing the latter into use is to push the front part of the projector bodily sideways so as to bring the second lens before the condenser and the light. the objection to this method is that the rigidity of the projector is likely to be disturbed, especially after a little wear, with the result that the projection of the moving pictures is apt to become unsteady. in this apparatus a mirror is placed in the lantern and set at an angle of degrees. by this means the light can be diverted and thrown through the lantern slide lens. thus it is not only possible to throw a still-life slide upon the screen at the instant when a moving-picture scene is completed, but excellent dissolving effects can be obtained. [illustration: the screen mechanism of the "life target." the movement of the rollers and paper forming the screen is made by means of a solenoid operated by the lantern mechanism.] [illustration: _by permission of the motograph co._ cinematographing hedge-row life under difficulties. mr. frank newman and his camera concealed in the scrub.] the pictures are projected at the normal speed, but this may be accelerated if necessary. any films suited to the subject may be used, hydroplanes, airships, birds, wild animals, and so forth, just as successfully as the military films prepared specially for the work. in fact any picture where movement is portrayed is equally applicable, so that the marksman can become used to all sorts of conditions. experience has shown, however, that a picture projected at the normal speed of sixteen per second is too rapid for the average man unless the object was moving slowly when photographed. it has been proved that practice with this target improves quick-sighting and so teaches the art of snap-shooting which is said to be the essence of modern marksmanship. after a little experience the marksman develops the tendency to sight instantaneously as he lifts his weapon. for training in revolver shooting, which is essentially short-range point-blank work, it would be difficult to conceive a better system. even if considered as a mere diversion the life target has many advantages. there is a sensational realism which is lacking in the ordinary shooting gallery. the man at the firing point is occupying the same relative position as that of the cinematographer when he filmed the subject, and when, for instance, a tiger is springing directly out of the picture, the man with the gun has just the same feeling as if caught at close quarters in the jungle. he sights and fires quickly, hoping to hit in a vital part, and the instantly appearing shot-hole tells him how he would have fared had he been face to face with the animal in its native haunts. so far as military shooting is concerned the system has its limitations. for the reasons explained the screen cannot be more than feet from the firing line. it is a pure point-blank range. no allowances can be made for windage or trajectory. there is yet another factor that controls the distance between the firing range line and the screen, and that is that paper cannot be obtained in widths exceeding feet. a single width must form the screen, since no light must be visible from it until it is perforated by a bullet. so there is a strict limit to the size of the target. but it is possible to get subjects life size, and nothing more is required. chapter xvii the preparation of educational films although animated photography is regarded popularly as an amusement, and the picture palace is maintained to be the poor man's theatre, efforts are being made to lift the invention into a higher and more useful plane. it is sought to adapt it to the schoolroom, the college and the technical institute. up to the present, however, little headway has been made in this direction, though the market is flooded with so-called educational films. unfortunately the attitude of the responsible authorities is lukewarm, somewhat to the chagrin of those who are specializing in the preparation of these films. the authorities are said to be prejudiced against the invention, and no doubt the impression still lingers that the cinematograph is an instrument of frivolity. up to a point the authorities are correct in their attitude. it is the producer who is at fault. the former recognise the many advantages arising from the appeal to the eye, but unfortunately the producer looks at the question from the showman's point of view. he is not content to prepare a subject which shall appeal only to pupils as such, but is always trying to introduce an element which shall make the film popular with adults as well. he seeks to arouse the enthusiasm of the schoolroom and of the picture palace at one and the same time, though the two are as widely apart as the two poles, and what is suited to one is by no means adapted to the other. the patron of the picture palace must be entertained only. education, if any, must be unconscious. on the other hand, the essential consideration in the school is the training and teaching of the young mind. if amusement is introduced the educational value of the film is liable to be small. in this attempt to supply two different markets simultaneously many producers over-reach themselves. they fail to realise that a schoolroom film must be absolutely natural, that there must be no trickery or faking. there are several films on the market to-day, aiming at the requirements of education, wherein the most attractive incidents are nothing more nor less than examples of fake photography. the educational authorities are only too well aware that trickery is one of the cinematographer's most useful tools, and accordingly many films of an apparently astonishing character are regarded with suspicion. until all traces of faking and chicanery are abandoned the authorities are certain to look coolly on the suggestion of teaching by the cinematograph. nevertheless the film must be prepared in such a manner that the pupil is not bored. it must be rendered interesting and fascinating or it will be no better than the old dry-as-dust teaching. and the infusion of interest is by no means difficult. every branch of science, every item in the curriculum, can be taught by motion pictures. one producer has prepared a novel and interesting film for teaching the alphabet and the spelling of simple words with the aid of a troupe of acrobats. the acrobats contort themselves into the shapes of letters upon the screen before the children's eyes. the children naturally follow the process with interest, and the finished letter at once impresses itself upon their minds. the spelling of the words is carried out in the same way. another producer has a novel idea for explaining the principles of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. he has devised animated scenes with teddy bears and oranges, and the setting itself is a schoolroom. the actors, who are children, are dressed in bear skins, and they behave in a truly grizzly manner. the very fact that this favourite toy is introduced rivets the attention of young children, and they follow the arithmetical adventures of the oranges with the utmost fascination. the bears themselves perform their parts most decorously, without any horseplay or clowning. the youngsters following the incidents upon the screen are induced to regard the projection seriously, and it has been found that afterwards, in their leisure hours, they reconstruct the incidents with their own toys. in this way they show that they have grasped the idea that was to be conveyed. in dealing with the sciences similar methods must be practised. suppose, for instance, that it is intended to teach physics, chemistry, or electricity with the aid of moving-pictures. the film must commence at the very beginning of the subject. the text-book should be taken as a model. the producer of the film, if he is well acquainted with his subject, can devise experiments to suit any stage of knowledge. he can vary the experiment so as to bring the pupil face to face with something which has never been illustrated by diagram in the text-book. he can lead the pupil on step by step, and the more deeply he plunges into a particular science the wider is his scope for the portrayal of fascinating experiments. [illustration: ( ) moorhen sitting on her nest.] [illustration: ( ) the young chick pierces the shell.] [illustration: ( ) the chick emerging from the shell.] [illustration: ( ) the newly-hatched chick struggling to its feet.] the preparation of films of this character offer attractive possibilities to the independent worker, especially if he is familiar with teaching methods. the professional producer is often unable to reduce his subjects to the requisite simplicity. as a rule he knows little or nothing about a schoolroom, and the result is that he confines himself to the preparation of extremely fascinating films of a very advanced type, suited to the student in the secondary school or to one who has mastered the rudiments of the science. but it is in the laying of a solid foundation that the teacher finds his greatest difficulty. as a rule he has to go over the ground repeatedly before the elementary points sink into the pupil's mind. this drudgery can be greatly reduced by use of the moving-pictures, if only the right type of film is shown. the professional producer maintains that such an elementary film is useless, merely because he looks at it from the showman's point of view. another reason why the independent cinematographer should embark upon this field is that he is generally more ingenious and fertile in the preparation of experiments to suit the limitations of a lesson. he will know how to be simple, so that the pupil, after the demonstration, can go into the laboratory and repeat the experiments with a knowledge of what he is doing. as the pupil advances the films may be varied. for instance, in the experiments with sulphur he can be shown how sulphur is obtained. views can be introduced of the mines and processes as practised in sicily or louisiana, and in this case the difference between ancient and modern methods can be brought home to him. similarly in regard to the subject of common table salt it is possible to show the various methods of extraction, from the solar evaporating system practised in the caucasus and california, and the excavation of rock salt as in galicia, to the pumping of brine and forced evaporation common to the "wiches" of england. the film may be "lightened" by glimpses of bathing in the great salt lake or the brine baths of england in order to convey pictorially the difference in the density of salt and fresh water. in many cases it is possible to reproduce upon the screen the processes of nature, the character of the experiment varying with the stage of the pupil's knowledge. attempts are being made to teach geography by moving-pictures, but here again the same defects appear. most of the so-called geographical films are merely the "travel subjects" of the picture palace,--another attempt to make a subject fit both the theatre and the schoolroom. such films are useless except to form a pictorial interlude in text-book explanation. yet there is a remarkable scope for geographical films. let it be assumed that the lesson is about the birth of a river. the teacher dwells at length upon the possible sources, upon the tributaries that increase the volume of water during its journey, upon the navigable reaches and the traffic, and lastly upon the discharge of the waters into the ocean. [illustration: ( ) exhausted by its struggles the chick rests in the sun.] [illustration: ( ) a few hours later the chick takes to the water. the "birth of a moorhen." a wonderful series of moving-pictures taken by an amateur lady cinematographer. _from the "cinema college," by permission of the motograph co._] [illustration: fight between a lobster and an octopus.] [illustration: _by permission of pathé frères._ the story of the water-snail.] cinematographically the rise and growth of the river may be shown far more graphically and attractively. the pupil can see every phase. the source may be an insignificant spring, the outflow from a lake, or the melting ice of a glacier. its rapid growth can be depicted by showing the inflow of its tributaries and the many sudden changes through which it passes, its rapids and its falls, while the fact that water follows the path of least resistance may be illustrated by showing the evidences of erosion and the manner in which the river has cut its channel through friable soil, or taken advantage of a breach in a rocky rampart. at the same time the pupil can be introduced to the utility of the waterway, especially upon its upper reaches, by pictures of the craft found thereon and the traffic in which they are engaged. the varying force of the current can be illustrated, and also the flotsam and jetsam that has been brought down. finally, gaining the lower reaches, steam and motor navigation begins, with towns and cities on the banks, and in conclusion the pupil may be given an idea of the immensity of the estuary together with the life and industry at this point. in addition some impression of the delta can be conveyed with moving-pictures of the way in which the detritus brought down from the upper reaches, is deposited at the mouth, forming islands and sand-banks, clothed with vegetation, and, if not developed, inhabited by wild fowl. the preparation of such a film is certain to occupy a long time, and is somewhat expensive, but these items must be disregarded if the schoolroom is to have what it requires. a film of this character would have to be divided into certain lengths, each of which would correspond with a lesson, for the subject is too vast to be assimilated in a few minutes. cramming by the aid of moving-pictures would be worse than under present conditions. in many cases the camera will show that existing text-book teachings are erroneous or need modification. some idea of the utility of the cinematograph in this one particular field has been revealed by the films of the shackleton and scott antarctic expeditions. they have brought home more vividly than anything else the meaning of the eternal snow, ice and cold, associated with the polar regions, and they have served to dispel many false ideas. so far the greatest success achieved by the motion-pictures in the field of education is in connection with natural history. many wonderful films bearing upon animal life have been prepared and have created sensations. the text-books tell much about the life and habits of the various members of the animal kingdom, but in this case the text-book often happens to be wrong. mr. frank a. newman, an industrious animal photographer, devoted months to the preparation of a film , feet in length dealing with certain phases of animal life. he confined his efforts to the study of those creatures which are familiar to all. incidentally, he proved the value that a highly instructive film possesses in the market, for within sixty days of its first appearance upon the screen, over £ , or $ , was realised from the disposal of the rights to exploit the film in different countries. pictures dealing with animal, bird, fish or reptile life never fail to command high prices. indescribable patience is demanded in their preparation. months may pass and yield only a few hundred feet of suitable material, and the photographer has to resort to the most extraordinary devices to take the subjects in their natural environment. one worker, who set himself the task of filming the kingfisher, discovered the haunts of his quarry, and then quietly commenced to establish himself in its vicinity. he had to be exceedingly cunning in his movements, masking the position he had assumed in four feet of water, with a clump of tree boughs. concealed in this ambuscade he approached the bird, moving with extreme care, so as to convey the impression that the boughs were drifting with the stream. behind this ambush he placed his camera, clamping it to a heavy floating base, which was anchored. in this way he was able to move undetected. when he thought that the time had come for an exposure, he commenced to turn the handle, but the whirr of the mechanism scared the bird, and he was forced to wait some time, until its courage revived and it came back. he then mounted a second camera on the floating base, and this, being empty of film, was set in motion every time the bird returned, until it grew accustomed to the unusual noise. after a few days the bird took no further notice of the sound, and then the pictures could be taken with comparative ease. altogether some seven weeks were occupied in obtaining about feet of film, during which time the operator had often to stand for hours at a time in four feet of water, awaiting his opportunities. how completely his strategy and patience were rewarded may be gathered from the fact that in one incident, where the bird is shown devouring a fish it has caught, it perched upon a branch of the ambuscade, barely four feet from the lens, completely unaware of the fact that its actions were being recorded. [illustration: the head of the tortoise.] [illustration: _by permission of pathé frères._ the hawk moth.] [illustration: snake shedding its skin or "slough."] [illustration: _from the "cinema college," by permission of the motograph co._ the snake and its shed slough.] another indefatigable worker is mr. j. c. bee mason, whose speciality is the filming of insect life. he has produced four films depicting the honey bee. as studies they are intensely interesting, and they bring out the characteristics of the subject in a most attractive manner. the average worker might hesitate to film such a subject at close quarters. the bee is very quick to resent intrusion and disturbance in a way peculiarly its own. mr. mason himself admits that in the early days he received very severe punishment, but he stuck to his camera and his work with the result that in the course of time he became accustomed to the attacks of the bees and to-day a sting has no more effect upon him than upon a deal board. the result of this patience is reflected in the excellence of his films which bring bee life most intimately before the spectator. the bee is always an object of interest, and in this particular case his films have brought mr. mason over £ , , or $ , . although here and there one comes upon a film which exactly meets with the requirements of the schoolroom, the majority can make no such claim. they are merely instructive, in an amusing kind of way, and in the picture palace they come as a welcome relief from transpontine drama and buffoonery. fortunately, at the present moment, there is a growing tendency to make films which the schools will really welcome. one concern is studying the situation very closely. this is the motograph film company of london, which has completed contracts with the most prominent european scientific cinematographers for their entire output of educational, scientific and natural history subjects. it is also endeavouring to persuade the eminent teachers of certain subjects to commit their work to the celluloid film instead of to printed books. it is a difficult quest because the professors are apt to regard the cinematograph as a joke. at the same time, once the development becomes started upon the correct lines, it cannot fail to meet with success. the independent worker also is being encouraged by the motograph film company, and the cinematographic student of scientific subjects has a very profitable market open to him. the prices paid for the films naturally vary according to their merit, but this company is prepared to pay from _s._ _d._ to _s._--from cents to $ --per foot of film for subjects which meet with its approval. the lengths may range from to , feet. recently, an independent lady worker, who in her spare time had given attention to filming the "life of a moorhen," showing the building of the nest, laying of the eggs, hatching and rearing of the young, submitted her film to this concern. some two-and-a-half years had been expended upon this subject, but the quality and the incidents depicted were so excellent that the , feet of film was bought for £ ($ , ). this film has proved that the highest class of work must be obtained from the independent worker, or amateur, if that word is preferred, for the simple reason that time is no object, the task is not hurried, and no effort is spared to obtain the finest results. another instructive film bought by this concern shows "big game hunting in the north pole icefields." it introduces one to the polar bear. altogether this subject extends over , feet, but for a selected length of , feet the sum of £ , ($ , ) was paid. in the case of another celebrated arctic film, taken during the two years' imprisonment of the whitney expedition in the frozen zone, and about , feet in length, the same company gave £ , ($ , ) for the english rights alone. although the cinematograph has failed to make a very pronounced advance among our educational institutions, it has proved a striking success in education of another kind. this is in regard to the propaganda for improving health and hygiene. this movement has reached its highest stage of development in the united states. the "swat the fly" movement, which declared a relentless war against the common house-fly, was powerfully assisted by the exhibition of films depicting the fly at work in the dissemination of disease. free exhibitions have been given throughout the united states for the purpose of bringing home to the public the serious menace that this insect offers to the welfare of the community. one or two of the films used for the purpose were bought from england, where they had been used in the picture palaces. but the organisation pledged to the extermination of the fly turned them to a far more serious purpose, and its work has met with remarkable success. another series of health films bear upon the "great white scourge." they are being exhibited freely and are bringing home to the public the terrible ravages wrought by tuberculosis. the dreaded bacillus is shown at its fell work, and the different stages of the disease are pictorially represented. then follow a series of photographs showing how it is transmitted, and lastly some pictorial suggestions as to how it may be combated, at least in its early stages, by fresh air and sanatorium treatment. the success of the fly and white scourge campaigns has resulted in the preparation of other films dealing with the public health, while many local authorities have taken up the idea for the purpose of improving the conditions of their localities. many of the films used for the purpose are prepared by amateur workers, especially when the subject is of local importance, and their ventures are proving highly profitable. experience has proved in no uncertain manner that moving-pictures will soon be the world's most powerful educator. chapter xviii photo-plays and how to write them the vogue of the picture palace has created a new profession. this is the writing of plays especially for cinematographic production. in the early days the handful of producers engaged in the craft had no difficulties in meeting their needs in this direction. the producer conceived and worked out his own ideas. the market was small, the output was restricted, and it did not matter whether the plots were good, bad, or indifferent. the public was quite content with the dramatic fare supplied upon the screen, being more impressed by the novelty of the performance than by its merits. but with the rage for picture palaces the whole business underwent a transformation. the public, having outlived the era of curiosity, and having shown by its patronage that it regarded the picture palace in the same light as a theatre or music hall, grew more and more critical. it demanded stronger plots, improved mounting and acting, as well as better photographic quality. as new firms entered the producing field, competition became acute, and the whole photo-play industry automatically transferred itself from the pioneer to the accomplished master of stage-craft. the producer, unable to prepare his scenarios himself, sought the assistance of the amateur playwright, just as the editor of a periodical solicits contributions to fill his pages. it was a golden opportunity for the unknown struggling dramatist. foiled hitherto by lack of chance, the power of the privileged few, and the absence of enterprise displayed by theatrical managers, he handed his work to the upstart rival, the picture-play producer. it was a wise move. the dramatist did not, indeed, secure that measure of publicity upon the screen which might have been his lot upon the boards, but the financial returns were more regular. as he developed his inclinations, and his work became appreciated, he was able to anticipate a comfortable income, owing to the steady demand that arose for his handiwork. to-day the embryo dramatist never bestows a thought upon writing for the stage; the cinematograph will absorb all that he can produce, and as rapidly as he can complete it. no longer need a budding genius starve unknown and unappreciated in a garret. if his work possesses any merit the cinematograph will turn it to profitable account. about three hundred picture-plays are placed upon the world's market every week, and consequently the consumption of plots is enormous. what is more important from the author's point of view is the expanding nature of this market, where supply cannot keep pace with demand, and the proportionate improvement that is manifest in the scale of remuneration. ten years ago a plot seldom fetched more than five shillings or a dollar; to-day the same material will command anything between £ and £ --$ to $ . in this field of activity reputation counts for nothing. the play and the play only is the thing. the picture palace is the poor man's theatre, and this class of play-goer is relentlessly emphatic in condemnation, and equally enthusiastic in praise. it appreciates novelty in plot, and that is the one point the author has to bear in mind. so it is clear that the unknown playwright has everything in his favour; in fact, his work is generally preferred to that of the skilled writer. it contains the very best efforts of its creator; the other is probably of poor quality, because the man with a name does not realise what the people want, and thinks that for the cinematograph anything is good enough. [illustration: _by permission of the motograph co._ exterior view of the dummy cow used by messrs. newman for taking moving-pictures of wild animals, showing door at side.] [illustration: _by permission of the motograph co._ mr. frank newman and his camera hidden within a hollow tree trunk. the utmost concealment is necessary to secure wild-life under natural conditions.] the desire of the photo-play producer to encourage unknown writers has led to the inevitable result. he is inundated with plots and suggestions of every description, written by every type of man, woman, and child. needless to say, a large proportion of the submitted contributions are wildly impossible, or contain plots which have been worn so thread-bare that there is no possible chance of dressing them in a new guise. fortunately the task of sifting the wheat from the chaff is not exacting. a hurried scan of the opening lines generally suffices to show whether the subject is excellent, passable, or hopeless. picture-play writing is an art, science, or whatever one likes to call it, which can be cultivated. the average person, at some time or other, is sure to have an idea--it may be an idle fleeting thought--which is capable of being turned to useful account. the picture-play producer knows this very well, and accordingly holds out every inducement in the hope that sooner or later he may light upon something brilliant. a suggestion need only have some small germ of possibility, but the producer, from his experience of the theatre, and of the requirements of the picture palace, can take that germ and evolve it in the most effective manner. under these circumstances the question arises "how should a photo-play be prepared?" while there is no golden rule, and while each producer works in his own way, it is possible to give a few hints to the beginner. a glance at the manuscript is enough to inform the reader whether the author is a raw hand at the work or otherwise, and although every manuscript is reviewed, more interested attention is attracted by a contribution which is set out upon more or less methodical lines. in the first place it is just as well to remember that the photo-play producer of to-day is a man of wide experience. in most cases he has graduated upon the stage, and has probably passed through all the phases between a touring company and a well-known theatre. as a result of this drilling he will have assumed a wide perspective. sheer ability will have brought him to the control of the cinema-studio stage, where the work is most exacting, and where there is a very great demand for ingenuity and resource. having mastered the intricacies and possibilities of the photo-play stage, and what can be done by photography, he will be a thorough master of craft. the greater number of the play-producers retained by the foremost firms are men who climbed to the top rung in the theatrical profession and merely went over to the motion-picture studio because it offered them greater scope for their prowess and knowledge. indeed, one might go so far as to say that, unless a man has served his apprenticeship behind the footlights, he is an indifferent play-producer, because he will be ignorant of stage-craft and the technique of the profession. a man of such experience and ability is able to sum up the value of a plot in an instant. consequently the author is well advised to condense his plot into as few words as possible--the briefer the outline the better. in some instances it is not even necessary to indicate the characters, the period, or the scene. the plot is the only thing that is wanted: the producer, as he reads it, will conjure up in his mind the period, environment, atmosphere, and characters, wherewith such and such a story may best be worked out. there is one well-known continental producer who never asks for more than a bald statement of the plot. if it can be conveyed in six lines he is more than satisfied. on one occasion, while seated at lunch, one of the party jestingly suggested an idea. without a word of comment the producer scribbled the suggestion upon the back of an envelope. returning to the studio an hour or so later, he handed a note to one of his staff, indicated how he would like it worked out, the colleague fitted in the characters, evolved the scenes, period, and situations, and the next morning the play was staged. one of the foremost french picture-play producers follows a similar practice. he has a staff of eight writers whose sole duty is the preparation of scenarios for production. plots as they flit through the minds of these men are jotted down and pigeon-holed. the outside contributions which come in with every post are scanned, and those thought suitable are dissected, their ideas are torn out and re-committed to paper, for filing, while the author is rewarded with payment according to the merit of his work. at this establishment no lengthy scenario submitted by an unknown writer is considered. time is too valuable when eight or ten stages have to be kept going. the staff is fully occupied upon the work in hand, and cannot wade through pages of often indecipherable hand-writing. the method of this particular producer in the case of an ordinary play is to have an abstract, prepared by the retained scenario writer, indicating the scenes, their sequence, characters, and other details, with a brief synopsis of the plot, the whole being set out upon a sheet of foolscap. upon this material the producer works, explaining to the company the story of the play and the situations, as they progress step by step. many producers, however, prefer the scenario to be submitted in a more complete form, though requirements of brevity and terseness must be observed. they like the list of characters to be given, together with a suggested period and setting. the cast should be kept as small as possible, as a plethora of characters in a photo-play is apt to be bewildering. also the producer can amplify the cast if he wishes to do so. the plot should be set out in narrative form. a bald synopsis is quite sufficient because the scenario expert will judge the merits of the manuscript from this alone. in order to assist the producer the main points and situations may be indicated. after the synopsis there should be some suggestions for working out the story scene by scene. these are not essential, but they sometimes give the reader a better impression of the story, and help him in staging the play. the chances are a hundred to one that the play never will be staged as written by the author, yet its brief evolution is often appreciated. when the author works out his plots he must steer clear of introducing wild impossibilities or hopelessly impracticable suggestions. the producer is admittedly a clever man, and is able to get wonderful effects with the aid of the camera, nor does he hesitate to employ trickery when it will further his purpose, but there are limitations even to trick photography. there was one manuscript in which the author, after taking his villain through adventures innumerable, suggested a sensational means of eliminating him altogether. the man was speeding across a frozen river to escape the vengeance of the hero when the ice opened up suddenly, let him through, and then closed on him to hide him from sight and memory. needless to say, this plot met with scanty consideration. in another case the plot turned upon a lady's ring. the lady was standing by a river, and the ring slipped from her finger into the water to be caught and swallowed by a fish. some days later the hero was fishing in the same stream. he had a bite, hooked his catch, cut it open, and found the ring. it is difficult to say who experienced the most amazement, the hero when he opened his fish, or the producer when he read the story. in the photo-play profession it is novelty of the plot which brings success. the farther the author can get away from conventionality, the bigger will be the reward. this is where the average amateur shows deficiency. he is content to follow the footsteps of others. again, many photo-play writers, instead of striving to be original, prefer to steal ideas from a novelist or short story writer. this work, needless to say, is sheer waste of time. the producer and his staff follow the periodicals and the publishing seasons very closely, so that it is easy for them to detect a stolen plot. moreover, it must be remembered that to-day the leading producing firms have arrangements with authors, publishers and editors, for the exclusive use of their productions. these sources form a stand-by, as it were, to be brought into use when the fount of original scenarios dries up. when novels and magazine stories are to provide fare for the screen the producer entrusts the work of adaptation to one of his staff who has a more intimate idea of what is required, and will perform the task far more satisfactorily than the ordinary contributor. the photo-play author has one great advantage over his colleague who writes for the stage. the latter has to supply dialogue, and often the success or failure of his work turns upon this factor. in writing for the screen dialogue is a lost quantity. it is action which is required, because the spectator has to follow the play from what he sees, and not from what he hears. accordingly the requirements of action must be kept in mind. in the average studio the actor either extemporises dialogue to fit the part or situation, or else the producer prompts him. it is true that one or two producers stipulate that the photo-play shall be written out in detail as if it were to be played behind the footlights, but such producers may be set down as incompetent or behind the times. a few years ago one of the continental firms insisted that every play should be written out in full, but a few months' experience showed the folly of this procedure. plays mounted in this manner lacked that grip and movement which is necessary in photographic pantomime. the audience could not retain the thread of the story, and the interest consequently flagged. the members of the company, being compelled to learn their lines, and to rehearse continually, went through their parts like puppets. accordingly this method of mounting and acting has been abandoned in favour of the other in which the company, absolutely ignorant of the plot and story, is taken through it step by step and maintained at concert pitch throughout. the writer should make a point of selecting a striking or catchy title for his work. often when the plot itself is useless the producer will buy the manuscript merely to apply the title to some other production. a word of warning may be given to the inexperienced photo-play author. advertisements are freely inserted in the various periodicals offering to teach the art of writing plays for the cinematograph, and to submit the plots to the various producers in the manner of a literary agency. no matter how speciously and attractively the advertisements are written, the offers they contain should not be accepted. the author will do best to submit his work directly to the producer and to treat with him alone. the art cannot be taught by schools; it can only be acquired by experience. nor does the agency possess more favourable opportunities for getting the work accepted than the writer himself, while the so-called expert who maintains that he can lick a plot into shape is merely a charlatan. if the plot is good, whether written by a raw or a highly trained hand, it will command its price, because the producer is no respecter of persons. also, by treating directly, the author comes into touch with the producer, and often learns points and receives encouragement which cannot be transmitted through a middle man. how is the work rewarded? this is a question which is often asked. so far as the british market is concerned the photo-play author receives scant encouragement. british enterprise has not risen to the level of that of the united states or the continent. the british firms neither realise the value of a good plot nor the advantages of prompt and smart business methods. here and there may be found a firm which is keenly alive to the value of the outside worker, but they are few and far between. on the other hand the american and continental houses give an immediate decision, treat the outside contributor kindly, extend profitable words of advice if the work is promising, and pay promptly. a plot for which a british firm considers _s._ _d._ ($ . ) to be an adequate remuneration will realise $ (£ ) in the american market. the british producer will consider £ ($ ) to be a princely price for a good plot, and so long as this impression is retained the british photo-plays will remain inferior to their competitors. on the other hand, the american firms deal liberally with their authors, and are quite prepared to pay from $ to $ --£ to £ . fortunately signs of awakening are becoming evident among the british firms. good plots, like gold nuggets, are somewhat scarce, and one or two of the latest and most progressive establishments now pay up to £ ($ ). picture-play producers are finding greater and greater difficulty in obtaining first-class plots. the standard of excellence has been set so high, owing to the extremely critical character of the picture palace patron, that the highest work only now stands a chance of being accepted. the rivalry among the producers has become keen, because a strong picture-play can command a world-wide sale. one italian firm, in the effort to forge ahead of its competitors, went so far as to offer a prize of £ , ($ , ) for the best scenario in open competition. it is admitted among the manufacturers that within the course of the next few years the royalty system must come into operation, so that the photo-play author will be elevated to the level of his confrère writing for the theatre. in france a society has been founded for the protection of photo-play writers. this organisation protects its members by securing higher rates of payment, by introducing the work of beginners to the film-producers, and last, but not least, by advertising the writer. ten years ago the picture-play author was regarded with disdain, and was considered to be little more than an indifferent literary hack. to-day he is regarded as a powerful force. from the lowest and most ill-paid level he is rising to the highest rungs, where his rewards are excellent and his opportunities unbounded. chapter xix recent developments in stage productions although the mounting and staging of photo-plays has been greatly improved, the art has still many imperfections. this is partly due to the conservative character of the industry. there is a lack of initiative and enterprise; the producers are content to keep in the one groove which was established years ago. no one can deny that enormous sums of money are expended upon the mounting of the productions, nor assail them from the photographic viewpoint. but there is a lack of art which at times is sadly jarring. this was to be expected. when the english pioneers embarked upon the play-producing business they knew nothing about stage-craft. their ambition was rather to perfect the photographic quality of the films. so rapidly did the movement advance, however, and so insistent was the public in its demands for better, larger, and more lavishly staged plays, that the pioneer found himself out-distanced. at this juncture came the man who had won his spurs in the theatre, and who was thoroughly expert in the technique of stage-craft. his professional knowledge lifted the art out of the hands of the pioneers, who retired from the scene. the introduction of the professional element commenced in france, and was taken up immediately by the americans. these two countries went ahead so rapidly that great britain was soon left behind. the world became flooded with french and american productions, and in this healthy race the latter soon went ahead and took premier position. the french industry, being threatened, pulled itself together, and taking a cue from american methods it overhauled its organisations and increased its expenditure, with the result that it soon attained the level of excellence achieved by the united states. at a later date the italian industry, which was in a languishing condition, followed suit. money was sunk in the enterprise, huge studios were built, and talented artists were engaged to act before the moving-picture camera. great britain lagged in this race, and it is only recently that the british producers, by a change of method have been able to make up the leeway. the british movement was rather of a sporadic nature. it was left to one or two enterprising firms to show the way. but others have followed, and to-day there is the keenest rivalry in producing, nor is expense considered so long as the public gets what it wants. to sink £ , ($ , ) in a single production has become quite a common venture. in many cases, however, in spite of these changes, photo-plays still follow the lines that prevailed ten years ago. the blemishes, defects, and anachronisms are just as pronounced now as they were then, though they are suffered in silence by the public. many faults are hidden by the gorgeous and lavish mounting of the scenes, while the rapid action of the players serves to distract attention from the shortcomings of the environment. but the feeling of actuality, which ought to be the great feature of the cinematograph, is missing. the scenic accessories might be left out for all the effect that they produce. as a matter of fact the photo-play stage occupies to-day the position of the theatre twenty years ago. the scenery is for the most part make-shift, crudely painted in the neutral black and white, the stock room being ransacked to discover pieces of canvas to fit the situation. there is no attempt to create an artistic effect. also there is an entire absence of reality or individuality. a cell scene, for instance, bears every sign of being built of canvas and battens, and so does the exterior of a mediæval castle, or the inside of a conservatory, and completed by a factory hand. [illustration: _from the "cinema college," by permission of the motograph co._ tree lizard, with a spider, which it has captured, in its mouth.] [illustration: _by permission of pathé frères._ the digestive organs and eggs of a water flea.] [illustration: _by permission of pathé frères._ the moving-picture naturalist and the lizard at home.] sometimes the shortcomings of the studio-stage are avoided by setting the plays in an outdoor surrounding, and in this instance a far more realistic effect is produced. the audience is unconsciously carried away. this has been specially realised by some of the american, danish and italian firms. in france the gaumont company has shown equal enterprise. so far as possible the elaborate productions of this company are acted in a scene suited to the plot, whether it be a sixteenth century castle or a modern hotel. there is ample opportunity for doing this, and the present popularity of the photo-play proves the wisdom of the policy. during the summer months as many as six different companies will be working in as many different corners of europe, acting plays in the open air for the picture palaces. even the interiors in gaumont films are often real and not merely constructed for the occasion. as a rule the studio is used only during the winter when the climatic conditions are unfavourable for outdoor work. this is the chief reason why the gaumont films to-day are in such demand, and why the company has forced its way to the front. the conveyance of players to a suitable natural setting is expensive, but it represents all the difference between success and failure. of course, there are occasions when a natural setting demands a certain amount of artificial embellishment. this was the case in the filming of hamlet, as presented by sir forbes robertson and his company. a sea background and a battlemented castle were required. the former was quite easy to find, but the combination of the two was more difficult. the problem was solved by the choice of lulworth cove as the scene and by erecting a solid set to represent the castle. in this case the preparation of the extemporised castle was so thorough and careful that it looks like a weather-beaten stone building. the photo-play stage will be forced to emulate the current practice of the theatre. it must bring the artist to bear upon the work. at the moment it is merely a combination of the photographer and the stage-manager or producer. the latter is not always an artist, though he is clever at making existing facilities suit his purpose. the theatre is holding its own principally because it respects the artistic side of the issue. individuality is encouraged. the photo-play stage will have to follow the same line of action. directly this is done the picture palace will become a spirited rival of the theatre. for this reason the efforts of sir hubert von herkomer, the eminent british artist, are being followed with interest. he was attracted to the photo-play producing business owing to the artistic atrocities perpetrated by the professional producer of film plays. he is not attempting to achieve any revolution, except in the mounting and acting of plays for the camera, but in this sphere he hopes to bring about a recognition of the part that the artist must play. there is a complete absence of sensationalism about the artist-producer's work, and in this respect he goes against the conventions. he is deliberately flouting many of the accepted tenets of the photo-play production, and his attitude is certain to meet with some hostile criticism. but from the realist point of view he is correct. his matter-of-fact productions give verisimilitude to the scene and story, and brings them within the range of probability. there is no straining after effect. no detail is introduced unless it has a distinct bearing on the subject. the costumes are faithful to the last button. if a sixteenth century farmhouse is wanted, it is built, and built so well that in the picture it has every appearance of having been built of stone. a feature which will be appreciated in the herkomer productions is the suppression of the harsh and distressing blacks, greys and whites, which under brilliant illumination often convey the impression of snow. nor do the players seem to be suffering from anæmia. these appear to be trivial matters in themselves, but they greatly affect the ultimate whole. the robust aspect of the peasant who lives out of doors is faithfully conveyed, and he is thrown up in sharp contrast to the white-faced townsman. in the conventional picture-play, on the other hand, there is no individuality of facial expression, because one and all are made up in the same way. sir hubert von herkomer has commenced his work in a logical way. he confesses that until he began it he knew nothing about it. he was not harassed by a partial knowledge of how things are done. he is essentially a pioneer, content to work out his own ideas, and possessed of views upon stage-craft which are not to be despised. they had a good effect upon the theatre twenty or thirty years ago, and have lately been revived by another enthusiast. so sir hubert von herkomer is not likely to be the slave of tradition. he maintains that in the average photo-play everything is sacrificed to rapid action. this is true, and it is done purposely to distract attention from the weakness of the rest. the spectator must fix his attention upon the characters or he loses the thread of the story. no time is given him to see the deficiency of atmosphere or environment. the result is that everything is rushed through as if the villain and hero were racing the clock. to realise this it is only necessary to follow the film-play of a well-known historical story. familiarity with the incident here gives the spectator a chance of taking in the setting and the mounting. if there are mistakes, interest gives way to mirth and all concentration is lost. the picture is followed with no more enthusiasm than a pantomime. this is the main reason why producers are chary of portraying well-known historical episodes upon the screen. one educational authority has described such films as burlesques, and that is among the causes of opposition to the cinematograph as an educational medium. in one instance an attempt was made to film an incident in one of fenimore cooper's stories with white actors made up as red indians. it was acted in a well-kept private forest instead of in the wild woods of canada. but young and old proved to be too familiar with this author's works. they had too true a notion of the canadian timber wilderness to be impressed by the substitute on the screen, and received the presentation with the ridicule it deserved. the sight of a red man slouching through the bush with out-turned feet and trying to conceal himself behind a tree less than six inches in thickness, proved to be merely comic. but other things equally ridiculous are found in many of the films of to-day, and that is the reason why the scenes are so judiciously rushed. by slowing down the speed of acting, though without reducing the sustained interest, sir hubert von herkomer contends that the public will be put in a position to grasp the whole subject, and will be able to follow it more rationally and comprehensibly. at the same time the players will have time and scope to perform their parts properly. there is not the least reason why this should not be achieved without allowing the action to flag or the interest to drop. the lighting of the subject is another important feature to which sir hubert von herkomer is giving attention. the illumination must be arranged to suit the situation, and as cinematography offers the utmost latitude in this respect, it is unnecessary to rush to violent extremes. in many productions the studio stage is suffused with such an intense glare that all facial expression and shadows are sacrificed. sir hubert has realised how great is the scope for improvement in this direction, and is altering the whole principle of stage lighting. similarly, in outdoor work he is supplementing sunshine with arc lights, so as to secure the steady illumination necessary for good effects. the combination of brilliant daylight and artificial illumination is a novelty in photo-play production, but when the action is taking place under trees, where the shadows are heavy and in sharp contrast with scattered patches of brilliant sunlight, the players are apt to present a phantom appearance. sometimes they are scarcely distinguishable. the introduction of auxiliary light relieves the shadowy places and softens the general effect. needless to say the manipulation of powerful arc lights under such conditions demands skilful handling, but in the herkomer films the improved results certainly show that the labour is not wasted. whether the combination of artist and producer will prove successful time alone can show. there will be a certain amount of commercial opposition, lacking in artistic feeling, and hostile to innovation. but the appearance of the artist and his resolution to work out his schemes logically should surely be encouraged by the public. the same reforms that changed and improved the theatre, enabling it to hold its own against the all-conquering picture palace, have a mission to the latter also. they can lift it to the higher level that is its obvious destiny. chapter xx why not national cinematograph laboratories? considering the position which the motion-picture has attained in our social and industrial life, the establishment of national cinematograph laboratories appears not only to be opportune, but necessary. at the present moment, if one conceives an idea for the solving of some abstruse problem by means of animated photography, one is handicapped by the lack of opportunity and facilities for carrying out the work. either the apparatus required must be made specially, or purchased, in which case heavy expenditure may be incurred, or, one must go to paris and make use of the marey institute, either by becoming a member of it or by serving as the representative of a contributory society. there, one is able to pursue the line of study quietly, easily, and economically, and, even if the ultimate results are disappointing, or the cherished theories prove to be untenable, certain benefits are sure to accrue from the experiments. the time is not wasted. the marey institute is unique and wonderful. its operations are world-wide. its founder, dr. e. j. marey, was a prodigious worker who pursued his scientific investigations without any idea of personal gain. when first he entered the arena of science he began his experiments in a large room upon the fifth floor of a house in the rue de l'ancienne comédie, paris, which formerly belonged to the comédie française. here he fitted up as good a laboratory as he could afford, dividing the spacious apartment, by wooden partitions, into working and living rooms. his studies soon aroused widespread attention, and their results were subsequently embodied in his classical work, "the graphic method." but some ten years before this volume appeared his investigations had received recognition. in the minister of public instruction offered him the use of a laboratory at the college of france, so as to be able to carry out his researches to better advantage. during this period he invented numerous instruments--the sphymograph, cardiograph, pneumograph, thermograph, and odograph--with which he made invaluable contributions to scientific knowledge. it was konig's work which attracted marey to animated photography, as a handmaid of science, the outcome being his greatest discovery, which he named chronophotography. marey was much impressed by jannsen's astronomical revolver with which, in , a series of photographs of the transit of venus were taken in seconds. this caused him to build a photographic gun, with which gulls in flight were secured. the work of muybridge, the english investigator residing in san francisco, aroused his enthusiasm to the highest pitch, and enabled him to perfect his system of taking a series of successive photographs upon a single glass plate. finally, in , he produced his first moving-picture camera working with celluloid films. but some twenty years before this last achievement he had conceived the idea for an international institution where experiments of this character, in connection with motion photography, might be carried out to the advantage of the sciences. he realised that the elucidation of physiological phenomena was quite beyond the capacity of a single individual. he outlined his scheme at the fourth physiological congress, held at cambridge (england) in the early seventies, while monsieur h. kronecker, of switzerland, a great admirer of marey's work, who succeeded to the presidential chair of the institution after the founder's death, urged a similar plea at an exhibition of scientific apparatus held in london in . [illustration: _by permission of the motograph co._ a novel "hide" contrived by mr. j. t. newman with camera fifteen feet above the ground. the working platform is covered with boughs so as not to alarm the forest life being cinematographed.] [illustration: _by permission of the motograph co._ the "hide" opened to show working platform, trestle support, operator and camera placed fifteen feet above the ground.] marey's broad-mindedness met with its reward. with the assistance of private friends and contemporary scientific societies throughout the world he obtained adequate funds for the establishment of the institution, the necessity for which he had advanced so vigorously. the city of paris gave valuable help by granting the use of a tract of land attached to its physiological station, and here marey established a commodious building with spacious workrooms, a library, lecture hall, and other conveniences, for the profitable prosecution of cinematographic research. since the foundation of the "french cradle of cinematography," innumerable and valuable contributions to scientific knowledge have been made by investigators of all nationalities, who have gone to paris to take advantage of the facilities offered. many extraordinary films dealing with the various branches of science have been prepared. many of the most prominent scientists of all nations, france, great britain, germany, italy, roumania, switzerland, the united states of america, are numbered among its members. it may be said truthfully that the marey institute has anticipated all the great developments that have been made during recent years concerning the instructional or informative side of film production. unfortunately the original investigations were made so long ago, before the possibilities of animated photography were appreciated, that they have been forgotten by, or are unknown to, the present generation. many an inventor, enthusiastic about a development which he has perfected in the art, has received a rude shock when his work became public and he learned that he had been forestalled years before at the marey institute. nearly all of the so-called scientific films, which arouse widespread interest to-day, were prepared originally at the marey institute. the combination of the cinematograph with the microscope, the x-rays, and other apparatus, the recording of the growth of plants and animals, the photographing of rapid movements all these were demonstrated at this establishment a generation ago. surely what has been possible at a french establishment is not beyond the resources of other countries? when one recalls the valuable assistance given to science by the french institute, there should be no hesitation in other countries to emulate the idea, and to establish national institutions for a similar purpose. animated photography is still in its infancy. its educational and scientific possibilities are scarcely yet realised. there were many years during which no one realised the full advantages of ordinary photography in the provinces of investigation and experiment, and animated photography is passing through a similar phase. this is largely because of the showman, who is enterprising, and has captured the fort for himself. probably no other industry has been responsible for the creation of so many millionaires in so short a period, yet there is no industry which can render so great a service to science. it should not be difficult to establish national institutions, on marey's lines, in every country which has great industrial and commercial interests at stake. so far as great britain is concerned it might be attached to the national physical laboratory at teddington. this establishment has an extensive array of scientific apparatus of all descriptions capable of being utilised in conjunction with the moving-picture camera, so that the additional outlay would not be excessive. not only would it be possible to utilise the invention in connection with existing experiments, but independent and original investigation could be undertaken. there are many points of science which can be determined only by moving-pictures. although marey covered the ground very completely during his lifetime, as a perusal of "movement" will show, many new spheres of application have appeared since his time. it is quite possible that if some of his investigations were repeated in the light of later knowledge, the new results would be quite as striking as the old. in germany the cinematographic laboratory might be attached to the world-famed testing laboratory at charlottenburg. at present, although the recording instruments in use are of a most modern and perfect description, there are innumerable instances where improvement might be effected by photographic methods. the german military authorities were not slow to appreciate the value of professor cranz's system of photographing projectiles in flight. directly the initial experiments were concluded the work was taken up by the war department. although certain particulars of the apparatus employed and its method of operation have been published, the essential details have been kept secret. it is admitted that the method evolved by cranz is imperfect in certain features, but the authorities have the germ of a useful invention, and are now developing it independently. in italy also the value of the cinematograph is being appreciated in a certain direction. the minister of marine has established a special department of photography and cinematography in rome, after personal investigation of the utility of the invention during the naval manoeuvres. the united states of america has been no more progressive than great britain in giving recognition to animated photography, but there are indications that this lethargic attitude is to be abandoned. certain influential interests have suggested the establishment of a cinematographic bureau of standards, emphasising the usefulness of the invention for supplying measurements of time and work. apart from this movement other independent enthusiasts have recommended the formation of moving-picture laboratories in connection with the various training institutions, so that students might be trained on the correct lines. doubtless the perfection of continuous-record cinematography, and of cameras capable of working at the highest speeds, will stimulate the movement, for they provide a method of getting information which even the cinematograph has not hitherto been able to give. there are a thousand problems incidental to industry and commerce which now defy solution, but could be solved by animated photography. aviation, which at present is occupying the attention of every nation, is a case in point. the mechanical part of the science has been investigated minutely but little progress has been made in studying the effect of the air upon the planes, so as to discover the best forms of cutting edge. present endeavour is content to work upon the results obtained by marey with his chronophotographic apparatus some twenty years ago. no attempt has been made to ascertain whether it is possible to improve upon his work, or to determine whether the data he gathered is in need of modification. another field of investigation is in regard to the testing of metals, woods, and other materials, to discover their behaviour under varying degrees of strain. a national cinematographic laboratory need not be expensive either to establish nor to maintain. the marey institute might be taken as a model. after the death of marey, in , the means of carrying on the institution were completely reorganised. the work it was accomplishing was recognised as being too valuable to be allowed to cease. the french government took up the question and decided to grant an annual subvention of £ ($ , ). the german, swiss, russian, and other governments, as well as various scientific institutions of all nations, also decided to subscribe regularly to its support. in this way, with the addition of some private subscriptions, about £ , ($ , ) is contributed annually. other contributions are made in kind, such as the film, all of which is given by the firm of lumière. considering the work accomplished by the marey institute it is maintained very economically. the annual expenses average about £ , or $ , . the paid staff comprises the assistant sub-director and an assistant, two highly skilled mechanics, and one or two minor officials, the important posts being filled honorarily. private investigators are encouraged to use the institute and its equipment. the scientific institutions of the different countries are given certain facilities in return for a small payment. thus an annual subscription of £ ($ ) entitles the representative of an institution to the widest use of the laboratory. he is not only given free and unrestricted use of all the apparatus, but is provided with a bedroom, so that his expenses are reduced to disbursements upon meals and other personal requirements. everything requisite for his study, as well as accessories, such as light, film, developers, etc., are provided free of charge. the laboratory is well provided with all sorts of appliances. there are cameras of various designs adapted to special classes of work, dark rooms for developing, rooms for experiments, a workshop with skilled mechanics, a library stocked with literature bearing upon cinematography and its relation to the sciences, and a large and lofty hall furnished with a projector and screen. as the institute stands in its own grounds of over , square yards, there are ample facilities for out-door investigations. the experimenter at this institution has advantages placed at his disposal which will not be found elsewhere in any other part of the world. the majority of the appliances have been designed by the staff mechanics, and in their manufacture extreme ingenuity has been displayed. much of the apparatus might possibly provide an income in the form of royalties if it were commercially exploited. but it is a rule of the institute that no instrument may be patented. its work is for the benefit of all. undoubtedly the near future will see the foundation of national cinematographic laboratories in some form or other. the value of animated photography is not yet appreciated. directly the sciences realise its significance, and see that it constitutes an indispensable aid to investigation and research, the invention will be given the recognition it deserves. then it will be turned into more useful channels than at present. individual investigation will be encouraged, and discoveries more wonderful than any of which we know will be made. index aeroscope, the, hand camera, - aldrich, mr. j. g., and the use of micro-motion, alpha camera, - aurora borealis, attempt to film the, automatic cameras. _see under_ cameras. bruce, colonel, study of sleeping sickness, bull, m. lucien, optical illusions explained, - ; experiments with a bee, - ; continuous-record camera, ; study of ballistics, cameras, automatic, - ; cost of, - , - ; directions for use, - ; hand camera, - ; high speed cameras, , - , - ; mechanism explained, - cardiograph, the, carvallo, m. m. j., - ; apparatus described and illustrated, - ; scientific experiments, - chronophotography, - ; discovery of, ; the chronoscope, - chronoscope, the, - cinematography-- (_a_) for the amateur, attractions and opportunities, - , - , - , , - , - , - ; picture plays, - (_b_) scientific value of. _see_ scientific investigation. (_c_) educational value. _see_ educational films. (_d_) in conjunction with the x-rays. _see_ radio-cinematography. (_e_) in conjunction with the microscope. _see_ micro-cinematography. claw, the, - ; movement described, - ; single claw, comandon, dr. jean, - ; system described and illustrated - ; investigations with ultra-microscope described and illustrated, - , continuous records. _see_ records, continuous. cooke lens, cranz, dr., of berlin, military academy, ; apparatus invented by, - , crookes' tube, dallmeyer lens, dastre, dr., of the sorbonne, demeny, georges, ; investigation with the continuous record, - developing. _see under_ film. driving gear, - drum, the, eastman company, stock, , ; developing solution, educational films, - einthoven, professor (dutch scientist), ; chronophotography, equilibrator of hand camera, experiments and investigations: study of bacteria, - ; filming of a bee, ; with continuous records, - ; study of functions of digestion, - ; flight of projectiles, - ; filming of a kingfisher, - ; in micro-motion, - ; by an ophthalmic surgeon, ; growth of plants, - ; technical, , - . _see also_ scientific investigations. exposure, length of, - film (unexposed), cost, ; description, ; developing, - , ; drying, - ; eastman stock, ; fixing, - ; the indicator, ; loading the box, - ; matt film, - ; threading, - (ill.), - ; printing, - ; special for carvallo apparatus, ; winding, film jointer, film-pictures: prices, - , - fixing-bath, formula, focus-lamp, focussing, - , ; effect of length of exposure, formulæ: eastman developer, ; restrainer for over-exposed films, ; fixing bath; ; soaking solution, "french cradle of cinematography," füchs, dr. otto, investigations, - gate, the, described, gaumont, company, picture plays, geneva stop movement, gilbreth, mr. frank b., ; micro-motion study, - "graphic method, the," book by e. j. marey, "great white scourge, the" (film), gun, photographic, "hamlet," filming of play, hand camera. _see under_ cameras. health films, - herkomer, sir hubert von, and picture plays, - high-speed cameras. _see under_ cameras. illuminant, - , ; in micro-cinematography, , international institution for cinematographic research, - . _see also_ marey institute. interrupter, - ; of cranz apparatus, iris diaphragm, use illustrated, ; table of stops, - jannsen's astronomical revolver, - jury autocam, - jury duplex, ; printing apparatus, - jury outfit, kearton, mr. cherry, jungle pictures, , ; use of aeroscope, lens, the, - ; iris diaphragm, - ; for radio-cinematography, "life of a moorhen" (film), "life target, the," apparatus, - lumière brothers, , marey, dr. e. j., - , - ; physiological research, marey institute, founding of, - ; later development, - ; micro-cinematography, - ; radio-cinematography, - ; slow-movement records, - mason, j. c. bee, films of insect life, matt film, - mechanics and cinematography, - micro-cinematography, - micro-motion study, - military value of cinematography, - motograph film co., educational films, "movement," book by e. j. marey, movement, intermittent, - "movies," the, muybridge, investigator, national cinematographic laboratories, a plea for, , - national physical laboratory at teddington, new england butt co., - new era camera, newman, mr. frank a., noguès, m. m. p., camera described and illustrated, ; claw motion device, odograph, the, "one-turn-one-picture," principle, , optical illusion, - ; illusions described and explained, - "out-position" of claw, over-exposed film, restrainer for, paterson and musgrave, messrs., - pathé frères, , paul, mr. robert, persistence of vision, law of, , photographic gun, photo play. _see_ picture play. physiological institute, paris, picture palace as illustrated newspaper, picture play, - ; hints on construction, - ; warning to amateurs, - ; commercial value, - "pin" frame, - (ill.) pneumograph, the, printing, - proszynski, kasimir de, - punch, the, radio-cinematography, - rainey, paul, rapid movement, record of, - ; projection of, - records, continuous, ; apparatus, - ; scientific experiments with, - reinforced screen, revolver, astronomical, - ries, dr. j., investigations, robertson, sir forbes, in picture play, ross lens, ruby light, the, scientific investigation, - . _see also under_ experiments and investigations. slow movements, record and projection of, - soaking solution formula, speed, photographic and projecting, - ; slowing down, - ; speeding up, - spitta, dr., spoolwinder, sprocket, (ill.) stock, "string" galvanometer, "swat the fly," health film, thermograph, the, time registration, tuning-fork, - ; chronoscope, - trick films, difficulties of, tripod, - tuning-fork control, - view finder, the, williamson, mr. james, ; micro-cinematographic studies, williamson outfit, ; camera, , - (ill.); printer, , - (ill.); focussing, , , ; mounting, ; driving gear, ; iris diaphragm, - x-rays and cinematography. _see_ radio-cinematography. zeiss-tessar lens, - , bradbury, agnew, & co. ld., printers, london and tonbridge. * * * * * * transcriber's note: page "fusilade" changed to "fusillade". (as the paper became perforated under the fusillade it was rolled up.) inconsistent use of "moor-hen" and "moorhen" was standardised to "moorhen". royal institution of great britain. extra evening meeting, monday, march , . h.r.h. the prince of wales, k.g. f.r.s. vice-patron and honorary member, in the chair. eadweard muybridge, of san francisco. _the attitudes of animals in motion, illustrated with the zoopraxiscope._ the problem of animal mechanism has engaged the attention of mankind during the entire period of the world's history. job describes the action of the horse; homer, that of the ox; it engaged the profound attention of aristotle, and borelli devoted a lifetime to its attempted solution. in every age, and in every country, philosophers have found it a subject of exhaustless research. marey, the eminent french savant of our own day, dissatisfied with the investigations of his predecessors, and with the object of obtaining more accurate information than their works afforded him, employed a system of flexible tubes, connected at one end with elastic air-chambers, which were attached to the shoes of a horse; and at the other end with some mechanism, held in the hand of the animal's rider. the alternate compression and expansion of the air in the chambers caused pencils to record upon a revolving cylinder the successive or simultaneous action of each foot, as it correspondingly rested upon or was raised from the ground. by this original and ingenious method, much interesting and valuable information was obtained, and new light thrown upon movements until then but imperfectly understood. while the philosopher was exhausting his endeavours to expound the laws that control, and the elements that effect the movements associated with animal life, the artist, with a few exceptions, seems to have been content with the observations of his earliest predecessors in design, and to have accepted as authentic without further inquiry, the pictorial and sculptural representations of moving animals bequeathed from the remote ages of tradition. when the body of an animal is being carried forward with uniform motion, the limbs in their relations to it have alternately a progressive and a retrogressive action, their various portions accelerating in comparative speed and repose as they extend downwards to the feet, which are subjected to successive changes from a condition of absolute rest, to a varying increased velocity in comparison with that of the body. the action of no single limb can be availed of for artistic purposes without a knowledge of the synchronous action of the other limbs; and to the extreme difficulty, almost impossibility, of the mind being capable of appreciating the simultaneous motion of the four limbs of an animal, even in the slower movements, may be attributed the innumerable errors into which investigators by observation have been betrayed. when these synchronous movements and the successive attitudes they occasion are understood, we at once see the simplicity of animal locomotion, in all its various types and alternations. the walk of a quadruped being its slowest progressive movement would seem to be a very simple action, easy of observation and presenting but little difficulty for analysis, yet it has occasioned interminable controversies among the closest and most experienced observers. when, during a gallop, the fore and hind legs are severally and consecutively thrust forwards and backwards to their fullest extent, their comparative inaction may create in the mind of the careless observer an impression of indistinct outlines; these successive appearances were probably combined by the earliest sculptors and painters, and with grotesque exaggeration adopted as the solitary position to illustrate great speed. or, as is very likely, excessive projection of limb was intended to symbolise speed, just as excess in size was an indication of rank. this opinion is to some extent corroborated by the productions of the grecian artists in their best period, when their heroes are represented of the same size as other men, and their horses in attitudes more nearly resembling those possible for them to assume. the remarkable conventional attitude of the egyptians, however, has, with few modifications, been used by artists of nearly every age to represent the action of galloping, and prevails without recognised correction in all civilised countries at the present day. the ambition and perhaps also the province of art in its most exalted sense, is to be a delineator of impressions, a creator of effects, rather than a recorder of facts. whether in the illustrations of the attitudes of animals in motion the artist is justified in sacrificing truth, for an impression so vague as to be dispelled by the first studied observation, is a question perhaps as much a subject of controversy now as it was in the time of lysippus, who ridiculed other sculptors for making men as they existed in nature; boasting that he himself made them as they ought to be. a few eminent artists, notable among whom is meissonier, have endeavoured in depicting the slower movements of animals to invoke the aid of truth instead of imagination to direct their pencil, but with little encouragement from their critics; until recently, however, artists and critics alike have necessarily had to depend upon their observation alone to justify their conceptions or to support their theories. photography, at first regarded as a curiosity of science, was soon recognised as a most important factor in the search for truth, and its more popular use is now entirely subordinated by its value to the astronomer, the anatomist, the pathologist, and other investigators of the complex problems of nature. the artist, however, still hesitates to avail himself of the resources of what may be at least acknowledged as a handmaiden of art, if not admitted to its most exalted ranks. having devoted much attention in california to experiments in instantaneous photography, i, in , at the suggestion of the editor of a san francisco newspaper, obtained a few photographic impressions of a horse during a fast trot. at this time much controversy prevailed among experienced horsemen as to whether all the feet of a horse while trotting were entirely clear of the ground at the same instant of time. a few experiments made in that year proved a fact which should have been self-evident. being much interested with the experiments of professor marey, in i invented a method for the employment of a number of photographic cameras, arranged in a line parallel to a track over which the animal would be caused to move, with the object of obtaining, at regulated intervals of time or distance, several consecutive impressions of him during a single complete stride as he passed along in front of the cameras, and so of more completely investigating the successive attitudes of animals while in motion than could be accomplished by the system of m. marey. i explained the plan of my intended experiments to a wealthy resident of san francisco--mr. stanford--who liberally agreed to place the resources of his stock-breeding farm at my disposal, and to reimburse the expenses of my investigations, upon condition of my supplying him, for his private use, with a few copies of the contemplated results. the apparatus used and its arrangement will be better understood by a reference to the accompanying drawings. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] fig. . a photographing lens, and camera containing a sensitised plate; and side view of electro-exposor placed in front of camera. fig. . back view of electro-exposor. two shutters p p, each comprising two panels, with an opening o between them, are adjusted to move freely up and down in a frame; they are here arranged ready for an exposure, and are held in position by a latch l and trigger t, all light being excluded from the lens. a slight extra tension of the thread b, fig. , will cause a contact of the metal springs m s, and complete a circuit of electricity through the wires w w and the electro-magnet m; the consequent attraction causes the armature a to strike the trigger, the latch is released, the shutters are drawn respectively upwards and downwards by means of the rubber springs s s, and light is admitted to the sensitised plate while the openings in the shutters are passing each other in front of the lens. fig. . front view of electro-exposor after exposure of the plate. [illustration: fig. .] fig. . general view of studio, operating track, and background. in the studio are arranged photographing cameras; at a distance of inches from the centre of each lens an electro-exposor is securely fixed in front of each camera. threads inches apart are stretched across the track (only two of which are introduced in the engraving), at a suitable height to strike the breast of the animal experimented with, one end of the thread being fastened to the background, the other to the spring, fig. , which is drawn almost to the point of contact. the animal in its progress over the track will strike these threads in succession, and as each pair of springs is brought into contact, the current of electricity thereby created effects a photographic exposure, as described by figs. and ; and each consecutive exposure records the position of the animal at the instant the thread is struck and broken. for obtaining successive exposures of horses driven in vehicles, one of the wheels is steered in a channel over wires slightly elevated from the ground; the depression of each wire completes an electric circuit, and effects the exposures in the same manner as the threads. [illustration: fig. .] fig. . operating track, covered with corrugated indiarubber, and marked with transverse lines inches apart. each line is numbered, for the purpose of more readily ascertaining the length of the animal's stride. on one side of the track, and opposite to the battery of cameras, a white background is erected at a suitable angle. the camera in which any one negative in a series of exposures is made is designated on that negative by the parallel direction of the vertical stake with the horizontal line extending to the corresponding number immediately opposite. the discriminating number of each series is marked on each negative by the large numbers-- , for example--which are changed for each movement illustrated. for recording the successive attitudes of animals not under control, an apparatus is used, comprising a cylinder, around which are spirally arranged a number of pins; upon the cylinder being set in motion through gearing connected with a spring or weight, these pins are consecutively brought into contact with a corresponding number of metal springs; a succession of electric currents are thereby created which act through their respective magnets attached to the electro-exposors at regulated intervals of time. the cylinder is put in motion either by bringing it into gearing with other parts of the apparatus already in motion; or by releasing a break with the hand, or by the action of some object at a distance by means of an electric current. this apparatus is principally used for illustrating the flight of birds, the motions of small animals, and changes of position without continuous progressive motion, such as occur during wrestling or turning a summersault; when the cameras are directed towards the place where the movements are being executed. the boxes outside the studio (fig. ) contain cameras and electro-exposors for obtaining synchronous exposures of a moving object from different points of view. the following analyses of some of the movements investigated by the aid of electro-photographic exposures, are repeated by permission of the president and council from a paper read by the author before the royal society, and are rendered more perfectly intelligible by the reproductions of the actual motions projected on a screen through the zoopraxiscope. _the walk._ selecting the horse for the purposes of illustration, we find that during his slowest progressive movement--the walk--he has always two, and, for a varying period, three feet on the ground at once. with a fast walking horse the time of support upon three feet is exceedingly brief; while during a very slow walk all four feet are occasionally on the ground at the same instant. the successive order of what may be termed foot fallings are these. commencing with the landing of the left hind foot, the next to strike the ground will be the left fore foot, followed in order by the right hind, and right fore foot. so far as the camera has revealed, these successive foot fallings during the walk are invariable, and are probably common to all quadrupeds. but the time during which each foot, in its relation to the other feet, remains on the ground, varies greatly with different species of animals, and even with the same animal under different conditions. during an ordinary walk, at the instant preceding the striking of the left hind foot, the body is supported on the right laterals, and the left fore foot is in act of passing to the front of the right fore foot. the two hind feet and the right fore foot immediately divide the weight. the right hind foot is now raised, and the left hind with its diagonal fore foot sustains the body; the left fore next touches the ground and for an instant the animal is again on three feet; the right fore foot is immediately raised and again the support is derived from laterals--the left instead of as before the right. one half of the stride is now completed, and a similar series of alternations, substituting the right feet for the left, completes the other half. these movements will perhaps be more readily understood by a reference to the longitudinal elevation, fig. , no. , which illustrates some approximate relative positions of the feet of a rapid walking horse, with a stride of feet inches. the positions of the feet indicated in this, and also in the other strides illustrated in fig. are copied from photographs, and from them we learn that during an ordinary walk the consecutive supporting feet are: . the left hind and left fore--_laterals_. . both hind, and left fore. . right hind and left fore--_diagonals_. . right hind and both fore. . right hind and right fore--_laterals_. . both hind, and right fore. . left hind and right fore--_diagonals_. . left hind and both fore. [illustration: longitudinal elevation of some consecutive positions of the feet of horses during various movements. each line illustrates a single complete stride. the comparative distances of the feet from each other, or from the ground, are approximate; not to scale. direction of movement --> _key._ _rt._ _left._ _hind feet_ _fore feet_ _line of ground_ length of action. stride. d d d d d d ft. in. . walking . trotting . " . " . ambling . racking . cantering . galloping . " . galloping, a conjectural stride } of feet or more } ] commencing again with the first position; it is thus seen that when a horse during a walk is on two feet, and the other two feet are suspended between the supporting legs, the suspended feet are laterals. on the other hand, when the suspended feet are severally in advance of and behind the supporting legs, they are diagonals. these invariable rules seem to be neglected or entirely ignored by many of the most eminent animal painters of modern times. _the trot._ by some observers the perfect trot is described as an absolutely synchronous movement of the diagonal feet. this simultaneous action may be considered desirable, but it probably never occurs. sometimes the fore foot will be raised before the diagonal hind foot, sometimes afterwards; but in either instance, the foot raised first will strike the ground first; repeated experiments with many racing and other trotting horses confirmed this want of simultaneity. selecting for an example of the trot a horse making a stride of feet in length, we find that at the instant his right fore foot strikes the ground, the left hind foot is a few inches behind the point where it will presently strike at about or inches to the rear of the fore foot. when both feet have reached the ground, the right hind leg is stretched back almost to its fullest extent, with the pastern nearly horizontal, while the left fore leg is flexed under the body. as the legs approach a vertical position the pasterns are gradually lowered, and act as springs to break the force of the concussion until they are bent nearly at right angles with the legs. at this period the left fore foot is raised to its greatest height, and will frequently strike the elbow, while the right hind foot is but little raised from the ground and is about to pass to the front of the left hind. the pasterns gradually rise as the legs decline backwards until the right fore foot has left the ground and the last propelling force is being exercised by the left hind foot; which accomplished, the animal is in mid air. the right hind foot continues its onward motion until it is sometimes much in advance of its lateral fore foot, the former, however, being gradually lowered, while the latter is being raised. the right hind and both fore legs are now much flexed, while the left hind is stretched backwards to its greatest extent with the bottom of the foot turned upwards, the left fore leg is being thrust forwards and gradually straightened, with the toe raised as the foot approaches the ground; which accomplished, with a substitution of the left limbs for the right we find them in the same relative positions as when we commenced our examination, and one half of the stride is completed. with slight and immaterial differences, such as might be caused by irregularities of the ground, these movements are repeated by the other pair of diagonals, and the entire stride is then complete. line illustrates a stride of feet inches, and the order of supporting feet are:-- . the right fore foot. . the left hind and right fore feet. . the left hind foot. . without support. . the left fore foot. . the right hind and left fore feet. . the right hind foot. . without support. it appears somewhat remarkable that until the results of m. marey's experiments and of those obtained by electro-photography were published, many experienced horsemen were of opinion that during the action of trotting at least one foot of a horse was always in contact with the ground. if the entire stride of a trotting horse is divided into two portions, representing the comparative distances traversed by the aggregate of the body while the feet are in contact with, and while they are entirely clear of, the ground; the relative measurements will be found to vary very greatly, they being contingent upon length of limb, weight, speed, and other circumstances. heavily built horses will sometimes merely drag the feet just above the surface, but, in every instance of a trot, the _weight_ of the body is really unsupported twice during each stride (see stride , positions and d). it sometimes happens that a fast trotter, during the two actions of a stride, will have all his feet clear of the ground for a distance exceeding one-half of the length of the entire stride; this elasticity of movement is however exceptional. the action of a fast-trotting horse while drawing a vehicle is very different from his action under the saddle; in the latter case, the hind legs are kept thrust back for a longer period, and their final forward movement is much more rapid. _the amble._ assuming our observation of this movement to commence when, during a stride of about feet, the left hind foot has just struck the ground slightly to the rear of where the right fore foot is resting; the left fore leg will be well advanced but still flexed, with the toe pointed downwards, and the right hind foot having been the last to leave the ground, will be thrust backwards with the pastern nearly horizontal. as the right fore foot leaves the ground, the left fore leg is gradually straightened during its thrust forwards; the right hind foot in the meantime is gradually advancing, and the horse is supported on the left hind foot alone. the left fore foot is now brought to the ground, and the body rests on the left laterals, with the right laterals suspended between them. as the left fore leg attains a vertical position, its lateral leaves the ground, and the support of the body devolves on the left fore foot alone, the right fore leg being considerably flexed, with the foot in advance of the left fore leg. the right hind foot now strikes the ground, and one half of the stride is accomplished; these movements are repeated with a change of the limbs for the remaining portion of the stride, and the horse is again in the position in which we first observed him. we shall see by reference to stride no. the consecutive supporting feet to be: . the left hind foot. . the left hind and left fore feet--_laterals_. . the left fore foot. . the left fore and right hind feet--_diagonals_. . the right hind foot. . the right hind and right fore feet--_laterals_. . the right fore foot. . the right fore and left hind feet--_diagonals_. the right fore foot being raised, the horse is again in the first position. the amble and the walk are the only regular progressive movements of the horse wherein the body is never without the support of one or more legs, in all others the weight is entirely off the ground for a longer or shorter period. _the rack or pace._ the rack differs from the trot in the nearly synchronous action of the _laterals_ instead of the _diagonals_. in some countries the rack is naturally adopted by the horse as one of his gaits, but it is probably caused by the effects of training exercised over many generations of his ancestors. the movements already described are regular in their action, and a stride may be divided into two parts, which are essentially similar to each other. _the canter_ and the gallop, however, cannot be so divided, and a complete stride in either of those gaits is a combination of several different movements. the canter is usually regarded as a slow gallop, probably from the facility with which a change from one gait to the other can be effected; an important difference will, however, be observed. assuming a horse after his propulsion through the air, during a stride of feet, to have just landed on his left hind foot, the right hind foot will be on the point of passing to the front of the left. the left fore leg will be thrust forward and nearly straight, while the right fore leg will be flexed with the foot elevated about inches from the ground, and somewhat behind the vertical of the breast. the left fore foot being brought to the ground, the body is supported by the laterals; the right hind foot is, however, quickly lowered, and performs its share of support. the left hind foot is then raised, and the right hind and left fore legs assume the weight, the former being nearly vertical, and the latter inclined well back, the right fore foot is thrust well forward, and is just about to strike the ground; when it does, three feet again share the support, they being the two fore and the right hind. the left fore foot now leaves the ground, and we again find the support furnished by the laterals, the right instead of, as before, the left. the right hind foot is raised when the right fore leg becomes vertical; this latter, which now sustains the entire weight, gives the final effort of propulsion, and the body is hurled into the air. the descent of the left hind foot completes the stride, and the consecutive movements are repeated. in stride no. we learn that during the canter the support of the body is derived from . the left hind foot. . the left hind and left fore feet--_laterals_. . both hind and the left fore feet. . the right hind and left fore feet--_diagonals_. . the right hind and both fore feet. . the right hind and right fore feet--_laterals_. . the right fore foot alone, on which he leaves the ground. _the gallop or run._ this movement has in all ages been employed by artists to convey the impression of rapid motion, although, curiously enough, the attitude in which the horse has been almost invariably depicted is one which is impracticable during uniform progressive motion. when during a rapid gallop, with a stride of feet, a horse after his flight through the air lands on his left hind foot, the right hind will be suspended over it at an elevation of or inches, and several inches to the rear of and above it the sole of the right fore foot will be turned up almost horizontally, the left fore leg is flexed with the foot under the breast at a height of or inches. the right hind foot strikes the ground some inches in advance of the left hind, each as they land being forward of the centre of gravity. the body is now thrust forward, and while the right hind pastern is still almost horizontal, the left hind foot leaves the ground. at this time the left fore leg is perfectly straight, the foot, with the toe much higher than the heel, is thrust forward to a point almost vertical with the nose, and at an elevation of about inches the right fore knee is bent at right angles, and the foot suspended under the breast at several inches greater elevation than the left fore foot. the left fore foot now strikes the ground, inches in advance of the spot which the right hind foot is on the point of leaving, and for a brief space of time the diagonals are upon the ground together. the left fore leg, however, immediately assumes the entire responsibility of the weight, and soon attains a vertical position, with its pastern at right angles to it. in this position the right hind foot is thrust back to its fullest extent, at an elevation of or inches, with the pastern nearly horizontal. the left hind foot is considerably higher and somewhat more forward; the right fore leg is straight, stretched forward, with the foot about inches from the ground, and almost on a perpendicular line from the nose. the right fore foot strikes the ground inches in advance of the left fore, which, having nearly performed its office, is preparing to leave the ground; the animal will then be supported on the right fore foot alone, which immediately falls well to the rear of the centre of gravity, which is sometimes passed by the left hind foot at a height of about inches; the right hind foot is some distance in the rear, and the left fore foot, at a height of inches, is suspended somewhat in advance of its lateral. in this position the horse uses the right fore foot for a final act of propulsion, and is carried in mid air for a distance of inches, after which the left hind foot descends, the stride is completed, and the consecutive motions renewed. the measurements and positions herein given do not pretend to exactness, as they must depend to some extent upon the capability, training, and convenience of the animal; but they may be accepted as representing an average stride of feet with a horse in a fair condition for racing. from this analysis it will be seen, by reference to stride , that a horse, during an ordinary gallop, is supported consecutively by: . the left hind foot, . both hind feet, . the right hind foot, . the right hind and left fore feet, . the left fore foot, . both fore feet, . the right fore foot, with which he leaves the ground, while the only position in which we find him entirely without support is when all the legs are flexed under his body. it is highly probable, however, that more exhaustive experiments with long-striding horses in perfect training, will discover there is sometimes an interval of suspension between the lifting of one fore foot and the descent of the other; and also between the lifting of the second hind foot which touches the ground, and the descent of its diagonal fore foot (see imaginary stride ). should this latter be the case, it will, from the necessary positions of the other limbs, afford but a very shadowy pretext for the conventional attitude used by artists to represent a gallop. it is extremely doubtful if there can be any interval of suspension between the lifting of one hind foot and the descent of the other, no matter what the length of stride. many able scientists have written on the theory of the gallop, but i believe marey was the first to demonstrate, that in executing this movement, the horse left the ground with a fore foot and landed on a hind foot. _the leap._ there is little essential difference in general characteristics of either of the several movements that have been described, but with a number of experiments made with horses while leaping, no two were found to agree in the manner of execution. the leap of the same horse at the same rate of speed, with the same rider, over the same hurdle, disclosed much variation in the rise, clearance, and descent of the animal. apart from this, the horses were not thoroughly trained leapers, and the results are perhaps not representative of those that would be obtained from the action of a well-trained hunting horse. a few motions were, however, invariable. while the horse was raising his body to clear the hurdle, one hind foot was always in advance of the other, and exercised its last energy alone. on the descent, the concussion was always received by one fore foot, supported by the other more or less rapidly, and sometimes as much as inches in advance of where the first one struck, followed by the hind feet also, with intervals of time and distance between their several falls. it is highly probable future experiments will prove these observations to be invariable in leaping. it is highly probable that these photographic investigations, which were executed with wet collodion plates with exposures not exceeding in some instances the one five-thousandth part of a second, will dispel many popular illusions as to gait, and that future and more exhaustive experiments, with all the advantages of recent chemical discoveries, will completely unveil to the artist all the visible muscular action of men and animals during their most rapid movements. the employment of automatic apparatus for the purpose of obtaining a regulated succession of photographic exposures is too recent for its value to be properly understood, or to be generally used for scientific experiment; at a future time, the pathologist, the anatomist, and other explorers for hidden truths will find it indispensable for their complex investigations. london: printed by wm. clowes and sons, limited, stamford street and charing cross. provided on the internet archive. all resultant materials are placed in the public domain. transcriber note: text emphasis denoted as _italics_ and =bold=. vol. ii. june , . no. . =the= =daguerreian journal:= =devoted to the daguerrian and photogenic arts.= also, embracing the sciences, arts, and literature. [illustration] s. d. humphrey and l. l. hill, editors. new-york: published semi-monthly, at $ per annum, in advance. no. broadway. subject to newspaper postage.--see d page cover. =contents.= some experiments and remarks on the changes which bodies are capable of undergoing in darkness, and on the agent producing these changes, by robert hunt, railroad to the pacific, experiments on the colored films formed by iodine, bromine, and chlorine, upon various metals, by augustus waller, m. d., iodine with silver and copper, bromine with silver and copper, chlorine with silver and copper, iodine with titanium, bromine with titanium, chlorine with titanium and copper, iodine with bismuth and silver, iodine with mercury, bromine with mercury and copper, chlorine with mercury and copper, bromine with lead, iodine with iron, the american electric telegraph, iron pavement, claudet's specification, interesting experiment with strychnia, editorial--operation of light on silver surfaces, letter from l. l. hill, papers of s. a. wolcott, the natural colors in photography, our daguerreotypes--butler--e. long--l. m. ives--n. e. sissons-- j. d. wells, submarine telegraph between england and france, action of solutions of chlorides and air on mercury, the heat of combinations, daguerreotype, by john johnson, galvanized daguerreotype plates, answers to correspondents, advertisements, artists' register, * * * * * =s. j. thompson,= would most respectfully announce to the public, that he has one of the best sky-lights in the united states, and is prepared to execute daguerreotypes. likenesses of all sizes, put up in every style of the art. no. state-street, albany, n. y. y * * * * * =j. h. whitehurst's= =electro daguerreotypes,= _galleries, baltimore street, baltimore,_ broadway, new york, main street, richmond, va., main street, norfolk, va., sycamore street, petersburg, va., main street, lynchburg, va., pennsylvania avenue, washington city. likenesses taken equally well in all weather. tf * * * * * =j. d. wells,= daguerreian artist, no. kirkland's block, main street; northampton, mass. likenesses taken by a sky-light connected with a beautiful side-light. pictures put up in all styles of the art. plates, cases, lockets, frames, and all kinds of daguerreotype stock for sale. - * * * * * =j. e. martin,= "excelsior rooms" jefferson avenue and odd fellows' hall, detroit. daguerreotype likenesses taken in every style of the art. y * * * * * =harrison's cameras.= the attention of those about purchasing instruments, is directed to the following recommendation from one of the oldest operators in the country, and one who has been "tried in the furnace" of experience: waterbury, ct., april , . c. c. harrison, _dear sir_,--it affords me much pleasure, after giving the instrument i purchased of you last week a fair trial, and having had eleven years experience as an operator, to be enabled to bear testimony to the superiority of your cameras over all others, not excepting those made by "voightlander & sohn," for the sale of which i was sometime agent at boston. yours respectfully, albert litch, formerly of the firm of litch & whipple, boston, mass. * * * * * =the= =daguerreian journal.= ======================================================= vol. ii. new york, june , . no. ======================================================= =some experiments and remarks= =on the changes which bodies are capable of undergoing= =in darkness, and on the agent producing these changes.= by robert hunt. [concluded.] with the view of testing dr. draper's results, i carefully iodized two silver plates and exposed them to light. i then placed them so that half of one plate was covered by half of the other, and allowed them to remain in the dark - th of an inch apart for four hours. on mercurialization i could not detect the slightest difference between the covered and uncovered portions of either of the plates. another silver plate was iodized and exposed to light. it was then placed in the dark wish a sensitive plate which had been carefully kept from the light, - th of an inch above it, and a small engraving placed between them. they were allowed to remain thus for six hours. when exposed to the vapor of mercury, the plate which had been subjected to the light whitened all over, and the space occupied by the engraving was distinctly marked by lines of vapor thicker than the other parts. the plate which had been preserved in the dark was scarcely at all influenced by the vapor, except on those parts which had been touched by the supports of card-board on which it rested. these were so arranged that no radiation could have influenced those parts of the plates. an iodized silver plate was placed in the dark with a little fine string coiled over parts of it, and a polished silver plate supported - th of an inch above it. after four hours both plates were subjected to mercurial vapor. on the iodized plate the deposit of vapor was uniform, although slight; but on the superposed plate of silver a strong and beautiful image of the string on the under plate became visible. i found that neither of the two iodized plates had lost their sensitiveness by the operations to which they had been subjected in the dark. hoping to detect some evidence of the process by which these singular results were produced, i instituted a series of experiments, of which the following are some of the most interesting results. a. a silver plate was iodized, a piece of card was placed upon it, and a well-polished mercurial plate (amalgamated copper) was suspended - th of an inch above it, and left in this state for a night. the space on the silver plate corresponding with the mercurial plate, except under the card, was nearly freed of its iodine, which had evidently combined with the mercury on the upper plate. on exposing the mercurial plate to the vapor of mercury the image of the card was rendered visible, the vapor covering every part of the plate except that opposite the card. the silver plate received the vapor only on those parts which were not influenced by the mercurial plate. the upper plate was suspended by strings; these were faithfully imaged on both plates; by a thick line of mercurial vapor on the under plate, by the absence of it in the upper one. b. an iodized _silvered_ plate was exposed to light until brown, and a mercurial plate suspended above it for twelve hours. the browned silver plate was _whitened_, and all the irregularities of the mercurial plate strikingly marked on it: the mercurial plate was slightly tarnished. on rubbing the silvered plate it was found that the silver was removed more readily over the whitened portion, but had lost none of its adhesion in other parts. c. over an iodized silver plate, plates of gold, platina, silver, brass, copper, copper amalgamated, and zinc were placed at the distance of - th of an inch. after three hours the amalgamated plate had made a decidedly visible impression on the silver one. on exposure to vapor, the mercury lodged on every part of the plate except that affected by the mercurial plate; some irregularities were observed, but none which could be decidedly traced to the other metals in juxtaposition. i have some evidence that different metals near each other seriously interfere with each other's influence. d. a mercurial plate was iodized, and another mercurial plate placed - th of an inch above it. the upper plate became covered with a bright yellow film; and on exposing them to mercurial vapor, marks became apparent which corresponded with those in the opposite plate. e. a silver plate was iodized and placed in the dark with an engraving, face down, upon it. an amalgamated copper plate was laid on this, and left for fifteen hours. the mercurial plate was reddened, and on exposure to the vapor of mercury, a very nice impression of the engraving was brought out, it having been effected through the thickness of the paper. on the silvered plate the space covered by the paper was well marked; but vaporization produced no trace of the engraving. the space beyond the paper was rendered white. it was curious that both plates had several spots which corresponded, particularly two, distinguished by a well-defined circle and a comet-like appendage, in length ten times the diameter of the circle. these spots could not be traced to anything visible in the print or either of the plates, and must, i think, be referred to some electrical influence. i find it indeed commonly the case, that the plates, after being subjected to these kind of experiments a few times, become mottled, or present on their polished faces all the appearances of a finely-grained wood, and in this state they are less susceptible of receiving any impression than when not so. f. a silver plate was iodized and placed upon an engraving laid on a brightly polished mercurial plate, and left in the dark for twenty-four hours. the mercurial plate was turned brown, and the silver plate was left in the same state as if it had been exposed to sunshine, being _brown and black_. neither of these plates gave a copy of the picture. g. a mercurial plate was iodized, and above it was placed a plate of polished iron, a disc of paper being first laid on the mercurial plate, and they were left in this state for some hours. on exposing the iron plate to mercurial vapor, it was abundantly lodged over that space opposite the paper disc, but not at all on the other parts. the mercurial plate was attacked by vapor over every part but that which the paper disc protected. lead and zinc plates were used instead of the iron one, with nearly similar results. h. a daguerreotype was taken, and without removing the iodine a mercurial plate was placed a little above it, and left for ten hours. when removed, well-defined traces of the daguerreotype picture were evident on the mercurial plate, which leads me to hope that by careful manipulation we may succeed in multiplying these beautiful productions by an easy method. i became desirous of ascertaining whether the mercurial plates would produce any change upon the precipitated iodide of silver. i find by many experiments, that if the iodide of silver is pure, no more change is produced than is produced upon it by diffused light; but if it is rendered sensitive by a trace of the nitrate of silver, it is then darkened as by solar influence. sensitive iodide of silver being placed upon a plate of glass, a mercurial plate was fixed - th of an inch above it. in three days the iodide of silver had become a deep brown, almost a black, and the mercurial plate was covered with the yellow iodide of mercury. nitric acid dissolved the dark portion of the silver salt, as did also ammonia, on which was formed faraday's oxide of silver, thereby proving the change, either by a primary or a secondary process, of the iodide into the oxide of silver. this experiment has been repeated at least a dozen times, and always with the same results. if a little heap of the iodide of silver is placed under a mercurial plate, it is exceedingly interesting to witness the gradual formation of the very beautiful colored rings on the mercury in the progress of its conversion into an iodide. by prolonged action the yellow iodide passes into the bright red biniodide of mercury. i have some experiments now in hand, which convince me that similar chemical changes are to be effected through considerable spaces. i have succeeded in decomposing the iodide of copper and the iodide of gold by mercurial plates placed nearly a quarter of an inch above them. i have an extensive record of results similar to those i have now detailed, all of them showing that the changes brought about by this mysterious agent, whether it be heat, light, or an undiscovered element, cannot be referred to those rays which the admirable researches of sir john herschel have shown to be the operative ones in producing the photographic phenomena which have so interested the world by their novel beauty, and which professor draper includes within his general term--tithonicity. with regard to the detithonizing influence of the gases mentioned by dr. draper in his paper in your march number, i can only consider the results, which i find to be as he has stated, as the simple reconversion of the decomposed iodide of silver into another definite chemical compound. an iodized plate is exposed to light, the iodide of silver or other sensitive salt is decomposed, and in a state to receive mercurial vapor. it is now passed through an atmosphere of iodine, of chlorine, of bromine, or of nitrous gas. chemists are well aware of the surprising energy with which these bodies attack the metals, consequently the exposure of a moment is quite sufficient to convert the surface which has undergone a change, into an iodide, chloride, bromite, or nitrite of silver. i certainly cannot see the necessity of going so far out of our way for an explanation of this effect as dr. draper has done. i fear i have already occupied too much of your valuable space, or i might be inclined to trespass further. i shall, however drop my pen for the present, again assuring you that i only desire to keep the image of truth which is just shadowing our path, as free as possible from mists which might in any way obscure it.--_philosophical magazine_, . * * * * * railroad to the pacific.--forest shepherd, of sacramento city, says it is now ascertained almost beyond doubt, that a railroad can be constructed from the mississippi to the pacific, without crossing any mountains, or meeting more impediment from snow than between albany and boston. * * * * * =experiments on the colored films= =formed by iodine, bromine, and chlorine upon various metals.= by augustus waller, m. d. in a paper presented by me to the academy of sciences of paris, an extract from which may be seen in the _comptes rendus_ for october , , i first demonstrated the error committed in ascribing to the iodide of silver alone the power of fixing the vapors of mercury, after it had been exposed to the action of light. instead of this property being exclusively confined to a film of iodide of silver, as obtained in the process of m. daguerre, i found that it existed in many other substances when presented to the action of light in the state of thin films, viz. by the bromide and chloride of silver; by the oxide, bromide, iodide and chloride of copper, and some others; all these, however, possessing less sensibility than the iodide of silver of daguerre, and therefore less available for the reproduction of the images of the camera than the compound originally discovered by that gentleman. the iodide of daguerre was found already too little sensitive to the influence of light in this climate, especially when applied to the reproduction of the image of animate objects, so that those films discovered by me seemed still less suitable to be employed for that purpose; this objection has, however, been completely removed by recent improvements, more particularly those of m. claudet, who effected this principally by combining the original discovery of daguerre with those mentioned above as having been subsequently made by myself. pursuing the first stage of daguerre's process, he obtained the film of iodide of silver, and added to this another film of bromide, either in a simple state,--as practised in my experiments published more than six months before--or after two of these substances had been combined together, as the chloride of iodine and the bromide of iodine, which he was the first to employ. these colored films, however, merit attention independently of the purposes to which they may be applied in photography: the beauty of some of the phenomena themselves is peculiarly attractive; the numerous changes of color they undergo, either by a variation in the thickness of the film, or by the action of light, assign them a place among the most curious facts of science, and the extreme facility with which they are obtained adds to the interest they excite. impressed with these ideas, i was induced to pursue a train of investigation on this subject; among the results of which, one of the most interesting was a new method of making colored rings, like those generally known under the name of "newton's colored rings," on many of the metals, by the same chemical process as that employed for forming the films of uniform thickness in photography. in order to procure these colored rings, and at the same time to show the identity of the origin of the colors with those of the ordinary transparent films, that is, as residing simply in the thickness of the lamina and not dependent on the ordinary cause of color, we have but to place a piece of iodine on a well-polished surface of silver or copper, and in a short time we find around the iodine a series of colored zones of the various tints of the spectrum, and approaching in a greater or less degree to the form of a circle, according as they have been more or less disturbed in their formation by currents of the surrounding air. in order that they may be perfectly regular, as large as possible, and with tints undisturbed by the action of light, it is necessary to place a piece of iodine in the centre of a well-polished plate, as before described; this is then to be shaded by an opake screen superimposed a few lines from the surface to cause the vapors which would otherwise ascend and partially escape, to expand over its silver surface. colored rings may be formed in the same manner by bromine and chlorine and the various combinations of these bodies with each other, except that for those that are gaseous or liquid it is requisite to pay a little attention to the manner of disengaging them on the surface of the metal, either by passing them through a glass tube, or by some other contrivance easy to execute. these rings correspond to those formed by reflected light in newton's experiments, with this difference, however, that in the colored films of the soap bubble, and in those formed by the glass lenses, the thinest film is in the centre; whilst in these rings, obtained by chemical action, it exists at the circumference, as is the case with the colored rings of nobili. in watching the formation of these phenomena, at first are seen two or three very small circles, which appear almost as soon as the iodine and the metal are placed in contact with each other; as the experiment continues, the circumference of these circles become gradually greater; whilst the external colors extend themselves over a great space, those of the centre grow fainter; red and green now only remain visible, and these at last, when the film has attained a certain thickness, in their turn also give place to a dull coating of brown. the formation of these rings evidently depends on the vaporization of the iodine from the solid nucleus. the variety in color and extent of these zones is caused by the difference between the strength of the vapor at the centre and the circumference of the iodic atmosphere whilst expanding over so large a surface. in the metal thus combining with the vapor, we have to consider,-- , the force of the vapor of different distances from the centre; , the obstacle which a film of iodine, once formed, opposes to any further action between the iodine and the metal. this experiment may be varied in different ways: two pieces of iodine of about the same size, placed at a small distance from each other on a silver plate, form separate colored circles, until these come in contact at their circumferences, when the two systems will slowly coalesce and produce one common outline of the form of an ellipsis. as the colors formed on various metals by the above-mentioned agents are very similar to one another, it may be sufficient to examine in particular those produced on silver by iodine. the external film of the iodide of silver rings, which corresponds to the central black spot in those of newton, is completely invisible, it being impossible to perceive any difference between the parts so covered and those where the metal is intact; but by exposing half the plate to the influence of light, whilst the other part remains covered, the silver is then found darkened far beyond the limits of the external gold-colored zone, where previously the surface was perfectly clear. the dark film thus rendered apparent is now liable to be rubbed off by the slightest friction, whereas before it was very adherent to the subjacent surface. the first zone is of a pale gold color, which assumes a deeper tint as the thickness of the film increases: the second zone is blue, the third white: after these appear the different colors of the spectrum in regular succession, as in the films studied by newton and others, viz. yellow, orange, red, blue green, yellow &c. the presence of the golden-colored zone in the place mentioned is worthy of remark, as in the tables of newton of the colors presented by films of various thicknesses, the blue is stated as immediately following the black. the same gold film is the first which appears on most metals when their surface is attacked in this manner. chlorine and bromine on silver; oxygen on steel; chlorine and bromine on titanium, bismuth, &c., commence their colors in the same way. copper, however, is in one respect an exception, this metal first becoming of a dark red, which increases to a ruddy brown and then changes into blue. this deviation is fully accounted for by the color of the copper itself. with this single particularity, this metal undergoes the same alterations as the others. the action of light on the different colors of the iodide of silver is very interesting: the most correct way of studying this is to protect one half of a system of colored rings by an opake screen, while the other half is exposed for a short time to the influence of the solar rays. the golden zone undergoes the greatest change; at first it grows darker, then red, and at length is converted into a beautiful green. the blue film, which comes next in thickness, suffers considerable alteration in its tint, assuming a much deeper and more brilliant shade; the rest of the colors appear to be similarly affected by the action of light, though to a very slight degree, acquiring a trifling accession in their brilliancy. it has already been remarked that light destroys the adherence of the external invisible film; the same thing obtains with the second or gold-colored film, which turns green, _but only to a certain depth_ of the film, as may be proved by slightly rubbing the part thus altered; the green color is then seen to disappear, and beneath the pulverulent portion thus removed is found the gold color, having almost the same appearance as before the plate had been exposed. as this experiment may be repeated several times with the same results, it shows to how inconceivably small a depth the light has acted to produce this effect. to ascertain what would take place on augmenting the thickness of the portion turned green, and the adherence of which was destroy ed, a piece of iodine was placed on the plate so that its vapor, by expanding, might arrive upon the green, at the same time the whole being kept from the light; the result was that the additional film combined with the one already existing, producing a blue, being the color which would have resulted by the combination of the unaltered yellow films. i have found no chemical substance possessing the power of arresting, or in any way influencing these changes of color; strong adds, provided they do not attack the silver--for then, of course, the experiment would be destroyed,--and alkalies in concentrated solution, allow the action of light to go on as usual. the hyposulphate of soda, and ammonia in solution have no longer the power of dissolving the green film as they had before the action of light. when the plate is left still longer exposed, after the changes above stated have taken place, the colors become more faint, and within the zone of green a white cloudy film is caused by the light, which, as it increases, veils the spectral colors beneath. the knowledge we at present possess in chemistry of the affinities with which different bodies are endowed for combining with each other is but very imperfect, and the causes which complicate most chemical phenomena are so numerous, that it is scarcely possible to compare any two chemical actions to each other. most of the facts upon which chemical science is founded, are acquired either by bringing the two bodies destined to act on each other into contact by dissolving them in a liquid, or by subjecting them to a temperature more or less elevated. in the first of these methods, we are so far from being able to calculate the force of the chemical powers called into play, that berthollet was induced to deny the existence of chemical power in the various phenomena of solution and precipitation of saline substances, and according to him what is called insolubility in a body is merely the result of its strength of cohesion, an entirely physical property. when the intervention of caloric is required, the effects are still more complicated, as they vary according to the intensity of the heat employed, and the time its action is exerted; besides, the chemical action, when it does take place, is frequently so instantaneous that it is impossible in our present state of science to imagine any means by which it might be measured. in the combination of the three bodies, iodine, bromine and chlorine, with the metals, however, most of these objections cease to exist, or may be easily avoided. as their vapors combine with the metallic surfaces at the ordinary temperature, they are all of them in the same circumstances in that respect; and if the temperature should be required more elevated, the gasiform state of these substances, iodine not excepted, enables us to submit the metals to be experimented upon all at the same time to the same influence. if, therefore, it were possible to reduce the metallic substances into fine powders the particles of which were of the same dimensions, by acting upon them with either of these vapors, an idea might be formed of the affinities which produce their binary compounds by the increased weight acquired by the powders in this process; but the difference which exists in the physical properties of the various metals would preclude the possibility of any near approach to accuracy in this mode of proceeding; but by acting on the polished metallic surfaces, as in the preceding experiments, all the advantages offered by the process with the powders are included, whilst several of the difficulties are removed. as the film of the compound augments, it undergoes the various changes of color which take place in all transparent films, thus affording a means of ascertaining the absolute thickness obtained in different circumstances, when it would be difficult to detect the slightest difference in weight by means of the most delicate balance. the depth of this coating may be ascertained when either the index of refraction of the compound itself is known, or if the angle of polarized light is given by means of the law discovered by sir david brewster, between the tangent of the angle of polarization, and the index of refraction. the most convenient way which occurred to me of performing these experiments, was the employment of a bell-glass within which some iodine is fixed at the top; this apparatus being placed over the metal to be acted on, the experiment may be watched in all its progress, and the action can be retarded or accelerated at pleasure by varying the interval of the iodine from the metal, or by interposing at some distance from its surface a disc of paper so as to cause the vapors of iodine to pass through it. bromine may be made use of likewise by pouring a few drops of it over some carded cotton, and using it in a similar manner with the iodine. in respect to chlorine, it is most convenient to disengage it slowly by dropping a little sulphuric acid upon some chlorinated lime. in illustration of the objects of this mode of experimenting, i will aduce some of the results it has given me with various metals. some of the experiments below were performed before i had the idea of watching the progress of the combination through a transparent medium; they are therefore less exact than they might otherwise have been: but i have preferred stating them as i had inserted them in my note-book before i had conceived any idea as to their probable utility in the elucidation of chemical affinity, and when i intended them for other purposes, which i shall hereafter explain. _iodine with silver and copper._ st change. silver--pale gold. " copper--assumes a darker red. " silver--blue. nd do. copper--blue. " silver--white. rd do. copper--white. " silver--yellow. th do. copper--yellow more extended than on the silver. " silver--orange. th do. copper--red. " silver--blue, bluish-red. " copper--red, with a tinge of green on some parts. " silver--greenish blue. " copper--red, tinged with green. " silver--green. " copper--orange. " silver--yellowish green. " copper--orange tending to red. " silver--yellowish green. " copper--orange-red. " silver--red. " copper--dull green. " silver--red. " copper--green. " silver--deep green. " copper--dull red. _bromine with silver and copper._ th change. copper--sensibly darkened. " silver--unchanged. " copper--deep red. " silver--unchanged. " copper--red, blue. " silver--pale gold. " copper--white, orange of the d order. " silver--yellow. " copper--green of the st order, red rd order. " silver--blue. _chlorine with silver and copper._ the affinity of chlorine with silver is much inferior to that which it possesses for copper. _iodine with titanium._ iodine at the common temperature has no action upon this metal. _bromine with titanium._ bromine, when the surface of this substance is perfectly dry, has no more action upon it than iodine; but if it have a slight coating of moisture, as is formed by merely condensing on it the vapor of the breath, the colored films are formed without difficulty by the vapors of bromine. their appearance is the same as those of the iodide of silver, viz. gold, deep gold, blue, white, yellow, orange, red, &c. _chlorine with titanium and copper._ titanium has a stronger affinity than it has for either of the preceding vapors. the combination takes place when the metallic surface is either dry or moist. copper--much reddened. titanium--not affected. copper--passed through several of the spectral orders of red and green until it arrived at almost its last changes of colors. titanium under the same action received a dull film, which viewed obliquely showed red, green, yellow. silver, exposed to the same influence as the two former, had yellow in the centre and blue more externally. _iodine with bismuth and silver._ silver--pale gold. bismuth--some parts yellow, others not attacked. silver--blue, white, yellow-orange. bismuth--blue, yellow, orange. in the action of iodine on bismuth, the influence of the physical condition of metallic surface is very manifest. the crystaline texture of this metal may be perceived, and the difference of its hardness admits, to a certain point, of being measured by the difference of the color of the films that are formed on various points; while most parts are yellow, there exist others of an angular outline which remain still unattacked; the same difference is remarked in the other stages of the combination. _iodine with mercury._ it is impossible to estimate the affinity between mercury and iodine by means of the colored films, because, on combining, these two substances merely cause a dirty white appearance on the surface of the latter. their combining affinity appears to be considerable, for when exposed together with silver the action produced with both was red at the edges, little altered in color; on the rest of its surface a dull white film, in the midst of which were seen several dark spots, where the metal was apparently unaltered. _bromine with mercury and copper._ st. mercury--gold color. " copper slightly darkened. nd. mercury--blue. " copper dark red. rd. mercury--green on some parts. " copper white. after this the copper underwent its usual changes of color on prolonging the action of the vapor of bromine, but the color of the mercury suffered no further change. _chlorine with mercury and copper._ mercury--a slight film. copper no alteration of color. mercury--deep gold color. copper deep red on some parts, blue on others. mercury--red tinged with blue. copper blue, white. mercury--blue. copper same as before. "with respect to the bromide and chloride of mercury, it is necessary to view them obliquely in order to perceive all the changes of color they undergo; for if looked at perpendicularly, there is seen on both a dull uneven film of white which reflects none of the above colors: consequently, to avoid any error, the copper must be inspected under the same angle. _bromine with bismuth and silver._ silver--pale gold. bismuth--not apparently changed. silver--deep gold, blue. bismuth--yellow, blue. silver--blue, yellow. bismuth--dull colorless film. _chlorine with bismuth and silver._ bismuth is slowly attacked with chlorine gas, much in the same way as with iodine and bromine in vapor. _bromine with lead._ at the common temperature neither bromine nor chlorine forms colored films upon this metal, which it is very difficult besides to bring to any high state of polish on account of its softness. but when lead is heated, as over the flame of a spirit-lamp, the vapors of bromine then form very fine colored films, which are in succession gold, deep blue, &c. _iodine with iron._ these two may be made to form colored films when combined rapidly together, but generally a dull coating without any spectral color is obtained, on account of the deliquescence of that salt. until we know the index of refraction of the different films enumerated, it would be impossible to give a correct table of the combining powers in the experiments that have been detailed; nor is the table of the relative thickness of transparent plates as it has been transmitted to us by newton, sufficient in the present instance, if any great degree of precision be required. besides these objections, it is necessary before leaving this subject to pass in review several others inseparable from the mode of performing the experiments themselves. the principal circumstances complicating these experiments and liable to vary in different observations, are,-- first, the hardness of the metal acted upon; ndly, the obstacle opposed to the continuation of chemical action by the inert film formed upon the metal; rdly, the force of the vapors that attack the metal. the influence of the texture of the metallic surface on chemical action is most evident when bismuth is the metal employed. here the chemical action may be seen to commence on small isolated portions of the surface, which have already assumed a deep gold color, before other parts are in the least changed, from the natural appearance of the metal. to determine how far this might influence the formation of the iodide of silver, a silver coin was exposed to iodine with a piece of pure silver; as the former was so much the harder of the two, it was naturally supposed that the chemical action would be slower in exerting itself on it than on the latter. this, however, was not the case, as may be seen by the following statement of the result of the experiment: silver coin--pale gold color. pure silver--pale gold. silver coin--deep gold. pure silver--deep gold. silver coin--light blue. pure silver--light blue. silver chin--yellow. pure silver--blue, white, yellow not visible. silver coin--yellow, red at edges. pure silver--yellow, no red edges. silver coin--red, blue at edges. pure silver--yellow, no red apparent. the intensity of the resistance offered by the different films of iodide of silver to a continuation of the chemical combination, may be determined by noting the moment at which the various spectral tints make their appearance. color of the film of iodide of silver. ' " --beginning to darken. --pale gold. --deep gold. --orange blue. --blue. --light blue. --commencement of yellow. --orange red. --blue. --deep blue. --green. --yellowish green. --ruddy brown. --green. --green. --red. --green. by comparing the thickness of the colors with the space of time required for their production, it will be found, however imperfect the table given by newton may be when applied to this subject, that towards the end of the experiment above given, the chemical combination is retarded by the presence of the inert film, and that to obtain the same thickness of film as at the commencement, about double the time is required. the third cause of error may be avoided by operating with vapors of about the same force. in those described, the average time employed in passing to the maximum was generally about half an hour; if that were not taken into consideration, different results might be obtained. in regard to chlorine, there exists another cause of complication--the affinity which it possesses for water; for when disengaged in the ordinary manner, chlorine carries with it a certain quantity of water which may very much alter the results of the experiment.--_philosophical magazine,_ . * * * * * =the american electric telegraph.= in each of the countries of europe where the electric telegraph is established, viz.: britain, france, germany, and russ a, the people seem anxious to claim for one or more of their own countrymen some merit in connection with the invention. the english speak of wheatstone and bain; the french of le sage; the germans of steinheil and siemen; and the russians of schilling or jacobi. most of these inventors have their agents or representatives in different countries, ready on every suitable occasion to speak or write in behalf of their principal. the inventor of the american electric telegraph has, we believe, no agent in europe; and no person there who has any special interest in promoting the introduction of his system. the adoption of it by the prussian government for great distances, as decidedly the best which it could obtain, after advertising extensively in europe, is, therefore, the more remarkable; and especially, as the only knowledge which the prussians possess of the american system seems to have been derived from one imperfectly acquainted with its powers; for we can account in no other way for the fact that siemen's needle apparatus is adopted for short distances; morse's instruments being clearly superior to siemen's, or to any other needle apparatus, for short as well as for long distances; since they are much more rapid in their motion, and have, besides, the advantage of making a permanent record on paper, instead of merely indicating to the eye by an evanescent sign. no one using the telegraph in america, would think of employing a needle apparatus in any of its operations. in addition to the evidence of the high estimation of the american telegraph by europeans, furnished by this adoption of it in prussia, we learn also from an elaborate work on telegraphs by dr. h. schellen, recently published in dusseldorf, that it is now introduced into other countries on that continent. dr. s. says: "of late the morse telegraphs are much used in europe, viz: in england; between hamburg and cuxhaven; between bremen and bremer-haven; in prussia, austria, bavaria and hanover." dr. s. might have added also that it is used in turkey. among the advantages of the american telegraph, dr. s. says, is its "quickness in making and marking the signs upon paper. * * * _it records under the hand of a skilful operator to letters, in the same time in which the best needle telegraphs are able to indicate ._" while the superiority of the american electric telegraph to all others is thus acknowledged by europeans, they do not seem to be aware that the date of the american invention is also prior in point of time to that of any of their own electric telegraphs. they very naturally regard the date of the patent as the date of the invention, because in every country in europe the patent is given to the person who first promulgates the invention in that country; and it is not safe, therefore, in europe, for an inventor to permit others to know any thing of his invention until he has patented it. but in america, where the law permits no one to take out a patent but the inventor, he is perfectly safe in communicating the knowledge of what he has done, and even in publicly exhibiting his invention, before he takes out his patent, provided he secures himself by a caveat, and does not offer it for sale, or permit it to go into common use. the inventor of the american electric telegraph, it is well known, exhibited his instruments in operation in the n. y. university, in the presence of hundreds of our citizens in september, , and privately to his friends at various times as far back as november , although his first patent was not secured until . no one claims for the inventions of either wheatstone or steinheil a date prior to ; and when european writers on the telegraph come to understand our laws, and the error into which they have fallen, by confounding the date of the american invention with the patent, they will no doubt do our country the justice to admit its claims to priority as well as to _superiority_.--_n. y. observer._ * * * * * iron pavement.--iron is daily coming into more general use for almost every purpose. a letter from paris, of a late date says: "a new pavement, to upset the macadam and other inventions of the kind, has been proposed by mr. tobard, who intends paving, in this way, the streets and boulevards of paris. this gentlemen has proved, by figures, that melting iron is only worth francs in paris, francs in belgium, and ½ francs by kilogrammes in england, whilst the stone costs francs in london, francs in paris, and and francs in belgium. this new mode of pavement will be grooved, in order not to become slippery, and it is said that the electricity occasioned by the rolling of the carriages will prevent rust. here is a new field open to industry." claudet's specification. sealed st november, . we give the following as copied at the patent office in london. many of our daguerreotypists have enquired of us in relation to the patents on the daguerreotype in england. to autoine jean claudet, of high holborn, in the county of middlesex, glass merchant, for an invention of improvements in the process and means of obtaining the representation of objects of nature and art,--being a communication. [sealed st november, .] these improvements consist in rendering the daguerreotype picture susceptible of producing, by printing, a great number of proofs or copies; thereby transforming it into a complete engraved plate. the process is established on the following facts, which have come to the knowledge of the inventor:-- st. a mixed acid, composed of water, nitric acid, nitrate of potassa, and common salt, in certain proportions, being poured upon a daguerreotype picture, attacks the pure silver, forming a chloride of that metal, and does not effect the white parts, which are produced by the mercury; but this action does not continue long. then, by a treatment with ammonia (ammonia containing already chloride of silver in solution, is preferable for this operation), the chloride of silver is dissolved, and washed off, and the metal being again in its naked state, or cleansed from the chloride, it can be attacked afresh by the same acid. this acid acts better warm than cold. d. as all metallic surfaces are soon covered (when exposed to the atmosphere) with greasy or resinous matters, it is necessary, in order that the action of the acid upon the pure silver should have its full effect, for the surface to be perfectly purified; this is effected by the employment of alcohol and caustic potash. d. when a daguerreotype picture is submitted to the effects of a boiling concentrated solution of caustic potash, before being attacked by the acid, the state of its surface is so modified that the acid spares or leaves, in the part which it attacks, a great number of prints, which form the grain of the engraving. th. when the effects of the acid are not sufficient, or, in other words, it is not bitten deep enough, the effect is increased by the following process:--ink the plate as copper-plate printers do, but with a siccative ink; when the ink is sufficiently dry, polish the white parts of the plate, and gild it by the electrotype process; then wash it with warm caustic potash, and bite it in with an acid, which will not attack the gold, but only the metal in those parts which having been protected by the ink, have not received the coating of gold. by these means the engraving is completed, as by the acid alone it is not generally bitten in deep enough. th. to protect the plate from the effects of wear, produced by the operation of printing, the following process is employed: the surface of the plate is covered with a thin coating of copper, by the electrotype process, before submitting it to the operation of printing; and when that pellicle or coating of copper begins to show signs of wear, it must be removed altogether, by plunging the plate in ammonia, or in a weak acid, which, by electro-chemical action, will dissolve the copper, without effecting the metal under it; the plate is then coppered again, by the same means, and is then ready for producing a further number of impressions. this re-coating operation may be repeated as many times as may be required. the following is the description of the whole process, which is divided into two parts, consisting of a preparatory and printing process. _preparatory engraving._--for this operation which is the most delicate, it is necessary to have-- . a saturated solution of caustic potash. . pure nitric acid at ° of the barometer of beaumé (spec. grav. · ). . a solution of nitrate of potassa, composed of parts of water, and parts of nitrate, by weight. . a solution of common salt, composed of water parts, and salt parts by weight. . a weak solution of ammoniacal chloride of silver, with an access of ammonia. the ammoniacal chloride of silver must be diluted with or parts of pure water. in the description of the process, this solution will be called ammoniacal chloride of silver. . a weak solution of ammonia, containing or thousandths of liquid ammonia. this solution will be called ammoniacal water. . a weak solution of caustic potash, containing or thousandths of the saturated solution, which will be called alkaline water. . a solution composed of water parts, saturated solution of potash parts, alcohol part, all in volume. this solution will be called alcoholized potash. . acidulated water, composed of water parts, and nitric acid parts, in volume. besides, it is necessary to have three capsulæ or dishes, made of porcelain, large enough to contain the plate, and covered with an air-tight piece of ground plate glass, and two or three more capsulæ, which do not require to be covered; two or three glass funnels, to wash the plate; and two or three glass holders, in the shape of a spoon or shovel, by which the plate is supported when put in and taken out of the solution, without touching it with the fingers. the daguerreotype plate is submitted to the engraving process, after having been washed in the hyposulphate of soda, and afterwards in distilled water. _first process for biting in or engraving the plate._--the following solutions must be put in the capsulæ, in sufficient quantity, so as to entirely cover the plate:-- . acidulated water. . alkaline water. . alcoholized potash, in covered capsulæ. . caustic potash, in covered capsulæ. . distilled water. the plate being then put upon the glass holder or spoon, is plunged in the acidulated water, and agitated during a few seconds, then put into a glass funnel, and washed with distilled water. it is taken again with the glass spoon, and plunged in the capsulæ containing alcoholized potash. this capsulæ is covered with its glass cover, and then heated, by means of a spirit lamp, to about ° fahrenheit. the plate must remain in the capsulæ half an hour, during which the solution is heated now and then, and agitated. during that time the following acid solution, which will be called _nomal acid_, must be prepared: it is composed as follows:--water parts, nitric acid parts, solution of nitrate of potassa parts, solution of common salt parts. these proportions are in volume. the nomal acid must be poured in a capsulæ, covered with its glass cover, and a sufficient quantity must be kept in the bottle. when the plate has been immersed in the alcoholized potash during half an hour, it is taken out of the solution by means of the glass holder, and immediately plunged in the alkaline water, and agitated pretty strongly; from thence it is put in distilled water (a). this being done, the plate is plunged in the acidulated water, and moved about therein for a few seconds: it is then put into the nomal acid. when the plate has been immersed a few seconds in the acid, it is taken out by means of the glass holder, taking care to keep it as much as possible covered with the solution, and it is immediately placed horizontally upon a stand, and as much acid as the plate can hold is poured upon it from the bottle; it is then heated with a spirit lamp, but without attaining the boiling point. during this operation it is better to stir or move about the acid on the plate by pumping it, and ejecting it again, by means of a pipette or glass syringe; after two or three minutes the acid is thrown away, the plate is put in the glass funnel, and then well washed with water, and afterwards with distilled water (b). thus, without letting the plate dry, it is put upon the fingers of the left hand, and with the right hand some ammoniacal chloride of silver, which is moved about the surface by balancing the hand is poured upon it; the solution is renewed until the chloride, formed by the action of acid, is dissolved; the plate is then washed by pouring upon it a large quantity of ammoniacal water, and afterwards some distilled water. (c.) without allowing the plate to dry, it is then put in the caustic potash, and the capsula being then placed upon the stand, the potash is heated up to the boiling point; it is then left to cool (d); and beginning again the operations described from a, to d, a second biting is obtained; and by repeating again the operations described in a, and b, a third biting is produced. the plate is then dried; in this state the black parts of the plate are filled with chloride of silver. the plate is then polished until the white parts are perfectly pure and bright. this polishing is soon done with cotton and ('ponce') (pumice stone); afterwards, the chloride of silver, filling the black parts, is cleansed by the means described in b, and c. the plate is dried, but before drying, it is well to rub the plate slightly with the finger, in order to take off from the black parts any remains of an insoluble body, which generally remains on it. the preparatory engraving is then finished, and the plate has the appearance of a very delicate acquatint engraved plate, not very deeply bitten in. nevertheless, if the operation has been well managed, and has been successful, it is deep enough to allow the printing of a considerable number of copies. _note._--sometimes, instead of treating the plate with the boiling potash in the capsula, a similar result may be obtained by placing the plate upon the stand, covering it with the solution, and heating it by means of a spirit lamp, until, by evaporation the potash becomes in a state of ignited fusion. by this means the grain is finer, but the white parts are more liable to be attacked. last operation of biting in: this operation requires some of the re-agents, before-named, and also, . a siccative ink, made of linseed oil, rendered very siccative by boiling it sufficiently with litharge; it may be thickened with calcined lampblack. . an electrotype apparatus, and some solutions of it to gild, and copper the plate. means of operating: the plate must be inked as copper-plate printers do, taking care to clean off the white parts more perfectly than usual; the plate is then to be placed in a room sufficiently warm, until the ink is well dried, which requires more or less time, according to the nature of the oil employed. the drying of the oil may be hastened by heating the plate upon the stand with the lamp, but the slow process is more perfect and certain. when the ink is well dried, the white parts are cleaned again, by polishing the plate with cotton and ponce, or any other polishing powder; a ball of cotton, or any other matter covered over with a thin piece of caoutchouc or skin, can be used for this purpose. when polished the plate is ready to receive the electro-chemical coating of gold, which will protect the white parts. _gilding._--the gilding is obtained by any of the various processes of electrotyping that are known. the only indispensable condition is, that the surface obtained by the precipitation must not be liable to be attacked by the weak acid; a solution answering this purpose is made of parts, (by weight), of ferocganide of potassium; part of chloride of gold, and , parts of water, used with a galvanic battery. during the gilding the plate must be turned in several positions, in order to regulate the metallic deposit. in some cases the gilding may be made more perfect, if the plate is covered with a thin coating of mercury before putting in the gilding solution. when the plate is gilded, it must be heated with the boiling caustic potash, by the process already indicated for the preparatory engraving, in order to cleanse it from all the dried oil or ink, which fills the hollow. the plate is then washed and dried, and when the oil employed has been thickened with the lampblack, the surface of the plate is rubbed with crumbs of bread, in order to cleanse and take off the black remaining; then, the white parts being covered and protected by varnish not liable to be attacked, and the black parts being uncovered and clean, the plate can be bitten in by aqua-fortis, according to the ordinary process used by engravers. this operation must be used upon the stand, and not by immersing the plate in the solution. before this biting in, if the preparatory engraving has not succeeded well, and the plate still wants a sufficient grain, it can be given by the various processes of aquatint engraving. before submitting the plate to the operation of printing, in order to insure an unlimited number of copies, it is necessary, as before stated, to protect it by a slight coating of copper, which is obtained by the electrotype process; otherwise the printing would soon wear the plate. this coating must be kept very thin, but the fineness of the engraving, and the polish of the white parts, should be destroyed. in this state the plate can be delivered to the printer. after a certain number of impressions have been obtained, it will be perceived that the coating of copper is worn in some places; then this coating must be removed, and a fresh one applied in its place. for this purpose, the plate must be purified and cleansed by warm potash, and plunged in a weak acid, composed as follows:--water, parts; nitric acid, parts; nitrous acid of engravers, parts; all in volume. this acid will dissolve the coating of copper, and the plate being coppered again, by the same means as before, may be again submitted to the operation of printing; and as nothing can prevent the success of a repetition of the same operation, any number of impressions may be obtained. the coating of copper can also be removed by caustic ammonia. the daguerreotype plate engraved by this process, may also be reproduced and multiplied by the electrotype process, the same as any other engraved plate. the essential points of this process, which constitute the present invention, consist,-- first,--in the discovery and employment of certain properties of a mixture composed of nitric acid, nitrous acid, and hydrochloric acid, in detrimental or fixed proportions. the two last mentioned acids may be employed either in a free state, or combined with alkaline or other bases. this mixed acid has the property of biting the pure silver, which forms the black parts of the daguerreotype picture, without attacking the white parts formed by the amalgam of mercury. the result of the action of the biting is, to form on the black part of the picture an insoluble chloride of silver; and this chloride of silver, which, when formed, stops the action of the acid, is dissolved by the ammonia, which allows the biting to continue. secondly,--in the discovery of certain properties of a warm solution of caustic potash, and in the employment of the said solution, by which the mercury forming the picture is better and deeper amalgamated with the silver under it, so that many imperceptible points of the amalgam are affected in such a manner that the action has no action upon them. thirdly,--in the discovery and employment of a process which produces a grain favourable to the engraving, by which the biting on the plate is rendered deeper. this is effected by filling the parts engraved with a siccative ink, or any other substance, and then gilding the plate by the electrotype process: the gold is not deposited on the parts protected by the ink. when the plate is gilded, the ink is cleansed by the caustic potash, and the plate may be submitted to the effect of an acid, which does not attack the coating of gold, but bites only on the silver in the parts already engraved by the first operation. fourthly,--in the employment of a process by which the plate is protected from the wear of the printing operation. this is effected by covering the plate before printing, with a slight coating of copper; by the electrotype process, and when the coating begins to wear, by printing, it is removed by a weak acid or by ammonia, which dissolves the copper without effecting the silver under it. the plate is coppered again, and after another printing, the same operation is repeated, so that a considerable number of copies may be printed without injury to the engraving. enrolled in the pitty bag office, may, . * * * * * =interesting experiment with strychnia.= an interesting experiment, illustrative of the poisonous effects of strychnia, was recently made by professor agassiz, at cambridge. the subject was a large black bear, about eighteen months old. the animal was taken when young, and had been kept in captivity for a considerable period. professor agassiz being desirous of killing it for the purpose of dissection, about three grains of strychnia were administered. the poison, though extremely bitter was readily swallowed. at the expiration of ten minutes, no effect having been produced, a second dose of about the same quantity was also inclosed in a biscuit and offered. the cunning animal broke open and swallowed the biscuit, but rejected the poison. the first portion, however, had proved efficacious, and in exactly fifteen minutes from the time when first administered, the animal was seized with terrible convulsions, and soon died. the whole time which elapsed between the taking of the poison and the death of the animal, did not exceed twenty-five minutes. in order to alleviate its sufferings and hasten death, a quantity of hydrocyanic acid was poured upon the nose and mouth of the bear. it did not, however, produce any sensible effect, and was not apparently taken into the system, as the animal at the time was nearly dead. but the subsequent effects of the poison were most remarkable. although the bear, at the time of death, was in perfect health and strength, twenty-four hours had not elapsed before the body was in an advanced stage of decomposition. indeed the appearances indicated that the animal had been dead for nearly two months. the interior of the body, when opened about twenty hours after death, still retained its warmth in a considerable degree, while an offensive gas issued from every pore. the blood had not coagulated, the spinal marrow and nerves were in a semi-fluid state, and the flesh had assumed a leaden-gray color. the hair of the hide readily came out on being slightly pulled. no smell of the hydrocyanic acid could be perceived. the origin of this singular and speedy decomposition is not fully known, though it is supposed to be due to the agency of the hydrocyanic acid. a chemical examination of the muscle, brain, nerves, liver and kidneys is now going on at the cambridge laboratory, under the direction of professor horsford. one singular fact connected with the spontaneous decomposition of these parts is, that they all yielded or disengaged hydrosulphuric acid gas, with the exception of the liver, which did not.--_annual of scientific discovery._ * * * * * =notice.= a few copies only of volume i. of the daguerreian journal can be had by applying at this office. price three dollars. this is the most complete work ever published on the daguerreian art. orders addressed to the publisher of this journal. * * * * * =the daguerreian journal= =new york, june , .= the metal which the daguerreotypists have most to deal with is silver. to obtain plates of this perfectly clean and keep them so is one of the most difficult parts of his art; in order to accomplish it he is obliged to have resource to circuitous mechanical processes, or to some chemical means whereby the old surface may be removed, or a new surface deposited. he uses tripoli and rotten stone, rouge and buffing, fatty matters, alcohol, ammonia, and nitric acid, for the first purpose; and electro-plating for the second. the operator must not mistake the object he has in view. by all his mechanical operations, where friction is concerned, he obtains a _polished_ surface; but it is not to _polish_ the plate that he uses the buff, and the other materials; the object is to clean the plate, and the _polish_ of the surface follows as a natural result. that a polished surface is not necessary for the formation of an image is evident from photography on paper, and hyalotype. in these cases the surfaces do not reflect light; they are not polished; they are merely clean. the fact of a plate freshly taken out of a cell where silver has been deposited on it receiving beautiful images, is another proof that polish is unnecessary for success. what is wanted is a surface of pure silver, one not coated with the slightest trace of oxide, carbonate, or sulphuret of silver, or with any impurity derived by contact with foreign matter. the daguerreotypist has, then, two objects in view.-- st, to get a clean surface on his plate; and nd, this once obtained, to keep it so without further alteration. although silver is classed with gold and platinum, as one of those metals which do not tarnish or oxidize readily on exposure to the air, yet it is now well known in practice what a difference exists in the character of the picture brought out on a plate recently polished and one set aside even for a few hours. it is true that the atmosphere alone will not affect or oxidize a plate of polished silver, but that is only true of a very dry atmosphere; for an atmosphere which contains even a small amount of moisture in it, will in a short time dull the surface of the plate. in this instance the moisture is deposited first, and brings the air into closer contact with the surface of the metal, promoting the union of the latter with the oxygen of the air. this is exemplified every day in the case of iron, which does not rust in dry weather, but when the air begins to deposit its moisture it rapidly oxydizes. so is it with lead and zinc, but in a less degree. pure water has no effect in tarnishing the surface of a silver plate, but if it contains even a very small quantity of animal or vegetable matter it darkens the surface in consequence of the presence of sulphur. the ordinary tarnish of silver is due to the fastening upon the surface of sulfurous vapors, which are constantly floating in the air. we are scarcely yet in possession of sufficient facts to justify the statement that sun-light materially aids in this alteration. we do know that oxidizement in any substance goes on much more rapidly in sunshine than under any other circumstances. in the vegetable kingdom it is of hourly occurrence; but the different effects of shade and shine upon the oxidizement of plates of metal has not been minutely studied. however this may be, after a time the silver surface does get coated with a film, of partly sulphuret, partly oxide, and a complete layer of air, which so closely attaches itself to the plate that water when poured on it rolls off and does not wet the surface. it is this film, of air which mechanical friction and bulling are so serviceable in removing. the tarnish of a sulphuret is not so readily removed by friction as by ammonia, for the sulphuret of silver is, to some extent, soluble in ammonia; but as the sulphuret when present gives a yellowish brown tint to the surface, it is only then that it is needful, and even a weak solution of commom salt or hydrodate of potash cleans the surface much quicker. as nitric acid is the best solvent of silver, so is it the best agent to remove films of oxide and carbonate from the surface; it does so readily, effectually, and leaves a clean new surface of silver, similar to a plate newly prepared, or one which has received a new coating in the electrotype cell. the acid, however, must be very much diluted, otherwise its local action is so immediate as to eat down the surface of the plate faster than it spreads, producing inequalities,--even when left long on, although diluted, it produces roughness; hence its use has not been happy in many hands. to such, the longer, but less failing processes of mechanical action are to be recommended in preference. * * * * * friend humphrey:-- i have thought for some time past that i would furnish a few thoughts for the _daguerreian journal_, under the head of _general rumors_. a fear of injuring the daguerreian business, by giving an additional publicity to my discovery, for the present has kept me from this, as well as from furnishing several other articles. a _very few_ persons (for the honor of humanity, i am glad the number is small) have made statements which reflect seriously upon the integrity and motives of myself and friends. by means of certain legal processes, of which i am not wholly ignorant, i could do _these gentry_ more simple justice than by dignifying them by a notice in our journal, yet i bear them no ill will, and _for the present_ shall act on the principle that it is better to suffer wrong than to engage in a quarrel, especially with men who have so little regard for the feelings and reputation of their fellows, as to condemn, denounce, and accuse, without discrimination, and without the slightest knowledge of facts. the "head and front of my offending" is this--that i _have_, by dint of unwearied pains and perseverance, succeeded in imprinting the colors of nature, in all their inimitable glory, upon the metallic surface. the process, when brought out, it is believed, by the best of judges, will be an astonishment to, the world, and a delight to our nation; and i have felt, from the first, that i am but an instrument in the hands of the almighty, and am therefore bound in duty, as well as by inclination, to dispose of the secret in a way to accomplish the greatest amount of good. in this spirit i have frequently published my unalterable resolve that my process _shall never be monopolized, or used for the purposes of extortion_. if i had no other reason for this course, the fact that there are great numbers of worthy persons engaged in our art, who, like myself, are poor, this would be sufficient. various plans have been suggested to me, for the best possible method of disposing of my discovery. numerous gentlemen of high standing, have honored me with personal intercourse and friendly advice. i have even suffered the claims of courtesy to interfere with my experiments, and, i believe i have the good will and confidence of those who have honored me with their visits; but i have never swerved from my original determination, and have given no person the slightest reason to think otherwise. in view of these _facts_, it is not strange that i should feel annoyed at the various rumors to which i refer, and some of the intimations which have been thrown out, i _feel_ are but poor pay for my having nearly, if not quite, ruined my health, by laboring from morn till midnight for the good of others. more especially have i been _grieved_ that _some of my best friends, and the best friends of the fraternity_, should be accused of having outwitted me, and drawn me into obligations to them which would compel me to pursue a grasping course. now, it is true that certain gentlemen have, from the most honorable motives, made me very liberal offers of aid, and it is also true that my mind is about settled in regard to the parties with whom i shall act; but it is not true that i am under obligations to give notoriety to my _business affairs_, and it is certain that i shall not do so until i see fit. neither is there the least foundation for the assertion that i am committed to any person. there confidence in me is not based on paper, but on a much surer foundation. the process which i have been so fortunate as to discover, is _my property_. no man on earth has any claim, upon it, and i have a perfect right to dispose of it as i please, in case i do not interfere with the rights of others. this, i think, is the philosophy of _professor morse_, so admirably and clearly expressed in the last number of the journal. this distinguished man recently favored me with a visit, and, in the course of the interview, shed much light on this subject for which i feel truly thankful. my intention has been, and is, to _do right_, and i believe the majority approve of the course i have pursued thus far. the many marks of approbation i have received from eminent men, both in this profession and others, is truly encouraging to me in my poor health and arduous labors, and will never be forgotten. those who seem to possess a different spirit, and who have apparently endeavored to hedge up my way by means of "rumors," "new discoveries," "threats," &c., have my forgiveness, and i trust that, in future, if they are not disposed to aid, they will do nothing to hinder me. the brotherhood have nobly aided me, by purchasing my book. my sales are exceeding my most sanguine expectations, and are placing me on a footing to make me _feel that i am free_. all may be assured that i shall not use my freedom "as a cloak," but to serve their interests, of which both myself and friends hope to give them _full proof_ hereafter. now that i have been compelled to close my doors against visitors, i would state that i am doing my utmost to bring out my process in a short time, and i will hereafter give, in the _daguerreian journal_, such notices of my success as will meet the wishes of the public, as well as the interest of our fraternity, i am yours &c., l. l. hill. westkill, greene co., n. y., _may , ._ [hand] the foregoing letter was addressed to me privately, and as it contains some of mr. hill's views in relation to the various rumors afloat, i have thought it best to insert it for the public. s. d. h. * * * * * we take pleasure in saying to our friends that, through the kindness of john johnson, esq., of this city, we have received many of the valuable letters and papers written by mr. s. a. wolcott, a former partner of the first named gentleman. mr. w. is well and favorably known as one of our early and most successful investigators in the photogenic art. many of the most valuable improvements had their origin in his hands. we were surprised to find so great an amount of information as is here presented. our daguerreotypists of the present day may consider themselves fortunate, when looking back upon the difficulties experienced by those early engaged in putting a shadow on the silver plate. we find here many a mystery unravelled, and set forth in a light heretofore unexplained. as these letters, written by mr. w. to his partner, mr. j., (at the time they were written) were many of them confidential, and some few contain business matter of a foreign character, it will require some little time to prepare them for the press in the order in which they were written. we shall make no alteration in the manuscript, and exclude such matter only as relates to business of a foreign character. they present a team of investigation and research worthy the first in the scientific circle. we would here take occasion to speak of a curious specimen of our art, which we saw while recently spending an evening with mr. johnson. this specimen is a profile view of a gentleman, and if not the _first_ likeness from life, it is said to claim age with the oldest daguerreotype ever produced, and is no less interesting for its antiquity than for its size, it being on a plate _less than one quarter of an inch square_. to produce an impression on such a plate it would require the superior skill of the most successful operator of the present day. the outline is distinctly marked, the features remarkably well delineated, being in fact, one of the most interesting curiosities we have ever witnessed. the plate is cemented by means of canada balsam to a piece of plate glass about three-fourths of an inch square, and thus it has been preserved in its present state. we saw many other specimens of daguerreian antiquity, but as we intend to speak more fully of our evening visit at mr. johnson's, we will defer further notice for the present. we would here say to such as may have mr. walcott's letters relative to the art, that we would consider ourselves especially favored if we could be allowed the perusal of them. * * * * * =the natural colors in photography.= the subscriber begs to request those interested in the above discovery _not to visit him_ until further notice, which will be given in the daguerreian journal. it is _absolutely essential_ that he should have his time, and be left undisturbed. stern necessity, arising from the fact that i can never complete my process if disturbed as hitherto, compels me to say both to friends and strangers, that my doors are locked, and will continue to be until i have completed my experiments. as this notice is given with a regard to the general good, it is presumed no offence will be taken. l. l. hill. westkill, green co., n. y., may , . editors by inserting the above in their papers will confer a favor, and save many from spending their time and money to no purpose. * * * * * =our daguerreotypes.= butler, of this city, is now producing fine likenesses in oil. this gentlemen calls these pictures "daguerreotypes in oil." we never have seen better likenesses transferred from a daguerreotype, and in an economical point of view, they are the best oil paintings that can be had. * * * * * e. long, of st. louis, mo. in our last, we spoke of h. h. long as the gentleman who had produced likenesses of jenny lind. this was incorrect; we should have said e. long. however, they both are a _long_ ways from taking poor daguerreotypes. * * * * * l. m. ives, of boston, will please pardon us (or rather our printer) for the mistake in the journal in his name and locality. mr. i. being himself a sure operator, will certainly pardon a failure in others. we will endeavor to do better in future. * * * * * n. e. sissons, of albany. this gentleman has completed an extensive addition to his former establishment. w e find here one of the most substantial proofs that close application and honorable dealing are awarded by success. mr. s. has now five rooms--one for reception, a gallery or operating room, and three stock rooms. it is highly gratifying to his friends to learn of his success, and we predict for him a large and profitable business. we have ordered one of c. c. harrison's best full sized camera tubes, and one of w. & w. h. lewis' camera boxes, which will be forwarded to mr. s., he being entitled to it from the fact that he has obtained for us the largest list of subscribers. he is a "practical operator." * * * * * j. d. wells, northampton, mass., has recently fitted up a large establishment in that place. mr. w. is an old an experienced operator, and has five rooms in his establishment, a very fine sky and side light, and is prepared to execute such likenesses as will please the inhabitants of that beautiful village in the valley of the connecticut. * * * * * =submarine telegraph between england and france.= the project of constructing a submarine telegraph between england and france, across the straits of dover, first announced during the year ,[a] has been in part accomplished. the following description of the laying down of the wire, we copy from an english journal:-- [footnote a: see annual of scientific discovery, , page .] at one o'clock the steamer goliath was ready to start across the channel, with all the necessary apparatus on board, and a crew of about thirty men. between the paddle-wheels, in the centre of the vessel, was a gigantic drum, or wheel, nearly fifteen feet long and seven feet in diameter, weighing seven tons, and fixed on a strong framework. upon it was coiled up, in careful, close convulsions, about thirty miles of telegraphic wire, one-tenth of an inch in diameter, incased in a covering of gutta-percha, the thickness of the little finger. the point proposed to be reached, cape grinez, the nearest landmark to the english coast, and between calais and boulogne, is a distance of twenty-one miles, so that a surplus supply of nine miles of wire was held in reserve for the purpose of slackening. the connecting wires were placed in readiness at the government pier in the harbor, and likewise at the cape, where they run up the face of the acclivity, which is feet above the sea-mark. some interesting experiments were first made upon a small scale to show the practicability of the plan. a mile of wire was paid out off the deck, from the pier to shakspeare's cliff, and the sinking process was proved to be a practicable performance. a communication was also sent through twenty four miles of wire. on wednesday morning the experiment of sinking submarinely was practically commenced. the goliath put out to the pier, with her telegraphic tackle and apparatus on board, under a calm sea and sky and a favoring wind. the connection between the thirty miles of telegraphic wire was then made good to yards of the same wire inclosed in a leaden tube on shore, to prevent it being bruised by the shingle on the beach, and to enable the experimenters, as they proceeded out to sea, to send communications on shore. the vessel steamed out at the rate of three or four miles an hour into the open sea, in a direct track for cape grinez. the wire weighed five tons and the cylinder two. the operation of paying out the thirty miles of wire commenced on a signal to the sailors to "go-ahead with the wheel, and pay out the wire," which was continuously streamed out over a roller at the stern of the vessel, the men at every th of a mile being busily engaged in riveting on to the wire, square leaden clamps, or weights of iron, from lbs. to lbs. in weight, which had the effect of sinking the wire to the bottom, which, on the english coast commences at a depth of feet, and goes on varying from that to and feet, which latter, or fathoms, is the greatest depth. the whole of the casting out and sinking was accomplished with great precision and success, owing to the favorable state of the day. the only conjectured difficulty on the route was at a point in midchannel, called the ridge, between which and another inequality called the varne, both well known and dreaded by navigators, there is a deep submarine valley, surrounded by shifting sands, the one being seventeen miles in length, and the other twelve, and in their vortex, not unlike the voracious one of godwin sands, ships encounter danger and lose their anchors, and trolling nets of fishermen are frequently lost. over this, however, the wire was successfully submerged, below the reach, it is believed, of either ship's anchors, sea-animals, or fishing nets. the remainder of the route, though rougher on approaching the coast of france, was accomplished cleverly, but slowly. a communication, dated cape grinez, coast of france, half past eight, p. m., and received at dover by submarine telegraph, was as follows:--"the goliath has just arrived in safety, and the complete connection of the under-water wire with that left at dover this morning is being run up the face of the cliff; complimentary interchanges are passing between france and england, under the strait and through it, for the first time." notwithstanding this apparently successful result of the work, the line was cut asunder soon after the connection was completed on the rocks near cape grinez, the physical configuration of the french coast being very unfavorable. the precise point where the breakage took place was about two hundred yards out to sea, just where the twenty miles of electric line that had been laid down from dover joins on to a leaden tube designed to protect it from the surge beating against the beach, and which also serves a similar purpose up the front of the cliff to the station upon the top. the leaden conductor, it would appear, was of too soft a texture to resist the oscillation of the sea, and thereby became detached from the coil of gutta-percha wire that was thought to have been safely encased in it. the occurrence was, of course, quickly detected by the sudden cessation of the series of communications, though it was at first a perplexing point to discover at what precise spot the wire was broken or at fault. this, however, was done by hauling up the line at intervals, a process which disclosed the gratifying fact, that, since its first sinking, it had remained in situ at the bottom of the sea, inconsequence of the leaden weights or clamps that were strung to it at every sixteenth of a mile. the experiment, as far as it has gone, proves the possibility of the gutta percha wire resisting the action of the salt water, of the fact of its being a perfect waterproof insulator, and that the weights on the wire are sufficient to prevent it being drifted away by the currents, and for sinking it in the sands. the work at present has been suspended, but will be resumed again during the spring of ; a somewhat different plan, however, has been proposed to be followed from that at first adopted. instead of one slender wire, it is intended to lay down cables inclosing four lines. these cables will be composed of gutta-percha, four or five inches in thickness, the whole encased in wire rope, chemically prepared, to protect it from rot, and kyanized. there will be two of these cables, each twenty miles long, and three miles apart, the whole weight representing tons; and it is expected, when chained down in the bottom of the sea, they will be of sufficient consistency and strength to resist the anchor of a -gun ship. the expense of the cables is estimated at £ , . it is thought that the whole work may be accomplished by may, .--_annual of scientific discovery._ * * * * * =action of solutions of chlorides and air on mercury.= we have given in previous numbers the results of m. mialhe's experiments on the action of chlorides on some mercurial compounds, and he states that he had nearly concluded his experiments when it occurred to him to try whether mercury itself would not be acted upon by this class of substances. experiment, he states, confirmed his suspicions, for he found that the solutions of the alkaline chlorides put into contact with mercury and atmospheric air always produced bichloride of mercury, the quantity of which was greater in proportion to the concentration of the solution of the chloride, and the more perfect state of division of the metal, but no effect is produced unless oxygen, that of the air being sufficient, is present. _ st experiment._--mercury treated with the solution of alkaline chlorides (described in our last number as the assay liquor ), gave by stove heat · part of sublimate. _ nd experiment._--the above repeated with the mercury finely divided by mucilage, yielded · part of sublimate. the researches already detailed sufficiently prove, in the opinion of m. mialhe, that the decomposing power of the alkaline chlorides is great, but they do not teach us anything as to their relative energy. the following experiments will supply this deficiency. _hydrochlorate of ammonia._--one hundred and twenty parts of hydrochlorate of ammonia and parts of calomel were placed in an open bottle containg parts of distilled water, the temperature of which was gradually raised to ° fahr., and kept for half an hour; the sublimate produced amounted to · of a part. the experiment repeated with the following salts gave the annexed quantities of sublimate:-- chloride of sodium, · of a part. chloride of barium, · " chloride of potassium, · " it results from these experiments that the hydrochlorate of ammonia is the most powerful of these four salts. in concluding his experiments, m. mialhe remarks that the reactions which he has pointed out take place at common temperatures, but better at the temperature of the human body. all of them are produced in a short time, and some occur instantaneously, the greater part requiring only a few hours' contact for action. as then the different fluids contained in the human body contain oxygen, chloride of sodium, and hydrochlorate of ammonia, accompanied or not with hydrochloric and other acids which may facilitate their action, it follows that all the chemical phenomena produced under the circumstances described, occur in the human body when any mercurial preparation whatever is introduced into it; these always produce a certain quantity of corrosive sublimate in which their medicinal properties reside; and this fact explains, in the opinion of m. mialhe, the hitherto unexplained physiological action and therapeutic properties of metallic mercury when introduced into the animal economy.--_ann. de chim. et de phys._, juin . * * * * * =the heat of combinations.= every molecular change in the condition of matter is almost invariably connected with the evolution or absorption of heat, and the quantity of heat thus set free or absorbed bears always a definite relation to the amount of the mechanical or chemical action. to ascertain this relation has been the object of my investigations, and the following are a few of my principal results. . the solution of a salt in water is always accompanied by an absorption of heat. . if equal weights of the same salt be dissolved in succession in the same liquid, the heat absorbed will be less on each new addition of salt. . the heat absorbed by the solution of a salt in water holding other salts dissolved is generally less than that absorbed by its solution in water. . the heat absorbed by the solution of a salt in the dilute mineral acids is generally greater than that absorbed by its solution in water. in reference to the combination of acids and bases, the heat developed during the union is determined by the base, and not by the acid. an equivalent of the same base combined with different acids produces nearly the same quantity of heat. when a neutral salt is converted into an acid salt by combining with one or more equivalents of acids, no disengagement of heat occurs. when a double salt is formed by the union of two neutral salts, the same is the case, but when a neutral salt is converted into a basic salt, there is a disengagement of heat. when solutions of two neutral salts are mixed, and a precipitate formed from their mutual decomposition, there is always a disengagement of heat, which, though small, is perfectly definite in amount. the diamond disengages , units of heat during its combustion in oxygen gas, in the form of graphite, , units, and in that of wood charcoal, , .--dr. andrews before the british association at birmingham. * * * * * [the following papers have been furnished us by mr. pirsson, one of the former editors of the eureka, they having been previously published in that journal; for the cuts, which will appear in our next number, we are indebted to mr. starr, one of the present editors of the _farmer and mechanic_, and formerly publisher of the _eureka_.] * * * * * =daguerreotype.= by john johnson. as a general thing, however perfect any invention may be deemed by the inventor or discoverer, it falls to the lot of most, to be the subject of improvement and advancement, and especially is this the case with those new projects in science which open an untrodden field to the view of the artizan. such has been in an eminent degree, the case with the discovery first announced to the world by mons. jean jacques claude daguerre, of paris, in the year , and which excited unbounded astonishment, curiosity and surprise. it may be questioned had any other than daguerre himself discovered a like beautiful combination, whether the world would have been favored with details exhibiting so much care, patience and perseverance as the daguerreotype on its introduction. shortly after these details reached the united states, by professor s. f. b. morse, of new york, who was, at the time of the discovery, residing in paris. by this announcement, the whole scientific corps was set in operation, many repeating the experiments, following carefully the directions pointed out by daguerre, as being necessary to success. among the number in the united states, was alexander s. wolcott (since deceased) and myself, both of this city. on the morning of the th day of october, , i took to a. wolcott's residence, a full description of daguerre's discovery, he being at the time engaged in the department of mechanical dentistry, on some work requiring his immediate attention, the work being promised at p. m., that day; having, therefore, no opportunity to read the description for himself, (a thing he was accustomed to do at all times, when investigating any subject,) i read to him the paper, and proposed to him that if he would plan a camera, (a matter he was fully acquainted with, both theoretically and practically) i would obtain the materials as specified by daguerre. this being agreed to, i departed for the purpose, and on my return to his shop, he handed me the sketch of a camera box, without at all explaining in what manner the lens was to be mounted. this i also undertook to procure. after p. m., he had more leisure, when he proceeded to complete the camera, introducing for that purpose a reflector in the back of the box, and also to affix a plate holder on the inside, with a slide to obtain the focus of the plate, prepared after the manner of daguerre. while mr. wolcott was engaged with the camera, i busied myself in polishing the silver plate, or rather silver plated copper, but ere reaching the end preparatory to iodizing, i found i had nearly or quite removed the silver surface from off the plate, and that being the best piece of silver plated copper to be found, the first remedy at hand that suggested itself, was a burnisher, and a few strips were quickly burnished and polished. meantime, the camera being finished, mr. wolcott, after reading for himself daguerre's method of iodizing, prepared two plates, and placing them in the camera, guessed at the required time they should remain exposed to the action of the light; after mercurializing each in turn, and removing the iodized surface with a solution of common salt, two successful impressions were obtained, each unlike the other! considerable surprise was excited by this result, for each plate was managed precisely like the other. on referring to daguerre, no explanation was found for this strange result; time, however, revealed to us that one picture was positive, and the other negative. on this subject i shall have much to say during the progress of the work. investigating the cause of this difference occupied the remainder of that day, however, another attempt was agreed upon, and the instruments, plates, &c., prepared and taken up into an attic room, in a position most favorable for light. having duly arranged the camera, i sat for five minutes, and the result was a profile miniature, (a miniature in reality,) on a plate not quite three-eighths of an inch square. thus, with much deliberation and study, passed the first day in daguerreotype--little dreaming or knowing into what a labyrinth such a beginning was hastening us. (_to be continued._) * * * * * =galvanizing daguerreotype plates.= the battery. the best way is to purchase a good daniel's battery. price $ . to be had at any of the dealers. for the benefit of those who cannot procure one, i would give the following directions for making one: procure a copper cup, (sheet copper) inches high, and inches in diameter; also a cup of porous earthenware, (a small unglazed flower pot answers,) or a leather cup made water tight by sewing, or even a cylinder of porous wood, (say maple or ash,) inches diameter, and about inches high. this is to stand in the centre of the copper cup. now, procure a solid cylinder of zinc, inches high and inch diameter. this is to stand in the centre of the porous cup. fastened to the upper end of the zinc cylinder there should be a copper wire, pretty thick. it should be held by a screw, or soldered on, and previous to the fastening, both the wire and zinc should be made clean and bright, that there may be a perfect connection. a similar wire is to be fastened, in the same way, to the upper rim of the copper cup. let these wires be about inches long. to the end of the one coming from the copper fasten a plate of pure silver, about as large as a quarter plate, unless you wish to galvanize whole plates, in which case the silver plate must be larger, say, the size of a half plate. for small plates a silver dollar, enlarged to twice its size by hammering, will answer, but is not so good. to hammer it, it must be first heated, red hot, and allowed to cool slowly. this plate is to be immersed in the silver solution, described below, near the side of the solution jar. the other wire must be bent at the end like a hook, to receive the catch. this catch may be a piece of copper wire about inches long, hooked at one end, and having several turns at the other end, to strengthen it. between these turns the daguerreotype plate, well polished, is inserted, as in a sort of jaw. the wire holding the catch should be so bent that the daguerreotype plate will stand from one to three inches from, and face the annode, or silver plate. let the silver solution be well stirred, just before immersing a plate; then, blowing away the froth and scum, immediately dip the plate, and hang it on the wire. let it remain until it takes on a deep blue color, take it out, grasp it with the plyers, rinse it freely with clean water, and dry it carefully with a spirit lamp. buff again to a polish, galvanize to a light blue, rinse, dry, and buff again, and it is ready for the coating box. _silver solution._ dissolve in quart of soft water, half a pound of _cyanide of potash_. in this dissolve the _chloride of silver_ procurable from a silver dollar. filter, through paper, or clean sponge, and it is ready for use, excepting that it will probably have to be reduced with water. it should be reduced till it works mellow, and free from streaks. the occasional addition of a lump of cyanide will prevent a flowery deposite of oxyde of silver. occasionally, also, add a little chloride of silver, and more cyanide. the cyanide should always be in excess. the reason why this should be occasionally added, is that the solution becomes too strong, with the silver, from the annode. the connections must be kept bright, with a file or otherwise. the manner of charging the above battery is as follows: nearly fill the porous cup with water, and stir in about a tea-spoonful of sulphuric acid. two or three drops of acid added once a week is enough. the copper cup should be filled with a saturated solution of sulphate of copper, (blue vitriol,) and the solution kept saturated by suspending in it a little sack of the blue vitriol. [hand] the zinc cylinder, previous to use, should be amalgamated, as follows: place it in a plate, and brighten it by rubbing it with a swab, wet with dilute sulphuric acid. then with the same swab, rub on mercury, until the whole surface is bright. chloride of silver. dissolve a silver dollar in about a gill of a mixture of nitric acid and water, equal parts, by the aid of a gentle heat. let it cool. throw it into an earthen or glass vessel, containing about quart of strong salt water. let the precipitate settle. pour away the liquid, add a large quantity of water, let the chloride of silver settle, pour away the water, and repeat this at least fifty times. the residue is pure chloride of silver. any glass or earthen cup, of suitable shape and dimensions, will answer for a solution dish. it should be remembered that a strong battery, and a strong solution require the plate to be kept at a greater distance from the annode. this distance will range from one to three inches.--_hill's treatise._ * * * * * =answers to correspondents.= notice.--those persons subscribing for this journal will please bear in mind to write in a plain hand the name, town, county, and state. by observing the above you will save us much trouble, and, at the same time, receive the journal with more promptness. g. k. w., mass.--we have been unable to prepare the chemicals you ordered. our arrangements are somewhat extensive in the department referred to. m. s. w., ala.--mr. w. says, "will you inform me, through your journal or otherwise, is iodine entirely lost when it combines with a few drops of a solution of potassa!" it is not. the following experiment will better illustrate:--put a few grains of iodine into a clean and dry florence flask, warm it gradually over a spirit lamp, and the iodine rises in a vapor of beautiful violet color. when cool, pour in "a few drops of a solution of potassa," the iodine disappears at once, and a solution of iodide of potassium is formed; this may be heated to redness without evolving any violet fumes, and yet it is certain that iodine is there, but not in a free but a combined state, and heat cannot expel it from combination with the potassium. let the flask cool a little, and add a few drops of sulphuric acid; the violet fumes of iodine instantly appear; the sulphuric acid has induced the formation of sulphate of potassa, and expelled the iodine unchanged. f. b. b., ky.--your money is received, and the first vol. forwarded per order. thank you for your hearty congratulations. j. g. p. r. i.--yours of the th in hand. we advise you for the present to say nothing of your discovery: it probably has more valuable importance than you are at present aware of. * * * * * =advertisements= * * * * * =notice to advertisers.= as our advertising list is already large, and the demand rapidly increasing, we are under the necessity of requesting those who wish to be made known through our advertising columns, to make their advertisements as short as possible. the daguerreian journal is devoted to the interest of all. * * * * * =daguerreian library.= all of the works published on the daguerreian art, for sale at the office of the daguerreian journal. address (_post-paid_) s. d. humphrey, no. broadway, new york. * * * * * =daguerreotype work,= photographic researches and manipulations, including the author's former treatises on daguerreotypes, by l. l. hill. the above work is now ready, price $ per copy. orders addressed to s. d. humphrey, no. broadway, n. y. * * * * * =wanted.= a situation by an experienced operator. one who can come well recommended, and has been engaged in the daguerreotype business for the last eight years. has no objection to any city in the united states. for further information inquire at the office of the daguerreian journal. * * * * * =wanted.= to =daguerreotypists of philadelphia.= wanted--a situation, by an old and experienced operator, to engage in some establishment in the above named city. the advertiser can produce the best of testimonials, and satisfactory specimens of daguerreotypes. for further information, inquire at the office of the daguerreian journal. none need apply unless prepared to give a permanent situation to a good operator. * * * * * =scovill manufacturing co.,= =dealers in daguerreotype materials,= =wholesale and retail,= no. maiden lane, new york, agents for voightlander & sons, and c. c. harrison's celebrated cameras; harrison's, brinckerhoff's, and lewis' buffing-wheels. the scovill manufacturing co. are now prepared to offer to the public, cases of their own manufacture, which, for style, workmanship and superior finish, are not excelled by any in the market, and it is their intention to put them at prices which cannot fail to satisfy both the dealer and operator. they think it quite unnecessary to enumerate all the articles which they may have on hand for sale, but simply to state that they are prepared to furnish every description of daguerreotype goods of the best quality at low prices, and to fill all orders with promptness and dispatch. may _th_, . * * * * * =myron shew,= =dealer in daguerreotype apparatus and materials,= =wholesale and retail,= _no. chestnut street, philadelphia, pa._ german and american cameras of all sizes and of the best manufacture, coating boxes, camera stands, mercury baths, buffing vices, head rests, plates, cases, chemicals, frames, gold and gilt lockets, fancy book cases, papier-mache cases, preservers, mats, glass, and all articles used in the art constantly on hand in great variety at the lowest prices. mr. s. having had a number of years practical experience in the daguerreian art, feels confident that he is prepared to give satisfaction to his customers in the selection of articles used in the business. this being the only establishment in philadelphia devoted exclusively to daguerreotype materials. artists will find it to their interest to call at once where they are sure of finding every article used in the art. orders from the country promptly and faithfully attended to. * * * * * =wanted.=--a partner wanted in the daguerreotype business. any person who is a first-rate practical operator, and can command from five hundred to a thousand dollars, can now have one of the best opportunities of investing his capital in one of the best locations in a western city. the establishment is now doing a very profitable business, and is capable of increasing to such an extent as to warrant the success necessary to induce a partner. no one need apply unless he has the cash capital. for further information inquire at the office of the daguerreian journal. * * * * * =chemical, laboratory.= dr. antisell has removed his chemical laboratory to franklin st., where he is prepared to undertake chemical analysis and examinations into the purity of materials. dr. a. will also take charge of any series of experiments to elucidate particular subjects. assays, analyses of ores, minerals, soils, and mineral water, made with correctness and despatch. may , . * * * * * =$ reward.= a large sized (plate, by inches) daguerreotype has been recently stolen from my door, supposed to have been taken by some person about visiting europe. said daguerreotype was a large sized head, and is a likeness of myself. any person returning said picture, and the large gilt frame that contained it, shall receive the above reward. j. gurney, no. broadway, n. y. * * * * * =removal.= =myron shew,= =dealer in= =daguerreotype materials,= =no. chestnut street, philadelphia.= mr. shew would respectfully inform his friends and customers that he has removed his place of business from his old stand. no. , to chestnut street, two doors from his former place, where he has made a permanent location, and, having greater facilities, will be better able to meet the increasing demands of his business. no pains will be spared in the selection of articles used by daguerreian artists, and every effort used to give satisfaction to his customers. a good supply of all articles used in the business constantly on hand, comprising german and american cameras, of all sizes, camera stands, coating boxes, mercury baths, head rests, buffing vices, gilding stands, lamps, plates, cases, frames, gold and gilt lockets, a variety of fancy cases, &c., &c. mr. s. would take this opportunity of returning his sincere thanks for former patronage, and solicits a continuance of the same. all orders either from the city or country, promptly and faithfully attended to. myron shew. _philadelphia, june st, ._ * * * * * =daguerreotype.= =john sawyer,= successor to william shew, dealer in daguerreotype apparatus and materials, wholesale and retail. also, manufacturer of cases. no. washington street, boston, mass. * * * * * =louis becker= well known chemicals, for sale at becker & piards, no. broadway, n. y. * * * * * =cleveland daguerreotype stock= =depot,= =johnson & fellows,= =superior st., cleveland, o.,= keep a large and well selected assortment of daguerreotype goods on hand, and for sale at the lowest new york prices. we respectfully call the attention of operators to our assortment of goods, which we warrant genuine. every exertion will be made to keep the best, latest and cheapest goods on hand. our assortment consists of every variety of cameras, plates, cases, chemicals, polishing materials, apparatus, fixtures, frames, sockets, &c., &c. instructions in the art are carefully given. chas. e. johnson, parker fellows. * * * * * =new york= =daguerreotype= =stock establishment.= the undersigned would call the attention of daguerreotypists and the trade to the recent improvements in their manufacture of plates, which, by a new method of finishing, enables them to present an article possessing a finer and softer surface, and requiring much less polishing than formerly. the edges of all are neatly bent. owing to greater facilities in manufacturing, the prices have been reduced, so as to bring them at about the same cost as the best imported brands. they have constantly on hand a large assortment of plates, cases, frames, mattings, preservers, lockets, chemicals, and apparatus of every style and variety which they offer at the lowest prices. agents for voightlander's, harrison's and other cameras; harrison's new buffing wheel, &c., &c. scovill manufacturing co., no. maiden lane, new york. * * * * * =benjamin french,= _no. washington street, boston._ daguerreotype apparatus, plates, cases, frames, gold lockets, polishing materials, chemicals, and every description of goods used in the daguerreotype business, constancy on hand and for sale, at wholesale and retail, at the lowest cash prices. tf * * * * * =$ reward.= stolen from the door of clark brothers, broadway, one full size daguerreotype view, in papier mache frame, oval fire gilt mat. said view of a gothic cottage, on the steps of which can be seen a lady, two or three boys and a dog, any person returning the above described picture, or giving information where it may be found, shall receive the above reward oct . * * * * * =two new inventions= =in the daguerreotype art.= "peck's patent plate holder," and the "_bent edge daguerreotype plate_" used in connection with it. an instrument is sold for seventy-five cents, with which every operator can bend his own plates. the holder is a desideratum, and only requires to be used to be appreciated. it is so constructed that it will hold the plate through all the stages of cleaning, buffing, polishing, coating, taking the picture in the camera, and mercurializing without any change. during the whole process, the plate need not be touched with the fingers, and does away with the use of wax, &c., &c. the prices for the holders are mediums, $ --quarters, $ --halves, $ --whole size, $ . the "_magic back ground_." the discovery of this is due mr. c. j. anthony, of pittsburgh, pa. by this process the most beautiful effects can be produced, and the pictures are set forth in bold relief on back grounds of various shapes and tints. pictures taken with the "_magic back ground_," will be emphatically the "_pictures for the million_." the patent is applied for, and the right ratified upon the receipt of the patent, for the sum of twenty-five dollars. l. chapman, william st., n. y. manufacturer of cases, mats, preservers, plates, importer of the genuine star brand, no. french plates, and dealer in daguerreotype stock generally. * * * * * =clark brothers, & b. l. higgins.= daguerreian gallery, over the "regulator," franklin buildings, syracuse, n. y., no. genesee st., utica, tremont row boston, and broadway, new york. likenesses by the improved daguerreotype of various sizes, and of the most delicate executions may be obtained at the above rooms during the day, from a m., to p. m. chemicals, plate, cases, cameras, apparatus, and other materials, connected with the art, constantly on hand, and for sale at new york prices. all articles are selected with great care and warranted to give the best satisfaction. * * * * * =daguerreian establishment.= john roach, optician, nassau street, new york. has always on hand voightlander instruments, quarter, half, and whole size. american instruments, roach's make, warranted to be superior to any yet made in the united states. they work with sharpness, and quickness, and persons purchasing can test them with the high priced german instruments. coating boxes, flint glass jars, cemented in, and ground air tight. mercury baths, with thermometer scale in front. head rests, stands, cases, chemicals, &c. plates, french th of the star, and other first quality brands. bromine roach's triple compound, now called quick-stuff, works with certainty and quickness, in all weather, and pictures taken with it have a rich white tone. galvanic batteries, &c. * * * * * =cincinnati= =daguerreotype stock establishment.= the undersigned would call the attention of those washing daguerreotype goods, to his large and general assortment of all articles appertaining to the daguerreian arts. the following named articles comprise only a few, compared with the great variety of his stock. _cameras_--"_voightlander and sohn's_" german cameras. c. c. harrison's quarter, halves, wholes, mammoth, view, and quick working cameras! also a general assortment from other manufacturers. complete sets of apparatus--such as coating boxes, mercury baths, plate holders, buffs, buff wheel, peck's and scovill's patent blocks, lewis' new iron rests, iron and chair head rests, gilding stands. cases--papier-mache inlaid with mother of pearl, velvet in and out with clasps and locks, morocco lined with velvet, silk and satin, plain and gilt, also a great variety of fancy patterns. plates of all sizes--scovill's, french, th of the star, and other first quality brands. chemicals--american, german and french bromine, dry and chloride of iodine, hydroflouric acid, cyanide of potassium, pure distilled mercury, a superior article of chloride of gold for gilding, hyposulphite of gold, chloride of calcium, colors, rotten stone, rouge, an excellent article. lamps, nippers, glass funnels, glass graduates, prepared buckskins, brushes, &c., &c. all of the above articles are of the first quality, and will be furnished at reasonable rates. orders punctually attended to and satisfaction given. peter smith, no. fifth street, cincinnati, ohio. * * * * * =daguerreotype= =stock establishment.= the subscriber, would respectfully inform the daguerreian artists, that he has constantly on hand a large assortment of daguerreotype apparatus, plates, cases, and chemicals, comprising in part the following: voightlander & sons, harrison's, lewis and perry's cameras and other apparatus of the most approved styles. plates--scovill's, chapman's and the different brands of french plates. cases--silk and velvet lined, papier mache and a great variety of fancy cases. chemicals--american, german and french bromine, chloride of iodine, do gold, calcium, mercury, rouge, rotten stone, black polish, colours, brushes, rosewood and papier mache, frames, mats, glass preservers, prepared buck skin, &c., &c. every article used in the business, which i will furnish to operators at retail or wholesale, as low as the same quality of articles can be bought in new york or elsewhere. our motto is small profits and quick sales. n. e. sisson. no. broadway, albany n. y. tf * * * * * =levi chapman,= no. william street, new-york, manufacturer of, and dealer in daguerreotype stock. =daguerreotype cases.= medium size, from $ to $ per gross, quarter " " to " half " " to " mats, preservers and chemicals of all kinds. french and american plates. l. c. imports the genuine no. star brand french plate, which he keeps constantly on hand, together with an assortment of other kinds. papier mache cases, inlaid with mother of pearl, exceeding in beauty any thing of the kind heretofore made, from to $ per gross. l. c. is also proprietor of peck's patent moveable plate-holder. george dabbs, } travelling agents. james cremer, } * * * * * =premium daguerreotype depot and manufactory,= w. & w. h. lewis, chatham street, new york, keep constantly on hand, superior cameras of all sizes; also, _quick working_ cameras, fully equal to any imported. all kinds of apparatus, including our patent plate vices and gilding stands; galvanic batteries for electrotyping, for durability superior to all others. buffing lathes, on the most approved plan, plates, cases, chemicals, polishing materials of every description. all kinds of walnut, rosewood and gilt frames for daguerreotypes, outside show frames, diploma, certificate and picture frames made to order. pressing machines, for straw and leghorn plats, of improved construction. tf * * * * * =daguerreotype furbishing rooms.= =wm. a. wisong,= no. n. liberty street, baltimore, md. has constantly on hand, a full and general assortment of stock, for daguerreotype use. embracing every variety of cameras, plates, cases, fixtures, trays, chemicals, and materials used by daguerreian artists, all of which are offered at the lowest market rates. orders from artists are respectfully solicited and forwarded with dispatch. * * * * * =circular to daguerreotypists.= george dabbs & james cremer, travelling agents for l. chapman, william street, new york, manufacturer of daguerreotype cases, mats, preservers, and plates, and importer of the genuine star brand, no. , french plate, and last, though of first importance, proprietor of "peck's patent plate holder,"--the great desideratum which only requires to be used to be appreciated. prices, $ , for medium; $ , for quarters; $ , for halt's and $ , for whole size holders--a vice to hold the blocks $ , and an instrument for bending the plates cents. they would inform daguerreotypists and dealers that they will wait upon as many during the winter, as their time will permit, for the purpose of exhibiting the patent plate holder, for a description of which see advertisement headed "two new inventions". tf new york, november , . * * * * * =insley's daguerreotype gallery= removed to no. broadway, n. y. (_between stewart's and the city hospital._) this, our new sky-light gallery, is located on the second floor at the above number, and is universally acknowledged to be the most convenient and effective gallery in the city. every real improvement is taken advantage of, and, aided by scientific and gentlemanly assistants, we trust our pictures cannot be excelled. the clergy--the statesman--the artist--the man of science--and all lovers of really good daguerreotypes, throughout the united states, are invited lo call and examine our collection. p. s.--this gallery was for several years located on the corner of cedar street, but is now removed to no. broadway. * * * * * =cameras.= c. c. harrison, manufacturer of cameras, and camera lenses, of all sizes and of the latest improvements. office broadway, new york, where in his gallery may be seen specimens of daguerreotypes taken with instruments of his own manufacture, which for accuracy of performance are unsurpassed by any in the world. n. b. a new and improved camera for taking views, is manufactured by him, at a price unprecedentedly low. c. c. harrison, no. broadway, n. y. tf * * * * * =daguerreotype plates.= louis l. bishop's superior plates, offered for sale at a great bargain, by victor bishop, maiden lane. n. b. these plates are silvered by the electro-magnetic process, and warranted superior to the best french plates. tf * * * * * =engraving= the subscriber still continues to carry on the business of engraving on wood, in all its branches. his facilities are such that he is enabled to execute all orders promptly, and in every style of the art, upon the most reasonable terms; while the experience of many years enables him to feel confidence in his efforts to give satisfaction to all who may favor him with their patronage. _particular attention_ paid to the drawing and engraving of subjects from daguerreotypes. n. orr, no. fulton-st. n. y. tf * * * * * =book and job printing.= william s. dorr, nassau street, over ackerman & miller's sign and banner painting establishment, is prepared to print, in the best style, and at the usual low prices, books, periodicals, newspapers, pamphlets, bill heads, circulars, commercial and law blanks, bills of lading, bank checks, notices, labels, &c. cards printed on the celebrated yankee press. few offices in the city have greater facilities for doing work with neatness and despatch, as most of the materials are new, and long editions are done by steam power presses. [hand] daguerreian journal print. * * * * * =daguerreian artists' register.= appleby, r. b., arcade, rochester, n. y. anthony, j. b., poplar grove, s. c. adams, george, worcester, mass. brady, matthew b., no. broadway, n. y. burges, nathan g., no. broadway, new york. baker, f. s., baltimore, md. broadbent, samuel, chestnut st. philadelphia. barnes, c., mobile, ala. bowmau, isrial, berling, canada. benson, w., boonville, mo. bailey, thomas, ives, columbia, maury co., tenn. bartlet, no. ½ main street, boston, mass. bogardus, a., no. greenwich street, n. y. brown, f. a., museum building, manchester, n. h. brown, h. s., milwaukie, wis. buxton, john, st. catharine street, montreal, canada. bradlee, j. e., boston, mass. buell, e. m., pittsfield, mass. bowman, j. a., berlin, waterloo county, canada west. bisbee, a., dayton, ohio. bowen, n. o., norwich, conn. beckers & piard, broadway. n. y. brown, james, broadway, n. y. campbell, b. f., corner hanover and union streets, boston, mass. collins, david, chesnut street, philadelphia, pa. cooley, o. h., springfield, mass. clark brothers, no. broadway, n. y., genesee street, utica, franklin building, syracuse, new york, and tremont row, boston, mass. cook, george s., charleston, s. c. coombs, f., san francisco, cal. cary, p. m., savannah, ga. chuchill, r. e., , state street, albany, n. y. chase, l. g., boston, mass. dodge, e. s., augusta, ga. davie, d. d. t., utica, n. y. dobyns, t. j., new orleans, la., and louisville, ky. done, t. c., no. , place d'armes, montreal, canada. durang. w. h., no. broadway, n. y. ellicott, e., main street, chester c. h., s. c. evans, o. b., main street, buffalo, new york. evens, chas., no. market street, philadelphia, pa. ennis, t. j., chestnut street, philadelphia, pa. finley, m., canandaigua, ontario co., n. y. finley, a. c., jerseyville, ill. fitzgibbon, j. h., st. louis, mo. faris, thomas, corner fourth and walnut street cincinnati, ohio. gurney, jeremiah, no. broadway. n. y. gavit, daniel e., broadway, n. y. gay, c. h., new london, ct. geer & benedict, syracuse, n. y. gatewood, e. h., boonville, mo. holcomb, j. g., augusta, me. howell, w. b., lexington, mo. hill, r. h., kingston, ulster co., n. y. haas, philip, no, broadway, n. y. hall, w. h., rouse's point, clinton co., n. y. harrison. c. c., broadway, n. y. hill, l. l., westkill, green co., n. y. hale, j. w., newark, n. j. hough & anthony, pittsburg, alleghany co., pa. hale, l. h., washington street, boston, mass. hawkins, e. c., corner of fifth and walnut street, cincinnati, ohio. insley, henry e, broadway, n. y. ives, l. m., no. washington street, boston, mass. johnson, charles e., cleveland, ohio. jacobs, e., camp st, new orleans, la. johnston, d. b., utica, n. y. johnson, george h., sacramento, cal. kelsey, c. c., chicago, ill. knight, w. m. racine, wis. lawrence, martin m., no. broadway, n. y. lewis, w. and w. h., no. chatham street, new york. litch & graniss, waterbury, ct. long, h. h., st. louis, mo. long, e., st. louis, mo. l'homdieu, charles, charleston, s. c. martin, j. e., detroit, mich. marks, h. r., baltimore street, baltimore, md. mayall, j. e., no. west strand, london, england. merrick, dr. g. w., adrian, mich. moissenet, f., new orleans, la. moulthroup, m., new haven, ct. manchester & brother, providence, and newport, r. i. mcdonald, d., main street, buffalo, new york. miles, chas. t., fayette, jefferson co., miss. mcclees & germon, philadelphia, pa. m'intyre, s. c., san francisco. california. morand, a., chatham street, n. y. naramore, william, bridgeport, conn. nichols, john p., no. court street, boston, mass. ormsbee & silsbee, no. washington street, mass. owen, n., goshen, n. y. prosch, g. w., newark, n. j. peck, samuel, new haven, ct. powelson & co., broadway, n. y. prod'homme, j. f., broadway, n. y. reynolds, g. l., lexington, va. rice, s. n., canal street, n. y. root, m. a. & s., no. broadway, new york, and chesnut street, philadelphia, pa. ritten, e. d., dunburry, conn. swift, h. b., market st, philadelphia, pa. sawyer, jo., boston, mass. stansbury, b., brooklyn, l. i. stamm & upman, milwaukee, wis. sissons, n. e., no. broadway, albany, n. y. shorb, j. r., winnsboro, s. c. shew, myron, chestnut street, philadelphia, pa. thompson, s. j., no. state street, albany, new york. terry, arther, lima, peru. tomlinson, william a., troy, new york. van alsten, a., worcester, mass. vail, j. h., new brunswick, n. j. van loan & co., chestnut street, philadelphia, pa. westcott, c. p., watertown, jefferson co., n. y. wood, r. l., macon, ga. whipple, john a., washington street, boston, mass. whitehurst, j. h., new york, richmond, norfolk, petersburg, and lynchbury, va., baltimore, md., and washington city, d. c. wells, j. d., no. , pleasant street, northampton, mass. walker, s. l., broadway, albany and poughkeepsie, n. y. warren, geo. k., merrimack st., lowell, mass. walker & horton, newburgh, n. y. wentworth. henry, fort plain, montgomery co., n. y. williams, j. a., washington square, newport, r. i. williams, j. b., philadelphia, pa. * * * * * =the daguerreian journal,= =devoted to the daguerreian and photogenic arts,= _also, embracing the sciences, arts and literature_. the daguerreian journal is published semi-monthly, at broadway, on the st and th of every month. =business department.= terms--_three dollars_ a year; in advance. =inducements for clubbing.= two copies of this journal will be furnished for one year for $ ; four do. for $ ; and ten do. for $ =advertising.= one square of lines or less, one insertion, $ do. do. " " " do. do. " " " half page, one insertion, one page, " " less than a half page, a year, per line, half page, per year, one page, " register of daguerreian artists, not exceeding two lines, $ per year. it is particularly requested that all addressing letters to us, would put on the state, as well as the town in which they live. subscribers are authorised and requested to send bank notes or change by mail, at our risk, provided it is done in the presence of the post master, and the letters are franked. all communications and remittances intended for this journal, in order to secure attention should be post paid. daguerreian artists that are travelling in the country, can have this journal sent to any place where they may be, provided they give us notice, and the post office changed from. [hand] all letters should be addressed (post paid) to s. d. humphrey publisher, broadway, new york. * * * * * =gurney's daguerreian gallery.= _ broadway, n. y.,_ has been known for years as one of the first establishments of the kind in the country, and the oldest in this city. mr. g. attends personally to the operating department, and having a superior arrangement of light, as well also as every other ability; and from his long experience in the art, he is at all times enabled to give perfect satisfaction to all who wish a good likeness. his collection of large size pictures of distinguished persons, are universally pronounced superior to any heretofore taken in this country. ladies and gentlemen are respectfully invited to examine them: broadway, directly opposite john street. _copies of a superior daguerreotype of_ jenny lind _for sale_. * * * * * =james brown's= daguerreotype miniature gallery. _ broadway: rear stairs._ the undersigned, for four years the principal operator of m. b. brady, has the honor to announce to his friends, and the fashionable circle, that his rooms are now open at the above no., for the transaction of business, where he will be pleased to see his friends and the public generally; and hopes to receive a portion of that patronage so liberally extended to him while principal at brady's. he will also take the liberty of mentioning, to those unacquainted with the fact, that the pictures which have received the different premiums for mr. brady, were taken, colored, and arranged, with the assistance of mr. hays, who is still with him, entirely by himself. particular attention is called to the very superior coloring tone and finish of the impressions from this establishment, which, through an incessant study of seven years, the subscriber feels conscious in asserting can always be relied on, as he attends personally to his sitters. pictures taken in any weather, in any desired style, and his charges being extremely moderate, he hopes to suit all classes. james brown, _member of the society for the promotion of painting in water colors, and for ten years a student in the national academy of design._ * * * * * =dobyns & co.= dealers in all kinds of daguerreotype stock, plates, chemicals, and apparatus. no. & camp street, new orleans, la.; no. front row, memphis, tenn.; no. main street, louisville, ky. * * * * * =insley's daguerreotypes.= haying had the honor, in the early part of , to establish one of the three galleries first opened to the public, in this city or the world, viz: by mr. wolcott, professors morse & draper, and insley and prosch, the undersigned flatters himself that his prolonged experience will enable him to give entire satisfaction to those who desire likenesses by this charming process. insley, broadway, n. y. * * * * * =m. a. & s. roots daguerreian rooms.= corner of broadway and franklin street, new york. m. a. & s. root, celebrated for years as daguerreian artists in philadelphia, have opened a magnificently furnished suite of rooms, in the most fashionable part of the city, (no. broadway, corner of franklin street,) where, having an admirably arranged light, they flatter themselves that they will be able to furnish daguerreotype likenesses, equal in finish, accuracy and effect, to anything of the kind in the world. they have received six medals from the various fairs and institutes of our country; also the two highest medals at the fair of in new york and philadelphia, for the best specimens of daguerreotypes ever exhibited. the public are respectfully invited to visit their rooms and examine their gallery of likenesses of the most distinguished people. gallery free. * * * * * =myron shew,= dealer in daguerreotype apparatus and materials, wholesale and retail, chestnut street, philadelphia. * * * * * =a. morand= daguerreian artist, chatham street, n. y. * * * * * =j. w. thompson's= daguerreian gallery and depot of daguerreian materials of all kinds, instruments, apparatus, and everything belonging to the art, for sale at low prices. every operator knows the advantage of buying his stock (especially plates and chemicals) of a person who not only sells stock, but is also a practical daguerreotypist. broadway, n. y. * * * * * =postage on the daguerreian journal= there has been a few instances where postmasters have charged pamphlet postage on this journal. we say the daguerreian journal is "subject to newspaper postage only," because that is all that can legally be charged on it. a newspaper must be published as often as "once a month," and contain intelligence of passing events. this publication is semi-monthly, and contains, a general summary of "passing events." the law says it may contain two sheets, if the two together do not exceed , square inches. this journal contains less than , square inches. these sheets may be folded in any shape, or printed on paper of any color. the following is an extract from the act of congress for regulating postage. "a newspaper is defined to be any printed publication issued in numbers, and published at stated intervals of not more than a month, conveying intelligence of passing events. it generally consists of a sheet, but may be composed of two sheets of paper. in such case, it is chargeable with newspaper postage only; provided that the sheets in the aggregate do not exceed , square inches. "a pamphlet is a small, unbound, printed book." * * * * * =lawrence scientific school,= harvard university =cambridge, mass.= special students attend daily from nine o'clock, a. m., till five o'clock, p. m., in the laboratories, and under the direction of the following professors: louis agassiz, l. l. d., professor of geology and zoology; jeffries wyman, m. d., professor of comparative anatomy and physiology; henry l. eustis, a. m., professor of engineering; eben norton horsford, a. m., professor of chemistry. instruction is also given by professor peirce, in mathematics; professor lovering, in physics; and the messrs bond, at the astronomical observatory. all lectures delivered to under-graduates of the college, are free to members of the scientific school. for further information apply to e. n. horsford, dean of the faculty. * * * * * =daguerreotype.= the undersigned would call the attention of daguerreotypists and the trade to the recent improvements in their manufacture of plates, which, by a new method of finishing, enables them to present an article possessing a finer and softer surface, and requiring much less polishing than formerly. the edges of all are neatly bent. owing to greater facilities in manufacturing, the prices have been reduced, so as to bring them at about the same cost as the best imported brands. they have constantly on hand a large assortment of plates, cases, frames, mattings, preservers, lockets, chemicals, and apparatus of every style and variety which they offer at the lowest prices. agents for voightlander's, harrison's and other cameras; harrison's new buffing wheel, &c., &c. scovill manufacturing co., no. maiden lane, new york. * * * * * =cincinnati= daguerreotype stock establishment. the undersigned would call the attention of those wishing daguerreotype goods, to his large and general assortment of all articles appertaining to the daguerreian arts. the following named articles comprise only a few, compared with the great variety of his stock. _cameras_--"_voightlander and sohn's_" german cameras. c. c. harrison's quarter, halves, wholes, mammoth, view, and quick working cameras. also a general assortment from other manufacturers. complete sets of apparatus--such as coating boxes, mercury baths, plate holders, buffs, buff wheel, peck's and scovill's patent blocks, lewis' new iron rests, iron and chair head rests, gilding stands. cases--papier-mache inlaid with mother of pearl, velvet in and out with clasps and locks, morocco lined with velvet, silk and satin, plain and gilt, also a great variety of fancy patterns. plates of all sizes--scovill's, french, th of the star, and other first quality brands. chemicals--american, german and french bromine, dry and chloride of iodine, hydroflouric acid, cyanide of potassium, pure distilled mercury, a superior article of chloride of gold for gilding, hyposulphite of gold, chloride of calcium, colors, rotten stone, rouge, an excellent article. lamps, nippers, glass funnels, glass graduates, prepared buckskins, brushes, &c., &c. all of the above articles are of the first quality, and will be furnished at reasonable rates. orders punctually attended to and satisfaction given. peter smith, no. fifth street, cincinnati, ohio. * * * * * =myron shew,= dealer in daguerreotype apparatus and materials, wholesale and retail, no. chestnut street, philadelphia, pa. german and american cameras of all sizes and of the best manufacture, coating boxes, camera stands, mercury baths, buffing vices, head rests, plates, cases, chemicals, frames, gold and gilt lockets, fancy book cases, papier-mache cases, preservers, mats, glass, and all articles used in the art constantly on hand in great variety at the lowest prices. mr. s. having had a number of years practical experience in the daguerreian art, feels confident that he is prepared to give satisfaction to his customers in the selection of articles used in the business. this being the only establishment in philadelphia devoted exclusively to daguerreotype materials, artists will find it to their interest to call at once where they are sure of finding every article used in the art. orders from the country promptly and faithfully attended to. * * * * * transcriber note minor typos have been corrected. images moved to prevent splitting paragraphs. various formats were used to display pricing these were not standardized. the listing of registered users was left in the order published. illustrations of a right pointing hand for advertisements is denoted as [hand]. provided on the internet archive. all resultant materials are placed in the public domain. transcriber note: text emphasis denoted as _italics_ and =bold=. published semi-monthly, at $ per annum, in advance. the daguerreian journal: devoted to the daguerrian and photogenic arts. also, embracing the sciences, arts, and literature. [illustration] vol. i. march , . no. . new-york: s. d. humphrey, editor and publisher, no. broadway. subject to newspaper postage.--see d page cover. contents. etching daguerreotype plates, by w. r. grove valuable receipt painting--its origin and history, by wm. walcott bromine nitrate of silver decomposed by the current of a galvanic battery potassium-cyanide or simple cyanuret of potassium stereo-chromic painting water--spring, river and lake isinglass papier-mache chloride of calcium muriate of ammonia bromide of silver native bromide of silver and analysis hillotypes communication, by l. l. hill removal our daguerreotypes--polishing machine--gurney-- thompson--mcbride--weston--morand correspondence--jas. bennett sykes--w. s. gear ammonia an army of subscribers strange announcement examples of the divisibility of matter iron--its natural and artificial combination with carbon new weigh-lock at albany daguerreotyping in london quick stuffs--six receipts money received answers to correspondents notice of new publication advertisements artists' register william s. dorr, printer, nassau-st., new york. * * * * * the daguerreian journal. vol. i. new york, march , . no. . * * * * * etching daguerreotype plates. by w. r. grove. dr. berres of vienna was the first, i believe, who published a process for etching daguerreotypes; his method was to cover the plates with a solution of gum-arabic, and then to immerse them in nitric acid of a certain strength. i have not seen any plates thus prepared, but the few experiments which i have made with nitric acid, have given me a burred and imperfect outline; and i have experienced extreme difficulty of manipulation from the circumstance of the acid never attacking the plate uniformly and simultaneously. my object, however, in this communication, is not to find fault with a process which i have never perhaps fairly tried or seen tried by experienced hands, and the inventor of which deserves the gratitude of all interested in physical science; but to make public another which possesses the advantage of extreme simplicity, which any one, however unskilled in chemical manipulation, may practise with success, and which produces a perfect etching of the original image; so much so, that a plate thus etched can scarcely be distinguished from an actual daguerreotype, preserving all the microscopic delicacy of the finest parts of the impression. one sentence will convey the secret of this process; it is to make the daguerreotype the anode[a] of a voltaic combination, in a solution which will not of itself attack either silver or mercury, but of which, when electrolyzed, the anion will attack these metals unequally. this idea occurred to me soon after the publication of daguerre's process; but, being then in the country, and unable to procure any plates, i allowed the matter to sleep; and other occupations prevented for some time any recurrence to it. recently having heard much conversation as to the practicability or impracticability of daguerreotype engraving, i became anxious to try a few experiments in pursuance of my original notion; and for this purpose applied in several quarters for daguerreotypes; but, thanks to the exclusiveness of m. daguerre's patent, i found that to procure a sufficient number of plates for any reasonable chance of success, was quite out of the question. [a] strictly speaking, this is a misapplication of faraday's term; he applied it to the surface of the electrotype; as, however, all continental, and many english writers (among whom i may name whewell) have applied it to the positive electrode, and as an expression is most needed for that, i have not hesitated so to apply it. on mentioning the subject to mr. gassiot, he, with his usual energy and liberality, offered to procure me a sufficiency of daguerreotypes; and it is owing to his zealous and valuable coöperation that i have been able to get such definite results as appear worth publication. five points naturally present themselves to the consideration of the experimenter on this subject: first, the quantity of the voltaic current; secondly, its intensity; thirdly, the distance between the anode and cathode; fourthly, the time during which the process should be continued; and fifthly, the solution to be employed. st. with regard to the first element or quantity, many previous experiments had convinced me that, to give the maximum and most uniform quantitative[b] action of any voltaic combination, the electrodes should be of the same size as the generating plates; in other words, that the sectional area of the electrolyte should be the same throughout the whole voltaic circuit. it seems strange that this point should have been so generally overlooked as it has been; an electrician would never form a battery, one pair of plates of which were smaller than the rest; and yet the electrodes, which offering of themselves a resistance to the current, from the inoxidability of the anode, are, _a fortiori_, a restriction when of small size, have generally been formed indefinitely smaller than the gene, rating plates; i, therefore, without further experiment, applied this principle to the process about to be detailed. [b] i say the quantitative action; for where great intensity is required, as in decomposing alkalies, &c., it may be advisable to narrow the electrodes, so as to present a smaller surface for the reaction of the liberated elements. nd. _the intensity of the voltaic current._--here it appeared to me that, as in the electrotype, where the visible action is at the cathode, a certain degree of intensity throws down metal as a crystal, an increased intensity as a metallic plate, and a further intensity as a pulverulent mass; that degree of intensity which would show on the negative deposit the finest impressions from the cathode, would also produce on the anode the most delicate excavations, and consequently, an intensity which would just fall short of the point of evolving oxygen from the plate to be etched, would be the most likely to succeed; this point was not, however, adopted without careful experiment, the more so, as in one instance mr. gassiot succeeded in procuring a very fair etching with a series of ten pairs of the nitric acid battery; however, the results of repeated experiments, in which the intensity has been varied from a series of sixteen pairs to one of the nitric acid battery, were strongly in favor of the above idea, and, consequently, went to prove that one pair gives the most efficient degree of intensity for the purpose required. rd. _the distance between the plates._--as it was proved by de la rive, that in an electrolytic solution, when the electrodes are at a distance, the action extends a little beyond the parallel lines which would join the bounds of the electrodes, and thus, that the current as it were diverges and converges, it appeared advisable to approximate the electrodes as nearly as possible, so as to produce uniformity of action over the whole plate. provided a solution be used which does not evolve gas at the cathode, i am inclined to think that the plates may be with advantage indefinitely approximated; but as this was not the case with the solution i selected for the greater number of experiments, · of an inch was fixed on as the distance, in order that the gas evolved from the cathode should not adhere to the anode, and thus interfere with the action. th. _time of continuing the operation._--this was a matter only to be decided by experiment, and must vary for the voltaic combination and solution employed. with a single pair of the nitric acid battery, from twenty-five to thirty seconds, was after a great number of experiments, fixed on as the proper time; and as the plate may at any period be removed from the solution and examined, the first experiment should never exceed twenty-five seconds, when, if not complete, the plate may be again subjected to electrolysis. th. _the solution to be employed._--here a vast field was open, and still is open to future experimentalists. admitting the usual explanation of the daguerreotype, which supposes the light parts to be mercury, and the dark silver, the object was to procure a solution which would attack one of these, and leave the other untouched. if one could be found to attack the silver and not the mercury, so much the better, as this would give a positive engraving, or one with lights and shadows, as in nature, while the converse would give a negative one. unfortunately, silver and mercury are nearly allied in their electrical relations. i made several experiments with pure silver and mercury, used as the anode of a voltaic combination, but found that any solution which would act on one, acted also on the other. all then that could be expected, was a difference of action. with the daguerreotype plates i have used the following:-- dilute sulphuric acid, dilute hydrochloric acid, solution of sulphate of copper, of potash, and of acetate of lead. the object of using acetate of lead, was the following:--with this solution peroxide of lead is precipitated upon the anode; and, this substance being insoluble in nitric acid, it was hoped that the pure silver parts of the plate, being more closely invested with a stratum of peroxide than the mercurialized portions, these latter would, when immersed in this menstruum, be attacked, and thus furnish a negative etching. i was also not altogether without hopes of some curious effects, from the color of the thin films thus thrown down; here, however, i was disappointed; the colors succeeded each other as much as in the steel plate used for the metallochrome; but with inferior lustre. on immersion in nitric acid of different degrees of dilution, the plates were unequally attacked, and the etching burred and imperfect. of the other solutions, hydrochloric acid was, after many experiments, fixed on as decidedly the best; indeed, this i expected, from the strong affinity of chlorine for silver. i will now describe the manipulation which has been employed by mr. gassiot, and myself, in the laboratory of the london institution, with very uniform success. a wooden frame is prepared, having two grooves at · of an inch distance, into which can be slid the plate to be etched, and a plate of platinum of the same size. to ensure a ready and equable evolution of hydrogen, this latter is platinized after mr. smee's method; for, if the hydrogen adhere to any part of the cathode, the opposite portions of the anode are proportionably less acted on. the back and edges of the daguerreotype are varnished with a solution of shell-lac, which is scraped off one edge to admit of metallic connexion being established. the wooden frame with its two plates is now fitted into a vessel of glass of porcelain, filled with a solution of two measures hydrochloride acid, and one distilled water, (sp. gr. . ), and two stout platinum wires, proceeding from a single pair of the nitric acid battery, are made to touch the edges of the plates, while the assistant counts the time; this, as before stated, should not exceed thirty seconds. when the plate is removed from the acid, it should be well rinsed with distilled water; and will now (if the metal be homogeneous) present a beautiful sienna-colored drawing of the original design, produced by a film of the oxychloride formed;--it is then placed in an open dish containing a very weak solution of ammonia, and the surface gently rubbed with, very soft cotton, until all the deposit is dissolved; as soon as this is effected, it should be instantly removed, plunged into distilled water, and carefully dried. the process is now complete, and a perfect etching of the original design will be observed; this, when printed from, gives a positive picture, or one which has its lights and shadows as in nature; and which is, in this respect, more correct than the original daguerreotype as the sides are not inverted; printing can therefore be directly read, and in portraits thus taken, the right and left sides of the face are in their proper position. there is, however, _ex necessitate rei_, this difficulty, with respect to prints from daguerreotypes,--if the plates be etched to a depth sufficient to produce a very distinct impression, some of the finer lines of the original must inevitably run into each other, and thus the chief beauty of these exquisite images be destroyed. if, on the other hand, the process be only continued long enough to leave an exact etching of the original design, which can be done to the minutest perfection, the very cleaning of the plate by the printer destroys its beauty; and the molecules of the printing ink being larger than the depth of the etchings, an imperfect impression is produced. for this reason it appeared to me, that at present, the most important part of this process is the means it offers of multiplying indefinitely daguerreotypes, by means of the electrotype. an ordinary daguerreotype, it is known, will, when electrotyped, leave a faint impression; but in so doing it is entirely destroyed; and this impression cannot be perpetuated; but one thus etched at the voltaic anode, will admit of any number of copies being taken from it. to give an idea of the perfect accuracy of these, i may mention, that in one i have taken, on which is a sign-board measuring on the electrotype plate . by . of an inch, five lines of inscription can, with the microscope, be distinctly read. the great advantages of the voltaic over the chemical process of etching, appear to me to be the following:-- st. by the former, an indefinite variety of menstrua may be used; thus, solutions of acids, alkalies, salts, more especially the haloid class, sulphurets, cyanurets, in fact, any element which may be evolved by electrolysis, may be made to act upon the plate. nd. the action is generalized; and local voltaic currents are avoided. rd. the time of operation can be accurately determined; and any required depth of etching produced. th. the process can be stopped at any period, and again renewed if desirable. the time i have given is calculated for experiments made with one pair of the nitric acid battery; it is, however, by no means necessary that this be employed, as probably any other form of voltaic combination may be efficient. it would seem more advisable to employ a diaphragm battery, or one which produces a constant current, as otherwise the time cannot be accurately determined. it is very necessary that the silver of plates subjected to this process be homogeneous. striæ, imperceptible in the original daguerreotype, are instantly brought out by the action of the nascent anion; probably silver, formed by voltaic precipitation, would be found the most advantageous. i transmit with this paper some specimens of the prints of the etched plates, and of electrotypes taken from them; and in conclusion would call attention to the remarkable instance which these offer, of the effects of the imponderable upon the ponderable: thus, instead of a plate being inscribed, as "drawn by landseer, and engraved by cousins," it would be "drawn by light, and engraved by electricity!" * * * * * a valuable receipt, which every daguerreian should have in his memory, has been suggested from the fact that one of our fraternity lost his hand by an accidental cut, caused while fitting a likeness in a locket, by the points of copper cutting the palm of his hand, in such a manner as to render amputation necessary. _white of eggs is the best antidote against the poison of copper._ * * * * * for the daguerreian journal. painting--its origin and history. by william walcutt. there is no doubt of painting being coeval with written language, or it may be said, that the simple representation of figures, on tablets prepared for the purpose, were the first means used by men to record particular events, actions, and so forth, and may therefore be dated back farther than any written language; and, indeed, may be considered the foundation from which it sprung, it being not improbable, because it is so natural, that the very first dwellers on the earth may have recorded their young history by means of representations of corporeal objects. many will say that such rude delineations were not painting, but everything has its beginning. from these simple lines has the perfection of painting sprung, what artist does not remember the feeble attempts he made at representations when but a child; does he not remember them with pleasure, and did he not then, and does he not now, consider them, feeble as they were, paintings? the first efforts at delineation were painting, without regard to color, or without regard to their truth in delineation. the origin of what may now be called painting, as an art instructive or decorative, is altogether involved in obscurity--authorities differing widely on the subject. pliny dates its invention to a period antecedent to the siege of troy, and other writers after. the egyptians boasted of possessing the art six thousand years before the greeks, but this has always been doubted. they certainly practised painting at a very early period, and cambyses destroyed all the monuments of art he found in egypt, as much as was in his power, which is some argument in favor of the statement; and hence all such monuments as display specimens of the art, must be posterior to his invasion. the remains of egyptian painting, now extant, are but poor representations of the human, and other figures, showing a meagre advance in the art, being weakly and falsely drawn with no natural grouping or attempts at sentiment. the phoenicians were an early cultivated people, and have the credit of first inventing letters, and therefore may, by the best authority, lay claim to the invention of painting. king solomon, one thousand years before christ, held their ingenuity in such high regard, that he employed them as the master workmen in building his temple, and the scriptures describe the magnificence of the columns and their capitals, and the borders and cornishes and the doors, besides the great brazen sea, supported by twelve oxen. the coins also of this people, that have come down to us, show in design, and execution, a good condition in the arts. the scriptures abound in references to the arts. when jacob took away the daughter of laban, she stole and secreted from search some of her father's household gods. one of the great commandments, is that the children of israel shall "not make unto themselves any graven image, or any likeness of any thing that is in the heavens above, or in the earth beneath, or in the waters under the earth." as before mentioned, the temple of solomon appears to have been richly and elaborately decorated with works of art; and the iv chapter ezekiel commences with these words: "thou also son of man, take thee a tile, and lay it before thee, and portray upon it the city, even jerusalem." and in the xxiii chapter, verse, it is written thus: "for when she saw men portrayed on the wall, the images of the chaldeans portrayed with vermilion, girded with girdles about their loins, exceeding in dyed attire upon their heads." also in the vii chapter, verse: "so i went in and saw and beheld every form of creeping things, and abominable beasts, and all the idols of the house of israel, portrayed upon the wall round about." also in numbers xxxiii chapter and verse: "then he shall drive out all the inhabitants of the land from before you, and destroy all their pictures, and destroy all their molten images." the persians, the arabians, and the parthians, from their peculiar education, have no claims whatever to the art of painting, a rude representation of the human figure, with them, was considered as vulgar as the appearance of a naked person. their figures are almost invariably clothed in clumsy draperies, profusely painted. they were worshippers of fire, and used no representations of their deity; and it is a curious fact, that, in their successful invasion of egypt, they carried away with them no taste for the arts, or imbibed any of the religious principles of that polytheistic country. the art of painting appears to have remained in the same state in china, without any particular change from time immemorial. they have never attempted anything beyond mere imitation, and that entirely devoid of taste or truth. the human figure, with them, is a ludicrous deformity, and their perspective is gained, by piling one object above another, until the picture as all ground and no sky. invention and imagination were never known among them; and, although the elaborateness of many of their works is astonishing, yet with such a people, it would be useless to look for the origin and progress of art. the arts of the etruscans are famous for the vases they produced. etruria, in its ancient state, was one of the most powerful and civilized countries in italy. though the history of this nation is involved in obscurity, as the romans tried every means in their power to destroy all its claims to refinement, yet there are sufficient proofs remaining of the height and perfection to which they carried the fine arts. near the town of civita vecchia stood the ancient etruscan city of tarquinia, near which are found numbers of sepulchral grottoes, many of which are decorated with paintings and figures much in the style of those on the etruscan vases. some of the pictures represent combats, and others dances of females, executed with considerable spirit. the pottery before mentioned, however, affords the greatest number of their specimens of the art of design; the forms displayed in the contour of the vases, no less than the paintings with which they are decorated, show the wonderful attainment in elegance of design, purity of form, and ingenuity of delineation. the power over line, and the facility of execution they reached, may be easily conceived from the absorbent nature of the material upon which they wrought. no retouching was possible; but the whole must have been completely arranged in the mind of the artist before it could be struck off. pliny states, that in his day, the town of ardea, an ancient city of etruria, contained some paintings which he ascribes to a period anterior to the founding of rome, and mentions with surprise their then perfect state of preservation. at lacurium also, he describes some pictures of atalanta and helen, which were simply painted on the wall, and exhibited great merit in execution. these caligulo, after a fruitless attempt, failed in removing. cere, another etruscan city, boasted some paintings of an early date. all these specimens, although of remote date, have no positive clue by which to ascertain anything positive as to the origin of the art of painting. and we are obliged to turn to greece for the foundation from whence sprung works still the admiration of the world. religion was the motive of greek art; it was, therefore, natural that they should endeavor to invest their own authors, for they considered themselves of divine origin, with the most perfect forms; and as man possessed that exclusively, they completely and thoroughly studied the elements of his constitution. the climate was favorable to the development of that form, and the establishment of exercises by their civil and political institutions, created models in nature, which elevated greek art to the highest excellence. the next step of the art was the monogram, which is the outline of figures without light or shade, with the addition, however, of parts within the outline. from this the monochrom, or painting with a single color, and a white ground, then covered with punic wax, first amalgamated with a resinous pigment generally of a red, sometimes of a dark brown or black color, was the next advance. through this inky ground, the outlines were traced with a firm though plyant style, called a cestrum: the line could be altered by the finger or a sponge, and easily replaced by a new one. when the whole was settled, it was suffered to dry, and covered with a brown encaustic varnish; the lights were worked over again, and rendered more brilliant with a more delicate point, according to the gradual advance from mere outline to some indication; and at last to masses of light and shade--thence to the superinduction of different colors, or the invention of polychrom, which, by the addition of the pencil to the style, raised the stained drawing to a legitimate picture, and at length produced that vaunted harmony--"the magic scale of grecian color." the period at which the pencil supplanted the cestrum cannot be ascertained. apollodorus in the d olympiad, and zeuxis, in the th, are said to have used it with freedom and power. parrhasins painted the battle of the lapithtæ and centaurs on the shield of minerva for phidias, to enable mys to chase it. it was nearly a century after this that appelles and protogenes had a competition in drawing lines with the pencil, in which "delicacy and evanescent subtlety being the characteristic, some notion of their mechanical skill may be formed." encaustic painting was accomplished by using the colors in wax, as they are used now in oil, drying them by a fire, and polishing the surface by dry friction. polygnotus is the first great name that appears in history, that any satisfactory data of the arts may be commenced from. he lived about years b. c. so great was his success in the poecile at athens, and the desche, or public hall at delphi, that in a great council of the amphyctons, it was solemnly decreed "that his expenses, whenever he travelled in greece, should be borne at the public charge." his pictures were admired by pliny, at the distance of six hundred years. the first painting on record is the battle of magnete, by balarchus, and purchased by candaules, king of lydia, for its weight in gold, or, as some say, a quantity of gold coins equal to its surface. after aglaophon, phidias, panenus, colotes, and evenor, the father of parrhasins, came apollodorus, the athenian. this painter applied the essential principles of polygnotus to the delineation of the species, by investigating the leading forms that discriminate the different classes of human qualities and passions. the acuteness of his taste led him to discover, that, as all men were connected by one general form, so were they separated by some peculiar individuality. pliny and plutarch considered apollodorus as the first colorist of his age, and it is very probable, by their descriptions, that he was the inventor of local color and tone. zeuxis succeeded to apollodorus, and by uniting in one figure the most perfect parts of many models, produced an ideal form, which, in his opinion, constituted the supreme degree of human beauty. lucian describes a picture he exhibited at the olympic games as remarkable for its invention. it represented a female centaur, suckling her young. it was carried off from athens by sylla, but lost on the voyage to italy. parrhasins, a native of ephesus, but a citizen of athens, was the son of a disciple of evenor, and contemporary of zeuxis. by his subtle examination of outline, "he established that standard of divine and heroic form, which raised him to the authority of a legislator, from whose decisions there was no appeal." he was a thorough master of allegory, from the fact of his embodying by signs, universally understood, the athenian people. in a competition with timanthes, he had the mortification of being declared, by a majority of votes, inferior to him. the subject for competition, was the contest of ajax and ulysses for the arms of achilles. the sacrifice of iphigenia in aulis, by timanthes, acquired the greatest celebrity of all the ancient pictures. quintilian says that it was painted in contest with colotes of teos--an artist from the school of phidias, and crowned with victory at its rival exhibition. this picture, which has been the subject of unlimited praise by the ancient critics, has been in modern times objected to, from the circumstance of timanthes hiding the face of agamemnon, the father of the victim, to be immolated in his mantle, unable, as it was supposed by his art, to express the entire agony of his grief. sir joshua reynolds observes thus: "if difficulties overcome make a great part of the merit of art, difficulties evaded can deserve but little commendation." the french critic falconet, has also condemned the artifice. but fuseli answers these objections very reasonably by saying,--"the subject of timanthes was the immolation of sphigenia. sphigenia was the principal figure, and her form, her resignation, or her anguish, was the painter's principal task; the figure of agamemnon, however important, is merely accessary, and no more necessary to make the subject completely tragic, than that of dytemnestra, the mother--no more than that of priam, to impress us with sympathy at the death of polyxenia." again, "they ascribe to impotence what was the forbearance of judgment." timanthes felt like a father; he did not hide the face of agamemnon, because it was beyond the power of his art--not because it was beyond the possibility, but because it was beyond the dignity of expression--because the inspiring feature of paternal affection at that moment, and the action which of necessity must have accompanied it, would either have destroyed the grandeur of the character, and the solemnity of the scene, or subject the painter, with the majority of his judges, to the imputation of insensibility. the same expedient was resorted to by m. angelo, in the figure of abijam, and by raphael in the expulsion from paradise. these were the artists who formed the second school of art, and established its end and limits. on it was founded the third period of style, in which refinement induced a grace and beauty not to be surpassed. the masters of this period were--appelles, protogenes, aristides, euphranor, pausius, and the pupils of pamphilius, and his master eupompus. the last named artist was of sicyon; and his authority was so great, that out of the asiatic and grecian chords of painting he formed a third, by dividing the last into the attic and sicyonian. pliny says that, when consulted by zysippus on a standard of imitation in art, he pointed to the crowd passing by--observing that nature, not an artist, should be the object of imitation. pamphilius, a macedonian, the master of appelles, adopted the doctrines of eupompus. to the art of painting, he joined the study of mathematics, and held, that, without the aid of geometry, no artist could arrive at any perfection. in appelles, we are told by pliny, unrivalled excellence was found. grace was his powerful and peculiar faculty, in which he surpassed all his predecessors. his venus anadyomene, which was long after purchased by augustus for one hundred talents, or £ , sterling, was esteemed the most faultless creation of the grecian pencil, the most perfect example of that simple yet unapproachable grace of expression, of symmetry of form, and exquisite finish, in which may be summed up the distinctive beauties of his genius. hotogenes was next to him in merit. the most celebrated of his works was his figure of jalysus, with his dog, which occupied him seven years. aristides, of theles, and cotemporary of appelles, was the first, who, by the rules of art, obtained a perfect knowledge of expressing the passions and affections of the mind. in one figure, he expressed the anguish of maternal affection, and the pangs of death. euphranor, the isthmian, and pupil of aristides, is said to have carried this refinement of expression still further. skilled in sculpture, as well as in painting, his conceptions were noble and elevated; his style masculine and bold; and he was the first who distinguished himself, by imparting majesty to his heroes. asclepiodorus, the athenian sculptor, as well as painter, was as the latter, celebrated for the beauties of a correct style, and the truth of his proportions. appelles allowed himself to be, in these respects, as much his inferior to this artist as he was to amphion on the good ordering and disposition of his figures. about this period appeared nichomachus, nichophanes, pyreicas and others. nichias, an athenian, b. c., was in great repute for the great variety and noble choice of his subjects, for the mode of distributing his lights and shadows, and for great skill in the representation of animals. in rome, b. c., fabius, a noble roman, painted the temple of health, and gloried so much in the art, that he assumed the name of pictor. without a further enumeration of masters, for a long period after the reigns of vespasian and his son titus, painting, as well as sculpture, continued to flourish in italy. even under their successors domitian, nerva and trojan, they met with as much encouragement as they did in the most palmy days of greece, although painting was used in mere ornamental decorations--that is, to a great extent, and artists had sunk, for the most part, to the standard of mere mechanics. under adrian, antonine, alexander severns, constantine, and valentinian, the art of painting continued to be an object of interest; but at length, in the reign of phocus, with the fall of the empire, with the rest of the noble arts and sciences, it was involved in the common heap of ruins. (to be continued.) * * * * * bromine. we give the folk wing interesting combination and experiments with bromine, as found in hill's treatise:-- "discovered in , by m. balard, a young chemist of montpellier, france. he named it _muride_, because obtained from the sea; but it acquired its present name from a greek word, signifying _rank_, or _dead odor_." it exists in nature in very small quantities. it is found in the waters of every sea which has been tested for it: it is also found in many mineral and salt springs. we have not been able to determine to whom belongs the honor of discovering its use as an accelerator in daguerreotype. having corresponded with prof. morse, (who was certainly one of the first who took portraits by the daguerreian process,) dr. draper, and others, to whom this honor has been awarded, they refuse to claim it. prof. silliman, who is supposed to know everything relating to science, writes to me that he does not know this. i am quite inclined to place the wreath on the brow of the inventor of the magnetic telegraph. process.--when common salt is prepared from sea-water by evaporation and crystallization, a liquid remains which goes under the name of _bittern_. this liquid on passing chlorine through it, is tinged with a deep yellow color. the liquid is now distilled, and the vapor passed over a substance, (muriate of lime), which has a powerful attraction for water. a small quantity of bromine is thus obtained.--another method is to agitate the chlorinated bittern with a portion of sulphuric ether. the ether dissolves the bromine, from which it receives a beautiful red tint, and on standing, rises to the surface. agitate this solution with caustic potash, and the bromide of potassium and bromate of potassa will be formed. evaporate the liquor and the bromide of potassium will be left from which bromine may be distilled. properties.--at common temperatures, it rapidly volatilizes, giving red vapors of a most disagreeable smell. its color, when held between the eye and the light is a deep hyacinth red. like oxygen, chlorine, and iodine, it is a non-conductor of electricity, and a negative electric. it boils at · °, and congeals at fahr. into a brittle solid. it is a powerful poison; even its vapor would no doubt prove fatal, if inhaled in large quantities. a single drop placed in the beak of a bird destroys it instantly. operators cannot be too cautious in using it. a very small drop spattered in the eye would destroy the sight. bromine is very corrosive. a lighted taper burns for a few moments in its vapor, with a flame green at its base, and red at the top, and is then extinguished. it is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether; the latter is the best solvent. with water at ° fahr., if forms a _hydrate_, in crystals of a fine red color. it gives to a solution of starch an orange color. chlorine will displace it from all its combinations with hydrogen. chloride of bromine.--formed by transmitting a current of chlorine through bromine, and condensing the disengaged vapors by a freezing mixture. the factitious article is more simply formed, and is equally good as an accelerator, but not as quick. see page , part i. m. bissou, a frenchman, found that the real chloride of bromine is so sensitive, that daguerreotype proofs are taken by it in half a second. he succeeded in taking persons and animals in the act of walking. bromic acid may be obtained by pouring sulphuric acid upon a dilute solution of bromide of baryta, and evaporating. no interest. bromide of baryta.--boil of protobromide of iron with moist carbonate of baryta; carefully evaporate and it will crystallize in white rhombic prisms, which have a bitter taste, are slightly deliquescent, and soluble in water and alcohol. bromide of carbon.--formed by mixing one part of periodide of carbon with two of bromine. two compounds are formed, the _bromide of carbon_, and the _sub-bromide of iodine_; the latter is removed by a solution of caustic potassa. it is liquid at common temperatures, but crystallizes at ° fahr.; sweet to the taste, and of a penetrating ethereal odor; distinguished from the protiodide by the vapor which it emits on being heated. the _periodide of carbon_ is made by mixing an alcoholic solution of pure potash and of iodine. it forms crystals of a pearly lustre, sweet to the taste, and of a saffron odor. the _protiodide_ is formed by distilling a mixture of the preceding compound with corrosive sublimate. sweet in taste, and of a penetrating ethereal odor. bromide of magnesium.--dissolve magnesia in hydrobromic acid. it will crystallize in small acicular crystals, of a sharp taste, very deliquescent and soluble. bromide of sulphur.--pour bromine on sublimed sulphur. there is formed an oily liquid of a reddish tint. bromide of phosphorus, is formed by bringing phosphorus and bromine into contact in a jar filled with carbonic acid gas. vaporizes by heat, and is decomposed by water. bromide of silicon, is prepared by burning silicon in the vapor of bromine. a very dense, colorless liquid, emitting dense fumes. we have used this article as an accelerator, and it produces a beautiful but singular picture. it works quick, but possesses no particular advantage. bromide of zinc.--prepared by digesting a solution of bromine with zinc filings. the iodide is formed in a similar manner. no interest. hydrobromic acid.--mix the vapor of bromine with about an equal bulk of hydrogen gas, and introduce a coil of red-hot platinum wire. red-hot iron answers equally well. the combination takes place slowly without explosion. or, it may be formed by placing a small piece of phosphorus in a glass tube filled with water, and dropping it upon a little bromine. the hydrobromic acid passes over in the form of a gas, and may be passed through water, which will absorb it. _hydriodic acid_ is formed in the same way, using iodine in place of the bromine. hydrobromic acid is decomposed instantly by chlorine and nitric acid. the french and german bromine is generally considered the best; but the american manufacture is by no means to be rejected, as it is frequently very excellent. bromine is sometimes adulterated with naphtha. * * * * * nitrate of silver. decomposed by the current of a galvanic battery. mr. matteucci has observed that the black deposit obtained on the cathode, in the electrolysis of this salt, instantaneously becomes white when the current ceases; that it does not occur except when the solution is weak, because from strong solutions, crystalline silver is at once deposited; that if a portion of the deposit, after it has became white, be suspended between the electrodes while the current passes, those portions towards the anode again become _black_, if the experiment is made in a solution of the nitrate, but not if in mere acid water; it will, however, occur if a mere drop of nitrate is added to the solution, if a plate of a glass is interposed between the electrodes, the phenomenon does not occur; this is attributed to the great reduction of intensity. it is suggested "that the black deposit is formed, of oxide of silver, which is preserved by the passage of the current, and which, when the current ceases, passes immediately to the metallic condition." * * * * * oxide of silver. place pieces of silver in a glass vessel,, and pour on them about equal parts of water and strong nitric acid; the metal will soon dissolve, giving off fumes of nitric oxide. should the solution have a green hue, which is invariably the case, unless the metal has been obtained fine from the refiners, it indicates the presence of copper, in which case immerse some pieces of copper in the solution, and the nitric acid, by elective affinity, will combine with the copper; and a precipitate of pure silver, in the form of grayish powder, will take place. throw away the liquid and wash the silver precipitate several times in sulphuric acid and water, and afterwards in water alone. then re-dissolve it as before, in nitric acid and water; and a _solution of pure nitrate of silver_ will be obtained. place this in an evaporating dish, or a saucer, and apply the heat of a spirit-lamp, or place the saucer by the fire-side, till some portion of the liquid is driven off in vapor. allow the residue to cool, and it will shoot out into long colorless transparent crystals, which are _nitrate of silver_. they must be handled with care, as they possess the property of staining animal and vegetable substances with an almost indelible black;--fused nitrate of silver being the lunar caustic of surgery, and the main ingredient of marking-ink. next prepare some _lime-water_, by stirring lime into water and filtering the solution. as lime is very sparingly soluble in water, requiring, at ° fahrenheit, times its weight, it is necessary to make an abundant supply. place the lime-water in a glass or other vessel, and drop in it a few crystals of nitrate of silver; the colorless solution will instantly assume an unsightly brown hue; and, after remaining quiescent for a time, the _oxide of silver_ will subside in the form of a dark brown precipitate. the liquid is then poured off, and the precipitate is washed with water. before throwing away the liquid, fresh lime-water should be added to it; and if the dark hue recurs, the precipitate must be allowed to subside again; if no change takes place, it may be inferred that the silver is all extracted. the oxide of silver should not be dried, but be kept in bottles with water. * * * * * potassium. cyanide or simple cyanuret of potassium. before entering into the preparation of this ingredient, i may mention that the _prussiate of potash_ of commerce has, by many young experimentalists, been mistaken for the above article, because it is often sold, by those unacquainted with chemical technicalities, under the name of _cyanuret of potassium_. it is, in chemical parlance, termed _ferro-cyanuret_, from its containing a certain portion of iron; and differs in its properties, very materially, from the _simple_ salt. it is of a bright yellow color, and is converted into the colorless, simple cyanuret in the following manner: take ounces of the yellow prussiate, break it in small pieces, and well dry it on a plate of iron; then reduce it in a mortar to exceedingly fine powder. dry and pound in like manner one and a-half oz. of carbonate of potash. incorporate the two ingredients thoroughly. place a hessian crucible in the fire; and when it attains a red heat, throw into it the prepared mixture, and closely cover the crucible. keep up the heat, and the contents of the crucible will soon fuse; and the fluid mass will become red-hot. after this, immerse in it, from time to time, a hot glass rod; the mass which adheres, is in the early stages of the process brown on cooling; as the heat is continued, it appears yellowish, and finally, colorless and transparent. the operation is then complete: the crucible must be removed; and after its contents have been allowed to settle, the fused mass may be poured off; the greater portion of which consists of the _simple cyanuret of potassium_. this salt is very deliquescent, and must therefore be retained in close bottles: it will readily be recognized by its powerful odor,--that noticed in peach blossoms. the mere mention of prussic acid entering largely into its composition, will be sufficient to induce my reader to exercise common caution in handling it. having these ingredients prepared, take one pint of pure rain or distilled water; add to it two ounces of the cyanuret of potassium, shake them together occasionally, until the latter is entirely dissolved; and allow the liquid to become clear. then add a quarter of an ounce of oxide of silver, which will very speedily dissolve; the dissolution may be hastened by heat, and after a short time, a clear transparent solution will be obtained.--_walker._ * * * * * stereo-chromic painting. a new mode of fresco painting, called _stereo-chromie_, which has for a long time excited attention among the artists of germany, has it appears been perfected by a pupil of kaulbach, in his own studio in munich. the design is kaulbach's, and the work was executed under his superintendence. it represents the figure and character of a prophet, and will be sent to the london exhibition. 'the figure, grand and majestic as it really is, cannot be expected to convey to the english public anything but a faint idea of the genius and skill of kaulbach,' but as a specimen of this new and wonderful mode of painting, it will be regarded, by artists, with the greatest curiosity. _stereo-chromie_ was discovered by _obergrath von fuchs_, a distinguished chemist; and is considered by german artists as one of the greatest discoveries of the age. they claim for it great advantage over ordinary fresco and encaustic painting, in its superior durability and the power which it affords the artist of retouching and glazing his picture. the colors are mixed with water, the whole being permanently fixed by occasional sprinklings of water, in which a certain proportion of fluoric-acid (_flassspath saurs_) is mixed. _stereo-chromie_ is in fact a preserver of the wall on which it is painted, by a certain chemical action of the solution sprinkled over the picture, while in progress, the whole ground on which it is placed, and the picture itself becomes one hard flinty mass, the very colors of which are converted into the hardest stone. this singular species of painting resists, it is said, every influence of climate; and may be securely used as an external coating for buildings in any part of the globe. neither is the artist confined to any particular time in executing it, leaving off when he pleases and for any length of time. in these points it is a most important recommendation, which cannot by any means apply to fresco work, nor, except within certain limits, to oil painting. the highest advantage of all, however, is that the same part may be painted over as often as the artist please, which is impossible in fresco; and consequently the most perfect harmony may, by this new mode be preserved throughout the largest possible painting. in fresco the artist is the slave of his materials; here, he is the arbitrary master and to the fullest extent.--_banner of the union, pa._ * * * * * water. water intended to aid in conducting chemical experiments, should, so far as possible, be free from all foreign substances. as the daguerreotype process is one of the most difficult in the range of chemical science, the daguerreian should have at hand the best that circumstances will admit. we have learned, from experience, the disadvantages attendant on those who travel in the country, from village to village in the practice of the daguerreotype art. when _distilled water_ can be obtained, it should be used. it must have no smell, taste, or color; it must evaporate without leaving a residue; it must give no precipitates with solutions of nitrate of silver, chloride of barium, superoxalate of potash, caustic alkalies, carbonated alkalies, sulphurated hydrogen, or hydrosulphate of ammonia. _rain water_ generally contains carbonic acid, carbonate of lime, and chloride of calcium. _spring water_ contains the same impurities as rain water, superadded to chloride of sodium, sulphate of lime, carbonate of iron, &c. _river water._--more free from salts than spring water, but often contains a large quantity of decomposing vegetable and animal matter. this is particularly the case with water taken from the hudson, from troy to its mouth; also, the mississippi, and, in fact, almost all large streams which are navigated. _lake water._--all descriptions of stagnant water abound in half-putrified organic remains, as all well know, that the smaller the bulk of liquid, as in the case of the swamp or marsh, the more impure and the more unwholesome it is. _to purify water._--much has been said about purifying water for daguerreotype use. we look upon this, so far as chemical agents are employed, in most instances a loss of both time and money; let every one _filter_ the water for use _often_ and freely and we will guarantee that _success_ will be his reward. we will class water in the following order:-- , distilled water; , rain water; , brook water; , well water; , spring water; , river water: yet the water from some of our western lakes would, we think be fully equal to rain water. we have used the water from seneca lake, and have found it possessing less animal and vegetable matter, than found in the water from any well which we have been compelled to use. * * * * * isinglass, as it is generally called fish glue, is prepared from the air-bladders of the sturgeon. it is found in commerce under various forms, such as large strings, small strings, and leaves. it is always white, semi-transparent, dry, fibrous, horny, of a faint odor and insipid taste. when a very thin leaf is moved between the eye and the light of the sun, a species of chatoyance is perceived. if macerated in cold water, isinglass swells and softens; if boiled in water, it dissolves almost without any residue and forms a solution, which, on becoming cool produces a semi-transparent jelly. there are several counterfeits, but all are easily detected. * * * * * papier-mache. papier-mache.--pulped paper moulded into forms. it possesses great strength and is a valuable article in the manufacturing of cases for daguerreotypes. it may be rendered partially water-proof by the addition of sulphate of iron, quicklime, and glue, or white of eggs, to the pulp; and incumbustible by the addition of borax and phosphate of soda. the papier-mache daguerreotype cases, tea-trays, waiters, snuff-boxes, &c., are prepared by pasting or glueing sheets of paper together, and submitting them to powerful pressure, by which the composition acquires the hardness of a board when dry. such articles are often inlaid with mother of pearl, and japanned, and are then perfectly water-proof. * * * * * chloride of calcium. chloride of calcium.--this is so easily manufactured that any daguerreotypist can make it with but little difficulty. saturate dilated muriatic acid, say three pints of water to one of acid; this should be filtered through a sponge and then allowed to stand until all the aquus solution has evaporated and the calcium crystallized. this may be improved by it being placed in a crucible; and fused with a quick fire, then poured out on a flat stone. when cold, it should be broken and put in close bottles. this is much used by daguerreotypists as it possesses a strong affinity for water; consequently, it is a valuable auxiliary in keeping the iodine dry. it is also much used for drying gases and absorbing water from ethereal and oily liquids, in organic analyses. * * * * * muriate of ammonia. muriate of ammonia--_sal-ammoniac._--this is used by _few_ to bleach daguerreotype impressions, and relieve them of the "_blues_;" should, however, the plates be _well_ cleaned and the mercury at a proper temperature, there will be no need of this preparation: yet, as a number have requested, we give the following combination, knowing that all daguerreotypists are troubled more or less with solarized impressions, they may be more particularly with the _blues_. make a saturated solution of muriate of ammonia, in pure water, and filter through paper. this reduced with an equal quantity of water before used; when the linen or any portion of the impression is badly solarized, after removing the coating with the hyposulphite solution, thoroughly rinse the plate with water, then pour the bleaching solution over the surface of the impression in the same manner as in gilding. if the solarization be very deep, apply the lamp beneath and slightly warm the plate, pour suddenly off, and without rinsing, quickly apply the gilding and gild in the usual way. the whole operation must be quickly performed, or the chlorine soon attracts the shade of the picture. there may be instances when this solution may prove of advantage, as, for instance, when black velvet and milk white are wanted in the same impression. we have seen it operate with pleasing success; but repeat that _few_ only use it, yet as in a single instance it might be of value, we have given it. as much of the muriate of ammonia, in common, is adulterated, we will give a few tests which all can try. when pure, this salt is totally volatilizable by heat; if a small portion on being heated on a piece of platinum foil over a spirit lamp leaves any fixed residue, it is adulterated. it should dissolve entirely in water; if it leaves an _insoluble residue_ it is adulterated. the impurities generally found in sal-ammoniac, are sulphate of ammonia, sulphate of soda, chloride of sodium, and chloride of potassium; neither of these are considered injurious in the _bleaching solution_. occasionally it contains lead, iron, and copper. the presence of sulphuric acid may be detected by means of a diluted solution of _chloride_ of barium, added to a weak solution of muriate of ammonia, in water, this will produce a white precipitate, which is the more copious and dense, the less the liquor is diluted. if it contains lead add to a small portion of it, contained in a test tube, a little diluted _sulphuric acid_, or a few drops of a solution of _sulphate of soda_ (glauber's salt), if the liquid contains lead there will be prevalent a white powder, or precipitate, this powder scarcely dissolves at all in diluted acids, but it dissolves in a solution of caustic of potash: _iron_, mix a solution of the yellow prussiate of potash with a solution of red prussiate, a few drops of this added to a weak solution of muriate of ammonia will produce a blue precipitate; _copper_, pour about half an ounce of the liquid in a test tube, and add to it a few drops of liquid ammonia, if copper is present, the liquid will assume a blue color. sal-ammonia is known by giving out the odor of ammonia when mixed with caustic of potash: when sal-ammonia possesses a _brownish_ color, it indicates the presence of charcoal, or empyreumatic oil; such sal-ammoniac is good for some purposes, but wholly unfit for _chemical purposes_. when sal-ammoniac leaves a non-volatile residue, it may contain _sulphate of soda_. this is the principal cause of failures with the bleaching solution, as the sulphate of soda has a tendency to blacken rather than bleach daguerreian impressions. the sulphate of soda as well as the chloride of sodium, is often found in unpurified sal-ammoniac to the amount of ten per cent. when sal-ammoniac contains much sulphate of ammonia, it fuses and sputters before it sublimes; whereas it otherwise sublimes without fusing. when sal-ammoniac, sublimes without residue, but gives a precipitate when its solution is tested with a solution of chloride of barium, it contains sulphate of ammonia; but when it leaves a non-volatile residue, the precipitate indicates sulphate of soda or sulphate of magnesia. * * * * * bromide of silver. native bromide of silver and analyses. m. berthier says, that in the district of plateros, seventeen leagues from zacatecas in mexico, silver ore is found in two different states; first, native silver; and secondly and principally in a state of combination in small olive-green or yellowish crystals, supposed to be chloride, but which he found to be bromide of silver. according to m. duport, from whom m. berthier received these specimens, this substance is not rare in mexico, but occurs frequently in fine cubic and octahedral crystals. the specimen examined by m. berthier was from san onofe. it was compact, of a slightly reddish gray color; fracture uneven; splendent; penetrated with small cavities, some of which were partially filled with a substance of a dull pale yellow color, and which the miners call oxide of lead; other cavities contain very small imperfect crystals; which are brilliant, and of a pale olive green-color, and have the appearance of chloride of silver. this specimen was very rich, for it yielded . of silver, and contained . of carbonate of lead, which, intimately mixed with quartz and a little oxide of iron, formed the principal portion of the mass. m. berthier has also found this mineral among the silver ores of huelgoeth, department of finistère in france. two specimens were obtained by him: the first of these is described as being porous or scoriform, containing white quartz imbedded in foliated hydrate of iron. on the edges of the foliated iron ore the naked eye could distinguish small cubic grains of a pearl-white color, which had all the characters of chloride of silver. the second specimen had the appearance of compact oxide of iron, containing here and there milk-white quartz; it was throughout impregnated with chloride of silver, which occasionally appeared in the form of very small brilliant crystals. to analyze this mineral, grammes were first treated with ammonia, and heat to dissolve the chloride of silver, and afterwards by boiling hydrochloric acid to dissolve the oxide of iron; this acid also dissolved a certain portion of lead, which probably was in the state of phosphate. the quartzose residue weighed . grammes: it contained . gramme of silver, which must have been in the metallic state: the ammoniacal solution gave by boiling and saturation with nitric acid, . gramme of chloride of silver, which, supposing it to be pure, contained . gramme of silver, which, added to . gramme remaining in the quartz, gives a total of . gramme; a result which differed so very little from that obtained by essaying, as to prove the absence of bromide of silver, and that this was the case was confirmed by additional experiments. after this a third specimen was received from huelgoeth; it was very small, but as rich as the foregoing, and in it there were distinguishable, besides granular cubic crystals of chloride of silver, other grains of an olive-green color, which had exactly the same appearance as the bromide had. plateros and the following experiments proved the presence of the substance. five grammes of the pulverized mineral were boiled in a solution of oxalic acid, until the oxide of iron was perfectly dissolved: the residue weighed about a gramme, and it evidently contained a mixture of canary-yellow and white grains. it was digested in hot solution of ammonia until all the yellow powder disappeared; it required a large quantity of the alkali for this purpose, which would not have been the case to dissolve pure chloride. the solution was gradually saturated with nitric acid, and it was observed that the successive deposits formed had an evident yellow tint, but gradually diminishing in intensity, except the last, which were white. the yellow deposits were collected and examined in the following manner:--a portion was treated with chlorine and æther; the æther became of a yellow color. another portion was dissolved in ammonia, hydrosulphate of ammonia was added to the solution, and the black precipitate formed was separated, and was found to be pure sulphuret of silver. the liquor was concentrated by exposure to the air, and filtered to separate the sulphur which was deposited; a little potash was then added, and it was evaporated to dryness; acetic acid was added to saturate the excess of potash, and it was again dried. to determine whether the saline residue contained a bromide, a small portion of it was treated in a tube with pure nitric acid, and a yellow liquid was immediately obtained. another portion was mixed with peroxide of manganese, and the mixture was placed in a glass tube; a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid were added, and when gently heated, red vapors were immediately disengaged, and alter some lime there were deposited on the sides of the tube small drops of a red liquid. the existence of bromine was therefore evident, and it was proved that the bromide was unmixed with iodide. bromide of silver appears to be rare at huelgoeth; but it may be readily distinguished from the chloride by its greenish or canary-yellow color, which is characteristic of it. it is remarkable that it occurs with the chloride in the same specimens, but without there being an intimate mixture of the two substances. * * * * * =the daguerreian journal.= =new york, march , .= =hillotype.= since the announcement of the hillotype, in the last number of the daguerreian journal, quite an excitement has prevailed, both in the daguerreotype and scientific world. the great question has fairly been solved and "_natural colors_" can be produced and rendered indelible upon the metallic plate. america can safely say she has presented to the world one of the most invaluable discoveries that has ever been imprinted upon the pages of history. men profound in their scientific skill and learning, have long and in vain sought for the discovery or invention of some means of securing to the future, the colors of the present. all europe has been alive to this great desideratum, and many have presumed it an impossibility, while some few persisted, flattered by hope and encouraged by the almost daily announcement of some new discovery or invention, that heretofore had been deemed only as having existence in the dreamy imagination or a perspective future. we hail the discovery of the hillotype as an epoch bright in the history of science, as well as impregnated with interest to aid in unfolding a volume of investigation which has so long commanded the attention of learned and philosophical minds, as the "_colored rays of light_." the subject of reflected light and its colors has long agitated the scientific mind. much has been said and written; elaborate and laborious "essays," "researches" and "treatises" have penetrated our libraries and proved valuable auxiliaries in pushing the interest of those engaged in furthering agricultural and chemical pursuits. this branch of natural science is regarded as one of the most important, and, at the present moment, it is rendered doubly interesting from the fact of mr. hill's discovery. we may look forward for new developments, which will prove no less surprising than that of rendering permanent, on a metallic plate, the variegated beauties of the solar spectrum. we are, as it were, standing upon an eminence from which we can survey the present, retrospect the past, and almost sketch the bright outline of a coming future. here lies a field for animated speculation, in which nature's student can satiate his appetite in the study of nature, in a province hitherto unknown and unexplored; he may here realize truths purely sublime, painted in the glowing "colors of nature," and rendered prominent upon the tablet of his memory. we present the following communication from mr. hill, which our readers will peruse with pleasure: * * * * * for the daguerreian journal. s. d. humphrey, esq.;--being detained here a day on my way from your city, i relieve myself a little from the tedium of delay, by a few scribblings to your valuable journal. i will give a few particulars respecting my pictures, &c. i have now fifty-five specimens. they are all equally perfect. it is quite remarkable that i have never yet made a partial failure. those impressions which have had too much light, are nearly as strong, sound, brilliant and beautiful as those correctly timed in the camera, being inferior only in having the colors less deep. even the whites retain their strength. the folds of the linen are always well defined. blue or solarized linen is unknown in my process, and there is always a strength and clearness in the whites, unattainable by mercury. during the past winter i have several times taken a view in which there is a deep red house, while the ground was covered with snow. for experiment i exposed the plate so long as to reduce the bright red of the house to a _very light red_, while at the same time, the white snow was developed with a beautiful whiteness. i have copied several very highly colored french prints. the copies are far superior to the originals, in that, while they have _every_ tint of color, they are exceedingly brilliant. this is a characteristic in which i never fail, even with the plates merely cleaned with rotten stone--the brilliancy depending on _other causes_. well polished plates, however, are preferable for other reasons. it is _essential_ that the plates should be very pure, free from scum? dampness, and organic matter of every kind, and i am experimenting with different substances, in hopes of finding something that will more perfectly cleanse, while it thoroughly polishes. i would be very thankful to any person who might furnish me with valuable hints on this point, as i am convinced that here lies one great cause of uncertainty. my trouble with the _yellow_, which you mentioned in the last number of the "daguerreian journal," relates only to the homogeneous rays, orange, buff, and all the various shades of yellow come out true except the _chrome yellow_ which appears less brilliant. this, however, is thought by distinguished artists, no serious objection. my late visit to your city was much shorter than i could have wished. i called on a number of artists, and the cordial manner in which they congratulated me has added much to my kindly feelings towards the fraternity, and strengthened my resolution to give all worthy daguerreotypists and artists, my process on terms which i believe will be satisfactory. as far as this is concerned, please say to such their interests are safe in my hands. i met with but one person anyway sceptical, and he is willing to be more fully satisfied when he "sees the pictures," which is very fair i am sure. while it is very cheering to me, in my truly arduous duties, to review the kind congratulations of my brother artists, the most i am entitled to _claim_ in an age when almost every announcement is regarded as humbug, is that the daguerreian world will give me a fair chance to perfect my discovery. a few have seen my pictures, and their expressed opinions agree with mine, viz., that these pictures will astonish the world. i saw in your city, in the hands of mr. hite, artist, some exquisite ivory miniatures. it astonished me that the human hand could paint "the form of the human face divine," in such a mode; but i pleasantly said to the artist, what i now repeat in all seriousness, that the pictures by my process necessarily exceed in beauty the finest productions of the painter, they being drawn by light and painted by sun-beams. i have heard several rumors while in the city, in respect to my designs in the disposition of my discovery. allow me to say, for the information of all concerned, that my purpose is _unalterably_ fixed to avoid _monopoly_, and to take a course which will put the process into general use. to-morrow i start for my "mountain home," and with my invigorated health and spirit, i hope to resume my toils with a prospect of bringing out my process at an early day. i remain, fraternally yours, l. l. hill. woodstock, ulster co,, n. y., march , . * * * * * [hand] we are highly gratified to find many of our fellow daguerreotypists are cordially welcoming us on by manfully and numerously sending us their names for the daguerreian journal for one year. when we commenced our editorial labors we launched our hark upon a sea never before thought safe for regular navigation, but we find only few snags in the way, and these are every day lessened by our close application and the assistance of kind friends. no man knows his friends until they have an opportunity to prove themselves. with but few exceptions, all who subscribed for the journal for the first four months have sent us two dollars worth of the "root of all evil," for their subscription for the balance of the year. we _bow_, and _thank you!_ may you never get in a "fog." * * * * * [hand] t. antisell, m. d., has been appointed professor of chemistry in the vermont medical college, at woodstock, vt. he is now fulfilling his professional duties at the above named institution. * * * * * [hand] mr. j. e. mayall of london, has promised us an article on "photographing on glass." this will appear as soon as received. * * * * * [hand] our old and learned friend mr. finley of canandaigua, promised us a communication. where is it? * * * * * [hand] removal.--in our last we noticed our removal to no. broadway; this was the case, but we found on consulting a carpenter in relation to putting in a sky-light, he declared it unsafe. the consequence was, that we at once abandoned the idea, and soon made very satisfactory arrangements with mr. insley, the well and favorably known proprietor of the _insley gallery_. once again we are settled and would be happy to see all who feel an interest in the daguerreian and photogenic arts. _the office of the daguerreian journal is at no. broadway._ * * * * * our daguerreotypes. we are assured by one in whom we have all confidence, and withal! capable of judging, that there is now in progress a machine for cleaning and buffing plates. this machine is an ingenious and valuable contrivance, and it is said will polish a plate in one-sixth of the time required by any other process. the whole done without handling the plate. _we hope so._ * * * * * gurney has recently taken some of the finest large size daguerreotypes ever produced. these wonderful specimens are on plates eleven by thirteen inches, called mammoth plates. such pictures four or five years ago would have filled the world with admiration and surprise. the chemical effect is clear and well worked, thus proving well prepared plates can present large as well as small impressions. it is well worth while for every daguerreian visiting this city, to look upon these proud specimens of the art. * * * * * thompson of this city, has just taken the whole of the upper floor of the building occupied by him, and has built two fine sky-lights. * * * * * we understand that mr. h. mcbride, operator for meade & brother of this city, is about to establish himself in albany. we wish mr. b. success. * * * * * weston of this city, is now producing some of the best calotypes we have seen. we are happy to see photographing on paper brought before the public. daguerreotypists should call and see mr. w's. specimens, as well also those produced by messrs. bertha, wehnest, beekman & brothers, who have been for some time past successfully practising in the art of "sun drawing." * * * * * a. morand has recently made very extensive additions to his former establishment in chatham street. we now find him lighting his subjects by a large and well arranged sky-light. * * * * * correspondence. s. d. humphrey, esq., dear sir:--i would fain give my testimony in favor of your excellent journal, which is to the daguerreian, as a guide to the traveller, and pilot to the untaught mariner. it needs but to meet his eye for him to appreciate its value and secure its aid, while following in his misty pathway. i have long since learned that "experience is the best teacher," but now since the advent of the journal, all who would be relieved of difficulties incident to daguerreian life, may find the cause of _atmospheric troubles--bad light--poor subjects--clouded results_, &c., reflected on its pages, and thus, by close application, prevent the many evils which so frequently attend them, and thereby learn that "an ounce of prevention is better than a pound of cure." but there are those in the business who do not seem to discover any difference between the profile on the school-boy's slate, and the best "aqua-tinta" engraving. _they_ never have any trouble in producing _perfect_ results at _every_ sitting, and _that_ for the sum of one dollar or fifty cents. no wonder the writer of the article on daguerreotypes in no. of the journal, says "_daguerreians_ are not _artists_, nor daguerreotypes works of _art_, but _mere wonders of nature_." when daguerreians adopt the motto--"good pictures and fair prices," they may lay claim to the enviable name of artist, and not before. the daguerreian art is the most difficult art to practise with _perfect_ success, that has ever yet been discovered. a _perfect_ daguerreotype is the result of a series of the most careful, delicate and complicated experiments ever conceived of by the human mind. i have been considerably amused in perusing the journal, in reading communications from sources where i am acquainted. they remind me of the old adage--"all is not gold that glitters," for they appear to far better advantage in print, than as _artists_. but enough of this. in conclusion, permit me to speak of a method of copying pictures, which, if new to any of your readers, they will find it well worthy of the trial. i find, by placing the picture to be copied where the rays of the sun may fall obliquely upon the plate, all reflection is thrown off, and the image appears in the camera, clear and distinct, even if the original be very faint. it also shortens the time of exposure to from one to five seconds. respectfully yours, jas. bennett sykes. owego, march , . note.--we think this is rather sharp firing, but, as it is already met by the "artists" referred to, we give it. we do like _spice_, and well seasoned articles, but don't get too personal. a man may have been born in a _stable_, but it is no _sign he is a horse_. we hope the above from mr. s. was not prompted by "a spirit of rivalry and animosity," but rather for the good of all, as no doubt it will so prove. give us a _pop_ from the other side. [ed. * * * * * daguerreian journals lost.--the following telegraph dispatch was received at the daguerreian journal office on the th. "what is the reason of your not sending me my journals? w. s gear." the following was our answer forwarded per mail on the same day. daguerreian journal office, new york, march th, . dear sir:--your telegraph dispatch came to hand. in answer,--i do send a journal directed to you as often as published. the last was mailed last friday, i.e. the february th number, that being the last out. i find it takes nearly as many to furnish the post offices as my subscribers; however, i try it again and send one to-day. respectfully, s. d. humphrey. w. s. gear. we wish that the persons, wishing the daguerreian journal would furnish us with their names--("no questions asked") and they can have a copy forwarded,--thereby our _honest_ subscribers would receive their journal regularly. we do know that we put the journal in the post office--but we don't know _why_ so many of our subscribers do not receive them. there is no doubt but that our journal is valuable, and should be in the hands of all, yet it is with us as with most brother editors, we are unable to furnish copies gratuitously. * * * * * ammonia. ammonia should be a perfectly colorless liquid; when concentrated its specific gravity should be · . it must have a pure ammonial odor, and must volatilize without any residue. it must not become troubled when mixed with alcohol, or lime water, otherwise it contains carbonate of ammonia. neither must it for the same reason, become troubled when tested with a solution of chloride of barium; this is the best test for carbonate of ammonia. care is to be taken to observe the action of the test on its first addition, for after the mixture has been exposed to the air for a few minutes, a troubling necessarily ensues, because the ammonia abstracts carbonic acid from the atmosphere. when super-saturated with nitric acid, and tested with a solution of _nitrate of silver_, it must give no white precipitate; otherwise it contains sal-ammoniac. it must give no precipitate with a solution of chloride of barium, otherwise it contains sulphuric acid, in which case, the precipitate will be invisible in nitric acid. it must give no precipitate with a solution of oxalic acid or superoxalate of potash; otherwise it contains lime. when saturated with nitric acid and tested with a solution of yellow prussiate of potash, it must give no precipitate; otherwise it contains copper. when mixed with its weight of oil of vitriol, it must not become brown or black; otherwise it contains empyreumatic oil. as it is quite difficult to obtain ammonia entirely free from carbonate of ammonia, or to preserve it in that state, the employment of ammonia containing a small portion of the carbonate is admissible in the practice of the daguerreotype. * * * * * an army of subscribers.--it is computed that the regular subscribers to the _new york sun_, standing side by side, and each occupying eighteen inches space, would form a line _seventeen miles, fourteen rods, and three yards long_. standing with arms extended, and occupying six feet each, they would reach _sixty-eight miles, fifty-eight rods and one yard_, &c. &c.--_sun._ let us see if we also cannot get up some astonishing statistics: the regular subscribers to the _new york tribune_, standing in single file, each holding fast to the other's coat-tail, would form a line miles, rods and one yard long. allowing that each could hop, skip and jump the distance of yards, their simultaneous performance of this feat would extend from cape horn to baffins bay. supposing they all sneezed at once, the vibration of the air would overthrow the spire of trinity church. in reading the columns of our double sheet every morning, the distance travelled by their eyes would reach twice round the earth. there! is that enough?--_tribune._ wonder if the tribune's calculations is made from the actual measurement of the "tail" of the "old white coat?" if so its not fair, for horace has the advantage over the modern fashion. * * * * * strange announcement.--we see by a georgia exchange, that some one in that state is taking "daguerreotypes as low as seventy-five cents." our devil says "barnum is after the _wonder_, and intends having him early this spring." * * * * * examples of the divisibility of matter. all that has been written in support of what is termed the "infinite divisibility of matter," has been advanced with an oversight of certain axiomatic principles which immediately decide the question in the negative. indeed, it would suffice to say that there can be no such thing as a division of matter into an infinite number of parts simply because there can be no such thing as an infinite number of any thing. number is essentially finite, and although, in imagination, it can be extended indefinitely, it never can be positively infinite, at any period of futurity, from the very fact that we can always conceive of its being extended still farther. even as an ideal extension of parts, it has always a beginning and an end, at any given time we may assume for measuring it, and is, therefore, never infinite in itself at any time. in this respect it differs essentially from infinite space, which having no parts, is positively infinite at all times. number is a convenient instrument wherewith to obtain an idea of infinite space, or of infinite duration, on account of its capacity for endless extension or continuation; and it is because we can ideally extend and continue it forever, without even approximating to a measurement of space and duration, that we discover the latter to be absolutely infinite, and number to be absolutely finite. we discover that between the capacity for endless extension and endless extension itself, there is a manifest and decided difference. under any circumstances, therefore, the term infinite, as applied to the divisibility of matter, is unphilosophical and improper. all the matter in the universe is finite, and if it were to be doubled, or quatrilliontupled, every instant of time, to all eternity, it would never become infinitely extended. and, by the same rule, it can never become infinitely subdivided. if, however, by the term "infinite divisibility," as applied to matter, is merely meant its capacity for interminable subdivision, then the question resolves itself either into one of speculative fancy or of practical fact. if the former, then it must be admitted that, by an effort of the imagination, we can conceive of such a divisibility beyond any assignable limits. but if we regard the question as a practical one, it immediately becomes too absurd for serious attention, since it is evident that human power, limited in all things, must be so in producing artificial subdivisions of matter. however unlimited, therefore, the capacity of matter may be for divisibility, that of human beings, in relation to it, must be narrow indeed. when chemists, therefore, and other philosophers, speak of the divisibility of the present ultimate atoms of matter, they must, however unconsciously, regard them in relation to human ability, and thus far the question may become one of experiment. but the question as to whether matter can actually be subdivided indefinitely and without end, is one readily answered in the negative, by the known inability of mankind to continue an endless experiment of this kind. the whole question therefore, concerning the illimitable divisibility of matter, which has been discussed from the earliest period of science to the present day, is frivolous, fruitless, and irrational. as matter now exists, not only its ultimate atoms, but even its constituent molecules, are as inconceivably minute, as its aggregations are vast. taking an exemplification, from organic matter, we find that a single drop of a strong solution of indigo, in which at least , parts are rendered distinctly visible by the microscope, colors , cubic inches of water, and as this quantity of water is at least half a million of times greater than the drop of indigo solution, the particles of indigo must be smaller than , , , , , the twenty-five hundred millionth part of a cubic inch. if we dissolve a particle of silver, of . of a cubic _line_, in size, in nitric acid, it will render distinctly milky cubic inches of a clear solution of common salt; and, consequently, the magnitude of each particle of silver thus divided and diffused, must be somewhat less than the billionth part of a cubic _line!_ so great a number as a billion being but imperfectly conceivable, it may render the idea of this minute division more distinct, by stating that to count a single billion of seconds, by a watch, every day and night without ceasing, would require , years. in gilding silver wire, it is found, by calculation, that a grain of gold is spread over , square inches; and as, when examined by a microscope, the gold upon the thousandth part of a linear inch is distinctly visible, it is demonstrated that gold may be divided into particles of at least the billionth, millionth, of a square inch in size, and retain the color and all other characteristics of a california prize. if a grain of copper be dissolved in nitric acid, and then in water of ammonia, it will give a decidedly violet color to cubic inches of water; and, therefore, if there was but one particle of copper in each portion of the water of the size of a grain of sand, of which one million make a cubic inch, it would show that the original grain of copper had become divided into particles. this extreme tenuity of matter, however, is far surpassed in some examples which may be adduced from organic sources. it is upon authentic record that an irish girl has spun linen yarn, of which one pound was , english miles in length, and of which, therefore, pounds and ounces would have girt this world; and yet less than the millionth part of this thread would have been distinctly visible, and must have contained other filaments still finer, each of which must have been composed of an indefinite number of smaller particles, themselves, in all probability of complex organization, and containing certainly, minuter atoms of carbon, besides those of gaseous matter. if we employ the microscope, far greater wonders of divisibility than these appear, even in the complex organization of animal life. ehrenberg has shown that tripoli, a mineral much used in the arts, is entirely composed of the siliceous shells of the microscopic animalcula, known as infusiorials, and that a single cubic inch of it contains at least _forty-one thousand millions_ of these shells!--about fifty times as many individuals as there are of human beings on the globe. yet each of these minute animals lived and fed; had digestive and circulative systems, with blood possessing globules as large, probably, in proportion, as those of ours, besides nerves of sensation and inclination, with brains belonging to them, together with muscles and every other mechanical apparatus for the extremely active locomotion and propagation which they so interestingly exhibit. and every new improvement in the microscope reveals new races of animals, apparently created for their own enjoyment, and of which millions heaped on millions, would be utterly invisible to the unaided eye.--these facts prove that things are great and small only by comparison with each other, and not in relation to infinity, with which no comparison can be instituted. and they prove, moreover, that vain, boastful, and bigoted man, is not the sole object of creation, nor of the profound benevolence, contrivance and design, with which it is universally replete.--_art's echo._ * * * * * iron--its natural and artificial combinations with carbon. the question is often asked, what constitutes the difference between wrought iron, cast iron and steel? cast iron, when viewed under favorable circumstances, by the help of a microscope will be found to be a mechanical aggregation of molecules of _iron and carbon_; and the relative position of these particles may be illustrated by a pile of cannon balls as usually arranged in navy yards, each alternate ball being iron and carbon (charcoal). if a mass of cast iron be heated until softened, and then _puddled_ (squeezed), the carbon will be forced to the surface, and will there combine with the oxygen of the atmosphere, forming carbonic acid or carbonic oxide gases, and thus pass off. when all the carbon has been parted with, the mass is called wrought iron, and may then be welded, when at proper heat, but cannot be melted--_the hottest blast furnace will not melt wrought iron_. wrought iron at red heat combines rapidly with oxygen, and becomes oxide of iron--thus a joint of stove-pipe thrown into a furnace will never melt, but by contact with atmosphere will change into oxide of iron, and thus be practically lost. this operation is technically called _burning_. if a piece of wrought iron be surrounded by carbon (charcoal) finely pulverized, and the whole enclosed in a sheet iron vessel to exclude the air, and this placed for a sufficient length of time in a furnace constructed for the purpose, the iron will imbibe an atomic quantity of carbon, and become steel. this process is called _cementation_, and steel so made can be melted as readily as cast iron. thus it will be seen that both cast iron and steel are combinations of iron and carbon, and in the same proportions, but not in the same state of combination. in cast iron, the carbon and iron are a mere _mechanical combination_, while in steel the iron and carbon are combined _chemically_.--wrought iron, when pure, is free from carbon, and its ductility, toughness, &c., are due to the absence of carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, and other substances, with which it is occasionally pervaded. the french chemists are experimenting, and occasionally succeeding by accident, in causing heated iron to take the carbon from carbonic acid and other gases containing carbon, and thus becoming steel more rapidly, and at less cost, than when made by the process of cementation. mr. dixon, of jersey city, has succeeded in making steel direct from the adirondack iron ore, while peter cooper, esq., mr. dickinson, and others, are manufacturing wrought iron direct from the iron ores of new-jersey without first forming the pig or cast iron, and of course at less expense, as the saving of fuel is very great. the process of _case-hardening_, or changing the immediate surface of iron utensils into steel, is readily performed by covering their surfaces with such organic substances as contain carbon as a constituent, and then subjecting them to high heat for short spaces of time--thus the roller of a paper or sugar mill may be case-hardened by a coating of prussiate of potash, or of leather chips, and then subject the whole to high heat, excluded from atmospheric influences. by this process the gelatine and other constituents of the leather are reduced to carbon, and this enters the surface particles of the iron, converting them into steel. many hypotheses are offered for this action, and among others, that "_the ultimate particles of matter are always in motion_," admitting the ingress of particles travelling in smaller orbits between them. the friends of this hypothesis offer as proof, that a fresh cast sash-weight when broken is a gray mass, while one taken from an old building, and broken, is beautifully crystalline, from the centre to the outside, like speculum metal. a freshly drawn piece of tin pipe when suddenly bent opposite the ear gives no crackling sound, and if broken has no crystalline structure, but if left at rest for one hour it has both. barbers often tell us that razors get tired of shaving, but if laid by for thirty days they will then shave well. by microscopic examination it is found that the _tired razor_, from long stropping by the same hand and in the same directions, has the ultimate particles or fibres of its surface or edge all arranged in one direction, like the edge of a piece of cut velvet; but after a month's rest, these fibres re-arrange themselves heterogeneously, crossing each other and presenting a saw-like edge, each fibre supporting its fellow, and hence cutting the beard, instead of being forced down flat without cutting, as when laid by. these and many other instances are offered by the friends of the hypothesis named, to prove that the ultimate particles of matter are always in motion, and they say that in the process of welding, the absolute momentum of the hammer causes an entanglement of orbits of motion, and hence a re-arrangement, as in one piece; indeed, in the cold state, a leaf of gold laid on a polished surface of steel, and stricken smartly with a hammer, will have its particles forced into the steel so as to permanently gild it at the point of contact. the oxidation of metals is equally curious, and the length of time necessary for the formation of an infinitesimal coating of oxide is less than the one-thousandth of a second. this fact may be readily proved: a clean surface of steel, free from oxide, when brought in contact with mercury (quicksilver) will amalgamate, but if the least oxide be upon the surface no such effect will take place. prepare a trough containing quicksilver, and place a bar of steel above it, and within one inch or less of the surface of the quicksilver--break this bar with a smart blow from a hammer, so that the blow which breaks it shall at the same time force the broken ends into the quicksilver, and although the time occupied by the ends in passing through one inch of atmosphere before reaching the surface of the quicksilver will be immeasurably short, still they will be so oxidized as not to amalgamate with the mercury; if, however, the bar of steel be confined at its ends below the surface of the quicksilver, and then be broken _upwards_, by a lever applied to its centre, the ends of the broken bar will be beautifully amalgamated before reaching the atmosphere above. the reason for the success of the last named experiment is doubtless due to the absence of oxide of iron, when broken beneath the surface of the mercury. j. j. mapes. * * * * * new weigh-lock at albany.--a writer in the _courier and enquirer_ gives a description of the great weigh-lock that has just been erected at albany, for the purpose of ascertaining the tonnage of canal boats. heretofore long and vexatious delays have been the result, while now, a boat is brought into the lock, and in a time which would have scarcely sufficed in other days to have ascertained the weight of a small parcel, the unerring register on the beam, has registered its weight, and the record is on the books of the office. the weigh-lock is directly on the side of, and attached to the large canal, and is adapted to the use of such boats as shall hereafter be built, when the locks throughout the entire length of the canal shall be of the uniform enlarged size. * * * * * daguerreotyping in london.--in a recent letter from j. e. mayall, dated london, february th, he writes in his postscript:--"while i write this letter we have the gas lighted in the streets-- o'clock p.m., and i write by gas-light." we must confess that the daguerreotypists are in the "fog" enough in this country, but if "old sol" should get blocked up at that early hour, we don't know what would become of our "foggy" daguerreotypists here. * * * * * the ground side of the "ground glass" should face the lenses. * * * * * mercury baths should always be kept covered with some porous wood, in order that the mercurial vapors cannot escape in the room. * * * * * quick stuffs. we have endeavored to guard against giving useless receipts, thereby saving our daguerreotypes a tax which would prove in most instances of no benefit. as many have requested us to publish a variety of receipts for quicks. we give them with but little comment. we will number each combination: no. . take pure rain or distilled water, one quart filtered through paper into a bottle having a ground glass stopper, and add one and a half ounces of chloride of iodine for warm weather, or little less for cold weather. the reason of this is obvious, from the fact that during the warm summer day, the bromine is far more volatile than in a winter day. to the above add one ounce of best american bromine, and shake well. now, with care, to prevent, as far as possible, the escape of gas, add, drop by drop, thirty drops of aqua ammonia, shaking well the mixture at each drop. it is necessary that caution be observed, and not add more at a time than three drops of the aqua ammonia, as otherwise it evolves too much heat. _use._ put in the box one part quick to eight parts water. coat to dark yellow over dry iodine, and change to a deep rosed color over the quick; recoat over iodine one-tenth. no. . lime water, one quart; chloride iodine, one ounce; add three-fourths of an ounce of bromine--shake well. _use._ put in box one part quick to six water; coat to bright yellow over iodine; to rose over the quick, and recoat one-fourth. no. . take rain or distilled water, one quart; add pulverized alum until it is a little sour to the taste; and a small piece, say one half inch square, of magnesia,--filter through paper, and add chloride of iodine, one half ounce; bromine sufficient to take it up, which is a little less than half an ounce. _use._ one part quick to six parts water; coat over iodine to a soft yellow, nearly, but not quite bordering on a rose; over the quick to a dark purple or steel; recoat from one-sixth to one-tenth. the above works slow, but with a good light and proper management it can be made to produce as good impression as any combination known, yet it is not so easily managed as no. . no. . rain or distilled water, one gallon; bromine, one and a half drachm; sulphuric acid, two and a half drachms; hydrochloric acid,[c] two drachms.--shake well as each is added in the above order. [c] this acid dissolves glass with great rapidity. it is purchased in leaden bottles. a single drop on the skin would make a sore difficult to heal. daguerreotypists should bear in mind that the accelerating chemicals used in the daguerreian art, are of the most volatile substance, and more difficult to experiment with than all other in the range of chemical science. when hydrofluoric acid is to be measured, the graduated glass should be partly filled with the mixture to which you intend adding it. _use._ to one ounce water, add from fifteen to thirty drops quick; coat over an incipient rose; over quick, nearly change the color to fair rose; recoat about one-third or one-fourth as long as at first coating. the coating box should be charged strong enough to change the plate in from _one_ to _four seconds_. one advantage this mixture possesses, it will work in one-half the time required for any of the foregoing combinations. one very serious objection to its use is, it cannot, without great care, be made to work with certainty; and another objection is, it will not last long, as the box will require to be replenished after having coated from _eight_ to _fourteen_ plates. the older, however, this mixture is, the more certain in its operation. we have one gallon which has been made _two years_. no. . _dry quick._ we have already given this preparation in a former number of this journal. no. . _acidulated quick._ water, one pint: bromine, ten drops; chloride of iodine, forty drops; nitro-muriatic acid, one-fourth ounce; sulphuric acid, two drops. _use._ one part quick to ten parts water; coat over iodine to orange; over quick to rose red; recoat one-fourth. there are thousands of different combinations and agents employed, and, after all, let every daguerreian make up his mind to first _become acquainted_ with some _good_ combination of bromine and iodine, there will be less complaining of _quicks_. _money received since our last number._ w. a.; m. r.; f. s. h.; j. w. o.; s. b. d.; h. o. n.; t. o.; j. h. f.; s. b. b.; m. p. b.; a. b.; j. h. v.; w. a. j.; j. e. m.; m. m.; h. h. l.; j. w. h.; s. n. r.; n. e. s.; r. b. a.; h. s. b.; d. c.; t. c. d.; c. h. g.--each $ . g. & b.; d. mcd.; s. p.; m. s. u.; c. t. m.; s. s.; w. r. r.; s. b. jr.; e. n. h.; c. w. t.; j. m.; s. h.; n. c.; c. m. h.; j. b.; j. b. r.; w. o. g.; n. p. s.; l. o.; a. t.; w. s. w.; n. e. r.; d. g. k.; l. q. v.; h. k.; y. m.; a. g.; u. b.; d. a. n.; v. t.; w. o. o. v.--each $ . s. b. & co.; m. & b.; p. c.; t. c. d.; s. & s.; h. & m.; m. w. n.; g. d. a.; j. s.; a. t. w.; m. a. h.--each $ . n. e. s.; t. c. d.--each $ . m. s. $ . b. f. $ . * * * * * answers to correspondents. w. o. r., mo., mr. r. writes--"will you have the kindness to inform me of any new process for preparing phosphate of iron. i make the request more particularly to obtain a process by one mr. routh, who i understand has a new process." the preparation referred to by mr. r., was read before the london medical society, january , , by dr. routh, at which time he exhibited specimens of phosphate of iron made by dissolving the ordinary phosphate in meta-phosphoric acid, and by then evaporating to degrees. it has been found that this form of iron is exceedingly useful in cases where iron is desired. w. b. n., mexico--mr. n. says--"will some of your subscribers give, through your journal, a practical and first-rate process for producing calotypes?" we hope some of our "subscribers" will furnish the same. h. b. t., ohio.--mr. t. says--"will you give a ready and easy method of detecting chlorine? i find in a former number of your valuable journal, that you have been making experiments with this gas. i have had remarkable success with this gas, although not a practical daguerreotypist." mr. j. will find 'this gas' is readily distinguished from other gases by its color, odor, and bleaching properties. probably the most simple method of detecting free chloride is to hold a rod dipped in aqua ammonia over it, when white fumes will be formed. will mr. j. have the kindness to forward to us his experiments--we would like much to lay them before our readers. a stock dealer, in one of the southern states, writes--"what articles of stock will be less needed by artists, provided mr. hill's process proves true, of producing pictures with all the 'colors of nature?'" _colors and brushes!_ j. w. s , mich.--we forwarded the article you ordered, and enclosed the balance in the package. the view camera you had better order soon, as it will be some time before mr. harrison can get it ready, he having so many orders now on hand. you had better have one of lewis's _new_ camera boxes. t. j. c., va.--we cannot recommend the articles you speak of; they involve only an old vague principle, and are only worthy the person having them in charge. a. g. l., pa.--the money received and forwarded to europe--your plan may work, but it looks a little too "opaque." you will find by heating an iron plate, and applying it to your apparatus, will facilitate the operation much. chapman has the exclusive right to the patent. e. w., miss.--see page , daguerreian journal. r. m. h., ala.--you will find "silliman's journal" a great aid and valuable work, published the first day of every second month, price $ per year. new haven, conn. see answer to l. i. g., page . * * * * * notice of new publication. the new york register of medicine and pharmacy, published semi-monthly and edited by dr. c. d. griswold. this valuable medical journal is fast making its way into the medical ranks with marked energy. its age is about the same as ours, and we are happy to see that with us it is prosperous; every number is received and read with pleasure. we find the following pithy notice in the register, which is only one of many from the cute pen of the editor, who it seems has 'cut up' as well as received a "new dido." "we were presented with the first number of the "new dido" by the publisher, and from the title, at first supposed that it might be in some way connected with the medical profession, inasmuch as some 'pranks' in a medical way have been 'cut up' in poetry, but in looking it over, we find that a couple of 'chaps' have started off for a drive, although what they are 'driving at,' the author has not yet disclosed. we think it likely enough they may "turn out" students, for they are evidently after subjects, which no doubt will be brought to light in the next number."--good, dr., that is worth the dollar for the subscription. we have also received the th of march number, which has a fine likeness of dr. john w. francis. * * * * * =advertisements.= =hill's= treatise on daguerreotype. two vols. in one. the whole art made easy, _and all the recent improvements revealed_. containing also--the process for galvanizing plates, and the whole art of electrotype; the reproduction of daguerre's images by tithonotype; an account of calotype paper, and other methods of photogenic drawing &c. by l. l. hill, westkill, greene co., n. y. contents. history of photography; theory of the process; description of apparatus; account of stock, such as plates, cases, chemicals, and other articles to be purchased forming a complete daguerreian directory; recipes, a large number; polishing plates; coating the plate; camera; mercury; gilding; coloring; calotype, tithonotype, &c. the above is but a partial outline of the subjects treated in this work. nothing is omitted which is necessary to render any person of the requisite judgment and taste "a workman that need not be ashamed," the _recipes_ have cost the author more than $ , and no pains or expense have been spared to render the work a complete manual of daguerreotype. testimonials. the following extracts from a large number of highly flattering testimonials from distinguished artists and others: m. a. root, an eminent daguerreian, philadelphia says, "i can freely say yours is, in my opinion, a most valuable treatise on the art of daguerreotype." from the _albany express_, "we would recommend this useful work to all practising the art." e. jacobs, a celebrated operator, new orleans, says, "i have perused the work with much gratification as being much needed in the art. i can sell a large number to pupils." from the _ulster telegraph_, saugerties, n. y.: "those acquainted with the christian character, and extraordinary skill of mr. h. in daguerreotyping, need no recommend from us. his pictures are perfectly exquisite, and his modes of operating of the most simple and scientific character. the book will be a treasure to those engaged in the art. it is one of those rare works which is as good as its title-page, and we heartily recommend it to the daguerreian fraternity." orders should be directed to s. d. humphrey, agent, new york. also for sale, as above, price $ , a pamphlet by the same author, on the magic buff, plate-making, fixing process, celerotype, &c. * * * * * =to daguerreotypists,= wanted--a partner to engage in the daguerreotype business. one having from five hundred to one thousand dollars can now have an unequalled opportunity to join with one of the best artists in the country, the advertiser possessing unequalled advantages for opening a room in this city, now offers a rare chance to any one possessing the above amount of capital, none other need apply. applications to be made by letter, which will be _confidential_, and addressed, _post-paid_, to the editor of the daguerreian journal, references must accompany the answer to this, and real name stated. a chance for daguerreotypists out of the city. * * * * * =peter smith,= importer and dealer in tubes, apparatus, plates, cases, chemicals, and every article appertaining to the daguerreian art. no. fifth street, cincinnati, ohio. * * * * * =louis becker= well known chemicals, for sale at becker & piards, no. broadway, n. y. * * * * * =daguerreian establishment.= john roach, optician, nassau street, new york. has always on hand voightlander instruments, quarter, half, and whole size. american instruments, roach's make, warranted to be superior to any yet made in the united states. they work with sharpness, and quickness, and persons purchasing can test them with the high priced german instruments. coating boxes, flint glass jars, cemented in, and ground air tight. mercury baths, with thermometer scale in front. head rests, stands, cases, chemicals, &c. plates, french th of the star, and other first quality brands. bromine roach's triple compound, now called quick-stuff, works with certainty and quickness, in all weather, and pictures taken with it have a rich white tone. galvanic batteries, &c. * * * * * =daguerreotype goods only.= anthony's national daguerreian depot. _ broadway, n. y._ the attention of daguerreotypists, and the trade, is respectfully invited to my assortment, which i believe to be unequalled in extent and variety. plates, frames, case- cases, cameras, makers' chemicals, apparatus, materials, of every style and size. for sale, price $ per copy, beautifully bound in cloth, the standard work, second edition, enlarged and greatly improved, the history and practice of the art of photography, or the production of pictures through the agency of light, by h. h. spelling, illustrated with thirty-five engravings. goods can be forwarded to order, to any town or village in the united states or canada, and the bill collected on delivery of the goods, provided such town has connection by express with new york. where there is no such connection, daguerreotypists would do well to order their goods to the nearest express town. e. anthony, _importer and manufacturer of daguerreian materials._ n.b.--good journeymen case-makers wanted, to whom steady employment will be given. * * * * * =benjamin french,= _no. washington street, boston._ daguerreotype apparatus, plates, cases, frames, gold lockets, polishing materials, chemicals, and every description of goods used in the daguerreotype business, constantly on hand and for sale, at wholesale and retail, at the lowest cash prices. tf * * * * * =s. j. thompson,= would most respectfully announce to the public, that he has one of the best sky-lights in the united states, and is prepared to execute daguerreotypes. likenesses of all sizes, put up in every style of the art. no. state-street, albany, n. y. ly * * * * * =$ reward.= stolen from the door of clark brothers, broadway, one full size daguerreotype view, in papier mache frame, oval fire gilt mat. said view of a gothic cottage, on the steps of which can be seen a lady, two or three boys and a dog. any person returning the above described picture, or giving information where it may be found, shall receive the above reward oct . * * * * * =wanted immediately.= a good daguerreotype operator can have steady employment to engage in a pleasant western city in the state of ohio. also a first class operator can have good wages and engage for one year, to go to california. for further particulars enquire at this office. none need apply but such as are competent to take _full charge_ of the operating department of a large establishment; salaries will be in accordance. * * * * * =j. d. wells,= daguerreian artist, no. kirkland's block, main street northampton, mass. _likenesses_ taken by a sky-light connected with a beautiful side-light. pictures put up in all styles of the art. plates, cases, lockets, frames, and all kinds of daguerreotype stock for sale. - * * * * * =circular to daguerreotypists.= george dabbs & james cremer, travelling agents for l. chapman, william street, new york, manufacturer of daguerreotype cases, mats, preservers, and plates, and importer of the _genuine_ star brand, no. , french plate, and last, though of first importance, proprietor of "peck's patent plate holder,"--the great desideratum which only requires to be used to be appreciated. prices, $ , for medium; $ , for quarters; $ , for halfs and $ , for whole size holders--a vice to hold the blocks $ , and an instrument for bending the plates cents. they would inform daguerreotypists and dealers that they will wait upon as many during the winter, as their time will permit, for the purpose of exhibiting the patent plate holder, for a description of which see advertisement headed "two new inventions". tf new york, november , . * * * * * =insley's daguerreotype gallery= removed to no. broadway, n. y. (_between stewart's and the city hospital._) this, our new sky-light gallery, is located on the second floor at the above number, and is universally acknowledged to be the most convenient and effective gallery in the city. every real improvement is taken advantage of, and, aided by scientific and gentlemanly assistants, we trust our pictures cannot be excelled. the clergy--the statesman--the artist--the man of science--and all lovers of really good daguerreotypes, throughout the united states, are invited to call and examine our collection. p. s.--this gallery was for several years located on the corner of cedar street, but is now removed to no. broadway. * * * * * =j. e. martin,= "excelsior rooms," jefferson avenue and odd fellows' hall, detroit. daguerreotype likenesses taken in every style of the art. ly * * * * * =cameras.= c. c. harrison, manufacturer of cameras, and camera lenses, of all sizes and of the latest improvements. office broadway, new york, where in his gallery may be seen specimens of daguerreotypes taken with instruments of his own manufacture, which for accuracy of performance are unsurpassed by any in the world. n. b. a new and improved camera for taking views, is manufactured by him, at a price unprecedentedly low. c. c. harrison, no. broadway, n. y. tf * * * * * =premium daguerreotype depot and manufactory.= w. & w. h. lewis, chatham street, new fork, keep constantly on hand, superior cameras of all sizes; also, _quick working_ cameras, fully equal to any imported. all kinds of apparatus, including our patent plate vices and gilding stands; galvanic batteries for electrotyping, for durability superior to all others. buffing lathes, on the most approved plan, plates, cases, chemicals, polishing materials of every description. all kinds of walnut, rosewood and gilt frames for daguerreotypes, outside show frames, diploma, certificate and picture frames made to order. pressing machines, for straw and leghorn hats, of improved construction. tf * * * * * =scovill manufacturing co.= _no. maiden lane, new york,_ have constantly on hand an extensive assortment of all articles belonging to the daguerreian art; embracing plates of their own, and french manufacture, mattings, preservers, frames, cases, lockets, chemicals, cameras and apparatus of every variety. agents for the sale of c. c. harrison's celebrated cameras. all orders will receive prompt and careful attention. * * * * * =clark brothers, & b. l. higgins.= daguerreian gallery, over the "regulator," franklin buildings, syracuse, n. y., no. genesee st., utica, tremont row boston, and broadway, new york. likenesses by the improved daguerreotype of various sizes, and of the most delicate executions may be obtained at the above rooms during the day, from a m., to p. m. chemicals, plate, cases, cameras, apparatus, and other materials, connected with the art, constantly on hand, and for sale at new york prices. all articles are selected with great care and warranted to give the best satisfaction. * * * * * the subscriber, would respectfully inform the daguerrian artists, that he has _constantly on hand_ a large assortment of daguerreotype apparatus, plates, cases, and chemicals, comprising in part the following: voightlander & sons, harrison's, lewis' and perry's cameras and other apparatus of the most approved styles. plates--scovill's, chapman's and the different brands of french plates. cases--silk and velvet lined, papier mache and a great variety of fancy cases. chemicals--american, german and french bromine, chloride of iodine, do gold, calcium, mercury rouge, rotten stone, black polish, colours, brushes, rosewood and papier mache, frames, mats, glass preservers, prepared buck skin, &c., &c every article used in the business, which i will furnish to operators at retail or wholesale, as low as the same quality of articles can be bought in new york or elsewhere. our motto is small profits and quick sales. n. e. sisson. no. broadway, albany n. y. tf * * * * * two new inventions =in the daguerreotype art.= "peck's patent plate holder," and the "_bent edge daguerreotype plate_," used in connection with it. an instrument is sold for seventy-five cents, with which every operator can bend his own plates. the holder is a desideratum, and only requires to be used to be appreciated. it is so constructed that it will hold the plate through all the stages of cleaning, buffing, polishing, coating, taking the picture in the camera, and mercurializing without any change. during the whole process, the plate need not be touched with the fingers, and does away with the use of wax, &c., &c. the prices for the holders are mediums, $ --quarters, $ --halves, $ --whole size, $ . the "_magic back ground_." the discovery of this is due mr. c. j. anthony, of pittsburgh, pa. by this process the most beautiful effects can be produced, and the pictures are set forth in bold relief on back grounds of various shapes and tints. pictures taken with the "magic back ground," will be emphatically the "_pictures for the million_." the patent is applied for, and the right ratified upon the receipt of the patent, for the sum of twenty-five dollars. l. chapman, william st., n. y. manufacturer of cases, mats, preservers, plates, importer of the genuine star brand, no. french plates, and dealer in daguerreotype stock generally. * * * * * =levi chapman,= no. william street, new-york, manufacturer of, and dealer in daguerreotype stock. =daguerreotype cases.= medium size, from $ to $ per gross, quarter " " to " half " " to " mats, preservers and chemicals of all kinds. french and american plates. l. c. imports the genuine no. star brand french plate, which he keeps constantly on hand, together with an assortment of other kinds. papier mache cases, inlaid with mother of pearl, exceeding in beauty any thing of the kind heretofore made, from to $ per gross. l. c. is also proprietor of peck's patent moveable plate-holder. george dabbs, } travelling agents. james cremer, } * * * * * daguerreotype furnishing rooms. =wm. a. wisong.= _no. n. liberty street, baltimore, md._ has constantly on hand, a full and general assortment of stock, for daguerreotype use. embracing every variety of cameras, plates, cases, fixtures, trays, chemicals, and materials used by daguerreian artists, all of which are offered at the lowest market rates. orders from artists are respectfully solicited, and forwarded with dispatch. ly =daguerreotype plates.= louis l. bishop's superior plates, offered for sale at a great bargain, by victor bishop, maiden lane. n. b. these plates are silvered by the electro-magnetic process, and warranted superior to the best french plates. tf * * * * * =engraving= the subscriber still continues to carry on the business of engraving on wood, in all its branches. his facilities are such that he is enabled to execute all orders promptly, and in every style of the art, upon the most reasonable terms; while the experience of many years enables him to feel confidence in his efforts to give satisfaction to all who may favor him with their patronage. _particular attention_ paid to the drawing and engraving of subjects from daguerreotypes. n. orr, no. fulton-st. n. y. tf * * * * * =book and job printing.= william s. dorr, nassau street, over ackerman & miller's sign and banner painting establishment, is prepared to print, in the best style, and at the usual _low prices_, books, periodicals, newspapers, pamphlets, bill heads, circulars, commercial and law blanks, bills of lading, bank checks, notices, labels, &c. cards printed on the celebrated yankee press. few offices in the city have greater facilities for doing work with _neatness_ and _despatch_, as most of the materials are new, and long editions are done by steam power presses. * * * * * =j. h. whitehurst's= electro daguerreotypes. _galleries, baltimore street, baltimore,_ broadway, new york, main street, richmond, va., main street, norfolk, va., sycamore street, petersburg, va., main street, lynchburg, va., pennsylvania avenue, washington city. likenesses taken equally well in all weather. tf * * * * * =daguerreian artists' register.= appleby, r. b., arcade, rochester, n. y anthony, j. b., poplar grove, s. c. adams, george, worcester, mass. brady, matthew b., no. broadway, n. y. burges, nathan g., no. broadway, new york. baker, f. s., baltimore, md. broadbent, samuel, wilmington, md. barnes, c., mobile, ala. bartlet, no. ½ main street, boston, mass. bogardus, a., no. greenwich street, n. y. brown, f. a., museum building, mashetnec, n. h. brown, h. s., milwaukie, wis. buxton, john, st. catharine street, montreal, canada. bradlee, j. e., boston, mass. buell, e. m., pittsfield, mass. bowman, j. a., berlin, waterloo county, canada west. bisbee, a., dayton, ohio. bowen, n. o., norwich, conn. beckers & piard, broadway. n. y. brown, james, broadway, n. y. campbell, b. f., corner hanover and union streets, boston, mass. collins, david, chesnut street, philadelphia, pa. cooley, o. h., springfield, mass. clark brothers, no. broadway, n. y., genesee street, utica, franklin building, syracuse, new york, and tremont row, boston, mass. cook, george s., charleston, s. c. coombs, f., san francisco, cal. cary, p. m., savannah, ga. chuchill, r. e., , state street, albany, n. y. chase, l. g., boston, mass dodge, e. s., augusta, ga. davie, d. d. t., utica, n. y. dobyns, t. j., new orleans, la., nashville, tenn., and louisville, ky. done, t. c., no. , place d'armes, montreal, canada. ducan, w. h., no. broadway, n. y. die riemer, c. r., auburn, n. y. evans, o. b., main street, buffalo, new york. evens, chas., no. market street, philadelphia, pa. ennis, t. j., chestnut street, philadelphia, pa. finley, m., canandaigua, ontario co., n. y. fitzgibbon, j. h., st. louis, mo. faris, thomas, corner fourth and walnut street, cincinnati, ohio. gurney, jeremiah, no. broadway, n. y. gavit, daniel e., broadway, albany, n. y gay, c. h., new london, ct. geer & benedict, syracuse, n, y hill, r. h., kingston, ulster co., n. y. haas, philip, no. broadway, n. y. hall, w. h., rouse's point, clinton co., n. y. harrison, c. c., broadway, n. y. hill, l. l., westkill, green co., n. y. hale, j. w., newark, n. j. hough & anthony, pittsburg, alleghany co., pa. hale, l. h., washington street, boston, mass. hawkins, e. c., corner of fifth and walnut street, cincinnati, ohio. insley, henry e., broadway, n. y. johnson, charles e., cleavland, ohio. jacobs, e., camp st, new orleans, la. joes, l. m., no. washington street, boston, mass. johnston, d. b., utica, n. y. johnson, george h., sacramento, cal. kelsey, c. c., chicago, ill. lawrence, martin m., no. broadway, n. y. lewis, w. and w. h., no. chatham street, new york. litch & graniss, waterbury, ct. long, h. h., st. louis, mo. long, e., st. louis, mo. l'homdieu, charles, charleston, s. c. martin, j. e., detroit, mich. moissenet, f., new orleans, la. moulthroup, m., new haven, ct. manchester & brother, providence, and newport, r. i. mcdonald, d., main street, buffalo, new york. miles, chas. t., fayette, jefferson co., miss. mcclees & germon, philadelphia, pa. morand, a., chatham street, n. y. naramore, william, bridgeport, conn. nichols, john p., no. court street, boston, mass. ormsbee & silsbee, no. washington street, mass. owen, n., goshen, n. y. prosch, g. w., newark, n. j. peck, samuel, new haven, ct. powelson & co., broadway, n. y. prod'homme, j. f., broadway, n. y. reynolds, g. l., lexington, va. rice, s. n., canal street, n. y. root, m. a. & s., no. broadway, new york, and chesnut street, philadelphia, pa. ritten, e. d., dunburry, conn. swift, h. b., market st, philadelphia, pa. sawyer, jo., boston, mass. stansbury, b., brooklyn, l. i. stamm & upman, milwaukee, wis. sissons, n. e., no. broadway, albany, n. y. shorb, j. r., winnsboro, s. c. shew, myron, chestnut street, philadelphia, pa. thompson, s. j., no. state street, albany new york. tomlinson, william a., troy, new york. van alsten, a., worcester, mass. vail, j. h., new brunswick, n. j. van loan & co., chestnut street, philadelphia, pa. westcott, c. p., watertown, jefferson co., n. y. wood, r. l., macon, ga. whipple, john a., washington street, boston, mass. whitehurst, j. h., new york, richmond, norfolk, petersburg, and lynchburg, va., baltimore, md., and washington city, d. c. wells, j. d., no. , kirkland block, main street northampton, mass. walker, s. l., broadway, albany and poughkeepsie, n. y. walker & horton, newburgh, n. y. wentworth. henry, fort plain, montgomery co., n. y. williams, j. a., washington square, newport, r. i. williams, j. b., philadelphia, pa. * * * * * =premium.= to any practical daguerreian artist who will furnish us with the largest list of subscribers for the daguerreian journal, within the next six months, we will award him one of the best full size american cameras. new-york, nov. st, . * * * * * =the daguerreian journal,= =devoted to the daguerreian and photogenic arts,= _also, embracing the sciences, arts and literature_. the daguerreian journal is published semi-monthly, at broadway, on the st and th of every month. =business department.= terms--_three dollars_ a year; in advance. =inducements for clubbing.= two copies of this journal will be furnished for one year for $ ; four do. for $ ; and ten do. for $ =advertising.= one square of lines or less, one insertion, $ do. do. " " " do. do. " " " register of daguerreian artists, not exceeding two lines, $ per year. yearly advertisements as may be agreed upon. it is particularly requested that all addressing letters to us, would put on the state, as well as the town in which they live. subscribers are authorised and requested to send bank notes or change by mail, at our risk, provided it is done in the presence of the post master, and the letters are franked. all communications and remittances intended for this journal, in order to secure attention, should be _post paid_. daguerreian artists that are travelling in the country, can have this journal sent to anyplace where they may be, provided they give us notice, and the post office changed from. [hand] all letters should be addressed (post-paid) to s. d. humphrey, broadway, new york. * * * * * =gurney's= =daguerreian gallery.= _ broadway, n. y.,_ has been known for years as one of the first establishments of the kind in the country, and the oldest in this city. mr. g. attends personally to the operating department, and having a superior arrangement of light, as well also as every other ability; and from his long experience in the art, he is at all times enabled to give perfect satisfaction to all who wish a good likeness. his collection of large size pictures of distinguished persons, are universally pronounced superior to any heretofore taken in this country. ladies and gentlemen are respectfully invited to examine them: broadway, directly opposite john street. _copies of a superior daguerreotype of_ jenny lind _for sale_. * * * * * =james brown's= daguerreotype miniature gallery. _ broadway: rear stairs._ the undersigned, for four years the principal operator of m. b. brady, has the honor to announce to his friends, and the fashionable circle, that his rooms are now open at the above no., for the transaction of business, where he will be pleased to see his friends and the public generally; and hopes to receive a portion of that patronage so liberally extended to him while principal at brady's. he will also take the liberty of mentioning, to those unacquainted with the fact, that the pictures which have received the different premiums for mr. brady, were taken, colored, and arranged, with the assistance of mr. hays, who is still with him, entirely by himself. particular attention is called to the very superior coloring tone and finish of the impressions from this establishment, which, through an incessant study of seven years, the subscriber feels conscious in asserting can always be relied on, as he attends personally to his sitters. pictures taken in any weather, in any desired style, and his charges being extremely moderate, he hopes to suit all classes. james brown, _member of the society for the promotion of painting in water colors, and for ten years a student in the national academy of design._ * * * * * =dobyns & co.= dealers in all kinds of daguerreotype stock, plates, chemicals, and apparatus. no. & camp street, new orleans, la.; no. front row, memphis, tenn.; no. main street, louisville, ky. * * * * * =insley's daguerreotypes.= haying had the honor, in the early part of , to establish one of the three galleries first opened to the public, in this city or the world, viz: by mr. wolcott, professors morse & draper, and insley and prosch, the undersigned flatters himself that his prolonged experience will enable him to give entire satisfaction to those who desire likenesses by this charming process. insley, broadway, n. y. * * * * * =m. a. & s. roots= =daguerreian rooms.= corner of broadway and franklin street, new york. m. a. & s. root, celebrated for years as daguerreian artists in philadelphia, have opened a magnificently furnished suite of rooms, in the most fashionable part of the city, (no. broadway, corner of franklin street,) where, having an admirably arranged light, they flatter themselves that they will be able to furnish daguerreotype likenesses, equal in finish, accuracy and effect, to anything of the kind in the world. they have received six medals from the various fairs and institutes of our country; also the two highest medals at the fair of in new york and philadelphia, for the best specimens of daguerreotypes ever exhibited. the public are respectfully invited to visit their rooms and examine their gallery of likenesses of the most distinguished people. gallery free. * * * * * =myron shew,= dealer in daguerreotype apparatus and materials, wholesale and retail, chestnut street, philadelphia. * * * * * =a. morand= daguerreian artist, chatham street, n. y. * * * * * =j. w. thompson's= daguerreian gallery and depot of daguerreian materials of all kinds, instruments, apparatus, and everything belonging to the art, for sale at low prices. every operator knows the advantage of buying his stock (especially plates and chemicals) of a person who not only sells stock, but is also a practical daguerreotypist. broadway, n. y. * * * * * =postage on the daguerreian journal= there has been a few instances where postmasters have charged pamphlet postage on this journal. we say the daguerreian journal is "subject to newspaper postage only," because that is all that can legally be charged on it. a newspaper must be published as often as "once a month," and contain intelligence of passing events. this publication is semi-monthly, and contains, a general summary of "passing events." the law says it may contain two sheets, if the two together do not exceed , square inches. this journal contains less than , square inches. these sheets may be folded in any shape, or printed on paper of any color. the following is an extract from the act of congress for regulating postage. "a newspaper is defined to be any printed publication issued in numbers, and published at stated intervals of not more than a month, conveying intelligence of passing events. it generally consists of a sheet, but may be composed of two sheets of paper. in such case, it is chargeable with newspaper postage only; provided that the sheets in the aggregate do not exceed , square inches. "a pamphlet is a small, unbound, printed book." * * * * * anthony's =national daguerreian depot,= & broadway, new york. daguerreotype goods only. the attention of dealers and daguerreotypists is respectfully requested to my assortments of apparatus and materials, which will be found to be very extensive and complete. daguerreotype plates. the celebrated crescent brand plate, exclusively of my own importation, stamped with my name, and warranted. the sun th plate, (guaranteed to be th.) star th plate, french plates, th and th. (quality guaranteed.) scovill plates, of all sizes and qualities. french galvanized plates. _all the plates of my importation are carefully examined in paris by an_ experienced _agent, practically acquainted with the manufacture of plates, and all that are_ visibly, _imperfect, are rejected and returned to the manufacturer. the great number i import, enables me to sell a_ genuine article _at a low rate._ cases. [exclusively of my own manufacture.] - size, - size, - size, - size, - size, - size, - size, of every style and quality. papier mache or pearl inlaid cases of every size and style. _my papier mache work will be found to be superior to any in the market._ turkey morocco bookcases. snap' cases of various styles. _cases manufactured to suit the taste of any customer_, or adapted to any particular gallery, the name being beautifully embossed on the cushion without extra charge, except for the die. casemakers' materials. heavy leather for embossing. thin leather for binding. crimson silk for cushions. silk velvet, ruby and maroon, of different qualities. cotton velvet, crimson. patent velvet, silk finished, crimson. satin, maroon. varnish, of superior quality. hooks. clasps, for bookcases, &c., &c. embossing done at moderate rates. plate glass. of the very best quality, cut to order, of any size, for cases or show frames, and furnished by the quantity to dealers, in original packages as imported. also, half white german glass, in original packages or cut. green english glass, by the gross. metallic mattings. burnished and fire gilt, of all sizes and styles, for cases or frames, all of my own manufacture, and superior in color and beauty of finish to any in the market. rosewood and black walnut frames. of all sizes, made in a durable manner, and fitted in a style to do justice to a good specimen of daguerreian art. fancy frames, of various styles, of french manufacture. preservers. - size, - size, - size, - size, of a new and beautiful style of chasing. apparatus. cameras of voightlander, harrison, roach, and lewis' make; also coating boxes, mercury baths, plate vices, &c., &c., comprising every thing required for the successful prosecution of the art. harrison's patent buffing wheel. lewis' buffing wheels. new style plate bender. neat simple, and effectual, price, $ , . chemicals. iodine, best english resublimed. chloride of iodine. bromine, pure german; do. american. chloride of gold, of the best makers. salt of gold, or hyposulphite of gold. distilled mercury. rotton stone, of all the various makers. rouge, best french; do. american. photogine. hyposulphite of soda, best french; do. do. american. cyanide of potassium. dry quick-stuff, anthony's anhydrous. roach's triple compound of bromine. chloride of bromine. fluoride of bromine. oxide of silver. gallic acid. crystailizable acetic acid. bromide of potassium, nitrate of silver. muriate of potash. chloride of calcium. succinic acid. hydrofluoric acid. drying powder. pure liquid ammonia. iodide of lime, a new and valuable preparation for iodizing the plate. those desiring to commence the practice of daguerreotyping, fitted out with everything necessary for their success at moderate cost. lockets, gold or gilt, of all sizes and styles, oval, round, single or double, open or hunting. goods can be forwarded to any town in the united states or canada (provided said town have connection by express with new york) and the money collected on delivery of the goods. persons will do well, when in places that have no such connection, to have what they order forwarded to the nearest express town. terms--cash. no allowance for breakage after goods have left the city. i have been compelled to adopt the rule of not sending lists of prices, because it only injures such country dealers as buy of me. but all who send _orders for goods_ may depend upon getting them at my regular new york prices. e. anthony, _importer and manufacturer of daguerreian materials._ broadway, new york. n.b.--good journeymen case-makers wanted, to whom steady employment will be given. william s. dorr, printer, no. nassau st., n. y. * * * * * transcriber note minor typos may have been corrected. images moved to prevent splitting paragraphs. various formats were used to display pricing these were not standardized. the listing of registered users was left in the order published. illustrations of a right pointing hand for advertisements is denoted as [hand].